$2) with complete safety by rapidly withdrawing their control rods. Their fuel elements are designed so that as they heat up, reactivity is automatically and quickly reduced through","-34.380710529047064"],["the other hand, nuclear weapons are specifically engineered to produce a reaction that is so fast and intense it cannot be controlled after it has started. When properly designed, this uncontrolled reaction will lead to an explosive energy release. Nuclear fission fuel Nuclear weapons employ high quality, highly enriched fuel exceeding the critical size and geometry (critical mass) necessary in order to obtain an explosive chain reaction. The fuel for energy purposes, such as in a nuclear fission reactor, is very different, usually consisting of a low-enriched oxide material (e.g. UO₂). Prompt neutron lifetime The prompt neutron lifetime,","-34.36306022590725"],["reactor and allowing the escape of radioactive material (see SL-1 or Chernobyl disaster). With a subcritical reactor, the reaction will cease unless continually fed neutrons from an outside source. However, the problem of heat generation even after ending the chain reaction remains, so that continuous cooling of such a reactor for a considerable period after shut-down remains vital in order to avoid overheating. Principle Most current ADS designs propose a high-intensity proton accelerator with an energy of about 1 GeV, directed towards a spallation target or spallation neutron source. The source located in the heart of the reactor core","-34.33888041855971"],["power when hydrogen gas at a sufficient temperature and pressure is admitted to the core (made up of granulated uranium metal) and reacts with the uranium metal to form uranium hydride. Uranium hydride is both a nuclear fuel and a neutron moderator; apparently it, like other neutron moderators, will slow neutrons sufficiently to allow for fission reactions to take place; the uranium-235 atoms within the hydride also serve as the nuclear fuel. Once the nuclear reaction has started, it will continue until it reaches a certain temperature, approximately 800 °C (1,500 °F), where, due to the chemical properties of uranium hydride, it","-34.3079603578808"],["and the control room. The building is a reinforced concrete frame and block structure. Nuclear reactor operations The reactor consists of a tubed calandria vessel of austenitic stainless steel, which contains the heavy water moderator/reflector and 208 coolant tube assemblies. The moderator system consists of the calandria, coolers, pumps and purification system in the heavy water circuit, and control valves, dump valves and helium blowers in the helium circuit. The fuel is natural uranium in the form of sintered uranium dioxide pellets sheathed in thin zirconium alloy tubes to form solid fuel elements about 19.1 inches (48.53 cm) long by 0.6 inches (1.4 cm)","-34.29615863063373"],["two or more lighter nuclei, (the fission products), releasing kinetic energy, gamma radiation, and free neutrons. A portion of these neutrons may be absorbed by other fissile atoms and trigger further fission events, which release more neutrons, and so on. This is known as a nuclear chain reaction.\nTo control such a nuclear chain reaction, neutron poisons and neutron moderators can change the portion of neutrons that will go on to cause more fission. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to shut the fission reaction down if monitoring detects unsafe conditions. Cooling A nuclear reactor coolant — usually water","-34.22781662971829"],["minimize the possibility of a nuclear accident. These designs have yet to be commercialized. (See: Molten salt reactor) Some forms of nuclear power can \"burn\" nuclear waste through a process known as nuclear transmutation, such as an Integral Fast Reactor. Nuclear power plants can be more or less eliminated from their problem of nuclear waste through the use of nuclear reprocessing and newer plants such as fast breeder plants. Fuel switching For a given unit of energy produced, the greenhouse gas emissions of natural gas are around half the emissions of coal when used to generate electricity, and around two-thirds","-34.20574466348626"],["International Atomic Energy Agency there are at least 100 research reactors in the world fueled by highly enriched (weapons-grade/90% enrichment) uranium. Theft risk of this fuel (potentially used in the production of a nuclear weapon) has led to campaigns advocating conversion of this type of reactor to low-enrichment uranium (which poses less threat of proliferation).\nFissile U-235 and non-fissile but fissionable and fertile U-238 are both used in the fission process. U-235 is fissionable by thermal (i.e. slow-moving) neutrons. A thermal neutron is one which is moving about the same speed as the atoms around it. Since all atoms vibrate proportionally","-34.198376433356316"],["than the fuel. However, and in clear contrast with classical nuclear thermal rockets (including liquid and gas nuclear rockets), the thermal energy from the decay of fission daughters is unwanted.\nVery high instantaneous propellant temperatures are hypothetically attainable by pulsing the solid nuclear core, only limited by the rapid radiative cooling after pulsation. Liquid core Liquid core nuclear engines are fueled by compounds of fissionable elements in liquid phase. A liquid-core engine is proposed to operate at temperatures above the melting point of solid nuclear fuel and cladding, with the maximum operating temperature of the engine instead being determined by the","-34.1894787559213"],["thermal reactors run on a once-through fuel cycle, mainly due to the low price of fresh uranium, though many reactors are also fueled with recycled fissionable materials that remain in spent nuclear fuel. The most common fissionable material that is recycled is the reactor-grade plutonium (RGPu) that is extracted from spent fuel, it is mixed with uranium oxide and fabricated into mixed-oxide or MOX fuel. The first LWR designs certified to operate on a full core of MOX fuel, the ABWR and the System 80, began to appear in the 1990s. The potential for recycling the spent fuel a","-34.186484786565416"],["neutrons from fission are moderated to lower their speed, since the probability for fission with slow neutrons is greater. A fission chain reaction produces intermediate mass fragments which are highly radioactive and produce further energy by their radioactive decay. Some of them produce neutrons, called delayed neutrons, which contribute to the fission chain reaction. The power output of nuclear reactors is adjusted by the location of control rods containing elements that strongly absorb neutrons, e.g., boron, cadmium, or hafnium, in the reactor core. In nuclear bombs, the reaction is uncontrolled and the large amount of energy released creates a nuclear","-34.18206172762439"],["energy as ionizing radiation (specifically, neutrons), but these are all thermonuclear devices which rely on the nuclear fusion stage to produce the extra radiation. The energy dynamics of pure fission bombs always remain at about 6% yield of the total in radiation, as a prompt result of fission.\nThe total prompt fission energy amounts to about 181 MeV, or ~ 89% of the total energy which is eventually released by fission over time. The remaining ~ 11% is released in beta decays which have various half-lives, but begin as a process in the fission products immediately; and in delayed gamma emissions","-34.17008050261211"],["wave in the TWR design does not move from one end of the reactor to the other but gradually from the inside out. Moreover, as the fuel's composition changes through nuclear transmutation, fuel rods are continually reshuffled within the core to optimize the neutron flux and fuel usage at any given point in time. Thus, instead of letting the wave propagate through the fuel, the fuel itself is moved through a largely stationary burn wave. This is contrary to many media reports, which have popularized the concept as a candle-like reactor with a burn region that moves down a stick","-34.13917762681376"],["magnetosphere. Gas core The final fission classification is the gas-core engine. This is a modification to the liquid-core design which uses rapid circulation of the fluid to create a toroidal pocket of gaseous uranium fuel in the middle of the reactor, surrounded by hydrogen. In this case the fuel does not touch the reactor wall at all, so temperatures could reach several tens of thousands of degrees, which would allow specific impulses of 3000 to 5000 seconds (30 to 50 kN·s/kg). In this basic design, the \"open cycle\", the losses of nuclear fuel would be difficult to control, which has led","-34.066577707822034"],["in test reactors, engineers can cause hydrogen nuclei to collide and fuse – creating for short amounts of time a nuclear fusion reaction that generates heat. One of the unsolved challenges of controlled nuclear fusion energy is to sustain a reaction that generates more energy than what goes into just maintaining the operation of the reactor plasma itself.\nIn his early work, Conn studied numerous aspects of plasma for fusion applications, including how it can be confined with magnetic fields, thereby increasing its density and the likelihood that atomic nuclei collide and fuse. Conn also studied the boundary conditions between the","-34.06646796752466"],["light water reactors, thus closing the nuclear fuel cycle. Alternatively, if configured differently, they can also breed more actinide fuel than they consume. Gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR) The gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR) system features a fast-neutron spectrum and closed fuel cycle for efficient conversion of fertile uranium and management of actinides. The reactor is helium-cooled and with an outlet temperature of 850 °C it is an evolution of the very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR) to a more sustainable fuel cycle. It will use a direct Brayton cycle gas turbine for high thermal efficiency. Several fuel forms are being considered for their potential to","-34.055946892360225"],["of 10 billion, whilst still retaining a small environmental footprint. In breeder mode, fast reactors are therefore often proposed as a form of renewable or sustainable nuclear energy. Though the \"[reactor-grade]plutonium economy\" it would generate, presently returns social distaste and varied arguments about proliferation-potential, in the public mindset.\nAs is typically found in civilian European thermal reactors, a 5.3% plutonium MOX fuel-bundle, produced by conventional wet-chemical/PUREX reprocessing of an initial fuel assembly that generated 33 GWd/t before becoming spent nuclear fuel, creates, when it itself is burnt in the thermal reactor, a spent nuclear fuel with a plutonium isotopic composition of","-34.04905629088171"],["Producing Power and Plutonium(PIPPA) and as this codename suggests, the reactor was designed as both a power plant and, when operated with low fuel \"burn-up\"; as a producer of plutonium-239 for the nascent nuclear weapons program in Britain. This intentional dual-use approach to building electric power-reactors that could operate as production reactors in the early Cold War era, was typical of many nations, in the now designated, \"Generation I nuclear reactors\". With these being designs all focused on giving access to fuel after a short burn-up, which is known as Online refuelling.\nThe 2006 North Korean nuclear test, the first by","-34.00732011790387"],["Solar energy is conducted using heat from the sun, which is absorbed by wind turbines, in capturing wind that generates wind power. The use of solar renewable technologies plays a large roll in emission reduction for mitigating climate change, reducing air pollution and addressing concerns with energy security. Nuclear Energy (NE) Nuclear power is conducted by the released nuclear energy from nuclear reactions. The power is ignited heat from reactions, which is most commonly used in the powering of electricity-producing steam turbines, located in nuclear power plants. Nuclear fission is a type of nuclear reaction that is a leading form","-33.98669262812473"],["nuclear reactor, the two types of device must be engineered quite differently (see nuclear reactor physics). A nuclear bomb is designed to release all its energy at once, while a reactor is designed to generate a steady supply of useful power. While overheating of a reactor can lead to, and has led to, meltdown and steam explosions, the much lower uranium enrichment makes it impossible for a nuclear reactor to explode with the same destructive power as a nuclear weapon. It is also difficult to extract useful power from a nuclear bomb, although at least one rocket propulsion system, Project","-33.96544563898351"],["energy needed to sustain the reaction. This balance is today known as the Lawson criterion.\nIn a successful fusion reactor design, the fusion reactions generate an amount of power designated Pfus. Some amount of this energy, Pₗₒₛₛ, is lost through a variety of mechanisms, mostly convection of the fuel to the walls of the reactor chamber and various forms of radiation that cannot be captured to generate power. In order to keep the reaction going, the system has to provide heating to make up for these losses, where Pₗₒₛₛ = Pₕₑₐₜ to maintain thermal equilibrium.\nThe most basic definition of breakeven is","-33.94873121753335"],["metal, making the mechanical cycle self-sustaining. The implosion cycle would be repeated every few seconds. The LINUS reactor can thus be regarded as a fusion engine, except that there is no shaft output; all the energy appears as heat.\nThe liquid metal acts as both a compression mechanism and heat transfer mechanism, allowing the energy from the fusion reaction to be captured as heat. LINUS researchers anticipated that a lithium liner could also be used to breed tritium fuel for the power plant, and would protect the machine from high-energy neutrons by acting as a regenerative first wall. Experiments Several experimental","-33.92530620028265"],["50% of the energy generated in a CANDU reactor comes from the in situ fission of plutonium created in the uranium fuel), and this plutonium could be used in a nuclear explosive if separated and converted to metallic form (albeit only as reactor-grade plutonium, and therefore of limited military usefulness). Accordingly, CANDU reactors, like most power reactors in the world, are subject to safeguards under the United Nations which prevent possible diversion of plutonium. CANDU reactors are designed to be refuelled while running, which makes the details of such safeguards significantly different from other reactor designs. The end result, however,","-33.91981358436169"],["nucleus of ²³⁸U to split in two. Depending on design, this process can contribute some one to ten percent of all fission reactions in a reactor, but too few of the average 2.5 neutrons produced in each fission have enough speed to continue a chain reaction.\n²³⁸U can be used as a source material for creating plutonium-239, which can in turn be used as nuclear fuel. Breeder reactors carry out such a process of transmutation to convert the fertile isotope ²³⁸U into fissile ²³⁹Pu. It has been estimated that there is anywhere from 10,000 to five billion years worth of ²³⁸U","-33.919624333808315"],["enormous, since there are many possibilities for each component of a reactor—fuel, coolant, moderator. The fissile material may be ²³³U, ²³⁵U, or ²³⁹Pu; the coolant may be: water, heavy water, gas, or liquid metal; the moderator may be: water, heavy water, beryllium, graphite—or, in a fast- neutron reactor, no moderator. I have calculated that, if one counted all the combinations of fuel, coolant, and moderator, one could identify about a thousand distinct reactors. Thus, at the very beginning of nuclear power, we had to choose which possibilities to pursue, which to ignore.\nThe ultimate success of the pressurized water reactor, he","-33.91528934700182"],["or using different fuel types. ²³⁹\nPu is more likely to absorb a high-speed neutron than ²³⁵\nU.\nA benefit of fast reactors is that they can be designed to be breeder reactors. \nAs these reactors produce energy, they also let off enough neutrons to transmute non-fissionable elements into fissionable ones. \nA very common use for a breeder reactor is to surround the core in a \"blanket\" of ²³⁸\nU, which is the most easily found isotope of uranium. \nOnce the ²³⁸\nU undergoes a neutron absorption reaction, it becomes ²³⁹\nPu, which can be removed from the reactor once it is time to refuel, and","-33.90350262673746"],["reactor from supercritical to critical; as the fuel is depleted, the reactivity control is withdrawn to support continuing fission. In a fast breeder reactor, the above applies, though the reactivity from fuel depletion is also compensated by breeding either ²³³\nU or ²³⁹\nPu and ²⁴¹\nPu from thorium-232 or ²³⁸\nU, respectively. Control Like thermal reactors, fast-neutron reactors are controlled by keeping the criticality of the reactor reliant on delayed neutrons, with gross control from neutron-absorbing control rods or blades.\nThey cannot, however, rely on changes to their moderators because there is no moderator. So Doppler broadening in the moderator, which affects thermal neutrons,","-33.87110914220102"],["14 years, and has slightly higher thermal neutron cross sections than ²³⁹Pu for both fission and absorption. While nuclear fuel is being used in a reactor, a ²⁴¹Pu nucleus is much more likely to fission or to capture a neutron than to decay. ²⁴¹Pu accounts for a significant proportion of fissions in thermal reactor fuel that has been used for some time. However, in spent nuclear fuel that does not quickly undergo nuclear reprocessing but instead is cooled for years after use, much or most of the ²⁴¹Pu will beta decay to americium-241, one of the minor actinides, a strong","-33.84811760298908"],["Fast-neutron reactor A fast-neutron reactor (FNR) or simply a fast reactor is a category of nuclear reactor in which the fission chain reaction is sustained by fast neutrons (carrying energies of 5 MeV or greater), as opposed to thermal neutrons used in thermal-neutron reactors. \nSuch a reactor needs no neutron moderator, but requires fuel that is relatively rich in fissile material when compared to that required for a thermal-neutron reactor. Fast fission, breeders Although ²³⁵\nU and ²³⁹\nPu are less sensitive to higher-energy neutrons, they still remain somewhat reactive well into the MeV range. If the fuel is enriched, eventually a threshold","-33.846479975036345"],["used to enhance the efficiency and yield of fission bombs and the fission stages of hydrogen bombs in a process known as \"boosting\" as well as in external neutron initiators for such weapons. Neutron initiator These are devices incorporated in nuclear weapons which produce a pulse of neutrons when the bomb is detonated to initiate the fission reaction in the fissionable core (pit) of the bomb, after it is compressed to a critical mass by explosives. Actuated by an ultrafast switch like a krytron, a small particle accelerator drives ions of tritium and deuterium to energies above the 15 keV","-33.83638951659668"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"Nuclear reactor A nuclear reactor, formerly known as an atomic pile, is a device used to initiate and control a self-sustained nuclear chain reaction. Nuclear reactors are used for electricity generation and in nuclear marine propulsion. Heat from nuclear fission is captured in a liquid, gas or multiphase working fluid, and passed through heat exchangers to steam turbines. The rotation can be used directly as in an ocean vessel or to generate electricity. Nuclear generated steam in principle can be used for industrial process heat or for district heating. Some reactors are used to produce isotopes for medical and industrial\",\n \"-39.80124465515837\"\n ],\n [\n \"Accelerator-driven subcritical reactor An accelerator-driven subcritical reactor is a nuclear reactor design formed by coupling a substantially subcritical nuclear reactor core with a high-energy proton accelerator. It could use thorium as a fuel, which is more abundant than uranium.\\nThe neutrons needed for sustaining the fission process would be provided by a particle accelerator producing neutrons by spallation. These neutrons activate the thorium, enabling fission without needing to make the reactor critical. One benefit of such reactors is the relatively short half-lives of their waste products. The high energy proton beam impacts a molten lead target inside the core, chipping\",\n \"-39.25337563580251\"\n ],\n [\n \"the reaction rate.\\nA fission nuclear power plant is generally composed of a nuclear reactor, in which the nuclear reactions generating heat take place; a cooling system, which removes the heat from inside the reactor; a steam turbine, which transforms the heat in mechanical energy; an electric generator, which transform the mechanical energy into electrical energy. Life cycle of nuclear fuel The life cycle of nuclear fuel starts with Uranium mining, which can be underground, open-pit, or in-situ leach mines. The uranium ore is then typically converted into a stable and compact uranium ore concentrate form known as \\\"yellowcake\\\", more\",\n \"-38.30514295640751\"\n ],\n [\n \" In current nuclear power reactors, about 3% of the uranium in the fuel is converted into fission products as a by-product of energy generation. Most of these fission products remain in the fuel unless there is fuel element failure or a nuclear accident, or the fuel is reprocessed. Power reactors In commercial nuclear fission reactors, the system is operated in the otherwise self-extinguishing prompt subcritical state. The reactor specific physical phenomena that nonetheless maintains the temperature above the decay heat level, are the predictably delayed, and therefore easily controlled, transformations or movements of a vital class of fission\",\n \"-38.24950339904626\"\n ],\n [\n \"In order for this to happen, each ship essentially contains a small nuclear power plant. The power generated by this reactor is created through nuclear fission. During the process of nuclear fission, there are two products of significant importance in the reactor: heat and radiation. The heat is generated from the breaking down of the fuel source (uranium). Uranium creates heat through a self-sustaining reaction as it is bombarded by free neutrons created during fission and then reabsorbed to continue the reaction. The heat generated from the reaction heats water in the steam generator. Due to the\",\n \"-38.17532025120454\"\n ],\n [\n \"use, or for production of weapons-grade plutonium. As of early 2019, the IAEA reports there are 454 nuclear power reactors and 226 nuclear research reactors in operation around the world. How a nuclear reactor works Just as conventional thermal power stations generate electricity by harnessing the thermal energy released from burning fossil fuels, nuclear reactors convert the energy released by controlled nuclear fission into thermal energy for further conversion to mechanical or electrical forms. Fission When a large fissile atomic nucleus such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239 absorbs a neutron, it may undergo nuclear fission. The heavy nucleus splits into\",\n \"-37.79676134645706\"\n ],\n [\n \"of fission reactions within a reactor core can be adjusted by controlling the quantity of neutrons that are able to induce further fission events. Nuclear reactors typically employ several methods of neutron control to adjust the reactor's power output. Some of these methods arise naturally from the physics of radioactive decay and are simply accounted for during the reactor's operation, while others are mechanisms engineered into the reactor design for a distinct purpose.\\nThe fastest method for adjusting levels of fission-inducing neutrons in a reactor is via movement of the control rods. Control rods are made of neutron poisons and therefore\",\n \"-37.760409534676\"\n ],\n [\n \"pressurization of the system, the water that cools the reactor does not boil, but creates a media to transfer the heat to the steam plants to create steam. As steam is produced, it is forced through a series of pipes and past different turbines, causing the turbine to spin and generate electrical power or propel the ship. The steam is then cooled and converted back to water, which is then sent back to the steam generator and the process is repeated. Environmental impact Nuclear reactors create energy through fission, as opposed to burning fuel. Because of this, no\",\n \"-37.650349781266414\"\n ],\n [\n \"reactors A thermal reactor is a nuclear reactor that uses slow or thermal neutrons. A neutron moderator is used to slow the neutrons emitted by fission to make them more likely to be captured by the fuel. Very-high-temperature reactor The very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR) concept uses a graphite-moderated core with a once-through uranium fuel cycle, using helium or molten salt as a coolant. This reactor design envisions an outlet temperature of 1,000°C. The reactor core can be either a prismatic-block or a pebble bed reactor design. The high temperatures enable applications such as process heat or hydrogen production via the thermochemical\",\n \"-37.57210094196489\"\n ],\n [\n \"fuel is reprocessed, it is referred to as a closed fuel cycle. Basic concepts Nuclear power relies on fissionable material that can sustain a chain reaction with neutrons. Examples of such materials include uranium and plutonium. Most nuclear reactors use a moderator to lower the kinetic energy of the neutrons and increase the probability that fission will occur. This allows reactors to use material with far lower concentration of fissile isotopes than are needed for nuclear weapons. Graphite and heavy water are the most effective moderators, because they slow the neutrons through collisions without absorbing them. Reactors using heavy\",\n \"-37.483859199885046\"\n ],\n [\n \"neutrons, which make it ideal for either nuclear reactors or nuclear bombs.\\nMost reactor designs in existence are thermal reactors and typically use water as a neutron moderator (moderator means that it slows down the neutron to a thermal speed) and as a coolant. But in a fast breeder reactor, some other kind of coolant is used which will not moderate or slow the neutrons down much. This enables fast neutrons to dominate, which can effectively be used to constantly replenish the fuel supply. By merely placing cheap unenriched uranium into such a core, the non-fissionable U-238 will be turned into\",\n \"-37.445691592642106\"\n ],\n [\n \"Nuclear power Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions that release nuclear energy to generate heat, which most frequently is then used in steam turbines to produce electricity in a nuclear power plant. Nuclear power can be obtained from nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion reactions.\\nPresently, the vast majority of electricity from nuclear power is produced by nuclear fission of uranium and plutonium.\\nNuclear decay processes are used in niche applications such as radioisotope thermoelectric generators.\\nGenerating electricity from fusion power remains at the focus of international research.\\nThis article mostly deals with nuclear fission power for electricity generation.\\nCivilian nuclear power\",\n \"-37.023503527394496\"\n ],\n [\n \"nuclear fuel contains at least ten million times more usable energy per unit mass than does chemical fuel. The energy of nuclear fission is released as kinetic energy of the fission products and fragments, and as electromagnetic radiation in the form of gamma rays; in a nuclear reactor, the energy is converted to heat as the particles and gamma rays collide with the atoms that make up the reactor and its working fluid, usually water or occasionally heavy water or molten salts.\\nWhen a uranium nucleus fissions into two daughter nuclei fragments, about 0.1 percent of the mass of the uranium nucleus\",\n \"-37.00141756935045\"\n ],\n [\n \"fall to the base of the reactor to be collected. At full power the reactor used up 1 to 6 fuel elements per day depending on enrichment and porosity of the fuel element. It produced 3MW of thermal energy. Advantages A typical nuclear reactor prevents the coolant medium from directly contacting the fuel pellets either by cladding the fuel pellets, sealing the fuel pellets inside a fuel rod or running the coolant through separate piping. This prevents contamination of the cooling medium. One of the disadvantages of a sealed fuel assembly includes buildup of fission\",\n \"-36.93878200824838\"\n ],\n [\n \"the steam has gone through the turbine, it is cooled in a condenser; the water obtained in this manner is pumped again toward the nuclear reactor, to restart the generation cycle.\\nSteam flow rate from each reactor is 3944 kilotons/hour (kt/h) to generate 682 MW of electric power. Both Reactor Units (U1 and U2) operate using 444 enriched uranium assemblies, storing power equal to 38.9 million oil barrels. This nuclear fuel is specifically designed to be admitted into the core of the reactor. The fuel is purchased only from qualified vendors worldwide. After 18 months of operation, between 25% and 30%\",\n \"-36.87856517569162\"\n ],\n [\n \"Uranium-238 Nuclear energy applications In a fission nuclear reactor, uranium-238 can be used to generate ²³⁹Pu, which itself can be used in a nuclear weapon or as a nuclear-reactor fuel supply. In a typical nuclear reactor, up to one-third of the generated power does come from the fission of ²³⁹Pu, which is not supplied as a fuel to the reactor, but rather, produced from ²³⁸U. Breeder reactors ²³⁸U is not usable directly as nuclear fuel, though it can produce energy via \\\"fast\\\" fission. In this process, a neutron that has a kinetic energy in excess of 1 MeV can cause the\",\n \"-36.868244860641425\"\n ],\n [\n \"of heat and radiation. \\nThe split atom will also release neutrons, which can then be absorbed by other unstable nuclei, causing a chain reaction. A sustained fission chain is necessary to generate nuclear power.\\nSMR designs include thermal-neutron reactors and fast-neutron reactors.\\nThermal-neutron reactors rely on a moderator to slow neutrons and generally use ²³⁵\\nU as fissile material. Most currently operating nuclear reactors are of this type.\\nFast reactors don’t use moderators to slow down the neutrons, therefore they rely on the nuclear fuel being able to absorb neutrons travelling at higher speeds. \\nThis usually means changing the fuel arrangement within the core,\",\n \"-36.63911603670567\"\n ],\n [\n \"60 years, provided that safety can be maintained, to increase energy security and preserve low-carbon generation sources. Research into nuclear reactors that can last 100 years, known as Centurion Reactors, is being conducted. Nuclear power station Just as many conventional thermal power stations generate electricity by harnessing the thermal energy released from burning fossil fuels, nuclear power plants convert the energy released from the nucleus of an atom via nuclear fission that takes place in a nuclear reactor. When a neutron hits the nucleus of a uranium-235 or plutonium atom, it can split the nucleus into two smaller nuclei.\",\n \"-36.61510013882253\"\n ],\n [\n \"Nuclear reactor heat removal Theoretical framework The thermal energy produced in nuclear fuel comes mainly from the kinetic energy of fission fragments. Therefore, the heat generated per volume unit is proportional to the fraction of nuclear fissionable fuel burned in the unit of time:\\nwhere represents the number of atoms in a cubic meter of fuel, a is the amount of energy released in the fuel in each fission reaction (~181 MeV), is the neutronic flux, and is the effective section of the fission.\\nThe total heat produced in the nuclear reactor is:\\nwhere is the mean neutronic flux and\",\n \"-36.52543373283697\"\n ],\n [\n \"1990s, numerous nuclear reactor power systems have been proposed using heat pipes for transporting heat between the reactor core and the power conversion system. The first nuclear reactor to produce electricity using heat pipes was first operated on September 13, 2012 in a demonstration using flattop fission. Wankel rotary combustion engines Ignition of the fuel mixture always takes place in the same part of Wankel engines, inducing thermal dilatation disparities that reduce power output, impair fuel economy, and accelerate wear. SAE paper 2014-01-2160, by Wei Wu et al., describes: 'A Heat Pipe Assisted Air-Cooled Rotary Wankel Engine for\",\n \"-36.48143553745467\"\n ],\n [\n \"of 93%) uranium-235. Light water is used as both neutron-moderator and reactor coolant. Hafnium Control rods are used to control the operation of the reactor. Extracting the rods to a calculated height allows the reactor to reach criticality, the point at which the nuclear fission reactions reach a self-sustaining level. Thereafter, steam flow (from the steam generators) regulates reactor power as explained below. The control rods are \\\"shimmed\\\" in or out to regulate average coolant temperature or lowered to the bottom of the reactor vessel to shut the reactor down — either done in a slow controlled manner or\",\n \"-36.2481711753062\"\n ],\n [\n \"Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the reactor's rated capacity was described as 500 MWt of thermal power and 160 MWe of electrical power.\\nThe reactor was designed for an expected lifetime of 60 years. Fuel and refueling B&W mPower uses standard fuel enriched to 5%, similar to the fuel loaded in the other PWRs. It was designed for a 4-year refueling cycle. In the process of refuelling, the entire core will be completely removed in a single evolution, and replaced in a second separate evolution, making the core nearly \\\"plug and play\\\", unlike traditional reactors, which require fuel handling and movement of individual fuel rods during\",\n \"-36.22351455851458\"\n ],\n [\n \"be shut down by draining the fuel salt from the Core-unit into storage tanks.\\nA failsafe backup is provided in the form of meltable cans, filled with a liquid neutron absorbing material that will permanently shut down the reactor in the event of a severe overheating event. Cooling A nuclear reactor is a thermal power system—it generates heat, transports it and eventually converts it to mechanical energy in a heat engine, in this case a steam turbine. \\nSuch systems require that the heat is removed, transported and converted at the same rate it is generated.\\nA fundamental issue for nuclear reactors is\",\n \"-36.17254868306918\"\n ],\n [\n \"US National Reactor Testing Station (now the Idaho National Laboratory) in a series of tests called the BORAX experiments. Reactor design The light-water reactor produces heat by controlled nuclear fission. The nuclear reactor core is the portion of a nuclear reactor where the nuclear reactions take place. It mainly consists of nuclear fuel and control elements. The pencil-thin nuclear fuel rods, each about 12 feet (3.7 m) long, are grouped by the hundreds in bundles called fuel assemblies. Inside each fuel rod, pellets of uranium, or more commonly uranium oxide, are stacked end to end. The control elements, called control\",\n \"-35.944550922489725\"\n ],\n [\n \"Pu-239, \\\"breeding\\\" fuel.\\nIn thorium fuel cycle thorium-232 absorbs a neutron in either a fast or thermal reactor. The thorium-233 beta decays to protactinium-233 and then to uranium-233, which in turn is used as fuel. Hence, like uranium-238, thorium-232 is a fertile material. Fueling of nuclear reactors The amount of energy in the reservoir of nuclear fuel is frequently expressed in terms of \\\"full-power days,\\\" which is the number of 24-hour periods (days) a reactor is scheduled for operation at full power output for the generation of heat energy. The number of full-power days in a reactor's operating cycle (between refueling\",\n \"-35.799982435812126\"\n ],\n [\n \"Fast fission Fast reactors vs. thermal reactors Fast neutron reactors use fast fission to produce energy, unlike most nuclear reactors. In a conventional reactor, a moderator is needed to slow down the neutrons so that they are more likely to fission atoms. A fast neutron reactor uses fast neutrons, so it does not use a moderator. Moderators may absorb a lot of neutrons in a thermal reactor, and fast fission produces a higher average number of neutrons per fission, so fast reactors have better neutron economy making a plutonium breeder reactor possible. However, a fast neutron reactor must use relatively\",\n \"-35.6683690432983\"\n ],\n [\n \"contains liquid metal which is impacted by the beam, thus releasing neutrons and is cooled by circulating the liquid metal such as lead-bismuth towards a heat exchanger. The nuclear reactor core surrounding the spallation neutron source contains the fuel rods, the fuel being preferably Thorium. Thereby, for each proton intersecting the spallation target, an average of 20 neutrons is released which fission the surrounding fissile part of the fuel and enrich the fertile part. The neutron balance can be regulated or indeed shut off by adjusting the accelerator power so that the reactor would be below criticality. The additional neutrons\",\n \"-35.63341041124659\"\n ],\n [\n \"cooled using forced circulation through heat exchangers to a secondary coolant system. The heat from the reactor is ultimately dissipated to the atmosphere via the secondary cooling system using two modular Tower Tech cooling towers – model TTXL-081950;.\\nThe reactor uses highly enriched uranium fuel, in the form of uranium-aluminum cermet with aluminum cladding.\\nRefueling takes place 3 to 4 times every year. A single refueling consists of rearranging the assemblies in the core or a combination of rearranging and replacement of old assemblies with new ones. This is more frequent than both nuclear power plants, which may go\",\n \"-35.57623371866066\"\n ],\n [\n \"of fuel. In practice it is economics that determines the lifetime of nuclear fuel in a reactor. Long before all possible fission has taken place, the reactor is unable to maintain 100%, full output power, and therefore, income for the utility lowers as plant output power lowers. Most nuclear plants operate at a very low profit margin due to operating overhead, mainly regulatory costs, so operating below 100% power is not economically viable for very long. The fraction of the reactor's fuel core replaced during refueling is typically one-third, but depends on how long the plant\",\n \"-35.48484719170665\"\n ],\n [\n \"reactor pressure vessel and neutron reflector material. The higher operating temperatures would be expected to deliver specific impulse performance on the order of 1300 to 1500 seconds (12.8–14.8 kN·s/kg).\\nA liquid-core reactor would be extremely difficult to build with current technology. One major issue is that the reaction time of the nuclear fuel is much longer than the heating time of the working fluid. If the nuclear fuel and working fluid are not physically separated, this means that the fuel must be trapped inside the engine while the working fluid is allowed to easily exit through the nozzle. One possible solution is\",\n \"-35.473209190240595\"\n ],\n [\n \"but sometimes a gas or a liquid metal (like liquid sodium) or molten salt — is circulated past the reactor core to absorb the heat that it generates. The heat is carried away from the reactor and is then used to generate steam. Most reactor systems employ a cooling system that is physically separated from the water that will be boiled to produce pressurized steam for the turbines, like the pressurized water reactor. However, in some reactors the water for the steam turbines is boiled directly by the reactor core; for example the boiling water reactor. Reactivity control The rate\",\n \"-35.40347911033314\"\n ],\n [\n \"atoms themselves. As these neutrons are in thermal equilibrium with the fuel, they are referred to as thermal neutrons.\\nDuring moderation it helps to separate the neutrons and uranium, since ²³⁸U has a large affinity for intermediate-energy neutrons (\\\"resonance\\\" absorption), but is only easily fissioned by the few energetic neutrons above ≈1.5–2 MeV. Since most of the fuel is usually ²³⁸U, most reactor designs are based on thin fuel rods separated by moderator, allowing the neutrons to travel in the moderator before entering the fuel again. More neutrons are released than are needed to maintain the chain reaction; when uranium-238 absorbs just\",\n \"-35.39359609002713\"\n ],\n [\n \"Subcritical reactor A subcritical reactor is a nuclear fission reactor concept that produces fission without achieving criticality. Instead of a sustaining chain reaction, a subcritical reactor uses additional neutrons from an outside source. There are two general classes of such devices. One uses neutrons provided by a nuclear fusion machine, a concept known as a fusion-fission hybrid. The other uses neutrons created through spallation of heavy nuclei by charged particles such as protons accelerated by a particle accelerator, a concept known as an accelerator-driven system (ADS) or accelerator-driven sub-critical reactor. Motivation A subcritical reactor can be used to destroy heavy\",\n \"-35.29049226199277\"\n ],\n [\n \"can be burners or breeders. They can be fast or thermal or epithermal. Thermal reactors typically employ a moderator (usually graphite) to slow the neutrons down and moderate temperature. They can accept a variety of fuels (low-enriched uranium, thorium, depleted uranium, waste products) and coolants (fluoride, chloride, lithium, beryllium, mixed). Fuel cycle can be either closed or once-through. They can be monolithic or modular, large or small. The reactor can adopt a loop, modular or integral configuration. Variations include: Liquid-salt very-high-temperature reactor This approach involves using a fluoride-salt as the coolant. Both the traditional MSR and the very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR)\",\n \"-35.278420334885595\"\n ],\n [\n \" On the other hand, a neutron absorber will decrease the reactivity of a nuclear reactor. These two mechanisms are used to control the thermal power output of a nuclear reactor.\\nIn order to keep a nuclear reactor intact and functioning, and to extract useful power from it, a cooling system must be used. Some reactors circulate pressurized water; some use liquid metal, such as sodium, NaK, lead, or mercury; others use gases (see advanced gas-cooled reactor). If the coolant is a liquid, it may boil if the temperature inside the reactor rises. This boiling leads to\",\n \"-35.25341514105094\"\n ],\n [\n \"also be used to produce various radioisotopes through the process of neutron activation, which is a type of neutron capture.\\nExperimental nuclear fusion reactors produce free neutrons as a waste product. However, it is these neutrons that possess most of the energy, and converting that energy to a useful form has proved a difficult engineering challenge. Fusion reactors that generate neutrons are likely to create radioactive waste, but the waste is composed of neutron-activated lighter isotopes, which have relatively short (50–100 years) decay periods as compared to typical half-lives of 10,000 years for fission waste, which is long due primarily to\",\n \"-35.23048447592737\"\n ],\n [\n \"overheat and release radioactive materials.\\nThirdly, a rapid increase of the reactor power is possible if the chain reaction cannot be controlled in certain reactor designs.\\nThese three characteristics have to be taken into account when designing nuclear reactors.\\nReactors are designed so that an uncontrolled increase of the reactor power is prevented by natural feedback mechanisms: if the temperature or the amount of steam in the reactor increases, the fission rate inherently decreases by designing in a negative void coefficent of reactivity. The chain reaction can also be manually stopped by inserting control rods into the reactor core. Emergency core cooling systems\",\n \"-35.22505206451751\"\n ],\n [\n \"controlled rate in a nuclear reactor or with a very rapid uncontrolled rate in a nuclear weapon.\\nThe most common fissile nuclear fuels are uranium-235 (²³⁵U) and plutonium-239 (²³⁹Pu). The actions of mining, refining, purifying, using, and ultimately disposing of nuclear fuel together make up the nuclear fuel cycle. Not all types of nuclear fuels create power from nuclear fission. Plutonium-238 and some other elements are used to produce small amounts of nuclear power by radioactive decay in radioisotope thermoelectric generators and other types of atomic batteries. Also, light nuclides such as tritium (³H) can be used as fuel for\",\n \"-35.19635723101692\"\n ],\n [\n \"to build a nuclear reactor from natural uranium at Columbia University, where George B. Pegram headed the physics department. There was disagreement about whether fission was produced by uranium-235, which made up less than one percent of natural uranium, or the more abundant uranium-238 isotope, as Fermi maintained. Fermi and Szilárd conducted a series of experiments and concluded that a chain reaction in natural uranium could be possible if they could find a suitable neutron moderator. They found that the hydrogen atoms in water slowed neutrons but tended to capture them. Szilárd then suggested using carbon as a moderator. They\",\n \"-35.06097078783205\"\n ],\n [\n \"up of the reactor neutron sources were located within the core to provide sufficient neutrons to initiate the nuclear reaction. Other aspects of the design included the use of flux shaping or flattening bars or controls rods to even out (to some extent) the neutron flux density across the core. If not used, the flux in the centre would be very high relative to the outer areas leading to excessive central temperatures and lower power output limited by the temperature of the central areas. Each fuel channel would have several elements stacked one upon another to form a stringer. This\",\n \"-35.015444019343704\"\n ],\n [\n \"experimental reactors at Piqua in the US and Arbus at the Research Institute of Atomic Reactors in the USSR ever generated power, and then only experimentally. Fission basics Conventional fission power plants rely on the chain reaction caused when nuclear fission events release neutrons that cause further fission events. Each fission event in uranium releases two or three neutrons, so by careful arrangement and the use of various absorber materials, you can balance the system so one of those neutrons causes another fission event while the other one or two are lost. This careful balance is known as criticality.\\nNatural uranium\",\n \"-35.01356942974962\"\n ],\n [\n \"one neutron from each fission goes on to cause another fission, the reactor is just barely \\\"critical\\\" and the chain reaction proceeds at a constant power level.\\nMost neutrons produced in fission are \\\"prompt\\\", i.e., created with the fission products in less than about 10 nanoseconds (a \\\"shake\\\" of time). But certain fission products produce additional neutrons when they decay up to several minutes after their creation by fission. These delayed-release neutrons, a few percent of the total, are key to stable nuclear reactor control. Without delayed neutrons, in a reactor that was just barely above critical, reactor power would increase\",\n \"-34.99668648903025\"\n ],\n [\n \"Research reactor Purpose The neutrons produced by a research reactor are used for neutron scattering, non-destructive testing, analysis and testing of materials, production of radioisotopes, research and public outreach and education. Research reactors that produce radioisotopes for medical or industrial use are sometimes called isotope reactors. Reactors that are optimised for beamline experiments nowadays compete with spallation sources. Technical aspects Research reactors are simpler than power reactors and operate at lower temperatures. They need far less fuel, and far less fission products build up as the fuel is used. On the other hand, their fuel requires more highly enriched uranium,\",\n \"-34.978505594830494\"\n ],\n [\n \"provided by the spallation neutron source provide the degree of control as do the delayed neutrons in a conventional nuclear reactor, the difference being that spallation neutron source-driven neutrons are easily controlled by the accelerator. The main advantage is inherent safety. A conventional nuclear reactor's nuclear fuel possesses self-regulating properties such as the Doppler effect or void effect, which make these nuclear reactors safe. In addition to these physical properties of conventional reactors, in the subcritical reactor, whenever the neutron source is turned off, the fission reaction ceases and only the decay heat remains. Technical challenges There are technical difficulties\",\n \"-34.97765381641511\"\n ],\n [\n \"that could deliver at least 825 seconds of specific impulse, at least 50,000 pounds of thrust, at least 10 minutes of continuous operation at full thrust, and have the ability to start up on its own with no external energy source. Liquid hydrogen served as the propellant that was supplied to the reactor core by turbopumps and also provided regenerative cooling. The cylindrical graphite core was surrounded by twelve rotating control drums with beryllium on one side to reflect neutrons and boral on the other side to absorb neutrons to control the rate of the nuclear reaction in the core.\",\n \"-34.934021910099545\"\n ],\n [\n \"research having started in the 1950s, no commercial fusion reactor is expected before 2050. The ITER project is currently leading the effort to harness fusion power. Nuclear fuel cycle Thermal reactors generally depend on refined and enriched uranium. Some nuclear reactors can operate with a mixture of plutonium and uranium (see MOX). The process by which uranium ore is mined, processed, enriched, used, possibly reprocessed and disposed of is known as the nuclear fuel cycle.\\nUnder 1% of the uranium found in nature is the easily fissionable U-235 isotope and as a result most reactor designs require enriched fuel.\\nEnrichment involves increasing\",\n \"-34.89974382709988\"\n ],\n [\n \"pellet explosion debris, and capturing the neutrons that carry 80 percent of the energy so as to make a practical power system. Fusion-fission hybrid reactor studies In fusion-fission hybrid reactors, high-energy fast neutrons generated by nuclear fusion can be used to convert fertile materials such as Thorium-232 or Uranium-238 into fissionable fuels for fission reactors such as Uranium-233 or Plutonium-239. The high-energy fusion-generated neutrons can also be used to trigger nuclear fission in traditional nuclear fuels such as Uranium-235. The hybrid reactor concept has a fusion reactor at the core and a surrounding “blanket” of fertile material, either Thorium-232 or\",\n \"-34.81709940941073\"\n ],\n [\n \"to fission a fissionable heavy nucleus as it exceeds a kinetic energy of one MeV or more (so-called fast neutrons). Such high energy neutrons are able to fission U-238 directly (see thermonuclear weapon for application, where the fast neutrons are supplied by nuclear fusion). However, this process cannot happen to a great extent in a nuclear reactor, as too small a fraction of the fission neutrons produced by any type of fission have enough energy to efficiently fission U-238 (fission neutrons have a mode energy of 2 MeV, but a median of only 0.75 MeV, meaning half of them have\",\n \"-34.798379414191004\"\n ],\n [\n \"applies to reactors in which the moderator/coolant is neither liquid nor gas (supercritical water reactor). Explanation Nuclear fission reactors run on nuclear chain reactions, in which each nucleus that undergoes fission releases heat and neutrons. Each neutron may impact another nucleus and cause it to undergo fission. The speed of this neutron affects its probability of causing additional fission, as does the presence of neutron-absorbing material. On the one hand, slow neutrons are more easily absorbed by fissile nuclei than fast neutrons, so a neutron moderator that slows neutrons will increase the reactivity of a nuclear reactor.\",\n \"-34.794083902728744\"\n ],\n [\n \"steam which will then drive a steam turbine that turns an alternator and generates electricity. Early reactors The neutron was discovered in 1932 by British physicist James Chadwick. The concept of a nuclear chain reaction brought about by nuclear reactions mediated by neutrons was first realized shortly thereafter, by Hungarian scientist Leó Szilárd, in 1933. He filed a patent for his idea of a simple reactor the following year while working at the Admiralty in London. However, Szilárd's idea did not incorporate the idea of nuclear fission as a neutron source, since that process was not yet discovered. Szilárd's ideas\",\n \"-34.7933574069757\"\n ],\n [\n \"with graphite or beryllium (a neutron moderator) on one side and boron (a neutron poison) on the other. The reactor's power output could be controlled by rotating the drums. To increase thrust, it is sufficient to increase the flow of propellant. Hydrogen, whether in pure form or in a compound like ammonia, is an efficient nuclear moderator, and increasing the flow also increases the rate of reactions in the core. This increased reaction rate offsets the cooling provided by the hydrogen. Moreover, as the hydrogen heats up, it expands, so there is less in the core to remove heat, and\",\n \"-34.78915459814016\"\n ],\n [\n \"to determine the feasibility of a nuclear reactor using light water as a moderator and coolant, and cladded solid uranium as fuel. The results showed that, with a lightly enriched uranium, criticality could be reached. This experiment was the first practical step toward the light-water reactor.\\nAfter World War II and with the availability of enriched uranium, new reactor concepts became feasible. In 1946, Eugene Wigner and Alvin Weinberg proposed and developed the concept of a reactor using enriched uranium as a fuel, and light water as a moderator and coolant. This concept was proposed for a reactor whose purpose was\",\n \"-34.730990532170836\"\n ],\n [\n \"operates between refueling. Plants typically operate on 18 month refueling cycles, or 24 month refueling cycles. This means that 1 refueling, replacing only one-third of the fuel, can keep a nuclear reactor at full power for nearly 2 years. The disposition and storage of this spent fuel is one of the most challenging aspects of the operation of a commercial nuclear power plant. This nuclear waste is highly radioactive and its toxicity presents a danger for thousands of years. After being discharged from the reactor, spent nuclear fuel is transferred to the on-site spent fuel\",\n \"-34.7035570144767\"\n ],\n [\n \"down, as the nuclear fuel burns up over time.\\nIn a nuclear power reactor, the main sources of radioactivity are fission products, alongside actinides and activation products. Fission products are the largest source of radioactivity for the first several hundred years, while actinides are dominant roughly 10³ to 10⁵ years after fuel use.\\nFission occurs in the nuclear fuel, and the fission products are primarily retained within the fuel close to where they are produced. These fission products are important to the operation of the reactor because some fission products contribute delayed neutrons that are useful for reactor control while\",\n \"-34.68438345016784\"\n ],\n [\n \"placed under extreme duress. Nuclear fuel is a material that can be 'burned' by nuclear fission or fusion to derive nuclear energy. Nuclear fuel can refer to the fuel itself, or to physical objects (for example bundles composed of fuel rods) composed of the fuel material, mixed with structural, neutron moderating, or neutron reflecting materials.\\nMost nuclear fuels contain heavy fissile elements that are capable of nuclear fission. When these fuels are struck by neutrons, they are in turn capable of emitting neutrons when they break apart. This makes possible a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy with a\",\n \"-34.60624652635306\"\n ],\n [\n \"forms the reactor core. Each BWR fuel rod is back filled with helium to a pressure of about three atmospheres (300 kPa). Moderator A neutron moderator is a medium which reduces the velocity of fast neutrons, thereby turning them into thermal neutrons capable of sustaining a nuclear chain reaction involving uranium-235. A good neutron moderator is a material full of atoms with light nuclei which do not easily absorb neutrons. The neutrons strike the nuclei and bounce off. After sufficient impacts, the velocity of the neutron will be comparable to the thermal velocities of the nuclei; this neutron is then\",\n \"-34.59696753649041\"\n ],\n [\n \"allowing various negative feedbacks to stabilize the reaction.\\nOn the other hand, the fission neutrons are thoroughly slowed down before they reach another fuel rod, meaning that it takes neutrons a longer time to get from one part of the reactor to the other. Thus if the chain reaction accelerates in one section of the reactor, the change will propagate itself only slowly to the rest of the core, giving time to respond in an emergency. The independence of the neutrons' energies from the nuclear fuel used is what allows such fuel flexibility in a CANDU reactor, since every fuel bundle\",\n \"-34.59404004190583\"\n ],\n [\n \"poison in the fuel rods. This allows the reactor to be constructed with an excess of fissionable material, which is nevertheless made relatively safe early in the reactor's fuel burn cycle by the presence of the neutron-absorbing material which is later replaced by normally produced long-lived neutron poisons (far longer-lived than xenon-135) which gradually accumulate over the fuel load's operating life. Electrical power generation The energy released in the fission process generates heat, some of which can be converted into usable energy. A common method of harnessing this thermal energy is to use it to boil water to produce pressurized\",\n \"-34.567404684756184\"\n ],\n [\n \"of nuclear fission reactions, and implies the great amount of energy that can be released by a nuclear fission chain reaction, used in both nuclear weapons and nuclear power. By measuring the mass of different atomic nuclei and subtracting from that number the total mass of the protons and neutrons as they would weigh separately, one gets the exact binding energy available in an atomic nucleus. This is used to calculate the energy released in any nuclear reaction, as the difference in the total mass of the nuclei that enter and exit the reaction. History While Einstein was the first\",\n \"-34.538816877116915\"\n ],\n [\n \"can produce self-sustaining reactions.\\nEnergy released in most nuclear reactions is much larger than in chemical reactions, because the binding energy that holds a nucleus together is greater than the energy that holds electrons to a nucleus. For example, the ionization energy gained by adding an electron to a hydrogen nucleus is 13.6 eV—less than one-millionth of the 17.6 MeV released in the deuterium–tritium (D–T) reaction shown in the adjacent diagram. Fusion reactions have an energy density many times greater than nuclear fission; the reactions produce far greater energy per unit of mass even though individual fission reactions are generally much more energetic\",\n \"-34.510530704374105\"\n ],\n [\n \"Traveling wave reactor A traveling-wave reactor (TWR) is a proposed type of nuclear fission reactor that can convert fertile material into usable fuel through nuclear transmutation, in tandem with the burnup of fissile material. TWRs differ from other kinds of fast-neutron and breeder reactors in their ability to use fuel efficiently without uranium enrichment or reprocessing, instead directly using depleted uranium, natural uranium, thorium, spent fuel removed from light water reactors, or some combination of these materials. The concept is still in the development stage and no TWRs have ever been built. \\nThe name refers to the fact that fission\",\n \"-34.47759480844252\"\n ],\n [\n \"and did not generate electricity.\\nIn 1951, the first nuclear fission power plant was the first to produce electricity at the Experimental Breeder Reactor No. 1 (EBR-1), in Arco, Idaho, ushering in the \\\"Atomic Age\\\" of more intensive human energy use.\\nHowever, if the mass is critical only when the delayed neutrons are included, then the reaction can be controlled, for example by the introduction or removal of neutron absorbers. This is what allows nuclear reactors to be built. Fast neutrons are not easily captured by nuclei; they must be slowed (slow neutrons), generally by collision with the nuclei of a neutron\",\n \"-34.4761931062676\"\n ],\n [\n \"the neutrons are captured by U-235 atoms and initiate fission, thus reducing the reactor's power output and placing an inherent upper limit on the temperature of the fuel. The geometry and design of the fuel pebbles provides an important passive safety component.\\nSingle fluid fluoride molten salt reactors feature fissile, fertile and actinide radioisotopes in molecular bonds with the fluoride coolant. The molecular bonds provide a passive safety feature in that a loss-of-coolant event corresponds with a loss-of-fuel event. The molten fluoride fuel can not itself reach criticality but only reaches criticality by the addition of a neutron\",\n \"-34.475934808840975\"\n ],\n [\n \"fission and the subsequent absorption of some of these neutrons in fissile isotopes. When an atom undergoes nuclear fission, a few neutrons (the exact number depends on uncontrollable and unmeasurable factors; the expected number depends on several factors, usually between 2.5 and 3.0) are ejected from the reaction. These free neutrons will then interact with the surrounding medium, and if more fissile fuel is present, some may be absorbed and cause more fissions. Thus, the cycle repeats to give a reaction that is self-sustaining.\\nNuclear power plants operate by precisely controlling the rate at which nuclear reactions occur, on\",\n \"-34.45899762271438\"\n ],\n [\n \"Uranium-238. In a hybrid reactor, high-energy neutrons from fusion reactions are used to produce fissionable materials such as Uranium-233 or Plutonium-239 which would need then to be reprocessed and used as fuel in a fission nuclear power plant. One fusion hybrid plant can provide enough fuel for as many as five nuclear power plants of the same power.\\nConn’s work on inertial fusion hybrid reactors was conducted under the SOLASE-H program at the University of Wisconsin, and was supported by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). University of California, Los Angeles In 1980, Conn left Wisconsin to join the University\",\n \"-34.44023410056252\"\n ],\n [\n \"increases the sustainability of nuclear fission and lowers the volume of high level nuclear waste. \\nOne third of the energy/fissions at the end of the practical fuel life in a thermal reactor are from plutonium, the end of cycle occurs when the U-235 percentage drops, the primary fuel that drives the neutron economy inside the reactor and the drop necessitates fresh fuel being required, so without design change, one third of the fissile fuel in a new fuel load can be fissile reactor-grade plutonium with one third less of Low enriched uranium needing to be added to continue the chain\",\n \"-34.422196585917845\"\n ],\n [\n \"necessary to do a certain amount of enrichment of the uranium fuel before the necessary criticality of the reactor can be maintained. The light-water reactor uses uranium 235 as a fuel, enriched to approximately 3 percent. Although this is its major fuel, the uranium 238 atoms also contribute to the fission process by converting to plutonium 239; about one-half of which is consumed in the reactor. Light-water reactors are generally refueled every 12 to 18 months, at which time, about 25 percent of the fuel is replaced.\\nThe enriched UF₆ is converted into uranium dioxide powder that is then processed into\",\n \"-34.416604192054365\"\n ],\n [\n \"reactor to explode like a nuclear bomb since the fuel is never sufficiently enriched for this to occur.\\nNuclear reactors can fail in a variety of ways. Should the instability of the nuclear material generate unexpected behavior, it may result in an uncontrolled power excursion. Normally, the cooling system in a reactor is designed to be able to handle the excess heat this causes; however, should the reactor also experience a loss-of-coolant accident, then the fuel may melt or cause the vessel in which it is contained to overheat and melt. This event is called a nuclear meltdown.\\nAfter shutting down, for\",\n \"-34.41141388087999\"\n ],\n [\n \"Nuclear reactor safety system Reactor protection system (RPS) A reactor protection system is designed to immediately terminate the nuclear reaction. By breaking the nuclear chain reaction, the source of heat is eliminated. Other systems can then be used to remove decay heat from the core. All nuclear plants have some form of reactor protection system. Control rods Control rods are a series of rods that can be quickly inserted into the reactor core to absorb neutrons and rapidly terminate the nuclear reaction. They are typically composed of actinides, lanthanides, transition metals, and boron, in various alloys with structural backing such\",\n \"-34.4099574109423\"\n ],\n [\n \"A4W reactor History These nuclear fission pressurized water reactors (PWRs) were jointly designed by Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory and Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory and built by Westinghouse Electric Company. Their reactor cores are expected to operate for about 20 years before refueling is required. The only ships to use these nuclear reactors are the Nimitz-class supercarriers, which have two reactors rated at 550 MWₜₕ each. These generate enough steam to produce approximately 100 MW of electricity, plus 140,000 shaft horsepower (104 MW) for each of the ship's four shafts – two per propulsion plant.\",\n \"-34.38862588640768\"\n ],\n [\n \"neutrons. A power reactor operating at steady state (constant power) will therefore have an average reactivity of $1, with small fluctuations above and below this value.\\nReactivity can also be expressed in relative terms, such as \\\"5 cents above prompt critical\\\".\\nWhile power reactors are carefully designed and operated to avoid prompt criticality under all circumstances, many small research or \\\"zero power\\\" reactors are designed to be intentionally placed into prompt criticality (reactivity > $2) with complete safety by rapidly withdrawing their control rods. Their fuel elements are designed so that as they heat up, reactivity is automatically and quickly reduced through\",\n \"-34.380710529047064\"\n ],\n [\n \"the other hand, nuclear weapons are specifically engineered to produce a reaction that is so fast and intense it cannot be controlled after it has started. When properly designed, this uncontrolled reaction will lead to an explosive energy release. Nuclear fission fuel Nuclear weapons employ high quality, highly enriched fuel exceeding the critical size and geometry (critical mass) necessary in order to obtain an explosive chain reaction. The fuel for energy purposes, such as in a nuclear fission reactor, is very different, usually consisting of a low-enriched oxide material (e.g. UO₂). Prompt neutron lifetime The prompt neutron lifetime,\",\n \"-34.36306022590725\"\n ],\n [\n \"reactor and allowing the escape of radioactive material (see SL-1 or Chernobyl disaster). With a subcritical reactor, the reaction will cease unless continually fed neutrons from an outside source. However, the problem of heat generation even after ending the chain reaction remains, so that continuous cooling of such a reactor for a considerable period after shut-down remains vital in order to avoid overheating. Principle Most current ADS designs propose a high-intensity proton accelerator with an energy of about 1 GeV, directed towards a spallation target or spallation neutron source. The source located in the heart of the reactor core\",\n \"-34.33888041855971\"\n ],\n [\n \"power when hydrogen gas at a sufficient temperature and pressure is admitted to the core (made up of granulated uranium metal) and reacts with the uranium metal to form uranium hydride. Uranium hydride is both a nuclear fuel and a neutron moderator; apparently it, like other neutron moderators, will slow neutrons sufficiently to allow for fission reactions to take place; the uranium-235 atoms within the hydride also serve as the nuclear fuel. Once the nuclear reaction has started, it will continue until it reaches a certain temperature, approximately 800 °C (1,500 °F), where, due to the chemical properties of uranium hydride, it\",\n \"-34.3079603578808\"\n ],\n [\n \"and the control room. The building is a reinforced concrete frame and block structure. Nuclear reactor operations The reactor consists of a tubed calandria vessel of austenitic stainless steel, which contains the heavy water moderator/reflector and 208 coolant tube assemblies. The moderator system consists of the calandria, coolers, pumps and purification system in the heavy water circuit, and control valves, dump valves and helium blowers in the helium circuit. The fuel is natural uranium in the form of sintered uranium dioxide pellets sheathed in thin zirconium alloy tubes to form solid fuel elements about 19.1 inches (48.53 cm) long by 0.6 inches (1.4 cm)\",\n \"-34.29615863063373\"\n ],\n [\n \"two or more lighter nuclei, (the fission products), releasing kinetic energy, gamma radiation, and free neutrons. A portion of these neutrons may be absorbed by other fissile atoms and trigger further fission events, which release more neutrons, and so on. This is known as a nuclear chain reaction.\\nTo control such a nuclear chain reaction, neutron poisons and neutron moderators can change the portion of neutrons that will go on to cause more fission. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to shut the fission reaction down if monitoring detects unsafe conditions. Cooling A nuclear reactor coolant — usually water\",\n \"-34.22781662971829\"\n ],\n [\n \"minimize the possibility of a nuclear accident. These designs have yet to be commercialized. (See: Molten salt reactor) Some forms of nuclear power can \\\"burn\\\" nuclear waste through a process known as nuclear transmutation, such as an Integral Fast Reactor. Nuclear power plants can be more or less eliminated from their problem of nuclear waste through the use of nuclear reprocessing and newer plants such as fast breeder plants. Fuel switching For a given unit of energy produced, the greenhouse gas emissions of natural gas are around half the emissions of coal when used to generate electricity, and around two-thirds\",\n \"-34.20574466348626\"\n ],\n [\n \"International Atomic Energy Agency there are at least 100 research reactors in the world fueled by highly enriched (weapons-grade/90% enrichment) uranium. Theft risk of this fuel (potentially used in the production of a nuclear weapon) has led to campaigns advocating conversion of this type of reactor to low-enrichment uranium (which poses less threat of proliferation).\\nFissile U-235 and non-fissile but fissionable and fertile U-238 are both used in the fission process. U-235 is fissionable by thermal (i.e. slow-moving) neutrons. A thermal neutron is one which is moving about the same speed as the atoms around it. Since all atoms vibrate proportionally\",\n \"-34.198376433356316\"\n ],\n [\n \"than the fuel. However, and in clear contrast with classical nuclear thermal rockets (including liquid and gas nuclear rockets), the thermal energy from the decay of fission daughters is unwanted.\\nVery high instantaneous propellant temperatures are hypothetically attainable by pulsing the solid nuclear core, only limited by the rapid radiative cooling after pulsation. Liquid core Liquid core nuclear engines are fueled by compounds of fissionable elements in liquid phase. A liquid-core engine is proposed to operate at temperatures above the melting point of solid nuclear fuel and cladding, with the maximum operating temperature of the engine instead being determined by the\",\n \"-34.1894787559213\"\n ],\n [\n \"thermal reactors run on a once-through fuel cycle, mainly due to the low price of fresh uranium, though many reactors are also fueled with recycled fissionable materials that remain in spent nuclear fuel. The most common fissionable material that is recycled is the reactor-grade plutonium (RGPu) that is extracted from spent fuel, it is mixed with uranium oxide and fabricated into mixed-oxide or MOX fuel. The first LWR designs certified to operate on a full core of MOX fuel, the ABWR and the System 80, began to appear in the 1990s. The potential for recycling the spent fuel a\",\n \"-34.186484786565416\"\n ],\n [\n \"neutrons from fission are moderated to lower their speed, since the probability for fission with slow neutrons is greater. A fission chain reaction produces intermediate mass fragments which are highly radioactive and produce further energy by their radioactive decay. Some of them produce neutrons, called delayed neutrons, which contribute to the fission chain reaction. The power output of nuclear reactors is adjusted by the location of control rods containing elements that strongly absorb neutrons, e.g., boron, cadmium, or hafnium, in the reactor core. In nuclear bombs, the reaction is uncontrolled and the large amount of energy released creates a nuclear\",\n \"-34.18206172762439\"\n ],\n [\n \"energy as ionizing radiation (specifically, neutrons), but these are all thermonuclear devices which rely on the nuclear fusion stage to produce the extra radiation. The energy dynamics of pure fission bombs always remain at about 6% yield of the total in radiation, as a prompt result of fission.\\nThe total prompt fission energy amounts to about 181 MeV, or ~ 89% of the total energy which is eventually released by fission over time. The remaining ~ 11% is released in beta decays which have various half-lives, but begin as a process in the fission products immediately; and in delayed gamma emissions\",\n \"-34.17008050261211\"\n ],\n [\n \"wave in the TWR design does not move from one end of the reactor to the other but gradually from the inside out. Moreover, as the fuel's composition changes through nuclear transmutation, fuel rods are continually reshuffled within the core to optimize the neutron flux and fuel usage at any given point in time. Thus, instead of letting the wave propagate through the fuel, the fuel itself is moved through a largely stationary burn wave. This is contrary to many media reports, which have popularized the concept as a candle-like reactor with a burn region that moves down a stick\",\n \"-34.13917762681376\"\n ],\n [\n \"magnetosphere. Gas core The final fission classification is the gas-core engine. This is a modification to the liquid-core design which uses rapid circulation of the fluid to create a toroidal pocket of gaseous uranium fuel in the middle of the reactor, surrounded by hydrogen. In this case the fuel does not touch the reactor wall at all, so temperatures could reach several tens of thousands of degrees, which would allow specific impulses of 3000 to 5000 seconds (30 to 50 kN·s/kg). In this basic design, the \\\"open cycle\\\", the losses of nuclear fuel would be difficult to control, which has led\",\n \"-34.066577707822034\"\n ],\n [\n \"in test reactors, engineers can cause hydrogen nuclei to collide and fuse – creating for short amounts of time a nuclear fusion reaction that generates heat. One of the unsolved challenges of controlled nuclear fusion energy is to sustain a reaction that generates more energy than what goes into just maintaining the operation of the reactor plasma itself.\\nIn his early work, Conn studied numerous aspects of plasma for fusion applications, including how it can be confined with magnetic fields, thereby increasing its density and the likelihood that atomic nuclei collide and fuse. Conn also studied the boundary conditions between the\",\n \"-34.06646796752466\"\n ],\n [\n \"light water reactors, thus closing the nuclear fuel cycle. Alternatively, if configured differently, they can also breed more actinide fuel than they consume. Gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR) The gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR) system features a fast-neutron spectrum and closed fuel cycle for efficient conversion of fertile uranium and management of actinides. The reactor is helium-cooled and with an outlet temperature of 850 °C it is an evolution of the very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR) to a more sustainable fuel cycle. It will use a direct Brayton cycle gas turbine for high thermal efficiency. Several fuel forms are being considered for their potential to\",\n \"-34.055946892360225\"\n ],\n [\n \"of 10 billion, whilst still retaining a small environmental footprint. In breeder mode, fast reactors are therefore often proposed as a form of renewable or sustainable nuclear energy. Though the \\\"[reactor-grade]plutonium economy\\\" it would generate, presently returns social distaste and varied arguments about proliferation-potential, in the public mindset.\\nAs is typically found in civilian European thermal reactors, a 5.3% plutonium MOX fuel-bundle, produced by conventional wet-chemical/PUREX reprocessing of an initial fuel assembly that generated 33 GWd/t before becoming spent nuclear fuel, creates, when it itself is burnt in the thermal reactor, a spent nuclear fuel with a plutonium isotopic composition of\",\n \"-34.04905629088171\"\n ],\n [\n \"Producing Power and Plutonium(PIPPA) and as this codename suggests, the reactor was designed as both a power plant and, when operated with low fuel \\\"burn-up\\\"; as a producer of plutonium-239 for the nascent nuclear weapons program in Britain. This intentional dual-use approach to building electric power-reactors that could operate as production reactors in the early Cold War era, was typical of many nations, in the now designated, \\\"Generation I nuclear reactors\\\". With these being designs all focused on giving access to fuel after a short burn-up, which is known as Online refuelling.\\nThe 2006 North Korean nuclear test, the first by\",\n \"-34.00732011790387\"\n ],\n [\n \"Solar energy is conducted using heat from the sun, which is absorbed by wind turbines, in capturing wind that generates wind power. The use of solar renewable technologies plays a large roll in emission reduction for mitigating climate change, reducing air pollution and addressing concerns with energy security. Nuclear Energy (NE) Nuclear power is conducted by the released nuclear energy from nuclear reactions. The power is ignited heat from reactions, which is most commonly used in the powering of electricity-producing steam turbines, located in nuclear power plants. Nuclear fission is a type of nuclear reaction that is a leading form\",\n \"-33.98669262812473\"\n ],\n [\n \"nuclear reactor, the two types of device must be engineered quite differently (see nuclear reactor physics). A nuclear bomb is designed to release all its energy at once, while a reactor is designed to generate a steady supply of useful power. While overheating of a reactor can lead to, and has led to, meltdown and steam explosions, the much lower uranium enrichment makes it impossible for a nuclear reactor to explode with the same destructive power as a nuclear weapon. It is also difficult to extract useful power from a nuclear bomb, although at least one rocket propulsion system, Project\",\n \"-33.96544563898351\"\n ],\n [\n \"energy needed to sustain the reaction. This balance is today known as the Lawson criterion.\\nIn a successful fusion reactor design, the fusion reactions generate an amount of power designated Pfus. Some amount of this energy, Pₗₒₛₛ, is lost through a variety of mechanisms, mostly convection of the fuel to the walls of the reactor chamber and various forms of radiation that cannot be captured to generate power. In order to keep the reaction going, the system has to provide heating to make up for these losses, where Pₗₒₛₛ = Pₕₑₐₜ to maintain thermal equilibrium.\\nThe most basic definition of breakeven is\",\n \"-33.94873121753335\"\n ],\n [\n \"metal, making the mechanical cycle self-sustaining. The implosion cycle would be repeated every few seconds. The LINUS reactor can thus be regarded as a fusion engine, except that there is no shaft output; all the energy appears as heat.\\nThe liquid metal acts as both a compression mechanism and heat transfer mechanism, allowing the energy from the fusion reaction to be captured as heat. LINUS researchers anticipated that a lithium liner could also be used to breed tritium fuel for the power plant, and would protect the machine from high-energy neutrons by acting as a regenerative first wall. Experiments Several experimental\",\n \"-33.92530620028265\"\n ],\n [\n \"50% of the energy generated in a CANDU reactor comes from the in situ fission of plutonium created in the uranium fuel), and this plutonium could be used in a nuclear explosive if separated and converted to metallic form (albeit only as reactor-grade plutonium, and therefore of limited military usefulness). Accordingly, CANDU reactors, like most power reactors in the world, are subject to safeguards under the United Nations which prevent possible diversion of plutonium. CANDU reactors are designed to be refuelled while running, which makes the details of such safeguards significantly different from other reactor designs. The end result, however,\",\n \"-33.91981358436169\"\n ],\n [\n \"nucleus of ²³⁸U to split in two. Depending on design, this process can contribute some one to ten percent of all fission reactions in a reactor, but too few of the average 2.5 neutrons produced in each fission have enough speed to continue a chain reaction.\\n²³⁸U can be used as a source material for creating plutonium-239, which can in turn be used as nuclear fuel. Breeder reactors carry out such a process of transmutation to convert the fertile isotope ²³⁸U into fissile ²³⁹Pu. It has been estimated that there is anywhere from 10,000 to five billion years worth of ²³⁸U\",\n \"-33.919624333808315\"\n ],\n [\n \"enormous, since there are many possibilities for each component of a reactor—fuel, coolant, moderator. The fissile material may be ²³³U, ²³⁵U, or ²³⁹Pu; the coolant may be: water, heavy water, gas, or liquid metal; the moderator may be: water, heavy water, beryllium, graphite—or, in a fast- neutron reactor, no moderator. I have calculated that, if one counted all the combinations of fuel, coolant, and moderator, one could identify about a thousand distinct reactors. Thus, at the very beginning of nuclear power, we had to choose which possibilities to pursue, which to ignore.\\nThe ultimate success of the pressurized water reactor, he\",\n \"-33.91528934700182\"\n ],\n [\n \"or using different fuel types. ²³⁹\\nPu is more likely to absorb a high-speed neutron than ²³⁵\\nU.\\nA benefit of fast reactors is that they can be designed to be breeder reactors. \\nAs these reactors produce energy, they also let off enough neutrons to transmute non-fissionable elements into fissionable ones. \\nA very common use for a breeder reactor is to surround the core in a \\\"blanket\\\" of ²³⁸\\nU, which is the most easily found isotope of uranium. \\nOnce the ²³⁸\\nU undergoes a neutron absorption reaction, it becomes ²³⁹\\nPu, which can be removed from the reactor once it is time to refuel, and\",\n \"-33.90350262673746\"\n ],\n [\n \"reactor from supercritical to critical; as the fuel is depleted, the reactivity control is withdrawn to support continuing fission. In a fast breeder reactor, the above applies, though the reactivity from fuel depletion is also compensated by breeding either ²³³\\nU or ²³⁹\\nPu and ²⁴¹\\nPu from thorium-232 or ²³⁸\\nU, respectively. Control Like thermal reactors, fast-neutron reactors are controlled by keeping the criticality of the reactor reliant on delayed neutrons, with gross control from neutron-absorbing control rods or blades.\\nThey cannot, however, rely on changes to their moderators because there is no moderator. So Doppler broadening in the moderator, which affects thermal neutrons,\",\n \"-33.87110914220102\"\n ],\n [\n \"14 years, and has slightly higher thermal neutron cross sections than ²³⁹Pu for both fission and absorption. While nuclear fuel is being used in a reactor, a ²⁴¹Pu nucleus is much more likely to fission or to capture a neutron than to decay. ²⁴¹Pu accounts for a significant proportion of fissions in thermal reactor fuel that has been used for some time. However, in spent nuclear fuel that does not quickly undergo nuclear reprocessing but instead is cooled for years after use, much or most of the ²⁴¹Pu will beta decay to americium-241, one of the minor actinides, a strong\",\n \"-33.84811760298908\"\n ],\n [\n \"Fast-neutron reactor A fast-neutron reactor (FNR) or simply a fast reactor is a category of nuclear reactor in which the fission chain reaction is sustained by fast neutrons (carrying energies of 5 MeV or greater), as opposed to thermal neutrons used in thermal-neutron reactors. \\nSuch a reactor needs no neutron moderator, but requires fuel that is relatively rich in fissile material when compared to that required for a thermal-neutron reactor. Fast fission, breeders Although ²³⁵\\nU and ²³⁹\\nPu are less sensitive to higher-energy neutrons, they still remain somewhat reactive well into the MeV range. If the fuel is enriched, eventually a threshold\",\n \"-33.846479975036345\"\n ],\n [\n \"used to enhance the efficiency and yield of fission bombs and the fission stages of hydrogen bombs in a process known as \\\"boosting\\\" as well as in external neutron initiators for such weapons. Neutron initiator These are devices incorporated in nuclear weapons which produce a pulse of neutrons when the bomb is detonated to initiate the fission reaction in the fissionable core (pit) of the bomb, after it is compressed to a critical mass by explosives. Actuated by an ultrafast switch like a krytron, a small particle accelerator drives ions of tritium and deuterium to energies above the 15 keV\",\n \"-33.83638951659668\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":578,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"4npio8"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why do we trust data in research papers and studies to not be manipulated"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["There are two main ways. The most important is repetition. Scientists often repeat each others' experiments, and tend not to accept anything unless it's been shown to be repeatable. The other is peer reviews, where other scientists review each paper before it gets published. This might not catch the specific issue of deliberately falsifying data, but it does guard against people publishing things with serious errors or misunderstandings in them.","We don't. We read around the subject, see how many people have researched it. Gather evidence, critique the papers, find patterns and anomalys and we make our own conclusions. Research where you're getting your information. If it's a newspaper then take it with a pinch of salt. Go to the source, the people who published it.","The point about scientific research is that the methods and results should be able to be reproduced by other researchers. Unfortunately this rarely happens. However, you should always look into sample size and methods.","Also, if the research is done in association with a university (in the US at least), they have to run eeeeverything by an IRB, which reviews the experiment itself making sure it's legit/ethical.","I guess this gets very existential, but why believe anything, in that case? Have you ever been to Mongolia? How do you know it exists?"],"string":"[\n \"There are two main ways. The most important is repetition. Scientists often repeat each others' experiments, and tend not to accept anything unless it's been shown to be repeatable. The other is peer reviews, where other scientists review each paper before it gets published. This might not catch the specific issue of deliberately falsifying data, but it does guard against people publishing things with serious errors or misunderstandings in them.\",\n \"We don't. We read around the subject, see how many people have researched it. Gather evidence, critique the papers, find patterns and anomalys and we make our own conclusions. Research where you're getting your information. If it's a newspaper then take it with a pinch of salt. Go to the source, the people who published it.\",\n \"The point about scientific research is that the methods and results should be able to be reproduced by other researchers. Unfortunately this rarely happens. However, you should always look into sample size and methods.\",\n \"Also, if the research is done in association with a university (in the US at least), they have to run eeeeverything by an IRB, which reviews the experiment itself making sure it's legit/ethical.\",\n \"I guess this gets very existential, but why believe anything, in that case? Have you ever been to Mongolia? How do you know it exists?\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["the free sharing of data. Since privacy for research participants is a priority, though, various proposals for protecting participants have been made for different purposes. Replacing the real data with synthetic data allows the researchers to show data which gives a conclusion equivalent to the one drawn by the researchers, but the data may have problems such as being unfit for repurposing for other research. Other strategies include \"noise addition\" by making random value changes or \"data swapping\" by exchanging values across entries. Still another approach is to separate the identifiable variables in the data from the rest, aggregate the","-31.04115112247473"],["data aggregated by third parties.\nThis means it's essential to ensure the data is as 'clean' as possible, before undertaking any data analysis. For example, eliminating activity from bots, staging websites, or incorrect configurations of tools such as Google Analytics.\nData can be numeric or text-based, nominal or ordinal. Bad or missing values are handled gracefully.\nData may be geographic, contextual, frequential, demographic, behavioral, customer based, etc. Hypothesis After data collection, forming a hypothesis is the next step. This process forms the foundation of why changes are made. Hypotheses are made based on observation and deduction. It is important that each hypothetical","-30.603361157387553"],["be accurate and should be carefully reviewed by researchers.\nIt is important for researchers to review responses in order to avoid altering sound data. Participants in a study may have knowledge of incomplete or incorrect information that leads to misinformed responses. Likewise, they may also respond falsely in order to avoid social judgment or societal views on the subject, despite anonymity. Participants’ responses may also stem from myth-based knowledge or delusional thinking (Douglas, 1976). When hypotheses are formed, researchers often have predictions on the outcome; therefore, it is vital that researchers avoid their own biases to data. Avoidance of","-30.301379128290137"],["A study of scientists in training indicated many had already experienced data withholding. This study has given rise to the fear the future generation of scientists will not abide by the established practices. Differing approaches in different fields Requirements for data sharing are more commonly imposed by institutions, funding agencies, and publication venues in the medical and biological sciences than in the physical sciences. Requirements vary widely regarding whether data must be shared at all, with whom the data must be shared, and who must bear the expense of data sharing.\nFunding agencies such as the NIH and NSF tend to","-30.113074635308294"],["influences. Rather, data are shaped by the vision or goals of a research team, and during the data collection process, certain things are quantified, stored, sorted and even discarded by the research team. A critical approach is thus necessary in order to understand and reveal the intent behind the information being presented. Moreover, data alone cannot speak for itself; in order to possess any concrete meaning, data must be accompanied by theoretical insight or alternative quantitative or qualitative research measures. Dalton and Thatcher argue that if one were to only think of data in terms of its exploitative power, there","-29.83899047851446"],["keep all study data for later examination even after publication. Both scientific and academic censure can result from a failure to keep primary data; the case of Ranjit Chandra of Memorial University of Newfoundland provides an example of this. Many scientific journals also require that authors provide information to allow readers to determine whether the authors may have commercial or non-commercial conflicts of interest. Outlined in the author disclosure statement for the American Journal of Human Biology, this is a policy more common in scientific fields where funding often comes from corporate sources. Authors are also commonly required to provide","-29.579992222685178"],["Because of its nature, Data in Use is of increasing concern to businesses, government agencies and other institutions. Data in use, or memory, can contain sensitive data including digital certificates, encryption keys, intellectual property (software algorithms, design data), and personally identifiable information. Compromising data in use enables access to encrypted data at rest and data in motion. For example, someone with access to random access memory can parse that memory to locate the encryption key for data at rest. Once they have obtained that encryption key, they can decrypt encrypted data at rest. \nThreats to data","-29.343732593479217"],[" If the result of this test is statistically significant, you have real evidence at last.\" Data manipulation Informally called \"fudging the data,\" this practice includes selective reporting (see also publication bias) and even simply making up false data.\nExamples of selective reporting abound. The easiest and most common examples involve choosing a group of results that follow a pattern consistent with the preferred hypothesis while ignoring other results or \"data runs\" that contradict the hypothesis.\nPsychic researchers have long disputed studies showing people with ESP ability. Critics accuse ESP proponents of only publishing experiments with positive results and shelving those that","-29.260039503787993"],["the standard academic practices”.\nTheir final aim being to provide “information on the what, where, why, how and who of the data”.\nThe intent of a data paper is to offer descriptive information on the related dataset(s) focusing on data collection, distinguishing features, access and potential reuse rather than on data processing and analysis. Because data papers are considered academic publications no different than other types of papers they allow scientists sharing data to receive credit in currency recognizable within the academic system, thus \"making data sharing count\". This provides not only an additional incentive to share data, but also through the","-29.193933319678763"],["for handling secret, confidential and personal information. So because of the sensitivity and confidentiality, data transfer and all in-between information must be encrypted. Data quality Data quality is another serious constraint. For better management and to maintain good quality of data, the common practice is to store the data at one location and share with different people and different systems and/or applications from different locations. It helps in preventing inconsistencies in the data.","-28.947894301993074"],["environment the data aggregator has little to no influence on the data publisher. Data is often erroneous, and combining data often aggravates the problem. Especially when performing reasoning (automatically inferring new data from existing data), erroneous data has potentially devastating impact on the overall quality of the resulting dataset. Hence, a challenge is how data publishers can coordinate in order to fix problems in the data or blacklist sites which do not provide reliable data. Methods and techniques are needed to: check integrity and accuracy; highlight, identify and corroborate evidence; assess the probability that a given statement is true; equate","-28.941759232264303"],["discovery algorithms. \nMany currently available methods rely on a voting strategy to define the true value of a data item. Nevertheless, recent studies, have shown that, if we rely only on majority voting, we could get wrong results even in 30% of the data items.\nThe solution to this problem is to assess the trustworthiness of the sources and give more importance to votes coming from trusted sources.\nIdeally, supervised learning techniques could be exploited to assign a reliability score to sources after hand-crafted labeling of the provided values; unfortunately, this is not feasible since the number of needed labeled examples should","-28.933966355434677"],["while many value privacy, the affordances of data sharing are also quite valuable, although they may contradict one's conception of privacy. Attitudes against data sharing may be based in a perceived loss of control over data and a fear of the exploitation of personal data. However, it is possible to extract the value of data without compromising privacy.\nSome scholars such as Jonathan H. King and Neil M. Richards are redefining the traditional meaning of privacy, and others to question whether or not privacy still exists. In a 2014 article for the Wake Forest Law Review, King and Richard argue that","-28.885567586861725"],["peer review process, increases the quality of metadata and thus reusability of the shared data.\nThus data papers represent the scholarly communication approach to data sharing.\nDespite their potentiality, data papers are not the ultimate and complete solution for all the data sharing and reuse issues and, in some cases, they are considered to induce false expectations in the research community. Data journals Data papers are supported by a rich array of journals, some of which are \"pure\", i.e. they are dedicated to publish data papers only, while others – the majority – are \"mixed\", i.e. they publish a number of articles","-28.880073994871054"],["years. Information Technology, with Intranets and the Internet, has improved our ability to find such data. If secondary data doesn't solve the problem then original data (primary data) is sought. It is useful to think of different primary methods in these terms: we can ask people what they are doing; we can watch them or detect what they have done by counting or we can manipulate some variables to discover the effect. This creates three categories: questioning; observation and experimentation.\nPrimary data collection techniques can be subdivided into: interviewer-administered or respondent-administered; direct or indirect; personal or impersonal. Processing data, analysis and","-28.81902635811275"],["does not necessarily have a closer claim on objective truth\". Recent developments in BI domain, such as pro-active reporting especially target improvements in usability of big data, through automated filtering of non-useful data and correlations. Big structures are full of spurious correlations either because of non-causal coincidences (law of truly large numbers), solely nature of big randomness (Ramsey theory) or existence of non included factors so the hope, of early experimenters to make large databases of numbers \"speak for themselves\" and revolutionize scientific method, is questioned.\nBig data analysis is often shallow compared to analysis of smaller data sets. In many","-28.710253054785426"],["monetary cost. Still according to those three researchers, the data analysis is becoming increasingly efficient, that is why there are more and more concerns about the progress of collecting data. Regulations are appearing, such as the EU data protection directive or the US children’s online privacy protection act, but the industry is always evolving, so that it seems important to continue keeping an eye on the economics of privacy. Privacy and Information Breaches Methods can be purposely crafted to obtain one's personal information illegally. These directed attacks are commonly referred to as hacking, though that term refers to the general","-28.688988345507823"],["the data. Tables are helpful to a user who might look up specific numbers, while charts (e.g., bar charts or line charts) may help explain the quantitative messages contained in the data. Barriers to effective analysis Barriers to effective analysis may exist among the analysts performing the data analysis or among the audience. Distinguishing fact from opinion, cognitive biases, and innumeracy are all challenges to sound data analysis. Confusing fact and opinion Effective analysis requires obtaining relevant facts to answer questions, support a conclusion or formal opinion, or test hypotheses. Facts by definition are irrefutable, meaning that any person involved","-28.659757783407258"],["ability to handle noisy data but lose data information by having a binary representation of the genes. Also, artificial neural networks omit using a hidden layer so that they can be interpreted, losing the ability to model higher order correlations in the data. Using a model that is not constrained to be interpretable, a more accurate model can be produced. Being able to predict gene expressions more accurately provides a way to explore how drugs affect a system of genes as well as for finding which genes are interrelated in a process. This has been encouraged by the DREAM competition","-28.630201727966778"],["new data ecosystem.\"\nAnalysis of data sets can find new correlations to \"spot business trends, prevent diseases, combat crime and so on.\" Scientists, business executives, practitioners of medicine, advertising and governments alike regularly meet difficulties with large data-sets in areas including Internet searches, fintech, urban informatics, and business informatics. Scientists encounter limitations in e-Science work, including meteorology, genomics, connectomics, complex physics simulations, biology and environmental research.\nData sets grow rapidly, in part because they are increasingly gathered by cheap and numerous information-sensing Internet of things devices such as mobile devices, aerial (remote sensing), software logs, cameras, microphones, radio-frequency identification (RFID) readers","-28.465073768093134"],["large data sets to uncover hidden patterns, unknown correlations, market trends, customer preferences and other useful business information. They apply machine learning algorithms etc. to the data which transforms the data. Due to the humongous size of the data, there could be unknown features in the data, possibly even outliers. It is pretty difficult for a data scientist to actually debug an unexpected result.\nThe massive scale and unstructured nature of data, the complexity of these analytics pipelines, and long runtimes pose significant manageability and debugging challenges. Even a single error in these analytics can be extremely difficult to identify and","-28.457341409826768"],["widespread high-resolution data are needed before more confident conclusions can be reached\". They said that \"the uncertainties were the point of the article\", and that it was \"hard to imagine how much more explicit\" they could have been about the uncertainties surrounding their work. They suggested that \"poor communication by others\" had led to the \"subsequent confusion\".\nAt the Wegman Report hearings in July 2006, Gerald North testified that, \"Dr. Wegman's criticisms of the statistical methodology in the papers by Mann et al. were consistent with our findings,\" referring to the NRC report that found that the methodology did not have","-28.416629324718087"],["of study participants with their input into the study.\nMany study participants have experienced problems when their privacy was not upheld after participating in research. Sometimes privacy is not kept because of insufficient study protection, but also sometimes it is because of unanticipated problems with the study design which inadvertently compromise privacy. The privacy of research participants is typically protected by the research organizer, but the institutional review board is a designated overseer which monitors the organizer to provide protection to study participants. Information privacy Researchers publish data that they get from participants. To preserve participants' privacy, the data goes through","-28.380716755714275"],["a very political issue, interested parties could try to corrupt the data by, say, entering temperature figures that are too high or too low. Because three sets of records for each data point will be entered, any set from a digitiser showing a marked deviation from the other records should be easily checkable and eliminated. Large-scale fraud is unlikely because the data is entered one log page at a time, and so is immune to a spam type of attack. Collaborative projects such as Linux and Wikipedia have for the most part been able to rely on the transparent honesty","-28.296893584836653"],["such individual information. Some agencies do this by intentionally introducing small statistical errors to prevent the identification of individuals in marginal populations; others swap variables for similar respondents. Whatever is done to reduce the privacy risk, new improved electronic analysis of data can threaten to reveal sensitive individual information. This is known as statistical disclosure control.\nAnother possibility is to present survey results by means of statistical models in the form of a multivariate distribution mixture. The statistical information in the form of conditional distributions (histograms) can be derived interactively from the estimated mixture model without any further access to the","-28.273493815711845"],["Research Data Repositories, and Psychfiledrawer.org. Sites like Open Science Framework offer badges for using open science practices in an effort to incentivize scientists. However, there has been concern that those who are most likely to provide their data and code for analyses are the researchers that are likely the most sophisticated. John Ioannidis at Stanford University suggested that \"the paradox may arise that the most meticulous and sophisticated and method-savvy and careful researchers may become more susceptible to criticism and reputation attacks by reanalyzers who hunt for errors, no matter how negligible these errors are\". Funding for replication studies In","-28.25965457952043"],["often problematic to accurately describe the process that has been followed in searching and discarding data. In other words, one wants to keep all data (regardless of whether they tend to support or refute the hypothesis) from \"good tests\", but it is sometimes difficult to figure out what a \"good test\" is. It is a particular problem in statistical modelling, where many different models are rejected by trial and error before publishing a result (see also overfitting, publication bias).\nThe error is particularly prevalent in data mining and machine learning. It also commonly occurs in academic publishing where only reports of","-28.257854491108446"],["increasing chances of deviant behavior and creating punishments that are not equitable to their actions. Additionally, monitoring can cause resistance and backlash because it insinuates an employer’s suspicion and lack of trust. Data mining and profiling Data mining is the application of statistical techniques and programmatic algorithms to discover previously unnoticed relationships within the data. Data profiling in this context is the process of assembling information about a particular individual or group in order to generate a profile — that is, a picture of their patterns and behavior. Data profiling can be an extremely powerful tool for psychological and social network","-28.243579554252847"],["that can't easily share information. Therefore, knowledge workers within large organizations often don't have access to the information they need to best do their jobs. When they do have access to the data, the data quality may be poor. By setting up a data governance practice or Corporate Data Authority, these problems can be mitigated.\nThe structure of a data governance initiative will vary not only with the size of the organization, but with the desired objectives or the 'focus areas' of the effort. Implementation Implementation of a Data Governance initiative may vary in scope as well as origin. Sometimes,","-28.176685093854758"],["such data for reputational reasons, or because it represents a heightened liability and security risk. It may also be the case that, at least in relation to the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation, such data falls under the 'special category' provisions (Article 9), and therefore comes with more restrictions on potential collection and processing.\nSome practitioners have tried to estimate and impute these missing sensitive categorisations in order to allow bias mitigation, for example building systems to infer ethnicity from names, however this can introduce other forms of bias if not undertaken with care. Machine learning researchers have drawn upon","-28.156384380636155"],["its importance. Failure to fully analyze the data occurs when researchers do not use the data to support their analysis beyond simply describing or paraphrasing the content of the data. Researchers conducting thematic analysis should attempt to go beyond surface meanings of the data to make sense of the data and tell an accurate story of what the data means. Phase 6: Producing the report After final themes have been reviewed, researchers begin the process of writing the final report. While writing the final report, researchers should decide on themes that make meaningful contributions to answering research questions which should","-28.140456014745723"],["take, hastily comparing it with material received the previous day. They then produced in 'assembly line fashion' items which may have reflected perceptive intuition but which [did not] accrue from a systematic consideration of an accumulated body of integrated evidence.\nWriters on analysis have suggested reasons why analysts come to incorrect conclusions, by falling into cognitive traps for intelligence analysis. Without falling into the trap of avoiding decisions by wanting more information, analysts also need to recognize that they always can learn more about the opponent. Setting goals for an intelligence analysis Stating the objective from the consumer's standpoint is an","-28.03266341537892"],["is a challenge. Contrived or artificial environment also may influence the interactions and responses, thus leading to biased results. Ethical issues may arise regarding confidentiality aspect. Measurement validity may be low. Using computers in qualitative data analysis There are many computer programs are available to help in analyzing qualitative data. The capacity of computers to effectively sort, store and retrieve information makes their use in qualitative data analysis appealing. However, it is important to notice that computers can only aid in some parts of analysis; computer software do not code data or replace the conceptual processes. It cannot analyse qualitative","-27.958525561745773"],["small amount of decision-consistent and decision-inconsistent information. The study showed that in situations such as this, an individual becomes more doubtful of their initial decision due to the unavailability of resources. They begin to think that there is not enough data or evidence in this particular field in which they are told to make a decision about. Because of this, the subject becomes more critical of their initial thought process and focuses on both decision-consistent and inconsistent sources, thus decreasing his level of selective exposure. For the group who had plentiful pieces of information, this factor made them confident in","-27.95112991271162"],["statistical inference based on aggregated data can lead researchers to erroneous conclusions, suggesting relationships that in fact do not exist or obscuring relationships that do in fact exist. This issue is known as the modifiable areal unit problem. For example, New York public health officials worried that cancer clusters and causes would be misidentified after they were forced to post maps showing cancer cases by ZIP code on the internet. Their assertion was that ZIP codes were designed for a purpose unrelated to public health issues, and so use of these arbitrary boundaries might lead to inappropriate groupings","-27.93009349674321"],["data starts either with an OFFICIAL OR SECRET classification depending on the nature of threat and its acceptability to the business, and thereafter moves up or down accordingly based on consequence of compromise.\nOFFICIAL data may therefore rise to TOP SECRET, but cannot be SECRET unless the risk previously accepted for a capable attacker is revised.\nSECRET data may be reduced to OFFICIAL where no serious consequences can be identified from a potential breach, or SECRET can also rise to TOP SECRET if serious consequences could arise. \nImpact levels also consider integrity and availability, but CESG's system of Business Impact Levels (BIL)","-27.92591539580826"],["easy to remember. Data quality In many investigations the data that can be found might have omissions or is misleading. As one layer of data-driven journalism a critical examination of the data quality is important. In other cases the data might not be public or is not in the right format for further analysis, e.g. is only available in a PDF. Here the process of data-driven journalism can turn into stories about data quality or refusals to provide the data by institutions. As the practice as a whole is in early development steps, examinations of data sources, data sets, data","-27.916636521287728"],["in genetic studies, modern methods for data collection in field and laboratory should be considered, as high-throughput platforms for phenotyping and genotyping. These tools allow bigger experiments, while turn possible evaluate many plots in lower time than a human-based only method for data collection.\nFinally, all data collected of interest must be stored in an organized data frame for further analysis. Power and statistical error When testing a hypothesis, there are two types of statistic errors possible: Type I error and Type II error. The type I error or false positive is the incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis and","-27.916533772695402"],["a personal advantage the data is analyzed for supporting evidence. Following that the hypothesis is refined or discarded.\nThe combination of different databases, in particular data from different systems or sources is highly effective. These data sources are either unknown to the perpetrator or such that they can not be manipulated by the perpetrator afterwards.\nData Visualization is often used to display the results.","-27.899177903025702"],["is under review too and in most practical contexts have now fallen into disuse. \nIt is therefore no longer strictly the case that the greater the consequences if the data confidentiality were to be compromised, the higher the classification, since data with a high impact (including material which could result in threat to life) may still be classified as OFFICIAL if the relevant business owner believes it is not necessary to protect this from an attacker who has the capabilities of a Foreign Intelligence Service or Serious and Organised Crime.\nConversely some data with much lower consequences (for example ongoing Police","-27.893868615941756"],["of any particular data for any given hypothesis is decided by human beliefs and assumptions about what kinds of data can support what kinds of hypotheses. Moreover, even when the relevance of evidence is decided, there remains a logical gap between evidence and full justification of interesting scientific theories (the traditional philosophical problem of underdetermination of theories). This gap, too, must be bridged by beliefs and assumptions about legitimate reasoning in order for evidence to help us decide which hypotheses to accept as true.\nFortunately, the use of diverse perspectives to criticize hypotheses can turn some of those hypotheses into scientific","-27.87088475536075"],["data to determine these functions, include machine learning and analytics algorithms (including artificial neural networks), as well as more traditional regression analysis. Results from operations research and many other quantitative approaches have a similar role to play.\nWhen data is not available (or is too noisy, uncertain, or incomplete), these dependency links can take on the form of rules as might be found in an expert system or rule-based system, and so can be obtained through knowledge engineering.\nIn this way, a decision model represents a mechanism for combining multiple relationships, as well as symbolic and subsymbolic reasoning, into a complete solution","-27.86041255258715"],["of particular aspects of the data. Many times the particular aspects come about in the form of human information (i.e. name, home address, IP address, telephone number, social security number, credit card number, etc.). Usefulness Synthetic data are generated to meet specific needs or certain conditions that may not be found in the original, real data. This can be useful when designing any type of system because the synthetic data are used as a simulation or as a theoretical value, situation, etc. This allows us to take into account unexpected results and have a basic solution or remedy,","-27.833003177365754"],["A common approach for data sharing that includes confidential material is through de-identification or anonymization. There are numerous techniques for the de-identification of data including simply removing specific variables or by using statistical techniques such as top-coding, collapsing or combining, sampling, swapping, or disturbing the data. For qualitative data, redaction can be used to hide data elements that cannot be made public. However, it is important that future research requirements be taken into consideration when developing a de-identification or anonymization plan. Peer review and quality control A key element of the scholarly communication process is ensuring that research meets a","-27.831045522018485"],["manage student data within the regulatory structure that controls data management. Further than this, student information is then brought to light which can threaten them as well. As vast amounts of data continues to be actively collected, potential breaching through hacking, physical theft, and by vendors becomes more probable.\nPreventative Measures\nThose who study the implications of data breaches emphasize that data should be kept to a minimum and that steps should be taken in order to see who can be trusted to regulate this information in order to keep data private and not accessible to all employees. They also talk about","-27.782420970434032"],["participants as well as investigators wanting to be more responsive to their participants and restrain some of their results. Ultimately this causes the researcher's study to be invalid. Many consider member checking to be the best method of establishing credibility, but one of the main drawbacks is the way in which the researcher views the research as being intended to generalize the findings. This may clash with the participant’s view that their account is specific and solely their experience. Due to the different views regarding interpretation of data, member checks may be better suited as being identified as","-27.766622948278382"],["data mining. In data dredging, large compilations of data are examined in order to find a correlation, without any pre-defined choice of a hypothesis to be tested. Since the required confidence interval to establish a relationship between two parameters is usually chosen to be 95% (meaning that there is a 95% chance that the relationship observed is not due to random chance), there is a thus a 5% chance of finding a correlation between any two sets of completely random variables. Given that data dredging efforts typically examine large datasets with many variables, and hence even larger numbers of","-27.7599793462432"],["i.e., the amount of error that would normally be in such measurements does not appear, a conclusion can be drawn that the data may have been forged. Error analysis alone is typically not sufficient to prove that data have been falsified or fabricated, but it may provide the supporting evidence necessary to confirm suspicions of misconduct. Data sharing Kirby Lee and Lisa Bero suggest, \"Although reviewing raw data can be difficult, time-consuming and expensive, having such a policy would hold authors more accountable for the accuracy of their data and potentially reduce scientific fraud or misconduct.\" Notable individual cases Andrew","-27.73829903011574"],["data information, then we have to evaluate the system development and measure the system's ability to correctly predict the categories of new information. This step is simplified by separating the training data in a new series called \"test data\" that we will use to measure the error rate. As a general rule it is important to distinguish between types of errors (false positives and false negatives). For example, in the case on an aggregator of content for children, it doesn't have the same gravity to allow the passage of information not suitable for them, that shows violence or pornography, than","-27.73389552718436"],["copy of your own data. Others should be restricted in their access to what is yours. Knowing what data others keep is a near impossible task. The simpler approach would be to cloak yourself in nonsense. To ensure that corporations or institutions do not have a copy of your data it is possible to send noise to confuse the data that they have. For example, a robot could randomly search terms that you would not be inclined to usually search for making that data obtained by the search engine useless through confusion (see: Track Me Not by New York University).\nOwnership","-27.731938955752412"],["Scientific data about how people use the information tools available to them today is still incomplete because experimental research methodologies haven’t been able to keep up with the rapid pace of change. Many challenges, such as contextualized search, personal information management, information integration, and task support, still need to be addressed.","-27.65137435972474"],["it is possible to alter data contained in a computer is plainly insufficient to establish untrustworthiness\" (US v. Bonallo, 858 F. 2d 1427 - 1988 - Court of Appeals, 9th).\nNevertheless, the \"more comprehensive\" foundation required by Scholle remains good practice. The American Law Reports lists a number of ways to establish the comprehensive foundation. It suggests that the proponent demonstrate \"the reliability of the computer equipment\", \"the manner in which the basic data was initially entered\", \"the measures taken to ensure the accuracy of the data as entered\", \"the method of storing the data and the precautions taken to prevent","-27.62232692084217"],["become a data breach if the staff member retains access to the data after termination of the trust relationship. In distributed systems, this can also occur with a breakdown in a web of trust. Data quality is one way of reducing the risk of a data breach, partly because it allows the owner of the data to rate data according to importance and give better protection to more important data.\nMost such incidents publicized in the media involve private information on individuals, e.g. social security numbers. Loss of corporate information such as trade secrets, sensitive corporate information, and details of","-27.621298263853532"],["argues, has always been distinguished by its ability to the tell small, personal, and nuanced narratives that data doesn't reflect.\nIn terms of method, there is a disagreement in whether it is possible to conduct research exclusively online or if research will only be complete when the subjects are studied holistically, both online and offline. Tom Boellstorff, who conducted a three-year research as an avatar in the virtual world Second Life, defends the first approach, stating that it is not just possible but necessary to engage with subjects “in their own terms”. Others, such as Daniel Miller, have argued that an","-27.619777649451862"],[" One such scenario is for datasets that are simply too large for a human to effectively analyze, or where analysis of them would be cost prohibitive relative to the value of information they contain. Another scenario is when the chief value of a dataset is the extent to which it contains \"red flags\" (e.g., searching for reports of certain adverse events within a lengthy journal dataset from patients in a clinical trial) or \"green flags\" (e.g., searching for mentions of your brand in positive reviews of marketplace products). Many researchers would consider these procedures on their data sets","-27.537418897376483"],["data, both past and present, has the potential to inform future research in many study areas. Much of this data has become inaccessible due to obsolete software and file formats. The resulting impossibility of reviewing data from older research disrupts the overall scientific research project. Approach Brown Dog describes itself as the \"super mutt\" of software (thus the name \"Brown Dog\"), serving as a low-level data infrastructure to interface digital data content across the internet. Its approach is to use every possible source of automated help (i.e., software) in existence in a robust and provenance-preserving manner to create a service","-27.447817744690838"],["then it might be possible to determine the suppressed value by subtracting the other sales from that total. But there might also be combinations of additions and subtractions that might cause the private information to be revealed. The number of combinations that needed to be checked increases exponentially with the number of publications, and it is potentially unbounded if data users are able to make queries of the statistical database using an interactive query system.\nIn 1977 Tore Dalenius formalized the mathematics of cell suppression.\nIn 1979, Dorothy Denning, Peter J. Denning and Mayer D. Schwartz formalized the concept of a","-27.446783239676734"],["information that was collected never being utilized because it does not meet the exact needs for the collection requirement. Thus important data may be cast aside and never used even though it may be relevant again at a later date. Analysis And Production Analysts are the voice of the Intelligence Community. Therefore, the analysis that they perform is expected to be accurate on a regular basis. Failure in analysis can be approached from two points of view: the tactical/operational point of view and the analysts point of view. Tactical/Operational A problem occurs when looking at current issues versus long-term issues.","-27.406566430292514"],["(FIFO).\nDecision-makers increasingly face computer-generated information and analyses that could be collected and analyzed in no other way. Precisely for that reason, going behind that output is out of the question, even if one has good cause to be suspicious. In short, the computer analysis becomes a credible references point although based on poor data. Uses The term can also be used as an explanation for the poor quality of a digitized audio or video file. Although digitizing can be the first step in cleaning up a signal, it does not, by itself, improve the quality. Defects in the original","-27.32279517056304"],["is. This surplus of data is too much for people to sort through and analyze, thus creating a need for algorithms. Solutions Although data exhaust is not a new concept, it plays a much larger role in the contemporary world. The increase of technology has caused for and increase in data exhaust. The collection and distribution of this data is not illegal, but there are steps that must be taken to ensure that the use of this data is ethical. In order to keep the privacy of users safe, when the information is sold it can be kept anonymous. ","-27.28258003469091"],["attempt to detect corruption at many layers and then recover or correct the corruption; this is almost always successful but very rarely the information arriving in the systems memory is corrupted and can cause unpredictable results.\nData corruption during transmission has a variety of causes. Interruption of data transmission causes information loss. Environmental conditions can interfere with data transmission, especially when dealing with wireless transmission methods. Heavy clouds can block satellite transmissions. Wireless networks are susceptible to interference from devices such as microwave ovens.\nHardware and software failure are the two main causes for data loss. Background radiation, head crashes, and","-27.267174017099023"],["if the results prove to be unsatisfactory. Synthetic data are often generated to represent the authentic data and allows a baseline to be set. Another use of synthetic data is to protect privacy and confidentiality of authentic data. As stated previously, synthetic data is used in testing and creating many different types of systems; below is a quote from the abstract of an article that describes a software that generates synthetic data for testing fraud detection systems that further explains its use and importance.\n\"This enables us to create realistic behavior profiles for users and attackers. The data is used to","-27.25839334235934"],["effectiveness of this data exchange depends largely on the policies that clients use to determine to whom to send data. Clients may prefer to send data to peers that send data back to them (a \"tit for tat\" exchange scheme), which encourages fair trading. But strict policies often result in suboptimal situations, such as when newly joined peers are unable to receive any data because they don't have any pieces yet to trade themselves or when two peers with a good connection between them do not exchange data simply because neither of them takes the initiative. To counter these effects,","-27.2277115836514"],["a plethora of internet-connected health devices have triggered a data deluge that will reach the exabyte range in the near future. Data Ethics is of increasing relevance as the quantity of data increases because of the scale of the impact.\nBig data ethics is different from information ethics because the focus of information ethics is more concerned with issues of intellectual property and concerns relating to librarians, archivists, and information professionals, while big data ethics is more concerned with collectors and disseminators of structured or unstructured data such as data brokers, governments, and large corporations. Principles Data Ethics is concerned with","-27.145926354714902"],["data, but only do so by chance. For example, suppose we are considering a collection of 10,000 items and looking for rules containing two items in the left-hand-side and 1 item in the right-hand-side. There are approximately 1,000,000,000,000 such rules. If we apply a statistical test for independence with a significance level of 0.05 it means there is only a 5% chance of accepting a rule if there is no association. If we assume there are no associations, we should nonetheless expect to find 50,000,000,000 rules. Statistically sound association discovery controls this risk, in most cases reducing the risk of","-27.133299534812977"],["not been discovered without this method.\nOne potential use of a clinical data repository would be for clinical trials. This would allow for researchers to have all the information from a study in one place as well as let other researchers benefit from the data to further innovation. They would also be advantageous since they are digital and real-time. This would be easier to log data and keep it accurate since it would be digital rather than in paper form.\nThe clinical data repository is not without its weaknesses, however. Since they usually don't integrate with other non-clinical sources, following patient treatment","-27.112510719904094"],["individual characteristics and merits.\nAnother important concern is that the companies collecting the data for a specific purpose might use the data for totally different purposes, and this essentially violates the user’s interests.\nThe growing trend of selling personal data as a commodity encourages website owners to trade personal data obtained from their site. This trend has increased the amount of data being captured and traded increasing the likeliness of one’s privacy being invaded. The companies which buy the data are obliged make it anonymous and these companies are considered authors of any specific release of mining patterns. They are legally responsible","-27.099320969271503"],["data by virtue of its high entropy and an attacker needs to only test for matching keys in areas of memory or storage that have high entropy.\nThe contrast between the low entropy of most data and the high entropy of key data is sufficient as to be apparent by visual inspection. The image to the right shows an example of this. Analytical key finding While statistical key finding can be effective for reducing the amount of memory that needs to be searched, it still requires high-entropy areas to be tested to check if they contain the correct key material. In","-27.09472596642445"],["being examined in the study. Also referred to as random response, this is an area of concern in research studies and data collection due to the possible impacts that error data could have on the significance conclusion to be drawn later. Attention and interest are both factors that have a possible influence on the validity of an individual's responses. Careless data can lead to lower reliability which will ultimately decrease the intensity of correlation, if one exists. A method known as data screening is recommended as a means of discerning between response data that is valid and that which","-27.054951654019533"],["confidentiality could be reinforced to allow respondents to give more truthful responses. Disadvantages Self-report studies have many advantages, but they also suffer from specific disadvantages due to the way that subjects generally behave. Self-reported answers may be exaggerated; respondents may be too embarrassed to reveal private details; various biases may affect the results, like social desirability bias. There are also cases when respondents guess the hypothesis of the study and provide biased responses that 1) confirm the researcher's conjecture; 2) make them look good; or, 3) make them appear more distressed to receive promised services.\nSubjects may also forget pertinent details.","-27.035514267488907"],["Uncertainty In the media Uncertainty in science, and science in general, may be interpreted differently in the public sphere than in the scientific community. This is due in part to the diversity of the public audience, and the tendency for scientists to misunderstand lay audiences and therefore not communicate ideas clearly and effectively. One example is explained by the information deficit model. Also, in the public realm, there are often many scientific voices giving input on a single topic. For example, depending on how an issue is reported in the public sphere, discrepancies between outcomes of multiple scientific studies","-27.005736387600336"],["data of groups is still organised around the individual. Many of the processes that are being made more efficient concern individuals and group dynamics. However, data is not necessarily organised around the individual, rather, data is being controlled by the owner of the sensors.\nIn China, the government largely owns data. In one Chinese province data was used to generate a social index score per person based on online and offline individual behaviour, such as jay walking and amount of toilet paper used in a public lavatory. The social index determines access to particular public services. Consent If an individual","-26.987546039250446"],["the data in context of the literature, and drawing conclusions) should be each undertaken once (or at most a small number of times) in a research study. In qualitative research however, all of the four stages above may be undertaken repeatedly until one or more specific stopping conditions are met, reflecting a nonstatic attitude to the planning and design of research activities. An example of this dynamicism might be when the qualitative researcher unexpectedly changes their research focus or design midway through a research study, based on their 1st interim data analysis, and then makes further unplanned changes again based","-26.966117509462492"],["predictions based on trends. Real-time data gives value because you can act instantaneously.\nHow much are tech services such as a search engine, a communications channel and a digital map actually worth, for example in dollars? The difference in value between the services facilitated by tech companies and the equity value of these tech companies is the difference in the exchange rate offered to the citizen and the 'market rate' of the value of their data. Scientifically there are many holes to be picked in this rudimentary calculation: the financial figures of tax evading companies are unreliable, would revenue or profit","-26.962449640002205"],["enormous amount of information that can be generated. A deficiency in any of these areas can cause an organization to miss signs of unauthorized activity, intrusion, and loss of data, which creates additional risk.","-26.952680393282208"],["Veritas or Lucidworks. Furthermore, many organisations do not realise the value of dark data right now, for example in healthcare and education organisations deal with large amounts of data that could create a significant \"potential to service students and patients in the manner in which the consumer and financial services pursue their target population\".","-26.890711276768343"],["by freely harvested personal data?\nWhile initially it is realistic to assume that data would be traded for money, it is possible to imagine a future where data would be traded for data. The ‘I’ll show you yours if you show my mine’ scenario could replace money altogether. Importantly, this is a future scenario and the first step is to focus on exchanging personal data for existing monetary currency. Openness The idea of open data is centred around the argument that data should be freely available and should not have restrictions that would prohibit its use, such as copyright laws. Many","-26.868101390093216"],["disclosed. Synthetic data holds no personal information and cannot be traced back to any individual; therefore, the use of synthetic data reduces confidentiality and privacy issues.","-26.849148751025496"],["is important to establish the authenticity of evidence.\nAttorneys have argued that because digital evidence can theoretically be altered it undermines the reliability of the evidence. US judges are beginning to reject this theory, in the case US v. Bonallo the court ruled that \"the fact that it is possible to alter data contained in a computer is plainly insufficient to establish untrustworthiness.\" In the United Kingdom guidelines such as those issued by ACPO are followed to help document the authenticity and integrity of evidence.\nDigital investigators, particularly in criminal investigations, have to ensure that conclusions are based upon factual evidence and","-26.818459233283647"],["and can help to get better insights into the processes behind the data. Although the traditional data analysis techniques can indirectly lead us to knowledge, it is still created by human analysts.\nTo go beyond, a data analysis system has to be equipped with a substantial amount of background knowledge, and be able to perform reasoning tasks involving that knowledge and the data provided. In effort to meet this goal, researchers have turned to ideas from the machine learning field. This is a natural source of ideas, since the machine learning task can be described as turning background knowledge and examples","-26.793847874050698"],["a large number of participants to generate any useful and reliable data. For example, researchers testing the effectiveness of a treatment for severe depression might need two groups of twenty patients for a control and a test group. If they wanted to add another treatment to the research, they would need another group of twenty patients. The potential scale of these experiments can make between-group designs impractical due to limited resources, subjects and space.\nAnother major concern for between-group designs is bias. Assignment bias, observer-expectancy and subject-expectancy biases are common causes for skewed data results in between-group experiments, which can lead","-26.78065623843859"],["big data projects, there is no large data analysis happening, but the challenge is the extract, transform, load part of data preprocessing.\nBig data is a buzzword and a \"vague term\", but at the same time an \"obsession\" with entrepreneurs, consultants, scientists and the media. Big data showcases such as Google Flu Trends failed to deliver good predictions in recent years, overstating the flu outbreaks by a factor of two. Similarly, Academy awards and election predictions solely based on Twitter were more often off than on target.\nBig data often poses the same challenges as small data; adding more data does not","-26.780192141755833"],["data.\" Statistical flaws in his work have been proposed by others in the parapsychological community and within the general scientific community. The physicist Robert L. Park said of PEAR, \"It’s been an embarrassment to science, and I think an embarrassment for Princeton\". Psychokinesis on random number generators The advent of powerful and inexpensive electronic and computer technologies has allowed the development of fully automated experiments studying possible interactions between mind and matter. In the most common experiment of this type, a random number generator (RNG), based on electronic or radioactive noise, produces a data stream that is recorded and analyzed","-26.771153919042263"],["caveat for OFFICIAL data where it is particularly important to enforce need to know rules. OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE documents should be marked, but they are not necessarily tracked. SECRET \"Very sensitive information\", which might (for example) seriously harm national defence or crime investigations. Data should only be marked as SECRET if the Senior Information Risk Owner (which is a board level position in an organisation) agrees that it is high-impact and that the data must be protected against very capable attackers. Although some specialist technology might be used to protect the data, there is still strong emphasis on reuse of commercial security","-26.768863938588765"],[" Canadian and US courts have been more cautious in permitting neuroimaging data as legal evidence. One of the reasons legal systems have been slow to adopt neuroimaging data as an accepted form of evidence is the possible error and misinterpretations that could result from such a new technology; courts in the US typically follow the Daubert standard set for evidence evaluation by the Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Supreme Court case, which established that the validity of scientific evidence must be determined by the trial judge. The Daubert standard serves as a safeguard for the reliability","-26.750366951033357"],["disclosure risks from both the researcher and the checker. It encourages the researcher to produce safe results in the first place. However, this also means that the outcome may be inconsistent and uncertain. It requires extensive training and a high understanding of statistics and data analysis.\nThe UK Data Service employs a principles-based approach to statistical disclosure control. Critiques Many contemporary statistical disclosure control techniques, such as generalization and cell suppression, have been shown to be vulnerable to attack by a hypothetical data intruder. For example, Cox showed in 2009 that Complementary cell suppression typically leads to \"over-protected\" solutions because of","-26.747894976961106"],["of a system that is being examined; therefore the results need to be carefully considered.\nAs the complexity of real systems increases models need to be more and more complex to represent the reality most accurately. In result, they may become increasingly difficult to understand and to be operated. Their complex nature can cause problems with using and managing results.\nAs models constitute a simpler version of reality, certain factors can be omitted, and in consequence can lead to mistakes. Such mistakes are not easy to be found and corrected. Social network analysis Social network analysis (also sometimes called network theory) has","-26.711812469163306"],["to allow for them to be implemented in diverse research projects. One advantage of this approach is that data is available for analysis at a single site, using a uniform schema. Some disadvantages are that the datasets are often huge and difficult to keep up to date. Another problem with this method is that it is costly to compile such a warehouse.\nStandardized formats for different types of data (ex: protein data) are now emerging due to the influence of groups like the Proteomics Standards Initiative (PSI). Some data warehousing projects even require the submission of data in one of these","-26.709735889606236"],["of trying to handle a vast amount of logs on an account as a result of too many user actions. Harmful user actions can easily be overlooked with thousands of user actions being compiled every day. Overall risk According to the Verizon Data Breach Incident Report, “The first step in protecting your data is in knowing where it is and who has access to it.” In today’s IT environment, “there is a lack of oversight and control over how and who among employees has access to confidential, sensitive information.” This apparent gap is one of many factors","-26.697852538743426"],["errors will always occur if the accuracy of initial retrieval and location of data is poorly self-regulated.\nSocial priming\nSteering cognition provides an explanation of how the mind is non-consciously influenced by the environmental cues, or primes, around it. Steering cognition studies have produced data of attentional bias and blindness best explained by environmental priming.","-26.67600415938182"],["pledge of confidentiality for the purpose of producing statistics that, by their production, do not compromise the privacy of those individuals who provided the data.)\nThe intuition for the 2006 definition of ε-differential privacy is that a person's privacy cannot be compromised by a statistical release if their data are not in the database. Therefore with differential privacy, the goal is to give each individual roughly the same privacy that would result from having their data removed. That is, the statistical functions run on the database should not overly depend on the data of any one individual.\nOf course, how much any","-26.664831661208154"],["data fed to a machine additionally reflects \"human decisionmaking processes\" as data is being selected.\nFinally, he noted that machines might also transfer good information with unintended consequences if users are unclear about how to interpret the results. Weizenbaum warned against trusting decisions made by computer programs that a user doesn't understand, comparing such faith to a tourist who can find his way to a hotel room exclusively by turning left or right on a coin toss. Crucially, the tourist has no basis of understanding how or why he arrived at his destination, and a successful arrival does not mean the","-26.633462099181997"],["the recording or the entity owning the sensor controls what happens to that data by default. For example, banks control banking data, researchers control research data, and hospitals control health record data. Due to historical reasons the current scenario is such that research institutions hold data about a fragment of data describing part of an individual. Health research data in Europe exist in a fragmented manner controlled by different institutions. Data categories often describe more about who controls that data and where it is stored rather than what the data is describing or the application it could be applied to.","-26.59498391946545"],["raises some challenges. Firstly with regard to privacy: can participants' data and identity truly be anonymised and sensitive data be kept safe and confidential? Individuals, in general, are not aware of how their personal information is used, for what purpose and which parties have a copy. They are not usually given the opportunity to declare their specific consents and privacy-related personal data management preferences. Secondly, with regard to consent: informed consent requires a person to know in advance what they are agreeing to and what the likely risks and benefits of agreeing will be. But with these large, linked data","-26.591412588686126"],["prefer information that supports their personal position. People generate and evaluate evidence in arguments that are biased towards their own beliefs and opinions. Heightened confidence levels decrease preference for information that supports individuals' personal beliefs.\nAnother experiment gave participants a complex rule-discovery task that involved moving objects simulated by a computer. Objects on the computer screen followed specific laws, which the participants had to figure out. So, participants could \"fire\" objects across the screen to test their hypotheses. Despite making many attempts over a ten-hour session, none of the participants figured out the rules of the system. They typically attempted to","-26.583955794872054"],["discussed during the day? Is it necessary to look at all the tweets to determine the sentiment on each of the topics? In manufacturing different types of sensory data such as acoustics, vibration, pressure, current, voltage and controller data are available at short time intervals. To predict downtime it may not be necessary to look at all the data but a sample may be sufficient. Big Data can be broken down by various data point categories such as demographic, psychographic, behavioral, and transactional data. With large sets of data points, marketers are able to create and utilize more","-26.572690654487815"],["of agreement between judgments of data obtained after periodical monitored negotiations in the context of maximum possible disagreement. For this purpose, the definition of data itself, i.e. data elements and data structures in a systems context, was widened to conceive data as information and knowledge.\nThis part of Ivanov's work parallels, and can be seen as a theoretical contribution to groupthink, to the wisdom of crowds and the Wiki-idea itself. It required, however, some reservations for problems of social psychology as implied by the study of popular mind. Its conclusions appear to be relevant also for general data quality, information quality,","-26.530294564448923"],["what is not through an information cascade.\nInformation cascades have strong influence causing individuals to imitate the actions of others, whether or not they are in agreement. For example, when downloading music, people don't decide 100% independently which songs to buy. Often they are influenced by charts depicting which songs are already trending. Since people rely on what those before them do, one can manipulate what becomes popular among the public by manipulating a website's download rankings. Experts paid to predict sales often fail but not because they are bad at their jobs; instead, it is because they cannot control the","-26.524635313442673"],["data. Rob Kitchin identifies both technical and organizational issues of data, as well as some normative and ethical questions. Technical and organization issues concerning data range from the scope of datasets, access to the data, the quality of the data, the integration of the data, the application of analytics and ecological fallacies, as well as the skills and organizational capabilities of the research team. Some of the normative and ethical concerns addressed by Kitchin include surveillance through one's data (dataveillance), the privacy of one's data, the ownership of one's data, the security of one's data, anticipatory or corporate governance, and","-26.513582865478384"],["information without losing their way. Most specifically it combines related data — “anything from pictures, videos and maps to batting averages and financials — into large collections that can then be manipulated, sorted, filtered and examined visually”. In this way, the data itself can help shape and inform the way it is presented. Thus, instead of having to struggle to understand data and then apply it to a problem, Pivot works in unison with a person to come to an optimal solution.\nCurrently information seekers are stuck in the old way of viewing information, limited by browsers to view information only","-26.455835215099796"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"the free sharing of data. Since privacy for research participants is a priority, though, various proposals for protecting participants have been made for different purposes. Replacing the real data with synthetic data allows the researchers to show data which gives a conclusion equivalent to the one drawn by the researchers, but the data may have problems such as being unfit for repurposing for other research. Other strategies include \\\"noise addition\\\" by making random value changes or \\\"data swapping\\\" by exchanging values across entries. Still another approach is to separate the identifiable variables in the data from the rest, aggregate the\",\n \"-31.04115112247473\"\n ],\n [\n \"data aggregated by third parties.\\nThis means it's essential to ensure the data is as 'clean' as possible, before undertaking any data analysis. For example, eliminating activity from bots, staging websites, or incorrect configurations of tools such as Google Analytics.\\nData can be numeric or text-based, nominal or ordinal. Bad or missing values are handled gracefully.\\nData may be geographic, contextual, frequential, demographic, behavioral, customer based, etc. Hypothesis After data collection, forming a hypothesis is the next step. This process forms the foundation of why changes are made. Hypotheses are made based on observation and deduction. It is important that each hypothetical\",\n \"-30.603361157387553\"\n ],\n [\n \"be accurate and should be carefully reviewed by researchers.\\nIt is important for researchers to review responses in order to avoid altering sound data. Participants in a study may have knowledge of incomplete or incorrect information that leads to misinformed responses. Likewise, they may also respond falsely in order to avoid social judgment or societal views on the subject, despite anonymity. Participants’ responses may also stem from myth-based knowledge or delusional thinking (Douglas, 1976). When hypotheses are formed, researchers often have predictions on the outcome; therefore, it is vital that researchers avoid their own biases to data. Avoidance of\",\n \"-30.301379128290137\"\n ],\n [\n \"A study of scientists in training indicated many had already experienced data withholding. This study has given rise to the fear the future generation of scientists will not abide by the established practices. Differing approaches in different fields Requirements for data sharing are more commonly imposed by institutions, funding agencies, and publication venues in the medical and biological sciences than in the physical sciences. Requirements vary widely regarding whether data must be shared at all, with whom the data must be shared, and who must bear the expense of data sharing.\\nFunding agencies such as the NIH and NSF tend to\",\n \"-30.113074635308294\"\n ],\n [\n \"influences. Rather, data are shaped by the vision or goals of a research team, and during the data collection process, certain things are quantified, stored, sorted and even discarded by the research team. A critical approach is thus necessary in order to understand and reveal the intent behind the information being presented. Moreover, data alone cannot speak for itself; in order to possess any concrete meaning, data must be accompanied by theoretical insight or alternative quantitative or qualitative research measures. Dalton and Thatcher argue that if one were to only think of data in terms of its exploitative power, there\",\n \"-29.83899047851446\"\n ],\n [\n \"keep all study data for later examination even after publication. Both scientific and academic censure can result from a failure to keep primary data; the case of Ranjit Chandra of Memorial University of Newfoundland provides an example of this. Many scientific journals also require that authors provide information to allow readers to determine whether the authors may have commercial or non-commercial conflicts of interest. Outlined in the author disclosure statement for the American Journal of Human Biology, this is a policy more common in scientific fields where funding often comes from corporate sources. Authors are also commonly required to provide\",\n \"-29.579992222685178\"\n ],\n [\n \"Because of its nature, Data in Use is of increasing concern to businesses, government agencies and other institutions. Data in use, or memory, can contain sensitive data including digital certificates, encryption keys, intellectual property (software algorithms, design data), and personally identifiable information. Compromising data in use enables access to encrypted data at rest and data in motion. For example, someone with access to random access memory can parse that memory to locate the encryption key for data at rest. Once they have obtained that encryption key, they can decrypt encrypted data at rest. \\nThreats to data\",\n \"-29.343732593479217\"\n ],\n [\n \" If the result of this test is statistically significant, you have real evidence at last.\\\" Data manipulation Informally called \\\"fudging the data,\\\" this practice includes selective reporting (see also publication bias) and even simply making up false data.\\nExamples of selective reporting abound. The easiest and most common examples involve choosing a group of results that follow a pattern consistent with the preferred hypothesis while ignoring other results or \\\"data runs\\\" that contradict the hypothesis.\\nPsychic researchers have long disputed studies showing people with ESP ability. Critics accuse ESP proponents of only publishing experiments with positive results and shelving those that\",\n \"-29.260039503787993\"\n ],\n [\n \"the standard academic practices”.\\nTheir final aim being to provide “information on the what, where, why, how and who of the data”.\\nThe intent of a data paper is to offer descriptive information on the related dataset(s) focusing on data collection, distinguishing features, access and potential reuse rather than on data processing and analysis. Because data papers are considered academic publications no different than other types of papers they allow scientists sharing data to receive credit in currency recognizable within the academic system, thus \\\"making data sharing count\\\". This provides not only an additional incentive to share data, but also through the\",\n \"-29.193933319678763\"\n ],\n [\n \"for handling secret, confidential and personal information. So because of the sensitivity and confidentiality, data transfer and all in-between information must be encrypted. Data quality Data quality is another serious constraint. For better management and to maintain good quality of data, the common practice is to store the data at one location and share with different people and different systems and/or applications from different locations. It helps in preventing inconsistencies in the data.\",\n \"-28.947894301993074\"\n ],\n [\n \"environment the data aggregator has little to no influence on the data publisher. Data is often erroneous, and combining data often aggravates the problem. Especially when performing reasoning (automatically inferring new data from existing data), erroneous data has potentially devastating impact on the overall quality of the resulting dataset. Hence, a challenge is how data publishers can coordinate in order to fix problems in the data or blacklist sites which do not provide reliable data. Methods and techniques are needed to: check integrity and accuracy; highlight, identify and corroborate evidence; assess the probability that a given statement is true; equate\",\n \"-28.941759232264303\"\n ],\n [\n \"discovery algorithms. \\nMany currently available methods rely on a voting strategy to define the true value of a data item. Nevertheless, recent studies, have shown that, if we rely only on majority voting, we could get wrong results even in 30% of the data items.\\nThe solution to this problem is to assess the trustworthiness of the sources and give more importance to votes coming from trusted sources.\\nIdeally, supervised learning techniques could be exploited to assign a reliability score to sources after hand-crafted labeling of the provided values; unfortunately, this is not feasible since the number of needed labeled examples should\",\n \"-28.933966355434677\"\n ],\n [\n \"while many value privacy, the affordances of data sharing are also quite valuable, although they may contradict one's conception of privacy. Attitudes against data sharing may be based in a perceived loss of control over data and a fear of the exploitation of personal data. However, it is possible to extract the value of data without compromising privacy.\\nSome scholars such as Jonathan H. King and Neil M. Richards are redefining the traditional meaning of privacy, and others to question whether or not privacy still exists. In a 2014 article for the Wake Forest Law Review, King and Richard argue that\",\n \"-28.885567586861725\"\n ],\n [\n \"peer review process, increases the quality of metadata and thus reusability of the shared data.\\nThus data papers represent the scholarly communication approach to data sharing.\\nDespite their potentiality, data papers are not the ultimate and complete solution for all the data sharing and reuse issues and, in some cases, they are considered to induce false expectations in the research community. Data journals Data papers are supported by a rich array of journals, some of which are \\\"pure\\\", i.e. they are dedicated to publish data papers only, while others – the majority – are \\\"mixed\\\", i.e. they publish a number of articles\",\n \"-28.880073994871054\"\n ],\n [\n \"years. Information Technology, with Intranets and the Internet, has improved our ability to find such data. If secondary data doesn't solve the problem then original data (primary data) is sought. It is useful to think of different primary methods in these terms: we can ask people what they are doing; we can watch them or detect what they have done by counting or we can manipulate some variables to discover the effect. This creates three categories: questioning; observation and experimentation.\\nPrimary data collection techniques can be subdivided into: interviewer-administered or respondent-administered; direct or indirect; personal or impersonal. Processing data, analysis and\",\n \"-28.81902635811275\"\n ],\n [\n \"does not necessarily have a closer claim on objective truth\\\". Recent developments in BI domain, such as pro-active reporting especially target improvements in usability of big data, through automated filtering of non-useful data and correlations. Big structures are full of spurious correlations either because of non-causal coincidences (law of truly large numbers), solely nature of big randomness (Ramsey theory) or existence of non included factors so the hope, of early experimenters to make large databases of numbers \\\"speak for themselves\\\" and revolutionize scientific method, is questioned.\\nBig data analysis is often shallow compared to analysis of smaller data sets. In many\",\n \"-28.710253054785426\"\n ],\n [\n \"monetary cost. Still according to those three researchers, the data analysis is becoming increasingly efficient, that is why there are more and more concerns about the progress of collecting data. Regulations are appearing, such as the EU data protection directive or the US children’s online privacy protection act, but the industry is always evolving, so that it seems important to continue keeping an eye on the economics of privacy. Privacy and Information Breaches Methods can be purposely crafted to obtain one's personal information illegally. These directed attacks are commonly referred to as hacking, though that term refers to the general\",\n \"-28.688988345507823\"\n ],\n [\n \"the data. Tables are helpful to a user who might look up specific numbers, while charts (e.g., bar charts or line charts) may help explain the quantitative messages contained in the data. Barriers to effective analysis Barriers to effective analysis may exist among the analysts performing the data analysis or among the audience. Distinguishing fact from opinion, cognitive biases, and innumeracy are all challenges to sound data analysis. Confusing fact and opinion Effective analysis requires obtaining relevant facts to answer questions, support a conclusion or formal opinion, or test hypotheses. Facts by definition are irrefutable, meaning that any person involved\",\n \"-28.659757783407258\"\n ],\n [\n \"ability to handle noisy data but lose data information by having a binary representation of the genes. Also, artificial neural networks omit using a hidden layer so that they can be interpreted, losing the ability to model higher order correlations in the data. Using a model that is not constrained to be interpretable, a more accurate model can be produced. Being able to predict gene expressions more accurately provides a way to explore how drugs affect a system of genes as well as for finding which genes are interrelated in a process. This has been encouraged by the DREAM competition\",\n \"-28.630201727966778\"\n ],\n [\n \"new data ecosystem.\\\"\\nAnalysis of data sets can find new correlations to \\\"spot business trends, prevent diseases, combat crime and so on.\\\" Scientists, business executives, practitioners of medicine, advertising and governments alike regularly meet difficulties with large data-sets in areas including Internet searches, fintech, urban informatics, and business informatics. Scientists encounter limitations in e-Science work, including meteorology, genomics, connectomics, complex physics simulations, biology and environmental research.\\nData sets grow rapidly, in part because they are increasingly gathered by cheap and numerous information-sensing Internet of things devices such as mobile devices, aerial (remote sensing), software logs, cameras, microphones, radio-frequency identification (RFID) readers\",\n \"-28.465073768093134\"\n ],\n [\n \"large data sets to uncover hidden patterns, unknown correlations, market trends, customer preferences and other useful business information. They apply machine learning algorithms etc. to the data which transforms the data. Due to the humongous size of the data, there could be unknown features in the data, possibly even outliers. It is pretty difficult for a data scientist to actually debug an unexpected result.\\nThe massive scale and unstructured nature of data, the complexity of these analytics pipelines, and long runtimes pose significant manageability and debugging challenges. Even a single error in these analytics can be extremely difficult to identify and\",\n \"-28.457341409826768\"\n ],\n [\n \"widespread high-resolution data are needed before more confident conclusions can be reached\\\". They said that \\\"the uncertainties were the point of the article\\\", and that it was \\\"hard to imagine how much more explicit\\\" they could have been about the uncertainties surrounding their work. They suggested that \\\"poor communication by others\\\" had led to the \\\"subsequent confusion\\\".\\nAt the Wegman Report hearings in July 2006, Gerald North testified that, \\\"Dr. Wegman's criticisms of the statistical methodology in the papers by Mann et al. were consistent with our findings,\\\" referring to the NRC report that found that the methodology did not have\",\n \"-28.416629324718087\"\n ],\n [\n \"of study participants with their input into the study.\\nMany study participants have experienced problems when their privacy was not upheld after participating in research. Sometimes privacy is not kept because of insufficient study protection, but also sometimes it is because of unanticipated problems with the study design which inadvertently compromise privacy. The privacy of research participants is typically protected by the research organizer, but the institutional review board is a designated overseer which monitors the organizer to provide protection to study participants. Information privacy Researchers publish data that they get from participants. To preserve participants' privacy, the data goes through\",\n \"-28.380716755714275\"\n ],\n [\n \"a very political issue, interested parties could try to corrupt the data by, say, entering temperature figures that are too high or too low. Because three sets of records for each data point will be entered, any set from a digitiser showing a marked deviation from the other records should be easily checkable and eliminated. Large-scale fraud is unlikely because the data is entered one log page at a time, and so is immune to a spam type of attack. Collaborative projects such as Linux and Wikipedia have for the most part been able to rely on the transparent honesty\",\n \"-28.296893584836653\"\n ],\n [\n \"such individual information. Some agencies do this by intentionally introducing small statistical errors to prevent the identification of individuals in marginal populations; others swap variables for similar respondents. Whatever is done to reduce the privacy risk, new improved electronic analysis of data can threaten to reveal sensitive individual information. This is known as statistical disclosure control.\\nAnother possibility is to present survey results by means of statistical models in the form of a multivariate distribution mixture. The statistical information in the form of conditional distributions (histograms) can be derived interactively from the estimated mixture model without any further access to the\",\n \"-28.273493815711845\"\n ],\n [\n \"Research Data Repositories, and Psychfiledrawer.org. Sites like Open Science Framework offer badges for using open science practices in an effort to incentivize scientists. However, there has been concern that those who are most likely to provide their data and code for analyses are the researchers that are likely the most sophisticated. John Ioannidis at Stanford University suggested that \\\"the paradox may arise that the most meticulous and sophisticated and method-savvy and careful researchers may become more susceptible to criticism and reputation attacks by reanalyzers who hunt for errors, no matter how negligible these errors are\\\". Funding for replication studies In\",\n \"-28.25965457952043\"\n ],\n [\n \"often problematic to accurately describe the process that has been followed in searching and discarding data. In other words, one wants to keep all data (regardless of whether they tend to support or refute the hypothesis) from \\\"good tests\\\", but it is sometimes difficult to figure out what a \\\"good test\\\" is. It is a particular problem in statistical modelling, where many different models are rejected by trial and error before publishing a result (see also overfitting, publication bias).\\nThe error is particularly prevalent in data mining and machine learning. It also commonly occurs in academic publishing where only reports of\",\n \"-28.257854491108446\"\n ],\n [\n \"increasing chances of deviant behavior and creating punishments that are not equitable to their actions. Additionally, monitoring can cause resistance and backlash because it insinuates an employer’s suspicion and lack of trust. Data mining and profiling Data mining is the application of statistical techniques and programmatic algorithms to discover previously unnoticed relationships within the data. Data profiling in this context is the process of assembling information about a particular individual or group in order to generate a profile — that is, a picture of their patterns and behavior. Data profiling can be an extremely powerful tool for psychological and social network\",\n \"-28.243579554252847\"\n ],\n [\n \"that can't easily share information. Therefore, knowledge workers within large organizations often don't have access to the information they need to best do their jobs. When they do have access to the data, the data quality may be poor. By setting up a data governance practice or Corporate Data Authority, these problems can be mitigated.\\nThe structure of a data governance initiative will vary not only with the size of the organization, but with the desired objectives or the 'focus areas' of the effort. Implementation Implementation of a Data Governance initiative may vary in scope as well as origin. Sometimes,\",\n \"-28.176685093854758\"\n ],\n [\n \"such data for reputational reasons, or because it represents a heightened liability and security risk. It may also be the case that, at least in relation to the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation, such data falls under the 'special category' provisions (Article 9), and therefore comes with more restrictions on potential collection and processing.\\nSome practitioners have tried to estimate and impute these missing sensitive categorisations in order to allow bias mitigation, for example building systems to infer ethnicity from names, however this can introduce other forms of bias if not undertaken with care. Machine learning researchers have drawn upon\",\n \"-28.156384380636155\"\n ],\n [\n \"its importance. Failure to fully analyze the data occurs when researchers do not use the data to support their analysis beyond simply describing or paraphrasing the content of the data. Researchers conducting thematic analysis should attempt to go beyond surface meanings of the data to make sense of the data and tell an accurate story of what the data means. Phase 6: Producing the report After final themes have been reviewed, researchers begin the process of writing the final report. While writing the final report, researchers should decide on themes that make meaningful contributions to answering research questions which should\",\n \"-28.140456014745723\"\n ],\n [\n \"take, hastily comparing it with material received the previous day. They then produced in 'assembly line fashion' items which may have reflected perceptive intuition but which [did not] accrue from a systematic consideration of an accumulated body of integrated evidence.\\nWriters on analysis have suggested reasons why analysts come to incorrect conclusions, by falling into cognitive traps for intelligence analysis. Without falling into the trap of avoiding decisions by wanting more information, analysts also need to recognize that they always can learn more about the opponent. Setting goals for an intelligence analysis Stating the objective from the consumer's standpoint is an\",\n \"-28.03266341537892\"\n ],\n [\n \"is a challenge. Contrived or artificial environment also may influence the interactions and responses, thus leading to biased results. Ethical issues may arise regarding confidentiality aspect. Measurement validity may be low. Using computers in qualitative data analysis There are many computer programs are available to help in analyzing qualitative data. The capacity of computers to effectively sort, store and retrieve information makes their use in qualitative data analysis appealing. However, it is important to notice that computers can only aid in some parts of analysis; computer software do not code data or replace the conceptual processes. It cannot analyse qualitative\",\n \"-27.958525561745773\"\n ],\n [\n \"small amount of decision-consistent and decision-inconsistent information. The study showed that in situations such as this, an individual becomes more doubtful of their initial decision due to the unavailability of resources. They begin to think that there is not enough data or evidence in this particular field in which they are told to make a decision about. Because of this, the subject becomes more critical of their initial thought process and focuses on both decision-consistent and inconsistent sources, thus decreasing his level of selective exposure. For the group who had plentiful pieces of information, this factor made them confident in\",\n \"-27.95112991271162\"\n ],\n [\n \"statistical inference based on aggregated data can lead researchers to erroneous conclusions, suggesting relationships that in fact do not exist or obscuring relationships that do in fact exist. This issue is known as the modifiable areal unit problem. For example, New York public health officials worried that cancer clusters and causes would be misidentified after they were forced to post maps showing cancer cases by ZIP code on the internet. Their assertion was that ZIP codes were designed for a purpose unrelated to public health issues, and so use of these arbitrary boundaries might lead to inappropriate groupings\",\n \"-27.93009349674321\"\n ],\n [\n \"data starts either with an OFFICIAL OR SECRET classification depending on the nature of threat and its acceptability to the business, and thereafter moves up or down accordingly based on consequence of compromise.\\nOFFICIAL data may therefore rise to TOP SECRET, but cannot be SECRET unless the risk previously accepted for a capable attacker is revised.\\nSECRET data may be reduced to OFFICIAL where no serious consequences can be identified from a potential breach, or SECRET can also rise to TOP SECRET if serious consequences could arise. \\nImpact levels also consider integrity and availability, but CESG's system of Business Impact Levels (BIL)\",\n \"-27.92591539580826\"\n ],\n [\n \"easy to remember. Data quality In many investigations the data that can be found might have omissions or is misleading. As one layer of data-driven journalism a critical examination of the data quality is important. In other cases the data might not be public or is not in the right format for further analysis, e.g. is only available in a PDF. Here the process of data-driven journalism can turn into stories about data quality or refusals to provide the data by institutions. As the practice as a whole is in early development steps, examinations of data sources, data sets, data\",\n \"-27.916636521287728\"\n ],\n [\n \"in genetic studies, modern methods for data collection in field and laboratory should be considered, as high-throughput platforms for phenotyping and genotyping. These tools allow bigger experiments, while turn possible evaluate many plots in lower time than a human-based only method for data collection.\\nFinally, all data collected of interest must be stored in an organized data frame for further analysis. Power and statistical error When testing a hypothesis, there are two types of statistic errors possible: Type I error and Type II error. The type I error or false positive is the incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis and\",\n \"-27.916533772695402\"\n ],\n [\n \"a personal advantage the data is analyzed for supporting evidence. Following that the hypothesis is refined or discarded.\\nThe combination of different databases, in particular data from different systems or sources is highly effective. These data sources are either unknown to the perpetrator or such that they can not be manipulated by the perpetrator afterwards.\\nData Visualization is often used to display the results.\",\n \"-27.899177903025702\"\n ],\n [\n \"is under review too and in most practical contexts have now fallen into disuse. \\nIt is therefore no longer strictly the case that the greater the consequences if the data confidentiality were to be compromised, the higher the classification, since data with a high impact (including material which could result in threat to life) may still be classified as OFFICIAL if the relevant business owner believes it is not necessary to protect this from an attacker who has the capabilities of a Foreign Intelligence Service or Serious and Organised Crime.\\nConversely some data with much lower consequences (for example ongoing Police\",\n \"-27.893868615941756\"\n ],\n [\n \"of any particular data for any given hypothesis is decided by human beliefs and assumptions about what kinds of data can support what kinds of hypotheses. Moreover, even when the relevance of evidence is decided, there remains a logical gap between evidence and full justification of interesting scientific theories (the traditional philosophical problem of underdetermination of theories). This gap, too, must be bridged by beliefs and assumptions about legitimate reasoning in order for evidence to help us decide which hypotheses to accept as true.\\nFortunately, the use of diverse perspectives to criticize hypotheses can turn some of those hypotheses into scientific\",\n \"-27.87088475536075\"\n ],\n [\n \"data to determine these functions, include machine learning and analytics algorithms (including artificial neural networks), as well as more traditional regression analysis. Results from operations research and many other quantitative approaches have a similar role to play.\\nWhen data is not available (or is too noisy, uncertain, or incomplete), these dependency links can take on the form of rules as might be found in an expert system or rule-based system, and so can be obtained through knowledge engineering.\\nIn this way, a decision model represents a mechanism for combining multiple relationships, as well as symbolic and subsymbolic reasoning, into a complete solution\",\n \"-27.86041255258715\"\n ],\n [\n \"of particular aspects of the data. Many times the particular aspects come about in the form of human information (i.e. name, home address, IP address, telephone number, social security number, credit card number, etc.). Usefulness Synthetic data are generated to meet specific needs or certain conditions that may not be found in the original, real data. This can be useful when designing any type of system because the synthetic data are used as a simulation or as a theoretical value, situation, etc. This allows us to take into account unexpected results and have a basic solution or remedy,\",\n \"-27.833003177365754\"\n ],\n [\n \"A common approach for data sharing that includes confidential material is through de-identification or anonymization. There are numerous techniques for the de-identification of data including simply removing specific variables or by using statistical techniques such as top-coding, collapsing or combining, sampling, swapping, or disturbing the data. For qualitative data, redaction can be used to hide data elements that cannot be made public. However, it is important that future research requirements be taken into consideration when developing a de-identification or anonymization plan. Peer review and quality control A key element of the scholarly communication process is ensuring that research meets a\",\n \"-27.831045522018485\"\n ],\n [\n \"manage student data within the regulatory structure that controls data management. Further than this, student information is then brought to light which can threaten them as well. As vast amounts of data continues to be actively collected, potential breaching through hacking, physical theft, and by vendors becomes more probable.\\nPreventative Measures\\nThose who study the implications of data breaches emphasize that data should be kept to a minimum and that steps should be taken in order to see who can be trusted to regulate this information in order to keep data private and not accessible to all employees. They also talk about\",\n \"-27.782420970434032\"\n ],\n [\n \"participants as well as investigators wanting to be more responsive to their participants and restrain some of their results. Ultimately this causes the researcher's study to be invalid. Many consider member checking to be the best method of establishing credibility, but one of the main drawbacks is the way in which the researcher views the research as being intended to generalize the findings. This may clash with the participant’s view that their account is specific and solely their experience. Due to the different views regarding interpretation of data, member checks may be better suited as being identified as\",\n \"-27.766622948278382\"\n ],\n [\n \"data mining. In data dredging, large compilations of data are examined in order to find a correlation, without any pre-defined choice of a hypothesis to be tested. Since the required confidence interval to establish a relationship between two parameters is usually chosen to be 95% (meaning that there is a 95% chance that the relationship observed is not due to random chance), there is a thus a 5% chance of finding a correlation between any two sets of completely random variables. Given that data dredging efforts typically examine large datasets with many variables, and hence even larger numbers of\",\n \"-27.7599793462432\"\n ],\n [\n \"i.e., the amount of error that would normally be in such measurements does not appear, a conclusion can be drawn that the data may have been forged. Error analysis alone is typically not sufficient to prove that data have been falsified or fabricated, but it may provide the supporting evidence necessary to confirm suspicions of misconduct. Data sharing Kirby Lee and Lisa Bero suggest, \\\"Although reviewing raw data can be difficult, time-consuming and expensive, having such a policy would hold authors more accountable for the accuracy of their data and potentially reduce scientific fraud or misconduct.\\\" Notable individual cases Andrew\",\n \"-27.73829903011574\"\n ],\n [\n \"data information, then we have to evaluate the system development and measure the system's ability to correctly predict the categories of new information. This step is simplified by separating the training data in a new series called \\\"test data\\\" that we will use to measure the error rate. As a general rule it is important to distinguish between types of errors (false positives and false negatives). For example, in the case on an aggregator of content for children, it doesn't have the same gravity to allow the passage of information not suitable for them, that shows violence or pornography, than\",\n \"-27.73389552718436\"\n ],\n [\n \"copy of your own data. Others should be restricted in their access to what is yours. Knowing what data others keep is a near impossible task. The simpler approach would be to cloak yourself in nonsense. To ensure that corporations or institutions do not have a copy of your data it is possible to send noise to confuse the data that they have. For example, a robot could randomly search terms that you would not be inclined to usually search for making that data obtained by the search engine useless through confusion (see: Track Me Not by New York University).\\nOwnership\",\n \"-27.731938955752412\"\n ],\n [\n \"Scientific data about how people use the information tools available to them today is still incomplete because experimental research methodologies haven’t been able to keep up with the rapid pace of change. Many challenges, such as contextualized search, personal information management, information integration, and task support, still need to be addressed.\",\n \"-27.65137435972474\"\n ],\n [\n \"it is possible to alter data contained in a computer is plainly insufficient to establish untrustworthiness\\\" (US v. Bonallo, 858 F. 2d 1427 - 1988 - Court of Appeals, 9th).\\nNevertheless, the \\\"more comprehensive\\\" foundation required by Scholle remains good practice. The American Law Reports lists a number of ways to establish the comprehensive foundation. It suggests that the proponent demonstrate \\\"the reliability of the computer equipment\\\", \\\"the manner in which the basic data was initially entered\\\", \\\"the measures taken to ensure the accuracy of the data as entered\\\", \\\"the method of storing the data and the precautions taken to prevent\",\n \"-27.62232692084217\"\n ],\n [\n \"become a data breach if the staff member retains access to the data after termination of the trust relationship. In distributed systems, this can also occur with a breakdown in a web of trust. Data quality is one way of reducing the risk of a data breach, partly because it allows the owner of the data to rate data according to importance and give better protection to more important data.\\nMost such incidents publicized in the media involve private information on individuals, e.g. social security numbers. Loss of corporate information such as trade secrets, sensitive corporate information, and details of\",\n \"-27.621298263853532\"\n ],\n [\n \"argues, has always been distinguished by its ability to the tell small, personal, and nuanced narratives that data doesn't reflect.\\nIn terms of method, there is a disagreement in whether it is possible to conduct research exclusively online or if research will only be complete when the subjects are studied holistically, both online and offline. Tom Boellstorff, who conducted a three-year research as an avatar in the virtual world Second Life, defends the first approach, stating that it is not just possible but necessary to engage with subjects “in their own terms”. Others, such as Daniel Miller, have argued that an\",\n \"-27.619777649451862\"\n ],\n [\n \" One such scenario is for datasets that are simply too large for a human to effectively analyze, or where analysis of them would be cost prohibitive relative to the value of information they contain. Another scenario is when the chief value of a dataset is the extent to which it contains \\\"red flags\\\" (e.g., searching for reports of certain adverse events within a lengthy journal dataset from patients in a clinical trial) or \\\"green flags\\\" (e.g., searching for mentions of your brand in positive reviews of marketplace products). Many researchers would consider these procedures on their data sets\",\n \"-27.537418897376483\"\n ],\n [\n \"data, both past and present, has the potential to inform future research in many study areas. Much of this data has become inaccessible due to obsolete software and file formats. The resulting impossibility of reviewing data from older research disrupts the overall scientific research project. Approach Brown Dog describes itself as the \\\"super mutt\\\" of software (thus the name \\\"Brown Dog\\\"), serving as a low-level data infrastructure to interface digital data content across the internet. Its approach is to use every possible source of automated help (i.e., software) in existence in a robust and provenance-preserving manner to create a service\",\n \"-27.447817744690838\"\n ],\n [\n \"then it might be possible to determine the suppressed value by subtracting the other sales from that total. But there might also be combinations of additions and subtractions that might cause the private information to be revealed. The number of combinations that needed to be checked increases exponentially with the number of publications, and it is potentially unbounded if data users are able to make queries of the statistical database using an interactive query system.\\nIn 1977 Tore Dalenius formalized the mathematics of cell suppression.\\nIn 1979, Dorothy Denning, Peter J. Denning and Mayer D. Schwartz formalized the concept of a\",\n \"-27.446783239676734\"\n ],\n [\n \"information that was collected never being utilized because it does not meet the exact needs for the collection requirement. Thus important data may be cast aside and never used even though it may be relevant again at a later date. Analysis And Production Analysts are the voice of the Intelligence Community. Therefore, the analysis that they perform is expected to be accurate on a regular basis. Failure in analysis can be approached from two points of view: the tactical/operational point of view and the analysts point of view. Tactical/Operational A problem occurs when looking at current issues versus long-term issues.\",\n \"-27.406566430292514\"\n ],\n [\n \"(FIFO).\\nDecision-makers increasingly face computer-generated information and analyses that could be collected and analyzed in no other way. Precisely for that reason, going behind that output is out of the question, even if one has good cause to be suspicious. In short, the computer analysis becomes a credible references point although based on poor data. Uses The term can also be used as an explanation for the poor quality of a digitized audio or video file. Although digitizing can be the first step in cleaning up a signal, it does not, by itself, improve the quality. Defects in the original\",\n \"-27.32279517056304\"\n ],\n [\n \"is. This surplus of data is too much for people to sort through and analyze, thus creating a need for algorithms. Solutions Although data exhaust is not a new concept, it plays a much larger role in the contemporary world. The increase of technology has caused for and increase in data exhaust. The collection and distribution of this data is not illegal, but there are steps that must be taken to ensure that the use of this data is ethical. In order to keep the privacy of users safe, when the information is sold it can be kept anonymous. \",\n \"-27.28258003469091\"\n ],\n [\n \"attempt to detect corruption at many layers and then recover or correct the corruption; this is almost always successful but very rarely the information arriving in the systems memory is corrupted and can cause unpredictable results.\\nData corruption during transmission has a variety of causes. Interruption of data transmission causes information loss. Environmental conditions can interfere with data transmission, especially when dealing with wireless transmission methods. Heavy clouds can block satellite transmissions. Wireless networks are susceptible to interference from devices such as microwave ovens.\\nHardware and software failure are the two main causes for data loss. Background radiation, head crashes, and\",\n \"-27.267174017099023\"\n ],\n [\n \"if the results prove to be unsatisfactory. Synthetic data are often generated to represent the authentic data and allows a baseline to be set. Another use of synthetic data is to protect privacy and confidentiality of authentic data. As stated previously, synthetic data is used in testing and creating many different types of systems; below is a quote from the abstract of an article that describes a software that generates synthetic data for testing fraud detection systems that further explains its use and importance.\\n\\\"This enables us to create realistic behavior profiles for users and attackers. The data is used to\",\n \"-27.25839334235934\"\n ],\n [\n \"effectiveness of this data exchange depends largely on the policies that clients use to determine to whom to send data. Clients may prefer to send data to peers that send data back to them (a \\\"tit for tat\\\" exchange scheme), which encourages fair trading. But strict policies often result in suboptimal situations, such as when newly joined peers are unable to receive any data because they don't have any pieces yet to trade themselves or when two peers with a good connection between them do not exchange data simply because neither of them takes the initiative. To counter these effects,\",\n \"-27.2277115836514\"\n ],\n [\n \"a plethora of internet-connected health devices have triggered a data deluge that will reach the exabyte range in the near future. Data Ethics is of increasing relevance as the quantity of data increases because of the scale of the impact.\\nBig data ethics is different from information ethics because the focus of information ethics is more concerned with issues of intellectual property and concerns relating to librarians, archivists, and information professionals, while big data ethics is more concerned with collectors and disseminators of structured or unstructured data such as data brokers, governments, and large corporations. Principles Data Ethics is concerned with\",\n \"-27.145926354714902\"\n ],\n [\n \"data, but only do so by chance. For example, suppose we are considering a collection of 10,000 items and looking for rules containing two items in the left-hand-side and 1 item in the right-hand-side. There are approximately 1,000,000,000,000 such rules. If we apply a statistical test for independence with a significance level of 0.05 it means there is only a 5% chance of accepting a rule if there is no association. If we assume there are no associations, we should nonetheless expect to find 50,000,000,000 rules. Statistically sound association discovery controls this risk, in most cases reducing the risk of\",\n \"-27.133299534812977\"\n ],\n [\n \"not been discovered without this method.\\nOne potential use of a clinical data repository would be for clinical trials. This would allow for researchers to have all the information from a study in one place as well as let other researchers benefit from the data to further innovation. They would also be advantageous since they are digital and real-time. This would be easier to log data and keep it accurate since it would be digital rather than in paper form.\\nThe clinical data repository is not without its weaknesses, however. Since they usually don't integrate with other non-clinical sources, following patient treatment\",\n \"-27.112510719904094\"\n ],\n [\n \"individual characteristics and merits.\\nAnother important concern is that the companies collecting the data for a specific purpose might use the data for totally different purposes, and this essentially violates the user’s interests.\\nThe growing trend of selling personal data as a commodity encourages website owners to trade personal data obtained from their site. This trend has increased the amount of data being captured and traded increasing the likeliness of one’s privacy being invaded. The companies which buy the data are obliged make it anonymous and these companies are considered authors of any specific release of mining patterns. They are legally responsible\",\n \"-27.099320969271503\"\n ],\n [\n \"data by virtue of its high entropy and an attacker needs to only test for matching keys in areas of memory or storage that have high entropy.\\nThe contrast between the low entropy of most data and the high entropy of key data is sufficient as to be apparent by visual inspection. The image to the right shows an example of this. Analytical key finding While statistical key finding can be effective for reducing the amount of memory that needs to be searched, it still requires high-entropy areas to be tested to check if they contain the correct key material. In\",\n \"-27.09472596642445\"\n ],\n [\n \"being examined in the study. Also referred to as random response, this is an area of concern in research studies and data collection due to the possible impacts that error data could have on the significance conclusion to be drawn later. Attention and interest are both factors that have a possible influence on the validity of an individual's responses. Careless data can lead to lower reliability which will ultimately decrease the intensity of correlation, if one exists. A method known as data screening is recommended as a means of discerning between response data that is valid and that which\",\n \"-27.054951654019533\"\n ],\n [\n \"confidentiality could be reinforced to allow respondents to give more truthful responses. Disadvantages Self-report studies have many advantages, but they also suffer from specific disadvantages due to the way that subjects generally behave. Self-reported answers may be exaggerated; respondents may be too embarrassed to reveal private details; various biases may affect the results, like social desirability bias. There are also cases when respondents guess the hypothesis of the study and provide biased responses that 1) confirm the researcher's conjecture; 2) make them look good; or, 3) make them appear more distressed to receive promised services.\\nSubjects may also forget pertinent details.\",\n \"-27.035514267488907\"\n ],\n [\n \"Uncertainty In the media Uncertainty in science, and science in general, may be interpreted differently in the public sphere than in the scientific community. This is due in part to the diversity of the public audience, and the tendency for scientists to misunderstand lay audiences and therefore not communicate ideas clearly and effectively. One example is explained by the information deficit model. Also, in the public realm, there are often many scientific voices giving input on a single topic. For example, depending on how an issue is reported in the public sphere, discrepancies between outcomes of multiple scientific studies\",\n \"-27.005736387600336\"\n ],\n [\n \"data of groups is still organised around the individual. Many of the processes that are being made more efficient concern individuals and group dynamics. However, data is not necessarily organised around the individual, rather, data is being controlled by the owner of the sensors.\\nIn China, the government largely owns data. In one Chinese province data was used to generate a social index score per person based on online and offline individual behaviour, such as jay walking and amount of toilet paper used in a public lavatory. The social index determines access to particular public services. Consent If an individual\",\n \"-26.987546039250446\"\n ],\n [\n \"the data in context of the literature, and drawing conclusions) should be each undertaken once (or at most a small number of times) in a research study. In qualitative research however, all of the four stages above may be undertaken repeatedly until one or more specific stopping conditions are met, reflecting a nonstatic attitude to the planning and design of research activities. An example of this dynamicism might be when the qualitative researcher unexpectedly changes their research focus or design midway through a research study, based on their 1st interim data analysis, and then makes further unplanned changes again based\",\n \"-26.966117509462492\"\n ],\n [\n \"predictions based on trends. Real-time data gives value because you can act instantaneously.\\nHow much are tech services such as a search engine, a communications channel and a digital map actually worth, for example in dollars? The difference in value between the services facilitated by tech companies and the equity value of these tech companies is the difference in the exchange rate offered to the citizen and the 'market rate' of the value of their data. Scientifically there are many holes to be picked in this rudimentary calculation: the financial figures of tax evading companies are unreliable, would revenue or profit\",\n \"-26.962449640002205\"\n ],\n [\n \"enormous amount of information that can be generated. A deficiency in any of these areas can cause an organization to miss signs of unauthorized activity, intrusion, and loss of data, which creates additional risk.\",\n \"-26.952680393282208\"\n ],\n [\n \"Veritas or Lucidworks. Furthermore, many organisations do not realise the value of dark data right now, for example in healthcare and education organisations deal with large amounts of data that could create a significant \\\"potential to service students and patients in the manner in which the consumer and financial services pursue their target population\\\".\",\n \"-26.890711276768343\"\n ],\n [\n \"by freely harvested personal data?\\nWhile initially it is realistic to assume that data would be traded for money, it is possible to imagine a future where data would be traded for data. The ‘I’ll show you yours if you show my mine’ scenario could replace money altogether. Importantly, this is a future scenario and the first step is to focus on exchanging personal data for existing monetary currency. Openness The idea of open data is centred around the argument that data should be freely available and should not have restrictions that would prohibit its use, such as copyright laws. Many\",\n \"-26.868101390093216\"\n ],\n [\n \"disclosed. Synthetic data holds no personal information and cannot be traced back to any individual; therefore, the use of synthetic data reduces confidentiality and privacy issues.\",\n \"-26.849148751025496\"\n ],\n [\n \"is important to establish the authenticity of evidence.\\nAttorneys have argued that because digital evidence can theoretically be altered it undermines the reliability of the evidence. US judges are beginning to reject this theory, in the case US v. Bonallo the court ruled that \\\"the fact that it is possible to alter data contained in a computer is plainly insufficient to establish untrustworthiness.\\\" In the United Kingdom guidelines such as those issued by ACPO are followed to help document the authenticity and integrity of evidence.\\nDigital investigators, particularly in criminal investigations, have to ensure that conclusions are based upon factual evidence and\",\n \"-26.818459233283647\"\n ],\n [\n \"and can help to get better insights into the processes behind the data. Although the traditional data analysis techniques can indirectly lead us to knowledge, it is still created by human analysts.\\nTo go beyond, a data analysis system has to be equipped with a substantial amount of background knowledge, and be able to perform reasoning tasks involving that knowledge and the data provided. In effort to meet this goal, researchers have turned to ideas from the machine learning field. This is a natural source of ideas, since the machine learning task can be described as turning background knowledge and examples\",\n \"-26.793847874050698\"\n ],\n [\n \"a large number of participants to generate any useful and reliable data. For example, researchers testing the effectiveness of a treatment for severe depression might need two groups of twenty patients for a control and a test group. If they wanted to add another treatment to the research, they would need another group of twenty patients. The potential scale of these experiments can make between-group designs impractical due to limited resources, subjects and space.\\nAnother major concern for between-group designs is bias. Assignment bias, observer-expectancy and subject-expectancy biases are common causes for skewed data results in between-group experiments, which can lead\",\n \"-26.78065623843859\"\n ],\n [\n \"big data projects, there is no large data analysis happening, but the challenge is the extract, transform, load part of data preprocessing.\\nBig data is a buzzword and a \\\"vague term\\\", but at the same time an \\\"obsession\\\" with entrepreneurs, consultants, scientists and the media. Big data showcases such as Google Flu Trends failed to deliver good predictions in recent years, overstating the flu outbreaks by a factor of two. Similarly, Academy awards and election predictions solely based on Twitter were more often off than on target.\\nBig data often poses the same challenges as small data; adding more data does not\",\n \"-26.780192141755833\"\n ],\n [\n \"data.\\\" Statistical flaws in his work have been proposed by others in the parapsychological community and within the general scientific community. The physicist Robert L. Park said of PEAR, \\\"It’s been an embarrassment to science, and I think an embarrassment for Princeton\\\". Psychokinesis on random number generators The advent of powerful and inexpensive electronic and computer technologies has allowed the development of fully automated experiments studying possible interactions between mind and matter. In the most common experiment of this type, a random number generator (RNG), based on electronic or radioactive noise, produces a data stream that is recorded and analyzed\",\n \"-26.771153919042263\"\n ],\n [\n \"caveat for OFFICIAL data where it is particularly important to enforce need to know rules. OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE documents should be marked, but they are not necessarily tracked. SECRET \\\"Very sensitive information\\\", which might (for example) seriously harm national defence or crime investigations. Data should only be marked as SECRET if the Senior Information Risk Owner (which is a board level position in an organisation) agrees that it is high-impact and that the data must be protected against very capable attackers. Although some specialist technology might be used to protect the data, there is still strong emphasis on reuse of commercial security\",\n \"-26.768863938588765\"\n ],\n [\n \" Canadian and US courts have been more cautious in permitting neuroimaging data as legal evidence. One of the reasons legal systems have been slow to adopt neuroimaging data as an accepted form of evidence is the possible error and misinterpretations that could result from such a new technology; courts in the US typically follow the Daubert standard set for evidence evaluation by the Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Supreme Court case, which established that the validity of scientific evidence must be determined by the trial judge. The Daubert standard serves as a safeguard for the reliability\",\n \"-26.750366951033357\"\n ],\n [\n \"disclosure risks from both the researcher and the checker. It encourages the researcher to produce safe results in the first place. However, this also means that the outcome may be inconsistent and uncertain. It requires extensive training and a high understanding of statistics and data analysis.\\nThe UK Data Service employs a principles-based approach to statistical disclosure control. Critiques Many contemporary statistical disclosure control techniques, such as generalization and cell suppression, have been shown to be vulnerable to attack by a hypothetical data intruder. For example, Cox showed in 2009 that Complementary cell suppression typically leads to \\\"over-protected\\\" solutions because of\",\n \"-26.747894976961106\"\n ],\n [\n \"of a system that is being examined; therefore the results need to be carefully considered.\\nAs the complexity of real systems increases models need to be more and more complex to represent the reality most accurately. In result, they may become increasingly difficult to understand and to be operated. Their complex nature can cause problems with using and managing results.\\nAs models constitute a simpler version of reality, certain factors can be omitted, and in consequence can lead to mistakes. Such mistakes are not easy to be found and corrected. Social network analysis Social network analysis (also sometimes called network theory) has\",\n \"-26.711812469163306\"\n ],\n [\n \"to allow for them to be implemented in diverse research projects. One advantage of this approach is that data is available for analysis at a single site, using a uniform schema. Some disadvantages are that the datasets are often huge and difficult to keep up to date. Another problem with this method is that it is costly to compile such a warehouse.\\nStandardized formats for different types of data (ex: protein data) are now emerging due to the influence of groups like the Proteomics Standards Initiative (PSI). Some data warehousing projects even require the submission of data in one of these\",\n \"-26.709735889606236\"\n ],\n [\n \"of trying to handle a vast amount of logs on an account as a result of too many user actions. Harmful user actions can easily be overlooked with thousands of user actions being compiled every day. Overall risk According to the Verizon Data Breach Incident Report, “The first step in protecting your data is in knowing where it is and who has access to it.” In today’s IT environment, “there is a lack of oversight and control over how and who among employees has access to confidential, sensitive information.” This apparent gap is one of many factors\",\n \"-26.697852538743426\"\n ],\n [\n \"errors will always occur if the accuracy of initial retrieval and location of data is poorly self-regulated.\\nSocial priming\\nSteering cognition provides an explanation of how the mind is non-consciously influenced by the environmental cues, or primes, around it. Steering cognition studies have produced data of attentional bias and blindness best explained by environmental priming.\",\n \"-26.67600415938182\"\n ],\n [\n \"pledge of confidentiality for the purpose of producing statistics that, by their production, do not compromise the privacy of those individuals who provided the data.)\\nThe intuition for the 2006 definition of ε-differential privacy is that a person's privacy cannot be compromised by a statistical release if their data are not in the database. Therefore with differential privacy, the goal is to give each individual roughly the same privacy that would result from having their data removed. That is, the statistical functions run on the database should not overly depend on the data of any one individual.\\nOf course, how much any\",\n \"-26.664831661208154\"\n ],\n [\n \"data fed to a machine additionally reflects \\\"human decisionmaking processes\\\" as data is being selected.\\nFinally, he noted that machines might also transfer good information with unintended consequences if users are unclear about how to interpret the results. Weizenbaum warned against trusting decisions made by computer programs that a user doesn't understand, comparing such faith to a tourist who can find his way to a hotel room exclusively by turning left or right on a coin toss. Crucially, the tourist has no basis of understanding how or why he arrived at his destination, and a successful arrival does not mean the\",\n \"-26.633462099181997\"\n ],\n [\n \"the recording or the entity owning the sensor controls what happens to that data by default. For example, banks control banking data, researchers control research data, and hospitals control health record data. Due to historical reasons the current scenario is such that research institutions hold data about a fragment of data describing part of an individual. Health research data in Europe exist in a fragmented manner controlled by different institutions. Data categories often describe more about who controls that data and where it is stored rather than what the data is describing or the application it could be applied to.\",\n \"-26.59498391946545\"\n ],\n [\n \"raises some challenges. Firstly with regard to privacy: can participants' data and identity truly be anonymised and sensitive data be kept safe and confidential? Individuals, in general, are not aware of how their personal information is used, for what purpose and which parties have a copy. They are not usually given the opportunity to declare their specific consents and privacy-related personal data management preferences. Secondly, with regard to consent: informed consent requires a person to know in advance what they are agreeing to and what the likely risks and benefits of agreeing will be. But with these large, linked data\",\n \"-26.591412588686126\"\n ],\n [\n \"prefer information that supports their personal position. People generate and evaluate evidence in arguments that are biased towards their own beliefs and opinions. Heightened confidence levels decrease preference for information that supports individuals' personal beliefs.\\nAnother experiment gave participants a complex rule-discovery task that involved moving objects simulated by a computer. Objects on the computer screen followed specific laws, which the participants had to figure out. So, participants could \\\"fire\\\" objects across the screen to test their hypotheses. Despite making many attempts over a ten-hour session, none of the participants figured out the rules of the system. They typically attempted to\",\n \"-26.583955794872054\"\n ],\n [\n \"discussed during the day? Is it necessary to look at all the tweets to determine the sentiment on each of the topics? In manufacturing different types of sensory data such as acoustics, vibration, pressure, current, voltage and controller data are available at short time intervals. To predict downtime it may not be necessary to look at all the data but a sample may be sufficient. Big Data can be broken down by various data point categories such as demographic, psychographic, behavioral, and transactional data. With large sets of data points, marketers are able to create and utilize more\",\n \"-26.572690654487815\"\n ],\n [\n \"of agreement between judgments of data obtained after periodical monitored negotiations in the context of maximum possible disagreement. For this purpose, the definition of data itself, i.e. data elements and data structures in a systems context, was widened to conceive data as information and knowledge.\\nThis part of Ivanov's work parallels, and can be seen as a theoretical contribution to groupthink, to the wisdom of crowds and the Wiki-idea itself. It required, however, some reservations for problems of social psychology as implied by the study of popular mind. Its conclusions appear to be relevant also for general data quality, information quality,\",\n \"-26.530294564448923\"\n ],\n [\n \"what is not through an information cascade.\\nInformation cascades have strong influence causing individuals to imitate the actions of others, whether or not they are in agreement. For example, when downloading music, people don't decide 100% independently which songs to buy. Often they are influenced by charts depicting which songs are already trending. Since people rely on what those before them do, one can manipulate what becomes popular among the public by manipulating a website's download rankings. Experts paid to predict sales often fail but not because they are bad at their jobs; instead, it is because they cannot control the\",\n \"-26.524635313442673\"\n ],\n [\n \"data. Rob Kitchin identifies both technical and organizational issues of data, as well as some normative and ethical questions. Technical and organization issues concerning data range from the scope of datasets, access to the data, the quality of the data, the integration of the data, the application of analytics and ecological fallacies, as well as the skills and organizational capabilities of the research team. Some of the normative and ethical concerns addressed by Kitchin include surveillance through one's data (dataveillance), the privacy of one's data, the ownership of one's data, the security of one's data, anticipatory or corporate governance, and\",\n \"-26.513582865478384\"\n ],\n [\n \"information without losing their way. Most specifically it combines related data — “anything from pictures, videos and maps to batting averages and financials — into large collections that can then be manipulated, sorted, filtered and examined visually”. In this way, the data itself can help shape and inform the way it is presented. Thus, instead of having to struggle to understand data and then apply it to a problem, Pivot works in unison with a person to come to an optimal solution.\\nCurrently information seekers are stuck in the old way of viewing information, limited by browsers to view information only\",\n \"-26.455835215099796\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":579,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"8kb219"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"In the United States, why is soccer such a popular sport for little kids, but not as popular among older kids (high school, college)"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["For most people soccer is the cheapest sport to put your kid in as well. Until they move up in skill they need minimal equipment to play.","Soccer at a young age is taught as more of a physical activity rather than a defined sport in the US. People here are raised to believe that all you do in soccer is run and kick the ball. The youth levels aren’t taught about proper positioning, shape, attacking, or goaltending. It’s all very rudimentary. In order to learn more and develop as a player you have to be invested enough to seek out those few and far between programs and academies that actually do teach you about the sport. Because of that and the popularity of baseball, basketball, and football you lose a lot of potential athletes for soccer. It really is a problem at the youth level, but until there is more interest in the sport here at the top levels, it will never fully adapt.","Soccer requires a ball, everything else is cheap or publicly provided. I think that is why soccer is so globally popular. Almost anyone can afford a ball or two between a dozen kids. Americans tend to have more disposable income and that turns into more expensive sports.","Strangely similar in New Zealand, but rugby is the dominant sport. We even called it 'soccer' when I was a kid and rugby was footy. I'm not sure about now though, it's been a while since I was home.","So, this is starting to change slowly, but at its most basic level, it is because soccer is not as established in North America. Because North America is very isolated from the rest of the world, it developed differently. When football was being established on this continent, it was the Rugby Union game that dominated. Though the game has changed over the past century and a half, the basic structure of the game - scoring points by carrying an egg-shaped ball over a goal line and/or kicking it through a pair of uprights, defense being achieved via bringing the ball carrier to the ground - is shared. But by the time it was able to spread out of the US and Canada, other games had already established dominance (similarly, Australian football, while very popular in Australia, is virtually unknown in the Northern Hemisphere). The same is true in the other direction. By the time that large numbers of soccer playing immigrants crossed the Atlantic, we already had our own football, and soccer wasn't going to displace it. The immigrant communities did play soccer, but it was as much a cultural thing as it was athletic. When I was in high school, I found a copy of the 1959 yearbook, which was the year that the school first fielded a soccer team. It was noted in the blurb about the team that nearly all of the players had started the season having never played the game before. This scenario has an effect on future generations. A parent who doesn't know anything about soccer is less likely to put their child in soccer, and even if they do, they will have to learn if they want to be able to follow their kid's game or talk to them about the sport. As my generation, who grew up playing soccer, are now at the age where we are having children of our own, we are far more likely to choose soccer as an activity for them. As for the age drop off, in the US, it is a big thing to keep kids in lots of activities. There's swimming lessons, karate, dance, music, and sports to fill your kid's time with. Sports tend to have defined seasons, and they don't necessarily overlap, so you can put your children in tee-ball in the spring, soccer in the fall, basketball in the winter. That way, they are always busy. Soccer is especially popular for younger children because it is easy to scale the field down based on age, and it is relatively low on contact, so children are less likely to get hurt. Up to a certain point, it is even reasonable to have co-ed programs. Once kids get older, the player base starts to diverge. It's especially noticeable with boys, as the biggest competitor for players is football, which is by and large the province of males. Let's say that most boys who are involved in organized sports play soccer from age 5-9. Once they turn 10, they are old enough for football, so a bunch of those kids will go off to the gridiron. As they get older, kids will start to specialize too. Maybe they play soccer, swim competitively, and take piano lessons. That eats up a huge amount of time, so at some point, a choice has to be made. The money aspect is a big deal too. Colleges can and do offer full scholarships for soccer, but there isn't the kind of money in MLS that there is in the NFL or NBA. A good soccer player could try to go to Europe to play professionally, but they end up competing with players who have been playing in an organized club environment that is based around developing future professionals (rather than being just an extracurricular activity) from a very young age and likely started their professional career before age 20, compared to a 21 or 22 year old who is graduating from college, where they practiced and played during the season, but were restricted as to what they could do in the off-season, and also had to balance a full-time course load.","I don't think the divide is so much with youth to high school to college as it is between recreational and professional soccer. High school soccer is pretty popular. It's not football in Texas popular, but every high school with an athletic program that I'm familiar with fields a soccer team. College soccer is less popular than college football or basketball, but it's about as popular as any other college sport (wrestling, volleyball, crew, etc). Most universities with an athletic program offer soccer. On the other hand, in US pro sports, soccer lags significantly behind football, baseball, basketball, hockey, NASCAR, etc etc etc. I think the divide you're noticing between youth and teens/college soccer isn't so much that people shun soccer, but that once you are high school age there are a lot more activities available to do. When I was in grade school, there was soccer, karate, ballet, piano lessons, and maybe some other sport appropriate for younger kids like tee ball. By the time I was in high school you could be on the debate team or work on the school paper or play tennis or run track or hold a student government office. And then in college, extracurriculars that aren't connected to a specific career path (for example sports) are drastically de-emphasized for most students. You're not expected to play sports or practice an art form just for fun anymore. And I think that trail off from \"there are only so many kid-appropriate pastimes\" to \"doing any school-organized pastime is discouraged\" is what you're noticing.","Youth soccer is cheap, easy, and relatively safe. Put a bunch of kids in a field with a ball and tell them to kick it around. It's not really \"soccer\" in the sense of the competitive sport, but it keeps the kids occupied and gets them exercise. Baseball is more expensive \\(you need balls, bats, protective gear, and a more specialized field\\) and more dangerous \\(kids throwing a small hard ball at each other is not a great idea when they are too young\\) and requires more structure \\(need to teach kids where to stand and how to run the bases etc.\\). T\\-ball offers a safer alternative and was fairly popular when I was young \\(I played both soccer and T\\-ball as a kid\\). Football has similar problems to baseball for youth. More dangerous. More rules/structure has to be taught. Basketball is probably the closest thing to Soccer in this context. Requires a bit more specialized court to play on, and might be too difficult to score for young ones \\(kicking into a big goal is a lot easier than throwing into a small hoop for a kid\\). tl;dr Soccer is just the most convenient sport for keeping kids occupied. It has little to do with the popularity of the sports for teens/adults.","I thinks it’s about stays. Americans love their sports stats. And advertising breaks. When you play a game like soccer that is mostly uninterrupted and often go with very few goals it’s hard to fit in with how Americans like to enjoy sports. It’s also likely that the common “cheating” and the fact that’s it’s “European” may have something to do with it. A shame really. Fantastic sport."],"string":"[\n \"For most people soccer is the cheapest sport to put your kid in as well. Until they move up in skill they need minimal equipment to play.\",\n \"Soccer at a young age is taught as more of a physical activity rather than a defined sport in the US. People here are raised to believe that all you do in soccer is run and kick the ball. The youth levels aren’t taught about proper positioning, shape, attacking, or goaltending. It’s all very rudimentary. In order to learn more and develop as a player you have to be invested enough to seek out those few and far between programs and academies that actually do teach you about the sport. Because of that and the popularity of baseball, basketball, and football you lose a lot of potential athletes for soccer. It really is a problem at the youth level, but until there is more interest in the sport here at the top levels, it will never fully adapt.\",\n \"Soccer requires a ball, everything else is cheap or publicly provided. I think that is why soccer is so globally popular. Almost anyone can afford a ball or two between a dozen kids. Americans tend to have more disposable income and that turns into more expensive sports.\",\n \"Strangely similar in New Zealand, but rugby is the dominant sport. We even called it 'soccer' when I was a kid and rugby was footy. I'm not sure about now though, it's been a while since I was home.\",\n \"So, this is starting to change slowly, but at its most basic level, it is because soccer is not as established in North America. Because North America is very isolated from the rest of the world, it developed differently. When football was being established on this continent, it was the Rugby Union game that dominated. Though the game has changed over the past century and a half, the basic structure of the game - scoring points by carrying an egg-shaped ball over a goal line and/or kicking it through a pair of uprights, defense being achieved via bringing the ball carrier to the ground - is shared. But by the time it was able to spread out of the US and Canada, other games had already established dominance (similarly, Australian football, while very popular in Australia, is virtually unknown in the Northern Hemisphere). The same is true in the other direction. By the time that large numbers of soccer playing immigrants crossed the Atlantic, we already had our own football, and soccer wasn't going to displace it. The immigrant communities did play soccer, but it was as much a cultural thing as it was athletic. When I was in high school, I found a copy of the 1959 yearbook, which was the year that the school first fielded a soccer team. It was noted in the blurb about the team that nearly all of the players had started the season having never played the game before. This scenario has an effect on future generations. A parent who doesn't know anything about soccer is less likely to put their child in soccer, and even if they do, they will have to learn if they want to be able to follow their kid's game or talk to them about the sport. As my generation, who grew up playing soccer, are now at the age where we are having children of our own, we are far more likely to choose soccer as an activity for them. As for the age drop off, in the US, it is a big thing to keep kids in lots of activities. There's swimming lessons, karate, dance, music, and sports to fill your kid's time with. Sports tend to have defined seasons, and they don't necessarily overlap, so you can put your children in tee-ball in the spring, soccer in the fall, basketball in the winter. That way, they are always busy. Soccer is especially popular for younger children because it is easy to scale the field down based on age, and it is relatively low on contact, so children are less likely to get hurt. Up to a certain point, it is even reasonable to have co-ed programs. Once kids get older, the player base starts to diverge. It's especially noticeable with boys, as the biggest competitor for players is football, which is by and large the province of males. Let's say that most boys who are involved in organized sports play soccer from age 5-9. Once they turn 10, they are old enough for football, so a bunch of those kids will go off to the gridiron. As they get older, kids will start to specialize too. Maybe they play soccer, swim competitively, and take piano lessons. That eats up a huge amount of time, so at some point, a choice has to be made. The money aspect is a big deal too. Colleges can and do offer full scholarships for soccer, but there isn't the kind of money in MLS that there is in the NFL or NBA. A good soccer player could try to go to Europe to play professionally, but they end up competing with players who have been playing in an organized club environment that is based around developing future professionals (rather than being just an extracurricular activity) from a very young age and likely started their professional career before age 20, compared to a 21 or 22 year old who is graduating from college, where they practiced and played during the season, but were restricted as to what they could do in the off-season, and also had to balance a full-time course load.\",\n \"I don't think the divide is so much with youth to high school to college as it is between recreational and professional soccer. High school soccer is pretty popular. It's not football in Texas popular, but every high school with an athletic program that I'm familiar with fields a soccer team. College soccer is less popular than college football or basketball, but it's about as popular as any other college sport (wrestling, volleyball, crew, etc). Most universities with an athletic program offer soccer. On the other hand, in US pro sports, soccer lags significantly behind football, baseball, basketball, hockey, NASCAR, etc etc etc. I think the divide you're noticing between youth and teens/college soccer isn't so much that people shun soccer, but that once you are high school age there are a lot more activities available to do. When I was in grade school, there was soccer, karate, ballet, piano lessons, and maybe some other sport appropriate for younger kids like tee ball. By the time I was in high school you could be on the debate team or work on the school paper or play tennis or run track or hold a student government office. And then in college, extracurriculars that aren't connected to a specific career path (for example sports) are drastically de-emphasized for most students. You're not expected to play sports or practice an art form just for fun anymore. And I think that trail off from \\\"there are only so many kid-appropriate pastimes\\\" to \\\"doing any school-organized pastime is discouraged\\\" is what you're noticing.\",\n \"Youth soccer is cheap, easy, and relatively safe. Put a bunch of kids in a field with a ball and tell them to kick it around. It's not really \\\"soccer\\\" in the sense of the competitive sport, but it keeps the kids occupied and gets them exercise. Baseball is more expensive \\\\(you need balls, bats, protective gear, and a more specialized field\\\\) and more dangerous \\\\(kids throwing a small hard ball at each other is not a great idea when they are too young\\\\) and requires more structure \\\\(need to teach kids where to stand and how to run the bases etc.\\\\). T\\\\-ball offers a safer alternative and was fairly popular when I was young \\\\(I played both soccer and T\\\\-ball as a kid\\\\). Football has similar problems to baseball for youth. More dangerous. More rules/structure has to be taught. Basketball is probably the closest thing to Soccer in this context. Requires a bit more specialized court to play on, and might be too difficult to score for young ones \\\\(kicking into a big goal is a lot easier than throwing into a small hoop for a kid\\\\). tl;dr Soccer is just the most convenient sport for keeping kids occupied. It has little to do with the popularity of the sports for teens/adults.\",\n \"I thinks it’s about stays. Americans love their sports stats. And advertising breaks. When you play a game like soccer that is mostly uninterrupted and often go with very few goals it’s hard to fit in with how Americans like to enjoy sports. It’s also likely that the common “cheating” and the fact that’s it’s “European” may have something to do with it. A shame really. Fantastic sport.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["sports organizations have turned to soccer as a supplement to American football, and most American high schools offer both boys and girls soccer. Due to the rising number of youths playing, the term \"soccer mom\" is used in American social and political discourse to describe middle- or upper-middle-class suburban women with school-age children. Americans between the ages of 12 and 24 rank professional soccer as their second favorite sport behind only American football. And in 2011, the FIFA video game ranked as the #2 most popular video game in the country, behind only Madden NFL.\nThough organized locally by organizations all","-34.612482444324996"],["played team sport by high school boys, and soccer overtook softball to become the #3 most played team sport by high school girls. As of 2006, the U.S. was the #1 country in the world for participation in youth soccer, with 3.9 million American youths (2.3 million boys and 1.6 million girls) registered with U.S. Soccer. Among girls, the U.S. has more registered players than all other countries combined. The number of high school soccer players more than doubled from 1990 to 2010, giving soccer the fastest growth rate among all major U.S. sports. In recent decades, more youth","-30.87779082148336"],["even wrestling is way off the mark.\" About the launch of Major League Soccer, Lavalle was quoted as saying in 1994, \"There is no chance it will survive. Absolutely no chance whatsoever.\" \nMajor League Soccer has now operated continuously since 1996 and has expanded to 19 teams in the United States and Canada; in 2011 it had a higher average attendance than either the NBA or the NHL. In 2012, a Luker/ESPN survey showed that soccer was the second most popular sport among Americans aged 12–24, behind only NFL football; seven percent of this age bracket","-30.105736180994427"],["United States in recent years. Soccer is played by over 13 million people in the U.S., making it the third-most played sport in the U.S., more widely played than ice hockey and football. Most NCAA Division I colleges field both a men's and women's varsity soccer team, and those that field only one team almost invariably field a women's team.\nThe United States men's national team and women's national team, as well as a number of national youth teams, represent the United States in international soccer competitions and are governed by the United States Soccer Federation (U.S. Soccer). The U.S. women's","-29.10618915874511"],["over the United States, there are three main youth soccer club leagues working nationwide through affiliated local associations. The United States Youth Soccer Association boasts over three million players between the ages of five and 19, while American Youth Soccer Organization has more than 600,000 players between the ages of four and 19. Finally, the USL offers a number of youth leagues, including the Super-20 League and the Super Y-League, which have almost 1,000 teams and tens of thousands of players from the ages of 13 to 20.\nAlso, the National Federation of State High School Associations features 800,000 soccer players.","-28.357729564770125"],["the sport, due to factors such as the U.S. hosting of the 1994 FIFA World Cup and the formation of Major League Soccer, as well as increased U.S. television coverage of soccer competitions. Many immigrants living in the United States continue to follow soccer as their favorite team sport. United States will host the 2026 FIFA World Cup sharing with Canada and Mexico.\nWomen's professional soccer in the United States has not seen sustained success. Following the demise of two professional leagues in the early 21st century, the Women's United Soccer Association (1999–2001) and Women's Professional Soccer (2009–2011), U.S. Soccer established","-28.20016781414597"],["play in organised competitions. 2017 research found 10.6% of 6–13 year-olds regularly play T-ball, making it the 14th most popular children's sport in Australia. This does not appear to translate into increased participation in baseball and softball which are not popular sports for teenagers older than 14.","-28.10786401873702"],["combined.)\nBaseball has been regarded as the national sport since the late 19th century, with Major League Baseball (MLB) being the top league, while American football is now by several measures the most popular spectator sport, with the National Football League (NFL) having the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world and a Super Bowl watched by millions globally. Basketball and ice hockey are the country's next two leading professional team sports, with the top leagues being the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the National Hockey League (NHL). These four major sports, when played professionally, each occupy a","-27.798326574324165"],["found that engagement with mixed martial arts had increased in the 21st century and was more popular than boxing and wrestling for Americans aged 18 to 34 years old, in contrast to those aged 35 and over who preferred boxing. In the United States, while the popularity of American football and the National Football League has declined among millennials, the popularity of Association football and Major League Soccer has increased more among millennials than for any other generation, and as of 2018 was the second most popular sport among those aged 18 to 34. The other popular activities included outdoor","-27.77827120589791"],["many older schools do not have outdoor facilities readily available.\nSports culture is stronger in independent schools in the United Kingdom, and these schools contribute disproportionate numbers of elite competitors in almost all sports with the exceptions of football, rugby league, boxing and perhaps athletics.\nIn addition to many of the sports already mentioned, popular sports at junior level include netball and rounders, both of which are played almost entirely by girls.\nThe leading body for physical education in the United Kingdom is the Association for Physical Education.\nIn 2006, the UK School Games was established by the Youth Sport Trust as an annual","-27.63520109083038"],["is most popular among those who live in the eastern United States and rural areas, while college football is most popular in the southern United States and among people with graduate and post-graduate degrees. Football is also the most-played sport by high school and college athletes in the United States. In a 2012 study, the NCAA estimated there were around 1.1 million high school football players and nearly 70,000 college football players in the United States; in comparison, the second-most played sport, basketball, had around 1 million participants in high school and 34,000 in college. The Super Bowl is the most popular","-27.035203562118113"],["a modified version of American football, at the international level. United States \"Baseball is still called the national pastime, but football is by far the more popular sport in American society\", according to ESPN.com's Sean McAdam. In a 2014 poll conducted by Harris Interactive, professional football ranked as the most popular sport, and college football ranked third behind only professional football and baseball; 46% of participants ranked some form of the game as their favorite sport. Professional football has ranked as the most popular sport in the poll since 1985, when it surpassed baseball for the first time. Professional football","-26.863113060724572"],["competition is not as important in American sports as it is in the sporting culture of most other countries, although Olympic ice hockey and basketball tournaments do generate attention. The first international baseball tournament with top-level players, the World Baseball Classic, also generated some positive reviews after its inaugural tournament in 2006.\nThe major professional sports leagues operate drafts once a year, in which each league's teams selected eligible prospects. Eligibility differs from league to league. Baseball and ice hockey operate minor league systems for players who have finished education but are not ready or good enough for the major leagues.","-26.701954368967563"],["one of the founders of the Brazilian \"form\" of American football after experimenting with boxing and judo. A significant number of female spectators are attracted to American football in Brazil; even to the point where they go to parties where the American football players pretend to speak English. Children between the ages of 8 to 13 are being encouraged by educational organizations to start participating in American football.\nOther traditional fixtures in the Brazilian sports lifestyle like volleyball and Formula One are slowly losing their fanbase to American football. Once the game transitioned from sand to grass, the popularity of","-26.67490736355103"],["international tournaments, soccer remained a niche sport in the U.S. for many years. In the three decades after the 1950 World Cup, the only victories for the United States came against Haiti, Bermuda, Honduras, Canada, Poland, and China. 1980s After the enthusiasm caused by the creation and rise of the North American Soccer League in the 1960s and 1970s, it seemed as though the U.S. men's national team would soon become a powerful force in world soccer. These hopes were not realized, however. The United States played only two international matches from 1981–1983.\nTo provide a more stable national team program","-26.658725332046743"],["English Premier League and the Spanish La Liga they make up the top six sports leagues by revenue in the world. In addition, the sports of these four leagues were all developed in their modern forms in North America, and all except American football have become popular internationally. Because the leagues enjoy a significant place in popular culture in the U.S. and Canada, the best players from these leagues often become cultural icons in both countries. Each Big Four league, as well as Major League Soccer and the Canadian Football League, averages at least 15,000 fans in attendance per game","-26.65427207679022"],["compete for the championship. Minor ice hockey and junior ice hockey serve an identical purpose for ice hockey and the National Hockey League (NHL). To a certain extent, Little League Baseball serves a similar purpose for professional baseball, although the vast majority of development and recruitment comes at the high school level.\nThe other major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada do not have a youth development system. The National Football League's players are developed predominantly through the educational system, first with high school football and then college football. Basketball players are typically developed and recruited straight out","-26.48367917726864"],["typically organised commercially and paid for by parents. Many children attend several a week, and occasionally even more than one per day. Similar activities also occur at weekends.\nThere is typically less focus on the managed \"enrichment\" than in the US, beyond the basic choice of activity; for example football (soccer) is physically active and develops teamwork. United States After school programs are very common today in the United States. The 40 largest national youth organizations today have a total membership of about 40 million youths. The Boys & Girls Clubs of America focus mainly on positive youth development. Their","-26.434157094656257"],["in 2014 and 2015. Modern history of youth and high school football (1933–present) American has become a popular participatory sport among youth. One of the earliest youth football organizations was founded in Philadelphia, in 1929, as the Junior Football Conference. Organizer Joe Tomlin started the league to provide activities and guidance for teenage boys who were vandalizing the factory he owned. The original four-team league expanded to sixteen teams in 1933 when Pop Warner, who had just been hired as the new coach of the Temple University football team, agreed to give a lecture to the boys in the league.","-26.316605326443096"],["States, women's international soccer basically didn’t exist. According to FIFA, there were only three national teams and two international matches played in 1971.\nAdditionally, in the years following Title IX, American high schools and colleges have been steadily embracing girls' and women's soccer. According to the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS), the U.S. had little more than 10,000 girls playing high school soccer in the late 1970s. This number had increased to 120,000 by 1991 when the USWNT claimed its first World Cup title, and 250,000 by 1999, the year of the second World Cup title. In 2015,","-26.275033571524546"],["Professional sports in the Western United States Professional sports have existed in the United States since the late 19th century. The NFL, MLB, NBA and NHL have millions of fans across the nation, and are an important part of American culture. Professional sports did not enter into the American West until the mid-twentieth century. However, the expansion of professional sports into the West has helped to increase the popularity of each of the professional leagues and has changed the landscape of professional sports in America. History Prior to World War II, top-level professional sports in the United States","-26.068630578767625"],["soccer created more popularity for the game in the 1980s. However, there were few professional opportunities for women in the United States, and the first national women's league, the USL W-League, wouldn't be established until 1995. National team The women's national team was formed in 1983, but wouldn't play its first games until 1985. In its first years, it played in little more than friendly tournaments, primarily against European teams, as few competitions for women's national teams yet existed. After the first FIFA Women's World Cup was announced for 1991 and especially on the United States being awarded the 1994","-26.049990090425126"],["with family, crime and other lack of opportunity.\nIn Global North nations, the evolving and complex youth sport system requires significant resources such as time, access, and money to develop as an athlete and play competitively. The financial costs involved in facilitating organized sport at an elite level ranges from an average of a few thousand dollars per year, to more than 20,000 dollars per year in some sports. For these financial reasons, participation is not feasible for a majority of kids growing up in lower income families.\nIn recent years, youth sports have become more expensive in the United States. ","-25.934809909116666"],["States, unlike their other Caribbean counterparts, where cricket, rugby, and netball have proven to be more popular.\nDexter Cambridge, Rick Fox, Ian Lockhart, Magnum Rolle, Buddy Hield and Deandre Ayton are a few Bahamians who joined Bahamian Mychal Thompson of the Los Angeles Lakers in the NBA ranks. Over the years American football has become much more popular than soccer, though not implemented in the high school system yet. Leagues for teens and adults have been developed by the Bahamas American Football Federation. However soccer, as it is commonly known in the country, is still a very popular sport amongst high","-25.859547261032276"],["leagues, in that there is no system of promotion and relegation between lower and higher leagues, but rather a minor league system, generally the same as almost all other top-level pro sports leagues in North America. In addition, teams playing in American soccer leagues are not private clubs founded independently of the league that join a league in order to ensure regular fixtures but are instead usually franchises of the league itself. Finally, the soccer leagues in the United States also incorporate features common to other American sports leagues, most notably the determination of champions by playoffs between the top","-25.835923933802405"],["in Division I soccer. Americans playing in foreign leagues Since the early 1990s, several Americans have found opportunities playing soccer at the highest levels of foreign leagues. Among the first Americans to become regulars in foreign leagues were John Harkes at Sheffield Wednesday and Derby County in England, Eric Wynalda at Saarbrücken in Germany, and Kasey Keller at Millwall in England. Since then, other Americans have played for clubs that have participated in the knockout rounds of the Champions League and Europa League, such as Brad Friedel with Tottenham Hotspur, DaMarcus Beasley with PSV Eindhoven, and Christian Pulisic with Borussia","-25.8125504180789"],["high school football and its impact on small town communities has been documented by landmark non-fiction works such as the 1990 book Friday Night Lights and the subsequent fictionalized film and television series. American football outside the United States (1874–present) American football has been played outside the US since the 1920s and accelerated in popularity after World War II, especially in countries with large numbers of U.S. military personnel, who often formed a substantial proportion of the players and spectators.\nIn 1998, the International Federation of American Football, was formed to coordinate international amateur competition. At present, 45 associations from the","-25.796411538634857"],["made up primarily of college and amateur players, leaving professionals such as Rick Davis and Hugo Perez off the roster. At the time, the United States did not have a top division outdoor soccer league, the North American Soccer League having folded in 1985. Most domestic professionals at the time played in indoor leagues, and Gansler felt that the skills required for indoor soccer conflicted with the outdoor game. In addition, the United States had been awarded the 1994 World Cup, and Gansler may have wanted to expose the core of the 1994 team to the World","-25.751903880620375"],["which (unlike other sports, which were primarily independent club activities) was cultivated at colleges and universities. As a result, players entering the professional football system are generally several years older and more physically mature than first-time professional athletes in other sports, thus reducing the need for a farm system.\nIn the 1930s, the Chicago Bears and New York Giants owned teams in the American Association, which became the first true minor league in professional football. In the 1960s, several NFL teams had agreements with the Atlantic Coast Football League to use their teams as farm teams, though they were not owned","-25.68952494086261"],["the United Kingdom, particularly British rock bands such as The Beatles and Herman's Hermits, The Rolling Stones, while its American precursor, the blues, greatly influenced British electric rock. Sport Despite sports being a major cultural interest in both the United States and the United Kingdom. The most popular team sports in each country, which are in the UK: football (soccer), rugby union, rugby league and cricket and the U.S.: [American] football, baseball, ice hockey and basketball are considered minor sports in either other country. However, there is a growing interest the other countries sports in each other country. Another area","-25.687749867443927"],["entirely of college soccer players who use the league as an opportunity to play competitive soccer in front of professional scouts during the summer, while retaining amateur status and NCAA eligibility.\nThe United States Adult Soccer Association governs amateur soccer competition for adults throughout the United States, which is effectively the amateur fifth division of soccer in the United States. Cup competitions The Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup is a knockout tournament in American soccer. The tournament is the oldest ongoing national soccer competition in the U.S. and was historically open to all United States Soccer Federation affiliated teams, from amateur","-25.659525363589637"],["promoted by adults. Sports Sportive activities are one of the most universal forms of play. Different continents have their own popular/dominant sports. For example, European, South American, and African countries enjoy soccer (also known as ‘football’ in Europe), while North American countries prefer basketball, ice hockey, baseball, or American football. In Asia, sports such as table tennis and badminton are played professionally; however soccer and basketball are played amongst common folks. Events such as The Olympic Games and FIFA World Cup showcase countries competing with each other and are broadcast all over the world.\nSports can be played as a leisure","-25.642516320658615"],["high schools and colleges have sports programs which include softball. Like baseball, softball in Japan is intensely competitive. Japan's win over the United States at the 2008 Olympics reflects the advanced level of play in this East Asian country. China Since the silver medal at the Atlanta Olympics, the Chinese have now made softball a priority at all levels. The game is played in most schools and with a 1.3 billion population; the number of great players is turning out to be a boon for China. The Chinese have frequently toured the US and have now similar caliber coaching and","-25.640264441084582"],["music \"lively\".\nThe developers found that 90% of players make positive decisions. Young boys initially thought the concept of girls playing soccer controversial; after playing the game, nearly 90% \"agreed that girls can play soccer\". Research by State University of New York at Buffalo \"demonstrated that the game had a profound impact on participants' awareness and attitudes, and also indicated behavioral change.\"\nThe game has been played in 185 countries, and led to mixed-gender youth soccer camps in El Salvador and the Palestinian territories (Hebron), the latter \"[challenging] social norms.\"","-25.627249107696116"],["match the goals of Knoxville's adult teams. As soccer has continued to grow in popularity throughout the United States, so has the number of adults interested in playing the sport, and the philosophy of the NPSL and WPSL has shifted to focus more on national player development and advancing the teams from one league level to the next. Emerald Youth’s goal with the adult teams was not to utilize them as a path to a major league soccer team. Instead, the focus was on leadership and character development.” Staff Derek Broadley was appointed head coach of the Force in February","-25.615539419846755"],["most popular sport. The men's national teams of Argentine, Uruguay and Spain have won the FIFA World Cup a total five times. The Spanish La Liga is one of the most popular in the world, known for FC Barcelona and Real Madrid. Meanwhile, the Argentine Primera División and Mexican Primera División are two of the strongest leagues in the Americas.\nHowever, baseball is the most popular sport in some Central American and Caribbean countries (especially Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and Venezuela), as well as in the diaspora in the United States. Notable Hispanic teams in early baseball are the All","-25.55684773484245"],["in the sport - have taken a step back. The lack of participation can be blamed on lack of leadership at the higher levels of the sport. In turn, this is due to a lack of knowledge of the sport in schools across Canada. Adding to the problem is that broomball is often confused with ringette and curling. Parents tend to sign their children up for mainstream sports such as hockey, although broomball is more well known in rural areas but lacks funding to become more popular in urban areas. Funding Broomball is recognized as one of the first 6","-25.485112313879654"],["Cup in 2017 in Guatemala, with Russia winning the title. Youth organisations The popularity of five-a-side youth football has grown tremendously within the U.S. Many organisations have chosen this format and modified it slightly to promote an environment where children can excel early in youth sports. American Youth Soccer Organization, United States Youth Soccer Association, and Fun Fair Positive Soccer are among the largest organisations bringing this format to the regional US-based youth soccer arena. Sponsorships In recent years a few five-a-side teams have found themselves with sponsorship deals amounting up to thousand of pounds contracts. Sponsors feel with the","-25.474072035372956"],["baseball's professional minor leagues are more extensive. Moving directly from high school to the professional level is more common in baseball than in football or basketball. However, if players enroll at a four-year college, they must complete three years to regain eligibility, unless they reach age 21 before starting their third year of attendance. Players who enroll at junior colleges (i.e., two-year institutions) regain eligibility after one year at that level, Bryce Harper being a notable example. In 2013, there are 298 NCAA Division I teams in the United States.\nAs with most other U.S. intercollegiate sports, competitive college baseball is","-25.470403464976698"],["According to the president of the International Baseball Federation, between 300,000 and 500,000 women and girls play baseball around the world, including Little League and the introductory game of Tee Ball.\nA varsity baseball team is an established part of physical education departments at most high schools and colleges in the United States. In 2015, nearly half a million high schoolers and over 34,000 collegians played on their schools' baseball teams. By early in the 20th century, intercollegiate baseball was Japan's leading sport. Today, high school baseball in particular is immensely popular there. The final rounds of the two annual tournaments—the","-25.37037297076313"],["American Soccer League, they had few opportunities for playing outdoor soccer. Even the indoor leagues began struggling in the late 1980s. Several U.S. players moved overseas, but others, like Krumpe, found themselves moving from one financially struggling U.S. club to another. In 1991, having reached the highest levels of the game, at the 1990 World Cup, he decided to hang up his cleats and enter the coaching career field. Coaching In 1989, Krumpe had worked with the coaching staff of the Cal State Dominguez Hills women’s soccer team. That gave him a taste for coaching and","-25.31149699521484"],["60s, 70s and 80s the sport saw the most growth in the area. Most schools, even small rural schools had a football program.\nDuring this time period is when most of the area's schools' rivalries came to fruition. Modern years (1991–present) After the massive growth of the sport, football has continued its success in this region. Fans have continued to support their local schools or colleges in the area with a passion. Even though there is no professional franchise in the area many people root for either the Philadelphia Eagles or Pittsburgh Steelers. High school level football Of the 102 public","-25.29734349870705"],["the dawn of the twentieth century.\nDespite the difference in popularity of their respective professional leagues, association football overtook ice hockey in the 1980s and 1990s as the sport with the most registered players in the country. In 2008, there were 873,032 footballers, compared to 584,679 registered hockey players in Canada in 2008–09. Major League Soccer Major League Soccer (MLS) is the highest level of professional soccer in the United States and Canada. Currently there are three MLS teams located in Canada. Toronto FC became the first Canadian club in 2007. An MLS franchise was awarded to Vancouver in 2009 and","-25.217643634881824"],["in schools also in the rise, Mind Sports South Africa reports that there are now over 30 schools that participate in the official league, with school teams competing on an equal footing with many of the best private clubs in the country.\nNigeria, Kenya and Uganda are the other top game developers in Africa. The gaming industry is bringing millions of dollars in for their countries per year. This is in all categories of gaming: mobile, PC, Xbox, and PS. Because it was not the culture of the African people, the people are slowly growing into the gaming entertainment.\nSouth Africa also","-25.19646765559446"],["field, basketball, baseball, softball, volleyball and Association football where primary and high schools compete against each other. Today cricket is still enjoyed by a few locals and immigrants in the country, usually from Jamaica, Guyana, Haiti and Barbados. Cricket is played on Saturdays and Sundays at Windsor Park and Haynes Oval.\nThe only other sporting event that began before cricket was horse racing, which started in 1796. The most popular spectator sports are those imported from the United States, such as basketball, American football, and baseball, rather than from the British Isles, due to the country's close proximity to the United","-25.16736934954679"],["obscure sports often operate at a semi-professional level due to cost concerns. Because the cost of running a fully professional American football team is prohibitive, semi-pro football is common at the adult levels, particularly in the indoor variety, providing an outlet for players who have used up their NCAA eligibility and have no further use for maintaining amateur status; as a sport that normally plays only one game per week, football is especially suited for semi-pro play. The National Lacrosse League, whose teams also typically play only one game per week, pays a salary that is enough to be considered","-25.107841441989876"],["very popular and serve as those sports' most prominent competitions with levels of media coverage, competition, and fan following comparable to the major professional team sports. Amateur competitions such as college football and college basketball, at the upper echelons, also enjoy strong media coverage and fan followings but are generally recognized as inferior to the major professional leagues in level of play because of the inherent limits of the amateur sports system. Major League Baseball Major League Baseball is the highest level of play of baseball in North America. It consists of the National League (founded in 1876) and the","-25.088516461866675"],["first-year player draft. In Asia, baseball is among the most popular sports in Japan and South Korea.\nThe major league game in the United States was originally targeted toward a middle-class, white-collar audience: relative to other spectator pastimes, the National League's set ticket price of 50 cents in 1876 was high, while the location of playing fields outside the inner city and the workweek daytime scheduling of games were also obstacles to a blue-collar audience. A century later, the situation was very different. With the rise in popularity of other team sports with much higher average ticket prices—football, basketball, and hockey—professional","-25.083683213219047"],["child playing ice hockey, while 25% of households have a child playing soccer, and 24% of households have a child participating in swimming. The sport faces increasing competition from other popular sports such as basketball, soccer, and field hockey, which all have high participation rates. Another factor facing participation rates is the relative higher cost of hockey equipment. In 2013, the average cost of ice hockey equipment for youth was estimated at CA$730 while basketball equipment cost $310 and soccer equipment cost $160. Women's ice hockey Women's hockey in Canada is growing. The professional Canadian Women's Hockey League (which includes","-25.04369813980884"],["team, they may start out in the American Hockey League, which is similar to the minor leagues in baseball. Hockey has a little bit bigger of a roster compared to other professional sports, which makes it hard to have so many players on the bubble.","-25.01401774707483"],["part of education, or sometimes even with the specific goal of becoming a professional.\nAssociation football is one of the most popular sports played by the male population on the island. In recent years, there has been an increasing number of female footballers as well. Children often start playing football at an early age, and many play active for several years. As their skills develop, they are systematically graded up (or down) in divisions, a type of ranking system. Notable soccer players, such as Arne Larsen Økland, Geirmund Brendesæter, and Gunnar Meling, started their careers in Bremnes IL, one of the","-24.949481750896666"],["Professional sports leagues in the United States Professional sports leagues in the United States include several major leagues as well as other professional and semi-professional leagues. Major leagues The major sports leagues tend to have the greatest fan interest, have national TV contracts, draw high fan attendance, and have teams located throughout the largest metropolitan areas in the United States. Major League Baseball Major League Baseball is the highest level of play of baseball in North America. It consists of the National League (founded in 1876) and the American League (founded in 1901). Cooperation between the two leagues began in","-24.928952956821377"],["American football jumped. Players are only asked to practice occasionally and women have been embraced into even the \"full contact\" leagues. Copacabana Beach is considered to be the birthplace of American football in Brazil; where 20 men played the first game of American football in Brazilian history. All American football games not done on the beach are played out in public parks and teams must pay up to $300 to the municipality as rent. All Brazil had for equipment in 1989 was mouthguards from boxing rings and imported American footballs.\nProhibitive travel expenses would prevent the National Football League from expanding","-24.927439092687564"],["United States national beach soccer team Early years The sport of beach soccer originated in Brazil, where locals played soccer on the beaches for recreation. In 1992, the United States created official rules and a national team for the South American sport, which led other countries to do the same. Then in 1993, the United States held the first ever professional beach soccer event, which included national teams from Brazil, Argentina, and Italy. A year later in 1994, the U.S. team competed in the first ever Beach Soccer World Championship tournament in Brazil. The U.S. team competed in World Championships","-24.905029034373"],["in 1972 in an attempt to increase the number of U.S.- and Canadian-born players in the league. The foreign image of soccer was not helped, however, by a league that brought in many older, high-profile foreign players, and frequently left Americans on the bench. This effort was often doubly futile, as while many of the foreign players were perhaps \"big names\" in their home countries, almost none of them qualified as such in North America, and they quickly absorbed most of the available payroll, such as it was, which could have otherwise been used to pay North American players better.","-24.85344225895824"],["favorite sport was 9%, compared to pro football at 37%. In 1985, the respective figures were pro football 24%, baseball 23%. Because there are so many more major league games played, there is no comparison in overall attendance. In 2008, total attendance at major league games was the second-highest in history: 78.6 million, 0.7% off the record set the previous year. The following year, amid the U.S. recession, attendance fell by 6.6% to 73.4 million. Eight years later, it dropped under 73 million. Attendance at games held under the Minor League Baseball umbrella set a record in 2008, with 43.3","-24.843836801039288"],["extant indoor leagues date to the mid-2000s and are regional in nature.\nDedicated women's football is seldom seen. A few amateur and semi-professional leagues exist, of varying degrees of stability and competition. Football is unique among scholastic sports in the U.S. in that no women's division exists for the sport; women who wish to play football in high school or college must compete directly with men. Basketball Of those Americans citing their favorite sport, basketball is ranked second (counting amateur levels) behind football. However, in regards to money the NBA is ranked third in popularity. More Americans play basketball than any","-24.84000977757387"],["Other sports with significant support are hockey, swimming, athletics, golf, boxing, tennis and netball. Although association football commands the greatest following among the youth, other sports like basketball, surfing, and skateboarding are increasingly popular.\nFamous boxing personalities include Baby Jake Jacob Matlala, Vuyani Bungu, Welcome Ncita, Dingaan Thobela, Gerrie Coetzee and Brian Mitchell. Footballers who have played for major foreign clubs include Lucas Radebe and Philemon Masinga, (both formerly of Leeds United), Quinton Fortune (Atlético Madrid and Manchester United), Benni McCarthy (Ajax Amsterdam, F.C. Porto, Blackburn Rovers and West Ham United), Aaron Mokoena (Ajax Amsterdam, Blackburn Rovers and Portsmouth), Delron Buckley","-24.834512077795807"],["common in a country with few luxuries. Informal games are often played by youths using a bundle of rags as a ball. Professional game Men's soccer has so far outpaced the women's game—or any other sport—as the focus of public attention as a spectator sport. History The French introduced the game to what was then French Soudan in the early 20th century, and the first organised leagues open to Africans appeared in the 1930s. Jeanne d'Arc du Soudan, founded in 1938 by two French-Africans and the missionary Révérend Père Bouvier, borrowed its name from the Senegalese club Jeanne d'Arc","-24.827171360870125"],["Expansion of major sports leagues in the United States and Canada The expansion of major sports leagues in the United States and Canada has occurred throughout the twentieth century for all of the major professional sports leagues in those two countries. United States Professional sports leagues as known today evolved during the decades between the Civil War and World War II, when the railroad was the main means of intercity transportation. As a result, virtually all major league teams were concentrated in the northeastern quarter of the United States, within roughly the radius of a day-long train ride. No MLB","-24.78245426320791"],["occupy a season at different but overlapping, times of the year. College football and basketball attract large audiences. In soccer, the country hosted the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the men's national soccer team qualified for ten World Cups and the women's team has won the FIFA Women's World Cup four times; Major League Soccer is the sport's highest league in the United States (featuring 21 American and 3 Canadian teams). The market for professional sports in the United States is roughly $69 billion, roughly 50% larger than that of all of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa combined.\nEight Olympic Games","-24.76898054103367"],["including Jack Thompson and Anita Sarkeesian, have met extreme resistance from the gaming public in response to the perceived politicizing of their art form. Sports The United States recognizes eSports players as professional athletes. Major League Gaming has eSports arenas and studios across the nation. Robert Morris University has a League of Legends varsity team, whose members are eligible for scholarships. Trends Players become fourth-party developers, allowing for more open source models of game design, development and engineering. Players also create modifications (mods), which in some cases become just as popular as the original game for which they were created.","-24.7573504926404"],["1989 and works with nearly 2,000 youth each year. The organization empowers underserved youth through soccer, character development, mentoring, and employability programs. Throughout the 1990s, Soccer in the Streets introduced soccer to many urban and underserved communities through soccer clinics, especially during the 1994 and 1998 FIFA World Cups and the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup. In recent years, Soccer in the Streets has developed programming geared towards preparing youth for success on and off the field. Year round programming serves youth from kindergarten through early adulthood. Global organizations Sport for Social Development is a worldwide","-24.709070000069914"],["children. As in baseball, teams alternate half-innings. The team with the most runs after a predefined number of innings wins.\nKickball is a popular playground game and is typically played among young, school-age children. The lack of both specialized equipment and highly skill-based positions (like pitcher) makes the game an accessible introduction to other sports. It is just as popular among adults, who are more commonly known to play similar games like softball and baseball.\n\"The game seems to afford equal enjoyment to the children and it gives a better understanding of the national game (Baseball), and at the same time affords","-24.699694614857435"],["most played sport with all demographics, including ethnic origin, ages and genders. Professional teams exist in many cities in Canada – with a trio of teams in North America's top pro league, Major League Soccer – and international soccer competitions such as the FIFA World Cup, UEFA Euro and the UEFA Champions League attract some of the biggest audiences in Canada. Other popular team sports include curling, street hockey, cricket, rugby league, rugby union, softball and Ultimate frisbee. Popular individual sports include auto racing, boxing, karate, kickboxing, hunting, sport shooting, fishing, cycling, golf, hiking, horse racing, ice skating, skiing, snowboarding, swimming, triathlon,","-24.684398727782536"],["improving the social, mental and physical well-being of inner-city residents.\nSocial agencies such as the YMCA and YWCA, as well as Boys and Girls Clubs, and Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts, provided most of the organized sports to youth in America prior to 1954. While athletics was encouraged by the social gospel movement, youth sports were often organized by youth themselves through the social agencies. This shifted to adults organizing youth sports programs, which was exemplified with the advent of Little League Baseball by Carl Stotz. Little League Baseball was formed in 1939, with a three team league, while in","-24.682725240301806"],["regular season games. Early professional soccer activity was concentrated almost entirely on an East Coast corridor from Baltimore to Boston, though a series of leagues located solely within the St. Louis metropolitan area also served as de facto major leagues for periods.\nAs travel and settlement patterns changed, so did the geography of professional sports. With the arguable exception of the western hockey teams which competed for the Stanley Cup in the early 20th century and the independent Los Angeles Bulldogs football team of the 1930s and 1940s, there were no major league teams in the far west until after World","-24.657302438714396"],["Comparisons between the National Football League and NCAA football The National Football League (NFL) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) are respectively the most popular professional and amateur football organizations in the United States. The National Football League was founded in 1920 and has since become the largest and most popular sport in the United States. The NFL has the highest average attendance of any sporting league in the world, with an average attendance of 66,960 persons per game during the 2011 NFL season. While the NFL championship game, the Super Bowl, is a large sporting event in club","-24.578869842618587"],["National League, giving MLB a legal monopoly over professional baseball in the US.\nThe other major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada have followed the MLB model of a closed shop with no merit-based promotion or relegation since their inceptions. Early football leagues in England In contrast to baseball's NABBP, the first governing body in English football survived the onset of professionalism, which it formally accepted in 1885. Perhaps the great geographical concentration of population and the corresponding short distances between urban centres was crucial. Certainly it provided the opportunity for more clubs' developing large fan bases without","-24.57482701598201"],["the United States. \nIn 1862, The Oneida Football Club in Boston was the first organized team to play any kind of \"football/soccer\" in the United States. It was founded by Gerrit Smith \"Gat\" Miller, a graduate of the Latin School of Epes Sargent Dixwell, a private college preparatory school in Boston, who grew tired of the chaotic, disorganized, and very violent games that arose from different schools, as well as the rule variations of soccer that existed as a by-product of no formal rules for the game during that era. Miller organized other recent preparatory school graduates from relatively elite","-24.56567227951018"],["players became a concern and was limited. In 2002, Canada won its first men's ice hockey title in 50 years, at the Olympics in Salt Lake City, using NHL players. The Canadian team won another title in 2010, at the Olympics held in Vancouver, where the Olympics used Canadian standard-sized rinks. Football, rugby and soccer The game of Soccer goes back centuries in England, where around 1823 was transformed into rugby. The first game in Canada came in the 1860s with British officers playing university students in Montreal. Universities quickly adopted the new sport, as did rowing clubs that","-24.539498978527263"],["football as the most popular sport in the country. Recent years have been characterized by increasing attendance and ticket prices for professional baseball games. The Korea Professional Baseball league, a 10-team circuit, was established in 1982. The South Korea national team finished third in the 2006 World Baseball Classic and second in the 2009 tournament. The team's 2009 final game against Japan was widely watched in Korea, with a large screen at Gwanghwamun crossing in Seoul broadcasting the game live. In the 2008 Summer Olympics, South Korea won the gold medal in baseball. Also in 1982, at the Baseball Worldcup,","-24.526163117639953"],["field, the future of baseball was questioned as there was an absence of young players coming through the ranks. Southern Softball was experiencing a similar problem so Baseball Tasmania and the Southern Softball Association formed a joint venture to re-introduce t-ball to school children and through that, give them the skills and options to play baseball or softball. The Batter Up T-ball League was formed and the first games were played on Saturday 24 October 2015.","-24.518486807792215"],["season at different, but overlapping, times of the year. College football and basketball attract large audiences. In soccer, the country hosted the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the men's national soccer team qualified to seven World Cups and the women's team has won the FIFA Women's World Cup four times; Major League Soccer is the sport's highest league in the United States.\nBoxing and horse racing were once the most watched individual sports, but they have been eclipsed by golf and auto racing, particularly NASCAR.","-24.50402750496869"],["in the Australian Football League to date there is still no AFL competition in the country. Traditional sports Sport in older times had a practical place, apart from recreation, helping train young warriors. One such practice would have the older men bring the male children a severally injured captive of war, allowing the boys to practice their archery skills against this living target. There were other sports that were practiced in older times which are not practiced now. Notable traditional sports used to be played were tiqa, ulutoa, veisaga, and veisolo.","-24.463548439205624"],["American football in Brazil Summary Historically, American football games were played on sand, as to avoid the use of exported equipment from the United States of America and to reduce the impact of the tackles. The 2010s have seen most Brazilian states develop American football teams of various types; including flag football, tackle American football and women's football. A Brazilian Portuguese forum regarding American football was founded in 1998 in order to get more people watching the games on ESPN. As of 2013, there are 2500 Brazilian people who play American football. The first organized American football game between two","-24.449912071191648"],["Soccer which operates in the United States and Canada as well as for many teams of the lower divisions of the United States soccer pyramid. Supporter culture in the United States, like the United States itself, has elements from many different countries including England, Italy, Argentina, Germany and many others. Major League Soccer holds an annual \"Supporters' Summit\" to meet with the leadership of most of its supporter groups to discuss issues including: security, self-policing, supporter group managed sections, and strategies for league success. Many teams in other leagues including the National Premier Soccer League, USL Pro, USL Premier Development","-24.291547064353836"],["was in New Orleans that many of the first games of soccer in America were held. The origins of the game in general trace back to ancient Greece, Rome, Egypt, or China. It is difficult to say for sure which country was the true origin.\nOneida Football Club has been named as the first association football club in the United States but there is still discussion on what rules the club used, and it broke up within the space of a few years. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, the club is often credited with inventing the \"Boston Game\", which allowed players to","-24.290761817932434"],["Like sibling care, employment is another obstacle that prevents low-income youth from taking advantage of after school programs. Youth from less affluent homes are likely to work longer hours than youth from more affluent homes. According to television broadcast statistics, Hispanic and African-American teen and children are now more targeted by fast food restaurants, Spanish-language advertisement on TV has increased by 8%, and restaurants such as KFC and Burger King have increased their spending on Spanish advertisements from 35% to 41% while decreasing English-language advertising. Access to space Between the years 1980 and 2000, obesity rates doubled among young children","-24.27679740189342"],["metropolitan areas, continued to see excessive popularity of the sport, specifically with ethnic groups and expatriates. The popularity of soccer in these areas reflected on the Challenge Cup during the later Great Depression years, through the World War II years. Most clubs participating were either top amateur teams or semi-professional clubs that hoisted a handful of U.S. internationals, who worked part-time jobs. World War II and ASL II As World War II raged on, the National Challenge Cup continued to hold the annual tournament, in spite of several other European nations putting their domestic cups on hold. During the","-24.276335222073612"],["Major League Baseball Urban Youth Academy The Major League Baseball Youth Academy are a series of academies opening in cities across the United States and one in Puerto Rico that provides free year-round instruction in baseball and softball to the area's youth. History The first Youth Academy opened in 2002 in Puerto Rico as the Puerto Rico Baseball Academy and High School. In 2006, the first Major League Baseball Urban Youth Academy in the United States was opened in Compton, California, providing free baseball and softball instruction to Southern California youth, ages 8–17. Since then academies have opened in Houston,","-24.260716197786678"],["studies, mathematics, science, music, fine arts, industrial arts, homemaking, health, and physical education. Moral education and special activities continue to receive attention. Extracurricular activities Many students participate in after-school clubs. Sports clubs, such as baseball are especially popular among boys, while wind bands are the most popular club for girls. Soccer (football) clubs are gaining popularity. Judo clubs attract boys and girls. They may be inspired by the many Japanese judo athletes who have won medals at the World Judo Championships and the Olympic Games. Other popular sports clubs include tennis, basketball, gymnastics, and volleyball. In every sport, many games","-24.24490983824944"],["in the Rugby League Conference with seven teams, including four in the Glasgow/West Scotland area having formed in 2006. But, unlike in England, rugby league is not one of the ten most played sports in Scotland amongst adults. Junior development has been much more rapid, with several Conference teams having junior squads as well as other clubs who don't run an open-age squad having various junior squads. An estimated 2,500 children play rugby league in Scotland, with that figure growing to 12,500 when you add the number of children who play the sport in various school programmes. In terms of","-24.227795034836163"],["College soccer College soccer is played by teams composed of soccer players who are enrolled in colleges and universities. While it is most widespread in the United States, it is also prominent in South Korea and Canada. The institutions typically hire full-time professional coaches and staff, although the student athletes are strictly amateur and are not paid. College soccer in the United States is sponsored by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the sports regulatory body for major universities, and by the governing bodies for smaller universities and colleges. This sport is played on a rectangular field of","-24.1986019515316"],["are one of the greatest soccer programs in the history of the sport. The Hoosiers have won eight national championships in men's soccer (1982, 1983, 1988, 1998, 1999, 2003, 2004 and 2012), second only to St. Louis' 10. Indiana owns more wins, has appeared in more College Cups (19) and has a higher winning percentage in both regular season and post-season play than any other school in Division I soccer.\nThe Hoosiers have also dominated conference play. Since the Big Ten began sponsoring men's soccer in 1991, Indiana has won 11 Big Ten tournament titles. Indiana has also been crowned regular","-24.198428058121863"],["in developing their talent than their university coaches. Some sports are attempting to adapt to new conditions in which a far higher proportion of British teenagers attend university than in the past, notably cricket, which has established several university centres of excellence. School sport Sport is compulsory for all students up to the age of sixteen, but the amount of time devoted to it is often small. There are frequent complaints that state sector schools do too little to encourage sport and a healthy lifestyle. In the 1980s, the government sold many schools sports fields to housing developers; as such,","-24.185509203583933"],["All Elite Wrestling (AEW).\nJudo in the United States is not very popular and is eclipsed by more popular martial arts like karate and taekwondo. Swimming and water sports Swimming is a major competitive sport at high school and college level, but receives little mainstream media attention outside of the Olympics.\nSurfing in the United States and watersports are popular in the U.S. in coastal areas. California and Hawaii are the most popular locations for surfing. The Association of Surfing Professionals was founded in 1983. American football Football has the most participants of any sport at both high school and college levels,","-24.182335039280588"],["competition have increased, schools have expanded their facilities, and in general the league has positioned itself as one of the state's most competitive high school competitions.\nSoccer has long been the dominant sport among MCC schools; while several schools have had competitive football teams (including state championships won by DeSmet in 2005 and CBC in 2014, 2017, and 2018), it has been \"the beautiful game\" where the MCC has excelled. It is not uncommon for even the league's two smallest schools, Chaminade and Vianney, to field four teams, such is the popularity of soccer among their students. In fact, there has","-24.171816595713608"],["hockey, lacrosse and soccer. The state's major professional sporting teams include: Cincinnati Reds (Major League Baseball), Ohio Machine (Major League Lacrosse), Cleveland Indians (Major League Baseball), Cincinnati Bengals (National Football League), Cleveland Browns (National Football League), Cleveland Cavaliers (National Basketball Association), Columbus Blue Jackets (National Hockey League), and the Columbus Crew (Major League Soccer).\nOhio played a central role in the development of both Major League Baseball and the National Football League. Baseball's first fully professional team, the Cincinnati Red Stockings of 1869, were organized in Ohio. An informal early-20th-century American football association, the Ohio League, was the direct predecessor of","-24.17177894053748"],["game would go on to be introduced to Yale University, Columbia University, Cornell University, & Boston's Harvard University. This hybrid form of football, that would evolve into what is now American football, would eventually adopt codified rules based primarily on those established for English rugby, gained prominence & acceptance within the college circles, & upper-class status, relegating the uncodified \"soccer\" variety of the game to working class status, that was adopted by the immigrant communities that brought along their soccer customs & traditions with them to the region. \n1967 brought about the birth of nationwide professional soccer featuring two competing","-24.085697273665573"],["and women who come from Australian regional and rural cities. It is argued that regional and rural cities offer children more space to play, a range of sports, participation with adults due to low participation numbers and local sporting heroes. It has been stated that 60 per cent of the Australian team at the 2004 Athens Olympics grew up in rural and regional Australia. Besides developing international athletes, many Australian Football League (AFL) and National Rugby League players have their origins in country areas. In 2010, one-third of AFL players came from country Victoria.","-24.078768006758764"],["The Other Kids The Other Kids was an American alternative pop band formed in Madison, Wisconsin in 1985 by Steve Watson (lead vocals, guitars), Allyn Watson (bass, vocals), and Chris Fink (drums, vocals). One of the most popular Madison rock bands of the mid-to-late 80s, The Other Kids disbanded in 1992, just as the alternative pop sound they were known for began to break into the commercial mainstream. The Milwaukee Shepherd called The Other Kids \"probably Wisconsin's best classic pop-rock band, working those Alex Chiltonesque melodies together with empathetic intelligent lyrics, edgy guitars and a solid beat.\" The band's sound","-24.071453544311225"],["1993; this proved a costly blunder, as four teams folded and the fifth moved to Montreal. After surviving the closing of the Ottawa Rough Riders in 1996 and bankruptcies by the Toronto and Hamilton teams in 2003, football has recovered and is in fair health in the 21st century.\nSoccer in Canada has grown in popularity in recent decades, especially as a school sport for boys and girls. It has more players than ice hockey. At the professional level, the Toronto FC in 2007 became the first Canadian club in the American Major League Soccer (MLS). In 2009, another MLS franchise","-24.064316095857066"],["sport originated in the 19th century out of older games related to modern rugby football, more specifically rugby league football. American and Canadian football developed alongside each other and were originally more distinct before Canadian teams adopted features of the American game. Both varieties are distinguished from other football sports by their use of hard plastic helmets and shoulder pads, the forward pass, the system of downs, a number of unique rules and positions, measurement in customary units of yards (even in Canada, which mostly metricated in the 1970s, yards are still used), and a distinctive brown leather ball in","-24.058762112661498"],["teams, and the revenue of the ticket sales. The indirect impacts didn’t stop there either; the newly introduced professional league in the United States engendered one of the fastest growing youth sports in the country. Youth soccer took off and the selling of apparel and gear for the sport was a target for private businesses to focus on selling.\nHowever, a critic has argued that the event cost the United States $5.6 billion. Asia In the 2002 World Cup, several other advantages were discovered when the host was split between Japan and Korea. This was the first time the tournament had","-23.99871025819448"],["also been growing in popularity in both men and women and with international participation in world of this discipline being among the best teams in the world, the sport was introduced by Americans residing in the Canal Zone for veterans and retirees who even had a festival called the Turkey Ball. Other popular sports are American football, rugby, hockey, softball and other amateur sports including skateboarding, BMX and surfing, because the many beaches of Panama such as Santa Catalina and Venao that have hosted events the likes of ISA World Surfing Games.\nLong jumper Irving Saladino became the first Panamanian Olympic","-23.973640395066468"],["the earliest and strongest areas for American soccer, spawning dozens of teams from the towns of Harrison, Kearny and East Newark. The areas strength in soccer rested on two Scottish companies, Clark Thread Company and Michael Nairn & Company, which established their American operations in the area. The two companies drew Scottish immigrants to their plants which then served as the basis for many of the areas powerhouse teams. In Harrison, the West Hudson A.A. drew its players from the city at large, rather than operating as a company team like many others in the area. Records do not currently","-23.969524217733124"],["in private schools, although it is gaining ground in public schools where it can be played on futsal grounds. The national team is considered the best in South America, and the sport is gaining in media coverage. The national league is broadcast on cable television, sponsored by Petrobras. Brazil women's national handball team were crowned world champions for the first time at the 2013 Championship. Beach handball At the Beach Handball World Championships Brazil has more titles for both genders than any country. American football American football is played by young people in some states. The most popular varieties are","-23.96832675164478"],["season in the face of rapidly declining fan interest and a poor reputation. However, XFL stars such as Tommy Maddox and Rod \"He Hate Me\" Smart later saw success in the NFL. Youth and high school football (1863–present) Football is a popular participatory sport among youth. One of the earliest youth football organizations was founded in Philadelphia, in 1929, as the Junior Football Conference. Organizer Joe Tomlin started the league to provide activities and guidance for teenage boys who were vandalizing the factory he owned. The original four-team league expanded to sixteen teams in 1933 when Pop Warner, who had","-23.93515961081721"],["Comparison of American football and rugby league Origins Both sports descend from the older game of rugby football, which originated in 19th Century England. British colonists and the British military in Canada brought football to North America. It became popular in American and Canadian universities and prep schools. At the time, association football and rugby football were not as differentiated as they are now and teams would negotiate the rules before playing each game. The sports of American football and Canadian football evolved from these intercollegiate games.\nMeanwhile, in England a schism developed in rugby football between those who favoured","-23.92938666031114"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"sports organizations have turned to soccer as a supplement to American football, and most American high schools offer both boys and girls soccer. Due to the rising number of youths playing, the term \\\"soccer mom\\\" is used in American social and political discourse to describe middle- or upper-middle-class suburban women with school-age children. Americans between the ages of 12 and 24 rank professional soccer as their second favorite sport behind only American football. And in 2011, the FIFA video game ranked as the #2 most popular video game in the country, behind only Madden NFL.\\nThough organized locally by organizations all\",\n \"-34.612482444324996\"\n ],\n [\n \"played team sport by high school boys, and soccer overtook softball to become the #3 most played team sport by high school girls. As of 2006, the U.S. was the #1 country in the world for participation in youth soccer, with 3.9 million American youths (2.3 million boys and 1.6 million girls) registered with U.S. Soccer. Among girls, the U.S. has more registered players than all other countries combined. The number of high school soccer players more than doubled from 1990 to 2010, giving soccer the fastest growth rate among all major U.S. sports. In recent decades, more youth\",\n \"-30.87779082148336\"\n ],\n [\n \"even wrestling is way off the mark.\\\" About the launch of Major League Soccer, Lavalle was quoted as saying in 1994, \\\"There is no chance it will survive. Absolutely no chance whatsoever.\\\" \\nMajor League Soccer has now operated continuously since 1996 and has expanded to 19 teams in the United States and Canada; in 2011 it had a higher average attendance than either the NBA or the NHL. In 2012, a Luker/ESPN survey showed that soccer was the second most popular sport among Americans aged 12–24, behind only NFL football; seven percent of this age bracket\",\n \"-30.105736180994427\"\n ],\n [\n \"United States in recent years. Soccer is played by over 13 million people in the U.S., making it the third-most played sport in the U.S., more widely played than ice hockey and football. Most NCAA Division I colleges field both a men's and women's varsity soccer team, and those that field only one team almost invariably field a women's team.\\nThe United States men's national team and women's national team, as well as a number of national youth teams, represent the United States in international soccer competitions and are governed by the United States Soccer Federation (U.S. Soccer). The U.S. women's\",\n \"-29.10618915874511\"\n ],\n [\n \"over the United States, there are three main youth soccer club leagues working nationwide through affiliated local associations. The United States Youth Soccer Association boasts over three million players between the ages of five and 19, while American Youth Soccer Organization has more than 600,000 players between the ages of four and 19. Finally, the USL offers a number of youth leagues, including the Super-20 League and the Super Y-League, which have almost 1,000 teams and tens of thousands of players from the ages of 13 to 20.\\nAlso, the National Federation of State High School Associations features 800,000 soccer players.\",\n \"-28.357729564770125\"\n ],\n [\n \"the sport, due to factors such as the U.S. hosting of the 1994 FIFA World Cup and the formation of Major League Soccer, as well as increased U.S. television coverage of soccer competitions. Many immigrants living in the United States continue to follow soccer as their favorite team sport. United States will host the 2026 FIFA World Cup sharing with Canada and Mexico.\\nWomen's professional soccer in the United States has not seen sustained success. Following the demise of two professional leagues in the early 21st century, the Women's United Soccer Association (1999–2001) and Women's Professional Soccer (2009–2011), U.S. Soccer established\",\n \"-28.20016781414597\"\n ],\n [\n \"play in organised competitions. 2017 research found 10.6% of 6–13 year-olds regularly play T-ball, making it the 14th most popular children's sport in Australia. This does not appear to translate into increased participation in baseball and softball which are not popular sports for teenagers older than 14.\",\n \"-28.10786401873702\"\n ],\n [\n \"combined.)\\nBaseball has been regarded as the national sport since the late 19th century, with Major League Baseball (MLB) being the top league, while American football is now by several measures the most popular spectator sport, with the National Football League (NFL) having the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world and a Super Bowl watched by millions globally. Basketball and ice hockey are the country's next two leading professional team sports, with the top leagues being the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the National Hockey League (NHL). These four major sports, when played professionally, each occupy a\",\n \"-27.798326574324165\"\n ],\n [\n \"found that engagement with mixed martial arts had increased in the 21st century and was more popular than boxing and wrestling for Americans aged 18 to 34 years old, in contrast to those aged 35 and over who preferred boxing. In the United States, while the popularity of American football and the National Football League has declined among millennials, the popularity of Association football and Major League Soccer has increased more among millennials than for any other generation, and as of 2018 was the second most popular sport among those aged 18 to 34. The other popular activities included outdoor\",\n \"-27.77827120589791\"\n ],\n [\n \"many older schools do not have outdoor facilities readily available.\\nSports culture is stronger in independent schools in the United Kingdom, and these schools contribute disproportionate numbers of elite competitors in almost all sports with the exceptions of football, rugby league, boxing and perhaps athletics.\\nIn addition to many of the sports already mentioned, popular sports at junior level include netball and rounders, both of which are played almost entirely by girls.\\nThe leading body for physical education in the United Kingdom is the Association for Physical Education.\\nIn 2006, the UK School Games was established by the Youth Sport Trust as an annual\",\n \"-27.63520109083038\"\n ],\n [\n \"is most popular among those who live in the eastern United States and rural areas, while college football is most popular in the southern United States and among people with graduate and post-graduate degrees. Football is also the most-played sport by high school and college athletes in the United States. In a 2012 study, the NCAA estimated there were around 1.1 million high school football players and nearly 70,000 college football players in the United States; in comparison, the second-most played sport, basketball, had around 1 million participants in high school and 34,000 in college. The Super Bowl is the most popular\",\n \"-27.035203562118113\"\n ],\n [\n \"a modified version of American football, at the international level. United States \\\"Baseball is still called the national pastime, but football is by far the more popular sport in American society\\\", according to ESPN.com's Sean McAdam. In a 2014 poll conducted by Harris Interactive, professional football ranked as the most popular sport, and college football ranked third behind only professional football and baseball; 46% of participants ranked some form of the game as their favorite sport. Professional football has ranked as the most popular sport in the poll since 1985, when it surpassed baseball for the first time. Professional football\",\n \"-26.863113060724572\"\n ],\n [\n \"competition is not as important in American sports as it is in the sporting culture of most other countries, although Olympic ice hockey and basketball tournaments do generate attention. The first international baseball tournament with top-level players, the World Baseball Classic, also generated some positive reviews after its inaugural tournament in 2006.\\nThe major professional sports leagues operate drafts once a year, in which each league's teams selected eligible prospects. Eligibility differs from league to league. Baseball and ice hockey operate minor league systems for players who have finished education but are not ready or good enough for the major leagues.\",\n \"-26.701954368967563\"\n ],\n [\n \"one of the founders of the Brazilian \\\"form\\\" of American football after experimenting with boxing and judo. A significant number of female spectators are attracted to American football in Brazil; even to the point where they go to parties where the American football players pretend to speak English. Children between the ages of 8 to 13 are being encouraged by educational organizations to start participating in American football.\\nOther traditional fixtures in the Brazilian sports lifestyle like volleyball and Formula One are slowly losing their fanbase to American football. Once the game transitioned from sand to grass, the popularity of\",\n \"-26.67490736355103\"\n ],\n [\n \"international tournaments, soccer remained a niche sport in the U.S. for many years. In the three decades after the 1950 World Cup, the only victories for the United States came against Haiti, Bermuda, Honduras, Canada, Poland, and China. 1980s After the enthusiasm caused by the creation and rise of the North American Soccer League in the 1960s and 1970s, it seemed as though the U.S. men's national team would soon become a powerful force in world soccer. These hopes were not realized, however. The United States played only two international matches from 1981–1983.\\nTo provide a more stable national team program\",\n \"-26.658725332046743\"\n ],\n [\n \"English Premier League and the Spanish La Liga they make up the top six sports leagues by revenue in the world. In addition, the sports of these four leagues were all developed in their modern forms in North America, and all except American football have become popular internationally. Because the leagues enjoy a significant place in popular culture in the U.S. and Canada, the best players from these leagues often become cultural icons in both countries. Each Big Four league, as well as Major League Soccer and the Canadian Football League, averages at least 15,000 fans in attendance per game\",\n \"-26.65427207679022\"\n ],\n [\n \"compete for the championship. Minor ice hockey and junior ice hockey serve an identical purpose for ice hockey and the National Hockey League (NHL). To a certain extent, Little League Baseball serves a similar purpose for professional baseball, although the vast majority of development and recruitment comes at the high school level.\\nThe other major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada do not have a youth development system. The National Football League's players are developed predominantly through the educational system, first with high school football and then college football. Basketball players are typically developed and recruited straight out\",\n \"-26.48367917726864\"\n ],\n [\n \"typically organised commercially and paid for by parents. Many children attend several a week, and occasionally even more than one per day. Similar activities also occur at weekends.\\nThere is typically less focus on the managed \\\"enrichment\\\" than in the US, beyond the basic choice of activity; for example football (soccer) is physically active and develops teamwork. United States After school programs are very common today in the United States. The 40 largest national youth organizations today have a total membership of about 40 million youths. The Boys & Girls Clubs of America focus mainly on positive youth development. Their\",\n \"-26.434157094656257\"\n ],\n [\n \"in 2014 and 2015. Modern history of youth and high school football (1933–present) American has become a popular participatory sport among youth. One of the earliest youth football organizations was founded in Philadelphia, in 1929, as the Junior Football Conference. Organizer Joe Tomlin started the league to provide activities and guidance for teenage boys who were vandalizing the factory he owned. The original four-team league expanded to sixteen teams in 1933 when Pop Warner, who had just been hired as the new coach of the Temple University football team, agreed to give a lecture to the boys in the league.\",\n \"-26.316605326443096\"\n ],\n [\n \"States, women's international soccer basically didn’t exist. According to FIFA, there were only three national teams and two international matches played in 1971.\\nAdditionally, in the years following Title IX, American high schools and colleges have been steadily embracing girls' and women's soccer. According to the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS), the U.S. had little more than 10,000 girls playing high school soccer in the late 1970s. This number had increased to 120,000 by 1991 when the USWNT claimed its first World Cup title, and 250,000 by 1999, the year of the second World Cup title. In 2015,\",\n \"-26.275033571524546\"\n ],\n [\n \"Professional sports in the Western United States Professional sports have existed in the United States since the late 19th century. The NFL, MLB, NBA and NHL have millions of fans across the nation, and are an important part of American culture. Professional sports did not enter into the American West until the mid-twentieth century. However, the expansion of professional sports into the West has helped to increase the popularity of each of the professional leagues and has changed the landscape of professional sports in America. History Prior to World War II, top-level professional sports in the United States\",\n \"-26.068630578767625\"\n ],\n [\n \"soccer created more popularity for the game in the 1980s. However, there were few professional opportunities for women in the United States, and the first national women's league, the USL W-League, wouldn't be established until 1995. National team The women's national team was formed in 1983, but wouldn't play its first games until 1985. In its first years, it played in little more than friendly tournaments, primarily against European teams, as few competitions for women's national teams yet existed. After the first FIFA Women's World Cup was announced for 1991 and especially on the United States being awarded the 1994\",\n \"-26.049990090425126\"\n ],\n [\n \"with family, crime and other lack of opportunity.\\nIn Global North nations, the evolving and complex youth sport system requires significant resources such as time, access, and money to develop as an athlete and play competitively. The financial costs involved in facilitating organized sport at an elite level ranges from an average of a few thousand dollars per year, to more than 20,000 dollars per year in some sports. For these financial reasons, participation is not feasible for a majority of kids growing up in lower income families.\\nIn recent years, youth sports have become more expensive in the United States. \",\n \"-25.934809909116666\"\n ],\n [\n \"States, unlike their other Caribbean counterparts, where cricket, rugby, and netball have proven to be more popular.\\nDexter Cambridge, Rick Fox, Ian Lockhart, Magnum Rolle, Buddy Hield and Deandre Ayton are a few Bahamians who joined Bahamian Mychal Thompson of the Los Angeles Lakers in the NBA ranks. Over the years American football has become much more popular than soccer, though not implemented in the high school system yet. Leagues for teens and adults have been developed by the Bahamas American Football Federation. However soccer, as it is commonly known in the country, is still a very popular sport amongst high\",\n \"-25.859547261032276\"\n ],\n [\n \"leagues, in that there is no system of promotion and relegation between lower and higher leagues, but rather a minor league system, generally the same as almost all other top-level pro sports leagues in North America. In addition, teams playing in American soccer leagues are not private clubs founded independently of the league that join a league in order to ensure regular fixtures but are instead usually franchises of the league itself. Finally, the soccer leagues in the United States also incorporate features common to other American sports leagues, most notably the determination of champions by playoffs between the top\",\n \"-25.835923933802405\"\n ],\n [\n \"in Division I soccer. Americans playing in foreign leagues Since the early 1990s, several Americans have found opportunities playing soccer at the highest levels of foreign leagues. Among the first Americans to become regulars in foreign leagues were John Harkes at Sheffield Wednesday and Derby County in England, Eric Wynalda at Saarbrücken in Germany, and Kasey Keller at Millwall in England. Since then, other Americans have played for clubs that have participated in the knockout rounds of the Champions League and Europa League, such as Brad Friedel with Tottenham Hotspur, DaMarcus Beasley with PSV Eindhoven, and Christian Pulisic with Borussia\",\n \"-25.8125504180789\"\n ],\n [\n \"high school football and its impact on small town communities has been documented by landmark non-fiction works such as the 1990 book Friday Night Lights and the subsequent fictionalized film and television series. American football outside the United States (1874–present) American football has been played outside the US since the 1920s and accelerated in popularity after World War II, especially in countries with large numbers of U.S. military personnel, who often formed a substantial proportion of the players and spectators.\\nIn 1998, the International Federation of American Football, was formed to coordinate international amateur competition. At present, 45 associations from the\",\n \"-25.796411538634857\"\n ],\n [\n \"made up primarily of college and amateur players, leaving professionals such as Rick Davis and Hugo Perez off the roster. At the time, the United States did not have a top division outdoor soccer league, the North American Soccer League having folded in 1985. Most domestic professionals at the time played in indoor leagues, and Gansler felt that the skills required for indoor soccer conflicted with the outdoor game. In addition, the United States had been awarded the 1994 World Cup, and Gansler may have wanted to expose the core of the 1994 team to the World\",\n \"-25.751903880620375\"\n ],\n [\n \"which (unlike other sports, which were primarily independent club activities) was cultivated at colleges and universities. As a result, players entering the professional football system are generally several years older and more physically mature than first-time professional athletes in other sports, thus reducing the need for a farm system.\\nIn the 1930s, the Chicago Bears and New York Giants owned teams in the American Association, which became the first true minor league in professional football. In the 1960s, several NFL teams had agreements with the Atlantic Coast Football League to use their teams as farm teams, though they were not owned\",\n \"-25.68952494086261\"\n ],\n [\n \"the United Kingdom, particularly British rock bands such as The Beatles and Herman's Hermits, The Rolling Stones, while its American precursor, the blues, greatly influenced British electric rock. Sport Despite sports being a major cultural interest in both the United States and the United Kingdom. The most popular team sports in each country, which are in the UK: football (soccer), rugby union, rugby league and cricket and the U.S.: [American] football, baseball, ice hockey and basketball are considered minor sports in either other country. However, there is a growing interest the other countries sports in each other country. Another area\",\n \"-25.687749867443927\"\n ],\n [\n \"entirely of college soccer players who use the league as an opportunity to play competitive soccer in front of professional scouts during the summer, while retaining amateur status and NCAA eligibility.\\nThe United States Adult Soccer Association governs amateur soccer competition for adults throughout the United States, which is effectively the amateur fifth division of soccer in the United States. Cup competitions The Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup is a knockout tournament in American soccer. The tournament is the oldest ongoing national soccer competition in the U.S. and was historically open to all United States Soccer Federation affiliated teams, from amateur\",\n \"-25.659525363589637\"\n ],\n [\n \"promoted by adults. Sports Sportive activities are one of the most universal forms of play. Different continents have their own popular/dominant sports. For example, European, South American, and African countries enjoy soccer (also known as ‘football’ in Europe), while North American countries prefer basketball, ice hockey, baseball, or American football. In Asia, sports such as table tennis and badminton are played professionally; however soccer and basketball are played amongst common folks. Events such as The Olympic Games and FIFA World Cup showcase countries competing with each other and are broadcast all over the world.\\nSports can be played as a leisure\",\n \"-25.642516320658615\"\n ],\n [\n \"high schools and colleges have sports programs which include softball. Like baseball, softball in Japan is intensely competitive. Japan's win over the United States at the 2008 Olympics reflects the advanced level of play in this East Asian country. China Since the silver medal at the Atlanta Olympics, the Chinese have now made softball a priority at all levels. The game is played in most schools and with a 1.3 billion population; the number of great players is turning out to be a boon for China. The Chinese have frequently toured the US and have now similar caliber coaching and\",\n \"-25.640264441084582\"\n ],\n [\n \"music \\\"lively\\\".\\nThe developers found that 90% of players make positive decisions. Young boys initially thought the concept of girls playing soccer controversial; after playing the game, nearly 90% \\\"agreed that girls can play soccer\\\". Research by State University of New York at Buffalo \\\"demonstrated that the game had a profound impact on participants' awareness and attitudes, and also indicated behavioral change.\\\"\\nThe game has been played in 185 countries, and led to mixed-gender youth soccer camps in El Salvador and the Palestinian territories (Hebron), the latter \\\"[challenging] social norms.\\\"\",\n \"-25.627249107696116\"\n ],\n [\n \"match the goals of Knoxville's adult teams. As soccer has continued to grow in popularity throughout the United States, so has the number of adults interested in playing the sport, and the philosophy of the NPSL and WPSL has shifted to focus more on national player development and advancing the teams from one league level to the next. Emerald Youth’s goal with the adult teams was not to utilize them as a path to a major league soccer team. Instead, the focus was on leadership and character development.” Staff Derek Broadley was appointed head coach of the Force in February\",\n \"-25.615539419846755\"\n ],\n [\n \"most popular sport. The men's national teams of Argentine, Uruguay and Spain have won the FIFA World Cup a total five times. The Spanish La Liga is one of the most popular in the world, known for FC Barcelona and Real Madrid. Meanwhile, the Argentine Primera División and Mexican Primera División are two of the strongest leagues in the Americas.\\nHowever, baseball is the most popular sport in some Central American and Caribbean countries (especially Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and Venezuela), as well as in the diaspora in the United States. Notable Hispanic teams in early baseball are the All\",\n \"-25.55684773484245\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the sport - have taken a step back. The lack of participation can be blamed on lack of leadership at the higher levels of the sport. In turn, this is due to a lack of knowledge of the sport in schools across Canada. Adding to the problem is that broomball is often confused with ringette and curling. Parents tend to sign their children up for mainstream sports such as hockey, although broomball is more well known in rural areas but lacks funding to become more popular in urban areas. Funding Broomball is recognized as one of the first 6\",\n \"-25.485112313879654\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cup in 2017 in Guatemala, with Russia winning the title. Youth organisations The popularity of five-a-side youth football has grown tremendously within the U.S. Many organisations have chosen this format and modified it slightly to promote an environment where children can excel early in youth sports. American Youth Soccer Organization, United States Youth Soccer Association, and Fun Fair Positive Soccer are among the largest organisations bringing this format to the regional US-based youth soccer arena. Sponsorships In recent years a few five-a-side teams have found themselves with sponsorship deals amounting up to thousand of pounds contracts. Sponsors feel with the\",\n \"-25.474072035372956\"\n ],\n [\n \"baseball's professional minor leagues are more extensive. Moving directly from high school to the professional level is more common in baseball than in football or basketball. However, if players enroll at a four-year college, they must complete three years to regain eligibility, unless they reach age 21 before starting their third year of attendance. Players who enroll at junior colleges (i.e., two-year institutions) regain eligibility after one year at that level, Bryce Harper being a notable example. In 2013, there are 298 NCAA Division I teams in the United States.\\nAs with most other U.S. intercollegiate sports, competitive college baseball is\",\n \"-25.470403464976698\"\n ],\n [\n \"According to the president of the International Baseball Federation, between 300,000 and 500,000 women and girls play baseball around the world, including Little League and the introductory game of Tee Ball.\\nA varsity baseball team is an established part of physical education departments at most high schools and colleges in the United States. In 2015, nearly half a million high schoolers and over 34,000 collegians played on their schools' baseball teams. By early in the 20th century, intercollegiate baseball was Japan's leading sport. Today, high school baseball in particular is immensely popular there. The final rounds of the two annual tournaments—the\",\n \"-25.37037297076313\"\n ],\n [\n \"American Soccer League, they had few opportunities for playing outdoor soccer. Even the indoor leagues began struggling in the late 1980s. Several U.S. players moved overseas, but others, like Krumpe, found themselves moving from one financially struggling U.S. club to another. In 1991, having reached the highest levels of the game, at the 1990 World Cup, he decided to hang up his cleats and enter the coaching career field. Coaching In 1989, Krumpe had worked with the coaching staff of the Cal State Dominguez Hills women’s soccer team. That gave him a taste for coaching and\",\n \"-25.31149699521484\"\n ],\n [\n \"60s, 70s and 80s the sport saw the most growth in the area. Most schools, even small rural schools had a football program.\\nDuring this time period is when most of the area's schools' rivalries came to fruition. Modern years (1991–present) After the massive growth of the sport, football has continued its success in this region. Fans have continued to support their local schools or colleges in the area with a passion. Even though there is no professional franchise in the area many people root for either the Philadelphia Eagles or Pittsburgh Steelers. High school level football Of the 102 public\",\n \"-25.29734349870705\"\n ],\n [\n \"the dawn of the twentieth century.\\nDespite the difference in popularity of their respective professional leagues, association football overtook ice hockey in the 1980s and 1990s as the sport with the most registered players in the country. In 2008, there were 873,032 footballers, compared to 584,679 registered hockey players in Canada in 2008–09. Major League Soccer Major League Soccer (MLS) is the highest level of professional soccer in the United States and Canada. Currently there are three MLS teams located in Canada. Toronto FC became the first Canadian club in 2007. An MLS franchise was awarded to Vancouver in 2009 and\",\n \"-25.217643634881824\"\n ],\n [\n \"in schools also in the rise, Mind Sports South Africa reports that there are now over 30 schools that participate in the official league, with school teams competing on an equal footing with many of the best private clubs in the country.\\nNigeria, Kenya and Uganda are the other top game developers in Africa. The gaming industry is bringing millions of dollars in for their countries per year. This is in all categories of gaming: mobile, PC, Xbox, and PS. Because it was not the culture of the African people, the people are slowly growing into the gaming entertainment.\\nSouth Africa also\",\n \"-25.19646765559446\"\n ],\n [\n \"field, basketball, baseball, softball, volleyball and Association football where primary and high schools compete against each other. Today cricket is still enjoyed by a few locals and immigrants in the country, usually from Jamaica, Guyana, Haiti and Barbados. Cricket is played on Saturdays and Sundays at Windsor Park and Haynes Oval.\\nThe only other sporting event that began before cricket was horse racing, which started in 1796. The most popular spectator sports are those imported from the United States, such as basketball, American football, and baseball, rather than from the British Isles, due to the country's close proximity to the United\",\n \"-25.16736934954679\"\n ],\n [\n \"obscure sports often operate at a semi-professional level due to cost concerns. Because the cost of running a fully professional American football team is prohibitive, semi-pro football is common at the adult levels, particularly in the indoor variety, providing an outlet for players who have used up their NCAA eligibility and have no further use for maintaining amateur status; as a sport that normally plays only one game per week, football is especially suited for semi-pro play. The National Lacrosse League, whose teams also typically play only one game per week, pays a salary that is enough to be considered\",\n \"-25.107841441989876\"\n ],\n [\n \"very popular and serve as those sports' most prominent competitions with levels of media coverage, competition, and fan following comparable to the major professional team sports. Amateur competitions such as college football and college basketball, at the upper echelons, also enjoy strong media coverage and fan followings but are generally recognized as inferior to the major professional leagues in level of play because of the inherent limits of the amateur sports system. Major League Baseball Major League Baseball is the highest level of play of baseball in North America. It consists of the National League (founded in 1876) and the\",\n \"-25.088516461866675\"\n ],\n [\n \"first-year player draft. In Asia, baseball is among the most popular sports in Japan and South Korea.\\nThe major league game in the United States was originally targeted toward a middle-class, white-collar audience: relative to other spectator pastimes, the National League's set ticket price of 50 cents in 1876 was high, while the location of playing fields outside the inner city and the workweek daytime scheduling of games were also obstacles to a blue-collar audience. A century later, the situation was very different. With the rise in popularity of other team sports with much higher average ticket prices—football, basketball, and hockey—professional\",\n \"-25.083683213219047\"\n ],\n [\n \"child playing ice hockey, while 25% of households have a child playing soccer, and 24% of households have a child participating in swimming. The sport faces increasing competition from other popular sports such as basketball, soccer, and field hockey, which all have high participation rates. Another factor facing participation rates is the relative higher cost of hockey equipment. In 2013, the average cost of ice hockey equipment for youth was estimated at CA$730 while basketball equipment cost $310 and soccer equipment cost $160. Women's ice hockey Women's hockey in Canada is growing. The professional Canadian Women's Hockey League (which includes\",\n \"-25.04369813980884\"\n ],\n [\n \"team, they may start out in the American Hockey League, which is similar to the minor leagues in baseball. Hockey has a little bit bigger of a roster compared to other professional sports, which makes it hard to have so many players on the bubble.\",\n \"-25.01401774707483\"\n ],\n [\n \"part of education, or sometimes even with the specific goal of becoming a professional.\\nAssociation football is one of the most popular sports played by the male population on the island. In recent years, there has been an increasing number of female footballers as well. Children often start playing football at an early age, and many play active for several years. As their skills develop, they are systematically graded up (or down) in divisions, a type of ranking system. Notable soccer players, such as Arne Larsen Økland, Geirmund Brendesæter, and Gunnar Meling, started their careers in Bremnes IL, one of the\",\n \"-24.949481750896666\"\n ],\n [\n \"Professional sports leagues in the United States Professional sports leagues in the United States include several major leagues as well as other professional and semi-professional leagues. Major leagues The major sports leagues tend to have the greatest fan interest, have national TV contracts, draw high fan attendance, and have teams located throughout the largest metropolitan areas in the United States. Major League Baseball Major League Baseball is the highest level of play of baseball in North America. It consists of the National League (founded in 1876) and the American League (founded in 1901). Cooperation between the two leagues began in\",\n \"-24.928952956821377\"\n ],\n [\n \"American football jumped. Players are only asked to practice occasionally and women have been embraced into even the \\\"full contact\\\" leagues. Copacabana Beach is considered to be the birthplace of American football in Brazil; where 20 men played the first game of American football in Brazilian history. All American football games not done on the beach are played out in public parks and teams must pay up to $300 to the municipality as rent. All Brazil had for equipment in 1989 was mouthguards from boxing rings and imported American footballs.\\nProhibitive travel expenses would prevent the National Football League from expanding\",\n \"-24.927439092687564\"\n ],\n [\n \"United States national beach soccer team Early years The sport of beach soccer originated in Brazil, where locals played soccer on the beaches for recreation. In 1992, the United States created official rules and a national team for the South American sport, which led other countries to do the same. Then in 1993, the United States held the first ever professional beach soccer event, which included national teams from Brazil, Argentina, and Italy. A year later in 1994, the U.S. team competed in the first ever Beach Soccer World Championship tournament in Brazil. The U.S. team competed in World Championships\",\n \"-24.905029034373\"\n ],\n [\n \"in 1972 in an attempt to increase the number of U.S.- and Canadian-born players in the league. The foreign image of soccer was not helped, however, by a league that brought in many older, high-profile foreign players, and frequently left Americans on the bench. This effort was often doubly futile, as while many of the foreign players were perhaps \\\"big names\\\" in their home countries, almost none of them qualified as such in North America, and they quickly absorbed most of the available payroll, such as it was, which could have otherwise been used to pay North American players better.\",\n \"-24.85344225895824\"\n ],\n [\n \"favorite sport was 9%, compared to pro football at 37%. In 1985, the respective figures were pro football 24%, baseball 23%. Because there are so many more major league games played, there is no comparison in overall attendance. In 2008, total attendance at major league games was the second-highest in history: 78.6 million, 0.7% off the record set the previous year. The following year, amid the U.S. recession, attendance fell by 6.6% to 73.4 million. Eight years later, it dropped under 73 million. Attendance at games held under the Minor League Baseball umbrella set a record in 2008, with 43.3\",\n \"-24.843836801039288\"\n ],\n [\n \"extant indoor leagues date to the mid-2000s and are regional in nature.\\nDedicated women's football is seldom seen. A few amateur and semi-professional leagues exist, of varying degrees of stability and competition. Football is unique among scholastic sports in the U.S. in that no women's division exists for the sport; women who wish to play football in high school or college must compete directly with men. Basketball Of those Americans citing their favorite sport, basketball is ranked second (counting amateur levels) behind football. However, in regards to money the NBA is ranked third in popularity. More Americans play basketball than any\",\n \"-24.84000977757387\"\n ],\n [\n \"Other sports with significant support are hockey, swimming, athletics, golf, boxing, tennis and netball. Although association football commands the greatest following among the youth, other sports like basketball, surfing, and skateboarding are increasingly popular.\\nFamous boxing personalities include Baby Jake Jacob Matlala, Vuyani Bungu, Welcome Ncita, Dingaan Thobela, Gerrie Coetzee and Brian Mitchell. Footballers who have played for major foreign clubs include Lucas Radebe and Philemon Masinga, (both formerly of Leeds United), Quinton Fortune (Atlético Madrid and Manchester United), Benni McCarthy (Ajax Amsterdam, F.C. Porto, Blackburn Rovers and West Ham United), Aaron Mokoena (Ajax Amsterdam, Blackburn Rovers and Portsmouth), Delron Buckley\",\n \"-24.834512077795807\"\n ],\n [\n \"common in a country with few luxuries. Informal games are often played by youths using a bundle of rags as a ball. Professional game Men's soccer has so far outpaced the women's game—or any other sport—as the focus of public attention as a spectator sport. History The French introduced the game to what was then French Soudan in the early 20th century, and the first organised leagues open to Africans appeared in the 1930s. Jeanne d'Arc du Soudan, founded in 1938 by two French-Africans and the missionary Révérend Père Bouvier, borrowed its name from the Senegalese club Jeanne d'Arc\",\n \"-24.827171360870125\"\n ],\n [\n \"Expansion of major sports leagues in the United States and Canada The expansion of major sports leagues in the United States and Canada has occurred throughout the twentieth century for all of the major professional sports leagues in those two countries. United States Professional sports leagues as known today evolved during the decades between the Civil War and World War II, when the railroad was the main means of intercity transportation. As a result, virtually all major league teams were concentrated in the northeastern quarter of the United States, within roughly the radius of a day-long train ride. No MLB\",\n \"-24.78245426320791\"\n ],\n [\n \"occupy a season at different but overlapping, times of the year. College football and basketball attract large audiences. In soccer, the country hosted the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the men's national soccer team qualified for ten World Cups and the women's team has won the FIFA Women's World Cup four times; Major League Soccer is the sport's highest league in the United States (featuring 21 American and 3 Canadian teams). The market for professional sports in the United States is roughly $69 billion, roughly 50% larger than that of all of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa combined.\\nEight Olympic Games\",\n \"-24.76898054103367\"\n ],\n [\n \"including Jack Thompson and Anita Sarkeesian, have met extreme resistance from the gaming public in response to the perceived politicizing of their art form. Sports The United States recognizes eSports players as professional athletes. Major League Gaming has eSports arenas and studios across the nation. Robert Morris University has a League of Legends varsity team, whose members are eligible for scholarships. Trends Players become fourth-party developers, allowing for more open source models of game design, development and engineering. Players also create modifications (mods), which in some cases become just as popular as the original game for which they were created.\",\n \"-24.7573504926404\"\n ],\n [\n \"1989 and works with nearly 2,000 youth each year. The organization empowers underserved youth through soccer, character development, mentoring, and employability programs. Throughout the 1990s, Soccer in the Streets introduced soccer to many urban and underserved communities through soccer clinics, especially during the 1994 and 1998 FIFA World Cups and the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup. In recent years, Soccer in the Streets has developed programming geared towards preparing youth for success on and off the field. Year round programming serves youth from kindergarten through early adulthood. Global organizations Sport for Social Development is a worldwide\",\n \"-24.709070000069914\"\n ],\n [\n \"children. As in baseball, teams alternate half-innings. The team with the most runs after a predefined number of innings wins.\\nKickball is a popular playground game and is typically played among young, school-age children. The lack of both specialized equipment and highly skill-based positions (like pitcher) makes the game an accessible introduction to other sports. It is just as popular among adults, who are more commonly known to play similar games like softball and baseball.\\n\\\"The game seems to afford equal enjoyment to the children and it gives a better understanding of the national game (Baseball), and at the same time affords\",\n \"-24.699694614857435\"\n ],\n [\n \"most played sport with all demographics, including ethnic origin, ages and genders. Professional teams exist in many cities in Canada – with a trio of teams in North America's top pro league, Major League Soccer – and international soccer competitions such as the FIFA World Cup, UEFA Euro and the UEFA Champions League attract some of the biggest audiences in Canada. Other popular team sports include curling, street hockey, cricket, rugby league, rugby union, softball and Ultimate frisbee. Popular individual sports include auto racing, boxing, karate, kickboxing, hunting, sport shooting, fishing, cycling, golf, hiking, horse racing, ice skating, skiing, snowboarding, swimming, triathlon,\",\n \"-24.684398727782536\"\n ],\n [\n \"improving the social, mental and physical well-being of inner-city residents.\\nSocial agencies such as the YMCA and YWCA, as well as Boys and Girls Clubs, and Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts, provided most of the organized sports to youth in America prior to 1954. While athletics was encouraged by the social gospel movement, youth sports were often organized by youth themselves through the social agencies. This shifted to adults organizing youth sports programs, which was exemplified with the advent of Little League Baseball by Carl Stotz. Little League Baseball was formed in 1939, with a three team league, while in\",\n \"-24.682725240301806\"\n ],\n [\n \"regular season games. Early professional soccer activity was concentrated almost entirely on an East Coast corridor from Baltimore to Boston, though a series of leagues located solely within the St. Louis metropolitan area also served as de facto major leagues for periods.\\nAs travel and settlement patterns changed, so did the geography of professional sports. With the arguable exception of the western hockey teams which competed for the Stanley Cup in the early 20th century and the independent Los Angeles Bulldogs football team of the 1930s and 1940s, there were no major league teams in the far west until after World\",\n \"-24.657302438714396\"\n ],\n [\n \"Comparisons between the National Football League and NCAA football The National Football League (NFL) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) are respectively the most popular professional and amateur football organizations in the United States. The National Football League was founded in 1920 and has since become the largest and most popular sport in the United States. The NFL has the highest average attendance of any sporting league in the world, with an average attendance of 66,960 persons per game during the 2011 NFL season. While the NFL championship game, the Super Bowl, is a large sporting event in club\",\n \"-24.578869842618587\"\n ],\n [\n \"National League, giving MLB a legal monopoly over professional baseball in the US.\\nThe other major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada have followed the MLB model of a closed shop with no merit-based promotion or relegation since their inceptions. Early football leagues in England In contrast to baseball's NABBP, the first governing body in English football survived the onset of professionalism, which it formally accepted in 1885. Perhaps the great geographical concentration of population and the corresponding short distances between urban centres was crucial. Certainly it provided the opportunity for more clubs' developing large fan bases without\",\n \"-24.57482701598201\"\n ],\n [\n \"the United States. \\nIn 1862, The Oneida Football Club in Boston was the first organized team to play any kind of \\\"football/soccer\\\" in the United States. It was founded by Gerrit Smith \\\"Gat\\\" Miller, a graduate of the Latin School of Epes Sargent Dixwell, a private college preparatory school in Boston, who grew tired of the chaotic, disorganized, and very violent games that arose from different schools, as well as the rule variations of soccer that existed as a by-product of no formal rules for the game during that era. Miller organized other recent preparatory school graduates from relatively elite\",\n \"-24.56567227951018\"\n ],\n [\n \"players became a concern and was limited. In 2002, Canada won its first men's ice hockey title in 50 years, at the Olympics in Salt Lake City, using NHL players. The Canadian team won another title in 2010, at the Olympics held in Vancouver, where the Olympics used Canadian standard-sized rinks. Football, rugby and soccer The game of Soccer goes back centuries in England, where around 1823 was transformed into rugby. The first game in Canada came in the 1860s with British officers playing university students in Montreal. Universities quickly adopted the new sport, as did rowing clubs that\",\n \"-24.539498978527263\"\n ],\n [\n \"football as the most popular sport in the country. Recent years have been characterized by increasing attendance and ticket prices for professional baseball games. The Korea Professional Baseball league, a 10-team circuit, was established in 1982. The South Korea national team finished third in the 2006 World Baseball Classic and second in the 2009 tournament. The team's 2009 final game against Japan was widely watched in Korea, with a large screen at Gwanghwamun crossing in Seoul broadcasting the game live. In the 2008 Summer Olympics, South Korea won the gold medal in baseball. Also in 1982, at the Baseball Worldcup,\",\n \"-24.526163117639953\"\n ],\n [\n \"field, the future of baseball was questioned as there was an absence of young players coming through the ranks. Southern Softball was experiencing a similar problem so Baseball Tasmania and the Southern Softball Association formed a joint venture to re-introduce t-ball to school children and through that, give them the skills and options to play baseball or softball. The Batter Up T-ball League was formed and the first games were played on Saturday 24 October 2015.\",\n \"-24.518486807792215\"\n ],\n [\n \"season at different, but overlapping, times of the year. College football and basketball attract large audiences. In soccer, the country hosted the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the men's national soccer team qualified to seven World Cups and the women's team has won the FIFA Women's World Cup four times; Major League Soccer is the sport's highest league in the United States.\\nBoxing and horse racing were once the most watched individual sports, but they have been eclipsed by golf and auto racing, particularly NASCAR.\",\n \"-24.50402750496869\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the Australian Football League to date there is still no AFL competition in the country. Traditional sports Sport in older times had a practical place, apart from recreation, helping train young warriors. One such practice would have the older men bring the male children a severally injured captive of war, allowing the boys to practice their archery skills against this living target. There were other sports that were practiced in older times which are not practiced now. Notable traditional sports used to be played were tiqa, ulutoa, veisaga, and veisolo.\",\n \"-24.463548439205624\"\n ],\n [\n \"American football in Brazil Summary Historically, American football games were played on sand, as to avoid the use of exported equipment from the United States of America and to reduce the impact of the tackles. The 2010s have seen most Brazilian states develop American football teams of various types; including flag football, tackle American football and women's football. A Brazilian Portuguese forum regarding American football was founded in 1998 in order to get more people watching the games on ESPN. As of 2013, there are 2500 Brazilian people who play American football. The first organized American football game between two\",\n \"-24.449912071191648\"\n ],\n [\n \"Soccer which operates in the United States and Canada as well as for many teams of the lower divisions of the United States soccer pyramid. Supporter culture in the United States, like the United States itself, has elements from many different countries including England, Italy, Argentina, Germany and many others. Major League Soccer holds an annual \\\"Supporters' Summit\\\" to meet with the leadership of most of its supporter groups to discuss issues including: security, self-policing, supporter group managed sections, and strategies for league success. Many teams in other leagues including the National Premier Soccer League, USL Pro, USL Premier Development\",\n \"-24.291547064353836\"\n ],\n [\n \"was in New Orleans that many of the first games of soccer in America were held. The origins of the game in general trace back to ancient Greece, Rome, Egypt, or China. It is difficult to say for sure which country was the true origin.\\nOneida Football Club has been named as the first association football club in the United States but there is still discussion on what rules the club used, and it broke up within the space of a few years. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, the club is often credited with inventing the \\\"Boston Game\\\", which allowed players to\",\n \"-24.290761817932434\"\n ],\n [\n \"Like sibling care, employment is another obstacle that prevents low-income youth from taking advantage of after school programs. Youth from less affluent homes are likely to work longer hours than youth from more affluent homes. According to television broadcast statistics, Hispanic and African-American teen and children are now more targeted by fast food restaurants, Spanish-language advertisement on TV has increased by 8%, and restaurants such as KFC and Burger King have increased their spending on Spanish advertisements from 35% to 41% while decreasing English-language advertising. Access to space Between the years 1980 and 2000, obesity rates doubled among young children\",\n \"-24.27679740189342\"\n ],\n [\n \"metropolitan areas, continued to see excessive popularity of the sport, specifically with ethnic groups and expatriates. The popularity of soccer in these areas reflected on the Challenge Cup during the later Great Depression years, through the World War II years. Most clubs participating were either top amateur teams or semi-professional clubs that hoisted a handful of U.S. internationals, who worked part-time jobs. World War II and ASL II As World War II raged on, the National Challenge Cup continued to hold the annual tournament, in spite of several other European nations putting their domestic cups on hold. During the\",\n \"-24.276335222073612\"\n ],\n [\n \"Major League Baseball Urban Youth Academy The Major League Baseball Youth Academy are a series of academies opening in cities across the United States and one in Puerto Rico that provides free year-round instruction in baseball and softball to the area's youth. History The first Youth Academy opened in 2002 in Puerto Rico as the Puerto Rico Baseball Academy and High School. In 2006, the first Major League Baseball Urban Youth Academy in the United States was opened in Compton, California, providing free baseball and softball instruction to Southern California youth, ages 8–17. Since then academies have opened in Houston,\",\n \"-24.260716197786678\"\n ],\n [\n \"studies, mathematics, science, music, fine arts, industrial arts, homemaking, health, and physical education. Moral education and special activities continue to receive attention. Extracurricular activities Many students participate in after-school clubs. Sports clubs, such as baseball are especially popular among boys, while wind bands are the most popular club for girls. Soccer (football) clubs are gaining popularity. Judo clubs attract boys and girls. They may be inspired by the many Japanese judo athletes who have won medals at the World Judo Championships and the Olympic Games. Other popular sports clubs include tennis, basketball, gymnastics, and volleyball. In every sport, many games\",\n \"-24.24490983824944\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the Rugby League Conference with seven teams, including four in the Glasgow/West Scotland area having formed in 2006. But, unlike in England, rugby league is not one of the ten most played sports in Scotland amongst adults. Junior development has been much more rapid, with several Conference teams having junior squads as well as other clubs who don't run an open-age squad having various junior squads. An estimated 2,500 children play rugby league in Scotland, with that figure growing to 12,500 when you add the number of children who play the sport in various school programmes. In terms of\",\n \"-24.227795034836163\"\n ],\n [\n \"College soccer College soccer is played by teams composed of soccer players who are enrolled in colleges and universities. While it is most widespread in the United States, it is also prominent in South Korea and Canada. The institutions typically hire full-time professional coaches and staff, although the student athletes are strictly amateur and are not paid. College soccer in the United States is sponsored by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the sports regulatory body for major universities, and by the governing bodies for smaller universities and colleges. This sport is played on a rectangular field of\",\n \"-24.1986019515316\"\n ],\n [\n \"are one of the greatest soccer programs in the history of the sport. The Hoosiers have won eight national championships in men's soccer (1982, 1983, 1988, 1998, 1999, 2003, 2004 and 2012), second only to St. Louis' 10. Indiana owns more wins, has appeared in more College Cups (19) and has a higher winning percentage in both regular season and post-season play than any other school in Division I soccer.\\nThe Hoosiers have also dominated conference play. Since the Big Ten began sponsoring men's soccer in 1991, Indiana has won 11 Big Ten tournament titles. Indiana has also been crowned regular\",\n \"-24.198428058121863\"\n ],\n [\n \"in developing their talent than their university coaches. Some sports are attempting to adapt to new conditions in which a far higher proportion of British teenagers attend university than in the past, notably cricket, which has established several university centres of excellence. School sport Sport is compulsory for all students up to the age of sixteen, but the amount of time devoted to it is often small. There are frequent complaints that state sector schools do too little to encourage sport and a healthy lifestyle. In the 1980s, the government sold many schools sports fields to housing developers; as such,\",\n \"-24.185509203583933\"\n ],\n [\n \"All Elite Wrestling (AEW).\\nJudo in the United States is not very popular and is eclipsed by more popular martial arts like karate and taekwondo. Swimming and water sports Swimming is a major competitive sport at high school and college level, but receives little mainstream media attention outside of the Olympics.\\nSurfing in the United States and watersports are popular in the U.S. in coastal areas. California and Hawaii are the most popular locations for surfing. The Association of Surfing Professionals was founded in 1983. American football Football has the most participants of any sport at both high school and college levels,\",\n \"-24.182335039280588\"\n ],\n [\n \"competition have increased, schools have expanded their facilities, and in general the league has positioned itself as one of the state's most competitive high school competitions.\\nSoccer has long been the dominant sport among MCC schools; while several schools have had competitive football teams (including state championships won by DeSmet in 2005 and CBC in 2014, 2017, and 2018), it has been \\\"the beautiful game\\\" where the MCC has excelled. It is not uncommon for even the league's two smallest schools, Chaminade and Vianney, to field four teams, such is the popularity of soccer among their students. In fact, there has\",\n \"-24.171816595713608\"\n ],\n [\n \"hockey, lacrosse and soccer. The state's major professional sporting teams include: Cincinnati Reds (Major League Baseball), Ohio Machine (Major League Lacrosse), Cleveland Indians (Major League Baseball), Cincinnati Bengals (National Football League), Cleveland Browns (National Football League), Cleveland Cavaliers (National Basketball Association), Columbus Blue Jackets (National Hockey League), and the Columbus Crew (Major League Soccer).\\nOhio played a central role in the development of both Major League Baseball and the National Football League. Baseball's first fully professional team, the Cincinnati Red Stockings of 1869, were organized in Ohio. An informal early-20th-century American football association, the Ohio League, was the direct predecessor of\",\n \"-24.17177894053748\"\n ],\n [\n \"game would go on to be introduced to Yale University, Columbia University, Cornell University, & Boston's Harvard University. This hybrid form of football, that would evolve into what is now American football, would eventually adopt codified rules based primarily on those established for English rugby, gained prominence & acceptance within the college circles, & upper-class status, relegating the uncodified \\\"soccer\\\" variety of the game to working class status, that was adopted by the immigrant communities that brought along their soccer customs & traditions with them to the region. \\n1967 brought about the birth of nationwide professional soccer featuring two competing\",\n \"-24.085697273665573\"\n ],\n [\n \"and women who come from Australian regional and rural cities. It is argued that regional and rural cities offer children more space to play, a range of sports, participation with adults due to low participation numbers and local sporting heroes. It has been stated that 60 per cent of the Australian team at the 2004 Athens Olympics grew up in rural and regional Australia. Besides developing international athletes, many Australian Football League (AFL) and National Rugby League players have their origins in country areas. In 2010, one-third of AFL players came from country Victoria.\",\n \"-24.078768006758764\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Other Kids The Other Kids was an American alternative pop band formed in Madison, Wisconsin in 1985 by Steve Watson (lead vocals, guitars), Allyn Watson (bass, vocals), and Chris Fink (drums, vocals). One of the most popular Madison rock bands of the mid-to-late 80s, The Other Kids disbanded in 1992, just as the alternative pop sound they were known for began to break into the commercial mainstream. The Milwaukee Shepherd called The Other Kids \\\"probably Wisconsin's best classic pop-rock band, working those Alex Chiltonesque melodies together with empathetic intelligent lyrics, edgy guitars and a solid beat.\\\" The band's sound\",\n \"-24.071453544311225\"\n ],\n [\n \"1993; this proved a costly blunder, as four teams folded and the fifth moved to Montreal. After surviving the closing of the Ottawa Rough Riders in 1996 and bankruptcies by the Toronto and Hamilton teams in 2003, football has recovered and is in fair health in the 21st century.\\nSoccer in Canada has grown in popularity in recent decades, especially as a school sport for boys and girls. It has more players than ice hockey. At the professional level, the Toronto FC in 2007 became the first Canadian club in the American Major League Soccer (MLS). In 2009, another MLS franchise\",\n \"-24.064316095857066\"\n ],\n [\n \"sport originated in the 19th century out of older games related to modern rugby football, more specifically rugby league football. American and Canadian football developed alongside each other and were originally more distinct before Canadian teams adopted features of the American game. Both varieties are distinguished from other football sports by their use of hard plastic helmets and shoulder pads, the forward pass, the system of downs, a number of unique rules and positions, measurement in customary units of yards (even in Canada, which mostly metricated in the 1970s, yards are still used), and a distinctive brown leather ball in\",\n \"-24.058762112661498\"\n ],\n [\n \"teams, and the revenue of the ticket sales. The indirect impacts didn’t stop there either; the newly introduced professional league in the United States engendered one of the fastest growing youth sports in the country. Youth soccer took off and the selling of apparel and gear for the sport was a target for private businesses to focus on selling.\\nHowever, a critic has argued that the event cost the United States $5.6 billion. Asia In the 2002 World Cup, several other advantages were discovered when the host was split between Japan and Korea. This was the first time the tournament had\",\n \"-23.99871025819448\"\n ],\n [\n \"also been growing in popularity in both men and women and with international participation in world of this discipline being among the best teams in the world, the sport was introduced by Americans residing in the Canal Zone for veterans and retirees who even had a festival called the Turkey Ball. Other popular sports are American football, rugby, hockey, softball and other amateur sports including skateboarding, BMX and surfing, because the many beaches of Panama such as Santa Catalina and Venao that have hosted events the likes of ISA World Surfing Games.\\nLong jumper Irving Saladino became the first Panamanian Olympic\",\n \"-23.973640395066468\"\n ],\n [\n \"the earliest and strongest areas for American soccer, spawning dozens of teams from the towns of Harrison, Kearny and East Newark. The areas strength in soccer rested on two Scottish companies, Clark Thread Company and Michael Nairn & Company, which established their American operations in the area. The two companies drew Scottish immigrants to their plants which then served as the basis for many of the areas powerhouse teams. In Harrison, the West Hudson A.A. drew its players from the city at large, rather than operating as a company team like many others in the area. Records do not currently\",\n \"-23.969524217733124\"\n ],\n [\n \"in private schools, although it is gaining ground in public schools where it can be played on futsal grounds. The national team is considered the best in South America, and the sport is gaining in media coverage. The national league is broadcast on cable television, sponsored by Petrobras. Brazil women's national handball team were crowned world champions for the first time at the 2013 Championship. Beach handball At the Beach Handball World Championships Brazil has more titles for both genders than any country. American football American football is played by young people in some states. The most popular varieties are\",\n \"-23.96832675164478\"\n ],\n [\n \"season in the face of rapidly declining fan interest and a poor reputation. However, XFL stars such as Tommy Maddox and Rod \\\"He Hate Me\\\" Smart later saw success in the NFL. Youth and high school football (1863–present) Football is a popular participatory sport among youth. One of the earliest youth football organizations was founded in Philadelphia, in 1929, as the Junior Football Conference. Organizer Joe Tomlin started the league to provide activities and guidance for teenage boys who were vandalizing the factory he owned. The original four-team league expanded to sixteen teams in 1933 when Pop Warner, who had\",\n \"-23.93515961081721\"\n ],\n [\n \"Comparison of American football and rugby league Origins Both sports descend from the older game of rugby football, which originated in 19th Century England. British colonists and the British military in Canada brought football to North America. It became popular in American and Canadian universities and prep schools. At the time, association football and rugby football were not as differentiated as they are now and teams would negotiate the rules before playing each game. The sports of American football and Canadian football evolved from these intercollegiate games.\\nMeanwhile, in England a schism developed in rugby football between those who favoured\",\n \"-23.92938666031114\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":580,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2m013c"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why are motorcycles built to be so loud? / Why do people want loud motorcycles?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["This has always bothered me. How come some guy blaring his car stereo at 90 decibels deserves a ticket, but some guys motorcycle blasting down my street at 180 decibels so loud it's rattling my windows and scaring small children is socially acceptable?","As someone who lives in a residential neighborhood in a large city, I can tell you I have zero respect for people who ride with unreasonably loud tailpipes. Some might think that if they dress like a leather pirate and make a lot of noise, others will respect them or fear them or think they're interesting. Nothing of the sort is true ... they might be impressing each other and teenage boys but to everyone else, it's a sad and pathetic annoyance that wakes people up at night, interrupts patio conversations and scares the crap out of dogs and babies. It can ruin time spent outdoors and on mountain roads when you're trying to get away to quiet. Sadly, many thrive off the idea they are annoying people and the perception of getting attention. It aligns with the immature philosophy of freedom to do whatever they want at any cost, a false sense of pride and the facade of manliness and the bad-boy image. Like they are part of a naughty gang. I'm not buying the safety argument. If that's the concern, buy a safer form of transportation. There are a lot of motorcycles on the road that aren't a quarter as loud that follow safety protocol just fine.","The loudness argument is largely BS. I generally cannot hear a bike until it's right on top of me. Their answer? Get louder. They just want to sound cool, and are looking for an excuse to justify it.","Motorcycles are not built from the factory to be 'loud' if they are for street use. What happens is that people modify the bikes by putting on an aftermarket exhaust or just removing the stock mufflers. There are four camps to this: 1) Loud pipes save lives. By making more noise, other drivers will hear me and therefore I'm safer. 2) Loud noise = I'm cool. You know who you are, you spend more time cleaning than riding and revving unnecessarily while not moving. 3) Loud noise = I think I'm faster than I am. I can make my motorcycle loud and it sounds just like [Rossi]( URL_0 ) so I'm as good as Rossi. 4) I want to go faster = I want more hp to go faster than what it was stock. One of the cheapest ways to do this is to change the exhaust. Usually a person who goes to the track. There are an exception or two out there, but for the most part you'll find them in one of the categories above.","Motorcycles aren't, \"built to be loud.\" The acceptable dB limit varies state-to-state in the US, but manufacturers usually just take the most restrictive state's requirement and build to that to avoid the cost and hassle of having multiple parts to meet differing requirements. That said, tons of motorcyclists buy aftermarket pipes, sold for \"off road use only\" -- mostly broken into two different camps: - The ones wanting to pick up a few extra horsepower. These pipes tend to be a little louder, but not ridiculously so. - The ones that are desperate for attention: HEY AIN'T I FUCKING COOL AND REBELLIOUS RATTLING YOUR WINDOWS WHILE WEARING THIS PUDDING CUP OF A HELMET LOOK AT ME LOOK AT ME! *PS LOUD PIPES SAVE LIVES AND I'M STICKING TO THAT STORY LOOK AT ME!","Well it would really depend which kind of motorcycle you are talking about. The general idea behind louder pipes is that it allows for less back pressure, it takes some strain off the engine and allows it work faster better, etc. Essentially you get more hp from it. Most of these comments are addressing aftermarket pipes, not stock pipes. Why someone would want to put a louder pipe on their bike can be for one of two reasons, or both. As you know hp gain, also they tend to be lighter, so bike = faster. The second is the whole \"loud pipes save lives\" I've personally tested this with my R6(has aftermarket pipes) and a car. Needless to say you wont be heard unless you are right on top of someone on the highway. BUT if you are a pedestrian or aren't moving very quickly you will definitely hear me coming. The effects in terms of safety are still an issue that most motorcyclists will fight about. My opinion on loud pipes save lives? \"Common sense save lives\" should be the real slogan. Every time I ride like an idiot there are issues, close calls, regrets, etc. Otherwise I've had maybe 1 close call in 6 months of riding when I'm not being an asshat(97% of the time).","because many people that ride loud motorcycles are attention whores and are so proud of their motorcycle they want people to swivel their head and and look at them. Now before all the hates hate I agree that the loud pipes are a good way to be noticed on the road. I ride a bike with cobra pipes but I don't gun it in heavy residential areas or when I start it up in a parking lot like so many douchebags do .","Why do people like loud cars? or huge v8's? or tomato juice? Beyond that a bike can be louder then a car because of higher revs and not having the entire body of a car to dampen the sound. Most importantly I feel like your talking specifically about harleys or people with straight cut pipes, that's not all motorcycles. [woo wooooo]( URL_0 )","Due to the amount of debates generated by the question and large influx of personal opinions and low-effort explanations, I have decided to lock this thread. As a friendly reminder, questions of subjective nature and debates (\"Why do people think/want/like X?\") belong on /r/AskReddit or /r/changemyview. Regards.","Well motorcycles aren't necessarily BUILT to be loud, the louder bikes you hear out there are actually modified to be loud at the expense of performance. Opening up a carborator for instance, makes more noise, but reduces fuel efficiency. As for why people want them to be so loud, it's mostly little dick syndrome or compensating for some other short coming. An effort to be rebellious and obnoxious in a society of polite people that mostly won't say anything, but you should really check out the episode of southpark about bikers and fags, it's pretty accurate.","I can't really speak for Harleys, but modern sport bikes (aka crotch rockets) often only get loud at higher rpm (most cars barely break 3k when driving, where most sport bikes reach over 12k regularly). When idling, an OEM exhaust is fairly quiet, not much louder than a car. Most exhaust mufflers use packing (a kind of synthetic cotton) and baffles to quiet a bike by disturbing airflow. These chambers are often reduced in size and density (less weight+better airflow=better performance) in aftermarket exhaust systems, meaning less noise suppression, thus louder bikes. Here is a common sport bike muffler cut open. URL_0 ","Some people like them to be loud to make themselves feel cool. However, they are loud enough at first because there isn't much of an exhaust system on a motorcycle. They can't have a big muffler like a car can. It would be terribly unsightly to strap a car muffler to a bike."],"string":"[\n \"This has always bothered me. How come some guy blaring his car stereo at 90 decibels deserves a ticket, but some guys motorcycle blasting down my street at 180 decibels so loud it's rattling my windows and scaring small children is socially acceptable?\",\n \"As someone who lives in a residential neighborhood in a large city, I can tell you I have zero respect for people who ride with unreasonably loud tailpipes. Some might think that if they dress like a leather pirate and make a lot of noise, others will respect them or fear them or think they're interesting. Nothing of the sort is true ... they might be impressing each other and teenage boys but to everyone else, it's a sad and pathetic annoyance that wakes people up at night, interrupts patio conversations and scares the crap out of dogs and babies. It can ruin time spent outdoors and on mountain roads when you're trying to get away to quiet. Sadly, many thrive off the idea they are annoying people and the perception of getting attention. It aligns with the immature philosophy of freedom to do whatever they want at any cost, a false sense of pride and the facade of manliness and the bad-boy image. Like they are part of a naughty gang. I'm not buying the safety argument. If that's the concern, buy a safer form of transportation. There are a lot of motorcycles on the road that aren't a quarter as loud that follow safety protocol just fine.\",\n \"The loudness argument is largely BS. I generally cannot hear a bike until it's right on top of me. Their answer? Get louder. They just want to sound cool, and are looking for an excuse to justify it.\",\n \"Motorcycles are not built from the factory to be 'loud' if they are for street use. What happens is that people modify the bikes by putting on an aftermarket exhaust or just removing the stock mufflers. There are four camps to this: 1) Loud pipes save lives. By making more noise, other drivers will hear me and therefore I'm safer. 2) Loud noise = I'm cool. You know who you are, you spend more time cleaning than riding and revving unnecessarily while not moving. 3) Loud noise = I think I'm faster than I am. I can make my motorcycle loud and it sounds just like [Rossi]( URL_0 ) so I'm as good as Rossi. 4) I want to go faster = I want more hp to go faster than what it was stock. One of the cheapest ways to do this is to change the exhaust. Usually a person who goes to the track. There are an exception or two out there, but for the most part you'll find them in one of the categories above.\",\n \"Motorcycles aren't, \\\"built to be loud.\\\" The acceptable dB limit varies state-to-state in the US, but manufacturers usually just take the most restrictive state's requirement and build to that to avoid the cost and hassle of having multiple parts to meet differing requirements. That said, tons of motorcyclists buy aftermarket pipes, sold for \\\"off road use only\\\" -- mostly broken into two different camps: - The ones wanting to pick up a few extra horsepower. These pipes tend to be a little louder, but not ridiculously so. - The ones that are desperate for attention: HEY AIN'T I FUCKING COOL AND REBELLIOUS RATTLING YOUR WINDOWS WHILE WEARING THIS PUDDING CUP OF A HELMET LOOK AT ME LOOK AT ME! *PS LOUD PIPES SAVE LIVES AND I'M STICKING TO THAT STORY LOOK AT ME!\",\n \"Well it would really depend which kind of motorcycle you are talking about. The general idea behind louder pipes is that it allows for less back pressure, it takes some strain off the engine and allows it work faster better, etc. Essentially you get more hp from it. Most of these comments are addressing aftermarket pipes, not stock pipes. Why someone would want to put a louder pipe on their bike can be for one of two reasons, or both. As you know hp gain, also they tend to be lighter, so bike = faster. The second is the whole \\\"loud pipes save lives\\\" I've personally tested this with my R6(has aftermarket pipes) and a car. Needless to say you wont be heard unless you are right on top of someone on the highway. BUT if you are a pedestrian or aren't moving very quickly you will definitely hear me coming. The effects in terms of safety are still an issue that most motorcyclists will fight about. My opinion on loud pipes save lives? \\\"Common sense save lives\\\" should be the real slogan. Every time I ride like an idiot there are issues, close calls, regrets, etc. Otherwise I've had maybe 1 close call in 6 months of riding when I'm not being an asshat(97% of the time).\",\n \"because many people that ride loud motorcycles are attention whores and are so proud of their motorcycle they want people to swivel their head and and look at them. Now before all the hates hate I agree that the loud pipes are a good way to be noticed on the road. I ride a bike with cobra pipes but I don't gun it in heavy residential areas or when I start it up in a parking lot like so many douchebags do .\",\n \"Why do people like loud cars? or huge v8's? or tomato juice? Beyond that a bike can be louder then a car because of higher revs and not having the entire body of a car to dampen the sound. Most importantly I feel like your talking specifically about harleys or people with straight cut pipes, that's not all motorcycles. [woo wooooo]( URL_0 )\",\n \"Due to the amount of debates generated by the question and large influx of personal opinions and low-effort explanations, I have decided to lock this thread. As a friendly reminder, questions of subjective nature and debates (\\\"Why do people think/want/like X?\\\") belong on /r/AskReddit or /r/changemyview. Regards.\",\n \"Well motorcycles aren't necessarily BUILT to be loud, the louder bikes you hear out there are actually modified to be loud at the expense of performance. Opening up a carborator for instance, makes more noise, but reduces fuel efficiency. As for why people want them to be so loud, it's mostly little dick syndrome or compensating for some other short coming. An effort to be rebellious and obnoxious in a society of polite people that mostly won't say anything, but you should really check out the episode of southpark about bikers and fags, it's pretty accurate.\",\n \"I can't really speak for Harleys, but modern sport bikes (aka crotch rockets) often only get loud at higher rpm (most cars barely break 3k when driving, where most sport bikes reach over 12k regularly). When idling, an OEM exhaust is fairly quiet, not much louder than a car. Most exhaust mufflers use packing (a kind of synthetic cotton) and baffles to quiet a bike by disturbing airflow. These chambers are often reduced in size and density (less weight+better airflow=better performance) in aftermarket exhaust systems, meaning less noise suppression, thus louder bikes. Here is a common sport bike muffler cut open. URL_0 \",\n \"Some people like them to be loud to make themselves feel cool. However, they are loud enough at first because there isn't much of an exhaust system on a motorcycle. They can't have a big muffler like a car can. It would be terribly unsightly to strap a car muffler to a bike.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["by V-twin, common crankpin motorcycle engines when the goods are in use.\" Nine of Harley-Davidson's competitors filed oppositions against the application, arguing that cruiser-style motorcycles of various brands use the same crankpin V-twin engine which produces the same sound. After six years of litigation, with no end in sight, in early 2000, Harley-Davidson withdrew their application.\nOther companies have been more successful in registering their distinctive sounds: MGM and their lion's roar; the NBC chimes; famous basketball team the Harlem Globetrotters and their theme song \"Sweet Georgia Brown\"; Intel and the three-second chord sequence used with the Pentium processor;","-29.47498890166753"],["video systems.\nThe current solo motorcycle used is the BMW 1200RT-P although some older 1150cc and 650cc models remain. Although motorcycles carry less equipment than cars, they are far more agile through traffic congestion and are essential for escorting convoys, processions and demonstrations.","-28.606127799168462"],["because they are too commonplace and utilitarian, while motorcycles retain a unique romance.\nThe interior of the Guggenheim's spiral ramp was covered in reflective stainless steel, a design by Frank Gehry, with a stylized pavement under the tires of the exhibits, and the bikes not leaned over on their kickstands, but rather standing up, as if in motion, held by thin wires and small clear plastic chocks under the wheels. Early examples from the 19th century, steam cycles and three wheelers mostly, were in a single room near the entrance. The first series produced motorcycle, and the first motorcycle","-28.36730888564489"],["them cleaner and quieter than motorcycles, as well as having more built-in storage space. Automatic clutches and continuously variable transmissions (CVT) make them easier to learn on and to ride. Scooters usually have smaller wheels than motorcycles. Scooters usually have the engine as part of the swingarm, so that their engines travel up and down with the suspension.\nUnderbones are small-displacement motorcycles with a step-through frame, descendants of the original Honda Super Cub. They are differentiated from scooters by their larger wheels and their use of footpegs instead of a floorboard. They often have a gear shifter with an automatic clutch.\nThe","-27.671263473806903"],["application for the distinctive sound of the Harley-Davidson motorcycle engine: \"The mark consists of the exhaust sound of applicant's motorcycles, produced by V-twin, common crankpin motorcycle engines when the goods are in use\". Nine of Harley-Davidson's competitors filed comments opposing the application, arguing that cruiser-style motorcycles of various brands use a single-crankpin V-twin engine which produce a similar sound. These objections were followed by litigation. In June 2000, the company dropped efforts to federally register its trademark. Revolution engine The Revolution engine is based on the VR-1000 Superbike race program, co-developed by Harley-Davidson's Powertrain Engineering team and Porsche Engineering in","-27.322936821437906"],["1980s-1990s, the world's fastest motorcycle in the quarter mile at the time, the Yamaha R1, the motorcycle with greatest top speed at the time, the Honda CBR1100XX, and no police motorcycles at all. James Hyde of Art in America pointed to the omission of the Moto Guzzi V8.\nSlate's Jacob Weisberg found 114 motorcycles in the catalog to be too many, and too boring for the non-motorcycle aficionado. In contrast to critics like Zakaria, Perl, and Hilton Kramer, who want museums to challenge and educate the public with difficult art like abstract expressionism, which might require a little homework","-27.320989711181028"],["but are highly valued for the same reasons.\nAmong custom motorcycle culture, certain names have become famous for their creations and have led to mainstream acceptance of previously unacceptable design solutions such as extreme ergonomics, totally rigid rear wheels without the benefit of suspension, minimal lighting and limited ground clearance for cornering. These design characteristics are purely emotional in nature, being led by styling and image rather than technical or performance considerations. \"Specials\" Custom and specials motorcycles are similar to the above but tend to be super sport type motorcycles, or at least high-performance based, using many special add-on parts, one-of-a-kind","-27.181278069561813"],["in Europe it has a 750cc engine. All versions use Honda's Dual Clutch Transmission (DCT) system to provide both automatic and semi-automatic control. Problems faced The problems faced by the designer or marketer of an FF motorcycle are many. Some of these are perceptual. Experienced motorcyclists tend to be resistant to the idea, arguing that it's not a \"proper\" bike, and there is nothing wrong with the standard motorcycle. To car drivers, many of the disadvantages of the car are either not recognised or simply put up with and the overall convenience is hard to give up. Many car drivers","-27.15480849618325"],["excellence. In The Telegraph, the late Kevin Ash wrote that \"choppers exist outside the realm of motorcycles I understand.\" Dexter Ford said in The New York Times that the one \"thing wrong with the Fury is the same thing that is so right about it: it’s a Honda.\" Competition Motorcycles such as the Honda Fury are sometimes categorized by the mutually exclusive terms factory custom, referring to a major manufacturer's attempt to follow the chopper fad. Harley-Davidson had taken the first steps in the 70s and 80s, but the motorcycle press generally acknowledged that Honda's effort was the most daring","-27.044841168797575"],["AM3 consulted the motorcycle racing team Castrol/Honda Racing Corporation, who helped them on a number of points, including studies on where sound comes from on a motorcycle and how it travels to the ear of the rider. The team determined that they needed four sound outputs to recreate this experience realistically. Because the Model 2 arcade board has only two sound outputs, they used a Model 1 sound board for the additional two sound outputs.\nBecause it takes more polygons to render a motorcycle than to render a car with a similar level of detail, AM3's wish for the game to","-27.04447924665874"],["power, even (dare I say it?) its speed.\"\n\nMotorcycles are versatile and may be put to many uses as the rider sees fit. In the past there were few if any specialized types of motorcycles, but the number of types and sub-types has proliferated, particularly in the period since the 1950s. The introduction of the Honda CB750 in 1969 marked a dramatic increase in the power and speed of practical and affordable sport bikes available to the general public. \nThis was followed in the 1970s by improvements in suspension and braking commensurate with the power of the large inline fours that","-26.81703649670817"],["break on Japan's poor roads of the time, they were considered better looking than the pressed-steel D-Type. The bikes' narrow space between the tire and fender was prone to filling with mud. Competitors had introduced four-stroke motorcycles, and Fujisawa told Honda that their motorcycle was not selling well was because its two-stroke made \"unpleasant, high-pitched noises\". Honda would address these issues with his next motorcycle, the E-Type, which was unveiled in 1951.\nHonda did not export motorcycles from Japan until 1952, when the Type-F Cub was introduced to Taiwan. Any bikes that made it out of Japan prior to that did","-26.683708528085845"],["have been developed to damp vibrations before they reach the rider. These include materials, such as carbon fiber, either in the whole frame or just key components such as the front fork, seatpost, or handlebars; tube shapes, such as curved seat stays;, gel handlebar grips and saddles and special inserts, such as Zertz by Specialized, and Buzzkills by Bontrager. In motorcycles In addition to the road surface, vibrations in a motorcycle can be caused by the engine and wheels, if unbalanced. Manufacturers employ a variety of technologies to reduce or damp these vibrations, such as engine balance shafts, rubber engine","-26.61004882265115"],["or limited series frames, racing wheels and parts or hand-made components to maximise performance. While modifying motorcycles is an activity as old as the motorcycle itself, the \"special\" culture or \"streetfighter\" began to flourish in the mid-1970s as a response to the myriad high performance Japanese motorcycles then available, but whose power far exceeded their handling. Individuals would choose premanufactured parts from catalogs or from other bikes and redesign their particular machine to suit their desires. In general this activity is limited to one-of-a-kind vehicles and, as with custom motorcycles, uses very little genuine engineering or design methodology, although some","-26.593905590416398"],["'muscle-cars' may prefer their vehicle to be louder (at least at idling or low speeds), and such noise (often from modified exhaust systems) can only be controlled by on-going inspection and sanctions.\nSeveral studies have concluded that reducing traffic noise pollution is low-cost or cost-effective. Such studies include consideration of the reduced value of noise-affected real-estate, the costs of supporting a dispersed population 'trying to get away from all the noise', and the increased healthcare costs statistically attributable to a noisier environment.\nEuropean technology began to emulate the United States treatment of roadway noise by the 1980s, although the national requirements of","-26.58651702234056"],["Harley-Davidson began to participate in the Sound Quality Working Group, founded by Orfield Labs, Bruel and Kjaer, TEAC, Yamaha, Sennheiser, SMS and Cortex. This was the nation's first group to share research on psychological acoustics. Later that year, Harley-Davidson participated in a series of sound quality studies at Orfield Labs, based on recordings taken at the Talladega Superspeedway, with the objective to lower the sound level for EU standards while analytically capturing the \"Harley Sound\". This research resulted in the bikes that were introduced in compliance with EU standards for 1998.\nOn February 1, 1994, the company filed a sound trademark","-26.58346747912219"],["Turbo. BMW plays a recorded sample of its motors through the car speakers, using a different samples according to the engine’s load and power. Legality Extremely loud sound systems in automobiles may violate the noise ordinance of some municipalities, some of which have outlawed them. In 2002 the U.S. Department of Justice issued a guide to police officers on how to deal with problems associated with loud audio systems in cars.","-26.571417936633225"],["does not \"give a damn\" about the motorcycle industry point of view, because the Tomahawk was successful in its real purpose, \"creating an almighty furor within the automotive world.\"\nMotorcyclist's Jeff Karr speculated the boredom with having designed too many outlandish show cars, especially with DaimlerChrysler's history of doing the unexpected, made the designers want to do this for \"the sheer outrage of the exercise\", creating \"a machine so resolutely evil, it has chunks of V-Max in its stool\", \"the ultimate bad-ass ride.\" Karr was positive about the \"simultaneously futuristic and nostalgic\" appearance where Glynn Kerr saw indecisiveness.\nIn response to automotive","-26.568546568534657"],["support, such as tubes or longerons, the frame is more properly called a \"semi-monocoque\". An example is Peter Williams' semi-monocoque Norton racer. Engine as a stressed member For rider comfort, a motorcycle's engine can be mounted on rubber bushings to isolate vibration from the rest of the machine. This strategy means the engine contributes little to frame stiffness, and absorbing rather than dissipating vibration can lead to stress damage to the frame, exhaust pipes, and other parts.\nInstead, if the engine is rigidly mounted to the frame, vibrations pass to and are dissipated via the whole frame, and the rider. Rigid","-26.545931339554954"],["made the valve noise more obvious, so ramp type cams were introduced for aluminium alloy head models to reduce the noise.\nAnother motorcycle based on the wartime generator engine was the 498 cc TR5 Trophy Twin, also introduced at the 1948 Motor Cycle Show. It used a single carburettor, low compression version of the Grand Prix engine. Britain won the prestigious 1948 International Six Days Trial. The Triumph works team had finished unpenalised. One team member, Allan Jefferies, had been riding what amounted to a prototype version.\nTo satisfy the American demand for motorcycles suited to long distance riding, Turner built a 650 cc","-26.4710683295707"],["are cheap to build and maintain and are suitable as cheap utility motorcycles.\nUntil the mid-1960s, road-racing machines, like the UK's Matchless, AJS and Norton, tended to be large singles, but since then multicylinder racers have become the norm. Off-road and smaller dual-sport bikes tend to use single-cylinder engines. The simplicity of these engines, often relying on a single carburetor, make them relatively easy to maintain and repair in remote locations with few tools.\nCompared to lightweight off-road singles, the modern category of heavier off-road adventure bikes tend to forgo such simplicity, and instead have larger and more powerful parallel-twin, flat-twin, or","-26.45240088381979"],["and gravel roads but are less than ideal on more difficult off-pavement terrain.\nSupermoto motorcycles were designed to compete on a single course that alternated between three genres of motorcycle racing: road racing, track racing, and motocross. This increasingly popular type of motorcycle is often a dual-sport that has been fitted by the manufacturer with smaller rims and road tires. Supermotos are quickly gaining popularity as street bikes due to their combination of light weight, durability, relatively low cost, and sporty handling. Scooters, underbones and mopeds Scooter engine sizes range smaller than motorcycles, 50–850 cc (3.1–51.9 cu in), and have all-enclosing bodywork that makes","-26.44289711548481"],["of the pipe to further protect riders and pillions. The bike's sound is unique among its two- and four-stroke contemporaries but also quite loud. Early in production (December 1974, Frame #11901), Suzuki reduced the size of the spark arrestor tubes, which both reduced noise and horsepower, but the RE5 exhaust note remains distinctive.","-26.353128027083585"],["Honda, riders tend to choose bikes that are lightweight and with high torque so that they can quickly achieve the speed required to complete loops within the sphere. Many riders may also have to go from high speeds to a dead stop very quickly. While mass market bikes are cheaper to use in the globe many riders customize their bikes to their liking; this is because the globe of death stunt does not require a bike with a powerful engine, suspension, and drive train as they require a top speed of only 40 to 65 miles per hour or 65","-26.35085958102718"],["cruiser class that have significantly higher levels of power. They often come with upgraded brakes and suspensions, better ground clearance, and premium surface finishes, as well as more exotic or non-traditional styling. Sport bike Sport bikes emphasize top speed, acceleration, braking, handling and grip on paved roads, typically at the expense of comfort and fuel economy in comparison to less specialized motorcycles. Because of this, there are certain design elements that most motorcycles of this type will share. Sport bikes have comparatively high performance engines resting inside a lightweight frame. Inline-four engines dominate the sport bike category, with V-twins having","-26.340030144358025"],["Triumph and BSA offered versions of their relatively light street motorcycles with high exhaust pipes, and called them scramblers.\nYamaha is credited with rekindling popular interest in dirt worthy motorcycles that could also be ridden on the street. In 1968 they introduced the hugely successful DT-1 based on a 250 cc two-stroke engine. Other manufacturers soon followed with similar models called \"enduros\". These light weight machines were good on trails and adequate on pavement. Some manufacturers approached the trend from the opposite direction, beginning with a street motorcycle and modifying it for adequate off-road performance. For instance, the Honda CL350 Scrambler was","-26.32473441498587"],["is also a unique piece of machinery because the exact same motorcycle could have been created 70 years ago. The solutions applied to its engineering, mechanics, and design were available back then. Besides, the motorcycle was built to establish an absolute speed record.\nYuri Shif says that it was born for speed, and every millimeter of its body could support that. This motorcycle is a symbol of that dream about speed dedicated to all generations of engineers, designers, racers. The Machine motorcycle is a tribute to the enthusiasts and romantics of speed of all generations. The bike's heart is a specific","-26.31594877736643"],["handling of the motorcycle. Because of the complexity of modeling all the possible movements of different sized riders, to approach perfect tuning of a motorcycle's weight distribution and suspension is often only possible by having a bike customized or at least adjusted to fit a specific rider. Generally, road racing style sport bikes have shorter wheelbases than those intended for more comfortable touring, and the current trend in sport bike design is towards shorter wheelbases, giving quicker turning at the expense of a greater tendency for unintentional wheelies and stoppies under hard acceleration and braking, respectively. Variations Sport touring motorcycles","-26.31265025457833"],["consistent with several indicators in the design of carelessness and laziness. Kerr called to task the car designers for a lack of curiosity about the basic tenets of motorcycle design, saying they were \"underwhelmed\" by the challenge. He said the Tomahawk \"illustrates how the automotive industry considers motorcycles a lesser form of its own discipline\" and so \"feel entirely qualified to redesign one whenever they run out of ideas for sports cars.\" \nKerr blamed this disregard of the rules of motorcycle design for the use of \"too much over-simplified bodywork\" on the Pininfarina Morbidelli V8, which the Tomahawk at least","-26.271513490064535"],["until the early 2000's, when EU noise and pollution regulations mostly stopped this practice, forcing companies to use other methods to increase performance of the motorcycle. Trucks In many trucks / lorries all or most of the exhaust system is visible, often with a vertical exhaust pipe. Often in such trucks the silencer is surrounded by a perforated metal sheath to avoid people getting burnt touching the hot silencer. This sheath may be chrome plated as a display feature. \nPart of the pipe between the engine and the silencer is often flexible metal industrial ducting, which helps to avoid vibration","-26.27066068099157"],["Motorcycling Motorcycling is riding a motorcycle. For some people, motorcycling may be the only affordable form of individual motorized transportation, and small-displacement motorcycles are the most common motor vehicle in the most populous countries, including India, China and Indonesia.\nIn developing countries, motorcycles are overwhelmingly utilitarian due to lower prices and greater fuel economy. Of all motorcycles, 58% are in the Asia Pacific and Southern and Eastern Asia regions, excluding car-centric Japan.\nMotorcycles are mainly a luxury good in developed nations, where they are used mostly for recreation, as a lifestyle accessory or a symbol of personal identity. Beyond being a mode","-26.252534409577493"],["common than motorcycles. In developed nations, motorcycles are frequently owned in addition to a car, and thus used primarily for recreation or when traffic density means a motorcycle confers travel time or parking advantages as a mode of transport.\nIn the developing world a motorcycle is more likely to be the primary mode of transport for its owner, and often the owner's family as well. It is not uncommon for riders to transport multiple passengers or large goods aboard small motorcycles and scooters simply because there is no better alternative. Cost of ownership considerations regarding maintenance and parts, especially in remote","-26.244857602083357"],["motorcycles often meant that repairs had to be done on the road-side miles from home. Modern motorcycles are as reliable as automobiles but many riders feel that their motorcycle is more than just a means of transportation which leads them to want to do maintenance on the motorcycles themselves.","-26.18878973653773"],["to typical cars; this contrast is particularly strong with heavy-duty trucks. There are several aspects of truck operations that contribute to the overall sound that is emitted. Continuous sounds are those from tires rolling on the roadway, and the constant hum of their diesel engines at highway speeds. Less frequent noises, but perhaps more noticeable, are things like the repeated sharp-pitched whistle of a turbocharger on acceleration, or the abrupt blare of an exhaust brake retarder when traversing a downgrade. There has been noise regulation put in place to help control where and when the use of engine braking retarders","-26.161656853472323"],["Two-wheels A police motorcycle is a motorcycle used by various police forces and departments. They may be custom designed to meet the requirements unique of a particular use. A police motorcycle is often called a \"motor\" by police officers in the United States. Similarly, motorcycle units are known as motor units and motorcycle officers are known as motor officers.\nThe maneuverability of the motorcycle on crowded streets offer advantages not provided by larger, more traditional police vehicles. The motorcycle's relatively small size allows it to get to accident scenes more quickly when incidents such as traffic collisions slow down access by","-26.13877331482945"],["type, such as road racing and street bikes, or motocross and dirt bikes.\nStreet bikes include cruisers, sportbikes, scooters and mopeds, and many other types. Off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing classes such as motocross and are not street legal in most areas. Dual purpose machines like the dual-sport style are made to go off-road but include features to make them legal and comfortable on the street as well.\nEach configuration offers either specialised advantage or broad capability, and each design creates a different riding posture.\nIn some countries the use of pillions (rear seats) is restricted. Experimentation and invention","-26.06388704782148"],["but mostly off road motocross low-power mopeds, small scooters and step-through underbones where they still compete strongly with four-strokes (including the highest-selling motorcycle of all time, the 50 cc Honda Super Cub). The major markets of two-stroke motorcycles are in dirt bikes and developing nations. Cylinder heads (four-stroke) Cylinder head design has a significant effect on the efficiency of combustion, and hence the power output of the engine. The head may be flat, in which case the combustion chamber resides within the cylinder and/or a depression in the piston crown, but usually a \"dome\" within the cylinder head provides most of","-26.052114235120825"],["later teamed with Harman in 2009 to develop a more complete noise reduction system, including road noise, tire noise, and chassis vibrations. One benefit of active noise control is that the car can weigh less, with less sound-deadening material used, and without a heavy balance shaft in the engine. Removing the balance shaft also increases fuel efficiency. The 2013 Honda Accord used an active noise control system, as did the 2013 Lincoln luxury line and the Ford C-Max and Fusion models. Other operating data may also play a part in the DSP, data such as the engine's speed in revolutions","-26.007665671844734"],["and a rear subframe attached to the engine. Materials In the early days, motorcycles were little more than motorised bicycles, and consequently frames were tubular steel. While the use of steel tubing is still common, in modern times other materials, such as titanium, aluminium, magnesium, and carbon-fibre, along with composites of these materials, are now used. As different motorcycles have varying design parameters (such as cost, complexity, weight distribution, stiffness, power output and speed), there is no single ideal frame design, and designers must make an informed decision of the optimum choice. Semi-monocoque If a \"monocoque\" frame uses additional","-25.967663494855515"],["Motorcycle wheel Motorcycle wheels are made to cope with radial and axial forces. They also provide a way of mounting other critical components such as the brakes, final drive and suspension. Wheels, and anything directly connected to them, are considered to be unsprung mass. Traditionally motorcycles used wire-spoked wheels with inner tubes and pneumatic tyres. Although cast wheels were first used on a motorcycle in 1927, it would not be until the 1970s that mainstream manufacturers would start to introduce cast wheels on their roadgoing motorcycles. Spoked wheels are usually made using steel spokes with steel or aluminium rims. Cast","-25.937738211126998"],["to learn to like, Weisberg complained that the information accompanying the motorcycle exhibits was too technical and bewildering to the non-gearhead, with talk of self-aligning bearings, compression ratios and near-hemispherical combustion chambers. That is, he wrote, \"the approach is design-technical rather than design-aesthetic or design-cultural,\" and thus it failed to make the case that industrial design is more than just the \"stepchild of fine art\" and that \"the cross-fertilization of high and pop is an important part of the story of artistic modernism.\"\nThe selection of motorcycles was overwhelmingly Western, and mostly limited to motorcycles of the United States market,","-25.81374613387743"],["largest motorcycles to that country, and to export far fewer sub-600 cc (37 cu in) models to the American market. Types Almost all production motorcycles have gasoline internal combustion engines. Both four-stroke and two-stroke engines are used, but strict emission laws have led to far fewer two-strokes. A few have used Wankel rotary engines, but no Wankel bikes are currently in production. Motorcycle engines can be air cooled or liquid cooled, and optionally include oil cooling as well. Some scooters use batteries and an electric motor. The 2009 TT races introduced a new category 'TTX' (renamed as TT Zero) for electric bikes using","-25.803734370798338"],["a noise nuisance order, which meant that the circuit had to reduce its noise level. The British Formula Three Championship and the British GT Championship were both louder than permitted, and so were prevented from returning. Present Races include a home-circuit championship with classes for Saloon cars, Sports & GTs, and Formula Ford. Racing clubs from around the UK include the track in the events for their championships, including the 750 Motor Club, and BRSCC. Once a year motorcycle racing takes place over two days during the summer. The weekend includes a sidecar championship and an historic race, as well","-25.80119304145046"],["motorcycles were mounted horizontally along the frame, but all current four-cylinder BMW motorcycles have transverse engines. The modern Triumph company has offered inline-four-powered motorcycles, though they were discontinued in favour of triples.\nThe 2009 Yamaha R1 has an inline-four engine that does not fire at even intervals of 180°. Instead, it uses a crossplane crankshaft that prevents the pistons from simultaneously reaching top dead centre. This results in better secondary balance, which is particularly beneficial in the higher rpm range, and \"big-bang firing order\" theory says the irregular delivery of torque to the rear tire makes sliding in the corners at","-25.702797320554964"],["remarkably tolerant of poor sound quality, and the distortion inherent in limited-range drivers may enhance their output at high frequencies, increasing clarity when listening to spoken word material. Subwoofer A subwoofer is a woofer driver used only for the lowest-pitched part of the audio spectrum: typically below 200 Hz for consumer systems, below 100 Hz for professional live sound, and below 80 Hz in THX-approved systems. Because the intended range of frequencies is limited, subwoofer system design is usually simpler in many respects than for conventional loudspeakers, often consisting of a single driver enclosed in a suitable box or enclosure. Since sound","-25.672232747005182"],["clutch of previous superbikes from Ducati. The manufacturer claims it reduces weight, improves both service life and \"feel\" of the clutch and reduces noise. Ducati has in the past held to only dry clutches in accordance with marketing their bikes as obeying the design imperatives of racing above all, unlike, as Ducati would have it, ordinary street bikes. While a dry clutch \"rattles like a bucket of rocks,\" Ducati and its adherents felt the clutch's \"typical noise is music to bikers' ears.\" The 848's wet clutch is a stark departure from this, because, \"Ducati made it very","-25.59337202151073"],["motorcycles. Trailer manufacturers often offer trailers specifically designed for carrying motorcycles.\nGeneral purpose enclosed trailers, as seen in the photo above left, have the advantage of providing a more secure way of locking up the motorcycles contained within it, keeping them out of sight, and protecting them from all kinds of weather. However, as they are heavier than open trailers and create more wind resistance, pulling a general purpose enclosed trailer can decrease the fuel efficiency of the tow vehicle. Conversely, an enclosed motorcycle-specific trailer can be built low enough so that wind resistance is reduced. As a result, fuel","-25.569219619443174"],["and mostly of the high end, leaving out utilitarian examples. One scooter is present, and one motorcycle truly for the masses, the Honda Super Cub. That motorcycles are the number one mode of transport in a great many countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia, and thus central to the lives of most of the world's population was completely ignored by The Art of the Motorcycle, and little mention was made of the design context of creating motorcycles for this market. Creative uses of motorcycles in the developing world, such as the tuk tuk and similar vehicles, was overlooked.","-25.55399218344246"],["the types of motorcycles with the greatest problems were touring, off-road/dual sport, sport-touring, and cruisers. There were not enough sport bikes in the survey for a statistically significant conclusion, though the data hinted at reliability as good as cruisers. These results may be partially explained by accessories including such equipment as fairings, luggage, and auxiliary lighting, which are frequently added to touring, adventure touring/dual sport and sport touring bikes. Trouble with fuel systems is often the result of improper winter storage, and brake problems may also be due to poor maintenance. Of the five brands with enough data to draw","-25.52294642267225"],["asked Weiss about the location of the motorcycle with the open microphone—\"Would you consider that to be an essential ingredient in the ultimate conclusion of your analysis?\"— Weiss answered, \"It is an essential component of it, because, if you do not put the motorcycle in the place that it is —the initial point of where it was receiving the [sound of the gunfire]—, and if you do not move it at the velocity at which it is being moved on paper in this re-creation, you do not get a good, tight pattern that compares very well with the observed impulses","-25.431841266225092"],["Legal definition of motorcycle The legal definition of a motorcycle for the purposes of registration, taxation and rider licensing in most countries is a powered two-wheel motor vehicle. Most countries distinguish between mopeds up to 49 cc (scooters do not count as a separate category) and the more powerful, larger, vehicles known as motorcycles. Many jurisdictions include some forms of three-wheelers as motorcycles. Australia and New Zealand In New Zealand, a motorcycle is any two- or three-wheeled motor vehicle weighing less than 1000 kg, that can travel faster than 50 km/h or that has an engine capacity exceeding 50 cc. A moped is a","-25.410918194713304"],["cycles include motorbike, motorbicycle, motorized bicycle, motor-driven cycle, and goped (motorized inline skateboard with T-bar). History The term \"moped\" now only applies to low-power (often super-economy) vehicles, but pedals were fitted to some early motorcycles, such as the pictured 1912 Douglas. Pedaling away from stationary was a great improvement over \"run and jump\" and light pedal assistance (LPA) was valuable for climbing hills. Better transmissions with wider ranges, better clutches and much better engine performance made pedals obsolete on most motorcycles by 1918 but the pedals on mopeds remained valuable for their original purposes as late as the 1990s.\nThe earliest","-25.381633238415816"],["fuel-cells or batteries.\nMotorcycle engines can be mounted transversely; with the crankshaft aligned perpendicular to the frame or longitudinally, with the crankshaft parallel to the frame. Motorcycles with transversely mounted engines are more suited to have chain or belt final-drive. Motorcycles with longitudinally mounted engines are more suited for shaft final-drive.\nMotor scooters often have the engine as part of the rear suspension, so the engine is not fixed rigidly to the main frame. Instead, the combined engine-transmission-swingarm assembly is pivoted to follow the road surface and is part of the \"unsprung weight\". The chain final-drive of scooters runs in an oil-bath","-25.317496444331482"],["behavior at low revs, the engine sound was described with words like \"a pail of nuts and bolts being poured through a Magimix\", rattling clutch, grinding transmission, crackling chassis, rumbling and groaning body contributing to the impression of imminent breakdown. Driving in the city was sheer torture, worsened by the first gear being far too tall for stop-and-go traffic according to Auto Motor und Sport.\nSales performance was disappointing. Jaguar had intended to produce up to 350 cars, but production ceased in 1994 with 281 production cars produced, not all of which had been sold; some left-hand drive examples were still","-25.266798258788185"],["NSX at La Sarthe.” Critique found the 348 difficult in traffic due to heavy steering and controls, though transformative on open road, “the further we traveled and the harder we drove in France, the more special, the more unique the Ferrari felt. We argued long and hard over which of the two made the best noise under full throttle, although no one disputed the fact that the NSX was more refined overall and had vastly superior gearchange. But ultimately this is as much the Honda's problem as it is its strength. Because it is so well honed as an all-rounder,","-25.24807526409859"],["Touring motorcycle A touring motorcycle is a type of motorcycle designed for touring. Although almost any motorcycle can be used for this purpose, manufacturers have developed specific models designed to address the particular needs of these riders. Touring motorcycles commonly have large displacement fairings and windshields that offer a high degree of weather and wind protection, large-capacity fuel tanks for long ranges between fill-ups, engines with a great deal of low-end horsepower, and a more relaxed, upright seating position than sport bikes. \nParticularly in the USA, touring motorcycles may be given names such as bagger, full bagger, full dresser, full","-25.236888554820325"],["has sold more than 8.5 million to date. Other major producers are Bajaj and TVS Motors. Construction Motorcycle construction is the engineering, manufacturing, and assembly of components and systems for a motorcycle which results in the performance, cost, and aesthetics desired by the designer. With some exceptions, construction of modern mass-produced motorcycles has standardised on a steel or aluminium frame, telescopic forks holding the front wheel, and disc brakes. Some other body parts, designed for either aesthetic or performance reasons may be added. A petrol powered engine typically consisting of between one and four cylinders (and less commonly, up to eight","-25.229761417387635"],["MV Agusta Liberty Background After the Nuovo codice della strada (traffic code) came into force, motorcycles with a cylinder capacity of less than 50 cc and a maximum speed of 40 km/h were the only motor vehicles that could be used by people without a driving license.\nSome Italian motorcycle manufacturers, seeing their production fall due to the availability of low-cost utility cars, decided to enter the light motorcycle sector, creating economical models equipped with refined and robust four-stroke engines. Overview As a motorcycle aimed at youngsters not old enough to hold a licence, the MV technicians focused giving the machine","-25.22855215819436"],["Wilkinson in the United Kingdom.\nThe first across-the-frame 4-cylinder motorcycle was the 1939 racer Gilera 500 Rondine, it also had double-over-head camshafts, forced-inducting supercharger and was liquid-cooled. Modern inline-four motorcycle engines first became popular with Honda's SOHC CB750 introduced in 1969, and others followed in the 1970s. Since then, the inline-four has become one of the most common engine configurations in street bikes. Outside of the cruiser category, the inline-four is the most common configuration because of its relatively high performance-to-cost ratio. All major Japanese motorcycle manufacturers offer motorcycles with inline-four engines, as do MV Agusta and BMW. BMW's earlier inline-four","-25.21673503529746"],["motorcycles to allow higher cornering speeds and greater lean angles. Fairings may or may not be used on a sport bike; when used, fairings are shaped to reduce aerodynamic drag as much as possible and provide wind protection for the rider.\nThe combination of rider position, location of the engine and other heavy components, and the motorcycle's geometry help maintain structural integrity and chassis rigidity, and determine how it will behave under acceleration, braking, and cornering. Correct front-to-rear weight distribution is of particular importance to the handling of sport bikes, and the changing position of the rider's body dynamically changes the","-25.178329095622757"],["a thinness commonly associated with basic motorcycles and needed therefore to be pumped to a relatively high pressure. The hardness of the tires and the minimalist approach taken to shock absorption made the cars strikingly uncomfortable. Except for users of cabriolet versions with the roof open, above average agility was vital for anyone wishing to get in or out of a Champion. Driver fitness was also encouraged by the need to start the engine with a starting handle, there being no electric starter-motor.\nThe selling price was initially, DM 2,400 rising to DM 2,650 for the twin-cylinder version: this compares with","-25.12855347781442"],["appellate panel ruled that \"hog\" had become a generic term for large motorcycles and was therefore unprotectable as a trademark.\nOn August 15, 2006, Harley-Davidson Inc. had its NYSE ticker symbol changed from HDI to HOG. Bobbers Harley-Davidson FL \"big twins\" normally had heavy steel fenders, chrome trim, and other ornate and heavy accessories. After World War II, riders wanting more speed would often shorten the fenders or take them off completely to reduce the weight of the motorcycle. These bikes were called \"bobbers\" or sometimes \"choppers\", because parts considered unnecessary were chopped off. Those who made or rode choppers and","-25.12127893610159"],["efficiency is better than towing a general purpose enclosed trailer.\nCollapsible or folding motorcycle trailers are available to overcome storage problems that might prevent use of a non-collapsible trailer, some such trailers are sufficiently compact to allow the user to carry the trailer in the trunk of a car when not in use. Trailers pulled behind motorcycles Trailers towed behind motorcycles are distinguished by their relatively small size, especially narrow wheelbase. They are also often styled to match the look of the motorcycle they are intended to be towed behind. This styling can include the overall shape, fender shape, lights, chrome,","-25.08192470454378"],["real reverse gear. Motorcycles Early Boss Hoss releases were considered cumbersome and unfinished. The bikes were difficult to ride, and were largely considered an expensive novelty. Since they were fitting a high-end automotive motor onto a motorcycle frame, they found themselves stuck between using aftermarketparts intended for the Harley-Davidson and muscle car markets. They were stuck somewhere between Küryakyn and Edelbrock and this left the bikes with an unbalanced appearance as well as unbalanced hardware capabilities.\nEarly models were almost as notable for their jury rigged appearance as they were for their girth and conspicuous V8 engine. They often had","-25.079788289411226"],["with more cylinders is capable of producing more power. If comparable bore to stroke ratios are employed, an engine with more cylinders will have a greater piston area and a shorter stroke. The increased piston area permits an increase in the total valve area, allowing more air and fuel to be drawn into the engine, and the shorter stroke permits higher revs at the same piston speed, allowing the engine to pump still more air and fuel with the potential to produce more power, but with more fuel consumption too. In 2004 motorcycles were entered with three-, four-and five-cylinder configurations.","-25.059770741441753"],["may have raked-out forks, small fuel tanks and high handlebars. Choppers were popularised in the Peter Fonda film Easy Rider. Being designed primarily for visual effect, choppers will not usually be the most efficient riding machines. \nRelated to the chopper motorcycle is the bobber which is created by \"bobbing\" a factory bike by removing dead weight and bodywork from a motorcycle to reduce mass and increase performance. A common element of these motorcycles is a shortened rear fender that creates a \"bobbed\" look. \n \nPower cruiser is a name used to distinguish bikes in the","-25.000958153279498"],["are often the basis for custom motorcycle projects that result in a bike modified to suit the owner's ideals, and as such are a source of pride and accomplishment.\nPower cruiser is a name used to distinguish bikes in the cruiser class that have higher levels of power. They often come with upgraded brakes and suspensions, better ground clearance, and premium surface finishes, as well as more exotic or modern muscular (non-traditional cruiser) styling.\nMany power cruisers and Japanese cruisers of the 1980s have more neutral riding positions. While traditional cruisers have limited performance and turning ability due to a low-slung design,","-24.97803506096534"],["the first American riders to use Honda motorcycles in desert races, helping usher in the era of lightweight, smaller-displacement off-road motorcycles. In the late 1950s, most desert racers preferred heavy, ungainly, British parallel twin cylinder motorcycles. He competed in many of the most prestigious West Coast off-road races aboard motorcycles as small as 100ccs in displacement, often finishing ahead of competitors on larger motorcycles, including an overall victory at the 1967 Greenhorn Enduro aboard a 100cc Zundapp.\nIn 1962 he and Bill Robertson rode a Honda CL72 motorcycle almost the entire length of Mexico's Baja California Peninsula in less than 40","-24.964806619558658"],["Dual-sport motorcycle Evolution of dual-sports The concept of a versatile motorcycle equally at home on dirt and pavement is as old as motorcycling itself. Most roads were still unpaved when motorized bicycles first appeared around 1900. In a sense, all motorcycles at that time were dual-sports, intended to be used on dirt as well as pavement. Advertisements well into the 1920s depict motorcycles on dirt roads, raising clouds of dust. By 1940, most roads in developed countries were paved and motorcycles had become heavier and more oriented to the street. In the 1950s and 1960s British manufacturers such as","-24.96324885590002"],["Motorcycle engine A motorcycle engine is an engine that powers a motorcycle. Motorcycle engines are typically two-stroke or four-stroke internal combustion engines, but other engine types, such as Wankels and electric motors, have been used. \nAlthough some mopeds, such as the VéloSoleX, had friction drive to the front tire, a motorcycle engine normally drives the rear wheel, power being sent to the driven wheel by belt, chain or shaft. Historically, some 2,000 units of the Megola were produced between 1921-1925 with front wheel drive, and the modern Rokon, an all terrain motorcycle with both wheels driven, has been produced since","-24.961529722320847"],["used to reduce the radio's exposure to vibration imparted by the motorcycle's modal, or resonant, shaking.\nSome mobile radios use noise-canceling microphones or headsets. At speeds over 100 MPH, the ambient road and wind noise can make radio communications difficult to understand. For example, California Highway Patrol mobile radios have noise-canceling microphones which reduce road and siren noise heard by the dispatcher. Most fire engines and radios in heavy equipment use noise-canceling headsets. These protect the occupant's hearing and reduce background noise in the transmitted audio. Noise-canceling microphones require the operator speak directly into the front of the microphone. Hole arrays","-24.950334356050007"],["was typically enormously strong, many Suzuki engines get fully deserved \"bulletproof\" reputations, as many drag racers found out - over 300BHP was perfectly possible and many ended up being turbocharged and tuned.\nThe GSX750ES was well thought of too, especially for its fine handling, but again also was another machine that represented the most refined development of its own current generation.\nAt Suzuki it was felt that something much newer was needed for the future, both in chassis and engine terms.\nBy the mid-1980s the motorcycle industry was in a period of decline. Honda and Yamaha had engaged in a production war in","-24.941917598625878"],["Fury was among the earliest to be manufactured at Honda’s completely new motorcycle factory in Kumamoto, Japan, and exported to America. \nThe Fury was generally well received; Motorcycle Cruiser magazine named the Honda Fury as their \"2010 Cruiser of the Year,\" after editorializing that choppers cannot be mass-produced, and that the Fury was in actuality a cruiser. The Visordown website included the Fury in their list of \"Top 7 cruisers with huge engines,\" despite the fact that the Honda's displacement was relatively modest. But some reviewers had difficulties reconciling the form-over-function chopper ethos with a motor company known for engineering","-24.923438637495565"],["unit of the Jaguar and the Jazzmaster help produce sympathetic resonance since there is a considerable length of string between the bridge and the tailpiece. On top of that, when the strings are strummed behind the bridge, a characteristic chiming sound is created, which has been exploited by artists like Sonic Youth. Reissue Fender reissued the 1962 version of the Jaguar in 1999 as part of its American Vintage Reissue (AVRI) Series (lower cost Japanese-made versions were available between 1984-2015, originally made of basswood and then alder like their American counterparts). Several other variations have been released within the last","-24.917159907738096"],["there were fewer oil compartments, due to the transmission and clutch being integrated with the engine crankcase, providing fewer ways for the oil to leak. In addition, an optional drive chain enclosure could keep chain lubricant off the motorcycle and the rider's clothing. Drivetrain The engine components were designed for ease of access and maintenance. The valve guides and valves could be removed without removing the engine from the motorcycle. The cylinder heads were integral with the engine. The intake and exhaust manifolds were cast as one piece such that the exhaust would heat the fuel mixture to improve","-24.906141877465416"],["to moderate speeds, cruisers are more comfortable than other styles, but riding for long periods at freeway speeds can lead to fatigue from pulling back on the handlebars to resist the force of the wind against the rider's chest. Cruisers have limited cornering ability due to a lack of ground clearance.\nChoppers are a type of cruiser, so called because they are a \"chopped\", or cut-down, version of a production cruiser. Choppers are usually custom projects that result in a bike modified to suit the owner's ideals, and, as such, are a source of pride and accomplishment. Stereotypically, a chopper","-24.88234201297746"],["side of a motorcycle's lower frame. As well as their supposed protective function, they are valuable as a mount point for accessories like highway pegs, lights and, on police motorcycles, sirens, cameras and radar guns. One variation is the sump-guard, primarily for off-road riding. Custom Tires Specialized tires based on the purpose of the bike are common. Bikes meant for drag racing will have fatter, thicker tires, cross country bikes will often have whitewalls or lettering on their tires, and high end bikes will often have custom spokes as well - both in type and color. Bikes driven in","-24.861479578004946"],["(removed) in favour of lightness and handling ability. Under-seat exhausts, dual headlights and the widest sport tyres were de-rigueur.\nActor Huggy Leaver is credited with being inspired to build such customized motorcycles in this style and there was a proliferation of 'ratted' streetfighters in London around the late 1980s. The term streetfighter was first applied to a custom street bike by a British photojournalist and bike builder to a Harley-Davidson customized sports-bike, and later extended to the Japanese four-cylinder customs being created at the time.","-24.833901872872957"],["loud noise of a gunshot, while possibly amplifying quieter sounds to normal levels. While rich in features, these electronic devices are extremely expensive, compared to their foam counterparts.\nIn other activities, hobby motorcyclists and skiers may also choose to use decibel reduction earplugs, to compensate for the ongoing noise of the wind against their head or helmet. Musicians' earplugs Musicians are exposed to potentially harmful levels of sound, which can lead to hearing loss, tinnitus, and other auditory symptoms. Because of this, musicians may choose to use earplugs.\nMusician's earplugs (also called Hi-Fi or Lossless earplugs) are designed to attenuate sounds evenly","-24.800915481653647"],["Motorcycle A motorcycle, often called a bike, motorbike, or cycle, is a two- or three-wheeled motor vehicle. Motorcycle design varies greatly to suit a range of different purposes: long distance travel, commuting, cruising, sport including racing, and off-road riding. Motorcycling is riding a motorcycle and related social activity such as joining a motorcycle club and attending motorcycle rallies.\nIn 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle, and the first to be called a motorcycle. In 2014, the three top motorcycle producers globally by volume were Honda(28%), Yamaha(17%)(both from Japan), and Hero MotoCorp (India).\nIn developing countries, motorcycles are considered","-24.79523083967797"],["the public are more domesticated models for road use rather than outright racing, for example the Suzuki DR-Z400SM. \nDue to the popularity, versatility, excitement and durability of these motorcycles, some owners modify them for street use. In order to do this, headlights, tail lights, horn, mirrors and street-legal tires among other occasional modifications are needed. Some state motor vehicle departments take a dim view of turning off-road bikes into street legal bikes, such as California, which requires an on-road emissions designation from the manufacturer.\nIn countries like South Africa it is not possible to convert a dirt bike to road legal,","-24.711735258824774"],["for satisfying low frequency response. Conversely, large drivers may have heavy voice coils and cones that limit their ability to move at very high frequencies. Drivers pressed beyond their design limits may have high distortion. In a multi-way loudspeaker system, specialized drivers are provided to produce specific frequency ranges, and the incoming signal is split by a crossover. Drivers can be sub-categorized into several types: full-range, tweeters, super tweeters, mid-range drivers, woofers, and subwoofers. Applications Speaker drivers are the primary means for sound reproduction. They are used among other places in audio applications such as loudspeakers, headphones, telephones, megaphones, instrument","-24.70722605328774"],["motorcycles featuring gear-driven ohc cams and a very high build quality. The first three or four iterations of VFR motorcycles re-established Honda's reputation for quality, and the motorcycles received almost universal praise from journalists and riders alike.\nThe VFR was originally a 750 cc, but became an 800 cc in due course. New models featured technological innovation, such as a single-sided swingarm, linked braking, ABS, and VTEC. The VFR1200 became the first motorcycle to feature a dual-clutch transmission. Not all of these innovations proved popular with riders, who often preferred the simple robustness of the earlier models.\nHonda also developed a limited edition VFR,","-24.70477928093169"],["be \"beautifully crafted pieces of metallurgical art,\" perhaps only unintentionally. Many were also originally racing machines.\nMade popular by European riders, this type of custom motorcycle gained worldwide popularity, and motorcycle manufacturers responded in the late 1990s by adopting the terminology and producing factory-built streetfighters, beginning with the 1994 Triumph Speed Triple and the 1999 Honda X11, up through the 2009 Ducati Streetfighter. History Though it has its styling roots in the café racer culture of the 1950s and 1960s, the streetfighter is very much inspired by the new Japanese bikes of the late 1970s and early 1980s, possibly from young","-24.665040527732344"],["been attributed to the search for more bass and treble response from loudspeakers that did not extend as low or as high as desired, especially in the 1970s and 1980s. It has also been seen as either a useful or a detrimental tool for shaping the sound of a bass guitar. Car audio Many cars which have a graphic equalizer have been observed to have it set as a smiley face curve which emphasizes low and high frequencies. Graphic equalizer use leading to speaker damage is common — large amounts of bass boost and treble boost can distort music and","-24.66250674283947"],["the \"Big Four.\" \nThe motorcycle manufacturing industry and many government entities around the world have taken actions to clean up the reputation and activities of motorcyclists. Maintenance Motorcyclists will refer to maintenance or repair of a motorcycle as wrenching in the USA and \"spannering\" in the UK. A do it yourself self-sufficiency is said to be part of motorcycles' allure in an \"increasingly monolithic, unfixable world\" and being able to maintain one's own motorcycle is seen as part of the competency of being a motorcyclist.\nHistorically, motorcycle maintenance was a necessary skill for riders, since the materials and technology used in","-24.650872074067593"],["within the engine casings. \"Step-through\" motorcycles may have a rigidly fixed engine, or may have a scooter-type arrangement. Two-stroke and four-stroke Two-stroke engines have fewer moving parts than four-stroke engines, and produce twice the number of power strokes per revolution.\nFuel economy is better in four-strokes due to more complete combustion of the intake charge in four-stroke engines.\nNevertheless, two-strokes have been largely replaced on motorcycles in developed nations due to their environmental disadvantages. Cylinder lubrication is necessarily total-loss and this inevitably leads to a smokey exhaust, particularly on wide throttle openings. Two-stroke-engined motorcycles continue to be made in large numbers,","-24.631232588988496"],["term \"UJM\" for Universal Japanese Motorcycle, which began with Honda's CB-750 of 1969.\nThese bikes were available in a variety of sizes from 350cc to 1200cc from all four of the Japanese manufacturers, and beginning in 1976 served as the basis for production-based race bikes in the American Motorcycle Association (AMA) Superbike Series. As a result of the experience on the race track it became obvious that the big UJMs were not ideal for racing. Weight was high, frames lacked stiffness and flexed in disturbing ways, power from the big motors overwhelmed the tire technology of the day.\nBeginning around 1980","-24.59121916384902"],["Motorcycle trailer A motorcycle trailer is either a trailer used to carry motorcycles or one to be pulled by a motorcycle in order to carry additional gear. Motorcycle carrying trailers Motorcycle carrying trailers may be open or enclosed. They may be wide, for two machines side-by-side, or narrow, for just a single machine. The main features that distinguish them from other flatbed or enclosed trailers are track(s) to keep the wheels from sliding side to side and sufficient tiedown points to keep the motorcycle(s) from tipping. They may also tilt, or include ramp(s) to facilitate the loading and unloading of","-24.579937723465264"],["Types of motorcycles There are many systems for classifying types of motorcycles, describing how the motorcycles are put to use, or the designer's intent, or some combination of the two. Six main categories are widely recognized: cruiser, sport, touring, standard, dual-purpose, and dirt bike. Sometimes sport touring motorcycles are recognized as a seventh category. Strong lines are sometimes drawn between motorcycles and their smaller cousins, mopeds, scooters, and underbones, but other classification schemes include these as types of motorcycles.\nThere is no universal system for classifying all types of motorcycles. There are strict classification systems enforced by competitive motorcycle sport","-24.57670201640576"],["techniques of screaming that results in different ways of screaming. In rock and metal music singers are developing very demanding guttural and growled sounds.\nScream is also used predominant as an esthetic element in “cante jondo”, a vocal style in flamenco. The name of this style is translated as “deep sing”. The origins of flamenco and also of its name are still not clear. Flamenco is related to the gypsies’ music and it is said to have appeared in Andalusia in Spain. In cante jondo, that is a subdivision of flamenco, which is considered to be more serious and deep, the","-24.575834657996893"],["of city streets. Highway noise is today less affected by motor type, since the effects in higher speed are aerodynamic and tire noise related. Other contributions to the reduction of noise at the source are: improved tire tread designs for trucks in the 1970s, better shielding of diesel stacks in the 1980s, and local vehicle regulation of unmuffled vehicles.\nThe most fertile areas for roadway noise mitigation are in urban planning decisions, roadway design, noise barrier design, speed control, surface pavement selection, and truck restrictions. Speed control is effective since the lowest sound emissions arise from vehicles moving smoothly","-24.54548985560541"],["sanctioning bodies, or legal definitions of a motorcycle established by certain legal jurisdictions for motorcycle registration, emissions, road traffic safety rules or motorcyclist licensing. There are also informal classifications or nicknames used by manufacturers, riders, and the motorcycling media. Some experts do not recognize sub-types, like naked bike, that \"purport to be classified\" outside the six usual classes, because they fit within one of the main types and are recognizable only by cosmetic changes. Street Street motorcycles are motorcycles designed for being ridden on paved roads. They have smooth tires with a light tread pattern and engines generally in the","-24.51780823431909"],["several steam two- and three-wheelers that preceded the Reitwagen might have been technically motorcycles, none are candidates for the historical milestone of \"the first motorcycle\" because the technology they used was a dead end. Instead, the recognition should go to the internal combustion Reitwagan because it blazed a trail that was followed by the thousands of successful motorcycles subsequently built in the 20th century. As Cycle World's Technical Editor Kevin Cameron noted, \"History follows things that succeed, not things that fail.\"\nAllan Girdler and Glynn Kerr nonetheless still favor the Roper, even by Cameron's criterion. The reason, they say, is that","-24.5149880544559"],["the tank.\nIn late 1980 when the GSX1100S Katana hit the street, it was claimed by Suzuki to be the fastest mass-production motorcycle in the world, ensuring the new looks were matched by unprecedented performance levels. So radical was the design departure from previous mass-market cycles that most major motorcycle magazines of the era thought the design would not appeal to the masses. Nevertheless, it was a sales success, and the motorcycle had a lasting impact on motorcycle design. Portions of the design ethos are still visible in many current sport motorcycles, including the faired-in aspects of both the seat and","-24.50280796631705"],["utilitarian due to lower prices and greater fuel economy. Of all the motorcycles in the world, 58% are in the Asia-Pacific and Southern and Eastern Asia regions, excluding car-centric Japan.\nAccording to the US Department of Transportation the number of fatalities per vehicle mile traveled was 37 times higher for motorcycles than for cars. Types The term motorcycle has different legal definitions depending on jurisdiction (see #Legal definitions and restrictions).\nThere are three major types of motorcycle: street, off-road, and dual purpose. Within these types, there are many sub-types of motorcycles for different purposes. There is often a racing counterpart to each","-24.47553177224472"],["front wheels. It wasn't, however, a success, as Butler failed to find sufficient financial backing.\nMany authorities have excluded steam powered, electric motorcycles or diesel-powered two-wheelers from the definition of a 'motorcycle', and credit the Daimler Reitwagen as the world's first motorcycle. Given the rapid rise in use of electric motorcycles worldwide, defining only internal-combustion powered two-wheelers as 'motorcycles' is increasingly problematic.\nIf a two-wheeled vehicle with steam propulsion is considered a motorcycle, then the first motorcycles built seem to be the French Michaux-Perreaux steam velocipede which patent application was filled in December 1868, constructed around the same time as the American","-24.463869937928393"],["the type of setup that is used on most motorcycles. Often, the axle is inserted into slotted dropouts and the chain is adjusted by moving the wheel forward or backward within the slots. This allows the engine to be mounted which makes the bike's drive train much more rigid and reliable. There are also other advantages to this type of axle, including the possibility of a cleaner and more attractive rear axle area, but this setup is often more expensive than a live axle and custom parts are much more difficult to locate. Custom parts Custom parts are what make","-24.426800192137307"],["avoided, while still \"missing the point about bikes.\" The indecision between making a sport bike or cruiser led to the uncomfortable ergonomics of a dragster motorcycle, but it did not matter because the Tomahawk was \"not intended to be taken seriously\", notwithstanding the intention to produce a limited production run. While he found the basic shape \"not unpleasant\", the unseriousness led to an unfinished result, pointing out the lack of harmonization in the twin ram-air intakes, and the \"incongruous\" use of a retro single vertical stalk planted in the fuel tank in an otherwise futuristic design. Kerr acknowledges that DaimlerChrysler","-24.40538777020265"],["designed horns have the effect of making the speaker cone transfer more of the electrical energy in the voice coil into the air; in effect the driver appears to have higher efficiency. Horns can help control dispersion at higher frequencies which is useful in some applications such as sound reinforcement. The mathematical theory of horn coupling is well developed and understood, though implementation is sometimes difficult. Properly designed horns for high frequencies are small (above say 3 kHz or so, a few centimetres or inches), those for mid-range frequencies (perhaps 300 Hz to 2 kHz) much larger, perhaps 30 to 60 cm (1 or","-24.393142467422877"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"by V-twin, common crankpin motorcycle engines when the goods are in use.\\\" Nine of Harley-Davidson's competitors filed oppositions against the application, arguing that cruiser-style motorcycles of various brands use the same crankpin V-twin engine which produces the same sound. After six years of litigation, with no end in sight, in early 2000, Harley-Davidson withdrew their application.\\nOther companies have been more successful in registering their distinctive sounds: MGM and their lion's roar; the NBC chimes; famous basketball team the Harlem Globetrotters and their theme song \\\"Sweet Georgia Brown\\\"; Intel and the three-second chord sequence used with the Pentium processor;\",\n \"-29.47498890166753\"\n ],\n [\n \"video systems.\\nThe current solo motorcycle used is the BMW 1200RT-P although some older 1150cc and 650cc models remain. Although motorcycles carry less equipment than cars, they are far more agile through traffic congestion and are essential for escorting convoys, processions and demonstrations.\",\n \"-28.606127799168462\"\n ],\n [\n \"because they are too commonplace and utilitarian, while motorcycles retain a unique romance.\\nThe interior of the Guggenheim's spiral ramp was covered in reflective stainless steel, a design by Frank Gehry, with a stylized pavement under the tires of the exhibits, and the bikes not leaned over on their kickstands, but rather standing up, as if in motion, held by thin wires and small clear plastic chocks under the wheels. Early examples from the 19th century, steam cycles and three wheelers mostly, were in a single room near the entrance. The first series produced motorcycle, and the first motorcycle\",\n \"-28.36730888564489\"\n ],\n [\n \"them cleaner and quieter than motorcycles, as well as having more built-in storage space. Automatic clutches and continuously variable transmissions (CVT) make them easier to learn on and to ride. Scooters usually have smaller wheels than motorcycles. Scooters usually have the engine as part of the swingarm, so that their engines travel up and down with the suspension.\\nUnderbones are small-displacement motorcycles with a step-through frame, descendants of the original Honda Super Cub. They are differentiated from scooters by their larger wheels and their use of footpegs instead of a floorboard. They often have a gear shifter with an automatic clutch.\\nThe\",\n \"-27.671263473806903\"\n ],\n [\n \"application for the distinctive sound of the Harley-Davidson motorcycle engine: \\\"The mark consists of the exhaust sound of applicant's motorcycles, produced by V-twin, common crankpin motorcycle engines when the goods are in use\\\". Nine of Harley-Davidson's competitors filed comments opposing the application, arguing that cruiser-style motorcycles of various brands use a single-crankpin V-twin engine which produce a similar sound. These objections were followed by litigation. In June 2000, the company dropped efforts to federally register its trademark. Revolution engine The Revolution engine is based on the VR-1000 Superbike race program, co-developed by Harley-Davidson's Powertrain Engineering team and Porsche Engineering in\",\n \"-27.322936821437906\"\n ],\n [\n \"1980s-1990s, the world's fastest motorcycle in the quarter mile at the time, the Yamaha R1, the motorcycle with greatest top speed at the time, the Honda CBR1100XX, and no police motorcycles at all. James Hyde of Art in America pointed to the omission of the Moto Guzzi V8.\\nSlate's Jacob Weisberg found 114 motorcycles in the catalog to be too many, and too boring for the non-motorcycle aficionado. In contrast to critics like Zakaria, Perl, and Hilton Kramer, who want museums to challenge and educate the public with difficult art like abstract expressionism, which might require a little homework\",\n \"-27.320989711181028\"\n ],\n [\n \"but are highly valued for the same reasons.\\nAmong custom motorcycle culture, certain names have become famous for their creations and have led to mainstream acceptance of previously unacceptable design solutions such as extreme ergonomics, totally rigid rear wheels without the benefit of suspension, minimal lighting and limited ground clearance for cornering. These design characteristics are purely emotional in nature, being led by styling and image rather than technical or performance considerations. \\\"Specials\\\" Custom and specials motorcycles are similar to the above but tend to be super sport type motorcycles, or at least high-performance based, using many special add-on parts, one-of-a-kind\",\n \"-27.181278069561813\"\n ],\n [\n \"in Europe it has a 750cc engine. All versions use Honda's Dual Clutch Transmission (DCT) system to provide both automatic and semi-automatic control. Problems faced The problems faced by the designer or marketer of an FF motorcycle are many. Some of these are perceptual. Experienced motorcyclists tend to be resistant to the idea, arguing that it's not a \\\"proper\\\" bike, and there is nothing wrong with the standard motorcycle. To car drivers, many of the disadvantages of the car are either not recognised or simply put up with and the overall convenience is hard to give up. Many car drivers\",\n \"-27.15480849618325\"\n ],\n [\n \"excellence. In The Telegraph, the late Kevin Ash wrote that \\\"choppers exist outside the realm of motorcycles I understand.\\\" Dexter Ford said in The New York Times that the one \\\"thing wrong with the Fury is the same thing that is so right about it: it’s a Honda.\\\" Competition Motorcycles such as the Honda Fury are sometimes categorized by the mutually exclusive terms factory custom, referring to a major manufacturer's attempt to follow the chopper fad. Harley-Davidson had taken the first steps in the 70s and 80s, but the motorcycle press generally acknowledged that Honda's effort was the most daring\",\n \"-27.044841168797575\"\n ],\n [\n \"AM3 consulted the motorcycle racing team Castrol/Honda Racing Corporation, who helped them on a number of points, including studies on where sound comes from on a motorcycle and how it travels to the ear of the rider. The team determined that they needed four sound outputs to recreate this experience realistically. Because the Model 2 arcade board has only two sound outputs, they used a Model 1 sound board for the additional two sound outputs.\\nBecause it takes more polygons to render a motorcycle than to render a car with a similar level of detail, AM3's wish for the game to\",\n \"-27.04447924665874\"\n ],\n [\n \"power, even (dare I say it?) its speed.\\\"\\n\\nMotorcycles are versatile and may be put to many uses as the rider sees fit. In the past there were few if any specialized types of motorcycles, but the number of types and sub-types has proliferated, particularly in the period since the 1950s. The introduction of the Honda CB750 in 1969 marked a dramatic increase in the power and speed of practical and affordable sport bikes available to the general public. \\nThis was followed in the 1970s by improvements in suspension and braking commensurate with the power of the large inline fours that\",\n \"-26.81703649670817\"\n ],\n [\n \"break on Japan's poor roads of the time, they were considered better looking than the pressed-steel D-Type. The bikes' narrow space between the tire and fender was prone to filling with mud. Competitors had introduced four-stroke motorcycles, and Fujisawa told Honda that their motorcycle was not selling well was because its two-stroke made \\\"unpleasant, high-pitched noises\\\". Honda would address these issues with his next motorcycle, the E-Type, which was unveiled in 1951.\\nHonda did not export motorcycles from Japan until 1952, when the Type-F Cub was introduced to Taiwan. Any bikes that made it out of Japan prior to that did\",\n \"-26.683708528085845\"\n ],\n [\n \"have been developed to damp vibrations before they reach the rider. These include materials, such as carbon fiber, either in the whole frame or just key components such as the front fork, seatpost, or handlebars; tube shapes, such as curved seat stays;, gel handlebar grips and saddles and special inserts, such as Zertz by Specialized, and Buzzkills by Bontrager. In motorcycles In addition to the road surface, vibrations in a motorcycle can be caused by the engine and wheels, if unbalanced. Manufacturers employ a variety of technologies to reduce or damp these vibrations, such as engine balance shafts, rubber engine\",\n \"-26.61004882265115\"\n ],\n [\n \"or limited series frames, racing wheels and parts or hand-made components to maximise performance. While modifying motorcycles is an activity as old as the motorcycle itself, the \\\"special\\\" culture or \\\"streetfighter\\\" began to flourish in the mid-1970s as a response to the myriad high performance Japanese motorcycles then available, but whose power far exceeded their handling. Individuals would choose premanufactured parts from catalogs or from other bikes and redesign their particular machine to suit their desires. In general this activity is limited to one-of-a-kind vehicles and, as with custom motorcycles, uses very little genuine engineering or design methodology, although some\",\n \"-26.593905590416398\"\n ],\n [\n \"'muscle-cars' may prefer their vehicle to be louder (at least at idling or low speeds), and such noise (often from modified exhaust systems) can only be controlled by on-going inspection and sanctions.\\nSeveral studies have concluded that reducing traffic noise pollution is low-cost or cost-effective. Such studies include consideration of the reduced value of noise-affected real-estate, the costs of supporting a dispersed population 'trying to get away from all the noise', and the increased healthcare costs statistically attributable to a noisier environment.\\nEuropean technology began to emulate the United States treatment of roadway noise by the 1980s, although the national requirements of\",\n \"-26.58651702234056\"\n ],\n [\n \"Harley-Davidson began to participate in the Sound Quality Working Group, founded by Orfield Labs, Bruel and Kjaer, TEAC, Yamaha, Sennheiser, SMS and Cortex. This was the nation's first group to share research on psychological acoustics. Later that year, Harley-Davidson participated in a series of sound quality studies at Orfield Labs, based on recordings taken at the Talladega Superspeedway, with the objective to lower the sound level for EU standards while analytically capturing the \\\"Harley Sound\\\". This research resulted in the bikes that were introduced in compliance with EU standards for 1998.\\nOn February 1, 1994, the company filed a sound trademark\",\n \"-26.58346747912219\"\n ],\n [\n \"Turbo. BMW plays a recorded sample of its motors through the car speakers, using a different samples according to the engine’s load and power. Legality Extremely loud sound systems in automobiles may violate the noise ordinance of some municipalities, some of which have outlawed them. In 2002 the U.S. Department of Justice issued a guide to police officers on how to deal with problems associated with loud audio systems in cars.\",\n \"-26.571417936633225\"\n ],\n [\n \"does not \\\"give a damn\\\" about the motorcycle industry point of view, because the Tomahawk was successful in its real purpose, \\\"creating an almighty furor within the automotive world.\\\"\\nMotorcyclist's Jeff Karr speculated the boredom with having designed too many outlandish show cars, especially with DaimlerChrysler's history of doing the unexpected, made the designers want to do this for \\\"the sheer outrage of the exercise\\\", creating \\\"a machine so resolutely evil, it has chunks of V-Max in its stool\\\", \\\"the ultimate bad-ass ride.\\\" Karr was positive about the \\\"simultaneously futuristic and nostalgic\\\" appearance where Glynn Kerr saw indecisiveness.\\nIn response to automotive\",\n \"-26.568546568534657\"\n ],\n [\n \"support, such as tubes or longerons, the frame is more properly called a \\\"semi-monocoque\\\". An example is Peter Williams' semi-monocoque Norton racer. Engine as a stressed member For rider comfort, a motorcycle's engine can be mounted on rubber bushings to isolate vibration from the rest of the machine. This strategy means the engine contributes little to frame stiffness, and absorbing rather than dissipating vibration can lead to stress damage to the frame, exhaust pipes, and other parts.\\nInstead, if the engine is rigidly mounted to the frame, vibrations pass to and are dissipated via the whole frame, and the rider. Rigid\",\n \"-26.545931339554954\"\n ],\n [\n \"made the valve noise more obvious, so ramp type cams were introduced for aluminium alloy head models to reduce the noise.\\nAnother motorcycle based on the wartime generator engine was the 498 cc TR5 Trophy Twin, also introduced at the 1948 Motor Cycle Show. It used a single carburettor, low compression version of the Grand Prix engine. Britain won the prestigious 1948 International Six Days Trial. The Triumph works team had finished unpenalised. One team member, Allan Jefferies, had been riding what amounted to a prototype version.\\nTo satisfy the American demand for motorcycles suited to long distance riding, Turner built a 650 cc\",\n \"-26.4710683295707\"\n ],\n [\n \"are cheap to build and maintain and are suitable as cheap utility motorcycles.\\nUntil the mid-1960s, road-racing machines, like the UK's Matchless, AJS and Norton, tended to be large singles, but since then multicylinder racers have become the norm. Off-road and smaller dual-sport bikes tend to use single-cylinder engines. The simplicity of these engines, often relying on a single carburetor, make them relatively easy to maintain and repair in remote locations with few tools.\\nCompared to lightweight off-road singles, the modern category of heavier off-road adventure bikes tend to forgo such simplicity, and instead have larger and more powerful parallel-twin, flat-twin, or\",\n \"-26.45240088381979\"\n ],\n [\n \"and gravel roads but are less than ideal on more difficult off-pavement terrain.\\nSupermoto motorcycles were designed to compete on a single course that alternated between three genres of motorcycle racing: road racing, track racing, and motocross. This increasingly popular type of motorcycle is often a dual-sport that has been fitted by the manufacturer with smaller rims and road tires. Supermotos are quickly gaining popularity as street bikes due to their combination of light weight, durability, relatively low cost, and sporty handling. Scooters, underbones and mopeds Scooter engine sizes range smaller than motorcycles, 50–850 cc (3.1–51.9 cu in), and have all-enclosing bodywork that makes\",\n \"-26.44289711548481\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the pipe to further protect riders and pillions. The bike's sound is unique among its two- and four-stroke contemporaries but also quite loud. Early in production (December 1974, Frame #11901), Suzuki reduced the size of the spark arrestor tubes, which both reduced noise and horsepower, but the RE5 exhaust note remains distinctive.\",\n \"-26.353128027083585\"\n ],\n [\n \"Honda, riders tend to choose bikes that are lightweight and with high torque so that they can quickly achieve the speed required to complete loops within the sphere. Many riders may also have to go from high speeds to a dead stop very quickly. While mass market bikes are cheaper to use in the globe many riders customize their bikes to their liking; this is because the globe of death stunt does not require a bike with a powerful engine, suspension, and drive train as they require a top speed of only 40 to 65 miles per hour or 65\",\n \"-26.35085958102718\"\n ],\n [\n \"cruiser class that have significantly higher levels of power. They often come with upgraded brakes and suspensions, better ground clearance, and premium surface finishes, as well as more exotic or non-traditional styling. Sport bike Sport bikes emphasize top speed, acceleration, braking, handling and grip on paved roads, typically at the expense of comfort and fuel economy in comparison to less specialized motorcycles. Because of this, there are certain design elements that most motorcycles of this type will share. Sport bikes have comparatively high performance engines resting inside a lightweight frame. Inline-four engines dominate the sport bike category, with V-twins having\",\n \"-26.340030144358025\"\n ],\n [\n \"Triumph and BSA offered versions of their relatively light street motorcycles with high exhaust pipes, and called them scramblers.\\nYamaha is credited with rekindling popular interest in dirt worthy motorcycles that could also be ridden on the street. In 1968 they introduced the hugely successful DT-1 based on a 250 cc two-stroke engine. Other manufacturers soon followed with similar models called \\\"enduros\\\". These light weight machines were good on trails and adequate on pavement. Some manufacturers approached the trend from the opposite direction, beginning with a street motorcycle and modifying it for adequate off-road performance. For instance, the Honda CL350 Scrambler was\",\n \"-26.32473441498587\"\n ],\n [\n \"is also a unique piece of machinery because the exact same motorcycle could have been created 70 years ago. The solutions applied to its engineering, mechanics, and design were available back then. Besides, the motorcycle was built to establish an absolute speed record.\\nYuri Shif says that it was born for speed, and every millimeter of its body could support that. This motorcycle is a symbol of that dream about speed dedicated to all generations of engineers, designers, racers. The Machine motorcycle is a tribute to the enthusiasts and romantics of speed of all generations. The bike's heart is a specific\",\n \"-26.31594877736643\"\n ],\n [\n \"handling of the motorcycle. Because of the complexity of modeling all the possible movements of different sized riders, to approach perfect tuning of a motorcycle's weight distribution and suspension is often only possible by having a bike customized or at least adjusted to fit a specific rider. Generally, road racing style sport bikes have shorter wheelbases than those intended for more comfortable touring, and the current trend in sport bike design is towards shorter wheelbases, giving quicker turning at the expense of a greater tendency for unintentional wheelies and stoppies under hard acceleration and braking, respectively. Variations Sport touring motorcycles\",\n \"-26.31265025457833\"\n ],\n [\n \"consistent with several indicators in the design of carelessness and laziness. Kerr called to task the car designers for a lack of curiosity about the basic tenets of motorcycle design, saying they were \\\"underwhelmed\\\" by the challenge. He said the Tomahawk \\\"illustrates how the automotive industry considers motorcycles a lesser form of its own discipline\\\" and so \\\"feel entirely qualified to redesign one whenever they run out of ideas for sports cars.\\\" \\nKerr blamed this disregard of the rules of motorcycle design for the use of \\\"too much over-simplified bodywork\\\" on the Pininfarina Morbidelli V8, which the Tomahawk at least\",\n \"-26.271513490064535\"\n ],\n [\n \"until the early 2000's, when EU noise and pollution regulations mostly stopped this practice, forcing companies to use other methods to increase performance of the motorcycle. Trucks In many trucks / lorries all or most of the exhaust system is visible, often with a vertical exhaust pipe. Often in such trucks the silencer is surrounded by a perforated metal sheath to avoid people getting burnt touching the hot silencer. This sheath may be chrome plated as a display feature. \\nPart of the pipe between the engine and the silencer is often flexible metal industrial ducting, which helps to avoid vibration\",\n \"-26.27066068099157\"\n ],\n [\n \"Motorcycling Motorcycling is riding a motorcycle. For some people, motorcycling may be the only affordable form of individual motorized transportation, and small-displacement motorcycles are the most common motor vehicle in the most populous countries, including India, China and Indonesia.\\nIn developing countries, motorcycles are overwhelmingly utilitarian due to lower prices and greater fuel economy. Of all motorcycles, 58% are in the Asia Pacific and Southern and Eastern Asia regions, excluding car-centric Japan.\\nMotorcycles are mainly a luxury good in developed nations, where they are used mostly for recreation, as a lifestyle accessory or a symbol of personal identity. Beyond being a mode\",\n \"-26.252534409577493\"\n ],\n [\n \"common than motorcycles. In developed nations, motorcycles are frequently owned in addition to a car, and thus used primarily for recreation or when traffic density means a motorcycle confers travel time or parking advantages as a mode of transport.\\nIn the developing world a motorcycle is more likely to be the primary mode of transport for its owner, and often the owner's family as well. It is not uncommon for riders to transport multiple passengers or large goods aboard small motorcycles and scooters simply because there is no better alternative. Cost of ownership considerations regarding maintenance and parts, especially in remote\",\n \"-26.244857602083357\"\n ],\n [\n \"motorcycles often meant that repairs had to be done on the road-side miles from home. Modern motorcycles are as reliable as automobiles but many riders feel that their motorcycle is more than just a means of transportation which leads them to want to do maintenance on the motorcycles themselves.\",\n \"-26.18878973653773\"\n ],\n [\n \"to typical cars; this contrast is particularly strong with heavy-duty trucks. There are several aspects of truck operations that contribute to the overall sound that is emitted. Continuous sounds are those from tires rolling on the roadway, and the constant hum of their diesel engines at highway speeds. Less frequent noises, but perhaps more noticeable, are things like the repeated sharp-pitched whistle of a turbocharger on acceleration, or the abrupt blare of an exhaust brake retarder when traversing a downgrade. There has been noise regulation put in place to help control where and when the use of engine braking retarders\",\n \"-26.161656853472323\"\n ],\n [\n \"Two-wheels A police motorcycle is a motorcycle used by various police forces and departments. They may be custom designed to meet the requirements unique of a particular use. A police motorcycle is often called a \\\"motor\\\" by police officers in the United States. Similarly, motorcycle units are known as motor units and motorcycle officers are known as motor officers.\\nThe maneuverability of the motorcycle on crowded streets offer advantages not provided by larger, more traditional police vehicles. The motorcycle's relatively small size allows it to get to accident scenes more quickly when incidents such as traffic collisions slow down access by\",\n \"-26.13877331482945\"\n ],\n [\n \"type, such as road racing and street bikes, or motocross and dirt bikes.\\nStreet bikes include cruisers, sportbikes, scooters and mopeds, and many other types. Off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing classes such as motocross and are not street legal in most areas. Dual purpose machines like the dual-sport style are made to go off-road but include features to make them legal and comfortable on the street as well.\\nEach configuration offers either specialised advantage or broad capability, and each design creates a different riding posture.\\nIn some countries the use of pillions (rear seats) is restricted. Experimentation and invention\",\n \"-26.06388704782148\"\n ],\n [\n \"but mostly off road motocross low-power mopeds, small scooters and step-through underbones where they still compete strongly with four-strokes (including the highest-selling motorcycle of all time, the 50 cc Honda Super Cub). The major markets of two-stroke motorcycles are in dirt bikes and developing nations. Cylinder heads (four-stroke) Cylinder head design has a significant effect on the efficiency of combustion, and hence the power output of the engine. The head may be flat, in which case the combustion chamber resides within the cylinder and/or a depression in the piston crown, but usually a \\\"dome\\\" within the cylinder head provides most of\",\n \"-26.052114235120825\"\n ],\n [\n \"later teamed with Harman in 2009 to develop a more complete noise reduction system, including road noise, tire noise, and chassis vibrations. One benefit of active noise control is that the car can weigh less, with less sound-deadening material used, and without a heavy balance shaft in the engine. Removing the balance shaft also increases fuel efficiency. The 2013 Honda Accord used an active noise control system, as did the 2013 Lincoln luxury line and the Ford C-Max and Fusion models. Other operating data may also play a part in the DSP, data such as the engine's speed in revolutions\",\n \"-26.007665671844734\"\n ],\n [\n \"and a rear subframe attached to the engine. Materials In the early days, motorcycles were little more than motorised bicycles, and consequently frames were tubular steel. While the use of steel tubing is still common, in modern times other materials, such as titanium, aluminium, magnesium, and carbon-fibre, along with composites of these materials, are now used. As different motorcycles have varying design parameters (such as cost, complexity, weight distribution, stiffness, power output and speed), there is no single ideal frame design, and designers must make an informed decision of the optimum choice. Semi-monocoque If a \\\"monocoque\\\" frame uses additional\",\n \"-25.967663494855515\"\n ],\n [\n \"Motorcycle wheel Motorcycle wheels are made to cope with radial and axial forces. They also provide a way of mounting other critical components such as the brakes, final drive and suspension. Wheels, and anything directly connected to them, are considered to be unsprung mass. Traditionally motorcycles used wire-spoked wheels with inner tubes and pneumatic tyres. Although cast wheels were first used on a motorcycle in 1927, it would not be until the 1970s that mainstream manufacturers would start to introduce cast wheels on their roadgoing motorcycles. Spoked wheels are usually made using steel spokes with steel or aluminium rims. Cast\",\n \"-25.937738211126998\"\n ],\n [\n \"to learn to like, Weisberg complained that the information accompanying the motorcycle exhibits was too technical and bewildering to the non-gearhead, with talk of self-aligning bearings, compression ratios and near-hemispherical combustion chambers. That is, he wrote, \\\"the approach is design-technical rather than design-aesthetic or design-cultural,\\\" and thus it failed to make the case that industrial design is more than just the \\\"stepchild of fine art\\\" and that \\\"the cross-fertilization of high and pop is an important part of the story of artistic modernism.\\\"\\nThe selection of motorcycles was overwhelmingly Western, and mostly limited to motorcycles of the United States market,\",\n \"-25.81374613387743\"\n ],\n [\n \"largest motorcycles to that country, and to export far fewer sub-600 cc (37 cu in) models to the American market. Types Almost all production motorcycles have gasoline internal combustion engines. Both four-stroke and two-stroke engines are used, but strict emission laws have led to far fewer two-strokes. A few have used Wankel rotary engines, but no Wankel bikes are currently in production. Motorcycle engines can be air cooled or liquid cooled, and optionally include oil cooling as well. Some scooters use batteries and an electric motor. The 2009 TT races introduced a new category 'TTX' (renamed as TT Zero) for electric bikes using\",\n \"-25.803734370798338\"\n ],\n [\n \"a noise nuisance order, which meant that the circuit had to reduce its noise level. The British Formula Three Championship and the British GT Championship were both louder than permitted, and so were prevented from returning. Present Races include a home-circuit championship with classes for Saloon cars, Sports & GTs, and Formula Ford. Racing clubs from around the UK include the track in the events for their championships, including the 750 Motor Club, and BRSCC. Once a year motorcycle racing takes place over two days during the summer. The weekend includes a sidecar championship and an historic race, as well\",\n \"-25.80119304145046\"\n ],\n [\n \"motorcycles were mounted horizontally along the frame, but all current four-cylinder BMW motorcycles have transverse engines. The modern Triumph company has offered inline-four-powered motorcycles, though they were discontinued in favour of triples.\\nThe 2009 Yamaha R1 has an inline-four engine that does not fire at even intervals of 180°. Instead, it uses a crossplane crankshaft that prevents the pistons from simultaneously reaching top dead centre. This results in better secondary balance, which is particularly beneficial in the higher rpm range, and \\\"big-bang firing order\\\" theory says the irregular delivery of torque to the rear tire makes sliding in the corners at\",\n \"-25.702797320554964\"\n ],\n [\n \"remarkably tolerant of poor sound quality, and the distortion inherent in limited-range drivers may enhance their output at high frequencies, increasing clarity when listening to spoken word material. Subwoofer A subwoofer is a woofer driver used only for the lowest-pitched part of the audio spectrum: typically below 200 Hz for consumer systems, below 100 Hz for professional live sound, and below 80 Hz in THX-approved systems. Because the intended range of frequencies is limited, subwoofer system design is usually simpler in many respects than for conventional loudspeakers, often consisting of a single driver enclosed in a suitable box or enclosure. Since sound\",\n \"-25.672232747005182\"\n ],\n [\n \"clutch of previous superbikes from Ducati. The manufacturer claims it reduces weight, improves both service life and \\\"feel\\\" of the clutch and reduces noise. Ducati has in the past held to only dry clutches in accordance with marketing their bikes as obeying the design imperatives of racing above all, unlike, as Ducati would have it, ordinary street bikes. While a dry clutch \\\"rattles like a bucket of rocks,\\\" Ducati and its adherents felt the clutch's \\\"typical noise is music to bikers' ears.\\\" The 848's wet clutch is a stark departure from this, because, \\\"Ducati made it very\",\n \"-25.59337202151073\"\n ],\n [\n \"motorcycles. Trailer manufacturers often offer trailers specifically designed for carrying motorcycles.\\nGeneral purpose enclosed trailers, as seen in the photo above left, have the advantage of providing a more secure way of locking up the motorcycles contained within it, keeping them out of sight, and protecting them from all kinds of weather. However, as they are heavier than open trailers and create more wind resistance, pulling a general purpose enclosed trailer can decrease the fuel efficiency of the tow vehicle. Conversely, an enclosed motorcycle-specific trailer can be built low enough so that wind resistance is reduced. As a result, fuel\",\n \"-25.569219619443174\"\n ],\n [\n \"and mostly of the high end, leaving out utilitarian examples. One scooter is present, and one motorcycle truly for the masses, the Honda Super Cub. That motorcycles are the number one mode of transport in a great many countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia, and thus central to the lives of most of the world's population was completely ignored by The Art of the Motorcycle, and little mention was made of the design context of creating motorcycles for this market. Creative uses of motorcycles in the developing world, such as the tuk tuk and similar vehicles, was overlooked.\",\n \"-25.55399218344246\"\n ],\n [\n \"the types of motorcycles with the greatest problems were touring, off-road/dual sport, sport-touring, and cruisers. There were not enough sport bikes in the survey for a statistically significant conclusion, though the data hinted at reliability as good as cruisers. These results may be partially explained by accessories including such equipment as fairings, luggage, and auxiliary lighting, which are frequently added to touring, adventure touring/dual sport and sport touring bikes. Trouble with fuel systems is often the result of improper winter storage, and brake problems may also be due to poor maintenance. Of the five brands with enough data to draw\",\n \"-25.52294642267225\"\n ],\n [\n \"asked Weiss about the location of the motorcycle with the open microphone—\\\"Would you consider that to be an essential ingredient in the ultimate conclusion of your analysis?\\\"— Weiss answered, \\\"It is an essential component of it, because, if you do not put the motorcycle in the place that it is —the initial point of where it was receiving the [sound of the gunfire]—, and if you do not move it at the velocity at which it is being moved on paper in this re-creation, you do not get a good, tight pattern that compares very well with the observed impulses\",\n \"-25.431841266225092\"\n ],\n [\n \"Legal definition of motorcycle The legal definition of a motorcycle for the purposes of registration, taxation and rider licensing in most countries is a powered two-wheel motor vehicle. Most countries distinguish between mopeds up to 49 cc (scooters do not count as a separate category) and the more powerful, larger, vehicles known as motorcycles. Many jurisdictions include some forms of three-wheelers as motorcycles. Australia and New Zealand In New Zealand, a motorcycle is any two- or three-wheeled motor vehicle weighing less than 1000 kg, that can travel faster than 50 km/h or that has an engine capacity exceeding 50 cc. A moped is a\",\n \"-25.410918194713304\"\n ],\n [\n \"cycles include motorbike, motorbicycle, motorized bicycle, motor-driven cycle, and goped (motorized inline skateboard with T-bar). History The term \\\"moped\\\" now only applies to low-power (often super-economy) vehicles, but pedals were fitted to some early motorcycles, such as the pictured 1912 Douglas. Pedaling away from stationary was a great improvement over \\\"run and jump\\\" and light pedal assistance (LPA) was valuable for climbing hills. Better transmissions with wider ranges, better clutches and much better engine performance made pedals obsolete on most motorcycles by 1918 but the pedals on mopeds remained valuable for their original purposes as late as the 1990s.\\nThe earliest\",\n \"-25.381633238415816\"\n ],\n [\n \"fuel-cells or batteries.\\nMotorcycle engines can be mounted transversely; with the crankshaft aligned perpendicular to the frame or longitudinally, with the crankshaft parallel to the frame. Motorcycles with transversely mounted engines are more suited to have chain or belt final-drive. Motorcycles with longitudinally mounted engines are more suited for shaft final-drive.\\nMotor scooters often have the engine as part of the rear suspension, so the engine is not fixed rigidly to the main frame. Instead, the combined engine-transmission-swingarm assembly is pivoted to follow the road surface and is part of the \\\"unsprung weight\\\". The chain final-drive of scooters runs in an oil-bath\",\n \"-25.317496444331482\"\n ],\n [\n \"behavior at low revs, the engine sound was described with words like \\\"a pail of nuts and bolts being poured through a Magimix\\\", rattling clutch, grinding transmission, crackling chassis, rumbling and groaning body contributing to the impression of imminent breakdown. Driving in the city was sheer torture, worsened by the first gear being far too tall for stop-and-go traffic according to Auto Motor und Sport.\\nSales performance was disappointing. Jaguar had intended to produce up to 350 cars, but production ceased in 1994 with 281 production cars produced, not all of which had been sold; some left-hand drive examples were still\",\n \"-25.266798258788185\"\n ],\n [\n \"NSX at La Sarthe.” Critique found the 348 difficult in traffic due to heavy steering and controls, though transformative on open road, “the further we traveled and the harder we drove in France, the more special, the more unique the Ferrari felt. We argued long and hard over which of the two made the best noise under full throttle, although no one disputed the fact that the NSX was more refined overall and had vastly superior gearchange. But ultimately this is as much the Honda's problem as it is its strength. Because it is so well honed as an all-rounder,\",\n \"-25.24807526409859\"\n ],\n [\n \"Touring motorcycle A touring motorcycle is a type of motorcycle designed for touring. Although almost any motorcycle can be used for this purpose, manufacturers have developed specific models designed to address the particular needs of these riders. Touring motorcycles commonly have large displacement fairings and windshields that offer a high degree of weather and wind protection, large-capacity fuel tanks for long ranges between fill-ups, engines with a great deal of low-end horsepower, and a more relaxed, upright seating position than sport bikes. \\nParticularly in the USA, touring motorcycles may be given names such as bagger, full bagger, full dresser, full\",\n \"-25.236888554820325\"\n ],\n [\n \"has sold more than 8.5 million to date. Other major producers are Bajaj and TVS Motors. Construction Motorcycle construction is the engineering, manufacturing, and assembly of components and systems for a motorcycle which results in the performance, cost, and aesthetics desired by the designer. With some exceptions, construction of modern mass-produced motorcycles has standardised on a steel or aluminium frame, telescopic forks holding the front wheel, and disc brakes. Some other body parts, designed for either aesthetic or performance reasons may be added. A petrol powered engine typically consisting of between one and four cylinders (and less commonly, up to eight\",\n \"-25.229761417387635\"\n ],\n [\n \"MV Agusta Liberty Background After the Nuovo codice della strada (traffic code) came into force, motorcycles with a cylinder capacity of less than 50 cc and a maximum speed of 40 km/h were the only motor vehicles that could be used by people without a driving license.\\nSome Italian motorcycle manufacturers, seeing their production fall due to the availability of low-cost utility cars, decided to enter the light motorcycle sector, creating economical models equipped with refined and robust four-stroke engines. Overview As a motorcycle aimed at youngsters not old enough to hold a licence, the MV technicians focused giving the machine\",\n \"-25.22855215819436\"\n ],\n [\n \"Wilkinson in the United Kingdom.\\nThe first across-the-frame 4-cylinder motorcycle was the 1939 racer Gilera 500 Rondine, it also had double-over-head camshafts, forced-inducting supercharger and was liquid-cooled. Modern inline-four motorcycle engines first became popular with Honda's SOHC CB750 introduced in 1969, and others followed in the 1970s. Since then, the inline-four has become one of the most common engine configurations in street bikes. Outside of the cruiser category, the inline-four is the most common configuration because of its relatively high performance-to-cost ratio. All major Japanese motorcycle manufacturers offer motorcycles with inline-four engines, as do MV Agusta and BMW. BMW's earlier inline-four\",\n \"-25.21673503529746\"\n ],\n [\n \"motorcycles to allow higher cornering speeds and greater lean angles. Fairings may or may not be used on a sport bike; when used, fairings are shaped to reduce aerodynamic drag as much as possible and provide wind protection for the rider.\\nThe combination of rider position, location of the engine and other heavy components, and the motorcycle's geometry help maintain structural integrity and chassis rigidity, and determine how it will behave under acceleration, braking, and cornering. Correct front-to-rear weight distribution is of particular importance to the handling of sport bikes, and the changing position of the rider's body dynamically changes the\",\n \"-25.178329095622757\"\n ],\n [\n \"a thinness commonly associated with basic motorcycles and needed therefore to be pumped to a relatively high pressure. The hardness of the tires and the minimalist approach taken to shock absorption made the cars strikingly uncomfortable. Except for users of cabriolet versions with the roof open, above average agility was vital for anyone wishing to get in or out of a Champion. Driver fitness was also encouraged by the need to start the engine with a starting handle, there being no electric starter-motor.\\nThe selling price was initially, DM 2,400 rising to DM 2,650 for the twin-cylinder version: this compares with\",\n \"-25.12855347781442\"\n ],\n [\n \"appellate panel ruled that \\\"hog\\\" had become a generic term for large motorcycles and was therefore unprotectable as a trademark.\\nOn August 15, 2006, Harley-Davidson Inc. had its NYSE ticker symbol changed from HDI to HOG. Bobbers Harley-Davidson FL \\\"big twins\\\" normally had heavy steel fenders, chrome trim, and other ornate and heavy accessories. After World War II, riders wanting more speed would often shorten the fenders or take them off completely to reduce the weight of the motorcycle. These bikes were called \\\"bobbers\\\" or sometimes \\\"choppers\\\", because parts considered unnecessary were chopped off. Those who made or rode choppers and\",\n \"-25.12127893610159\"\n ],\n [\n \"efficiency is better than towing a general purpose enclosed trailer.\\nCollapsible or folding motorcycle trailers are available to overcome storage problems that might prevent use of a non-collapsible trailer, some such trailers are sufficiently compact to allow the user to carry the trailer in the trunk of a car when not in use. Trailers pulled behind motorcycles Trailers towed behind motorcycles are distinguished by their relatively small size, especially narrow wheelbase. They are also often styled to match the look of the motorcycle they are intended to be towed behind. This styling can include the overall shape, fender shape, lights, chrome,\",\n \"-25.08192470454378\"\n ],\n [\n \"real reverse gear. Motorcycles Early Boss Hoss releases were considered cumbersome and unfinished. The bikes were difficult to ride, and were largely considered an expensive novelty. Since they were fitting a high-end automotive motor onto a motorcycle frame, they found themselves stuck between using aftermarketparts intended for the Harley-Davidson and muscle car markets. They were stuck somewhere between Küryakyn and Edelbrock and this left the bikes with an unbalanced appearance as well as unbalanced hardware capabilities.\\nEarly models were almost as notable for their jury rigged appearance as they were for their girth and conspicuous V8 engine. They often had\",\n \"-25.079788289411226\"\n ],\n [\n \"with more cylinders is capable of producing more power. If comparable bore to stroke ratios are employed, an engine with more cylinders will have a greater piston area and a shorter stroke. The increased piston area permits an increase in the total valve area, allowing more air and fuel to be drawn into the engine, and the shorter stroke permits higher revs at the same piston speed, allowing the engine to pump still more air and fuel with the potential to produce more power, but with more fuel consumption too. In 2004 motorcycles were entered with three-, four-and five-cylinder configurations.\",\n \"-25.059770741441753\"\n ],\n [\n \"may have raked-out forks, small fuel tanks and high handlebars. Choppers were popularised in the Peter Fonda film Easy Rider. Being designed primarily for visual effect, choppers will not usually be the most efficient riding machines. \\nRelated to the chopper motorcycle is the bobber which is created by \\\"bobbing\\\" a factory bike by removing dead weight and bodywork from a motorcycle to reduce mass and increase performance. A common element of these motorcycles is a shortened rear fender that creates a \\\"bobbed\\\" look. \\n \\nPower cruiser is a name used to distinguish bikes in the\",\n \"-25.000958153279498\"\n ],\n [\n \"are often the basis for custom motorcycle projects that result in a bike modified to suit the owner's ideals, and as such are a source of pride and accomplishment.\\nPower cruiser is a name used to distinguish bikes in the cruiser class that have higher levels of power. They often come with upgraded brakes and suspensions, better ground clearance, and premium surface finishes, as well as more exotic or modern muscular (non-traditional cruiser) styling.\\nMany power cruisers and Japanese cruisers of the 1980s have more neutral riding positions. While traditional cruisers have limited performance and turning ability due to a low-slung design,\",\n \"-24.97803506096534\"\n ],\n [\n \"the first American riders to use Honda motorcycles in desert races, helping usher in the era of lightweight, smaller-displacement off-road motorcycles. In the late 1950s, most desert racers preferred heavy, ungainly, British parallel twin cylinder motorcycles. He competed in many of the most prestigious West Coast off-road races aboard motorcycles as small as 100ccs in displacement, often finishing ahead of competitors on larger motorcycles, including an overall victory at the 1967 Greenhorn Enduro aboard a 100cc Zundapp.\\nIn 1962 he and Bill Robertson rode a Honda CL72 motorcycle almost the entire length of Mexico's Baja California Peninsula in less than 40\",\n \"-24.964806619558658\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dual-sport motorcycle Evolution of dual-sports The concept of a versatile motorcycle equally at home on dirt and pavement is as old as motorcycling itself. Most roads were still unpaved when motorized bicycles first appeared around 1900. In a sense, all motorcycles at that time were dual-sports, intended to be used on dirt as well as pavement. Advertisements well into the 1920s depict motorcycles on dirt roads, raising clouds of dust. By 1940, most roads in developed countries were paved and motorcycles had become heavier and more oriented to the street. In the 1950s and 1960s British manufacturers such as\",\n \"-24.96324885590002\"\n ],\n [\n \"Motorcycle engine A motorcycle engine is an engine that powers a motorcycle. Motorcycle engines are typically two-stroke or four-stroke internal combustion engines, but other engine types, such as Wankels and electric motors, have been used. \\nAlthough some mopeds, such as the VéloSoleX, had friction drive to the front tire, a motorcycle engine normally drives the rear wheel, power being sent to the driven wheel by belt, chain or shaft. Historically, some 2,000 units of the Megola were produced between 1921-1925 with front wheel drive, and the modern Rokon, an all terrain motorcycle with both wheels driven, has been produced since\",\n \"-24.961529722320847\"\n ],\n [\n \"used to reduce the radio's exposure to vibration imparted by the motorcycle's modal, or resonant, shaking.\\nSome mobile radios use noise-canceling microphones or headsets. At speeds over 100 MPH, the ambient road and wind noise can make radio communications difficult to understand. For example, California Highway Patrol mobile radios have noise-canceling microphones which reduce road and siren noise heard by the dispatcher. Most fire engines and radios in heavy equipment use noise-canceling headsets. These protect the occupant's hearing and reduce background noise in the transmitted audio. Noise-canceling microphones require the operator speak directly into the front of the microphone. Hole arrays\",\n \"-24.950334356050007\"\n ],\n [\n \"was typically enormously strong, many Suzuki engines get fully deserved \\\"bulletproof\\\" reputations, as many drag racers found out - over 300BHP was perfectly possible and many ended up being turbocharged and tuned.\\nThe GSX750ES was well thought of too, especially for its fine handling, but again also was another machine that represented the most refined development of its own current generation.\\nAt Suzuki it was felt that something much newer was needed for the future, both in chassis and engine terms.\\nBy the mid-1980s the motorcycle industry was in a period of decline. Honda and Yamaha had engaged in a production war in\",\n \"-24.941917598625878\"\n ],\n [\n \"Fury was among the earliest to be manufactured at Honda’s completely new motorcycle factory in Kumamoto, Japan, and exported to America. \\nThe Fury was generally well received; Motorcycle Cruiser magazine named the Honda Fury as their \\\"2010 Cruiser of the Year,\\\" after editorializing that choppers cannot be mass-produced, and that the Fury was in actuality a cruiser. The Visordown website included the Fury in their list of \\\"Top 7 cruisers with huge engines,\\\" despite the fact that the Honda's displacement was relatively modest. But some reviewers had difficulties reconciling the form-over-function chopper ethos with a motor company known for engineering\",\n \"-24.923438637495565\"\n ],\n [\n \"unit of the Jaguar and the Jazzmaster help produce sympathetic resonance since there is a considerable length of string between the bridge and the tailpiece. On top of that, when the strings are strummed behind the bridge, a characteristic chiming sound is created, which has been exploited by artists like Sonic Youth. Reissue Fender reissued the 1962 version of the Jaguar in 1999 as part of its American Vintage Reissue (AVRI) Series (lower cost Japanese-made versions were available between 1984-2015, originally made of basswood and then alder like their American counterparts). Several other variations have been released within the last\",\n \"-24.917159907738096\"\n ],\n [\n \"there were fewer oil compartments, due to the transmission and clutch being integrated with the engine crankcase, providing fewer ways for the oil to leak. In addition, an optional drive chain enclosure could keep chain lubricant off the motorcycle and the rider's clothing. Drivetrain The engine components were designed for ease of access and maintenance. The valve guides and valves could be removed without removing the engine from the motorcycle. The cylinder heads were integral with the engine. The intake and exhaust manifolds were cast as one piece such that the exhaust would heat the fuel mixture to improve\",\n \"-24.906141877465416\"\n ],\n [\n \"to moderate speeds, cruisers are more comfortable than other styles, but riding for long periods at freeway speeds can lead to fatigue from pulling back on the handlebars to resist the force of the wind against the rider's chest. Cruisers have limited cornering ability due to a lack of ground clearance.\\nChoppers are a type of cruiser, so called because they are a \\\"chopped\\\", or cut-down, version of a production cruiser. Choppers are usually custom projects that result in a bike modified to suit the owner's ideals, and, as such, are a source of pride and accomplishment. Stereotypically, a chopper\",\n \"-24.88234201297746\"\n ],\n [\n \"side of a motorcycle's lower frame. As well as their supposed protective function, they are valuable as a mount point for accessories like highway pegs, lights and, on police motorcycles, sirens, cameras and radar guns. One variation is the sump-guard, primarily for off-road riding. Custom Tires Specialized tires based on the purpose of the bike are common. Bikes meant for drag racing will have fatter, thicker tires, cross country bikes will often have whitewalls or lettering on their tires, and high end bikes will often have custom spokes as well - both in type and color. Bikes driven in\",\n \"-24.861479578004946\"\n ],\n [\n \"(removed) in favour of lightness and handling ability. Under-seat exhausts, dual headlights and the widest sport tyres were de-rigueur.\\nActor Huggy Leaver is credited with being inspired to build such customized motorcycles in this style and there was a proliferation of 'ratted' streetfighters in London around the late 1980s. The term streetfighter was first applied to a custom street bike by a British photojournalist and bike builder to a Harley-Davidson customized sports-bike, and later extended to the Japanese four-cylinder customs being created at the time.\",\n \"-24.833901872872957\"\n ],\n [\n \"loud noise of a gunshot, while possibly amplifying quieter sounds to normal levels. While rich in features, these electronic devices are extremely expensive, compared to their foam counterparts.\\nIn other activities, hobby motorcyclists and skiers may also choose to use decibel reduction earplugs, to compensate for the ongoing noise of the wind against their head or helmet. Musicians' earplugs Musicians are exposed to potentially harmful levels of sound, which can lead to hearing loss, tinnitus, and other auditory symptoms. Because of this, musicians may choose to use earplugs.\\nMusician's earplugs (also called Hi-Fi or Lossless earplugs) are designed to attenuate sounds evenly\",\n \"-24.800915481653647\"\n ],\n [\n \"Motorcycle A motorcycle, often called a bike, motorbike, or cycle, is a two- or three-wheeled motor vehicle. Motorcycle design varies greatly to suit a range of different purposes: long distance travel, commuting, cruising, sport including racing, and off-road riding. Motorcycling is riding a motorcycle and related social activity such as joining a motorcycle club and attending motorcycle rallies.\\nIn 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle, and the first to be called a motorcycle. In 2014, the three top motorcycle producers globally by volume were Honda(28%), Yamaha(17%)(both from Japan), and Hero MotoCorp (India).\\nIn developing countries, motorcycles are considered\",\n \"-24.79523083967797\"\n ],\n [\n \"the public are more domesticated models for road use rather than outright racing, for example the Suzuki DR-Z400SM. \\nDue to the popularity, versatility, excitement and durability of these motorcycles, some owners modify them for street use. In order to do this, headlights, tail lights, horn, mirrors and street-legal tires among other occasional modifications are needed. Some state motor vehicle departments take a dim view of turning off-road bikes into street legal bikes, such as California, which requires an on-road emissions designation from the manufacturer.\\nIn countries like South Africa it is not possible to convert a dirt bike to road legal,\",\n \"-24.711735258824774\"\n ],\n [\n \"for satisfying low frequency response. Conversely, large drivers may have heavy voice coils and cones that limit their ability to move at very high frequencies. Drivers pressed beyond their design limits may have high distortion. In a multi-way loudspeaker system, specialized drivers are provided to produce specific frequency ranges, and the incoming signal is split by a crossover. Drivers can be sub-categorized into several types: full-range, tweeters, super tweeters, mid-range drivers, woofers, and subwoofers. Applications Speaker drivers are the primary means for sound reproduction. They are used among other places in audio applications such as loudspeakers, headphones, telephones, megaphones, instrument\",\n \"-24.70722605328774\"\n ],\n [\n \"motorcycles featuring gear-driven ohc cams and a very high build quality. The first three or four iterations of VFR motorcycles re-established Honda's reputation for quality, and the motorcycles received almost universal praise from journalists and riders alike.\\nThe VFR was originally a 750 cc, but became an 800 cc in due course. New models featured technological innovation, such as a single-sided swingarm, linked braking, ABS, and VTEC. The VFR1200 became the first motorcycle to feature a dual-clutch transmission. Not all of these innovations proved popular with riders, who often preferred the simple robustness of the earlier models.\\nHonda also developed a limited edition VFR,\",\n \"-24.70477928093169\"\n ],\n [\n \"be \\\"beautifully crafted pieces of metallurgical art,\\\" perhaps only unintentionally. Many were also originally racing machines.\\nMade popular by European riders, this type of custom motorcycle gained worldwide popularity, and motorcycle manufacturers responded in the late 1990s by adopting the terminology and producing factory-built streetfighters, beginning with the 1994 Triumph Speed Triple and the 1999 Honda X11, up through the 2009 Ducati Streetfighter. History Though it has its styling roots in the café racer culture of the 1950s and 1960s, the streetfighter is very much inspired by the new Japanese bikes of the late 1970s and early 1980s, possibly from young\",\n \"-24.665040527732344\"\n ],\n [\n \"been attributed to the search for more bass and treble response from loudspeakers that did not extend as low or as high as desired, especially in the 1970s and 1980s. It has also been seen as either a useful or a detrimental tool for shaping the sound of a bass guitar. Car audio Many cars which have a graphic equalizer have been observed to have it set as a smiley face curve which emphasizes low and high frequencies. Graphic equalizer use leading to speaker damage is common — large amounts of bass boost and treble boost can distort music and\",\n \"-24.66250674283947\"\n ],\n [\n \"the \\\"Big Four.\\\" \\nThe motorcycle manufacturing industry and many government entities around the world have taken actions to clean up the reputation and activities of motorcyclists. Maintenance Motorcyclists will refer to maintenance or repair of a motorcycle as wrenching in the USA and \\\"spannering\\\" in the UK. A do it yourself self-sufficiency is said to be part of motorcycles' allure in an \\\"increasingly monolithic, unfixable world\\\" and being able to maintain one's own motorcycle is seen as part of the competency of being a motorcyclist.\\nHistorically, motorcycle maintenance was a necessary skill for riders, since the materials and technology used in\",\n \"-24.650872074067593\"\n ],\n [\n \"within the engine casings. \\\"Step-through\\\" motorcycles may have a rigidly fixed engine, or may have a scooter-type arrangement. Two-stroke and four-stroke Two-stroke engines have fewer moving parts than four-stroke engines, and produce twice the number of power strokes per revolution.\\nFuel economy is better in four-strokes due to more complete combustion of the intake charge in four-stroke engines.\\nNevertheless, two-strokes have been largely replaced on motorcycles in developed nations due to their environmental disadvantages. Cylinder lubrication is necessarily total-loss and this inevitably leads to a smokey exhaust, particularly on wide throttle openings. Two-stroke-engined motorcycles continue to be made in large numbers,\",\n \"-24.631232588988496\"\n ],\n [\n \"term \\\"UJM\\\" for Universal Japanese Motorcycle, which began with Honda's CB-750 of 1969.\\nThese bikes were available in a variety of sizes from 350cc to 1200cc from all four of the Japanese manufacturers, and beginning in 1976 served as the basis for production-based race bikes in the American Motorcycle Association (AMA) Superbike Series. As a result of the experience on the race track it became obvious that the big UJMs were not ideal for racing. Weight was high, frames lacked stiffness and flexed in disturbing ways, power from the big motors overwhelmed the tire technology of the day.\\nBeginning around 1980\",\n \"-24.59121916384902\"\n ],\n [\n \"Motorcycle trailer A motorcycle trailer is either a trailer used to carry motorcycles or one to be pulled by a motorcycle in order to carry additional gear. Motorcycle carrying trailers Motorcycle carrying trailers may be open or enclosed. They may be wide, for two machines side-by-side, or narrow, for just a single machine. The main features that distinguish them from other flatbed or enclosed trailers are track(s) to keep the wheels from sliding side to side and sufficient tiedown points to keep the motorcycle(s) from tipping. They may also tilt, or include ramp(s) to facilitate the loading and unloading of\",\n \"-24.579937723465264\"\n ],\n [\n \"Types of motorcycles There are many systems for classifying types of motorcycles, describing how the motorcycles are put to use, or the designer's intent, or some combination of the two. Six main categories are widely recognized: cruiser, sport, touring, standard, dual-purpose, and dirt bike. Sometimes sport touring motorcycles are recognized as a seventh category. Strong lines are sometimes drawn between motorcycles and their smaller cousins, mopeds, scooters, and underbones, but other classification schemes include these as types of motorcycles.\\nThere is no universal system for classifying all types of motorcycles. There are strict classification systems enforced by competitive motorcycle sport\",\n \"-24.57670201640576\"\n ],\n [\n \"techniques of screaming that results in different ways of screaming. In rock and metal music singers are developing very demanding guttural and growled sounds.\\nScream is also used predominant as an esthetic element in “cante jondo”, a vocal style in flamenco. The name of this style is translated as “deep sing”. The origins of flamenco and also of its name are still not clear. Flamenco is related to the gypsies’ music and it is said to have appeared in Andalusia in Spain. In cante jondo, that is a subdivision of flamenco, which is considered to be more serious and deep, the\",\n \"-24.575834657996893\"\n ],\n [\n \"of city streets. Highway noise is today less affected by motor type, since the effects in higher speed are aerodynamic and tire noise related. Other contributions to the reduction of noise at the source are: improved tire tread designs for trucks in the 1970s, better shielding of diesel stacks in the 1980s, and local vehicle regulation of unmuffled vehicles.\\nThe most fertile areas for roadway noise mitigation are in urban planning decisions, roadway design, noise barrier design, speed control, surface pavement selection, and truck restrictions. Speed control is effective since the lowest sound emissions arise from vehicles moving smoothly\",\n \"-24.54548985560541\"\n ],\n [\n \"sanctioning bodies, or legal definitions of a motorcycle established by certain legal jurisdictions for motorcycle registration, emissions, road traffic safety rules or motorcyclist licensing. There are also informal classifications or nicknames used by manufacturers, riders, and the motorcycling media. Some experts do not recognize sub-types, like naked bike, that \\\"purport to be classified\\\" outside the six usual classes, because they fit within one of the main types and are recognizable only by cosmetic changes. Street Street motorcycles are motorcycles designed for being ridden on paved roads. They have smooth tires with a light tread pattern and engines generally in the\",\n \"-24.51780823431909\"\n ],\n [\n \"several steam two- and three-wheelers that preceded the Reitwagen might have been technically motorcycles, none are candidates for the historical milestone of \\\"the first motorcycle\\\" because the technology they used was a dead end. Instead, the recognition should go to the internal combustion Reitwagan because it blazed a trail that was followed by the thousands of successful motorcycles subsequently built in the 20th century. As Cycle World's Technical Editor Kevin Cameron noted, \\\"History follows things that succeed, not things that fail.\\\"\\nAllan Girdler and Glynn Kerr nonetheless still favor the Roper, even by Cameron's criterion. The reason, they say, is that\",\n \"-24.5149880544559\"\n ],\n [\n \"the tank.\\nIn late 1980 when the GSX1100S Katana hit the street, it was claimed by Suzuki to be the fastest mass-production motorcycle in the world, ensuring the new looks were matched by unprecedented performance levels. So radical was the design departure from previous mass-market cycles that most major motorcycle magazines of the era thought the design would not appeal to the masses. Nevertheless, it was a sales success, and the motorcycle had a lasting impact on motorcycle design. Portions of the design ethos are still visible in many current sport motorcycles, including the faired-in aspects of both the seat and\",\n \"-24.50280796631705\"\n ],\n [\n \"utilitarian due to lower prices and greater fuel economy. Of all the motorcycles in the world, 58% are in the Asia-Pacific and Southern and Eastern Asia regions, excluding car-centric Japan.\\nAccording to the US Department of Transportation the number of fatalities per vehicle mile traveled was 37 times higher for motorcycles than for cars. Types The term motorcycle has different legal definitions depending on jurisdiction (see #Legal definitions and restrictions).\\nThere are three major types of motorcycle: street, off-road, and dual purpose. Within these types, there are many sub-types of motorcycles for different purposes. There is often a racing counterpart to each\",\n \"-24.47553177224472\"\n ],\n [\n \"front wheels. It wasn't, however, a success, as Butler failed to find sufficient financial backing.\\nMany authorities have excluded steam powered, electric motorcycles or diesel-powered two-wheelers from the definition of a 'motorcycle', and credit the Daimler Reitwagen as the world's first motorcycle. Given the rapid rise in use of electric motorcycles worldwide, defining only internal-combustion powered two-wheelers as 'motorcycles' is increasingly problematic.\\nIf a two-wheeled vehicle with steam propulsion is considered a motorcycle, then the first motorcycles built seem to be the French Michaux-Perreaux steam velocipede which patent application was filled in December 1868, constructed around the same time as the American\",\n \"-24.463869937928393\"\n ],\n [\n \"the type of setup that is used on most motorcycles. Often, the axle is inserted into slotted dropouts and the chain is adjusted by moving the wheel forward or backward within the slots. This allows the engine to be mounted which makes the bike's drive train much more rigid and reliable. There are also other advantages to this type of axle, including the possibility of a cleaner and more attractive rear axle area, but this setup is often more expensive than a live axle and custom parts are much more difficult to locate. Custom parts Custom parts are what make\",\n \"-24.426800192137307\"\n ],\n [\n \"avoided, while still \\\"missing the point about bikes.\\\" The indecision between making a sport bike or cruiser led to the uncomfortable ergonomics of a dragster motorcycle, but it did not matter because the Tomahawk was \\\"not intended to be taken seriously\\\", notwithstanding the intention to produce a limited production run. While he found the basic shape \\\"not unpleasant\\\", the unseriousness led to an unfinished result, pointing out the lack of harmonization in the twin ram-air intakes, and the \\\"incongruous\\\" use of a retro single vertical stalk planted in the fuel tank in an otherwise futuristic design. Kerr acknowledges that DaimlerChrysler\",\n \"-24.40538777020265\"\n ],\n [\n \"designed horns have the effect of making the speaker cone transfer more of the electrical energy in the voice coil into the air; in effect the driver appears to have higher efficiency. Horns can help control dispersion at higher frequencies which is useful in some applications such as sound reinforcement. The mathematical theory of horn coupling is well developed and understood, though implementation is sometimes difficult. Properly designed horns for high frequencies are small (above say 3 kHz or so, a few centimetres or inches), those for mid-range frequencies (perhaps 300 Hz to 2 kHz) much larger, perhaps 30 to 60 cm (1 or\",\n \"-24.393142467422877\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":581,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2gm843"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"If American football is the most popular sport in the U.S., then why is there only one pro league?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["By that logic there are many tiers of football. NCAA football isn't \"pro\" but it's pretty much the minor leagues. There's also arena football, and tons of other leagues that would be the equivalent of the bottom tiers of English soccer.","The career of a pro football player is pretty short compared to that of other sports. It doesn't allow a player the time to rise through the ranks the same way they would if they were playing something like baseball.","It's a good question and I'm not sure there's a clear answer but here are some reasons I can think of... * College football serves as \"minor leagues\" for younger players * NFL rosters are pretty huge and contain many players that are just on the \"practice squad.\" And second-stringers have no problem getting playing time as there are unlimited substitutions so there's no need to move guys to another league just to get them \"match fit.\" * In some cases, Canadian football, Arena football (defunct), NFL Europe (defunct), or the German/Australian leagues can serve as second-tier leagues * Unlike golf or baseball where some guys can spend years in the lower-tier leagues for pretty low pay, football is very hard on the body and frankly isn't worth playing unless you're paid really well. You don't see a lot of adult recreational full-contact gridiron football leagues. Even good players sometimes retire in their prime because they don't want to play.","College football, that's what different. The UK doesn't have the same sort of tradition college sports being a gateway to professional sports that the US does. College football lives in much the same niche as secondary tier soccer, and had capture the fan base to a degree that makes it hard for a secondary pro league to be profitable. That said, there are other football leagues in North American...Area Football, various short term startups like the UFL and XLF, Canadian Football, etc.","There used to be another professional league, but it merged with the NFL. Source: URL_0 \"In 1966, the NFL agreed to merge with the rival American Football League (AFL), effective 1970; the first Super Bowl was held at the end of that same season in January 1967.\" Edit: Oops! I forgot to answer your question. If you define a professional football league as an entity that pays its players, then we have the Arena Football League. It's in-door professional (American) football league. We probably don't have another league on par with the NFL because it would be too hard to compete against them. The better players would most likely sign with the NFL because it's more established, and the new league would probably only sign not-so-good players. We did, briefly, have the United States Football league."],"string":"[\n \"By that logic there are many tiers of football. NCAA football isn't \\\"pro\\\" but it's pretty much the minor leagues. There's also arena football, and tons of other leagues that would be the equivalent of the bottom tiers of English soccer.\",\n \"The career of a pro football player is pretty short compared to that of other sports. It doesn't allow a player the time to rise through the ranks the same way they would if they were playing something like baseball.\",\n \"It's a good question and I'm not sure there's a clear answer but here are some reasons I can think of... * College football serves as \\\"minor leagues\\\" for younger players * NFL rosters are pretty huge and contain many players that are just on the \\\"practice squad.\\\" And second-stringers have no problem getting playing time as there are unlimited substitutions so there's no need to move guys to another league just to get them \\\"match fit.\\\" * In some cases, Canadian football, Arena football (defunct), NFL Europe (defunct), or the German/Australian leagues can serve as second-tier leagues * Unlike golf or baseball where some guys can spend years in the lower-tier leagues for pretty low pay, football is very hard on the body and frankly isn't worth playing unless you're paid really well. You don't see a lot of adult recreational full-contact gridiron football leagues. Even good players sometimes retire in their prime because they don't want to play.\",\n \"College football, that's what different. The UK doesn't have the same sort of tradition college sports being a gateway to professional sports that the US does. College football lives in much the same niche as secondary tier soccer, and had capture the fan base to a degree that makes it hard for a secondary pro league to be profitable. That said, there are other football leagues in North American...Area Football, various short term startups like the UFL and XLF, Canadian Football, etc.\",\n \"There used to be another professional league, but it merged with the NFL. Source: URL_0 \\\"In 1966, the NFL agreed to merge with the rival American Football League (AFL), effective 1970; the first Super Bowl was held at the end of that same season in January 1967.\\\" Edit: Oops! I forgot to answer your question. If you define a professional football league as an entity that pays its players, then we have the Arena Football League. It's in-door professional (American) football league. We probably don't have another league on par with the NFL because it would be too hard to compete against them. The better players would most likely sign with the NFL because it's more established, and the new league would probably only sign not-so-good players. We did, briefly, have the United States Football league.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["Comparisons between the National Football League and NCAA football The National Football League (NFL) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) are respectively the most popular professional and amateur football organizations in the United States. The National Football League was founded in 1920 and has since become the largest and most popular sport in the United States. The NFL has the highest average attendance of any sporting league in the world, with an average attendance of 66,960 persons per game during the 2011 NFL season. While the NFL championship game, the Super Bowl, is a large sporting event in club","-28.204062036988034"],["obscure sports often operate at a semi-professional level due to cost concerns. Because the cost of running a fully professional American football team is prohibitive, semi-pro football is common at the adult levels, particularly in the indoor variety, providing an outlet for players who have used up their NCAA eligibility and have no further use for maintaining amateur status; as a sport that normally plays only one game per week, football is especially suited for semi-pro play. The National Lacrosse League, whose teams also typically play only one game per week, pays a salary that is enough to be considered","-28.123656613664934"],["Football League was founded in 1987 as the first major professional league to play the sport. Several other indoor football leagues have since been founded and continue to play today.\nAmerican football's parent sport of rugby continued to evolve. Today, two distinct codes known as rugby union and rugby league are played throughout the world. Since the two codes split following a schism on how the sport should be managed in 1895, the history of rugby league and the history of rugby union have evolved separately. Both codes have adopted innovations parallel to the American game; the rugby union scoring system","-27.91735823120689"],["All American Football Gameplay One of the main differences between it, and its predecessor, John Elway's Team Quarterback is that it was the first (and possibly, only coin-op game) to allow users to select from a list of \"college\" teams in addition to \"pro\" teams representing the 26 cities/regions which had NFL teams at the time. It is also the only game in the series to allow users to purchase power-up items such as \"beef\" (for boosting the offensive line) and \"go juice\" (for a second wind on long gains) from a \"sideline shop\" during the game.\nThe game did","-27.86979678363423"],["leagues, in that there is no system of promotion and relegation between lower and higher leagues, but rather a minor league system, generally the same as almost all other top-level pro sports leagues in North America. In addition, teams playing in American soccer leagues are not private clubs founded independently of the league that join a league in order to ensure regular fixtures but are instead usually franchises of the league itself. Finally, the soccer leagues in the United States also incorporate features common to other American sports leagues, most notably the determination of champions by playoffs between the top","-27.82489925500704"],["a modified version of American football, at the international level. United States \"Baseball is still called the national pastime, but football is by far the more popular sport in American society\", according to ESPN.com's Sean McAdam. In a 2014 poll conducted by Harris Interactive, professional football ranked as the most popular sport, and college football ranked third behind only professional football and baseball; 46% of participants ranked some form of the game as their favorite sport. Professional football has ranked as the most popular sport in the poll since 1985, when it surpassed baseball for the first time. Professional football","-27.44015021144878"],["All-Pro Football 2K8 Overview All-Pro Football 2K8 features a fictional league called the \"All-Pro League\", or 'APL'. The APL consists of 24 teams that are grouped into six divisions of four teams each. The league runs a sixteen-game schedule and holds a championship game at the end of the playoffs, similar to the NFL.\nSince the exclusivity deal the NFL has with EA only covers active players, 2K contracted the individual rights to over 240 retired NFL players to appear in the game.\nEven though there are no NFL teams in the game, the player can still create teams that resemble their","-27.368277397705242"],["English Premier League and the Spanish La Liga they make up the top six sports leagues by revenue in the world. In addition, the sports of these four leagues were all developed in their modern forms in North America, and all except American football have become popular internationally. Because the leagues enjoy a significant place in popular culture in the U.S. and Canada, the best players from these leagues often become cultural icons in both countries. Each Big Four league, as well as Major League Soccer and the Canadian Football League, averages at least 15,000 fans in attendance per game","-27.12720936407277"],["Comparison of American football and rugby league Origins Both sports descend from the older game of rugby football, which originated in 19th Century England. British colonists and the British military in Canada brought football to North America. It became popular in American and Canadian universities and prep schools. At the time, association football and rugby football were not as differentiated as they are now and teams would negotiate the rules before playing each game. The sports of American football and Canadian football evolved from these intercollegiate games.\nMeanwhile, in England a schism developed in rugby football between those who favoured","-27.07628838228993"],["Orleans), and Pat Bowlen (Denver), but very rarely did they ever promote or demote any players between the AFL and NFL, due in part to significant differences in the playing schedules and the style of play between outdoor and indoor football. All of the NFL owners backed out of the league when it went bankrupt, was sold off and reorganized.\nIn Canada, intercollegiate sport has never attained a similar level of following compared to the United States, mainly due to ice hockey being the most popular sport in the country. In hockey, the National Hockey League has historically overlooked intercollegiate sport","-26.878595411559218"],["History of the National Football League championship Throughout its history, the National Football League (NFL) and other rival American football leagues have used several different formats to determine their league champions, including a period of inter-league matchups determining a true national champion.\nFollowing its founding in 1920, the NFL first determined champions through end-of-season standings, but switched to a playoff system in 1933. The rival All-America Football Conference (AAFC) and American Football League (AFL) have since merged with the NFL (the only two AAFC teams that currently exist joined the NFL in 1950—the Cleveland Browns and the San Francisco 49ers),","-26.85516426038521"],["Professional sports leagues in the United States Professional sports leagues in the United States include several major leagues as well as other professional and semi-professional leagues. Major leagues The major sports leagues tend to have the greatest fan interest, have national TV contracts, draw high fan attendance, and have teams located throughout the largest metropolitan areas in the United States. Major League Baseball Major League Baseball is the highest level of play of baseball in North America. It consists of the National League (founded in 1876) and the American League (founded in 1901). Cooperation between the two leagues began in","-26.844153292557166"],["of Columbia. USA Football is the governing body for youth and amateur football, and Pop Warner Little Scholars is the largest organization for youth football. Rival professional leagues Several professional football leagues have been formed as rival leagues to the NFL. The most successful was the American Football League (AFL), which existed from 1960 to 1969. The AFL became a significant rival in 1964 before signing a five-year, US$36 million television deal with NBC. AFL teams began signing NFL players to contracts, and the league's popularity grew to challenge that of the NFL. The two leagues merged in the 1970 season,","-26.772198797261808"],["Association of Professional Football Leagues The Association of Professional Football Leagues was a compact formed in 1946 among the National Football League and three minor leagues of professional American football: the American Association (which subsequently changed its name to the American Football League), the Dixie League, and the Pacific Coast Professional Football League. While the NFL had an informal farm system in the pre-World War II AA, this was the first time in which it had a working arrangement with multiple leagues whose local popularity rivaled that of the major league. The agreement lasted less than two years, its termination","-26.767183398173074"],["league. \"Why wouldn't a second league work\", Hunt recalled. \"There was an American and National League in baseball, why not football?\" Hunt contacted several other individuals who had expressed interest in the Cardinals franchise—Bud Adams, Bob Howsam, Max Winter and Bill Boyer—and gauged their interest in forming a second league.\nOn August 14, the first meeting of the new league was held in Chicago. Charter memberships were issued to six original cities — Dallas, New York, Houston, Denver, Los Angeles and Minneapolis. The league was officially christened the American Football League on August 22. Ralph Wilson was extended the league's seventh","-26.761704735516105"],["combined.)\nBaseball has been regarded as the national sport since the late 19th century, with Major League Baseball (MLB) being the top league, while American football is now by several measures the most popular spectator sport, with the National Football League (NFL) having the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world and a Super Bowl watched by millions globally. Basketball and ice hockey are the country's next two leading professional team sports, with the top leagues being the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the National Hockey League (NHL). These four major sports, when played professionally, each occupy a","-26.7069724596804"],["league, known as the National Football League (not the same as the modern league) began play in 1902 when several baseball clubs formed football teams to play in the league, including the Philadelphia Athletics, Pittsburgh Pirates and the Philadelphia Phillies. The Pirates' team the Pittsburgh Stars were awarded the league championship. However, the Philadelphia Football Athletics and Philadelphia Football Phillies also claimed the title. A five-team tournament, known as the World Series of Football was organized by Tom O'Rouke, the manager of Madison Square Garden. The event featured the first-ever indoor pro football games. The first professional indoor game came","-26.63102588360198"],["American League (founded in 1901). Cooperation between the two leagues began in 1903, and the two merged on an organizational level in 2000 with the elimination of separate league offices; they have shared a single Commissioner since 1920. There are currently 30 member teams, with 29 located in the U.S. and one in Canada. Traditionally called the \"National Pastime\", baseball was the first professional sport in the U.S. National Basketball Association The National Basketball Association is the premier basketball league in the world. It was founded as the Basketball Association of America in 1946, and adopted its current name in","-26.559460580610903"],["the ball, this rule was wholly adopted into all Harvard play following the two games with McGill. While the American team bested the Canadian (3–0 and a following tie game), both countries' flavours of football were forever changed and linked to one another. Both the Canadian and American games still have some things in common with the two varieties of rugby, especially rugby league, and because of the similarities, the National Football League (NFL) had a formal relationship with the Canadian Football League (CFL) between 1997 and 2008.\nMany, perhaps most, of the rules differences have arisen because of rules changes","-26.52593258973502"],["form of football is the most popular in the regional context in which the word appears. For example, \"football\" unqualified primarily refers to American football in the U.S., Canadian football in Canada, and association football in Mexico. The word soccer is instead used to refer to association football in the U.S. and Canada. American football The National Football League (NFL) is the highest professional level of American football in the world, with teams across the United States. College football in the U.S. is primarily organized by the NCAA. The NCAA further divides its Division I football teams into the Football","-26.497297097332194"],["expansion Some of the Big Four sports leagues have in recent years looked to expand their revenues by playing overseas games in attempt to develop a wider international fan base. NFL American football is the member of the top four major league sports with the least international exposure. The NFL has attempted to promote its game worldwide by scheduling selected pre-season games since 1976 in Mexico, Europe, Australia, and Japan. The NFL had promoted the game abroad through NFL Europe, but NFL Europe was never profitable and ceased operations in 2007.\nIn 2005, the NFL held its firstregular-season game outside the","-26.388831086980645"],["in reverse order. However, all major sports have had a rival league achieve at least some of these goals in the last half of the 20th century. Baseball's proposed Continental League did not play a game but only because Major League Baseball responded to the proposal by adding teams in some of the new league's proposed cities. The American Basketball Association (ABA) and World Hockey Association (WHA) each succeeded in getting some of their franchises accepted into the established leagues, which had both unsuccessfully attempted to cause their upstart rivals to fold outright by adding more teams.\nHowever, the upstart","-26.265705010853708"],["American Association (19th century) History The American Association distinguished itself in several ways from what it considered to be the puritanical National League. The new league established teams in what the NL leaders pejoratively called \"river cities\", including Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Louisville and St. Louis, with the inherent implication of lower morality or social standards in those cities. In contrast to the NL, the AA offered cheaper ticket prices, Sunday games and alcoholic beverages to its patrons. As such, the American Association was the world's first professional sports league designed to out-compete another by better accommodating blue-collar tendencies and","-26.22248060675338"],["country.\nAs of 2005 the AFL is one of only five professional sports leagues in the world with an average attendance above thirty thousand (the others are the NFL in the United States and Major League Baseball in the U.S. and Canada, and the top division soccer leagues in Germany and England). In 2007, the average attendance of 38,113 made the AFL the second best attended domestic club league in the world, after only the NFL in the United States.\nThe Melbourne Cricket Ground is the largest stadium used for Australian rules football and the permanent home of the AFL Grand Final.","-26.163533793820534"],["Bowl Subdivision and the Football Championship Subdivision. The Football Bowl Subdivision has the largest and most competitive schools, and is noted for its system of postseason bowl games.\nUSA Football is the governing body for amateur American football in the U.S., and is a member of the International Federation of American Football (IFAF), the international governing body of American football associations. Several other North American counties are a part of IFAF Americas, the federation of IFAF members in the Americas.\nIn Mexico, the Liga de Fútbol Americano Profesional is the professional league, while ONEFA organizes college football. Canadian football The Canadian Football","-26.113281051366357"],["National League, giving MLB a legal monopoly over professional baseball in the US.\nThe other major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada have followed the MLB model of a closed shop with no merit-based promotion or relegation since their inceptions. Early football leagues in England In contrast to baseball's NABBP, the first governing body in English football survived the onset of professionalism, which it formally accepted in 1885. Perhaps the great geographical concentration of population and the corresponding short distances between urban centres was crucial. Certainly it provided the opportunity for more clubs' developing large fan bases without","-26.076929873466725"],["not have licenses from the NFL, NFLPA or the NCAA. Because of this, pro teams were only referred to by city (Green Bay, Pittsburgh, etc.), state (Minnesota) or region (New England). Most of the college teams featured were ones with names that were based geographically (Michigan, Wisconsin, etc.) or militaristic (Army and Navy). This feature was purely cosmetic as the teams all played the same regardless of which one was chosen. It also allowed users to choose their own team colors no matter which team they chose.\nLike its predecessors, All-American Football involved the use of a \"spring stick,\" which required","-26.05112843902134"],["All-Pro All-Pro is an honor bestowed upon professional American football players that designates the best player at each position during a given season. All-Pro players are typically selected by press organizations, who select an \"All-Pro team,\" a list that consists of at least 22 players, one for each offensive and defensive position, plus various special teams players depending on the press organization that compiles the list. All-Pro lists are exclusively limited to the major leagues, usually only the National Football League; in the past, other leagues recognized as major, such as the American Football League of the 1960s or the","-26.050301219169796"],["of the 15 teams in the other league, a historically high number (until 1997, interleague play was limited to exhibition matches and the postseason World Series, and thus MLB teams did not play the other league's teams at all).\nIn Australia, the two largest football leagues, the AFL (Australian rules football) and NRL (rugby league), both grew out of competitions held within a single city (respectively Melbourne and Sydney) and only began expanding to the rest of the country when inexpensive air travel made a national league possible. These leagues use a single table instead of being split into divisions. The","-26.034219094493892"],["is almost identical to the American game, while rugby league uses a gridiron-style field and a six-tackle rule similar to the system of downs in American Football.","-26.020190438313875"],["American Football League (1940) Origin Although the third American Football League was not directly connected to any previous American football leagues of the same name, its formation was at the cost of an already-existing minor football league of the same name.\nBy the spring of 1940, the former American Professional Football Association announced intentions of turning itself into a major league with the addition of a Milwaukee team for the upcoming season over the protests of the Green Bay Packers. As the teams prepared for the upcoming season, the announcement of a rival major league resulted in the fracturing of this","-26.013877445133403"],["very popular and serve as those sports' most prominent competitions with levels of media coverage, competition, and fan following comparable to the major professional team sports. Amateur competitions such as college football and college basketball, at the upper echelons, also enjoy strong media coverage and fan followings but are generally recognized as inferior to the major professional leagues in level of play because of the inherent limits of the amateur sports system. Major League Baseball Major League Baseball is the highest level of play of baseball in North America. It consists of the National League (founded in 1876) and the","-25.933073009480722"],["city or the league chooses to expand with new franchises.\nAll American sports leagues use the same type of schedule. After the regular season, the 10–16 teams with the best records enter a playoff tournament leading to a championship series or game. American sports, except for soccer, have no equivalent to the cup competitions that run concurrently with leagues in European sports. Even in the case of soccer, the cup competition, the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup, draws considerably less attention than the regular season. Also, the only top-level U.S. professional teams that play teams from other organizations in meaningful games","-25.903897760639666"],["of the existing league. In many cases, the major leagues have absorbed the most successful franchises from their failing rivals, or merged outright with them.\nBaseball's National League withstood three challenges in its first quarter century of existence. The American Association began in 1882 in several lucrative markets without a NL team. For several years, the AA was a viable competitor to the NL, and the NL and AA champions competed in an informal World Series. Four of the AA's teams defected to the NL in its later years, before the AA expired in 1891. Labor problems led to the formation","-25.88168058200972"],["carried it and it serves as a means for advertisers to debut elaborate and expensive commercials for their products. The NFL has grown to become the most popular spectator sports league in the United States.\nOne of the things that have marked the modern NFL as different from other major professional sports leagues is the apparent parity between its 32 teams. While from time to time, dominant teams have arisen, the league has been cited as one of the few where every team has a realistic chance of winning the championship from year to year. The league's complex labor","-25.84650256947498"],["Expansion of major sports leagues in the United States and Canada The expansion of major sports leagues in the United States and Canada has occurred throughout the twentieth century for all of the major professional sports leagues in those two countries. United States Professional sports leagues as known today evolved during the decades between the Civil War and World War II, when the railroad was the main means of intercity transportation. As a result, virtually all major league teams were concentrated in the northeastern quarter of the United States, within roughly the radius of a day-long train ride. No MLB","-25.81690335238818"],["other independent leagues like the Texas-Louisiana League and Northeast League. The Atlantic League has had more marquee players than any other independent league, including Jose Canseco, Rickey Henderson, Ozzie Canseco, Rubén Sierra, Carlos Baerga, and John Rocker. The Northern League alumni include Leon \"Bull\" Durham, J. D. Drew, and Darryl Strawberry.\nIndependent leagues have flourished in northeastern states, where dense populations can often support multiple franchises. Because they are not subject to the territorial limitations imposed on affiliated minor-league teams, independent clubs can relocate as close to affiliated teams (and one another) as they choose to. For example, the city","-25.783681058266666"],["two major professional sporting leagues in Australia are the Australian Football League (AFL) and National Rugby League (NRL). Both competitions were originally based in one city (Melbourne and Sydney respectively) and expanded to a national level, and through that process, there have been team moves, mergers and closures in both leagues. The clubs are owned by members, not privately, but the North American franchise model exists, which means entry to the league is restricted. The hybrid model has meant that the leading promoter of moving is the league itself, trying to grow the football code by encouraging poorly performing clubs","-25.716356635733973"],["XFL suffered from poor television ratings and the low quality of play. The United Football League (UFL) began in 2009 but folded after suspending its 2012 season due to financial issues. International play American football leagues exist throughout the world, but the game has yet to achieve the international success and popularity of baseball and basketball. It is not an Olympic sport, but it was a demonstration sport at the 1932 Summer Olympics. At the international level, Canada, Mexico, and Japan are considered to be second-tier, while Austria, Germany, and France would rank among a third tier. These countries rank","-25.665043191052973"],["Non-League football Non-League football describes football leagues played outside the top leagues of a country. Usually it describes leagues which are not fully professional. The term is primarily used for football in England, where it describes football played at a level below that of the Premier League (20 clubs) and the three divisions of the English Football League (EFL; 72 clubs). The term non-League was commonly used well before 1992 when the top football clubs in England all belonged to The Football League (from 2016, the EFL); all clubs who were not a part of The Football","-25.661282139190007"],["in Canada, football is used inclusively of Canadian football with American and Canadian football generally seen as two variants of the same sport. The term \"North American football\" is sometimes used to refer to both games together.\nThe sport of association football is commonly called \"soccer\" in the United States. The word derives from \"association\" – as in the Football Association – in contrast to \"rugger\", or rugby football. It is English in origin, and caught on in the United States to distinguish the game from the locally better known American football; it also became predominant in other countries where another","-25.655359660333488"],["division, expanding the sport into Africa, and overcoming the current worldwide competitive imbalance that is in favor of American teams. Similar codes of football Other codes of football share a common history with American football. Canadian football is a form of the game that evolved parallel to American football. While both games share a common history, there are some important differences between the two. A more modern sport that derives from American football is Arena football, designed to be played indoors inside of hockey or basketball arenas. The game was invented in 1981 by Jim Foster and the Arena","-25.63701860018773"],["and all the AFL teams joined the NFL. An earlier league, the All-America Football Conference (AAFC), was in play from 1946 to 1949. After it had dissolved, two AAFC teams, the Cleveland Browns and the San Francisco 49ers, became members of the NFL; another member, the Baltimore Colts joined the league, but folded after just a year in the NFL.\nOther attempts to start rival leagues have been far less successful. The World Football League (WFL) played for two seasons, in 1974 and 1975, but faced such severe monetary issues it could not pay its players. In its second and final","-25.51716141757788"],["League was considered the strongest domestic league outside of North America. It has recently been overtaken by the Spanish ACB, but is still one of the top leagues in Europe, along with the VTB United League in Russia with teams in other nearby nations, the Greek Basket League, the Adriatic League, and the Baltic League. Famous club teams include Olimpia Milano, Virtus Bologna, Pallacanestro Varese, Pallacanestro Cantù, Fortitudo Bologna, Victoria Libertas, Pallacanestro Treviso, Mens Sana 1871, Virtus Roma, Pallacanestro Trieste, JuveCaserta and Scaligera Verona. Rugby union Rugby union enjoys a good level of popularity, especially in the north of the","-25.493874823790975"],["World Football League (2008–2010) The World Football League was a minor professional American football league which operated for three seasons, from 2008 through 2010. It was named for the short-lived World Football League which served as a competitor to the NFL in the mid-1970s. History In 2007, the rights to the \"World Football League\" name and logo were purchased by Chip Pierce of Beaumont, Texas. The league was brought back to life as a minor league system that did not compete with the NFL, but gave players of a higher talent level than that of the many players involved in","-25.47784958925331"],["way to play the sport in all climates. The PIHA is the league with the largest number of professional teams in the nation. Street hockey is a non-standard version of inline hockey played by amateurs in informal games.\nRugby league in the United States is played by the USA Rugby League (USARL) is a 14 team semi-professional rugby league football competition based on the East Coast of the United States. The league was founded in 2011 by clubs that had broken with the established American National Rugby League (AMNRL), plus expansion franchises. The USARL began its inaugural season in 2011. In","-25.447494501189794"],["American Football Association (1978–1983) The American Football Association (AFA) was a professional American football league that operated from 1977 to 1983.\nThe AFA was concentrated in the southern United States and served as the second tier of professional football between the World Football League, which folded in 1975, and the United States Football League, which began play in 1983. Unlike the WFL or USFL, the AFA always fashioned itself as a minor league, and never planned to rival the National Football League for \"major league\" status. Players were paid one percent of gross gate revenue, which often meant players were paid","-25.447338658210356"],["Stadium. The success of the International Series has led to speculation that London will be chosen as home of an NFL franchise in the future. Brazil American football has been played in Brazil since the 1990s. The official organization governing American football in Brazil is the American Football Association of Brazil, in Portuguese Associação de Futebol Americano de Brasil (AFAB). Similar codes of football A modern sport that derives from American football is Arena football, designed to be played indoors inside of hockey or basketball arenas. The game was invented in 1981 by Jim Foster and the Arena Football","-25.439268800582795"],["the television networks that have carried it and it serves as a means for advertisers to debut elaborate and expensive commercials for their products. The NFL has grown to become the most popular spectator sports league in the United States.\nOne of the things that have marked the modern NFL as different from other major professional sports leagues is the apparent parity between its 32 teams. While from time to time, dominant teams have arisen, the league has been cited as one of the few where every team has a realistic chance of winning the championship from year to year.","-25.421428441724856"],["the United States.\nNFL games are the most attended of domestic professional leagues in the world in terms of per-game attendance, and the most popular in the U.S. in terms of television ratings and merchandising. Its championship game, the Super Bowl, is the most watched annual event on U.S. television, with Super Bowl XLIX being the single most-watched program in U.S. television history.\nThe NFL is the only one of the major leagues not to have a presence in Canada, where the Canadian Football League is the premier professional league in the sport. National Hockey League The National Hockey League is the","-25.387342932837782"],["unpredictable player movement, as well as the illegal payment of college players who were still in school. The National Football League (NFL), a group of professional teams that was originally established in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association, aimed to solve these problems. This new league's stated goals included an end to bidding wars over players, prevention of the use of college players, and abolition of the practice of paying players to leave another team. By 1922, the NFL had established itself as America's premier professional football league.\nThe dominant form of football at the time was played at the","-25.383244773162005"],["league. Johnson led the Western League into major league status and soon became the president of the newly renamed American League. The American League has one notable difference over the National League, and that is the designated hitter rule. Under the rule, a team may use a batter in their lineup who is not in the field defensively, compared to the old rule that made it mandatory for the pitcher to hit. Early history The earliest predecessor to the American League was the Northwestern League, a minor league with teams based in the Midwestern United States. Along with the National","-25.369424876291305"],["other North American countries use promotion and relegation systems, where teams are transferred between two divisions based on their performance at the end of each season.\nThe major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada dominate organized men's professional team sports in those two countries: Major League Baseball (MLB), the National Basketball Association (NBA), the National Football League (NFL), the National Hockey League (NHL), Major League Soccer (MLS) and the Canadian Football League (CFL). Liga MX, the top level Association football in Mexico is also widely popular. Caribbean, where cricket is popular, that region's major domestic competitions include","-25.366565829899628"],["American Football League All-Star game The American Football League All-Star game was the annual game which featured each year's best performers in the American Football League (AFL). The game was first played in 1961 and the final AFL All-Star game occurred in 1969, prior to the AFL-NFL merger. All-League Teams The Sporting News published American Football League All-League Teams for each season played by the American Football League, 1960 through 1969. From 1960 through 1966, the All-League team was selected by the AFL players, and from 1967 through 1969 it was selected by a consensus of The Sporting News (TSN),","-25.362916481200955"],["sport originated in the 19th century out of older games related to modern rugby football, more specifically rugby league football. American and Canadian football developed alongside each other and were originally more distinct before Canadian teams adopted features of the American game. Both varieties are distinguished from other football sports by their use of hard plastic helmets and shoulder pads, the forward pass, the system of downs, a number of unique rules and positions, measurement in customary units of yards (even in Canada, which mostly metricated in the 1970s, yards are still used), and a distinctive brown leather ball in","-25.296443069833913"],["Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada The major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada are the highest professional competitions of team sports in those countries. The four leagues universally included in the definition are Major League Baseball (MLB), National Basketball Association (NBA), National Football League (NFL), and National Hockey League (NHL). Other prominent leagues include Major League Soccer (MLS) and Canadian Football League (CFL).\nMLB, NBA, NFL, and NHL are commonly referred to as the \"Big Four.\" Each of these is the wealthiest professional club competition in its sport worldwide, and along with the","-25.26022722525522"],["non-league opponents, with the last interleague game having come in 1972 and the last game against a team other than an NFL team (the all-NFL rookie College All-Stars) was held in 1976.\nExhibition games are quite unpopular with many fans, who resent having to pay regular-season prices for two home exhibition games as part of a season-ticket package. Numerous lawsuits have been brought by fans and classes of fans against the NFL or its member teams regarding this practice, but none have been successful in halting it. The Pro Bowl, traditionally played after the end of the NFL season (since 2011","-25.249337585410103"],["ESPN-owned website FiveThirtyEight has argued that there is a case to be made for the inclusion of Major League Soccer in the major professional sports leagues of North America. Lacrosse: NLL and MLL The National Lacrosse League (NLL) is a men's professional box lacrosse league in North America. It currently has 13 teams: 8 in the United States and 5 in Canada. The NLL plays its games in the winter and spring. The league's American teams have historically been concentrated in the northeastern United States, and two of the league's longest-established and most commercially successful teams, the Buffalo Bandits and","-25.234806227555964"],["Ireland, New Zealand, and Australia. Early history American football evolved from the sports of soccer and rugby. Rugby, like American football, is a sport where two competing teams vie for control of a ball, which can be kicked through a set of goalposts or run into the opponent's goal area to score points.\nWhat is considered to be the first American football game was played on November 6, 1869, between Rutgers and Princeton, two college teams. They consisted of 25 players each and used a round ball that could not be picked up or carried. It could, however, be kicked or","-25.205853452906013"],["despite most other professional sports leagues in North America being cross-border enterprises. The substantially different rules and fields of the Canadian and American games and the popularity of the National Football League and NCAA Division I-A football in the United States were generally seen to inhibit the chances of any sort of expansion into the United States. Lackluster CFL television ratings in the United States during the 1982 NFL strike seemed to bolster this argument. A proposal by Bill Tatham to have his Arizona Outlaws and possibly other teams of the moribund United States Football League enter the CFL after","-25.191305204993114"],["American football Etymology and names In the United States, American football is referred to as \"football\". The term \"football\" was officially established in the rulebook for the 1876 college football season, when the sport first shifted from soccer-style rules to rugby-style rules. Although it could easily have been called \"rugby\" at this point, Harvard, one of the primary proponents of the rugby-style game, compromised and did not request the name of the sport be changed to \"rugby\". The terms \"gridiron\" or \"American football\" are favored in English-speaking countries where other types of football are popular, such as the United Kingdom,","-25.174472386046546"],["College football College football is gridiron football consisting of American football played by teams of student athletes fielded by American universities, colleges, and military academies, or Canadian football played by teams of student athletes fielded by Canadian universities. It was through college football play that American football rules first gained popularity in the United States.\nUnlike most other sports in North America, no minor league farm organizations exist in American or Canadian football. Therefore, college football is generally considered to be the second tier of American football in the United States and Canadian football in Canada; one step ahead of high","-25.15475827899354"],["group once each, for a total of two group-stage games. Teams will then advance to the second round, and from there to the placement and medal games.\nBecause American football is far more dominant in the United States than anywhere else in the world, the United States did not field a team in the tournament for its first two editions. The United States has fielded a squad for the last three iterations, but with extremely restrictive criteria that make most American football players ineligible for the team. Despite the restrictions, the United States has won all three world championships in which","-25.154540598974563"],["Pros Vs Heroes About The game has former NFL, current NFL, and other professional athletes travel around the country to play in flag football games against police officers,firefighters, armed forces and EMT personnel. The game was created in 2014 and is now expanding to different areas around the United States. Motor Media produces the games to raise money and give back to communities. Since its first game in June 2014, the program has raised money and awareness for several causes.\nIn the last year, five games have been played in the Pros Vs. Heroes series. The first and second game","-25.1371734412387"],["stage. Major League Baseball is increasingly luring away the stars from the Japanese leagues, the European hockey leagues have become a major source of star talent for National Hockey League clubs, and the National Basketball Association frequently recruits talent from professional leagues in Europe, Latin America, Australia and China.\nAll four leagues are considered to be the top league in their respective sports, not only in revenue, but also in quality of talent, player salaries, and worldwide interest. However, of the four major leagues, the NFL has the least presence outside both countries; it is mainly an American and Canadian interest.","-25.131274971085077"],["an NFL roster spot as an undrafted free agent. History Even after the emergence of the professional National Football League (NFL), college football remained extremely popular throughout the U.S. \nAlthough the college game has a much larger margin for talent than its pro counterpart, the sheer number of fans following major colleges provides a financial equalizer for the game, with Division I programs — the highest level — playing in huge stadiums, six of which have seating capacity exceeding 100,000 people. In many cases, college stadiums employ bench-style seating, as opposed to individual seats with backs and arm rests (although","-25.09388045343735"],["American Professional Soccer League History In 1989, Fort Lauderdale Strikers, the winners of the American Soccer League defeated San Diego Nomads, the winners of the Western Soccer League in a play-off game and as a result were declared United States soccer champions. In 1990, the two leagues merged as the American Professional Soccer League. However, during its inaugural season, in order to avoid high travel expenses, the APSL remained essentially two separate leagues. The ASL became the American Soccer Conference and featured teams from the East Coast, while the WSL became the Western Soccer Conference and featured teams from","-25.084761710371822"],["players from other leagues, such as the All-American Football League (AAFL), Arena Football League (AFL), American Indoor Football Association (AIFA), Continental Indoor Football League (CIFL), arenafootball2 (af2), Indoor Football League (IFL), and some from practice squads of National Football League (NFL) franchises.","-25.061969572358066"],["Conference in 1949 and merged with the American Football League in 1970. It has 32 teams, all located in the United States.\nNFL games are the most attended of domestic professional leagues in the world in terms of per-game attendance, and the most popular in the U.S. in terms of television ratings and merchandising. Its championship game, the Super Bowl, is the most watched annual event on U.S. television, with Super Bowl XLIX being the single most-watched program in U.S. television history.\nThe NFL is the only one of the major leagues not to have a presence in Canada, where the Canadian","-25.05195776000619"],["American National Rugby League Origins The roots of the American National Rugby League date to 1997, when Super League America was formed to organize a national team, establish an amateur domestic competition, and build the sport in the United States. The organization was initially established by Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation in an attempt to spread rugby league to the United States. The organization was run by former professional player David Niu, who had come to Philadelphia in 1992 and had been active in promoting the sport there. Super League America's domestic competition began its inaugural season in 1998, and was","-25.046319481858518"],["Canadian Football League in the United States The Canadian Football League (CFL), the sole major professional sports league in the United States and Canada to feature only teams from Canada, has made efforts to gain further audience in the United States, most directly through expansion into the country from 1993 to 1995. The CFL plays Canadian football, a form of gridiron football which is somewhat different from the more common American football played in the United States and the world.\nThe first American team, the Sacramento Gold Miners, joined in 1993. The league added three more American teams in 1994, after","-25.02430620029918"],["and defensive linemen in American football correspond to forwards in rugby league and other players are somewhat similar to backs. Basically the job of the forwards in rugby league is to get the ball over the advantage line and give the backs space and a chance to be creative and move the ball around, which will hopefully result in points. However, rugby league footballers are far less specialised than American football players.\nMany of the positions have similar names but in practice are very different. A fullback in American football is very different from a fullback in rugby league. However, some","-25.014839774572465"],["to American football—both sports developed from rugby and are considered to be the chief variants of gridiron football. Although both games share a similar set of rules, there are several key rule differences: for example, in Canadian football the field measures 150 by 65 yards (137 by 59 m), including two 20-yard end zones (for a distance between goal lines of 110 yards), teams have three downs instead of four, there are twelve players on each side instead of eleven, fair catches are not allowed, and a rouge, worth a single point is scored if the offensive team kicks the ball","-25.005165069720533"],["a minor league, the American Association, appropriated the American Football League name for itself, and the All-America Football Conference replaced the suspended league as the primary rival of the National Football League.","-25.002857828338165"],["years. One strong rival to the NFL was the All-America Football Conference of 1946–1949; three of their seven teams merged with the NFL for the 1950 season, and two of the three still exist in the NFL. Four (all unrelated) rivals were named American Football League; the last American Football League existed from 1960–1970, winning the last two of the four pre-merger Super Bowl games, before merging with the NFL in 1970. The NFL has beaten back other significant rival football leagues, often placing expansion or relocation teams in those cities following that league's demise: the World Football League of","-24.977602240629494"],["the use of the one-platoon system, primarily due to financial reasons. The system allowed only one player to be substituted between plays, which effectively put an end to the use of separate specialized units. Tennessee head coach \"General\" Robert Neyland praised the change as the end of \"chickenshit football\".\nFollowing the enormous success of the National Football League's 1958 championship game, college football no longer enjoyed the same popularity as the NFL, at least on a national level. While both games benefited from the advent of television, since the late 1950s, the NFL has become a nationally popular sport while college","-24.96332324969262"],["Professional sports in the Western United States Professional sports have existed in the United States since the late 19th century. The NFL, MLB, NBA and NHL have millions of fans across the nation, and are an important part of American culture. Professional sports did not enter into the American West until the mid-twentieth century. However, the expansion of professional sports into the West has helped to increase the popularity of each of the professional leagues and has changed the landscape of professional sports in America. History Prior to World War II, top-level professional sports in the United States","-24.949414914648514"],["such as the Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft and the Super Tourenwagen Cup. American Football The Austrian Football League (AFL) is the top level of american football in Austria founded in 1984, being considered one of the better leagues in Europe","-24.86673114844598"],["one of the most popular sports leagues in the United States. Journalist Tex Maule said of the contest, \"This, for the first time, was a truly epic game which inflamed the imagination of a national audience.\" American Football League, merger and Vince Lombardi (1959–1969) In 1959, longtime NFL commissioner Bert Bell died of a heart attack while attending an Eagles/Steelers game at Franklin Field. That same year, Dallas, Texas businessman Lamar Hunt led the formation of the rival American Football League, the fourth such league to bear that name, with war hero and former South Dakota Governor Joe Foss as","-24.85568102169782"],["the AP, the NFL was loved or liked a lot by 42.8% of Americans over 18.\nThe NFL has the highest per-game attendance of any domestic professional sports league in the world. The NFL's overall attendance, however, is only approximately 20 percent of Major League Baseball, because of the latter's longer schedule (162-game scheduled regular season).\nA 2007 Turnkey Sports & Entertainment's Team Brand Index for \"team loyalty\" ranked NFL teams in twelve of the top twenty-five spots out of 122 total between the four major sports leagues. The Pittsburgh Steelers and their fanbase had the top spot, while the New England","-24.85223654685251"],["League Soccer), FC Cincinnati (Major League Soccer), and Ohio Machine (Major League Lacrosse).\nOhio played a central role in the development of both Major League Baseball and the National Football League. Baseball's first fully professional team, the Cincinnati Red Stockings of 1869, were organized in Ohio. An informal early 20th century American football association, the Ohio League, was the direct predecessor of the NFL, although neither of Ohio's modern NFL franchises trace their roots to an Ohio League club. The Pro Football Hall of Fame is located in Canton.\nOhio teams have won 7 World Series (5 Cincinnati Reds, 2","-24.850669209932676"],["subsequently been viewed as one of the most controversial game endings in college football history.\nThe National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) governs American football as played by the teams representing the largest universities in the United States, termed Division I-A (Changed in 2006 to FBS — Football Bowl Subdivision). Although smaller schools participate in formal NCAA tournaments to determine the national college football championships in Divisions I-AA, II, and III, Division I-A lacks such a tournament.\nDuring this time frame, before the College Football Playoff system was implemented, the \"mythical national championship\" of Division I-A was determined by polls of coaches and/or","-24.79707718989812"],["the Federal League (1914–1915). Both the UA and AA are considered major leagues by many baseball researchers because of the perceived high caliber of play and the number of star players featured. Some researchers, including Nate Silver, dispute the major-league status of the UA by pointing out that franchises came and went and that the St. Louis club was deliberately \"stacked\"; the St. Louis club was owned by the league's president and it was the only club that was close to major-league caliber. Dead-ball era The period between 1900 and 1919 is commonly referred to as the \"Dead-Ball Era.\" Games","-24.79488792491611"],["regular-season record in games involving the two teams. The concept is comparable to rivalry trophies played for by U.S. college football teams. Timeline League member Former member Future member Other leagues History Major League Soccer is the most recent of a series of men's premier professional national soccer leagues established in the United States and Canada. The predecessor of MLS was the North American Soccer League (NASL), which existed from 1968 until 1984. Establishment In 1988, in exchange for FIFA awarding the right to host the 1994 World Cup, U.S. Soccer promised to establish a Division 1 professional soccer league.","-24.751282222990994"],["Catholic or Jewish sports groups. General sports organizations can also exist for the army and other groups, but they usually are medium-sized, as they do not have that much of a budget to work with.\nProfessional sports leagues are usually the highest level of play in sport, specifically if they consist of the best players around the world in a certain sport. Because of this, they usually work with national or international federations, but there is usually a separation between the different federations. Most North American professional leagues usually do not have amateur divisions, as the amateur divisions are mostly run","-24.748904020292684"],["American Football League (1936) Origin The brainchild of former New York Giants personnel director Harry March, plans for the formation of the second American Football League were announced on November 15, 1935. Fifteen cities bid for charter franchises for the new league, and on April 11, 1936, eight (Boston, Cleveland, Jersey City, New York, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Providence, and Syracuse) were awarded.\nWithin a few months, Jersey City, Providence, and Philadelphia pulled out and Rochester was granted a franchise. Two weeks later, the newest franchise was transferred to Brooklyn even though there was no stadium available at the time.\nThe league was envisioned","-24.74205777766474"],["athletic scholarship to students. In Canada, college sports are organized by U Sports for universities and the Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association for colleges. The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) has members in both the U.S. and Canada. Football North America is the birthplace of gridiron football, the form of football that originally developed, and is primarily played, in the U.S. and Canada. Both major forms, American football and Canadian football, developed in the late 19th century out of the original games now known as rugby football and association football. Gridiron football is distinguished by the forward pass, the system","-24.708846419118345"],["ESL decided to expand the Pro League to 28 teams, so that there would be fourteen teams per league. This also meant that six teams from each region would qualify for the offline finals. For each regular season, teams would play every team twice in its respective league, so that each team played twenty-two games for the first three seasons and twenty-four games from season four to season seven. However, in Season 7, two teams – Counter Logic Gaming and Misfits – dropped their rosters and forfeited their Pro League licenses, reducing the number of North American teams to twelve.","-24.67551007180009"],["League were therefore 'non-League' clubs. The term can be confusing as the vast majority of non-league football clubs in England play in a type of league. Currently, a non-League team would be any club playing in the National League and below and therefore would not play in the EFL Cup. English Football League The \"League\" of \"non-League football\" refers to the English Football League, rather than leagues in general — \"non-League\" clubs play most of their football in league competitions. There are many leagues below the level of the EFL, and some, such as the Northern League, are almost as","-24.642867506659968"],["in the nation. The National Lacrosse League is the national box league, while the Premier Lacrosse League is the professional Field Lacrosse league. Major League Lacrosse is a semi-professional Field Lacrosse league also operating nationally. Volleyball Volleyball is also a notable sport in the United States, especially at the college and university levels. Unlike most Olympic sports which are sponsored widely at the collegiate level for both sexes, the support for college volleyball is dramatically skewed in favor of the women's game. In the 2011–12 school year, over 300 schools in NCAA Division I alone (the highest of three","-24.62493956036633"],["to NFL football. It is likely that the average American sports fan will attend many more major league baseball games than NFL football games in his or her lifetime, due in part to baseball's longer schedule and football's (generally) higher ticket prices.\nAdvocates of football, in turn, point to football's large television audience, including the Super Bowl, though the sport is also facing some negative publicity in the world of youth sports due to media coverage of documented health and injury risks posed to players, including the potential long-term health concerns that concussions pose for children or teenagers. Certain teams of","-24.61499406665098"],["the same league, The 1986 World Series between the New York Mets and the Boston Red Sox is considered a classic especially the 6th game and the famous Bill Buckner error. The New York Giants and New England Patriots have played two classic Super Bowls: Super Bowl XLII which features the Helmet Catch and Super Bowl XLVI, There is also a rivalry between the Boston Celtics and the Brooklyn Nets. While Major League Soccer has two teams in the New York area and one in the Boston area, the rivalry between New York City FC and the New York Red","-24.603367079485906"],["Indian Super League Origins Football in India has existed in many forms since the game first arrived in the country during the 19th century with the first nationwide club competition, the Durand Cup, being founded in 1888. Despite India's early history in the game, the country's first nationwide football league did not begin until the semi-professional National Football League commenced in 1996. Prior to the creation of the National Football League, most clubs played in state leagues or select nationwide tournaments.\nTen years after the formation of the National Football League, the All India Football Federation, the governing body for the","-24.583096521964762"],["Sports. (Unlike in the United States, no junior colleges play football in Canada, and the sanctioning body for junior college athletics in Canada, CCAA, does not sanction the sport.) However, amateur football outside of colleges is played in Canada, such as in the Canadian Junior Football League. Organized competition in American football also exists at the collegiate level in Mexico (ONEFA), the UK (British Universities American Football League), Japan (Japan American Football Association, Koshien Bowl), and South Korea (Korea American Football Association).","-24.54518907170859"],["Premier League—top level of the English football league system. According to BBC America, there is a \"social stigma\" surrounding American football in the UK, with many Brits feeling the sport has no right to call itself \"football\" due to the lack of emphasis on kicking. Nonetheless, the sport has retained a following in the United Kingdom; the NFL operates a media network in the country, and since 2007 has hosted the NFL International Series in London. Super Bowl viewership has also rebounded, with over 4.4 million Britons watching Super Bowl XLVI. The sport is played in European countries like Switzerland, which","-24.540764937526546"],["adult club teams to the professional clubs of Major League Soccer. Since the 2016 edition, professional teams that are majority-owned, or whose playing staff is managed, by a higher-division outdoor professional team have been barred from the competition; all other U.S. Soccer-affiliated teams remain eligible to enter. The Open Cup was first held in 1913–14 when it was called the National Challenge Cup. American leagues vs. European leagues The overall league structure in the United States is significantly different from that used in almost all the rest of the world, but similar to that used by other American team sports","-24.534676244831644"],["sports it does not compare in popularity to cricket and international football (soccer), which both have billions of spectators. It is played between the champions of the National Football Conference (NFC) and the American Football Conference (AFC), and its winner is awarded the Vince Lombardi Trophy.\nCollegiate football ranks third in overall popularity in the United States, behind baseball and pro football. The NCAA, the largest collegiate organization, is divided into three Divisions: Division I, Division II and Division III. Division I football is further divided into two subdivisions: the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) and the Football Championship Subdivision (FCS). The","-24.524268171866424"],["development of both Major League Baseball and the National Football League. Baseball's first fully professional team, the Cincinnati Red Stockings of 1869, were organized in Ohio. An informal early-20th-century American football association, the Ohio League, was the direct predecessor of the NFL, although neither of Ohio's modern NFL franchises trace their roots to an Ohio League club. The Pro Football Hall of Fame is located in Canton.\nOn a smaller scale, Ohio hosts minor league baseball, arena football, indoor football, mid-level hockey, and lower division soccer. Individual sports The Mid-Ohio Sports Car Course has hosted several auto racing championships, including CART","-24.513585029475507"],["football. Of all the leagues that challenged the NFL, only the American Football League of the 1960s influenced the NFL more than the AAFC.\nThe Cleveland Browns, San Francisco 49ers, and original Baltimore Colts began in the AAFC.\nFifteen AAFC alumni are enshrined in pro football's Hall of Fame.\nThe AAFC played a 14-game schedule more than a decade before the NFL, and played a major role in popularizing zone defenses in pro football.\nThe AAFC put the first pro football teams in Baltimore, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Miami. Indeed, the AAFC was a coast-to-coast league more than a decade before Major League","-24.502096608295687"],["league's 13 teams to allocate the rest of the AAFC players.\nThe 13 teams were realigned into the American and National conferences, which lasted for three seasons. The merged league briefly flirted with the name \"National-American Football League\", but restored the name \"National Football League\" a few months later on March 3, 1950. Under the alignment, both conferences had a team in New York and Chicago. The \"American Conference\" (formerly the Eastern Division) had six teams including the Giants and the Cardinals, and the \"National Conference\" (the old Western Division) had seven teams including the Yanks and the","-24.49748750454455"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"Comparisons between the National Football League and NCAA football The National Football League (NFL) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) are respectively the most popular professional and amateur football organizations in the United States. The National Football League was founded in 1920 and has since become the largest and most popular sport in the United States. The NFL has the highest average attendance of any sporting league in the world, with an average attendance of 66,960 persons per game during the 2011 NFL season. While the NFL championship game, the Super Bowl, is a large sporting event in club\",\n \"-28.204062036988034\"\n ],\n [\n \"obscure sports often operate at a semi-professional level due to cost concerns. Because the cost of running a fully professional American football team is prohibitive, semi-pro football is common at the adult levels, particularly in the indoor variety, providing an outlet for players who have used up their NCAA eligibility and have no further use for maintaining amateur status; as a sport that normally plays only one game per week, football is especially suited for semi-pro play. The National Lacrosse League, whose teams also typically play only one game per week, pays a salary that is enough to be considered\",\n \"-28.123656613664934\"\n ],\n [\n \"Football League was founded in 1987 as the first major professional league to play the sport. Several other indoor football leagues have since been founded and continue to play today.\\nAmerican football's parent sport of rugby continued to evolve. Today, two distinct codes known as rugby union and rugby league are played throughout the world. Since the two codes split following a schism on how the sport should be managed in 1895, the history of rugby league and the history of rugby union have evolved separately. Both codes have adopted innovations parallel to the American game; the rugby union scoring system\",\n \"-27.91735823120689\"\n ],\n [\n \"All American Football Gameplay One of the main differences between it, and its predecessor, John Elway's Team Quarterback is that it was the first (and possibly, only coin-op game) to allow users to select from a list of \\\"college\\\" teams in addition to \\\"pro\\\" teams representing the 26 cities/regions which had NFL teams at the time. It is also the only game in the series to allow users to purchase power-up items such as \\\"beef\\\" (for boosting the offensive line) and \\\"go juice\\\" (for a second wind on long gains) from a \\\"sideline shop\\\" during the game.\\nThe game did\",\n \"-27.86979678363423\"\n ],\n [\n \"leagues, in that there is no system of promotion and relegation between lower and higher leagues, but rather a minor league system, generally the same as almost all other top-level pro sports leagues in North America. In addition, teams playing in American soccer leagues are not private clubs founded independently of the league that join a league in order to ensure regular fixtures but are instead usually franchises of the league itself. Finally, the soccer leagues in the United States also incorporate features common to other American sports leagues, most notably the determination of champions by playoffs between the top\",\n \"-27.82489925500704\"\n ],\n [\n \"a modified version of American football, at the international level. United States \\\"Baseball is still called the national pastime, but football is by far the more popular sport in American society\\\", according to ESPN.com's Sean McAdam. In a 2014 poll conducted by Harris Interactive, professional football ranked as the most popular sport, and college football ranked third behind only professional football and baseball; 46% of participants ranked some form of the game as their favorite sport. Professional football has ranked as the most popular sport in the poll since 1985, when it surpassed baseball for the first time. Professional football\",\n \"-27.44015021144878\"\n ],\n [\n \"All-Pro Football 2K8 Overview All-Pro Football 2K8 features a fictional league called the \\\"All-Pro League\\\", or 'APL'. The APL consists of 24 teams that are grouped into six divisions of four teams each. The league runs a sixteen-game schedule and holds a championship game at the end of the playoffs, similar to the NFL.\\nSince the exclusivity deal the NFL has with EA only covers active players, 2K contracted the individual rights to over 240 retired NFL players to appear in the game.\\nEven though there are no NFL teams in the game, the player can still create teams that resemble their\",\n \"-27.368277397705242\"\n ],\n [\n \"English Premier League and the Spanish La Liga they make up the top six sports leagues by revenue in the world. In addition, the sports of these four leagues were all developed in their modern forms in North America, and all except American football have become popular internationally. Because the leagues enjoy a significant place in popular culture in the U.S. and Canada, the best players from these leagues often become cultural icons in both countries. Each Big Four league, as well as Major League Soccer and the Canadian Football League, averages at least 15,000 fans in attendance per game\",\n \"-27.12720936407277\"\n ],\n [\n \"Comparison of American football and rugby league Origins Both sports descend from the older game of rugby football, which originated in 19th Century England. British colonists and the British military in Canada brought football to North America. It became popular in American and Canadian universities and prep schools. At the time, association football and rugby football were not as differentiated as they are now and teams would negotiate the rules before playing each game. The sports of American football and Canadian football evolved from these intercollegiate games.\\nMeanwhile, in England a schism developed in rugby football between those who favoured\",\n \"-27.07628838228993\"\n ],\n [\n \"Orleans), and Pat Bowlen (Denver), but very rarely did they ever promote or demote any players between the AFL and NFL, due in part to significant differences in the playing schedules and the style of play between outdoor and indoor football. All of the NFL owners backed out of the league when it went bankrupt, was sold off and reorganized.\\nIn Canada, intercollegiate sport has never attained a similar level of following compared to the United States, mainly due to ice hockey being the most popular sport in the country. In hockey, the National Hockey League has historically overlooked intercollegiate sport\",\n \"-26.878595411559218\"\n ],\n [\n \"History of the National Football League championship Throughout its history, the National Football League (NFL) and other rival American football leagues have used several different formats to determine their league champions, including a period of inter-league matchups determining a true national champion.\\nFollowing its founding in 1920, the NFL first determined champions through end-of-season standings, but switched to a playoff system in 1933. The rival All-America Football Conference (AAFC) and American Football League (AFL) have since merged with the NFL (the only two AAFC teams that currently exist joined the NFL in 1950—the Cleveland Browns and the San Francisco 49ers),\",\n \"-26.85516426038521\"\n ],\n [\n \"Professional sports leagues in the United States Professional sports leagues in the United States include several major leagues as well as other professional and semi-professional leagues. Major leagues The major sports leagues tend to have the greatest fan interest, have national TV contracts, draw high fan attendance, and have teams located throughout the largest metropolitan areas in the United States. Major League Baseball Major League Baseball is the highest level of play of baseball in North America. It consists of the National League (founded in 1876) and the American League (founded in 1901). Cooperation between the two leagues began in\",\n \"-26.844153292557166\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Columbia. USA Football is the governing body for youth and amateur football, and Pop Warner Little Scholars is the largest organization for youth football. Rival professional leagues Several professional football leagues have been formed as rival leagues to the NFL. The most successful was the American Football League (AFL), which existed from 1960 to 1969. The AFL became a significant rival in 1964 before signing a five-year, US$36 million television deal with NBC. AFL teams began signing NFL players to contracts, and the league's popularity grew to challenge that of the NFL. The two leagues merged in the 1970 season,\",\n \"-26.772198797261808\"\n ],\n [\n \"Association of Professional Football Leagues The Association of Professional Football Leagues was a compact formed in 1946 among the National Football League and three minor leagues of professional American football: the American Association (which subsequently changed its name to the American Football League), the Dixie League, and the Pacific Coast Professional Football League. While the NFL had an informal farm system in the pre-World War II AA, this was the first time in which it had a working arrangement with multiple leagues whose local popularity rivaled that of the major league. The agreement lasted less than two years, its termination\",\n \"-26.767183398173074\"\n ],\n [\n \"league. \\\"Why wouldn't a second league work\\\", Hunt recalled. \\\"There was an American and National League in baseball, why not football?\\\" Hunt contacted several other individuals who had expressed interest in the Cardinals franchise—Bud Adams, Bob Howsam, Max Winter and Bill Boyer—and gauged their interest in forming a second league.\\nOn August 14, the first meeting of the new league was held in Chicago. Charter memberships were issued to six original cities — Dallas, New York, Houston, Denver, Los Angeles and Minneapolis. The league was officially christened the American Football League on August 22. Ralph Wilson was extended the league's seventh\",\n \"-26.761704735516105\"\n ],\n [\n \"combined.)\\nBaseball has been regarded as the national sport since the late 19th century, with Major League Baseball (MLB) being the top league, while American football is now by several measures the most popular spectator sport, with the National Football League (NFL) having the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world and a Super Bowl watched by millions globally. Basketball and ice hockey are the country's next two leading professional team sports, with the top leagues being the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the National Hockey League (NHL). These four major sports, when played professionally, each occupy a\",\n \"-26.7069724596804\"\n ],\n [\n \"league, known as the National Football League (not the same as the modern league) began play in 1902 when several baseball clubs formed football teams to play in the league, including the Philadelphia Athletics, Pittsburgh Pirates and the Philadelphia Phillies. The Pirates' team the Pittsburgh Stars were awarded the league championship. However, the Philadelphia Football Athletics and Philadelphia Football Phillies also claimed the title. A five-team tournament, known as the World Series of Football was organized by Tom O'Rouke, the manager of Madison Square Garden. The event featured the first-ever indoor pro football games. The first professional indoor game came\",\n \"-26.63102588360198\"\n ],\n [\n \"American League (founded in 1901). Cooperation between the two leagues began in 1903, and the two merged on an organizational level in 2000 with the elimination of separate league offices; they have shared a single Commissioner since 1920. There are currently 30 member teams, with 29 located in the U.S. and one in Canada. Traditionally called the \\\"National Pastime\\\", baseball was the first professional sport in the U.S. National Basketball Association The National Basketball Association is the premier basketball league in the world. It was founded as the Basketball Association of America in 1946, and adopted its current name in\",\n \"-26.559460580610903\"\n ],\n [\n \"the ball, this rule was wholly adopted into all Harvard play following the two games with McGill. While the American team bested the Canadian (3–0 and a following tie game), both countries' flavours of football were forever changed and linked to one another. Both the Canadian and American games still have some things in common with the two varieties of rugby, especially rugby league, and because of the similarities, the National Football League (NFL) had a formal relationship with the Canadian Football League (CFL) between 1997 and 2008.\\nMany, perhaps most, of the rules differences have arisen because of rules changes\",\n \"-26.52593258973502\"\n ],\n [\n \"form of football is the most popular in the regional context in which the word appears. For example, \\\"football\\\" unqualified primarily refers to American football in the U.S., Canadian football in Canada, and association football in Mexico. The word soccer is instead used to refer to association football in the U.S. and Canada. American football The National Football League (NFL) is the highest professional level of American football in the world, with teams across the United States. College football in the U.S. is primarily organized by the NCAA. The NCAA further divides its Division I football teams into the Football\",\n \"-26.497297097332194\"\n ],\n [\n \"expansion Some of the Big Four sports leagues have in recent years looked to expand their revenues by playing overseas games in attempt to develop a wider international fan base. NFL American football is the member of the top four major league sports with the least international exposure. The NFL has attempted to promote its game worldwide by scheduling selected pre-season games since 1976 in Mexico, Europe, Australia, and Japan. The NFL had promoted the game abroad through NFL Europe, but NFL Europe was never profitable and ceased operations in 2007.\\nIn 2005, the NFL held its firstregular-season game outside the\",\n \"-26.388831086980645\"\n ],\n [\n \"in reverse order. However, all major sports have had a rival league achieve at least some of these goals in the last half of the 20th century. Baseball's proposed Continental League did not play a game but only because Major League Baseball responded to the proposal by adding teams in some of the new league's proposed cities. The American Basketball Association (ABA) and World Hockey Association (WHA) each succeeded in getting some of their franchises accepted into the established leagues, which had both unsuccessfully attempted to cause their upstart rivals to fold outright by adding more teams.\\nHowever, the upstart\",\n \"-26.265705010853708\"\n ],\n [\n \"American Association (19th century) History The American Association distinguished itself in several ways from what it considered to be the puritanical National League. The new league established teams in what the NL leaders pejoratively called \\\"river cities\\\", including Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Louisville and St. Louis, with the inherent implication of lower morality or social standards in those cities. In contrast to the NL, the AA offered cheaper ticket prices, Sunday games and alcoholic beverages to its patrons. As such, the American Association was the world's first professional sports league designed to out-compete another by better accommodating blue-collar tendencies and\",\n \"-26.22248060675338\"\n ],\n [\n \"country.\\nAs of 2005 the AFL is one of only five professional sports leagues in the world with an average attendance above thirty thousand (the others are the NFL in the United States and Major League Baseball in the U.S. and Canada, and the top division soccer leagues in Germany and England). In 2007, the average attendance of 38,113 made the AFL the second best attended domestic club league in the world, after only the NFL in the United States.\\nThe Melbourne Cricket Ground is the largest stadium used for Australian rules football and the permanent home of the AFL Grand Final.\",\n \"-26.163533793820534\"\n ],\n [\n \"Bowl Subdivision and the Football Championship Subdivision. The Football Bowl Subdivision has the largest and most competitive schools, and is noted for its system of postseason bowl games.\\nUSA Football is the governing body for amateur American football in the U.S., and is a member of the International Federation of American Football (IFAF), the international governing body of American football associations. Several other North American counties are a part of IFAF Americas, the federation of IFAF members in the Americas.\\nIn Mexico, the Liga de Fútbol Americano Profesional is the professional league, while ONEFA organizes college football. Canadian football The Canadian Football\",\n \"-26.113281051366357\"\n ],\n [\n \"National League, giving MLB a legal monopoly over professional baseball in the US.\\nThe other major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada have followed the MLB model of a closed shop with no merit-based promotion or relegation since their inceptions. Early football leagues in England In contrast to baseball's NABBP, the first governing body in English football survived the onset of professionalism, which it formally accepted in 1885. Perhaps the great geographical concentration of population and the corresponding short distances between urban centres was crucial. Certainly it provided the opportunity for more clubs' developing large fan bases without\",\n \"-26.076929873466725\"\n ],\n [\n \"not have licenses from the NFL, NFLPA or the NCAA. Because of this, pro teams were only referred to by city (Green Bay, Pittsburgh, etc.), state (Minnesota) or region (New England). Most of the college teams featured were ones with names that were based geographically (Michigan, Wisconsin, etc.) or militaristic (Army and Navy). This feature was purely cosmetic as the teams all played the same regardless of which one was chosen. It also allowed users to choose their own team colors no matter which team they chose.\\nLike its predecessors, All-American Football involved the use of a \\\"spring stick,\\\" which required\",\n \"-26.05112843902134\"\n ],\n [\n \"All-Pro All-Pro is an honor bestowed upon professional American football players that designates the best player at each position during a given season. All-Pro players are typically selected by press organizations, who select an \\\"All-Pro team,\\\" a list that consists of at least 22 players, one for each offensive and defensive position, plus various special teams players depending on the press organization that compiles the list. All-Pro lists are exclusively limited to the major leagues, usually only the National Football League; in the past, other leagues recognized as major, such as the American Football League of the 1960s or the\",\n \"-26.050301219169796\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the 15 teams in the other league, a historically high number (until 1997, interleague play was limited to exhibition matches and the postseason World Series, and thus MLB teams did not play the other league's teams at all).\\nIn Australia, the two largest football leagues, the AFL (Australian rules football) and NRL (rugby league), both grew out of competitions held within a single city (respectively Melbourne and Sydney) and only began expanding to the rest of the country when inexpensive air travel made a national league possible. These leagues use a single table instead of being split into divisions. The\",\n \"-26.034219094493892\"\n ],\n [\n \"is almost identical to the American game, while rugby league uses a gridiron-style field and a six-tackle rule similar to the system of downs in American Football.\",\n \"-26.020190438313875\"\n ],\n [\n \"American Football League (1940) Origin Although the third American Football League was not directly connected to any previous American football leagues of the same name, its formation was at the cost of an already-existing minor football league of the same name.\\nBy the spring of 1940, the former American Professional Football Association announced intentions of turning itself into a major league with the addition of a Milwaukee team for the upcoming season over the protests of the Green Bay Packers. As the teams prepared for the upcoming season, the announcement of a rival major league resulted in the fracturing of this\",\n \"-26.013877445133403\"\n ],\n [\n \"very popular and serve as those sports' most prominent competitions with levels of media coverage, competition, and fan following comparable to the major professional team sports. Amateur competitions such as college football and college basketball, at the upper echelons, also enjoy strong media coverage and fan followings but are generally recognized as inferior to the major professional leagues in level of play because of the inherent limits of the amateur sports system. Major League Baseball Major League Baseball is the highest level of play of baseball in North America. It consists of the National League (founded in 1876) and the\",\n \"-25.933073009480722\"\n ],\n [\n \"city or the league chooses to expand with new franchises.\\nAll American sports leagues use the same type of schedule. After the regular season, the 10–16 teams with the best records enter a playoff tournament leading to a championship series or game. American sports, except for soccer, have no equivalent to the cup competitions that run concurrently with leagues in European sports. Even in the case of soccer, the cup competition, the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup, draws considerably less attention than the regular season. Also, the only top-level U.S. professional teams that play teams from other organizations in meaningful games\",\n \"-25.903897760639666\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the existing league. In many cases, the major leagues have absorbed the most successful franchises from their failing rivals, or merged outright with them.\\nBaseball's National League withstood three challenges in its first quarter century of existence. The American Association began in 1882 in several lucrative markets without a NL team. For several years, the AA was a viable competitor to the NL, and the NL and AA champions competed in an informal World Series. Four of the AA's teams defected to the NL in its later years, before the AA expired in 1891. Labor problems led to the formation\",\n \"-25.88168058200972\"\n ],\n [\n \"carried it and it serves as a means for advertisers to debut elaborate and expensive commercials for their products. The NFL has grown to become the most popular spectator sports league in the United States.\\nOne of the things that have marked the modern NFL as different from other major professional sports leagues is the apparent parity between its 32 teams. While from time to time, dominant teams have arisen, the league has been cited as one of the few where every team has a realistic chance of winning the championship from year to year. The league's complex labor\",\n \"-25.84650256947498\"\n ],\n [\n \"Expansion of major sports leagues in the United States and Canada The expansion of major sports leagues in the United States and Canada has occurred throughout the twentieth century for all of the major professional sports leagues in those two countries. United States Professional sports leagues as known today evolved during the decades between the Civil War and World War II, when the railroad was the main means of intercity transportation. As a result, virtually all major league teams were concentrated in the northeastern quarter of the United States, within roughly the radius of a day-long train ride. No MLB\",\n \"-25.81690335238818\"\n ],\n [\n \"other independent leagues like the Texas-Louisiana League and Northeast League. The Atlantic League has had more marquee players than any other independent league, including Jose Canseco, Rickey Henderson, Ozzie Canseco, Rubén Sierra, Carlos Baerga, and John Rocker. The Northern League alumni include Leon \\\"Bull\\\" Durham, J. D. Drew, and Darryl Strawberry.\\nIndependent leagues have flourished in northeastern states, where dense populations can often support multiple franchises. Because they are not subject to the territorial limitations imposed on affiliated minor-league teams, independent clubs can relocate as close to affiliated teams (and one another) as they choose to. For example, the city\",\n \"-25.783681058266666\"\n ],\n [\n \"two major professional sporting leagues in Australia are the Australian Football League (AFL) and National Rugby League (NRL). Both competitions were originally based in one city (Melbourne and Sydney respectively) and expanded to a national level, and through that process, there have been team moves, mergers and closures in both leagues. The clubs are owned by members, not privately, but the North American franchise model exists, which means entry to the league is restricted. The hybrid model has meant that the leading promoter of moving is the league itself, trying to grow the football code by encouraging poorly performing clubs\",\n \"-25.716356635733973\"\n ],\n [\n \"XFL suffered from poor television ratings and the low quality of play. The United Football League (UFL) began in 2009 but folded after suspending its 2012 season due to financial issues. International play American football leagues exist throughout the world, but the game has yet to achieve the international success and popularity of baseball and basketball. It is not an Olympic sport, but it was a demonstration sport at the 1932 Summer Olympics. At the international level, Canada, Mexico, and Japan are considered to be second-tier, while Austria, Germany, and France would rank among a third tier. These countries rank\",\n \"-25.665043191052973\"\n ],\n [\n \"Non-League football Non-League football describes football leagues played outside the top leagues of a country. Usually it describes leagues which are not fully professional. The term is primarily used for football in England, where it describes football played at a level below that of the Premier League (20 clubs) and the three divisions of the English Football League (EFL; 72 clubs). The term non-League was commonly used well before 1992 when the top football clubs in England all belonged to The Football League (from 2016, the EFL); all clubs who were not a part of The Football\",\n \"-25.661282139190007\"\n ],\n [\n \"in Canada, football is used inclusively of Canadian football with American and Canadian football generally seen as two variants of the same sport. The term \\\"North American football\\\" is sometimes used to refer to both games together.\\nThe sport of association football is commonly called \\\"soccer\\\" in the United States. The word derives from \\\"association\\\" – as in the Football Association – in contrast to \\\"rugger\\\", or rugby football. It is English in origin, and caught on in the United States to distinguish the game from the locally better known American football; it also became predominant in other countries where another\",\n \"-25.655359660333488\"\n ],\n [\n \"division, expanding the sport into Africa, and overcoming the current worldwide competitive imbalance that is in favor of American teams. Similar codes of football Other codes of football share a common history with American football. Canadian football is a form of the game that evolved parallel to American football. While both games share a common history, there are some important differences between the two. A more modern sport that derives from American football is Arena football, designed to be played indoors inside of hockey or basketball arenas. The game was invented in 1981 by Jim Foster and the Arena\",\n \"-25.63701860018773\"\n ],\n [\n \"and all the AFL teams joined the NFL. An earlier league, the All-America Football Conference (AAFC), was in play from 1946 to 1949. After it had dissolved, two AAFC teams, the Cleveland Browns and the San Francisco 49ers, became members of the NFL; another member, the Baltimore Colts joined the league, but folded after just a year in the NFL.\\nOther attempts to start rival leagues have been far less successful. The World Football League (WFL) played for two seasons, in 1974 and 1975, but faced such severe monetary issues it could not pay its players. In its second and final\",\n \"-25.51716141757788\"\n ],\n [\n \"League was considered the strongest domestic league outside of North America. It has recently been overtaken by the Spanish ACB, but is still one of the top leagues in Europe, along with the VTB United League in Russia with teams in other nearby nations, the Greek Basket League, the Adriatic League, and the Baltic League. Famous club teams include Olimpia Milano, Virtus Bologna, Pallacanestro Varese, Pallacanestro Cantù, Fortitudo Bologna, Victoria Libertas, Pallacanestro Treviso, Mens Sana 1871, Virtus Roma, Pallacanestro Trieste, JuveCaserta and Scaligera Verona. Rugby union Rugby union enjoys a good level of popularity, especially in the north of the\",\n \"-25.493874823790975\"\n ],\n [\n \"World Football League (2008–2010) The World Football League was a minor professional American football league which operated for three seasons, from 2008 through 2010. It was named for the short-lived World Football League which served as a competitor to the NFL in the mid-1970s. History In 2007, the rights to the \\\"World Football League\\\" name and logo were purchased by Chip Pierce of Beaumont, Texas. The league was brought back to life as a minor league system that did not compete with the NFL, but gave players of a higher talent level than that of the many players involved in\",\n \"-25.47784958925331\"\n ],\n [\n \"way to play the sport in all climates. The PIHA is the league with the largest number of professional teams in the nation. Street hockey is a non-standard version of inline hockey played by amateurs in informal games.\\nRugby league in the United States is played by the USA Rugby League (USARL) is a 14 team semi-professional rugby league football competition based on the East Coast of the United States. The league was founded in 2011 by clubs that had broken with the established American National Rugby League (AMNRL), plus expansion franchises. The USARL began its inaugural season in 2011. In\",\n \"-25.447494501189794\"\n ],\n [\n \"American Football Association (1978–1983) The American Football Association (AFA) was a professional American football league that operated from 1977 to 1983.\\nThe AFA was concentrated in the southern United States and served as the second tier of professional football between the World Football League, which folded in 1975, and the United States Football League, which began play in 1983. Unlike the WFL or USFL, the AFA always fashioned itself as a minor league, and never planned to rival the National Football League for \\\"major league\\\" status. Players were paid one percent of gross gate revenue, which often meant players were paid\",\n \"-25.447338658210356\"\n ],\n [\n \"Stadium. The success of the International Series has led to speculation that London will be chosen as home of an NFL franchise in the future. Brazil American football has been played in Brazil since the 1990s. The official organization governing American football in Brazil is the American Football Association of Brazil, in Portuguese Associação de Futebol Americano de Brasil (AFAB). Similar codes of football A modern sport that derives from American football is Arena football, designed to be played indoors inside of hockey or basketball arenas. The game was invented in 1981 by Jim Foster and the Arena Football\",\n \"-25.439268800582795\"\n ],\n [\n \"the television networks that have carried it and it serves as a means for advertisers to debut elaborate and expensive commercials for their products. The NFL has grown to become the most popular spectator sports league in the United States.\\nOne of the things that have marked the modern NFL as different from other major professional sports leagues is the apparent parity between its 32 teams. While from time to time, dominant teams have arisen, the league has been cited as one of the few where every team has a realistic chance of winning the championship from year to year.\",\n \"-25.421428441724856\"\n ],\n [\n \"the United States.\\nNFL games are the most attended of domestic professional leagues in the world in terms of per-game attendance, and the most popular in the U.S. in terms of television ratings and merchandising. Its championship game, the Super Bowl, is the most watched annual event on U.S. television, with Super Bowl XLIX being the single most-watched program in U.S. television history.\\nThe NFL is the only one of the major leagues not to have a presence in Canada, where the Canadian Football League is the premier professional league in the sport. National Hockey League The National Hockey League is the\",\n \"-25.387342932837782\"\n ],\n [\n \"unpredictable player movement, as well as the illegal payment of college players who were still in school. The National Football League (NFL), a group of professional teams that was originally established in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association, aimed to solve these problems. This new league's stated goals included an end to bidding wars over players, prevention of the use of college players, and abolition of the practice of paying players to leave another team. By 1922, the NFL had established itself as America's premier professional football league.\\nThe dominant form of football at the time was played at the\",\n \"-25.383244773162005\"\n ],\n [\n \"league. Johnson led the Western League into major league status and soon became the president of the newly renamed American League. The American League has one notable difference over the National League, and that is the designated hitter rule. Under the rule, a team may use a batter in their lineup who is not in the field defensively, compared to the old rule that made it mandatory for the pitcher to hit. Early history The earliest predecessor to the American League was the Northwestern League, a minor league with teams based in the Midwestern United States. Along with the National\",\n \"-25.369424876291305\"\n ],\n [\n \"other North American countries use promotion and relegation systems, where teams are transferred between two divisions based on their performance at the end of each season.\\nThe major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada dominate organized men's professional team sports in those two countries: Major League Baseball (MLB), the National Basketball Association (NBA), the National Football League (NFL), the National Hockey League (NHL), Major League Soccer (MLS) and the Canadian Football League (CFL). Liga MX, the top level Association football in Mexico is also widely popular. Caribbean, where cricket is popular, that region's major domestic competitions include\",\n \"-25.366565829899628\"\n ],\n [\n \"American Football League All-Star game The American Football League All-Star game was the annual game which featured each year's best performers in the American Football League (AFL). The game was first played in 1961 and the final AFL All-Star game occurred in 1969, prior to the AFL-NFL merger. All-League Teams The Sporting News published American Football League All-League Teams for each season played by the American Football League, 1960 through 1969. From 1960 through 1966, the All-League team was selected by the AFL players, and from 1967 through 1969 it was selected by a consensus of The Sporting News (TSN),\",\n \"-25.362916481200955\"\n ],\n [\n \"sport originated in the 19th century out of older games related to modern rugby football, more specifically rugby league football. American and Canadian football developed alongside each other and were originally more distinct before Canadian teams adopted features of the American game. Both varieties are distinguished from other football sports by their use of hard plastic helmets and shoulder pads, the forward pass, the system of downs, a number of unique rules and positions, measurement in customary units of yards (even in Canada, which mostly metricated in the 1970s, yards are still used), and a distinctive brown leather ball in\",\n \"-25.296443069833913\"\n ],\n [\n \"Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada The major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada are the highest professional competitions of team sports in those countries. The four leagues universally included in the definition are Major League Baseball (MLB), National Basketball Association (NBA), National Football League (NFL), and National Hockey League (NHL). Other prominent leagues include Major League Soccer (MLS) and Canadian Football League (CFL).\\nMLB, NBA, NFL, and NHL are commonly referred to as the \\\"Big Four.\\\" Each of these is the wealthiest professional club competition in its sport worldwide, and along with the\",\n \"-25.26022722525522\"\n ],\n [\n \"non-league opponents, with the last interleague game having come in 1972 and the last game against a team other than an NFL team (the all-NFL rookie College All-Stars) was held in 1976.\\nExhibition games are quite unpopular with many fans, who resent having to pay regular-season prices for two home exhibition games as part of a season-ticket package. Numerous lawsuits have been brought by fans and classes of fans against the NFL or its member teams regarding this practice, but none have been successful in halting it. The Pro Bowl, traditionally played after the end of the NFL season (since 2011\",\n \"-25.249337585410103\"\n ],\n [\n \"ESPN-owned website FiveThirtyEight has argued that there is a case to be made for the inclusion of Major League Soccer in the major professional sports leagues of North America. Lacrosse: NLL and MLL The National Lacrosse League (NLL) is a men's professional box lacrosse league in North America. It currently has 13 teams: 8 in the United States and 5 in Canada. The NLL plays its games in the winter and spring. The league's American teams have historically been concentrated in the northeastern United States, and two of the league's longest-established and most commercially successful teams, the Buffalo Bandits and\",\n \"-25.234806227555964\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ireland, New Zealand, and Australia. Early history American football evolved from the sports of soccer and rugby. Rugby, like American football, is a sport where two competing teams vie for control of a ball, which can be kicked through a set of goalposts or run into the opponent's goal area to score points.\\nWhat is considered to be the first American football game was played on November 6, 1869, between Rutgers and Princeton, two college teams. They consisted of 25 players each and used a round ball that could not be picked up or carried. It could, however, be kicked or\",\n \"-25.205853452906013\"\n ],\n [\n \"despite most other professional sports leagues in North America being cross-border enterprises. The substantially different rules and fields of the Canadian and American games and the popularity of the National Football League and NCAA Division I-A football in the United States were generally seen to inhibit the chances of any sort of expansion into the United States. Lackluster CFL television ratings in the United States during the 1982 NFL strike seemed to bolster this argument. A proposal by Bill Tatham to have his Arizona Outlaws and possibly other teams of the moribund United States Football League enter the CFL after\",\n \"-25.191305204993114\"\n ],\n [\n \"American football Etymology and names In the United States, American football is referred to as \\\"football\\\". The term \\\"football\\\" was officially established in the rulebook for the 1876 college football season, when the sport first shifted from soccer-style rules to rugby-style rules. Although it could easily have been called \\\"rugby\\\" at this point, Harvard, one of the primary proponents of the rugby-style game, compromised and did not request the name of the sport be changed to \\\"rugby\\\". The terms \\\"gridiron\\\" or \\\"American football\\\" are favored in English-speaking countries where other types of football are popular, such as the United Kingdom,\",\n \"-25.174472386046546\"\n ],\n [\n \"College football College football is gridiron football consisting of American football played by teams of student athletes fielded by American universities, colleges, and military academies, or Canadian football played by teams of student athletes fielded by Canadian universities. It was through college football play that American football rules first gained popularity in the United States.\\nUnlike most other sports in North America, no minor league farm organizations exist in American or Canadian football. Therefore, college football is generally considered to be the second tier of American football in the United States and Canadian football in Canada; one step ahead of high\",\n \"-25.15475827899354\"\n ],\n [\n \"group once each, for a total of two group-stage games. Teams will then advance to the second round, and from there to the placement and medal games.\\nBecause American football is far more dominant in the United States than anywhere else in the world, the United States did not field a team in the tournament for its first two editions. The United States has fielded a squad for the last three iterations, but with extremely restrictive criteria that make most American football players ineligible for the team. Despite the restrictions, the United States has won all three world championships in which\",\n \"-25.154540598974563\"\n ],\n [\n \"Pros Vs Heroes About The game has former NFL, current NFL, and other professional athletes travel around the country to play in flag football games against police officers,firefighters, armed forces and EMT personnel. The game was created in 2014 and is now expanding to different areas around the United States. Motor Media produces the games to raise money and give back to communities. Since its first game in June 2014, the program has raised money and awareness for several causes.\\nIn the last year, five games have been played in the Pros Vs. Heroes series. The first and second game\",\n \"-25.1371734412387\"\n ],\n [\n \"stage. Major League Baseball is increasingly luring away the stars from the Japanese leagues, the European hockey leagues have become a major source of star talent for National Hockey League clubs, and the National Basketball Association frequently recruits talent from professional leagues in Europe, Latin America, Australia and China.\\nAll four leagues are considered to be the top league in their respective sports, not only in revenue, but also in quality of talent, player salaries, and worldwide interest. However, of the four major leagues, the NFL has the least presence outside both countries; it is mainly an American and Canadian interest.\",\n \"-25.131274971085077\"\n ],\n [\n \"an NFL roster spot as an undrafted free agent. History Even after the emergence of the professional National Football League (NFL), college football remained extremely popular throughout the U.S. \\nAlthough the college game has a much larger margin for talent than its pro counterpart, the sheer number of fans following major colleges provides a financial equalizer for the game, with Division I programs — the highest level — playing in huge stadiums, six of which have seating capacity exceeding 100,000 people. In many cases, college stadiums employ bench-style seating, as opposed to individual seats with backs and arm rests (although\",\n \"-25.09388045343735\"\n ],\n [\n \"American Professional Soccer League History In 1989, Fort Lauderdale Strikers, the winners of the American Soccer League defeated San Diego Nomads, the winners of the Western Soccer League in a play-off game and as a result were declared United States soccer champions. In 1990, the two leagues merged as the American Professional Soccer League. However, during its inaugural season, in order to avoid high travel expenses, the APSL remained essentially two separate leagues. The ASL became the American Soccer Conference and featured teams from the East Coast, while the WSL became the Western Soccer Conference and featured teams from\",\n \"-25.084761710371822\"\n ],\n [\n \"players from other leagues, such as the All-American Football League (AAFL), Arena Football League (AFL), American Indoor Football Association (AIFA), Continental Indoor Football League (CIFL), arenafootball2 (af2), Indoor Football League (IFL), and some from practice squads of National Football League (NFL) franchises.\",\n \"-25.061969572358066\"\n ],\n [\n \"Conference in 1949 and merged with the American Football League in 1970. It has 32 teams, all located in the United States.\\nNFL games are the most attended of domestic professional leagues in the world in terms of per-game attendance, and the most popular in the U.S. in terms of television ratings and merchandising. Its championship game, the Super Bowl, is the most watched annual event on U.S. television, with Super Bowl XLIX being the single most-watched program in U.S. television history.\\nThe NFL is the only one of the major leagues not to have a presence in Canada, where the Canadian\",\n \"-25.05195776000619\"\n ],\n [\n \"American National Rugby League Origins The roots of the American National Rugby League date to 1997, when Super League America was formed to organize a national team, establish an amateur domestic competition, and build the sport in the United States. The organization was initially established by Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation in an attempt to spread rugby league to the United States. The organization was run by former professional player David Niu, who had come to Philadelphia in 1992 and had been active in promoting the sport there. Super League America's domestic competition began its inaugural season in 1998, and was\",\n \"-25.046319481858518\"\n ],\n [\n \"Canadian Football League in the United States The Canadian Football League (CFL), the sole major professional sports league in the United States and Canada to feature only teams from Canada, has made efforts to gain further audience in the United States, most directly through expansion into the country from 1993 to 1995. The CFL plays Canadian football, a form of gridiron football which is somewhat different from the more common American football played in the United States and the world.\\nThe first American team, the Sacramento Gold Miners, joined in 1993. The league added three more American teams in 1994, after\",\n \"-25.02430620029918\"\n ],\n [\n \"and defensive linemen in American football correspond to forwards in rugby league and other players are somewhat similar to backs. Basically the job of the forwards in rugby league is to get the ball over the advantage line and give the backs space and a chance to be creative and move the ball around, which will hopefully result in points. However, rugby league footballers are far less specialised than American football players.\\nMany of the positions have similar names but in practice are very different. A fullback in American football is very different from a fullback in rugby league. However, some\",\n \"-25.014839774572465\"\n ],\n [\n \"to American football—both sports developed from rugby and are considered to be the chief variants of gridiron football. Although both games share a similar set of rules, there are several key rule differences: for example, in Canadian football the field measures 150 by 65 yards (137 by 59 m), including two 20-yard end zones (for a distance between goal lines of 110 yards), teams have three downs instead of four, there are twelve players on each side instead of eleven, fair catches are not allowed, and a rouge, worth a single point is scored if the offensive team kicks the ball\",\n \"-25.005165069720533\"\n ],\n [\n \"a minor league, the American Association, appropriated the American Football League name for itself, and the All-America Football Conference replaced the suspended league as the primary rival of the National Football League.\",\n \"-25.002857828338165\"\n ],\n [\n \"years. One strong rival to the NFL was the All-America Football Conference of 1946–1949; three of their seven teams merged with the NFL for the 1950 season, and two of the three still exist in the NFL. Four (all unrelated) rivals were named American Football League; the last American Football League existed from 1960–1970, winning the last two of the four pre-merger Super Bowl games, before merging with the NFL in 1970. The NFL has beaten back other significant rival football leagues, often placing expansion or relocation teams in those cities following that league's demise: the World Football League of\",\n \"-24.977602240629494\"\n ],\n [\n \"the use of the one-platoon system, primarily due to financial reasons. The system allowed only one player to be substituted between plays, which effectively put an end to the use of separate specialized units. Tennessee head coach \\\"General\\\" Robert Neyland praised the change as the end of \\\"chickenshit football\\\".\\nFollowing the enormous success of the National Football League's 1958 championship game, college football no longer enjoyed the same popularity as the NFL, at least on a national level. While both games benefited from the advent of television, since the late 1950s, the NFL has become a nationally popular sport while college\",\n \"-24.96332324969262\"\n ],\n [\n \"Professional sports in the Western United States Professional sports have existed in the United States since the late 19th century. The NFL, MLB, NBA and NHL have millions of fans across the nation, and are an important part of American culture. Professional sports did not enter into the American West until the mid-twentieth century. However, the expansion of professional sports into the West has helped to increase the popularity of each of the professional leagues and has changed the landscape of professional sports in America. History Prior to World War II, top-level professional sports in the United States\",\n \"-24.949414914648514\"\n ],\n [\n \"such as the Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft and the Super Tourenwagen Cup. American Football The Austrian Football League (AFL) is the top level of american football in Austria founded in 1984, being considered one of the better leagues in Europe\",\n \"-24.86673114844598\"\n ],\n [\n \"one of the most popular sports leagues in the United States. Journalist Tex Maule said of the contest, \\\"This, for the first time, was a truly epic game which inflamed the imagination of a national audience.\\\" American Football League, merger and Vince Lombardi (1959–1969) In 1959, longtime NFL commissioner Bert Bell died of a heart attack while attending an Eagles/Steelers game at Franklin Field. That same year, Dallas, Texas businessman Lamar Hunt led the formation of the rival American Football League, the fourth such league to bear that name, with war hero and former South Dakota Governor Joe Foss as\",\n \"-24.85568102169782\"\n ],\n [\n \"the AP, the NFL was loved or liked a lot by 42.8% of Americans over 18.\\nThe NFL has the highest per-game attendance of any domestic professional sports league in the world. The NFL's overall attendance, however, is only approximately 20 percent of Major League Baseball, because of the latter's longer schedule (162-game scheduled regular season).\\nA 2007 Turnkey Sports & Entertainment's Team Brand Index for \\\"team loyalty\\\" ranked NFL teams in twelve of the top twenty-five spots out of 122 total between the four major sports leagues. The Pittsburgh Steelers and their fanbase had the top spot, while the New England\",\n \"-24.85223654685251\"\n ],\n [\n \"League Soccer), FC Cincinnati (Major League Soccer), and Ohio Machine (Major League Lacrosse).\\nOhio played a central role in the development of both Major League Baseball and the National Football League. Baseball's first fully professional team, the Cincinnati Red Stockings of 1869, were organized in Ohio. An informal early 20th century American football association, the Ohio League, was the direct predecessor of the NFL, although neither of Ohio's modern NFL franchises trace their roots to an Ohio League club. The Pro Football Hall of Fame is located in Canton.\\nOhio teams have won 7 World Series (5 Cincinnati Reds, 2\",\n \"-24.850669209932676\"\n ],\n [\n \"subsequently been viewed as one of the most controversial game endings in college football history.\\nThe National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) governs American football as played by the teams representing the largest universities in the United States, termed Division I-A (Changed in 2006 to FBS — Football Bowl Subdivision). Although smaller schools participate in formal NCAA tournaments to determine the national college football championships in Divisions I-AA, II, and III, Division I-A lacks such a tournament.\\nDuring this time frame, before the College Football Playoff system was implemented, the \\\"mythical national championship\\\" of Division I-A was determined by polls of coaches and/or\",\n \"-24.79707718989812\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Federal League (1914–1915). Both the UA and AA are considered major leagues by many baseball researchers because of the perceived high caliber of play and the number of star players featured. Some researchers, including Nate Silver, dispute the major-league status of the UA by pointing out that franchises came and went and that the St. Louis club was deliberately \\\"stacked\\\"; the St. Louis club was owned by the league's president and it was the only club that was close to major-league caliber. Dead-ball era The period between 1900 and 1919 is commonly referred to as the \\\"Dead-Ball Era.\\\" Games\",\n \"-24.79488792491611\"\n ],\n [\n \"regular-season record in games involving the two teams. The concept is comparable to rivalry trophies played for by U.S. college football teams. Timeline League member Former member Future member Other leagues History Major League Soccer is the most recent of a series of men's premier professional national soccer leagues established in the United States and Canada. The predecessor of MLS was the North American Soccer League (NASL), which existed from 1968 until 1984. Establishment In 1988, in exchange for FIFA awarding the right to host the 1994 World Cup, U.S. Soccer promised to establish a Division 1 professional soccer league.\",\n \"-24.751282222990994\"\n ],\n [\n \"Catholic or Jewish sports groups. General sports organizations can also exist for the army and other groups, but they usually are medium-sized, as they do not have that much of a budget to work with.\\nProfessional sports leagues are usually the highest level of play in sport, specifically if they consist of the best players around the world in a certain sport. Because of this, they usually work with national or international federations, but there is usually a separation between the different federations. Most North American professional leagues usually do not have amateur divisions, as the amateur divisions are mostly run\",\n \"-24.748904020292684\"\n ],\n [\n \"American Football League (1936) Origin The brainchild of former New York Giants personnel director Harry March, plans for the formation of the second American Football League were announced on November 15, 1935. Fifteen cities bid for charter franchises for the new league, and on April 11, 1936, eight (Boston, Cleveland, Jersey City, New York, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Providence, and Syracuse) were awarded.\\nWithin a few months, Jersey City, Providence, and Philadelphia pulled out and Rochester was granted a franchise. Two weeks later, the newest franchise was transferred to Brooklyn even though there was no stadium available at the time.\\nThe league was envisioned\",\n \"-24.74205777766474\"\n ],\n [\n \"athletic scholarship to students. In Canada, college sports are organized by U Sports for universities and the Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association for colleges. The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) has members in both the U.S. and Canada. Football North America is the birthplace of gridiron football, the form of football that originally developed, and is primarily played, in the U.S. and Canada. Both major forms, American football and Canadian football, developed in the late 19th century out of the original games now known as rugby football and association football. Gridiron football is distinguished by the forward pass, the system\",\n \"-24.708846419118345\"\n ],\n [\n \"ESL decided to expand the Pro League to 28 teams, so that there would be fourteen teams per league. This also meant that six teams from each region would qualify for the offline finals. For each regular season, teams would play every team twice in its respective league, so that each team played twenty-two games for the first three seasons and twenty-four games from season four to season seven. However, in Season 7, two teams – Counter Logic Gaming and Misfits – dropped their rosters and forfeited their Pro League licenses, reducing the number of North American teams to twelve.\",\n \"-24.67551007180009\"\n ],\n [\n \"League were therefore 'non-League' clubs. The term can be confusing as the vast majority of non-league football clubs in England play in a type of league. Currently, a non-League team would be any club playing in the National League and below and therefore would not play in the EFL Cup. English Football League The \\\"League\\\" of \\\"non-League football\\\" refers to the English Football League, rather than leagues in general — \\\"non-League\\\" clubs play most of their football in league competitions. There are many leagues below the level of the EFL, and some, such as the Northern League, are almost as\",\n \"-24.642867506659968\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the nation. The National Lacrosse League is the national box league, while the Premier Lacrosse League is the professional Field Lacrosse league. Major League Lacrosse is a semi-professional Field Lacrosse league also operating nationally. Volleyball Volleyball is also a notable sport in the United States, especially at the college and university levels. Unlike most Olympic sports which are sponsored widely at the collegiate level for both sexes, the support for college volleyball is dramatically skewed in favor of the women's game. In the 2011–12 school year, over 300 schools in NCAA Division I alone (the highest of three\",\n \"-24.62493956036633\"\n ],\n [\n \"to NFL football. It is likely that the average American sports fan will attend many more major league baseball games than NFL football games in his or her lifetime, due in part to baseball's longer schedule and football's (generally) higher ticket prices.\\nAdvocates of football, in turn, point to football's large television audience, including the Super Bowl, though the sport is also facing some negative publicity in the world of youth sports due to media coverage of documented health and injury risks posed to players, including the potential long-term health concerns that concussions pose for children or teenagers. Certain teams of\",\n \"-24.61499406665098\"\n ],\n [\n \"the same league, The 1986 World Series between the New York Mets and the Boston Red Sox is considered a classic especially the 6th game and the famous Bill Buckner error. The New York Giants and New England Patriots have played two classic Super Bowls: Super Bowl XLII which features the Helmet Catch and Super Bowl XLVI, There is also a rivalry between the Boston Celtics and the Brooklyn Nets. While Major League Soccer has two teams in the New York area and one in the Boston area, the rivalry between New York City FC and the New York Red\",\n \"-24.603367079485906\"\n ],\n [\n \"Indian Super League Origins Football in India has existed in many forms since the game first arrived in the country during the 19th century with the first nationwide club competition, the Durand Cup, being founded in 1888. Despite India's early history in the game, the country's first nationwide football league did not begin until the semi-professional National Football League commenced in 1996. Prior to the creation of the National Football League, most clubs played in state leagues or select nationwide tournaments.\\nTen years after the formation of the National Football League, the All India Football Federation, the governing body for the\",\n \"-24.583096521964762\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sports. (Unlike in the United States, no junior colleges play football in Canada, and the sanctioning body for junior college athletics in Canada, CCAA, does not sanction the sport.) However, amateur football outside of colleges is played in Canada, such as in the Canadian Junior Football League. Organized competition in American football also exists at the collegiate level in Mexico (ONEFA), the UK (British Universities American Football League), Japan (Japan American Football Association, Koshien Bowl), and South Korea (Korea American Football Association).\",\n \"-24.54518907170859\"\n ],\n [\n \"Premier League—top level of the English football league system. According to BBC America, there is a \\\"social stigma\\\" surrounding American football in the UK, with many Brits feeling the sport has no right to call itself \\\"football\\\" due to the lack of emphasis on kicking. Nonetheless, the sport has retained a following in the United Kingdom; the NFL operates a media network in the country, and since 2007 has hosted the NFL International Series in London. Super Bowl viewership has also rebounded, with over 4.4 million Britons watching Super Bowl XLVI. The sport is played in European countries like Switzerland, which\",\n \"-24.540764937526546\"\n ],\n [\n \"adult club teams to the professional clubs of Major League Soccer. Since the 2016 edition, professional teams that are majority-owned, or whose playing staff is managed, by a higher-division outdoor professional team have been barred from the competition; all other U.S. Soccer-affiliated teams remain eligible to enter. The Open Cup was first held in 1913–14 when it was called the National Challenge Cup. American leagues vs. European leagues The overall league structure in the United States is significantly different from that used in almost all the rest of the world, but similar to that used by other American team sports\",\n \"-24.534676244831644\"\n ],\n [\n \"sports it does not compare in popularity to cricket and international football (soccer), which both have billions of spectators. It is played between the champions of the National Football Conference (NFC) and the American Football Conference (AFC), and its winner is awarded the Vince Lombardi Trophy.\\nCollegiate football ranks third in overall popularity in the United States, behind baseball and pro football. The NCAA, the largest collegiate organization, is divided into three Divisions: Division I, Division II and Division III. Division I football is further divided into two subdivisions: the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) and the Football Championship Subdivision (FCS). The\",\n \"-24.524268171866424\"\n ],\n [\n \"development of both Major League Baseball and the National Football League. Baseball's first fully professional team, the Cincinnati Red Stockings of 1869, were organized in Ohio. An informal early-20th-century American football association, the Ohio League, was the direct predecessor of the NFL, although neither of Ohio's modern NFL franchises trace their roots to an Ohio League club. The Pro Football Hall of Fame is located in Canton.\\nOn a smaller scale, Ohio hosts minor league baseball, arena football, indoor football, mid-level hockey, and lower division soccer. Individual sports The Mid-Ohio Sports Car Course has hosted several auto racing championships, including CART\",\n \"-24.513585029475507\"\n ],\n [\n \"football. Of all the leagues that challenged the NFL, only the American Football League of the 1960s influenced the NFL more than the AAFC.\\nThe Cleveland Browns, San Francisco 49ers, and original Baltimore Colts began in the AAFC.\\nFifteen AAFC alumni are enshrined in pro football's Hall of Fame.\\nThe AAFC played a 14-game schedule more than a decade before the NFL, and played a major role in popularizing zone defenses in pro football.\\nThe AAFC put the first pro football teams in Baltimore, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Miami. Indeed, the AAFC was a coast-to-coast league more than a decade before Major League\",\n \"-24.502096608295687\"\n ],\n [\n \"league's 13 teams to allocate the rest of the AAFC players.\\nThe 13 teams were realigned into the American and National conferences, which lasted for three seasons. The merged league briefly flirted with the name \\\"National-American Football League\\\", but restored the name \\\"National Football League\\\" a few months later on March 3, 1950. Under the alignment, both conferences had a team in New York and Chicago. The \\\"American Conference\\\" (formerly the Eastern Division) had six teams including the Giants and the Cardinals, and the \\\"National Conference\\\" (the old Western Division) had seven teams including the Yanks and the\",\n \"-24.49748750454455\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":582,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"5crd18"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why do multi billionaires continue striving to earn more money and waste decades to earn more money when they've reached a place we're their ancestors would never have to work again for the next 200 years?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["There's actually a psychological principle called \"habituation,\" where you get used to something and the novelty wears off. Whatever income level you have becomes normal, and you want to break beyond it. Regardless of actual income, the average human being thinks they'll be happier earning \"10-15% more\" than whatever you currently make. But happiness is better understood as a personality trait, not something that comes from a reaction to the quality of your life. So this means that most people feel like they're chasing their happiness/contentedness, but really they're just slightly unhappy people. Think of it like a drug addiction. You're middle class, but want to be upperclass. You feel unhappy because you can only afford to rent an apartment, you have a crappy car, you vacation to New Jersey, etc. Then you make a million dollars, and all of a sudden you can afford a nice house, a nice car, take more exotic vacations, etc. Then that begins to feel like the baseline \"norm.\" You want something additional to make you happier. You want more money to get that vacation home, three cars, be able to take vacations 3 months out of the year. That drive to move forward and have a little more never ends. And the more you get, the higher your tolerance is. It takes more and more to get that same \"happy\" rush you got from being able to afford your first house. All of a sudden you want original picasos, exotic animals, you want a penthouse suite in Dubai. And so on.","Same reason some people want the high score in a video game. Or some people want to be the fastest person alive. Something in our evolution said \"You need to be the best in order to mate and pass on your genes\" Some people that evolutionary trait is ~~very common~~ *hyperactive*. Some people it's a point of pride or spite. Anger or emotion keep them doing things. Some people just enjoy doing what they're doing and happen to make a lot of money from it.","Because successful people don't work for money, they work to win. There is always another foe to vanquish.","Why does man climb the mountain? Some people are greedy assholes, but I'd wager that there is very little you can do with $2 billion that you can't do with 1. No, they do it for a variety of reasons. 1. It's what they're good at. No one lucks into that much money. Sure, they benefited from fortunate circumstances, but they also had skill that allowed them to \"win the game\" so to speak. They also probably enjoy what they do, otherwise they would have retired to a private island much sooner. If you really liked something and were good at it, would you quit and watch Netflix all day? 2. Some people want to build something. It's not about the strict dollar figure, it's about the tangible result. Steve Jobs, Jeff Bezos, Andrew Carnegie. These people created things that were enduring and changed the world. Would you give that up just because you \"had enough money\" already? 3. Some people want to win the game. They derive pleasure and satisfaction from being successful and on top. It's not inherently about the money, but since we measure business success in dollars, that's the result.","When you work all your life on something you cant just drop it on a whim, people often see their companies like their children, its not just 'x amount of money every year'. It is more easily undrrstood with actors or musicians, they built their career all their life sothey wouldnt stop just because the money is not a problem anymore. As odd as it seems people can feel like that about their companies or investments too.","Because for some, making money is a byproduct of how they choose to live their life, not the goal."],"string":"[\n \"There's actually a psychological principle called \\\"habituation,\\\" where you get used to something and the novelty wears off. Whatever income level you have becomes normal, and you want to break beyond it. Regardless of actual income, the average human being thinks they'll be happier earning \\\"10-15% more\\\" than whatever you currently make. But happiness is better understood as a personality trait, not something that comes from a reaction to the quality of your life. So this means that most people feel like they're chasing their happiness/contentedness, but really they're just slightly unhappy people. Think of it like a drug addiction. You're middle class, but want to be upperclass. You feel unhappy because you can only afford to rent an apartment, you have a crappy car, you vacation to New Jersey, etc. Then you make a million dollars, and all of a sudden you can afford a nice house, a nice car, take more exotic vacations, etc. Then that begins to feel like the baseline \\\"norm.\\\" You want something additional to make you happier. You want more money to get that vacation home, three cars, be able to take vacations 3 months out of the year. That drive to move forward and have a little more never ends. And the more you get, the higher your tolerance is. It takes more and more to get that same \\\"happy\\\" rush you got from being able to afford your first house. All of a sudden you want original picasos, exotic animals, you want a penthouse suite in Dubai. And so on.\",\n \"Same reason some people want the high score in a video game. Or some people want to be the fastest person alive. Something in our evolution said \\\"You need to be the best in order to mate and pass on your genes\\\" Some people that evolutionary trait is ~~very common~~ *hyperactive*. Some people it's a point of pride or spite. Anger or emotion keep them doing things. Some people just enjoy doing what they're doing and happen to make a lot of money from it.\",\n \"Because successful people don't work for money, they work to win. There is always another foe to vanquish.\",\n \"Why does man climb the mountain? Some people are greedy assholes, but I'd wager that there is very little you can do with $2 billion that you can't do with 1. No, they do it for a variety of reasons. 1. It's what they're good at. No one lucks into that much money. Sure, they benefited from fortunate circumstances, but they also had skill that allowed them to \\\"win the game\\\" so to speak. They also probably enjoy what they do, otherwise they would have retired to a private island much sooner. If you really liked something and were good at it, would you quit and watch Netflix all day? 2. Some people want to build something. It's not about the strict dollar figure, it's about the tangible result. Steve Jobs, Jeff Bezos, Andrew Carnegie. These people created things that were enduring and changed the world. Would you give that up just because you \\\"had enough money\\\" already? 3. Some people want to win the game. They derive pleasure and satisfaction from being successful and on top. It's not inherently about the money, but since we measure business success in dollars, that's the result.\",\n \"When you work all your life on something you cant just drop it on a whim, people often see their companies like their children, its not just 'x amount of money every year'. It is more easily undrrstood with actors or musicians, they built their career all their life sothey wouldnt stop just because the money is not a problem anymore. As odd as it seems people can feel like that about their companies or investments too.\",\n \"Because for some, making money is a byproduct of how they choose to live their life, not the goal.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["Some may use the extra free time to improve their quality of life, for example pursuing creative activities such as art and crafts. Developing a detachment from money has led some individuals, such as Suelo and Mark Boyle, to live with no money at all. Reducing expenses may also lead to increasing savings, which can lead to financial independence and the possibility of early retirement.\nThe 100 Thing Challenge is a grassroots movement to whittle down personal possessions to one hundred items, with the aim of de-cluttering and simplifying life. The small house movement includes individuals who chose to live in","-34.376535573537694"],["necessary to create wealth. To survive and to flourish, individuals need to engage in economic activity and individuals will be both freer and more prosperous if government intervention in people’s choices is minimized.\nMerit: A freer world would be far more meritorious than the world of today. Hard work, more work, higher-quality work and more and cleverer ideas are all meritorious, and they all create value. Market is not perfect but market and merit work well together.\nThe virtue of production: Like in the past there was a reaction against those who lived off the productive labor of other people, Contraditório now","-33.93846641422715"],["said that \"We can no longer pretend that the creation of wealth for a few will inevitably benefit the many – too often the reverse is true.\" The 2018 Oxfam report said that the income of the world's billionaires in 2017, $762 billion, was enough to end extreme global poverty seven times over.\nJared Bernstein and Elise Gould of the Economic Policy Institute suggest that poverty in the United States could have been significantly mitigated if inequality had not increased over the last few decades. Housing In many poor and developing countries, much land and housing is held outside the formal","-33.76974780845194"],["life harder for everyone else – particularly those at the bottom of the economic ladder.\" It has been reported that only 1% of the world population controls 50% of the wealth today, and the other 99% is having access to the remaining 50% only, and the gap has sharply increased in the recent past. In 2018, Oxfam reported that the gains of the world's billionaires in 2017, which amounted to $762 billion, was enough to end extreme global poverty seven times over.\nJosé Antonio Ocampo, professor at Columbia University and former finance minister of Colombia, and Magdalena Sepúlveda Carmona, former UN","-33.69074148114305"],["are often left to survive on their own means. Unlike their superiors, they do not have made men beneath them to kick up money to them. However, they are now better positioned to organize and lead their own group of associates and wannabes eager to prove their worth. Far too often, they live lavish and extravagant lifestyles while not saving any legitimate money. They may also spend exorbitant sums of money on lawyer's fees while their earning ability is thwarted by incarceration or police surveillance. They can also be millionaires through their own prowess by having full access to their","-33.6136546448688"],["UAWs have is that \"money is the most easily renewable resource\". This belief usually is another leading cause for UAW's consumption and investment habits. Money is more easily spent now than it is saved. In America it is easier to generate a high income than it is to accumulate wealth. Spending habits When it comes to spending habits, UAWs are everything but frugal. A typical UAW tends to live in luxury, style, and above all, comfort. Not all UAWs fit these characteristics. A $50,000-a-year janitor can be more of a PAW than a $700,000-a-year doctor. The","-33.161964336426536"],["the society cannot really become more prosperous by paying an increasing number of its citizens unproductively. The article also points out that even early retirees with private pension funds become a burden on society as they also depend on equity and bond income generated by workers.","-32.9505140136971"],["no man gets rich simply by his own labor, no matter how mighty a genius he is, and that, if you want to get rich, you must make other men work for you, and pay you for the privilege of doing so.(Ch. VIII)\nThe banker then adds that, as an entrepreneur, working \"for the profit of all\" (as suggested by Homos) rather than working for one's own profit would be \"contrary to the American spirit. It is alien to our love of individuality\". Anyone who wants to be successful in this world will try to do so by getting rich. As","-32.88987173806527"],["Wealthy families pass down their assets allowing future generations to develop even more wealth. The poor, on the other hand, are less able to leave inheritances to their children leaving the latter with little or no wealth on which to build...This is another reason why wealth inequality is so important, its accumulation has direct implications for economic inequality among the children of today's families.\nCorresponding to financial resources, the wealthy strategically organize their money so that it will produce profit. Affluent people are more likely to allocate their money to financial assets such as stocks, bonds, and other investments which hold","-32.732034010768984"],["The Last Millionaire Format The Last Millionaire takes 12 of Britain's most successful young entrepreneurs and drops them into six of the world's most exciting and demanding cities. Here they face the ultimate business challenge; to make money from scratch in just five days.\nUsed to running successful businesses, these award-winning entrepreneurs have proved themselves at home, but can they do it abroad? This time they'll be stripped of their legions of staff, company contacts, personal cash/credit cards and all their business lifelines. All they have left is a small amount of start up capital plus their raw money making talent.\nTo","-32.49094390287064"],["Poor money management Lacking knowledge in money management, personal budgeting and saving, people seldom track their spending habits and savings to review their expenses. According to a survey conducted by the University of Hong Kong, less than one third of the respondents would save their income before spending, or even spend more than what they are earning in a month. Consumer culture Being bombarded by commercial advertisements, people with relatively high incomes feel compelled to pursue personal wellbeing and happiness through material possessions. An easy access to a variety of entertainment and activities may be the reason for the increase","-32.4092104883166"],["so will generally have much less as a percentage of income than older wealth accumulators due to compounded growth.\nMost of the millionaire households that they profiled did not have the extravagant lifestyles that most people would assume. This finding is backed up by surveys indicating how little these millionaire households have spent on such things as cars, watches, clothing, and other luxury products/services. Most importantly, the book gives a list of reasons for why these people managed to accumulate so much wealth (the top one being that \"They live below their means\"). The authors make a distinction between the","-32.39968288965429"],["most people's sheer lack of money renders that potential quite low much of the time. Money's homogenizing nature encourages greater liberty and equality and melts away forms of feudalism and patronage, even as it minimizes exceptional, incommensurable achievements in art and love.","-32.18952464184258"],["I did not yet know. But I had already learnt that to have any chance of success in life one must be able to ‘take it’; that tact can be worth all the genius in the world; that unless you specialise you will never make more than £800 a year; that it is madness to disbelieve in luck and the cycles of luck; that you have to spend money to make money; that you must at all costs keep your youthful enthusiasms; that the two greatest influences in a man’s life are his mother and his wife; that marriage will","-32.13956848109956"],["market, in which \"lots of people are trying to fill holes in their income by monetizing their stuff and their labor in creative ways\", and in many cases, people join the sharing economy because they've recently lost a full-time job, including a few cases where the pricing structure of the sharing economy may have made their old jobs less profitable (e.g. full-time taxi drivers who may have switched to Lyft or Uber). The magazine writes that \"In almost every case, what compels people to open up their homes and cars to complete strangers is money, not trust. ... Tools that","-32.00046251330059"],["individual millionaires from across the country who leave their affluent lifestyle to go undercover to experience life in some of the most impoverished communities that need help the most.","-31.957140512720798"],["will gain more utility from money for additional spending than the wealthy. For instance, if a homeless family is given a gift certificate for a house, they will be able to use it to provide shelter for themselves. If a very rich person is given such a gift, he may spend it on a vacation residence which he will only use a few weeks of the year.\nAs such, aggregated utility would be maximized by taking wealth from the rich and giving it to the poor, and the state of optimized utility would be perfect economic equality. As Lerner","-31.92693769239122"],["realize other savings and loan options exist and they are not opposed to their children paying some part of their educational costs. The mass affluent generally may worry about replacing their paycheck in retirement, and may need to be encouraged to spend more money during their retirement years. They often wish to leave an inheritance to their children. The mass affluent will have between US$500,000 and $1.5 million in investable assets upon retirement with a net worth between $500,000 and $2.5 million. They spend between $4,000 and $10,000 per month in retirement.","-31.89845506066922"],["population. In money terms, the world's 1,100 richest people have almost twice the assets of the poorest 2.5 billion people representing 40% of the world population. In his famous book Capital in the Twenty-First Century, Thomas Piketty suggests that if present trends continue, there will be an even more gigantic concentration of wealth in the future.\nIn that case, there is no real physical scarcity with regard to the goods satisfying basic human needs anymore. It's more a question of political will and social organisation to improve the lot of the poor, or, alternatively, for the poor to organise themselves to","-31.876533187030873"],["is more difficult for lower-income individuals and households to save and invest because they need to use a higher percentage of their income for fixed and variable costs thus leaving them with a more limited amount of disposable income to optimize their consumption. Accordingly, a natural wealth gap exists in any market as some workers earn higher wages and thus are able to divert more income towards savings and investment which build wealth.\nThe wealth gap in the United States is large and the large majority of net worth and financial wealth is concentrated in a relatively very small percentage","-31.773318360064877"],["of the exigencies of survival and need. On the other hand, the rich tend to overutilize and destroy other kinds of resources, such as non-renewable resources, often out of greed. Thus, only by increasing social equity, and eradicating poverty, can humankind make an impact on environmental conservation and reduce the threats to the resource base.","-31.77300329512218"],["income, more than the 10% required for the basic Giving What We Can pledge. They may live frugally to donate more money. Jobs in finance, particularly in quantitative trading, are popular for those pursuing earning to give. Debate David Brooks criticized the concept in his New York Times opinion column, arguing that, while altruists may start doing \"earning to give\" to realize their deepest commitments, their values may erode over time, becoming progressively less altruistic. In addition, Brooks objected to the view on which altruists should turn themselves \"into a machine for the redistribution of wealth.\" Peter Singer responded to","-31.741018023632932"],["the best houses, the best educations, the best doctors, and the best lifestyles, but there is one thing that money doesn't seem to have bought: an understanding that their fate is bound up with how the other 99% live. Throughout history, this is something that the top 1% eventually do learn. Too late.\nEarlier uses of the term the \"the one percent\" to refer to the wealthiest people in society include the 2006 documentary The One Percent (film) about the growing wealth gap between the wealthy elite compared to the overall population, and a 2001 opinion column in the MIT student","-31.66723265335895"],["the world. This then leaves a massive shadow economy which although very wealthy, does not fully contribute to the economy and does not help its participants fully achieve their potential.","-31.664440066553652"],["with the richest nations benefiting from educational resources of the nations who can least afford to lose the most productive career years of their highly skilled professionals. This factor disincentives investment in education in both the developing and developed world, as foreign students and foreign workers limit opportunities for citizens in the receiving countries. Some developing countries see the migration of domestically trained professionals abroad not as a drain but as a gain, a \"brain bank\" from which to draw at a price; for these professionals, on their return with their accumulated skills, would contribute to the growth of the","-31.547045017767232"],["Microfinance Ways in which poor people manage their money Rutherford argues that the basic problem that poor people face as money managers is to gather a 'usefully large' amount of money. Building a new home may involve saving and protecting diverse building materials for years until enough are available to proceed with construction. Children's schooling may be funded by buying chickens and raising them for sale as needed for expenses, uniforms, bribes, etc. Because all the value is accumulated before it is needed, this money management strategy is referred to as 'saving up'.(Hermes, 2014).\nOften, people don't have enough money when","-31.515997903930838"],["A smaller stake is owned by the Omidyar Network, funded by billionaire eBay founder Pierre Omidyar.\nAccording to a study conducted by United Income, retirees spend less because they are pessimistic about their future financial health.","-31.457657045131782"],["Under Accumulators of Wealth will promise to start investing once they have earned ten percent more in annual income. Unfortunately when most receive that extra ten percent of income, there isn't an investment made. These claims and ideas usually branch off an initial belief that a lack of wealth can simply be solved by an increase in income. Even among those that do invest money, most invest only because they have an excess of income. Between 2001 and 2004, the median family income dropped 2.3% and in response, the percentage of families who owned investment stocks fell by 3.3% showing","-31.352042254482512"],["concentrate in the pockets of the very few rich people in the society. The masses indeed cannot benefit from the growth, and their living standard is on the decline.\n(end of quote from China post)\nAlso the most prevalent behaviour that is contributing to the income gap is consumerism. With social media and globalisation, everyone is more connected than ever, thus enabling a certain product to reach its mass presence easier. This is especially true for big corporation with huge budget for advertising & marketing. By conditioning everyone's mind to only buy things that depreciate (lifestyle products), not many will buy assets","-31.28344427468255"],["able to utilize these funds because they may never receive them. Because of this, there is concern from John Cassidy that the wealth of a few may be able to determine what organizations receive the most funding.\nIt was also noticed by Linsey McGoey that many current and past philanthropists amassed their fortunes by predatory business practices which enhanced the very social problems their philanthropy is intended to alleviate. Finally there are concerns of the existence of ulterior motives. These ulterior motives can range from business owners avoiding capital-gains taxes by donating their company's excess stock instead of selling it","-31.266281506657833"],["be given to them. \"The people of this country, as a rule, receive well. Do we get much from the rich? No; if we depended upon the rick I think our old people would starve. It is from the working people, the poorer people, we get most. They always have ten cents for us or a loaf of bread. We never provide for more than one day. We have no funds at all, but depend upon what good people will give us.\"\nIt goes on to describe the Home itself where the 200 residents lived. From the corridors, sitting rooms to","-31.182407713960856"],["ensured by the organization and its managers.\n3. Income for family and oneself - Income is necessary to support oneself. However, data does not show that people who earn more money are more gainfully employed than those who earn less.\n4. A purpose derived from providing a product or service - An individual may derive purpose in life from the work that he or she completes. Many individuals describe their work as a calling, or in other words, “a vocation to which the employee brings a passion—a commitment to the work for its own sake”.\n5. Happiness and satisfaction - Enthusiasm and attitude","-31.176265936344862"],["why is it so hard for them to save money” which required the investigation of social pressures on spending and consumer culture. \nIn an interview discussing her book Plentitude: The New Economics of True Wealth she says, \"When people work too many hours they tend to feel deprived and they use consumption to reward themselves, whether that be for an expensive vacation, kitchen remodel or a bigger diamond. The downturn has actually opened up space for people to think about different trajectories for their consumption expectations over their lifetimes.”\nIn addition, at an early age, Schor strived to make her work","-31.140471718565095"],["dramatically than for any other. As a result, the gap between those who make less than one and half million dollars annually (99.9% of households) and those who make more (0.1%) has been steadily increasing, prompting The New York Times to proclaim that the \"Richest Are Leaving Even the Rich Far Behind.\"\nThe income disparities within the top 1.5% are quite drastic. While households in the top 1.5% of households had incomes exceeding $250,000, 443% above the national median, their incomes were still 2200% lower than those of the top 0.1% of households. One can therefore conclude that almost any household,","-31.04458342106227"],["to the eye, or if it is truly needed. Increasing self-sufficiency One way to simplify life is to get back-to-the-land and grow your own food, as increased self-sufficiency reduces dependency on money and the economy. Tom Hodgkinson believes the key to a free and simple life is to stop consuming and start producing. This is a sentiment shared by an increasing number of people, including those belonging to the millennial generation such as writer and eco blogger Jennifer Nini, who left the city to live off-grid, grow food, and \"be a part of the solution; not part of the problem.\"\nForest","-31.011021514772438"],["Fortunate 400 Summary The Fortunate 400 are basically the richest people in the United States. In 1992, when the IRS starting tracking the people who make the most money, the 400th richest person in America made $24 million. Then In 2007, the 400th richest human produced $138 million (or $87 million, inflation-adjusted). These riches have come from capital gain, and the rich keep making more money. There is a constant question and debate in politics whether or not the rich need more tax cuts or need to pay more taxes.","-30.998782565584406"],["and an impoverished population in countries with a low standard of business morality. This is natural because these people concentrate on cheating one another instead of trying to create value.\nWe are granting you the profit share not because we feel a need to give money to the people just out of the goodness of the heart. No, we are aiming at other goals by this step. By this measure we want to reach a further decrease of production costs. We want to reach the situation that the shoes are cheaper and workers earn even more. We think that our products","-30.97210459271446"],["world with more resources than all our future greed might exhaust, more opportunities than there will ever be entrepreneurs enough to exploit, and a peculiar kind of real estate that expands with development. Imagine a place where trespassers leave no footprints, where goods can be stolen infinite number of times and yet remain in the possession of their original owners, where business you never heard of can own the history of your personal affairs.'\"\nHis writings include \"A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace\", which was written in response to the enactment of the Communications Decency Act in 1996 as the","-30.925044294286636"],["other people's money (OPM). Kiyosaki writes, \"While the financial advice of saving money and investing in mutual funds may be good advice for the poor and middle class, it is not good advice for people who want to become rich.\" Composition and publication Prior to their work together on the book, Donald Trump had established himself in the business of real estate development and written The Art of the Deal, and Robert Kiyosaki authored The New York Times best seller Rich Dad Poor Dad. The coauthors became familiar with each other through encounters at the company The Learning Annex. Trump","-30.88995215552859"],["We're Rich Again Premise A formerly wealthy family tries to stave off bankruptcy until one of them can marry a rich man.","-30.877696901967283"],["be an expectation that some sacrifices will have to be made, in our generation, so that future generations can have the opportunities that we've had to grow and thrive and prosper, so that our private sector can do what a private sector does best in creating jobs. So, yeah, with some practical things that have to be made, some decisions here, with perhaps changing, in future years, not adversely affecting those who are reliant on retirement benefits today, for instance, Social Security benefits, but changing, perhaps, the eligibility in future years. That has to be something that we're brave enough,","-30.859146588947624"],["me I should become a billionaire, I decided no one needs to be a billionaire — you should know when enough is enough. So I decided on a minimal business model, and that's worked out pretty well. This means I can give away tremendous amounts of money to the nonprofits I believe in.\" Politics In 2014, he was one of 60 Democratic Party donors who urged the creation of a system of public election funding.\nIn 2016, Newmark joined with the progressive RAD Campaign and Lincoln Park Strategies (founded by Democratic Party stalwart Stefan Hankin) to commission a poll examining user perceptions about","-30.77847595413914"],["people born into an affluent, information driven world. Younger generations live much more intellectually diverse lives and cites much user generated content as being mostly produced outside of the monetary economy. He affirms Cowen's acknowledgment that this has brought large increases in human happiness with correspondingly little economic activity. Relationship to the 2008 financial crisis and recession The Economist criticized Cowen for associating the economic problems resulting from the 2008 financial crisis to his broader thesis, arguing instead that this was mostly caused by a demand shock and mostly preventable. Some scholars, such as Jim Rickards, Howard Qi, Hongbin","-30.73121899238322"],["buying and filling this void of acceptance and approval. Realizing there was this emptiness of being able to get anything they want, there was no meaning behind what they had. This called for a change in mindset with what they see as important and truly valuable before they can begin any other practices or lifestyle habits. Reducing consumption, work time, and possessions Some people practice simple living by reducing consumption. By lowering expenditure on goods or services, the time spent earning money can be reduced. The time saved may be used to pursue other interests, or help others through volunteering.","-30.68031342269387"],["wealth\" in order to mitigate the problem of overconsumption of resources by the wealthy, but said \"the rich who now run the global system — that hold the annual 'world destroyer' meetings in Davos — are unlikely to let it happen.\" Simon–Ehrlich wager Julian Simon, a cornucopian economist, argued that overpopulation is not a problem as such and that humanity will adapt to changing conditions. Simon argued that eventually human creativity will improve living standards, and that most resources were replaceable. Simon stated that over hundreds of years, the prices of virtually all commodities have decreased significantly and persistently. Ehrlich termed Simon","-30.654784633254167"],["societies. A wide spread of eco-sufficiency will only occur, if people find the new lifestyles sufficiently attractive. It needs to be shown that less material wealth can bring increased well-being or happiness to individuals and societies. For example, it has been shown that downsizing or relocating consumers can be motivated by purely selfish reasons such as improving one’s health, avoiding stress, the nostalgia for a “good old time” and so on.\nAn important aspect here is related to the so-called work-and-spend cycle. If leisure and forms of work other than employment (incl. self-employment), such as caring, do it yourself and community","-30.636244474211708"],["Sabatier amassed $1.25 million and reached financial independence by age 30. Publication Sabatier has written a book, Financial Freedom: A Proven Path to All the Money You Will Ever Need, which has been translated into 8 languages and is popular in the FIRE Movement. Blog MIllennial Money focuses on helping others \"make smarter financial decisions, build more successful companies, reach financial independence and live richer lives.","-30.599371733071166"],["create an amount of wealth equal to or greater than the amount we create at the present time in 1,600 hours per year or 40,000 to 50,000 hours in a working life, we must all be able to obtain a real income equal to or higher than our current salaries in exchange for a greatly reduced quantity of work. In practice, this means that in the future we must receive our full monthly income every month even if we work full-time only one month in every two or six months in a year or even two years out of four,","-30.57824313538731"],["This would not be a \"one time\" solution, but a continuous policy that would also generate income for governments. However, during periods of employment the 'life' of goods could be extended:\nWouldn't it be profitable to spend a sum of—say—two billion dollars to buy up, immediately, obsolete and useless buildings, machinery, automobiles and other outworn junk, and in their place create from twenty to thirty billion dollars worth of work in the construction field and in the factory? Such a process would put the entire country on the road to recovery and eventually would restore normal employment and business prosperity.","-30.50039763667155"],["able to earn a living without having to rely on the use of the property of others to do so. Examples of people earning a living in this way would be farmers who own their own land and related machinery, carpenters and plumbers who own their own tools, etc. The \"cooperative\" approach advances beyond this perspective to recognise that such property and equipment may be \"co-owned\" by local communities larger than a family, e.g., partners in a business.\nIn Rerum novarum, Leo XIII states that people are likely to work harder and with greater commitment if they themselves possess the","-30.447734533110633"],["being rich will contribute greatly to making them happier, and the American society reflects this growing materialism. Although wealth is associated with some positive outcomes, i.e. lighter prison sentences for the same crime, better health, and lower infant mortality, and can act as a buffer in certain instances, as mentioned previously, the overall relationship between money and happiness is marginal.\nHowever, beyond a low threshold where the basic needs are met, money has a very small impact on happiness. There is also the concept of the diminishing marginal utility of income (DMUI), which is that money has no effect on","-30.4175899818365"],["billionaire is US$3 billion, with a liquidity on average of 18% of net worth. 60% of the world's billionaires are self-made, 20% have inherited their fortune and 20% have both inherited and grown their wealth. 18% of the world's billionaires have derived their wealth from finance, banking and investment; as opposed to 9% from industrial conglomerates and 7% from the real estate industry. The average billionaire is 62 years old, and 89% of the world's billionaires are male. Approximately 68% of them have a bachelor's degree or higher levels of education. UHNWI role in economies: luxury industry and UHNW individuals","-30.4054116543266"],["small percentage of their funds into real estate. Wealth Migrate summarized that by using technology and crowdfunding, investments in large developments could be made by individuals acting in groups, allowing them to receive a much higher return on investment, compared to the individual acting alone.\nOne of the major examples that were quoted on CNBC Africa, was the investment made in the medical market. The company CEO stated that they invested close to hospitals geographically, which allowed a steady return on the investment. Another example given was the investment and purchasing of commercial property around London, where they would then rent","-30.324717261188198"],["worse equipped to manage their finances. Secondly, aspirational consumption describes the process of middle income earners aspiring to achieve the standards of living enjoyed by their wealthier counterparts and one method of achieving this aspiration is by taking on debt. The result leads to even greater inequality and potential economic instability. Poverty Oxfam asserts that worsening inequality is impeding the fight against global poverty. A 2013 report from the group stated that the $240 billion added to the fortunes of the world's richest billionaires in 2012 was enough to end extreme poverty four times over. Oxfam Executive Director Jeremy Hobbs","-30.2880991154816"],["also published You're So Money: Live Rich Even When You're Not. The book focuses on financial advice for young people. Her next book, Psych Yourself Rich was published in 2010 by FT Press.\nIn 2010, Farnoosh joined Yahoo! Finance to host a weekly video series entitled Financially Fit. The series ended in December 2013.\nIn 2014, Farnoosh published her third book, When She Makes More: 10 Rules for Breadwinning Women. In it, she candidly addresses how income imbalances affect relationships and family dynamics, and presents a bold strategy to achieving happiness at work and home.\nOn January 14, 2015, Farnoosh launched the award-winning","-30.27473518619081"],["Founder & CEO Nick Baily, in a speech at the Wall Street Green Trading Summit in 2008, spoke directly to both sides of this point, stating: \"So why go straight to the affluent? Because it’s precisely those who have had the most impact that have the means to create a solution.\". This line of reasoning has been common in press interviews with Baily and Stewart, with Baily telling financial news anchor Maria Bartiromo in a televised NBC interview: \"The top seven percent of the world's affluent are responsible for half of its carbon footprint. If you're not addressing that,","-30.271031806711107"],["act. The accumulation of wealth grants more options and eliminates restrictions about how one can live life. Dennis Gilbert asserts that the standard of living of the working and middle classes is dependent upon income and wages, while the rich tend to rely on wealth, distinguishing them from the vast majority of Americans. A September 2014 study by Harvard Business School declared that the growing disparity between the very wealthy and the lower and middle classes is no longer sustainable. Statistics In 2007, the top 20% wealthiest possessed 80% of all financial assets. In 2007 the richest 1% of the","-30.250523143102328"],["and bad investments. The current Forbes 400 is now primarily made up of newly wealthy business owners, not heirs and heiresses. In parallel research, the University of Chicago's Steven Kaplan and Stanford University's Joshua Rauh note that 69% of those on the Forbes list are actually first generation wealth creators. That figure has risen dramatically since 1982 when it stood at 40%.\nEd Dolan supports the globalization and superstar hypothesis but points out that the high earnings are based, to some extent, on moral hazard like \"Bonus-based compensation schemes with inadequate clawback for losses\" and the shift of losses to shareholders,","-30.210173755302094"],["to distribute and sell their creations, with 2.1 million items listed on its online marketplace. At its height circa 2006, hundreds of thousands of dollars were changing hands daily as residents created and sold a wide variety of virtual commodities. Second Life also quickly became profitable due to the selling and renting virtual real estate. 2006 also saw Second Life's first real-world millionaire; Ailin Graef, better known as Anshe Chung (her avatar), converted an initial investment of US$9.95 into over one million dollars over the course of two and a half years. She built her fortune primarily by buying, selling,","-30.20308262796607"],["corporations channeling wealth from poorer countries to richer ones dictates that the gap will not diminish.\nAvailable data indicates convergence of income for many developing countries.\nIn his book The Ultimate Resource, Julian Simon offers the view that scarcity of physical resources can be overcome by the human mind. For example, the argument of scarcity of oil could be overcome by some of energy development strategies, such as use of synthetic fuels.\nModern estimations indicate that mineral shortages will not become a threat for many centuries \nConcerning exploitation of the former colonies, Gregory Clark notes: \"Yet generations of research by economic historians –","-30.202960909547983"],["this is known as the \"resource curse\".\nExtractive industries represent a large growing activity in many less-developed countries but the wealth generated does not always lead to sustainable and inclusive growth. People often accuse extractive industry businesses as acting only to maximize short-term value, implying that less-developed countries are vulnerable to powerful corporations. Alternatively, host governments are often assumed to be only maximizing immediate revenue. Researchers argue there are areas of common interest where development goals and business cross. These present opportunities for international governmental agencies to engage with the private sector and host governments through revenue management and expenditure accountability,","-30.144895264814295"],["for giant corporations), at most 10% of population could reach the level of wealth achieved by people in the richest countries. Peripheral economies, which would not create an independent and more complete economy, would continue to be poor countries, with increasing differences between poor and rich people inside this societies;\n3) About the World economic superstructure: The world superstructure of capitalist economy (mainly IMF and GATT, which originated WTO (World Trade Organization) would, on the one hand, increase control over the world economy, also increasing freedom for capital's flows and for big corporations' actions, and, on the other hand, would decrease","-30.14218534604879"],["Money became a value-determinant than utility. This brought about frauds in various sectors. This latter aspect is not limited to youths but even company executives, and politicians of many societies. Technological advancement has made privacy less safer for intrusion and people more safer for protection. The supposedly good of technological advancement in the neomodern era has included whistle blow such as Wikileaks' Julian Assange. The more good has been in the level of innovations and innovators it has sprung up such as Facebook's Mark Zuckerberg and easier business models and broader social connectivity. This latter part has lessened more amity","-30.141209386230912"],["of affordability.\nAs a result of their business strategy, non-profits lack the financial and technical resources of for-profits, thus, forcing them to rely on multiple funding sources such as public and private grants and subsidies in order to cover development costs. Using multiple funding sources is risky because it creates complex financing which can be both timely and expensive. Most of these public and private sources exist exclusively for non-profit entities and although this provides an advantage for the non-profit industry, for-profits would often refrain from spending the uncompensated time and effort for such complicated deals. Issues during","-30.10725788655691"],["service dictates that if Forever cannot sustain customers' accounts, it will use the Forever Guarantee Fund to give the customers' data back to Forever customers. Reception Michael Spring, a professor at the University of Pittsburgh School of Information Sciences, said, \"It seems a little overpriced. It may end up being a service used more by those who have disposable income\".\nIn an April 2018 Photography Life review, Bob Vishneski, who works in the media software industry, wrote, \"as people begin to grasp and appreciate the importance of Digital Estate Planning, I believe Forever and others that venture into this space will","-30.10473918505886"],["and limited ways to save income; therefore, individuals are more prone to spend than save. That eventually results in an adoption of a UAW lifestyle. Criticism Nassim Nicholas Taleb criticised the premise of the book on the basis of two instances of survivorship bias: that there is no mention of the accumulators who have accumulated underperforming assets, and that the United States had just gone through the greatest bull market in its history at the time of the book's publication. He suggested that the authors should lower the net worth of the observed millionaires to compensate for the effect","-30.07852567062946"],["argue that the interest they earn can be recycled to benefit other organisations and is therefore, more efficient for the social sector overall than a grant.\nThe sources of funds vary across the spectrum of social lenders but most often includes government monies or donations from private individuals and foundations or trusts. Lenders may restrict themselves to funding newly started organisations or may fund organisations throughout their life cycle; however the focus of investment is usually in building the capacity of the investee to achieve their stated social outcomes while becoming financially sustainable. In Britain In the British context, the","-30.050042955903336"],["thing is to know that you've lived your life to the fullest.... You could be a billionaire, and you couldn't pay to do the things we've done.\"\nIn early September 2009, she entered a hospice in Rochester, Minnesota, where she died on March 21, 2010, at the age of 59.","-30.0477598158177"],["poor for most of his life, suddenly found himself looking for ways that he could do the greatest good for with his money. He wrote, \"My greatest care now is how to spend this large income to do the greatest good to those who are properly dependent on me, to the poor and to posterity.\" Cornell's self-education and hard work would lead him to the conclusion that the greatest end for his philanthropy was in the need of colleges for the teaching of practical pursuits such as agriculture, the applied sciences, veterinary medicine and engineering, and in finding opportunities for","-30.032639979937812"],["swoop, John Fontanelli has become by far the richest person in the world, his net worth being bigger than the GDP of most countries. Yet, his ancestor has charged his heir with the task of using the inheritance to give back mankind its lost future.\nAfter some hither and thither, he accepts the role assigned to him by his ancestor and tries to better the world socially and ecologically. On the advice of his mysterious new consultant, Malcolm McCaine, he founds a huge corporation called Fontanelli Enterprises and strategically invests the inherited fortune in a diversified group of projects to grow","-29.994037338648923"],["new to me, but I was a little unhappy that the social enterprise idea was already 12 years old. Then I discovered that having a for-profit operation generate funding for a non-profit organization providing the same service was quite new. So, is saving lives not good enough? I'm not saying it's not good enough. It is. Is managing logistics not good enough? It is. But doing both of those and creating a new form of social enterprise all in one? That's the trifecta.\nSpeaking with students on the occasion of receiving a Distinguished Alumnus Award from his alma mater, Indian Institute","-29.948019367962843"],["else the cycle of life holds for them. With tons of money in their disposal but with powerful elites on their search, they are forced to alter their plans following impending pressures.","-29.93048306624405"],["most people who work in finance and other high-paying industries value money for selfish reasons and that being surrounded by these people will cause effective altruists to become less altruistic. Peter Singer responded to these criticisms in his book The Most Good You Can Do by giving examples of people who have been earning to give for years without losing their altruistic motivation. In The Week, Pascal-Emmanuel Gobry argued that the practice was \"unsettling\". Cause priorities Effective altruism aspires to be cause-neutral, meaning it is in principle open to helping in whichever areas allow them to do the most good.","-29.929940202040598"],["business. By January 2019, three years after launch, more than 1400 entrepreneurs have pledged an estimated total value of $700 million based on the founders' equity and the companies' valuation and at least $91 million were raised. Career selection Effective altruists argue that selection of one's career is an important determinant of the amount of good one does, both directly (through the services one provides to the world) and indirectly (through the ways one directs the money earned based on the career).\n80,000 Hours is an organisation in the effective altruism community that conducts research on which careers have the largest","-29.918523252592422"],["in the eye, you know that nothing's going with you, and life is but a thread. It's a pretty tenuous thing we're hanging on to. So, what is the point of making money? I concluded it certainly isn't for accumulating it. That's the most stupid thing I ever heard of. So, there can be only one point, and that's to spend it. Now, I'm not ridiculously wasteful, but I may be slightly extravagant. As Andrew Carnegie said, to die rich is to die disgraced.\"","-29.886474305269076"],["will typically rise hence reducing income inequality and poverty.\nThe lack of financial access limits the range of services and credits for household and enterprises. Poor individuals and small enterprises need to rely on their personal wealth or internal resources to invest in their education and businesses, which limits their full potential and leading to the cycle of persistent inequality and diminished growth.\nAccess to finance varies greatly between countries and ranges from about 5 percent of the adult population in Papua New Guinea and Tanzania to 100 percent in the Netherlands (for a comprehensive list of estimated measures of access","-29.838143810105976"],["that we can donate people out of poverty, that national economic growth will end poverty, and that Big Business, operating as it does now, will end poverty. Economic models which lead to national growth and more big business will not necessarily lead to more opportunities for self-sufficiency. However, businesses designed with a social goal in mind, such as micro finance banks, may be able to make a difference. Growth vs. state intervention: comparative perspective in China, India, Brazil A 2012 World Bank research article, “A Comparative Perspective on Poverty Reduction in Brazil, China, and India,” looked at the three nations’","-29.825101268521394"],["of the country's wealth and the bottom 80% of the population owned 15%. Financial inequality was greater than inequality in total wealth, with the top 1% of the population owning 42.7%, the next 19% of Americans owning 50.3%, and the bottom 80% owning 7%. However, according to the federal reserve, \"For most households, pensions and Social Security are the most important sources of income during retirement, and the promised benefit stream constitutes a sizable fraction of household wealth\" and \"including pensions and Social Security in net worth makes the distribution more even\". When including household wealth from pensions and social","-29.809073714888655"],["62 people between the World's Billionaires increased by $500bn (£350bn) to $1.76tn. This number has fallen dramatically from 388 as recently as 2010. More recently, in 2017 an Oxfam report noted that just eight billionaires have as much net worth as \"half the human race\".","-29.797414147120435"],["Challenges and problems In the contemporary era, several issues are faced in the world.\nFirst of all, wealth is concentrated among the G8 and Western industrialized nations, along with several Asian nations and OPEC countries. The richest 1% of adults alone owned 40% of global assets in the year 2000 and that the richest 10% of adults accounted for 85% of the world total. The bottom half of the world adult population owned barely 1% of global wealth. Another study found that the richest 2% own more than half of global household assets. Despite this, the distribution has been changing quite","-29.77156808890868"],["the Boston Consulting Group, around 70% of the nation's wealth will be in the hands of millionaires and billionaires by 2021. Early 20th century Pioneering work by Simon Kuznets using income tax records and his own well-researched estimates of national income showed a reduction of about 10% in the portion of national income going to the top 10%, a reduction from about 45–50% in 1913 to about 30–35% in 1948. This period spans both The Great Depression and World War II, events with significant economic consequences. This is called the Great Compression. Wealth inequality and child poverty In 2013 UNICEF","-29.7453958139522"],["of 40, while the list of American-only billionaires, as of 2010, had an average age of 66.\nIn 2019 there are now a record 607 billionaires in the U.S. That includes 14 of the world’s 20 richest. Jeff Bezos is again number 1 in the world, followed by Bill Gates at number 2. Billionaires who own the same wealth as half the world According to a 2016 Oxfam report, the wealth of the poorest 95% dropped by 38% between 2010 and 2015, despite an increase in the global population of 400 million. In the same period, the wealth of the richest","-29.72816598362988"],["Super-Rich are Changing our Lives. In The Guardian, Polly Toynbee said of it: \"Reading Peston's book, you can only be flabbergasted all over again at how Labour kowtowed to wealth, glorified the City and put all the nation's economic eggs into one dangerous basket of fizzy finance.\"\nIn September 2012, Hodder & Stoughton published How Do We Fix This Mess? The Economic Price of Having it All and the Route to Lasting Prosperity. The Observer described it as \"A must read...mandatory reading for anyone who wants to have a voice in where we go from here.\"\nHis latest book WTF? was published","-29.718290383083513"],["driven by extraordinary levels of human creativity, where abnormally talented individuals and entities are able to realize new levels of human potential and economic achievement. It is \"a new economic era where the main source of national wealth is no longer resource rent but the socio-economic infrastructure that allows every person to realise his or her intellectual or creative potential.\" But, according to Fridman – based on his observations of recent economic indicators, political and market volatility, and historical patterns – it is also an era that will generate winners and losers as lagging countries and groups fail to adapt","-29.705800544354133"],["all summer, and who by the application of brain and muscle to the natural resources of the country creates wealth, is as much a business man as the man who goes upon the Board of Trade and bets upon the price of grain; the miners who go down a thousand feet into the earth, or climb two thousand feet upon the cliffs, and bring forth from their hiding places the precious metals to be poured into the channels of trade are as much business men as the few financial magnates who, in a back room, corner the money of the","-29.67715527609107"],["\"bad billionaires\" who make money by \"digging stuff out of the ground,\" at the expense of \"good billionaires\", who work in productive industries like technology.\nRecently he has written that the \"China-commodity connection\" is breaking, and that the retreat of commodity prices will undercut commodity economies that thrived in the last decade based on spiking prices. Those include Russia, Brazil and \"nasty petro states\", and their retreat will greatly help commodity importers such as the United States. He says that, if anything, Americans underestimate the negative impact of high oil prices, noting that a sharp increase in oil prices has laid","-29.669311903242487"],["means that the money you contribute now is more important than the money you contribute 1 year from now. This is because it will have more time to grow, thus it is the most powerful contribution. Just as last year's contributions are more powerful than this year's contributions. Publications Dunn is author of What Your Dad Never Taught You About Budgeting (SPS Publishing, 2006) and 60 Days to Change: A Daily How-To Guide with Actionable Tips for Improving Your Financial Life (Channel V Books, 2009). Personal Dunn resides in Carmel, Indiana with his wife, Sarah, his daughter, Olivia, and son,","-29.653535869554617"],["of a society are we going to have if it consists of highly paid people doing high-value-added work—and masses of unemployed?\"\nHe felt that employment growth depended on those companies' ability or willingness to scale up within the U.S. According to Grove, Silicon Valley's \"innovation machine\" over the last few decades has not been adding many jobs, although American tech companies have instead been adding jobs in Asia \"like mad.\" He noted that while our investments in startups have increased dramatically, those investments have in fact resulted in fewer jobs: \"Simply put,\" he wrote, \"the U.S. has become wildly inefficient at","-29.575847499683732"],["wealthy, breaking even (Spartan), spender, broke, and breaking even (Lavish). Spending tomorrow's cash today The most prominent idea shared by UAWs and American society in general is \"spending tomorrow's cash today\". This is the leading cause of debt and a lack of net worth in the UAW category. This contradicts the common belief of a PAW: \"save today's cash for tomorrow\". Many UAWs do plan, under certain conditions (such as a rise in income), to use investment strategies to accumulate wealth; however, most don't actually use investment strategies to accumulate wealth once the initial conditions are met. For example,","-29.572164530254668"],["the prevailing system of social relations governing legitimate cooperation and competition. The wealth of some may depend on the poverty of others.\nSome scarcity is truly physical scarcity; other scarcity is purely socially constructed, i.e. people are excluded from wealth not by physical scarcity but through the way the social system functions (the system of property rights and distributing wealth that it has). In modern times, calculations have been done of the type that an annual levy of 5.2% on the fortunes of the world's 500 or so billionaires would be financially sufficient to guarantee essential needs for the whole world","-29.55738677154295"],["over a long period of time can accumulate a large sum of money. Mr. Friend’s poor parents were smokers and drinkers. They smoked at least three packs of cigarettes a day during the week. Three packs a day over 46 years translated into a sum of money that exceeded the value of their home by $33,000. Even more extraordinary, if the Friends had invested and reinvested that money over a 46-year period, the portfolio would have exceeded $2 million. The value of a small amount of money over a long period of time is amazing.","-29.55542098222213"],["wealth and spending ability of the rich, many of whom will spend or invest this money in the rich countries, thus not even creating a trickle-down effect. They argue that the money would be far better spent in specific aid projects that actually help the poor. They further argue that it would be unfair to third-world countries that managed their credit successfully, or do not go into debt in the first place. That is, it actively encourages third-world governments to overspend in order to receive debt relief in the future.\nOthers argue against the conditionalities attached to debt relief. These conditions","-29.550626066971745"],["Middle Class Millionaire Overview Written by Lewis Schiff (The Armchair Millionaire) and Russ Allen Prince (Cultivating the Middle-class Millionaire: Why Financial Advisors Are Failing Their Wealthy Clients and What They Can Do About It) the book introduces an entirely new way of understanding why certain trends are gaining momentum and where that momentum will lead to next.\nThe book shows us how this subset of America, labeled the Middle-Class Millionaire, manages to thrive with one foot in the world they came from (the middle-class) and one foot in the world they now inhabit (the wealthy).\nThe Middle-Class Millionaire is based on extensive","-29.534757975263346"],["in the Forbes list of world billionaires, with a net worth of US$5.0 billion. Philanthropy In 2000, he established LIFE (Landmark International Foundation of Empowerment), to support underprivileged children in India, through school and healthcare development programmes, homes for destitute children, vocational and non-formal schools, community clinics and medical camps for slum-dwellers and an old age home Chennai.","-29.53326853114413"],["the possibility of capital appreciation. Those who are not wealthy are more likely to have their money in savings accounts and home ownership. This difference comprises the largest reason for the continuation of wealth inequality in America: the rich are accumulating more assets while the middle and working classes are just getting by. As of 2007, the richest 1% held about 38% of all privately held wealth in the United States. while the bottom 90% held 73.2% of all debt. According to The New York Times, the richest 1 percent in the United States now own more wealth than the","-29.50203002267517"],["to affect at least a billion people (i.e., have universal appeal), it had to be able to be delivered to customers living where there was not a FedEx office or even a road, and it had to be \"radically affordable\" to attract someone who earned less than $2 a day. Creating entrepreneurs Rather than encouraging multinational businesses to meet the needs of the poor, some organizations such as iDE, the World Resources Institute, and the United Nations Development Programme began to focus on working directly with helping bottom-of-the-pyramid populations become local, small-scale entrepreneurs. Since so much of this population is","-29.49574481858872"],["of their creating, usually maintained by trust funds, which independently own and operate large computing resources for their sakes, separated physically and economically from most of the rest of the world's computing power, which is privatized as a fungible commodity. Although the wealthiest copies face no financial difficulties, they can still be threatened because copies lack political and legal rights (they are considered software), especially where the global economy is in recession. Hence they cannot afford to retreat into solipsism and ignore what is happening in the real world.\nAt the opposite end from the wealthy Copies are those who can","-29.495061100664316"],["stages. Traditionally, people accumulate wealth in their younger and middle-aged, years, and spend that wealth in their later retirement years. Clearly, as Modigliani's life-cycle saving-spending hypothesis illustrates, this is a purposeful simplification of a complex life span dynamic; many people continue to (work and) accumulate in their older years just as, of course, younger and middle-aged persons spend during the accumulation years of their wealth span. Changes in balance Beyond a concern with the stages of accumulation and expenditure, the wealth span model offers two valuable tools of analysis useful for both academic research and financial practice: (1) changes in","-29.47725037255441"],["of the global top 1% increased approximately 60%, while the middle classes of the emerging economies (those around the 50th percentile of the global income distribution in 1988) rose 70–80%. For example, in 2000, 5 million Chinese households earned between $11,500 and $43,000 in 2016 dollars. By 2015, 225 million did. On the other hand, those in the middle class of the developed world (those in the 75th to 90th percentile in 1988, such as the American middle class) experienced little real income gains. The richest 1% contains 60 million persons globally, including 30 million Americans (i.e., the top 12%","-29.470284280600026"],["country’s economy starts to grow, all assets, including mine and other businessmen’s, will become more costly. We will become richer. This is the business model; people are not aware that the projects are not created for profit here and now. Our projects have longer than a ten-year horizon”, stated Vasyl Khmelnytsky.\nHe is the majority shareholder at the UDP company. As of 2018, the UDP company has launched construction projects with an area of more than 3 million square meters and has become one of the largest real estate developers and infrastructure enterprises in the country. Among its most famous projects","-29.46756632139295"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"Some may use the extra free time to improve their quality of life, for example pursuing creative activities such as art and crafts. Developing a detachment from money has led some individuals, such as Suelo and Mark Boyle, to live with no money at all. Reducing expenses may also lead to increasing savings, which can lead to financial independence and the possibility of early retirement.\\nThe 100 Thing Challenge is a grassroots movement to whittle down personal possessions to one hundred items, with the aim of de-cluttering and simplifying life. The small house movement includes individuals who chose to live in\",\n \"-34.376535573537694\"\n ],\n [\n \"necessary to create wealth. To survive and to flourish, individuals need to engage in economic activity and individuals will be both freer and more prosperous if government intervention in people’s choices is minimized.\\nMerit: A freer world would be far more meritorious than the world of today. Hard work, more work, higher-quality work and more and cleverer ideas are all meritorious, and they all create value. Market is not perfect but market and merit work well together.\\nThe virtue of production: Like in the past there was a reaction against those who lived off the productive labor of other people, Contraditório now\",\n \"-33.93846641422715\"\n ],\n [\n \"said that \\\"We can no longer pretend that the creation of wealth for a few will inevitably benefit the many – too often the reverse is true.\\\" The 2018 Oxfam report said that the income of the world's billionaires in 2017, $762 billion, was enough to end extreme global poverty seven times over.\\nJared Bernstein and Elise Gould of the Economic Policy Institute suggest that poverty in the United States could have been significantly mitigated if inequality had not increased over the last few decades. Housing In many poor and developing countries, much land and housing is held outside the formal\",\n \"-33.76974780845194\"\n ],\n [\n \"life harder for everyone else – particularly those at the bottom of the economic ladder.\\\" It has been reported that only 1% of the world population controls 50% of the wealth today, and the other 99% is having access to the remaining 50% only, and the gap has sharply increased in the recent past. In 2018, Oxfam reported that the gains of the world's billionaires in 2017, which amounted to $762 billion, was enough to end extreme global poverty seven times over.\\nJosé Antonio Ocampo, professor at Columbia University and former finance minister of Colombia, and Magdalena Sepúlveda Carmona, former UN\",\n \"-33.69074148114305\"\n ],\n [\n \"are often left to survive on their own means. Unlike their superiors, they do not have made men beneath them to kick up money to them. However, they are now better positioned to organize and lead their own group of associates and wannabes eager to prove their worth. Far too often, they live lavish and extravagant lifestyles while not saving any legitimate money. They may also spend exorbitant sums of money on lawyer's fees while their earning ability is thwarted by incarceration or police surveillance. They can also be millionaires through their own prowess by having full access to their\",\n \"-33.6136546448688\"\n ],\n [\n \"UAWs have is that \\\"money is the most easily renewable resource\\\". This belief usually is another leading cause for UAW's consumption and investment habits. Money is more easily spent now than it is saved. In America it is easier to generate a high income than it is to accumulate wealth. Spending habits When it comes to spending habits, UAWs are everything but frugal. A typical UAW tends to live in luxury, style, and above all, comfort. Not all UAWs fit these characteristics. A $50,000-a-year janitor can be more of a PAW than a $700,000-a-year doctor. The\",\n \"-33.161964336426536\"\n ],\n [\n \"the society cannot really become more prosperous by paying an increasing number of its citizens unproductively. The article also points out that even early retirees with private pension funds become a burden on society as they also depend on equity and bond income generated by workers.\",\n \"-32.9505140136971\"\n ],\n [\n \"no man gets rich simply by his own labor, no matter how mighty a genius he is, and that, if you want to get rich, you must make other men work for you, and pay you for the privilege of doing so.(Ch. VIII)\\nThe banker then adds that, as an entrepreneur, working \\\"for the profit of all\\\" (as suggested by Homos) rather than working for one's own profit would be \\\"contrary to the American spirit. It is alien to our love of individuality\\\". Anyone who wants to be successful in this world will try to do so by getting rich. As\",\n \"-32.88987173806527\"\n ],\n [\n \"Wealthy families pass down their assets allowing future generations to develop even more wealth. The poor, on the other hand, are less able to leave inheritances to their children leaving the latter with little or no wealth on which to build...This is another reason why wealth inequality is so important, its accumulation has direct implications for economic inequality among the children of today's families.\\nCorresponding to financial resources, the wealthy strategically organize their money so that it will produce profit. Affluent people are more likely to allocate their money to financial assets such as stocks, bonds, and other investments which hold\",\n \"-32.732034010768984\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Last Millionaire Format The Last Millionaire takes 12 of Britain's most successful young entrepreneurs and drops them into six of the world's most exciting and demanding cities. Here they face the ultimate business challenge; to make money from scratch in just five days.\\nUsed to running successful businesses, these award-winning entrepreneurs have proved themselves at home, but can they do it abroad? This time they'll be stripped of their legions of staff, company contacts, personal cash/credit cards and all their business lifelines. All they have left is a small amount of start up capital plus their raw money making talent.\\nTo\",\n \"-32.49094390287064\"\n ],\n [\n \"Poor money management Lacking knowledge in money management, personal budgeting and saving, people seldom track their spending habits and savings to review their expenses. According to a survey conducted by the University of Hong Kong, less than one third of the respondents would save their income before spending, or even spend more than what they are earning in a month. Consumer culture Being bombarded by commercial advertisements, people with relatively high incomes feel compelled to pursue personal wellbeing and happiness through material possessions. An easy access to a variety of entertainment and activities may be the reason for the increase\",\n \"-32.4092104883166\"\n ],\n [\n \"so will generally have much less as a percentage of income than older wealth accumulators due to compounded growth.\\nMost of the millionaire households that they profiled did not have the extravagant lifestyles that most people would assume. This finding is backed up by surveys indicating how little these millionaire households have spent on such things as cars, watches, clothing, and other luxury products/services. Most importantly, the book gives a list of reasons for why these people managed to accumulate so much wealth (the top one being that \\\"They live below their means\\\"). The authors make a distinction between the\",\n \"-32.39968288965429\"\n ],\n [\n \"most people's sheer lack of money renders that potential quite low much of the time. Money's homogenizing nature encourages greater liberty and equality and melts away forms of feudalism and patronage, even as it minimizes exceptional, incommensurable achievements in art and love.\",\n \"-32.18952464184258\"\n ],\n [\n \"I did not yet know. But I had already learnt that to have any chance of success in life one must be able to ‘take it’; that tact can be worth all the genius in the world; that unless you specialise you will never make more than £800 a year; that it is madness to disbelieve in luck and the cycles of luck; that you have to spend money to make money; that you must at all costs keep your youthful enthusiasms; that the two greatest influences in a man’s life are his mother and his wife; that marriage will\",\n \"-32.13956848109956\"\n ],\n [\n \"market, in which \\\"lots of people are trying to fill holes in their income by monetizing their stuff and their labor in creative ways\\\", and in many cases, people join the sharing economy because they've recently lost a full-time job, including a few cases where the pricing structure of the sharing economy may have made their old jobs less profitable (e.g. full-time taxi drivers who may have switched to Lyft or Uber). The magazine writes that \\\"In almost every case, what compels people to open up their homes and cars to complete strangers is money, not trust. ... Tools that\",\n \"-32.00046251330059\"\n ],\n [\n \"individual millionaires from across the country who leave their affluent lifestyle to go undercover to experience life in some of the most impoverished communities that need help the most.\",\n \"-31.957140512720798\"\n ],\n [\n \"will gain more utility from money for additional spending than the wealthy. For instance, if a homeless family is given a gift certificate for a house, they will be able to use it to provide shelter for themselves. If a very rich person is given such a gift, he may spend it on a vacation residence which he will only use a few weeks of the year.\\nAs such, aggregated utility would be maximized by taking wealth from the rich and giving it to the poor, and the state of optimized utility would be perfect economic equality. As Lerner\",\n \"-31.92693769239122\"\n ],\n [\n \"realize other savings and loan options exist and they are not opposed to their children paying some part of their educational costs. The mass affluent generally may worry about replacing their paycheck in retirement, and may need to be encouraged to spend more money during their retirement years. They often wish to leave an inheritance to their children. The mass affluent will have between US$500,000 and $1.5 million in investable assets upon retirement with a net worth between $500,000 and $2.5 million. They spend between $4,000 and $10,000 per month in retirement.\",\n \"-31.89845506066922\"\n ],\n [\n \"population. In money terms, the world's 1,100 richest people have almost twice the assets of the poorest 2.5 billion people representing 40% of the world population. In his famous book Capital in the Twenty-First Century, Thomas Piketty suggests that if present trends continue, there will be an even more gigantic concentration of wealth in the future.\\nIn that case, there is no real physical scarcity with regard to the goods satisfying basic human needs anymore. It's more a question of political will and social organisation to improve the lot of the poor, or, alternatively, for the poor to organise themselves to\",\n \"-31.876533187030873\"\n ],\n [\n \"is more difficult for lower-income individuals and households to save and invest because they need to use a higher percentage of their income for fixed and variable costs thus leaving them with a more limited amount of disposable income to optimize their consumption. Accordingly, a natural wealth gap exists in any market as some workers earn higher wages and thus are able to divert more income towards savings and investment which build wealth.\\nThe wealth gap in the United States is large and the large majority of net worth and financial wealth is concentrated in a relatively very small percentage\",\n \"-31.773318360064877\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the exigencies of survival and need. On the other hand, the rich tend to overutilize and destroy other kinds of resources, such as non-renewable resources, often out of greed. Thus, only by increasing social equity, and eradicating poverty, can humankind make an impact on environmental conservation and reduce the threats to the resource base.\",\n \"-31.77300329512218\"\n ],\n [\n \"income, more than the 10% required for the basic Giving What We Can pledge. They may live frugally to donate more money. Jobs in finance, particularly in quantitative trading, are popular for those pursuing earning to give. Debate David Brooks criticized the concept in his New York Times opinion column, arguing that, while altruists may start doing \\\"earning to give\\\" to realize their deepest commitments, their values may erode over time, becoming progressively less altruistic. In addition, Brooks objected to the view on which altruists should turn themselves \\\"into a machine for the redistribution of wealth.\\\" Peter Singer responded to\",\n \"-31.741018023632932\"\n ],\n [\n \"the best houses, the best educations, the best doctors, and the best lifestyles, but there is one thing that money doesn't seem to have bought: an understanding that their fate is bound up with how the other 99% live. Throughout history, this is something that the top 1% eventually do learn. Too late.\\nEarlier uses of the term the \\\"the one percent\\\" to refer to the wealthiest people in society include the 2006 documentary The One Percent (film) about the growing wealth gap between the wealthy elite compared to the overall population, and a 2001 opinion column in the MIT student\",\n \"-31.66723265335895\"\n ],\n [\n \"the world. This then leaves a massive shadow economy which although very wealthy, does not fully contribute to the economy and does not help its participants fully achieve their potential.\",\n \"-31.664440066553652\"\n ],\n [\n \"with the richest nations benefiting from educational resources of the nations who can least afford to lose the most productive career years of their highly skilled professionals. This factor disincentives investment in education in both the developing and developed world, as foreign students and foreign workers limit opportunities for citizens in the receiving countries. Some developing countries see the migration of domestically trained professionals abroad not as a drain but as a gain, a \\\"brain bank\\\" from which to draw at a price; for these professionals, on their return with their accumulated skills, would contribute to the growth of the\",\n \"-31.547045017767232\"\n ],\n [\n \"Microfinance Ways in which poor people manage their money Rutherford argues that the basic problem that poor people face as money managers is to gather a 'usefully large' amount of money. Building a new home may involve saving and protecting diverse building materials for years until enough are available to proceed with construction. Children's schooling may be funded by buying chickens and raising them for sale as needed for expenses, uniforms, bribes, etc. Because all the value is accumulated before it is needed, this money management strategy is referred to as 'saving up'.(Hermes, 2014).\\nOften, people don't have enough money when\",\n \"-31.515997903930838\"\n ],\n [\n \"A smaller stake is owned by the Omidyar Network, funded by billionaire eBay founder Pierre Omidyar.\\nAccording to a study conducted by United Income, retirees spend less because they are pessimistic about their future financial health.\",\n \"-31.457657045131782\"\n ],\n [\n \"Under Accumulators of Wealth will promise to start investing once they have earned ten percent more in annual income. Unfortunately when most receive that extra ten percent of income, there isn't an investment made. These claims and ideas usually branch off an initial belief that a lack of wealth can simply be solved by an increase in income. Even among those that do invest money, most invest only because they have an excess of income. Between 2001 and 2004, the median family income dropped 2.3% and in response, the percentage of families who owned investment stocks fell by 3.3% showing\",\n \"-31.352042254482512\"\n ],\n [\n \"concentrate in the pockets of the very few rich people in the society. The masses indeed cannot benefit from the growth, and their living standard is on the decline.\\n(end of quote from China post)\\nAlso the most prevalent behaviour that is contributing to the income gap is consumerism. With social media and globalisation, everyone is more connected than ever, thus enabling a certain product to reach its mass presence easier. This is especially true for big corporation with huge budget for advertising & marketing. By conditioning everyone's mind to only buy things that depreciate (lifestyle products), not many will buy assets\",\n \"-31.28344427468255\"\n ],\n [\n \"able to utilize these funds because they may never receive them. Because of this, there is concern from John Cassidy that the wealth of a few may be able to determine what organizations receive the most funding.\\nIt was also noticed by Linsey McGoey that many current and past philanthropists amassed their fortunes by predatory business practices which enhanced the very social problems their philanthropy is intended to alleviate. Finally there are concerns of the existence of ulterior motives. These ulterior motives can range from business owners avoiding capital-gains taxes by donating their company's excess stock instead of selling it\",\n \"-31.266281506657833\"\n ],\n [\n \"be given to them. \\\"The people of this country, as a rule, receive well. Do we get much from the rich? No; if we depended upon the rick I think our old people would starve. It is from the working people, the poorer people, we get most. They always have ten cents for us or a loaf of bread. We never provide for more than one day. We have no funds at all, but depend upon what good people will give us.\\\"\\nIt goes on to describe the Home itself where the 200 residents lived. From the corridors, sitting rooms to\",\n \"-31.182407713960856\"\n ],\n [\n \"ensured by the organization and its managers.\\n3. Income for family and oneself - Income is necessary to support oneself. However, data does not show that people who earn more money are more gainfully employed than those who earn less.\\n4. A purpose derived from providing a product or service - An individual may derive purpose in life from the work that he or she completes. Many individuals describe their work as a calling, or in other words, “a vocation to which the employee brings a passion—a commitment to the work for its own sake”.\\n5. Happiness and satisfaction - Enthusiasm and attitude\",\n \"-31.176265936344862\"\n ],\n [\n \"why is it so hard for them to save money” which required the investigation of social pressures on spending and consumer culture. \\nIn an interview discussing her book Plentitude: The New Economics of True Wealth she says, \\\"When people work too many hours they tend to feel deprived and they use consumption to reward themselves, whether that be for an expensive vacation, kitchen remodel or a bigger diamond. The downturn has actually opened up space for people to think about different trajectories for their consumption expectations over their lifetimes.”\\nIn addition, at an early age, Schor strived to make her work\",\n \"-31.140471718565095\"\n ],\n [\n \"dramatically than for any other. As a result, the gap between those who make less than one and half million dollars annually (99.9% of households) and those who make more (0.1%) has been steadily increasing, prompting The New York Times to proclaim that the \\\"Richest Are Leaving Even the Rich Far Behind.\\\"\\nThe income disparities within the top 1.5% are quite drastic. While households in the top 1.5% of households had incomes exceeding $250,000, 443% above the national median, their incomes were still 2200% lower than those of the top 0.1% of households. One can therefore conclude that almost any household,\",\n \"-31.04458342106227\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the eye, or if it is truly needed. Increasing self-sufficiency One way to simplify life is to get back-to-the-land and grow your own food, as increased self-sufficiency reduces dependency on money and the economy. Tom Hodgkinson believes the key to a free and simple life is to stop consuming and start producing. This is a sentiment shared by an increasing number of people, including those belonging to the millennial generation such as writer and eco blogger Jennifer Nini, who left the city to live off-grid, grow food, and \\\"be a part of the solution; not part of the problem.\\\"\\nForest\",\n \"-31.011021514772438\"\n ],\n [\n \"Fortunate 400 Summary The Fortunate 400 are basically the richest people in the United States. In 1992, when the IRS starting tracking the people who make the most money, the 400th richest person in America made $24 million. Then In 2007, the 400th richest human produced $138 million (or $87 million, inflation-adjusted). These riches have come from capital gain, and the rich keep making more money. There is a constant question and debate in politics whether or not the rich need more tax cuts or need to pay more taxes.\",\n \"-30.998782565584406\"\n ],\n [\n \"and an impoverished population in countries with a low standard of business morality. This is natural because these people concentrate on cheating one another instead of trying to create value.\\nWe are granting you the profit share not because we feel a need to give money to the people just out of the goodness of the heart. No, we are aiming at other goals by this step. By this measure we want to reach a further decrease of production costs. We want to reach the situation that the shoes are cheaper and workers earn even more. We think that our products\",\n \"-30.97210459271446\"\n ],\n [\n \"world with more resources than all our future greed might exhaust, more opportunities than there will ever be entrepreneurs enough to exploit, and a peculiar kind of real estate that expands with development. Imagine a place where trespassers leave no footprints, where goods can be stolen infinite number of times and yet remain in the possession of their original owners, where business you never heard of can own the history of your personal affairs.'\\\"\\nHis writings include \\\"A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace\\\", which was written in response to the enactment of the Communications Decency Act in 1996 as the\",\n \"-30.925044294286636\"\n ],\n [\n \"other people's money (OPM). Kiyosaki writes, \\\"While the financial advice of saving money and investing in mutual funds may be good advice for the poor and middle class, it is not good advice for people who want to become rich.\\\" Composition and publication Prior to their work together on the book, Donald Trump had established himself in the business of real estate development and written The Art of the Deal, and Robert Kiyosaki authored The New York Times best seller Rich Dad Poor Dad. The coauthors became familiar with each other through encounters at the company The Learning Annex. Trump\",\n \"-30.88995215552859\"\n ],\n [\n \"We're Rich Again Premise A formerly wealthy family tries to stave off bankruptcy until one of them can marry a rich man.\",\n \"-30.877696901967283\"\n ],\n [\n \"be an expectation that some sacrifices will have to be made, in our generation, so that future generations can have the opportunities that we've had to grow and thrive and prosper, so that our private sector can do what a private sector does best in creating jobs. So, yeah, with some practical things that have to be made, some decisions here, with perhaps changing, in future years, not adversely affecting those who are reliant on retirement benefits today, for instance, Social Security benefits, but changing, perhaps, the eligibility in future years. That has to be something that we're brave enough,\",\n \"-30.859146588947624\"\n ],\n [\n \"me I should become a billionaire, I decided no one needs to be a billionaire — you should know when enough is enough. So I decided on a minimal business model, and that's worked out pretty well. This means I can give away tremendous amounts of money to the nonprofits I believe in.\\\" Politics In 2014, he was one of 60 Democratic Party donors who urged the creation of a system of public election funding.\\nIn 2016, Newmark joined with the progressive RAD Campaign and Lincoln Park Strategies (founded by Democratic Party stalwart Stefan Hankin) to commission a poll examining user perceptions about\",\n \"-30.77847595413914\"\n ],\n [\n \"people born into an affluent, information driven world. Younger generations live much more intellectually diverse lives and cites much user generated content as being mostly produced outside of the monetary economy. He affirms Cowen's acknowledgment that this has brought large increases in human happiness with correspondingly little economic activity. Relationship to the 2008 financial crisis and recession The Economist criticized Cowen for associating the economic problems resulting from the 2008 financial crisis to his broader thesis, arguing instead that this was mostly caused by a demand shock and mostly preventable. Some scholars, such as Jim Rickards, Howard Qi, Hongbin\",\n \"-30.73121899238322\"\n ],\n [\n \"buying and filling this void of acceptance and approval. Realizing there was this emptiness of being able to get anything they want, there was no meaning behind what they had. This called for a change in mindset with what they see as important and truly valuable before they can begin any other practices or lifestyle habits. Reducing consumption, work time, and possessions Some people practice simple living by reducing consumption. By lowering expenditure on goods or services, the time spent earning money can be reduced. The time saved may be used to pursue other interests, or help others through volunteering.\",\n \"-30.68031342269387\"\n ],\n [\n \"wealth\\\" in order to mitigate the problem of overconsumption of resources by the wealthy, but said \\\"the rich who now run the global system — that hold the annual 'world destroyer' meetings in Davos — are unlikely to let it happen.\\\" Simon–Ehrlich wager Julian Simon, a cornucopian economist, argued that overpopulation is not a problem as such and that humanity will adapt to changing conditions. Simon argued that eventually human creativity will improve living standards, and that most resources were replaceable. Simon stated that over hundreds of years, the prices of virtually all commodities have decreased significantly and persistently. Ehrlich termed Simon\",\n \"-30.654784633254167\"\n ],\n [\n \"societies. A wide spread of eco-sufficiency will only occur, if people find the new lifestyles sufficiently attractive. It needs to be shown that less material wealth can bring increased well-being or happiness to individuals and societies. For example, it has been shown that downsizing or relocating consumers can be motivated by purely selfish reasons such as improving one’s health, avoiding stress, the nostalgia for a “good old time” and so on.\\nAn important aspect here is related to the so-called work-and-spend cycle. If leisure and forms of work other than employment (incl. self-employment), such as caring, do it yourself and community\",\n \"-30.636244474211708\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sabatier amassed $1.25 million and reached financial independence by age 30. Publication Sabatier has written a book, Financial Freedom: A Proven Path to All the Money You Will Ever Need, which has been translated into 8 languages and is popular in the FIRE Movement. Blog MIllennial Money focuses on helping others \\\"make smarter financial decisions, build more successful companies, reach financial independence and live richer lives.\",\n \"-30.599371733071166\"\n ],\n [\n \"create an amount of wealth equal to or greater than the amount we create at the present time in 1,600 hours per year or 40,000 to 50,000 hours in a working life, we must all be able to obtain a real income equal to or higher than our current salaries in exchange for a greatly reduced quantity of work. In practice, this means that in the future we must receive our full monthly income every month even if we work full-time only one month in every two or six months in a year or even two years out of four,\",\n \"-30.57824313538731\"\n ],\n [\n \"This would not be a \\\"one time\\\" solution, but a continuous policy that would also generate income for governments. However, during periods of employment the 'life' of goods could be extended:\\nWouldn't it be profitable to spend a sum of—say—two billion dollars to buy up, immediately, obsolete and useless buildings, machinery, automobiles and other outworn junk, and in their place create from twenty to thirty billion dollars worth of work in the construction field and in the factory? Such a process would put the entire country on the road to recovery and eventually would restore normal employment and business prosperity.\",\n \"-30.50039763667155\"\n ],\n [\n \"able to earn a living without having to rely on the use of the property of others to do so. Examples of people earning a living in this way would be farmers who own their own land and related machinery, carpenters and plumbers who own their own tools, etc. The \\\"cooperative\\\" approach advances beyond this perspective to recognise that such property and equipment may be \\\"co-owned\\\" by local communities larger than a family, e.g., partners in a business.\\nIn Rerum novarum, Leo XIII states that people are likely to work harder and with greater commitment if they themselves possess the\",\n \"-30.447734533110633\"\n ],\n [\n \"being rich will contribute greatly to making them happier, and the American society reflects this growing materialism. Although wealth is associated with some positive outcomes, i.e. lighter prison sentences for the same crime, better health, and lower infant mortality, and can act as a buffer in certain instances, as mentioned previously, the overall relationship between money and happiness is marginal.\\nHowever, beyond a low threshold where the basic needs are met, money has a very small impact on happiness. There is also the concept of the diminishing marginal utility of income (DMUI), which is that money has no effect on\",\n \"-30.4175899818365\"\n ],\n [\n \"billionaire is US$3 billion, with a liquidity on average of 18% of net worth. 60% of the world's billionaires are self-made, 20% have inherited their fortune and 20% have both inherited and grown their wealth. 18% of the world's billionaires have derived their wealth from finance, banking and investment; as opposed to 9% from industrial conglomerates and 7% from the real estate industry. The average billionaire is 62 years old, and 89% of the world's billionaires are male. Approximately 68% of them have a bachelor's degree or higher levels of education. UHNWI role in economies: luxury industry and UHNW individuals\",\n \"-30.4054116543266\"\n ],\n [\n \"small percentage of their funds into real estate. Wealth Migrate summarized that by using technology and crowdfunding, investments in large developments could be made by individuals acting in groups, allowing them to receive a much higher return on investment, compared to the individual acting alone.\\nOne of the major examples that were quoted on CNBC Africa, was the investment made in the medical market. The company CEO stated that they invested close to hospitals geographically, which allowed a steady return on the investment. Another example given was the investment and purchasing of commercial property around London, where they would then rent\",\n \"-30.324717261188198\"\n ],\n [\n \"worse equipped to manage their finances. Secondly, aspirational consumption describes the process of middle income earners aspiring to achieve the standards of living enjoyed by their wealthier counterparts and one method of achieving this aspiration is by taking on debt. The result leads to even greater inequality and potential economic instability. Poverty Oxfam asserts that worsening inequality is impeding the fight against global poverty. A 2013 report from the group stated that the $240 billion added to the fortunes of the world's richest billionaires in 2012 was enough to end extreme poverty four times over. Oxfam Executive Director Jeremy Hobbs\",\n \"-30.2880991154816\"\n ],\n [\n \"also published You're So Money: Live Rich Even When You're Not. The book focuses on financial advice for young people. Her next book, Psych Yourself Rich was published in 2010 by FT Press.\\nIn 2010, Farnoosh joined Yahoo! Finance to host a weekly video series entitled Financially Fit. The series ended in December 2013.\\nIn 2014, Farnoosh published her third book, When She Makes More: 10 Rules for Breadwinning Women. In it, she candidly addresses how income imbalances affect relationships and family dynamics, and presents a bold strategy to achieving happiness at work and home.\\nOn January 14, 2015, Farnoosh launched the award-winning\",\n \"-30.27473518619081\"\n ],\n [\n \"Founder & CEO Nick Baily, in a speech at the Wall Street Green Trading Summit in 2008, spoke directly to both sides of this point, stating: \\\"So why go straight to the affluent? Because it’s precisely those who have had the most impact that have the means to create a solution.\\\". This line of reasoning has been common in press interviews with Baily and Stewart, with Baily telling financial news anchor Maria Bartiromo in a televised NBC interview: \\\"The top seven percent of the world's affluent are responsible for half of its carbon footprint. If you're not addressing that,\",\n \"-30.271031806711107\"\n ],\n [\n \"act. The accumulation of wealth grants more options and eliminates restrictions about how one can live life. Dennis Gilbert asserts that the standard of living of the working and middle classes is dependent upon income and wages, while the rich tend to rely on wealth, distinguishing them from the vast majority of Americans. A September 2014 study by Harvard Business School declared that the growing disparity between the very wealthy and the lower and middle classes is no longer sustainable. Statistics In 2007, the top 20% wealthiest possessed 80% of all financial assets. In 2007 the richest 1% of the\",\n \"-30.250523143102328\"\n ],\n [\n \"and bad investments. The current Forbes 400 is now primarily made up of newly wealthy business owners, not heirs and heiresses. In parallel research, the University of Chicago's Steven Kaplan and Stanford University's Joshua Rauh note that 69% of those on the Forbes list are actually first generation wealth creators. That figure has risen dramatically since 1982 when it stood at 40%.\\nEd Dolan supports the globalization and superstar hypothesis but points out that the high earnings are based, to some extent, on moral hazard like \\\"Bonus-based compensation schemes with inadequate clawback for losses\\\" and the shift of losses to shareholders,\",\n \"-30.210173755302094\"\n ],\n [\n \"to distribute and sell their creations, with 2.1 million items listed on its online marketplace. At its height circa 2006, hundreds of thousands of dollars were changing hands daily as residents created and sold a wide variety of virtual commodities. Second Life also quickly became profitable due to the selling and renting virtual real estate. 2006 also saw Second Life's first real-world millionaire; Ailin Graef, better known as Anshe Chung (her avatar), converted an initial investment of US$9.95 into over one million dollars over the course of two and a half years. She built her fortune primarily by buying, selling,\",\n \"-30.20308262796607\"\n ],\n [\n \"corporations channeling wealth from poorer countries to richer ones dictates that the gap will not diminish.\\nAvailable data indicates convergence of income for many developing countries.\\nIn his book The Ultimate Resource, Julian Simon offers the view that scarcity of physical resources can be overcome by the human mind. For example, the argument of scarcity of oil could be overcome by some of energy development strategies, such as use of synthetic fuels.\\nModern estimations indicate that mineral shortages will not become a threat for many centuries \\nConcerning exploitation of the former colonies, Gregory Clark notes: \\\"Yet generations of research by economic historians –\",\n \"-30.202960909547983\"\n ],\n [\n \"this is known as the \\\"resource curse\\\".\\nExtractive industries represent a large growing activity in many less-developed countries but the wealth generated does not always lead to sustainable and inclusive growth. People often accuse extractive industry businesses as acting only to maximize short-term value, implying that less-developed countries are vulnerable to powerful corporations. Alternatively, host governments are often assumed to be only maximizing immediate revenue. Researchers argue there are areas of common interest where development goals and business cross. These present opportunities for international governmental agencies to engage with the private sector and host governments through revenue management and expenditure accountability,\",\n \"-30.144895264814295\"\n ],\n [\n \"for giant corporations), at most 10% of population could reach the level of wealth achieved by people in the richest countries. Peripheral economies, which would not create an independent and more complete economy, would continue to be poor countries, with increasing differences between poor and rich people inside this societies;\\n3) About the World economic superstructure: The world superstructure of capitalist economy (mainly IMF and GATT, which originated WTO (World Trade Organization) would, on the one hand, increase control over the world economy, also increasing freedom for capital's flows and for big corporations' actions, and, on the other hand, would decrease\",\n \"-30.14218534604879\"\n ],\n [\n \"Money became a value-determinant than utility. This brought about frauds in various sectors. This latter aspect is not limited to youths but even company executives, and politicians of many societies. Technological advancement has made privacy less safer for intrusion and people more safer for protection. The supposedly good of technological advancement in the neomodern era has included whistle blow such as Wikileaks' Julian Assange. The more good has been in the level of innovations and innovators it has sprung up such as Facebook's Mark Zuckerberg and easier business models and broader social connectivity. This latter part has lessened more amity\",\n \"-30.141209386230912\"\n ],\n [\n \"of affordability.\\nAs a result of their business strategy, non-profits lack the financial and technical resources of for-profits, thus, forcing them to rely on multiple funding sources such as public and private grants and subsidies in order to cover development costs. Using multiple funding sources is risky because it creates complex financing which can be both timely and expensive. Most of these public and private sources exist exclusively for non-profit entities and although this provides an advantage for the non-profit industry, for-profits would often refrain from spending the uncompensated time and effort for such complicated deals. Issues during\",\n \"-30.10725788655691\"\n ],\n [\n \"service dictates that if Forever cannot sustain customers' accounts, it will use the Forever Guarantee Fund to give the customers' data back to Forever customers. Reception Michael Spring, a professor at the University of Pittsburgh School of Information Sciences, said, \\\"It seems a little overpriced. It may end up being a service used more by those who have disposable income\\\".\\nIn an April 2018 Photography Life review, Bob Vishneski, who works in the media software industry, wrote, \\\"as people begin to grasp and appreciate the importance of Digital Estate Planning, I believe Forever and others that venture into this space will\",\n \"-30.10473918505886\"\n ],\n [\n \"and limited ways to save income; therefore, individuals are more prone to spend than save. That eventually results in an adoption of a UAW lifestyle. Criticism Nassim Nicholas Taleb criticised the premise of the book on the basis of two instances of survivorship bias: that there is no mention of the accumulators who have accumulated underperforming assets, and that the United States had just gone through the greatest bull market in its history at the time of the book's publication. He suggested that the authors should lower the net worth of the observed millionaires to compensate for the effect\",\n \"-30.07852567062946\"\n ],\n [\n \"argue that the interest they earn can be recycled to benefit other organisations and is therefore, more efficient for the social sector overall than a grant.\\nThe sources of funds vary across the spectrum of social lenders but most often includes government monies or donations from private individuals and foundations or trusts. Lenders may restrict themselves to funding newly started organisations or may fund organisations throughout their life cycle; however the focus of investment is usually in building the capacity of the investee to achieve their stated social outcomes while becoming financially sustainable. In Britain In the British context, the\",\n \"-30.050042955903336\"\n ],\n [\n \"thing is to know that you've lived your life to the fullest.... You could be a billionaire, and you couldn't pay to do the things we've done.\\\"\\nIn early September 2009, she entered a hospice in Rochester, Minnesota, where she died on March 21, 2010, at the age of 59.\",\n \"-30.0477598158177\"\n ],\n [\n \"poor for most of his life, suddenly found himself looking for ways that he could do the greatest good for with his money. He wrote, \\\"My greatest care now is how to spend this large income to do the greatest good to those who are properly dependent on me, to the poor and to posterity.\\\" Cornell's self-education and hard work would lead him to the conclusion that the greatest end for his philanthropy was in the need of colleges for the teaching of practical pursuits such as agriculture, the applied sciences, veterinary medicine and engineering, and in finding opportunities for\",\n \"-30.032639979937812\"\n ],\n [\n \"swoop, John Fontanelli has become by far the richest person in the world, his net worth being bigger than the GDP of most countries. Yet, his ancestor has charged his heir with the task of using the inheritance to give back mankind its lost future.\\nAfter some hither and thither, he accepts the role assigned to him by his ancestor and tries to better the world socially and ecologically. On the advice of his mysterious new consultant, Malcolm McCaine, he founds a huge corporation called Fontanelli Enterprises and strategically invests the inherited fortune in a diversified group of projects to grow\",\n \"-29.994037338648923\"\n ],\n [\n \"new to me, but I was a little unhappy that the social enterprise idea was already 12 years old. Then I discovered that having a for-profit operation generate funding for a non-profit organization providing the same service was quite new. So, is saving lives not good enough? I'm not saying it's not good enough. It is. Is managing logistics not good enough? It is. But doing both of those and creating a new form of social enterprise all in one? That's the trifecta.\\nSpeaking with students on the occasion of receiving a Distinguished Alumnus Award from his alma mater, Indian Institute\",\n \"-29.948019367962843\"\n ],\n [\n \"else the cycle of life holds for them. With tons of money in their disposal but with powerful elites on their search, they are forced to alter their plans following impending pressures.\",\n \"-29.93048306624405\"\n ],\n [\n \"most people who work in finance and other high-paying industries value money for selfish reasons and that being surrounded by these people will cause effective altruists to become less altruistic. Peter Singer responded to these criticisms in his book The Most Good You Can Do by giving examples of people who have been earning to give for years without losing their altruistic motivation. In The Week, Pascal-Emmanuel Gobry argued that the practice was \\\"unsettling\\\". Cause priorities Effective altruism aspires to be cause-neutral, meaning it is in principle open to helping in whichever areas allow them to do the most good.\",\n \"-29.929940202040598\"\n ],\n [\n \"business. By January 2019, three years after launch, more than 1400 entrepreneurs have pledged an estimated total value of $700 million based on the founders' equity and the companies' valuation and at least $91 million were raised. Career selection Effective altruists argue that selection of one's career is an important determinant of the amount of good one does, both directly (through the services one provides to the world) and indirectly (through the ways one directs the money earned based on the career).\\n80,000 Hours is an organisation in the effective altruism community that conducts research on which careers have the largest\",\n \"-29.918523252592422\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the eye, you know that nothing's going with you, and life is but a thread. It's a pretty tenuous thing we're hanging on to. So, what is the point of making money? I concluded it certainly isn't for accumulating it. That's the most stupid thing I ever heard of. So, there can be only one point, and that's to spend it. Now, I'm not ridiculously wasteful, but I may be slightly extravagant. As Andrew Carnegie said, to die rich is to die disgraced.\\\"\",\n \"-29.886474305269076\"\n ],\n [\n \"will typically rise hence reducing income inequality and poverty.\\nThe lack of financial access limits the range of services and credits for household and enterprises. Poor individuals and small enterprises need to rely on their personal wealth or internal resources to invest in their education and businesses, which limits their full potential and leading to the cycle of persistent inequality and diminished growth.\\nAccess to finance varies greatly between countries and ranges from about 5 percent of the adult population in Papua New Guinea and Tanzania to 100 percent in the Netherlands (for a comprehensive list of estimated measures of access\",\n \"-29.838143810105976\"\n ],\n [\n \"that we can donate people out of poverty, that national economic growth will end poverty, and that Big Business, operating as it does now, will end poverty. Economic models which lead to national growth and more big business will not necessarily lead to more opportunities for self-sufficiency. However, businesses designed with a social goal in mind, such as micro finance banks, may be able to make a difference. Growth vs. state intervention: comparative perspective in China, India, Brazil A 2012 World Bank research article, “A Comparative Perspective on Poverty Reduction in Brazil, China, and India,” looked at the three nations’\",\n \"-29.825101268521394\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the country's wealth and the bottom 80% of the population owned 15%. Financial inequality was greater than inequality in total wealth, with the top 1% of the population owning 42.7%, the next 19% of Americans owning 50.3%, and the bottom 80% owning 7%. However, according to the federal reserve, \\\"For most households, pensions and Social Security are the most important sources of income during retirement, and the promised benefit stream constitutes a sizable fraction of household wealth\\\" and \\\"including pensions and Social Security in net worth makes the distribution more even\\\". When including household wealth from pensions and social\",\n \"-29.809073714888655\"\n ],\n [\n \"62 people between the World's Billionaires increased by $500bn (£350bn) to $1.76tn. This number has fallen dramatically from 388 as recently as 2010. More recently, in 2017 an Oxfam report noted that just eight billionaires have as much net worth as \\\"half the human race\\\".\",\n \"-29.797414147120435\"\n ],\n [\n \"Challenges and problems In the contemporary era, several issues are faced in the world.\\nFirst of all, wealth is concentrated among the G8 and Western industrialized nations, along with several Asian nations and OPEC countries. The richest 1% of adults alone owned 40% of global assets in the year 2000 and that the richest 10% of adults accounted for 85% of the world total. The bottom half of the world adult population owned barely 1% of global wealth. Another study found that the richest 2% own more than half of global household assets. Despite this, the distribution has been changing quite\",\n \"-29.77156808890868\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Boston Consulting Group, around 70% of the nation's wealth will be in the hands of millionaires and billionaires by 2021. Early 20th century Pioneering work by Simon Kuznets using income tax records and his own well-researched estimates of national income showed a reduction of about 10% in the portion of national income going to the top 10%, a reduction from about 45–50% in 1913 to about 30–35% in 1948. This period spans both The Great Depression and World War II, events with significant economic consequences. This is called the Great Compression. Wealth inequality and child poverty In 2013 UNICEF\",\n \"-29.7453958139522\"\n ],\n [\n \"of 40, while the list of American-only billionaires, as of 2010, had an average age of 66.\\nIn 2019 there are now a record 607 billionaires in the U.S. That includes 14 of the world’s 20 richest. Jeff Bezos is again number 1 in the world, followed by Bill Gates at number 2. Billionaires who own the same wealth as half the world According to a 2016 Oxfam report, the wealth of the poorest 95% dropped by 38% between 2010 and 2015, despite an increase in the global population of 400 million. In the same period, the wealth of the richest\",\n \"-29.72816598362988\"\n ],\n [\n \"Super-Rich are Changing our Lives. In The Guardian, Polly Toynbee said of it: \\\"Reading Peston's book, you can only be flabbergasted all over again at how Labour kowtowed to wealth, glorified the City and put all the nation's economic eggs into one dangerous basket of fizzy finance.\\\"\\nIn September 2012, Hodder & Stoughton published How Do We Fix This Mess? The Economic Price of Having it All and the Route to Lasting Prosperity. The Observer described it as \\\"A must read...mandatory reading for anyone who wants to have a voice in where we go from here.\\\"\\nHis latest book WTF? was published\",\n \"-29.718290383083513\"\n ],\n [\n \"driven by extraordinary levels of human creativity, where abnormally talented individuals and entities are able to realize new levels of human potential and economic achievement. It is \\\"a new economic era where the main source of national wealth is no longer resource rent but the socio-economic infrastructure that allows every person to realise his or her intellectual or creative potential.\\\" But, according to Fridman – based on his observations of recent economic indicators, political and market volatility, and historical patterns – it is also an era that will generate winners and losers as lagging countries and groups fail to adapt\",\n \"-29.705800544354133\"\n ],\n [\n \"all summer, and who by the application of brain and muscle to the natural resources of the country creates wealth, is as much a business man as the man who goes upon the Board of Trade and bets upon the price of grain; the miners who go down a thousand feet into the earth, or climb two thousand feet upon the cliffs, and bring forth from their hiding places the precious metals to be poured into the channels of trade are as much business men as the few financial magnates who, in a back room, corner the money of the\",\n \"-29.67715527609107\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"bad billionaires\\\" who make money by \\\"digging stuff out of the ground,\\\" at the expense of \\\"good billionaires\\\", who work in productive industries like technology.\\nRecently he has written that the \\\"China-commodity connection\\\" is breaking, and that the retreat of commodity prices will undercut commodity economies that thrived in the last decade based on spiking prices. Those include Russia, Brazil and \\\"nasty petro states\\\", and their retreat will greatly help commodity importers such as the United States. He says that, if anything, Americans underestimate the negative impact of high oil prices, noting that a sharp increase in oil prices has laid\",\n \"-29.669311903242487\"\n ],\n [\n \"means that the money you contribute now is more important than the money you contribute 1 year from now. This is because it will have more time to grow, thus it is the most powerful contribution. Just as last year's contributions are more powerful than this year's contributions. Publications Dunn is author of What Your Dad Never Taught You About Budgeting (SPS Publishing, 2006) and 60 Days to Change: A Daily How-To Guide with Actionable Tips for Improving Your Financial Life (Channel V Books, 2009). Personal Dunn resides in Carmel, Indiana with his wife, Sarah, his daughter, Olivia, and son,\",\n \"-29.653535869554617\"\n ],\n [\n \"of a society are we going to have if it consists of highly paid people doing high-value-added work—and masses of unemployed?\\\"\\nHe felt that employment growth depended on those companies' ability or willingness to scale up within the U.S. According to Grove, Silicon Valley's \\\"innovation machine\\\" over the last few decades has not been adding many jobs, although American tech companies have instead been adding jobs in Asia \\\"like mad.\\\" He noted that while our investments in startups have increased dramatically, those investments have in fact resulted in fewer jobs: \\\"Simply put,\\\" he wrote, \\\"the U.S. has become wildly inefficient at\",\n \"-29.575847499683732\"\n ],\n [\n \"wealthy, breaking even (Spartan), spender, broke, and breaking even (Lavish). Spending tomorrow's cash today The most prominent idea shared by UAWs and American society in general is \\\"spending tomorrow's cash today\\\". This is the leading cause of debt and a lack of net worth in the UAW category. This contradicts the common belief of a PAW: \\\"save today's cash for tomorrow\\\". Many UAWs do plan, under certain conditions (such as a rise in income), to use investment strategies to accumulate wealth; however, most don't actually use investment strategies to accumulate wealth once the initial conditions are met. For example,\",\n \"-29.572164530254668\"\n ],\n [\n \"the prevailing system of social relations governing legitimate cooperation and competition. The wealth of some may depend on the poverty of others.\\nSome scarcity is truly physical scarcity; other scarcity is purely socially constructed, i.e. people are excluded from wealth not by physical scarcity but through the way the social system functions (the system of property rights and distributing wealth that it has). In modern times, calculations have been done of the type that an annual levy of 5.2% on the fortunes of the world's 500 or so billionaires would be financially sufficient to guarantee essential needs for the whole world\",\n \"-29.55738677154295\"\n ],\n [\n \"over a long period of time can accumulate a large sum of money. Mr. Friend’s poor parents were smokers and drinkers. They smoked at least three packs of cigarettes a day during the week. Three packs a day over 46 years translated into a sum of money that exceeded the value of their home by $33,000. Even more extraordinary, if the Friends had invested and reinvested that money over a 46-year period, the portfolio would have exceeded $2 million. The value of a small amount of money over a long period of time is amazing.\",\n \"-29.55542098222213\"\n ],\n [\n \"wealth and spending ability of the rich, many of whom will spend or invest this money in the rich countries, thus not even creating a trickle-down effect. They argue that the money would be far better spent in specific aid projects that actually help the poor. They further argue that it would be unfair to third-world countries that managed their credit successfully, or do not go into debt in the first place. That is, it actively encourages third-world governments to overspend in order to receive debt relief in the future.\\nOthers argue against the conditionalities attached to debt relief. These conditions\",\n \"-29.550626066971745\"\n ],\n [\n \"Middle Class Millionaire Overview Written by Lewis Schiff (The Armchair Millionaire) and Russ Allen Prince (Cultivating the Middle-class Millionaire: Why Financial Advisors Are Failing Their Wealthy Clients and What They Can Do About It) the book introduces an entirely new way of understanding why certain trends are gaining momentum and where that momentum will lead to next.\\nThe book shows us how this subset of America, labeled the Middle-Class Millionaire, manages to thrive with one foot in the world they came from (the middle-class) and one foot in the world they now inhabit (the wealthy).\\nThe Middle-Class Millionaire is based on extensive\",\n \"-29.534757975263346\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the Forbes list of world billionaires, with a net worth of US$5.0 billion. Philanthropy In 2000, he established LIFE (Landmark International Foundation of Empowerment), to support underprivileged children in India, through school and healthcare development programmes, homes for destitute children, vocational and non-formal schools, community clinics and medical camps for slum-dwellers and an old age home Chennai.\",\n \"-29.53326853114413\"\n ],\n [\n \"the possibility of capital appreciation. Those who are not wealthy are more likely to have their money in savings accounts and home ownership. This difference comprises the largest reason for the continuation of wealth inequality in America: the rich are accumulating more assets while the middle and working classes are just getting by. As of 2007, the richest 1% held about 38% of all privately held wealth in the United States. while the bottom 90% held 73.2% of all debt. According to The New York Times, the richest 1 percent in the United States now own more wealth than the\",\n \"-29.50203002267517\"\n ],\n [\n \"to affect at least a billion people (i.e., have universal appeal), it had to be able to be delivered to customers living where there was not a FedEx office or even a road, and it had to be \\\"radically affordable\\\" to attract someone who earned less than $2 a day. Creating entrepreneurs Rather than encouraging multinational businesses to meet the needs of the poor, some organizations such as iDE, the World Resources Institute, and the United Nations Development Programme began to focus on working directly with helping bottom-of-the-pyramid populations become local, small-scale entrepreneurs. Since so much of this population is\",\n \"-29.49574481858872\"\n ],\n [\n \"of their creating, usually maintained by trust funds, which independently own and operate large computing resources for their sakes, separated physically and economically from most of the rest of the world's computing power, which is privatized as a fungible commodity. Although the wealthiest copies face no financial difficulties, they can still be threatened because copies lack political and legal rights (they are considered software), especially where the global economy is in recession. Hence they cannot afford to retreat into solipsism and ignore what is happening in the real world.\\nAt the opposite end from the wealthy Copies are those who can\",\n \"-29.495061100664316\"\n ],\n [\n \"stages. Traditionally, people accumulate wealth in their younger and middle-aged, years, and spend that wealth in their later retirement years. Clearly, as Modigliani's life-cycle saving-spending hypothesis illustrates, this is a purposeful simplification of a complex life span dynamic; many people continue to (work and) accumulate in their older years just as, of course, younger and middle-aged persons spend during the accumulation years of their wealth span. Changes in balance Beyond a concern with the stages of accumulation and expenditure, the wealth span model offers two valuable tools of analysis useful for both academic research and financial practice: (1) changes in\",\n \"-29.47725037255441\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the global top 1% increased approximately 60%, while the middle classes of the emerging economies (those around the 50th percentile of the global income distribution in 1988) rose 70–80%. For example, in 2000, 5 million Chinese households earned between $11,500 and $43,000 in 2016 dollars. By 2015, 225 million did. On the other hand, those in the middle class of the developed world (those in the 75th to 90th percentile in 1988, such as the American middle class) experienced little real income gains. The richest 1% contains 60 million persons globally, including 30 million Americans (i.e., the top 12%\",\n \"-29.470284280600026\"\n ],\n [\n \"country’s economy starts to grow, all assets, including mine and other businessmen’s, will become more costly. We will become richer. This is the business model; people are not aware that the projects are not created for profit here and now. Our projects have longer than a ten-year horizon”, stated Vasyl Khmelnytsky.\\nHe is the majority shareholder at the UDP company. As of 2018, the UDP company has launched construction projects with an area of more than 3 million square meters and has become one of the largest real estate developers and infrastructure enterprises in the country. Among its most famous projects\",\n \"-29.46756632139295\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":583,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"369sjs"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why does stomach gas feel painful only occasionally, while other times it flows freely from my anus?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Sometimes it gets trapped and builds up pressure. The pressure is what causes pain. It gets trapped because there is other stuff in the way. When it flows freely from your anus, it is not trapped. ^() ^^^\\(Sorry ^^^for ^^^taking ^^^the ^^^subreddit ^^^literally, ^^^but ^^^it ^^^came ^^^out ^^^that ^^^way, ^^^and ^^^I ^^^thought ^^^it ^^^was ^^^funny. ^^^No ^^^offense ^^^meant.)","It depends on where and how much is generated. If there is too much gas generated (dependent on what you eat and how it breaks down, how much air you swallow), it impinges on your muscles in the tummy and makes it hurt. You're also forgetting about burps, which are basically farts from the mouth.","The pain is from stretching of the intestines. You can pass larger bubbles easier, so lots of small bubbles (like foam, if you want to imagine that...) will hurt more because it's more difficult to vent it out the chute. This can be from stuff you eat, or stuff you eat interacting with certain bacteria which tend to release gasses. People with lactose intolerance can testify to that. Things like simethecone reduce the foaming property and allow you to pass the gas much easier. So, lay off the dish soap or you might be in pain."],"string":"[\n \"Sometimes it gets trapped and builds up pressure. The pressure is what causes pain. It gets trapped because there is other stuff in the way. When it flows freely from your anus, it is not trapped. ^() ^^^\\\\(Sorry ^^^for ^^^taking ^^^the ^^^subreddit ^^^literally, ^^^but ^^^it ^^^came ^^^out ^^^that ^^^way, ^^^and ^^^I ^^^thought ^^^it ^^^was ^^^funny. ^^^No ^^^offense ^^^meant.)\",\n \"It depends on where and how much is generated. If there is too much gas generated (dependent on what you eat and how it breaks down, how much air you swallow), it impinges on your muscles in the tummy and makes it hurt. You're also forgetting about burps, which are basically farts from the mouth.\",\n \"The pain is from stretching of the intestines. You can pass larger bubbles easier, so lots of small bubbles (like foam, if you want to imagine that...) will hurt more because it's more difficult to vent it out the chute. This can be from stuff you eat, or stuff you eat interacting with certain bacteria which tend to release gasses. People with lactose intolerance can testify to that. Things like simethecone reduce the foaming property and allow you to pass the gas much easier. So, lay off the dish soap or you might be in pain.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["much like burping, but helps the body pass gas through the anus, not the mouth. Bacteria present in the intestinal tract cause gas to be expelled from the anus. They produce the gas as food is digested and moved from the small intestine. This gas builds up and causes swelling or bloating in the abdominal area before it is released. Constipation A common gastrointestinal problem is constipation—infrequent bowel movements, hard stools, or strain during the movements—which causes serious cases of bloating. Since most cases of constipation are temporary, simple lifestyle changes, such as getting more exercise and increasing one's intake","-35.30099852976855"],["gas distention, which causes this affected piece of bowel to rise upward in the abdomen.\nAbdominal distention may occasionally be seen in adult horses in the flank region, if the cecum or large colon is affected. Foals, however, may show signs of gas within the small intestines with severe abdominal distention. Pelvic flexure impaction This is caused by an impaction of food material (water, grass, hay, grain) at a part of the large bowel known as the pelvic flexure of the left colon where the intestine takes a 180 degree turn and narrows. Impaction generally responds well to medical treatment, usually","-34.625723812147044"],["types of complaints that relate to intestinal gas, which may present individually or in combination. Bloating and pain Patients may complain of bloating as abdominal distension, discomfort and pain from \"trapped wind\". In the past, functional bowel disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome that produced symptoms of bloating were attributed to increased production of intestinal gas. However, three significant pieces of evidence refute this theory. First, in normal subjects, even very high rates of gas infusion into the small intestine (30 ml/min) is tolerated without complaints of pain or bloating and harmlessly passed as flatus per rectum. Secondly, studies aiming to","-33.03825215972029"],["poorly absorbed in the small intestine and subsequently fermented by the bacteria in the distal small and proximal large intestine. This is a normal phenomenon, common to everyone. The resultant production of gas potentially results in bloating and flatulence.\nNevertheless, although FODMAPs can cause certain digestive discomfort in some people, not only do they not cause intestinal inflammation, but they help to prevent it because they produce beneficial alterations in the intestinal flora that contribute to maintain the good health of the colon.\nFODMAPs are not the cause of irritable bowel syndrome nor other functional gastrointestinal disorders, but rather a person develops","-33.02073163312161"],["lead to the stomach's inability to contract and lose its ability to empty itself. Side effects of gastroparesis include chronic indigestion, nausea and vomiting.","-32.44064024777617"],["it can also occur from a blockage at the distal end of stomach, a cancer or a stroke. Symptoms of gastroparesis includes abdominal pain, fullness, bloating, nausea, vomiting after eating food, loss of appetite and feeling of fullness after eating small amounts of food. Diarrhea During digestion, food is stored in the liquid present in the stomach. The food that is not digested travels to the large intestine and colon in liquid form. These organs begin to absorb the water turning the food into a more solid form. Different viruses or bacteria can increase the amount of liquid that is","-32.23882751399651"],["diverticulum may also result in halitosis due to aging food retained in the esophagus. Stomach The stomach is considered by most researchers as a very uncommon source of bad breath. The esophagus is a closed and collapsed tube, and continuous flow of gas or putrid substances from the stomach indicates a health problem—such as reflux serious enough to be bringing up stomach contents or a fistula between the stomach and the esophagus—which will demonstrate more serious manifestations than just foul odor.\nIn the case of allyl methyl sulfide (the byproduct of garlic's digestion), odor does not come from the stomach, since","-32.11788860638626"],["to state that \"Stomach inflation is a complex problem that may cause regurgitation, [gastric acid] aspiration, and, possibly, death.\" When stomach inflation leads to vomiting of highly acidic stomach acids, delivery of subsequent breaths can force these caustic acids down into the lungs where they cause life-threatening or fatal lung injuries including Mendelson's syndrome, aspiration pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome and \"pulmonary injuries similar to that seen in victims of chlorine gas exposure\". Apart from the risks of gastric inflation causing vomiting and regurgitation, at least two reports have been found indicating that gastric insufflation itself remains","-32.04401764267823"],["stomach emptying time than men. A hormonal link has been suggested, as gastroparesis symptoms tend to worsen the week before menstruation when progesterone levels are highest. Neither theory has been proven definitively. Mechanism Gastroparesis can be connected to hypochlorhydria and be caused by chloride, sodium and/or zinc deficiency, as these minerals are needed for the stomach to produce adequate levels of gastric acid (HCl) to properly empty itself of a meal.\nOn the molecular level, it is thought that gastroparesis can be caused by the loss of neuronal nitric oxide expression since the cells in the GI tract secrete nitric oxide.","-31.522692980070133"],["in the upper gastrointestinal tract, and the fact that this is primarily re-absorbed in parts of the intestine downstream from the obstruction. The first problem with this degree of fluid loss from circulation is one of decreased plasma volume, leading to a reduced cardiac output, and acid-base disturbances.\nThe intestine becomes distended due to the trapped fluid and gas production from bacteria. It is this distension, and subsequent activation of stretch receptors within the intestinal wall, that leads to the associated pain. With progressive distension of the intestinal wall, there is occlusion of blood vessels, firstly the less rigid veins, then","-31.427534085931256"],["affecting millions of people. Gastritis is basically inflammation of the stomach wall lining and has many causes. Smoking, excess alcohol consumption and the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen, account for the majority of causes of gastritis. In some cases, gastritis may develop after surgery, a major burn, infection or emotional stress. The most common symptoms of gastritis include sharp abdominal pain which may radiate to the back. This may be associated with nausea, vomiting, abdominal bloating and a lack of appetite. When the condition is severe it may even result in loss of blood on the","-31.105101018445566"],["gas gangrene, present in humans. This gas builds up in infected tissue, usually large muscles, and causes the tissue to make a crackling or popping sound when pressed. Large gas-filled blisters can also form, which can be extremely painful as they build up in the tissues. Clinical presentations When infection begins, the animal may develop a fever, and the affected limb can feel hot to the touch. The limb usually swells significantly, and the animal can develop lameness on the affected leg. Crepitation (the sensation of air under the skin) can be noticed in many infections, as the area seems","-31.079086983692832"],["and stomach acid being secreted. This, combined with the damage from ammonium, leads to ulceration of the stomach wall.","-30.91890249926655"],["Gastrointestinal perforation Signs and symptoms Signs and symptoms may include a sudden pain in the epigastrium to the right of the midline indicating the perforation of a duodenal ulcer, while a gastric ulcer perforation reveals itself by burning pain in epigastrium, with flatulence and dyspepsia.\nIn intestinal perforation, pain starts from the site of perforation and spreads across the abdomen.\nGastrointestinal perforation results in severe abdominal pain intensified by movement, nausea, vomiting and hematemesis. Later symptoms include fever and or chills. In any case, the abdomen becomes rigid with tenderness and rebound tenderness. After some time the abdomen becomes silent and heart","-30.88216572708916"],["much research to be done on the brain-gut connection, research thus far has indeed shown that your stomach does indeed churn differently when you are emotionally aroused, and this could be the basis of the gut feeling that many people describe experiencing. Gender differences In recent years, some research has been done about gender differences in the perception and experience of disgust. One such study, upon presenting both male and female subjects with video clips designed to trigger disgust and found that although women reported feeling more disgust than men at these stimuli, the physiological responses did not show","-30.785601877840236"],["Fecal impaction Signs and symptoms Symptoms include chronic constipation. There can be fecal incontinence and paradoxical or overflow diarrhea (encopresis) as liquid stool passes around the obstruction. Complications may include necrosis and ulcers of the rectal tissue. Abdominal pain and bloating could also be present depending on the severity of the condition. Loss of appetite can also occur. Causes There are many possible causes; for example, physical inactivity, not eating enough (particularly of fiber), and not drinking enough water. Medications such as opioid pain relievers (suboxone, methadone, codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, etc.) and certain sedatives that reduce intestinal movement may cause","-30.75175192207098"],["central nervous system, adrenal glands, kidneys, and liver appear.\nIngestion of ricin causes pain, inflammation, and hemorrhage in the mucosal membranes of the gastrointestinal system. Gastrointestinal symptoms quickly progress to severe nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and difficulty swallowing (dysphagia). Haemorrhage causes bloody feces (melena) and vomiting blood (hematemesis). The low blood volume (hypovolemia) caused by gastrointestinal fluid loss can lead to organ failure in the pancreas, kidney, liver, and GI tract and progress to shock. Shock and organ failure are indicated by disorientation, stupor, weakness, drowsiness, excessive thirst (polydipsia), low urine production (oliguria), and bloody urine (hematuria).\nSymptoms of ricin inhalation are different","-30.73045298748184"],["Gastrojejunocolic fistula A gastrojejunocolic fistula is a disorder of the human gastrointestinal tract. It may form between the transverse colon and the upper jejunum after a Billroth II surgical procedure. (The Billroth procedure attaches the jejunum to the remainder of the stomach.) Fecal matter thereby passes improperly from the colon to the stomach, and causes halitosis.\nPatients may present with diarrhea, weight loss and halitosis as a result of fecal matter passing through the fistula from the colon into the stomach.","-30.720482480945066"],["population within the intestinal lumen.\nInflammation of the intestine leads to the secretion of a large amounts of electrolytes, primarily sodium and chloride, into its lumen, resulting in the osmotic movement of water. The production of fluid is thought to be due to active hypersecretion, passive secretion of proteins secondary to damage to epithelium of the mucosa and capillaries, and a functional ileus which prevents removal of this fluid. Massive fluid production results in extensive reflux, usually produced at a rate of 50–100 mL/min, in addition to distention of the proximal small intestine, dehydration, and possible shock secondary to hypovolemia. Proximal","-30.667322276247432"],["much food or liquid in your stomach if your stomach doesn’t have that capability can make you vomit.\" Thus, the vomiting response is likely due to an inability for the stomach to contain the substances.","-30.621430344735927"],["Bloating Symptoms The most common symptoms associated with bloating is a sensation that the abdomen is full or distended. Rarely, bloating may be painful or cause shortness of breath.\nPains that are due to bloating will feel sharp and cause the stomach to cramp. These pains may occur anywhere in the body and can change locations quickly. They are so painful that they are sometimes mistaken for heart pains when they develop on the upper left side of the chest. Pains on the right side are often confused with problems in the appendix or the gallbladder.\nOne symptom of gas that is","-30.537043806747533"],["Urinary incontinence Mechanism Continence and micturition involve a balance between urethral closure and detrusor muscle activity. Urethral pressure normally exceeds bladder pressure, resulting in urine remaining in the bladder. The proximal urethra and bladder are both within the pelvis. Intra abdominal pressure increases (from coughing and sneezing) are transmitted to both urethra and bladder equally, leaving the pressure differential unchanged, resulting in continence. Normal voiding is the result of changes in both of these pressure factors: urethral pressure falls and bladder pressure rises.\nThe body stores urine — water and wastes removed by the kidneys — in the urinary bladder, a","-30.468763448552636"],["even destroy the stomach or its lining. In some cases bile, normally used to aid digestion in the small intestine, will enter through the pyloric valve of the stomach if it has been removed during surgery or does not work properly, also leading to gastritis. Gastritis may also be caused by other medical conditions, including HIV/AIDS, Crohn's disease, certain connective tissue disorders, and liver or kidney failure. Since 1992, chronic gastritis lesions are classified according to the Sydney system. Metaplasia Mucous gland metaplasia, the reversible replacement of differentiated cells, occurs in the setting of severe damage of the","-30.32801246829331"],["resulting in the inability of the aqueous fluid to flow from the posterior to the anterior chamber and then out of the trabecular network. This accumulation of aqueous humor causes an acute increase in pressure and pain.\nThe inconsistent relationship of glaucomatous optic neuropathy with increased intraocular pressure has provoked hypotheses and studies on anatomic structure, eye development, nerve compression trauma, optic nerve blood flow, excitatory neurotransmitter, trophic factor, retinal ganglion cell/axon degeneration, glial support cell, immune system, aging mechanisms of neuron loss, and severing of the nerve fibers at the scleral edge. Absolute glaucoma Absolute glaucoma (H44.5) is the end","-30.276988489436917"],["tract will cause it to build up in the stomach, a process that can eventually lead to stomach rupture, which is inevitably fatal.\nBacking up of fluid through the intestinal tract is usually due to a downstream obstruction, ileus, or proximal enteritis, and its presence usually indicates a small intestinal disease. Generally, the closer the obstruction is to the stomach, the greater amount of gastric reflux will be present. Approximately 50% of horses with gastric reflux require surgery. Abdominal ultrasound Ultrasound provides visualization of the thoracic and abdominal structures, and can sometimes rule out or narrow down a diagnosis. Information that","-30.24080017430242"],["typically is accompanied by dysuria (pain when urinating). Diastasis recti or abdominal separation During pregnancy, many women experience a separation of their stomach muscles, known as diastasis recti. It affects the rectus abdominis muscle.\nThe rectus abdominis muscle is divided down the middle by the tendinous line called the linea alba. It is kept in line by the transverse abdominal and oblique abdominal muscles. During pregnancy, the growth of the fetus exerts pressure on abdominal cavity muscles, in particular the rectus abdominis. In pregnancies that experience rapid fetus growth or women with particularly weak abdominal muscles, this pressure can sometimes causes","-30.228875142114703"],["acid and pepsin which would damage the walls of the stomach and mucus is secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients","-30.13917661877349"],["junction of the stomach with the duodenum.\nThe stomach is surrounded by parasympathetic (stimulant) and sympathetic (inhibitor) plexuses (networks of blood vessels and nerves in the anterior gastric, posterior, superior and inferior, celiac and myenteric), which regulate both the secretory activity of the stomach and the motor (motion) activity of its muscles.\nIn adult humans, the stomach has a relaxed, near empty volume of about 75 millilitres. Because it is a distensible organ, it normally expands to hold about one litre of food. The stomach of a newborn human baby will only be able to retain about 30 millilitres. The maximum stomach","-30.116197960684076"],["appearance. The gases produced also cause natural liquids and liquefying tissues to become frothy. As the pressure of the gases within the body increases, fluids are forced to escape from natural orifices, such as the nose, mouth, and anus, and enter the surrounding environment. The buildup of pressure combined with the loss of integrity of the skin may also cause the body to rupture.\nIntestinal anaerobic bacteria transform haemoglobin into sulfhemoglobin and other colored pigments. The associated gases which accumulate within the body at this time aid in the transport of sulfhemoglobin throughout the body via the","-30.020002862234833"],["is to digest food and regulate the intestinal flora. The harmful bacteria in rancid food, for example, creates gas. The colon has distension sensors that can tell when there is unexpected gas pushing the colon walls out—thus the \"second brain\" tells the person that he or she is having intestinal difficulties by way of the sensation of nausea. Doctors typically recommend either total anesthesia or a partial twilight sedative to either preclude or to lessen the patient's awareness of pain or discomfort, or just the unusual sensations of the procedure. Once the colon has been inflated, the doctor inspects it","-29.982967609539628"],["of the intestinal lumen. Such luminal distension may induce pain, a sensation of bloating, abdominal distension and motility disorders. Therapeutic approaches seek to reduce factors that lead to distension, particularly of the distal small and proximal large intestine. Food substances that can induce distension are those that are poorly absorbed in the proximal small intestine, osmotically active, and fermented by intestinal bacteria with hydrogen (as opposed to methane) production. The small molecule FODMAPs exhibit these characteristics.\nOver many years, there have been multiple observations that ingestion of certain short-chain carbohydrates, including lactose, fructose and sorbitol, fructans and galactooligosaccharides, can induce gastrointestinal","-29.93871900148224"],["routed through the vagus nerve and release of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40% of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and G cell (secretes gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin.\nThe gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the","-29.832824873330537"],["gas. Some patients may exhibit over-sensitivity to bad flatus smell, and in extreme forms, olfactory reference syndrome may be diagnosed. Incontinence of flatus \"Gas incontinence\" could be defined as loss of voluntary control over the passage of flatus. It is a recognised subtype of faecal incontinence, and is usually related to minor disruptions of the continence mechanisms. Some consider gas incontinence to be the first, sometimes only, symptom of faecal incontinence. Cause Intestinal gas is composed of varying quantities of exogenous sources and endogenous sources. The exogenous gases are swallowed (aerophagia) when eating or drinking or increased swallowing during times","-29.826036305465095"],["can be voluntarily elicited by tensing the rectum or \"bearing down\" on stomach or bowel muscles and subsequently relaxing the anal sphincter, resulting in the expulsion of flatus. Management Since problems involving intestinal gas present as different (but sometimes combined) complaints, the management is cause-related. Pain and bloating While not affecting the production of the gases themselves, surfactants (agents that lower surface tension) can reduce the disagreeable sensations associated with flatulence, by aiding the dissolution of the gases into liquid and solid faecal matter. Preparations containing simethicone reportedly operate by promoting the coalescence of smaller bubbles into larger ones more","-29.771691957022995"],["tube is wider and forms the sucking stomach. When the sucking stomach's powerful muscles contract, the stomach is increased in cross-section, creating a strong sucking action that permits the tarantula to suck its liquefied prey up through the mouth and into the intestines. Once the liquefied food enters the intestines, it is broken down into particles small enough to pass through the intestine walls into the hemolymph (blood stream), where it is distributed throughout the body. After feeding, the leftovers are formed into a small ball by the tarantula and thrown away. In a terrarium, they often put them into","-29.670851376780774"],["prokinetic effect of rectal distension on the rate of transit of intestinal gas. It is now known that gas is moved along the gut independently of solids and liquids, and this transit is more efficient in the erect position compared to when supine. It is thought that large volumes of intestinal gas present low resistance, and can be propelled by subtle changes in gut tone, capacitance and proximal contraction and distal relaxation. This process is thought not to affect solid and liquid intra-lumenal contents.\nResearchers investigating the role of sensory nerve endings in the anal canal did not find them to","-29.601473301307124"],["Rectocele Signs and symptoms Mild cases may simply produce a sense of pressure or protrusion within the vagina, and the occasional feeling that the rectum has not been completely emptied after a bowel movement. Moderate cases may involve difficulty passing stool (because the attempt to evacuate pushes the stool into the rectocele instead of out through the anus), discomfort or pain during evacuation or intercourse, constipation, and a general sensation that something is \"falling down\" or \"falling out\" within the pelvis. Severe cases may cause vaginal bleeding, intermittent fecal incontinence, or even the prolapse of the bulge through the mouth","-29.581652831926476"],["Gastric volvulus Organoaxial type In an organoaxial gastric volvulus, the stomach rotates around an axis that connects the gastroesophageal junction and the pylorus. The antrum rotates in opposite direction to the fundus of the stomach.This is the most common type of gastric volvulus, occurring in approximately 59% of cases, and it is usually associated with diaphragmatic defects. Strangulation and necrosis commonly occur with organoaxial gastric volvulus and have been reported in 5–28% of cases. The key imaging feature of organoaxial volvulus is that the greater curvature is located above the lesser curvature of the stomach. Mesenteroaxial type The mesenteroaxial axis","-29.575036168738734"],["in another abdominal area can often be seen and felt. When standing, such a bulge becomes more obvious. Besides the bulge, other symptoms include pain in the groin that may also include a heavy or dragging sensation, and in men, there is sometimes pain and swelling in the scrotum around the testicular area.\nIrreducible abdominal hernias or incarcerated hernias may be painful, but their most relevant symptom is that they cannot return to the abdominal cavity when pushed in. They may be chronic, although painless, and can lead to strangulation (loss of blood supply), obstruction (kinking of intestine), or both. Strangulated","-29.57111403113231"],["stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and gastric acid secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid. Gastric acid is about 0.5% hydrochloric acid (HCl), which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1–3. Acid release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine.\nThe intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing","-29.563749549910426"],["bisects the lesser and greater curvatures. The antrum rotates anteriorly and superiorly so that the posterior surface of the stomach lies anteriorly. The rotation is usually incomplete and occurs intermittently. Vascular compromise is uncommon. This cause comprises approximately 29% of cases of gastric volvulus. The key imaging feature of mesenteroaxial volvulus is that the antrum is above the gastroesophageal junction. Combined type The combined type of gastric volvulus is a rare form in which the stomach twists mesentericoaxially and organoaxially. This type of gastric volvulus makes up the remainder of cases and is usually observed in patients with chronic volvulus.","-29.557445405982435"],["Gastric atresia Cause Gastric atresia is a birth defect. It can be genetic, inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, and associated with conditions like Down syndrome and junctional epidermolysis bullosa (medicine). In about 60% of cases, the outlet of the stomach is covered by a membrane. In around 35% of cases, solid tissue blocks the outlet. In the remaining cases (less than 10%), there is a complete separation of the stomach and the small intestine. Diagnosis Polyhydramnios is often seen during pregnancy, and prenatal diagnosis is common. Infants with gastric atresia will exhibit forceful vomiting upon the first feeding. Imaging","-29.475972793530673"],["Intussusception (medical disorder) Signs and symptoms Early symptoms can include periodic abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting (sometimes green in color from bile), pulling legs to the chest area, and intermittent moderate to severe cramping abdominal pain. Pain is intermittent—not because the intussusception temporarily resolves, but because the intussuscepted bowel segment transiently stops contracting. Later signs include rectal bleeding, often with \"red currant jelly\" stool (stool mixed with blood and mucus), and lethargy. Physical examination may reveal a \"sausage-shaped\" mass, felt upon palpating the abdomen. Children, or those unable to communicate symptoms verbally, may cry, draw their knees up to their","-29.45715552708134"],["regular intervals into the small intestine, which stimulates the pancreas to release fluid containing a high concentration of bicarbonate. This fluid neutralizes the gastric juices, which can damage the lining of the intestine and result in duodenal ulcer. Other secretions from the pancreas, gallbladder, liver, and glands in the intestinal wall help in digestion.\nWhen food particles are sufficiently reduced in size and composition, they are absorbed by the intestinal wall and transported to the bloodstream. Some food material is passed from the small intestine to the large intestine. In the large intestine, bacteria break down any proteins and starches in","-29.448460374725983"],["not normally associated with it is the hiccup. Hiccups are harmless and will diminish on their own; they also help to release gas that is in the digestive tract before it moves down to the intestines and causes bloating. Important but uncommon causes of abdominal bloating include ascites and tumors. Fiber Most cases of stomach bloating are due to improper diet. Gas occurs because of the bacteria in the colon and is a by-product of soluble fiber digestion. Inadequate or irregular intake of fiber and water will cause a person to experience bloating or constipation. The most common natural sources","-29.412185590394074"],["end stage of type I and type II hernias occurs when the whole stomach migrates up into the chest by rotating 180° around its longitudinal axis, with the cardia and pylorus as fixed points. In this situation the abnormality is usually referred to as an intrathoracic stomach. Treatment In the great majority of cases, sufferers experience no life-altering discomfort, and no treatment is required. If there is pain or discomfort, 3 or 4 sips of room temperature water will usually relieve the pain. Symptomatic patients should elevate the head of their beds and avoid lying down directly after meals. If","-29.386394782632124"],["Rovsing's sign Referral of pain This anomaly occurs because the pain nerves deep in the intestines do not localize well to an exact spot on the abdominal wall, unlike pain nerves in muscles. Pain from a stomach ulcer or gallstone can be interpreted by the brain as pain from the stomach, liver, gall bladder, duodenum, or first part of the small intestine. It will \"refer\" pain often to the mid upper abdomen, the epigastrum.\nBecause the appendix is a piece of intestine, it follows a similar referral pattern. An appendix with some early inflammation may give a non-specific irritation","-29.379316184669733"],["to chronic infections of the involved site. Esophageal dysmotility Presents as a sensation of food getting stuck (dysphagia) in the mid- or lower esophagus, atypical chest pain, or cough. People often state they must drink liquids to swallow solid food. This motility problem results from atrophy of the gastrointestinal tract wall smooth muscle. This change may occur with or without pathologic evidence of significant tissue fibrosis. Sclerodactyly Though it is the most easily recognizable manifestation, it is not prominent in all patients. Thickening generally only involves the skin of the fingers distal to the metacarpophalangeal joints in CREST.","-29.320996734590153"],["pelvic flexure, but may also occur in the right dorsal colon and the cecum of the large intestines. The sand can cause colic signs similar to other impactions of the large colon, and often causes abdominal distention As the sand or dirt irritates the lining of the bowel it can cause diarrhea. The weight and abrasion of the sand or dirt causes the bowel wall to become inflamed and can cause a reduction in colonic motility and, in severe cases, leads to peritonitis.\nDiagnosis is usually made by history, environmental conditions, auscultation of the ventral abdomen, radiographs, ultrasound, or fecal examination","-29.312786405382212"],["(Ileus), which can cause excessive accumulation of fluid in the gastrointestinal tract. This is a functional rather than mechanical blockage of the intestine, but like the mechanical blockage seen with simple obstructions, it can have serious effects including severe dehydration. Inflammation of the bowel may lead to increased permeability and subsequent endotoxemia. The underlying cause of inflammation may be due to infection, toxin, or trauma, and may require special treatment in order to resolve the colic.\nUlceration of the mucosal surface occurs very commonly in the stomach (gastric ulceration), due to damage from stomach acid or alteration in protective mechanisms of","-29.275963373482227"],["often increased throughout the day and then resolving during sleep. The increase in girth combined with the fact that the total volume of flatus is not increased led to studies aiming to image the distribution of intestinal gas in patients with bloating. They found that gas was not distributed normally in these patients: there was segmental gas pooling and focal distension. In conclusion, abdominal distension, pain and bloating symptoms are the result of abnormal intestinal gas dynamics rather than increased flatus production. Excessive volume As mentioned above, the normal range of volumes of flatus in normal individuals varies hugely (476–1,491 ml/24 h).","-29.242072671302594"],["of flatus in normal subjects. The volume of gas produced is partially dependent upon the composition of the intestinal microbiota, which is normally very resistant to change, but is also very different in different individuals. Some patients are predisposed to increased endogenous gas production by virtue of their gut microbiota composition. The greatest concentration of gut bacteria is in the colon, while the small intestine is normally nearly sterile. Fermentation occurs when unabsorbed food residues may arrive in the colon. Therefore, even more than the composition of the microbiota, diet is the primary factor that dictates the volume of flatus","-29.239747819956392"],["signs and symptoms. The chest pain caused by GERD has a distinct 'burning' sensation, occurs after eating or at night, and worsens when a person lies down or bends over. It also is common in pregnant women, and may be triggered by consuming food in large quantities, or specific foods containing certain spices, high fat content, or high acid content. If the chest pain is suspected to be heartburn, patients may undergo an upper GI series to confirm the presence of acid reflux.\nHeartburn or chest pain after eating or drinking and combined with difficulty swallowing may indicate esophageal spasms. GI","-29.22691048955312"],["Dysmenorrhea Signs and symptoms The main symptom of dysmenorrhea is pain concentrated in the lower abdomen or pelvis. It is also commonly felt in the right or left side of the abdomen. It may radiate to the thighs and lower back.\nSymptoms often co-occurring with menstrual pain include nausea and vomiting, diarrhea or constipation, headache, dizziness, disorientation, hypersensitivity to sound, light, smell and touch, fainting, and fatigue. Symptoms of dysmenorrhea often begin immediately after ovulation and can last until the end of menstruation. This is because dysmenorrhea is often associated with changes in hormonal levels in the body that occur with","-29.195250692777336"],["strain to defecate (presents as an arched back and lifted tail), and may start showing overt signs of colic such as rolling and getting up and down. In later stages, the abdomen will distend as it continues to fill with gas and feces. Meconium impactions are often diagnosed by clinical signs, but digital examination to feel for impacted meconium, radiographs, and ultrasound may also be used.\nTreatment for meconium impaction typically involves the use of enemas, although persistent cases may require mineral oil or IV fluids. It is possible to tell that the meconium has passed when the foal begins to","-29.15492115926463"],["negative intra-abdominal pressure during\nexhalation and bowel peristaltic motion.\nInitially, peritoneal fluid accumulates in gravity-dependent spaces, the deep recesses of the pelvis and the lateral\nparavesical spaces and then ascends cephalad through the paracolic gutters reaches the subdiaphragmatic spaces. As\nthe left paracolic gutter is shallow and discontinuous with left subdiaphragmatic space at the phrenicocolic ligament,\nmost of the fluid takes path through the right paracolic gutter. Completion of the circulatory pathway takes place\ncaudally by redirection of fluid into the pelvis through the inframesocolic compartment13 (Fig. 3).\nIn pathologic conditions the excessive fluid collects in well-defined areas of stasis or arrested flow including the\nperitoneal recesses of","-29.14152984987959"],["lining can cause the tissue to become swollen and congested. Ulceration is thought to be caused by resulting poor blood supply (ischemia), combined with repeated frictional trauma from the prolapsing lining, and exposure to increased pressure are thought to cause ulceration. Trauma from hard stools may also contribute.\nThe site of the ulcer is typically on the anterior wall of the rectal ampulla, about 7–10 cm from the anus. However, the area may of ulceration may be closer to the anus, deeper inside, or on the lateral or posterior rectal walls. The name \"solitary\" can be misleading since there may be more","-29.05206831661053"],["to connect the stomach to the duodenum so as to facilitate the passage of food from one to the other. This tube is called a gastroduodenostomy. Stenosis Pyloric stenosis refers to a pylorus that is narrow. This is due to congenital hypertrophy of the pyloric sphincter. The lumen of the pylorus is narrower, and less food is able to pass through. This problem is often detected in the early weeks of life. When it is present, a newborn baby may projectile vomit after eating, but despite vomiting remain hungry. Pyloric stenosis may be managed by the insertion of a stent,","-28.94810561160557"],["of the stomach is lined with cilia (minute hairs) that compress undigested solids, which then pass through the intestine and out through the anus.\nThere are no nephridia (\"little kidneys\") or other excretory organs in bryozoa, and it is thought that ammonia diffuses out through the body wall and lophophore. More complex waste products are not excreted but accumulate in the polypide, which degenerates after a few weeks. Some of the old polypide is recycled, but much of it remains as a large mass of dying cells containing accumulated wastes, and this is compressed into a \"brown body\". When the degeneration","-28.94629369303584"],["hernias, in which the LES protrudes above the diaphragm along with the stomach, and only 5% are the \"rolling\" type (paraesophageal), in which the LES remains stationary, but the stomach protrudes above the diaphragm. \nHiatal hernias are most common in North America and Western Europe and rare in rural African communities. Some have proposed that insufficient dietary fiber and the use of a high sitting position for defecation may increase the risk.","-28.937408320838585"],["movement within the intestines slows down is the most common complication following cystectomy. This is due to a variety of factors including manipulation of the intestines due to their proximity of the bladder, the actual operation on the intestines to create a urinary diversion, or even certain medications such as narcotics. In addition to slowing of the small intestine, the small intestine can also become obstructed. After creation of a urinary diversion, intestinal contents can leak at the site where the intestine are reconnected. Urinary tract With creation of a urinary diversion it is possible for the","-28.915477864677086"],["in the stomach and proximal duodenum, which are separated by the pyloric sphincter, creating the appearance of two bubbles visible on x-ray. Since the closure of the duodenum is complete in duodenal atresia, no air is seen in the distal duodenum.\nAtresias occurring distal to the duodenum are usually caused by vascular accidents or ischemic insult, such as jejunoileal atresia. Physical examination During pregnancy, duodenal atresia is associated with increased amniotic fluid in the uterus, which is called polyhydramnios. This increase in amniotic fluid is caused by the inability of the fetus to swallow the amniotic fluid and absorb","-28.900557618217135"],["may or may not be bloody. The nature of the diarrhea in Crohn's disease depends on the part of the small intestine or colon involved. Ileitis typically results in large-volume, watery feces. Colitis may result in a smaller volume of feces of higher frequency. Fecal consistency may range from solid to watery. In severe cases, an individual may have more than 20 bowel movements per day and may need to awaken at night to defecate. Visible bleeding in the feces is less common in Crohn's disease than in ulcerative colitis, but may be seen in the setting of Crohn's colitis.","-28.84607912681531"],["oral intake. Eliciting a careful dietary history from patients with suspected malabsorption is therefore crucial. Excessive flatus and abdominal bloating may reflect excessive gas production due to fermentation of unabsorbed carbohydrate, especially among patients with primary or secondary disaccharidase deficiency. Malabsorption of dietary nutrients and excessive fluid secretion by inflamed small intestine also contribute to abdominal distention and bloating. Prevalence, severity, and character of abdominal pain vary considerably among the various disease processes associated with intestinal malabsorption. For example, pain is common in patients with chronic pancreatitis or pancreatic cancer and Crohn's disease, but it is absent in many patients","-28.80346738625667"],["organisms, such as Salmonella and Clostridial species, but other possible contributing factors include Fusarium infection or high concentrate diets. The inflammation of the intestine leads to large secretions of electrolytes and fluid into its lumen, and thus large amounts of gastric reflux, leading to dehydration and occasionally shock.\nSigns include acute onset of moderate to severe pain, large volumes orange-brown and fetid gastric reflux, distended small intestine on rectal examination, fever, depression, increased heart rate and respiratory rate, prolonged CRT, and darkened mucous membranes. Pain level usually improves after gastric decompression. It is important to differentiate DPI from small intestinal obstruction,","-28.75747374398634"],["Azotorrhea Azotorrhea is the excessive discharge of nitrogenous substances in the feces or urine. As in when people eat a diet high in protein they may suffer from increased amount of amino acid byproduct (nitrogen) being broken and excreted through defecation or urination.\nThis condition may also be present in situations of pancreatic disease, such as in chronic alcoholism or cystic fibrosis.","-28.68964912550291"],["the stomach, and is usually not life-threatening. The right dorsal colon may also develop ulceration, usually secondary to excessive NSAID use, which alters the homeostatic balance of prostaglandins that protect the mucosa. Types This list of types of colic is not exhaustive but details some of the types which may be encountered. Gas and spasmodic colic Gas colic, also known as tympanic colic, is the result of gas buildup within the horse's digestive tract due to excessive fermentation within the intestines or a decreased ability to move gas through it. It is usually the result of a change in diet,","-28.664146560593508"],["sphincter of the stomach, and delayed stomach emptying. Historically, vagotomy was combined with pyloroplasty or gastroenterostomy to counter this problem.","-28.62657067901455"],["Gas gangrene Presentation Gas gangrene can cause myonecrosis (muscle tissue death), gas production, and sepsis. Progression to toxemia and shock is often very rapid. It can easily be noticed by the large, blackened sores that form, as well as a degree of loud and distinctive crepitus caused by gas escaping the necrotic tissue. Pathophysiology Gas gangrene is caused by exotoxin-producing Clostridium species (most often C. perfringens, and C. novyi,\nbut less commonly C. septicum or C. ramnosum), which are mostly found in soil, but also found as normal gut flora, and other anaerobes (e.g., Bacteroides and anaerobic streptococci). The exotoxin is commonly found","-28.535799576318823"],["produced. Diets that aim to reduce the amount of undigested fermentable food residues arriving in the colon have been shown to significantly reduce the volume of flatus produced. Again, increased volume of intestinal gas will not cause bloating and pain in normal subjects. Abnormal intestinal gas dynamics will create pain, distension, and bloating, regardless of whether there is high or low total flatus volume. Smell Although flatus possesses physiological smell, this may be abnormally increased in some patients and cause social distress to the patient. Increased smell of flatus presents a distinct clinical issue from other complaints related to intestinal","-28.489322082372382"],["will be no purulent discharge. There may be regional lymphadenitis.\nWhen pus forms, the pressure increases, with increasing pain, until it spontaneously drains and relieves the pain. When pus drains into the mouth, a bad taste and smell are perceived. Usually drainage occurs via the periodontal pocket, or else the infection may spread as a cellulitis or a purulent odontogenic infection. Local anatomic factors determine the direction of spread (see fascial spaces of the head and neck). There may be systemic upset, with an onset of malaise and pyrexia. Diagnosis Periodontal abscesses may be difficult to distinguish from periapical abscesses. Since","-28.44013926162006"],["sounds can be heard all over. Patient stops passing flatus and motion, abdomen is distended.\nThe symptoms of esophageal rupture may include sudden onset of chest pain. Causes Underlying causes include gastric ulcers, duodenal ulcers, appendicitis, gastrointestinal cancer, diverticulitis, inflammatory bowel disease, superior mesenteric artery syndrome, trauma and ascariasis. Typhoid fever, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, ingestion of corrosives may also be responsible.\nEating multiple magnets can also lead to perforation if the magnets attract and stick to one another through different loops of the intestine. Diagnosis On x-rays, gas may be visible in the abdominal cavity. Gas is easily visualized on x-ray while","-28.429803166771308"],["acid and the wall lining which is protected by mucus. When this mucus lining is disrupted for whatever reason, signs and symptoms of acidity result. This may result in upper abdominal pain, indigestion, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting and heartburn. When the condition is allowed to progress, the pain may become continuous; blood may start to leak and be seen in the stools. If the bleeding is rapid and of adequate volume it may even result in vomiting of bright red blood (hematemesis). When the acidity is uncontrolled, it can even cause severe blood loss (anemia) or lead to perforation","-28.417112202383578"],["Type 1 Gastric volvulus of unknown cause comprises two thirds of cases and is presumably due to abnormal laxity of the gastrosplenic, gastroduodenal, gastrophrenic, and gastrohepatic ligaments. Type 1 gastric volvulus is more common in adults but has been reported in children. Type 2 Type 2 gastric volvulus is found in one third of patients and is usually associated with congenital or acquired abnormalities that result in abnormal mobility of the stomach. Diagnosis On chest radiography, a retrocardiac, gas-filled viscus may be seen in cases of intrathoracic stomach, which confirms the diagnosis. Plain abdominal radiography reveals a massively distended viscus","-28.357965369417798"],["Gastroenteritis Signs and symptoms Gastroenteritis usually involves both diarrhea and vomiting. Sometimes, only one or the other is present. This may be accompanied by abdominal cramps. Signs and symptoms usually begin 12–72 hours after contracting the infectious agent. If due to a virus, the condition usually resolves within one week. Some viral infections also involve fever, fatigue, headache and muscle pain. If the stool is bloody, the cause is less likely to be viral and more likely to be bacterial. Some bacterial infections cause severe abdominal pain and may persist for several weeks.\nChildren infected with rotavirus usually make a full recovery","-28.346943427313818"],["ensuring that it does not become too acidic. These cells also produce mucus, which forms a viscous physical barrier to prevent gastric acid from damaging the stomach. The pancreas further produces large amounts of bicarbonate and secretes bicarbonate through the pancreatic duct to the duodenum to completely neutralize any gastric acid that passes further down into the digestive tract.\nThe main constituent of gastric acid is hydrochloric acid which is produced by parietal cells (also called oxyntic cells) in the gastric glands in the stomach. Its secretion is a complex and relatively energetically expensive process. Parietal cells contain an extensive","-28.294260534923524"],["severe than those induced by food allergy, but can include anaphylaxis. Research directions FODMAPs are fermentable oligo-, di-, monosaccharides and polyols, which are poorly absorbed in the small intestine and subsequently fermented by the bacteria in the distal small and proximal large intestine. This is a normal phenomenon, common to everyone. The resultant production of gas potentially results in bloating and flatulence. Although FODMAPs can produce certain digestive discomfort in some people, not only do they not cause intestinal inflammation, but they avoid it, because they produce beneficial alterations in the intestinal flora that contribute to maintain the good health","-28.291758214472793"],["results in loss of stomach acid (hydrochloric acid). The vomited material does not contain bile because the pyloric obstruction prevents entry of duodenal contents (containing bile) into the stomach. The chloride loss results in a low blood chloride level which impairs the kidney's ability to excrete bicarbonate. This is the factor that prevents correction of the alkalosis leading to metabolic alkalosis.\nA secondary hyperaldosteronism develops due to the decreased blood volume. The high aldosterone levels causes the kidneys to avidly retain Na⁺ (to correct the intravascular volume depletion), and excrete increased amounts of K⁺ into the urine (resulting in a low","-28.289777570636943"],["and the serosa. The mucosa, the inner most layer and lining of the esophagus, is composed of stratified squamous epithelium, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae. At the end of the esophagus is the lower esophageal sphincter, which normally prevents stomach acid from enteringthe esophagus. \nIf the sphincter is not sufficiently tight, it may allow acid to enter the esophagus, causing inflammation of one or more layers. Esophagitis may also occur if an infection is present, which may be due to bacteria, viruses, or fungi; or by diseases that affect the immune system. \nIrritation can be caused by GERD, vomiting, surgery,","-28.266597100067884"],["or rectovaginal fistulae can develop (holes that allow urine or faeces to seep into the vagina). This and other damage to the urethra and bladder can lead to infections and incontinence, pain during sexual intercourse and infertility. Painful periods are common because of the obstruction to the menstrual flow, and blood can stagnate in the vagina and uterus. Complete obstruction of the vagina can result in hematocolpos and hematometra (where the vagina and uterus fill with menstrual blood). The swelling of the abdomen and lack of menstruation can resemble pregnancy; Asma El Dareer, a Sudanese physician, reported in 1979 that","-28.237988191804106"],["stomach. As ureases they hydrolyze urea to produce ammonia and carbonic acid. As the bacteria are localized to the stomach ammonia produced is readily taken up by the circulatory system from the gastric lumen. This results in elevated ammonia levels in the blood and is coined as hyperammonemia, eradication of Heliobacter pylori show marked decreases in ammonia levels.\nUrease in peptic ulcers\nHelicobacter pylori is also the cause of peptic ulcers with its manifestation in 55–68% reported cases. This was confirmed by decreased ulcer bleeding and ulcer reoccurrence after eradication of the pathogen. In the stomach there is an increase in","-28.223975797416642"],["The stomach is then pushed through the esophageal hiatus (the hole where the esophagus passes through the diaphragm) and is joined to the remaining upper part of the esophagus at the neck.\nThe traditional transthoracic approach enters the body through the chest, and has a number of variations. The thoracoabdominal approach opens the abdominal and thoracic cavities together, the two-stage Ivor Lewis (also called Lewis–Tanner) approach involves an initial laparotomy and construction of a gastric tube, followed by a right thoracotomy to excise the tumor and create an esophagogastric anastomosis. The three-stage McKeown approach adds a third incision in the neck","-28.200620563235134"],["gallbladder to the intestines. Gallstones can get trapped in the gastrointestinal tract, most commonly at the connection between the small and large intestines (ileocecal valve). When a gallstone gets trapped, it can lead to an intestinal obstruction, called gallstone ileus, leading to abdominal pain, vomiting, constipation, and abdominal distension. Causes Cholecystitis occurs when the gallbladder becomes inflamed. Gallstones are the most common cause of gallbladder inflammation but it can also occur due to blockage from a tumor or scarring of the bile duct. The greatest risk factor for cholecystitis is gallstones. Risk factors for gallstones include female","-28.184871574572753"],["Cricopharyngeal spasm Causes Causes include stress and anxiety. Other causes are not yet clear. In some cases, eating certain foods may bring on acute spasms, in susceptible individuals. Peanuts, pumpkin seeds and other nuts may trigger these spasms. Physiology There are two sphincters in the oesophagus. They are normally contracted and they relax when one swallows so that food can pass through them going to the stomach. They then squeeze closed again to prevent regurgitation of the stomach contents. If this normal contraction becomes a spasm, these symptoms begin.","-28.182766892692598"],["wound. (By contrast, we do not perceive the shedding of the stomach lining as a structural failure.) This wound perception is reinforced by the fact that, during menstruation, the woman bleeds and may suffer from pain and discomfort. Martin contends that menstruation is a normal physiological function and process (not a dirty thing or a “secret illness”), which should be viewed as a success - i.e., the success of the female body in avoiding pregnancy, the success of the female body in ridding itself of potentially harmful material from the uterus. Yet, our language and culture prevent this.","-28.143807071519404"],["Gastric outlet obstruction Signs and symptoms The main symptom is vomiting, which typically occurs after meals, of undigested food devoid of any bile. A history of previous peptic ulcers and loss of weight is not uncommon. In advanced cases, signs to look for on physical examination are wasting and dehydration. Visible peristalsis from left to right may be present. Succussion splash is a splash-like sound heard over the stomach in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen on shaking the patient, with or without the stethoscope. Bowel sound may be increased (borborygmi) due to excessive peristaltic action of the","-28.141844039433636"],["quantify the total volume of gas produced by patients with irritable bowel syndrome (some including gas emitted from the mouth by eructation) have consistently failed to demonstrate increased volumes compared to healthy subjects. The proportion of hydrogen produced may be increased in some patients with irritable bowel syndrome, but this does not affect the total volume. Thirdly, the volume of flatus produced by patients with irritable bowel syndrome who have pain and abdominal distension would be tolerated in normal subjects without any complaints of pain.\nPatients who complain of bloating frequently can be shown to have objective increases in abdominal girth,","-28.11791115097003"],["the stomach is empty and to stop when the stomach is stretched). Leptin is produced by adipose tissue to signal fat storage reserves in the body, and mediates long-term appetitive controls (i.e. to eat more when fat storages are low and less when fat storages are high). Although administration of leptin may be effective in a small subset of obese individuals who are leptin-deficient, most obese individuals are thought to be leptin resistant and have been found to have high levels of leptin. This resistance is thought to explain in part why administration of leptin has not been shown to","-28.110019396059215"],["stomach. Fullness in the left hypochondrium may also be present. Pathophysiology In a peptic ulcer it is believed to be a result of edema and scarring of the ulcer, followed by healing and fibrosis, which leads to obstruction of the gastroduodenal junction (usually an ulcer in the first part of the duodenum). Diagnosis The most confirmatory investigation is endoscopy of upper gastrointestinal tract.\nLaboratory often find hypochloremic, hypokalemic, and alkalotic due to loss of hydrogen chloride and potassium. High urea and creatinine levels may also be observed if the patient is dehydrated.\nAbdominal X-ray may show a gastric fluid level which would","-28.10837537673069"],["notices that Jack feels no pain when she presses his belly. Cameron shows the team Jack's x-rays. She says he's constipated. Foreman diagnoses Hirschsprung's disease. They do a barium enema and a biopsy to confirm.\nCameron reviews the x-rays they've done on Jack over the course of over a week which show his colon is clear. Cameron checks Jack's belly and says while it feels better, it appears larger. Just then, Jack's right eye fixes (lateral rectus palsy) and he seizes. They give him diazepam for the seizure. Foreman sees Jack's optic disc is swollen, indicating intracranial hypertension. They give him","-28.061195579124615"],["somewhere near the umbilicus (belly button). Should the inflammation become severe, it may actually irritate the inner lining of the abdominal cavity called the peritoneum. This thin layer of tissue lies deep to the abdominal wall muscles. Now the pain has become \"localized\". If pressure is applied to the muscles of the right lower abdomen (or iliac fossa) near a very irritated appendix, then the muscle fibers in that area will be stretched and will hurt. Process A Rovsing's sign is elicited by pushing on the abdomen far away from the appendix in the left lower quadrant. The appendix, in","-28.027747214306146"],["Abdominal distension Treatment Bloating is not life-threatening. In most cases, bloating can be handled with simple home remedies and changes in lifestyle. Persistent or recurrent bloating may be caused by intestinal parasites, other infections, or other medical conditions. Foods Certain foods have been known to worsen bloating. Poorly digested components of many foods are excreted into the large intestine where they are degraded by bacteria, producing excess gas. Depending on the undigested component, this may affect the odor and the volume of gas created.\nExcess dietary fiber intake is a known cause of belching, gas and bloating. \nMany vegetables","-28.018272737797815"],["ulcers. Perianal candidiasis can cause anal itching; the lesion can be red, papular, or ulcerative in appearance, and it is not considered to be a sexually transmissible disease. Abnormal proliferation of the candida in the gut may lead to dysbiosis. While it is not yet clear, this alteration may be the source of symptoms generally described as the irritable bowel syndrome, and other gastrointestinal diseases. Causes Candida yeasts are generally present in healthy humans, frequently part of the human body's normal oral and intestinal flora, and particularly on the skin; however, their growth is normally limited by the human immune","-27.990256544668227"],["of proteins, no substantial pressure gradient can be established to draw fluids from the tissue back into the blood stream. This results in the pooling of fluids, causing the swelling and distention of the abdomen.\nThe low protein intake leads to some specific signs: edema of the hands and feet, irritability, anorexia, a desquamative rash, hair discolouration, and a large fatty liver. The typical swollen abdomen is due to two causes: ascites because of hypoalbuminemia (low oncotic pressure), and enlarged fatty liver.\nIgnorance of nutrition can be a cause. Dr. Michael Latham, former director of the Program in International Nutrition at Cornell","-27.983081117272377"],["erroneously believed that gastritis was the cause of ascites, typhoid fever, and meningitis. In 1854, Charles Handfield Jones and Wilson Fox described the microscopic changes of stomach inner lining in gastritis which existed in diffuse and segmental forms. In 1855, Baron Carl von Rokitansky first described hypetrophic gastritis. In 1859, British physician, William Brinton first described about acute, subacute, and chronic gastritis. In 1870, Samuel Fenwick noted that pernicious anemia causes glandular atrophy in gastritis. German surgeon, Georg Ernst Konjetzny noticed that gastric ulcer and gastric cancer are the result of gastric inflammation. Shields Warren and Willam A. Meissner described","-27.979447231278755"],["by pushing stool from the anal canal back into the rectum.\nOnce the voluntary signal to defecate is sent back from the brain, the abdominal muscles contract (straining) causing the intra-abdominal pressure to increase. The pelvic floor is lowered causing the anorectal angle to straighten out from ~90ᵒ to <15ᵒ and the external anal sphincter relaxes. The rectum now contracts and shortens in peristaltic waves, thus forcing fecal material out of the rectum, through the anal canal and out of the anus. The internal and external anal sphincters along with the puborectalis muscle allow the feces to be passed by pulling","-27.976643572736066"],["back into the abdominal cavity, either spontaneously or with manipulation. However, it is more likely to occur spontaneously. This is the most common type of femoral hernia and is usually painless.\nAn irreducible femoral hernia occurs when a femoral hernia cannot be completely reduced, typically due to adhesions between the hernia and the hernial sac. This can cause pain and a feeling of illness.\nAn obstructed femoral hernia occurs when a part of the intestine involved in the hernia becomes twisted, kinked, or constricted, causing an intestinal obstruction.\nA strangulated femoral hernia occurs when a constriction of the hernia limits or completely obstructs","-27.94692253798712"],["use of an endoscope. A gastric emptying scan is considered the gold standard to assess gastric emptying rate.\nA large number of studies have indicated that most cases of peptic ulcers, and gastritis, in humans are caused by Helicobacter pylori infection, and an association has been seen with the development of stomach cancer.\nA stomach rumble is actually noise from the intestines.\nThe stomach has to regenerate a new layer of mucus every two weeks, or else damage to the epithelium may result. Surgery In humans, many bariatric surgery procedures involve the stomach, in order to lose weight. A gastric band may be","-27.853125962312333"],["main site of digestion. The intestine opens, via a short rectum, to an anus located at the terminal end of the body. Some species only defecate when they molt, leaving the feces behind with the shed cuticle.\nThe brain develops in a bilaterally symmetric pattern. The brain includes multiple lobes, mostly consisting of three bilaterally paired clusters of neurons. The brain is attached to a large ganglion below the esophagus, from which a double ventral nerve cord runs the length of the body. The cord possesses one ganglion per segment, each of which produces lateral nerve fibres that run into the","-27.839778450783342"],["a functional \"defect\", allowing part of the stomach to (periodically) \"herniate\" into the chest. Hiatus hernias may be either \"sliding\", in which the gastroesophageal junction itself slides through the defect into the chest, or non-sliding (also known as para-esophageal), in which case the junction remains fixed while another portion of the stomach moves up through the defect. Non-sliding or para-esophageal hernias can be dangerous as they may allow the stomach to rotate and obstruct. Repair is usually advised.\nA congenital diaphragmatic hernia is a distinct problem, occurring in up to 1 in 2000 births, and requiring pediatric surgery. Intestinal organs may","-27.790033840574324"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"much like burping, but helps the body pass gas through the anus, not the mouth. Bacteria present in the intestinal tract cause gas to be expelled from the anus. They produce the gas as food is digested and moved from the small intestine. This gas builds up and causes swelling or bloating in the abdominal area before it is released. Constipation A common gastrointestinal problem is constipation—infrequent bowel movements, hard stools, or strain during the movements—which causes serious cases of bloating. Since most cases of constipation are temporary, simple lifestyle changes, such as getting more exercise and increasing one's intake\",\n \"-35.30099852976855\"\n ],\n [\n \"gas distention, which causes this affected piece of bowel to rise upward in the abdomen.\\nAbdominal distention may occasionally be seen in adult horses in the flank region, if the cecum or large colon is affected. Foals, however, may show signs of gas within the small intestines with severe abdominal distention. Pelvic flexure impaction This is caused by an impaction of food material (water, grass, hay, grain) at a part of the large bowel known as the pelvic flexure of the left colon where the intestine takes a 180 degree turn and narrows. Impaction generally responds well to medical treatment, usually\",\n \"-34.625723812147044\"\n ],\n [\n \"types of complaints that relate to intestinal gas, which may present individually or in combination. Bloating and pain Patients may complain of bloating as abdominal distension, discomfort and pain from \\\"trapped wind\\\". In the past, functional bowel disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome that produced symptoms of bloating were attributed to increased production of intestinal gas. However, three significant pieces of evidence refute this theory. First, in normal subjects, even very high rates of gas infusion into the small intestine (30 ml/min) is tolerated without complaints of pain or bloating and harmlessly passed as flatus per rectum. Secondly, studies aiming to\",\n \"-33.03825215972029\"\n ],\n [\n \"poorly absorbed in the small intestine and subsequently fermented by the bacteria in the distal small and proximal large intestine. This is a normal phenomenon, common to everyone. The resultant production of gas potentially results in bloating and flatulence.\\nNevertheless, although FODMAPs can cause certain digestive discomfort in some people, not only do they not cause intestinal inflammation, but they help to prevent it because they produce beneficial alterations in the intestinal flora that contribute to maintain the good health of the colon.\\nFODMAPs are not the cause of irritable bowel syndrome nor other functional gastrointestinal disorders, but rather a person develops\",\n \"-33.02073163312161\"\n ],\n [\n \"lead to the stomach's inability to contract and lose its ability to empty itself. Side effects of gastroparesis include chronic indigestion, nausea and vomiting.\",\n \"-32.44064024777617\"\n ],\n [\n \"it can also occur from a blockage at the distal end of stomach, a cancer or a stroke. Symptoms of gastroparesis includes abdominal pain, fullness, bloating, nausea, vomiting after eating food, loss of appetite and feeling of fullness after eating small amounts of food. Diarrhea During digestion, food is stored in the liquid present in the stomach. The food that is not digested travels to the large intestine and colon in liquid form. These organs begin to absorb the water turning the food into a more solid form. Different viruses or bacteria can increase the amount of liquid that is\",\n \"-32.23882751399651\"\n ],\n [\n \"diverticulum may also result in halitosis due to aging food retained in the esophagus. Stomach The stomach is considered by most researchers as a very uncommon source of bad breath. The esophagus is a closed and collapsed tube, and continuous flow of gas or putrid substances from the stomach indicates a health problem—such as reflux serious enough to be bringing up stomach contents or a fistula between the stomach and the esophagus—which will demonstrate more serious manifestations than just foul odor.\\nIn the case of allyl methyl sulfide (the byproduct of garlic's digestion), odor does not come from the stomach, since\",\n \"-32.11788860638626\"\n ],\n [\n \"to state that \\\"Stomach inflation is a complex problem that may cause regurgitation, [gastric acid] aspiration, and, possibly, death.\\\" When stomach inflation leads to vomiting of highly acidic stomach acids, delivery of subsequent breaths can force these caustic acids down into the lungs where they cause life-threatening or fatal lung injuries including Mendelson's syndrome, aspiration pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome and \\\"pulmonary injuries similar to that seen in victims of chlorine gas exposure\\\". Apart from the risks of gastric inflation causing vomiting and regurgitation, at least two reports have been found indicating that gastric insufflation itself remains\",\n \"-32.04401764267823\"\n ],\n [\n \"stomach emptying time than men. A hormonal link has been suggested, as gastroparesis symptoms tend to worsen the week before menstruation when progesterone levels are highest. Neither theory has been proven definitively. Mechanism Gastroparesis can be connected to hypochlorhydria and be caused by chloride, sodium and/or zinc deficiency, as these minerals are needed for the stomach to produce adequate levels of gastric acid (HCl) to properly empty itself of a meal.\\nOn the molecular level, it is thought that gastroparesis can be caused by the loss of neuronal nitric oxide expression since the cells in the GI tract secrete nitric oxide.\",\n \"-31.522692980070133\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the upper gastrointestinal tract, and the fact that this is primarily re-absorbed in parts of the intestine downstream from the obstruction. The first problem with this degree of fluid loss from circulation is one of decreased plasma volume, leading to a reduced cardiac output, and acid-base disturbances.\\nThe intestine becomes distended due to the trapped fluid and gas production from bacteria. It is this distension, and subsequent activation of stretch receptors within the intestinal wall, that leads to the associated pain. With progressive distension of the intestinal wall, there is occlusion of blood vessels, firstly the less rigid veins, then\",\n \"-31.427534085931256\"\n ],\n [\n \"affecting millions of people. Gastritis is basically inflammation of the stomach wall lining and has many causes. Smoking, excess alcohol consumption and the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen, account for the majority of causes of gastritis. In some cases, gastritis may develop after surgery, a major burn, infection or emotional stress. The most common symptoms of gastritis include sharp abdominal pain which may radiate to the back. This may be associated with nausea, vomiting, abdominal bloating and a lack of appetite. When the condition is severe it may even result in loss of blood on the\",\n \"-31.105101018445566\"\n ],\n [\n \"gas gangrene, present in humans. This gas builds up in infected tissue, usually large muscles, and causes the tissue to make a crackling or popping sound when pressed. Large gas-filled blisters can also form, which can be extremely painful as they build up in the tissues. Clinical presentations When infection begins, the animal may develop a fever, and the affected limb can feel hot to the touch. The limb usually swells significantly, and the animal can develop lameness on the affected leg. Crepitation (the sensation of air under the skin) can be noticed in many infections, as the area seems\",\n \"-31.079086983692832\"\n ],\n [\n \"and stomach acid being secreted. This, combined with the damage from ammonium, leads to ulceration of the stomach wall.\",\n \"-30.91890249926655\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gastrointestinal perforation Signs and symptoms Signs and symptoms may include a sudden pain in the epigastrium to the right of the midline indicating the perforation of a duodenal ulcer, while a gastric ulcer perforation reveals itself by burning pain in epigastrium, with flatulence and dyspepsia.\\nIn intestinal perforation, pain starts from the site of perforation and spreads across the abdomen.\\nGastrointestinal perforation results in severe abdominal pain intensified by movement, nausea, vomiting and hematemesis. Later symptoms include fever and or chills. In any case, the abdomen becomes rigid with tenderness and rebound tenderness. After some time the abdomen becomes silent and heart\",\n \"-30.88216572708916\"\n ],\n [\n \"much research to be done on the brain-gut connection, research thus far has indeed shown that your stomach does indeed churn differently when you are emotionally aroused, and this could be the basis of the gut feeling that many people describe experiencing. Gender differences In recent years, some research has been done about gender differences in the perception and experience of disgust. One such study, upon presenting both male and female subjects with video clips designed to trigger disgust and found that although women reported feeling more disgust than men at these stimuli, the physiological responses did not show\",\n \"-30.785601877840236\"\n ],\n [\n \"Fecal impaction Signs and symptoms Symptoms include chronic constipation. There can be fecal incontinence and paradoxical or overflow diarrhea (encopresis) as liquid stool passes around the obstruction. Complications may include necrosis and ulcers of the rectal tissue. Abdominal pain and bloating could also be present depending on the severity of the condition. Loss of appetite can also occur. Causes There are many possible causes; for example, physical inactivity, not eating enough (particularly of fiber), and not drinking enough water. Medications such as opioid pain relievers (suboxone, methadone, codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, etc.) and certain sedatives that reduce intestinal movement may cause\",\n \"-30.75175192207098\"\n ],\n [\n \"central nervous system, adrenal glands, kidneys, and liver appear.\\nIngestion of ricin causes pain, inflammation, and hemorrhage in the mucosal membranes of the gastrointestinal system. Gastrointestinal symptoms quickly progress to severe nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and difficulty swallowing (dysphagia). Haemorrhage causes bloody feces (melena) and vomiting blood (hematemesis). The low blood volume (hypovolemia) caused by gastrointestinal fluid loss can lead to organ failure in the pancreas, kidney, liver, and GI tract and progress to shock. Shock and organ failure are indicated by disorientation, stupor, weakness, drowsiness, excessive thirst (polydipsia), low urine production (oliguria), and bloody urine (hematuria).\\nSymptoms of ricin inhalation are different\",\n \"-30.73045298748184\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gastrojejunocolic fistula A gastrojejunocolic fistula is a disorder of the human gastrointestinal tract. It may form between the transverse colon and the upper jejunum after a Billroth II surgical procedure. (The Billroth procedure attaches the jejunum to the remainder of the stomach.) Fecal matter thereby passes improperly from the colon to the stomach, and causes halitosis.\\nPatients may present with diarrhea, weight loss and halitosis as a result of fecal matter passing through the fistula from the colon into the stomach.\",\n \"-30.720482480945066\"\n ],\n [\n \"population within the intestinal lumen.\\nInflammation of the intestine leads to the secretion of a large amounts of electrolytes, primarily sodium and chloride, into its lumen, resulting in the osmotic movement of water. The production of fluid is thought to be due to active hypersecretion, passive secretion of proteins secondary to damage to epithelium of the mucosa and capillaries, and a functional ileus which prevents removal of this fluid. Massive fluid production results in extensive reflux, usually produced at a rate of 50–100 mL/min, in addition to distention of the proximal small intestine, dehydration, and possible shock secondary to hypovolemia. Proximal\",\n \"-30.667322276247432\"\n ],\n [\n \"much food or liquid in your stomach if your stomach doesn’t have that capability can make you vomit.\\\" Thus, the vomiting response is likely due to an inability for the stomach to contain the substances.\",\n \"-30.621430344735927\"\n ],\n [\n \"Bloating Symptoms The most common symptoms associated with bloating is a sensation that the abdomen is full or distended. Rarely, bloating may be painful or cause shortness of breath.\\nPains that are due to bloating will feel sharp and cause the stomach to cramp. These pains may occur anywhere in the body and can change locations quickly. They are so painful that they are sometimes mistaken for heart pains when they develop on the upper left side of the chest. Pains on the right side are often confused with problems in the appendix or the gallbladder.\\nOne symptom of gas that is\",\n \"-30.537043806747533\"\n ],\n [\n \"Urinary incontinence Mechanism Continence and micturition involve a balance between urethral closure and detrusor muscle activity. Urethral pressure normally exceeds bladder pressure, resulting in urine remaining in the bladder. The proximal urethra and bladder are both within the pelvis. Intra abdominal pressure increases (from coughing and sneezing) are transmitted to both urethra and bladder equally, leaving the pressure differential unchanged, resulting in continence. Normal voiding is the result of changes in both of these pressure factors: urethral pressure falls and bladder pressure rises.\\nThe body stores urine — water and wastes removed by the kidneys — in the urinary bladder, a\",\n \"-30.468763448552636\"\n ],\n [\n \"even destroy the stomach or its lining. In some cases bile, normally used to aid digestion in the small intestine, will enter through the pyloric valve of the stomach if it has been removed during surgery or does not work properly, also leading to gastritis. Gastritis may also be caused by other medical conditions, including HIV/AIDS, Crohn's disease, certain connective tissue disorders, and liver or kidney failure. Since 1992, chronic gastritis lesions are classified according to the Sydney system. Metaplasia Mucous gland metaplasia, the reversible replacement of differentiated cells, occurs in the setting of severe damage of the\",\n \"-30.32801246829331\"\n ],\n [\n \"resulting in the inability of the aqueous fluid to flow from the posterior to the anterior chamber and then out of the trabecular network. This accumulation of aqueous humor causes an acute increase in pressure and pain.\\nThe inconsistent relationship of glaucomatous optic neuropathy with increased intraocular pressure has provoked hypotheses and studies on anatomic structure, eye development, nerve compression trauma, optic nerve blood flow, excitatory neurotransmitter, trophic factor, retinal ganglion cell/axon degeneration, glial support cell, immune system, aging mechanisms of neuron loss, and severing of the nerve fibers at the scleral edge. Absolute glaucoma Absolute glaucoma (H44.5) is the end\",\n \"-30.276988489436917\"\n ],\n [\n \"tract will cause it to build up in the stomach, a process that can eventually lead to stomach rupture, which is inevitably fatal.\\nBacking up of fluid through the intestinal tract is usually due to a downstream obstruction, ileus, or proximal enteritis, and its presence usually indicates a small intestinal disease. Generally, the closer the obstruction is to the stomach, the greater amount of gastric reflux will be present. Approximately 50% of horses with gastric reflux require surgery. Abdominal ultrasound Ultrasound provides visualization of the thoracic and abdominal structures, and can sometimes rule out or narrow down a diagnosis. Information that\",\n \"-30.24080017430242\"\n ],\n [\n \"typically is accompanied by dysuria (pain when urinating). Diastasis recti or abdominal separation During pregnancy, many women experience a separation of their stomach muscles, known as diastasis recti. It affects the rectus abdominis muscle.\\nThe rectus abdominis muscle is divided down the middle by the tendinous line called the linea alba. It is kept in line by the transverse abdominal and oblique abdominal muscles. During pregnancy, the growth of the fetus exerts pressure on abdominal cavity muscles, in particular the rectus abdominis. In pregnancies that experience rapid fetus growth or women with particularly weak abdominal muscles, this pressure can sometimes causes\",\n \"-30.228875142114703\"\n ],\n [\n \"acid and pepsin which would damage the walls of the stomach and mucus is secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients\",\n \"-30.13917661877349\"\n ],\n [\n \"junction of the stomach with the duodenum.\\nThe stomach is surrounded by parasympathetic (stimulant) and sympathetic (inhibitor) plexuses (networks of blood vessels and nerves in the anterior gastric, posterior, superior and inferior, celiac and myenteric), which regulate both the secretory activity of the stomach and the motor (motion) activity of its muscles.\\nIn adult humans, the stomach has a relaxed, near empty volume of about 75 millilitres. Because it is a distensible organ, it normally expands to hold about one litre of food. The stomach of a newborn human baby will only be able to retain about 30 millilitres. The maximum stomach\",\n \"-30.116197960684076\"\n ],\n [\n \"appearance. The gases produced also cause natural liquids and liquefying tissues to become frothy. As the pressure of the gases within the body increases, fluids are forced to escape from natural orifices, such as the nose, mouth, and anus, and enter the surrounding environment. The buildup of pressure combined with the loss of integrity of the skin may also cause the body to rupture.\\nIntestinal anaerobic bacteria transform haemoglobin into sulfhemoglobin and other colored pigments. The associated gases which accumulate within the body at this time aid in the transport of sulfhemoglobin throughout the body via the\",\n \"-30.020002862234833\"\n ],\n [\n \"is to digest food and regulate the intestinal flora. The harmful bacteria in rancid food, for example, creates gas. The colon has distension sensors that can tell when there is unexpected gas pushing the colon walls out—thus the \\\"second brain\\\" tells the person that he or she is having intestinal difficulties by way of the sensation of nausea. Doctors typically recommend either total anesthesia or a partial twilight sedative to either preclude or to lessen the patient's awareness of pain or discomfort, or just the unusual sensations of the procedure. Once the colon has been inflated, the doctor inspects it\",\n \"-29.982967609539628\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the intestinal lumen. Such luminal distension may induce pain, a sensation of bloating, abdominal distension and motility disorders. Therapeutic approaches seek to reduce factors that lead to distension, particularly of the distal small and proximal large intestine. Food substances that can induce distension are those that are poorly absorbed in the proximal small intestine, osmotically active, and fermented by intestinal bacteria with hydrogen (as opposed to methane) production. The small molecule FODMAPs exhibit these characteristics.\\nOver many years, there have been multiple observations that ingestion of certain short-chain carbohydrates, including lactose, fructose and sorbitol, fructans and galactooligosaccharides, can induce gastrointestinal\",\n \"-29.93871900148224\"\n ],\n [\n \"routed through the vagus nerve and release of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40% of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and G cell (secretes gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin.\\nThe gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the\",\n \"-29.832824873330537\"\n ],\n [\n \"gas. Some patients may exhibit over-sensitivity to bad flatus smell, and in extreme forms, olfactory reference syndrome may be diagnosed. Incontinence of flatus \\\"Gas incontinence\\\" could be defined as loss of voluntary control over the passage of flatus. It is a recognised subtype of faecal incontinence, and is usually related to minor disruptions of the continence mechanisms. Some consider gas incontinence to be the first, sometimes only, symptom of faecal incontinence. Cause Intestinal gas is composed of varying quantities of exogenous sources and endogenous sources. The exogenous gases are swallowed (aerophagia) when eating or drinking or increased swallowing during times\",\n \"-29.826036305465095\"\n ],\n [\n \"can be voluntarily elicited by tensing the rectum or \\\"bearing down\\\" on stomach or bowel muscles and subsequently relaxing the anal sphincter, resulting in the expulsion of flatus. Management Since problems involving intestinal gas present as different (but sometimes combined) complaints, the management is cause-related. Pain and bloating While not affecting the production of the gases themselves, surfactants (agents that lower surface tension) can reduce the disagreeable sensations associated with flatulence, by aiding the dissolution of the gases into liquid and solid faecal matter. Preparations containing simethicone reportedly operate by promoting the coalescence of smaller bubbles into larger ones more\",\n \"-29.771691957022995\"\n ],\n [\n \"tube is wider and forms the sucking stomach. When the sucking stomach's powerful muscles contract, the stomach is increased in cross-section, creating a strong sucking action that permits the tarantula to suck its liquefied prey up through the mouth and into the intestines. Once the liquefied food enters the intestines, it is broken down into particles small enough to pass through the intestine walls into the hemolymph (blood stream), where it is distributed throughout the body. After feeding, the leftovers are formed into a small ball by the tarantula and thrown away. In a terrarium, they often put them into\",\n \"-29.670851376780774\"\n ],\n [\n \"prokinetic effect of rectal distension on the rate of transit of intestinal gas. It is now known that gas is moved along the gut independently of solids and liquids, and this transit is more efficient in the erect position compared to when supine. It is thought that large volumes of intestinal gas present low resistance, and can be propelled by subtle changes in gut tone, capacitance and proximal contraction and distal relaxation. This process is thought not to affect solid and liquid intra-lumenal contents.\\nResearchers investigating the role of sensory nerve endings in the anal canal did not find them to\",\n \"-29.601473301307124\"\n ],\n [\n \"Rectocele Signs and symptoms Mild cases may simply produce a sense of pressure or protrusion within the vagina, and the occasional feeling that the rectum has not been completely emptied after a bowel movement. Moderate cases may involve difficulty passing stool (because the attempt to evacuate pushes the stool into the rectocele instead of out through the anus), discomfort or pain during evacuation or intercourse, constipation, and a general sensation that something is \\\"falling down\\\" or \\\"falling out\\\" within the pelvis. Severe cases may cause vaginal bleeding, intermittent fecal incontinence, or even the prolapse of the bulge through the mouth\",\n \"-29.581652831926476\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gastric volvulus Organoaxial type In an organoaxial gastric volvulus, the stomach rotates around an axis that connects the gastroesophageal junction and the pylorus. The antrum rotates in opposite direction to the fundus of the stomach.This is the most common type of gastric volvulus, occurring in approximately 59% of cases, and it is usually associated with diaphragmatic defects. Strangulation and necrosis commonly occur with organoaxial gastric volvulus and have been reported in 5–28% of cases. The key imaging feature of organoaxial volvulus is that the greater curvature is located above the lesser curvature of the stomach. Mesenteroaxial type The mesenteroaxial axis\",\n \"-29.575036168738734\"\n ],\n [\n \"in another abdominal area can often be seen and felt. When standing, such a bulge becomes more obvious. Besides the bulge, other symptoms include pain in the groin that may also include a heavy or dragging sensation, and in men, there is sometimes pain and swelling in the scrotum around the testicular area.\\nIrreducible abdominal hernias or incarcerated hernias may be painful, but their most relevant symptom is that they cannot return to the abdominal cavity when pushed in. They may be chronic, although painless, and can lead to strangulation (loss of blood supply), obstruction (kinking of intestine), or both. Strangulated\",\n \"-29.57111403113231\"\n ],\n [\n \"stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and gastric acid secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid. Gastric acid is about 0.5% hydrochloric acid (HCl), which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1–3. Acid release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine.\\nThe intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing\",\n \"-29.563749549910426\"\n ],\n [\n \"bisects the lesser and greater curvatures. The antrum rotates anteriorly and superiorly so that the posterior surface of the stomach lies anteriorly. The rotation is usually incomplete and occurs intermittently. Vascular compromise is uncommon. This cause comprises approximately 29% of cases of gastric volvulus. The key imaging feature of mesenteroaxial volvulus is that the antrum is above the gastroesophageal junction. Combined type The combined type of gastric volvulus is a rare form in which the stomach twists mesentericoaxially and organoaxially. This type of gastric volvulus makes up the remainder of cases and is usually observed in patients with chronic volvulus.\",\n \"-29.557445405982435\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gastric atresia Cause Gastric atresia is a birth defect. It can be genetic, inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, and associated with conditions like Down syndrome and junctional epidermolysis bullosa (medicine). In about 60% of cases, the outlet of the stomach is covered by a membrane. In around 35% of cases, solid tissue blocks the outlet. In the remaining cases (less than 10%), there is a complete separation of the stomach and the small intestine. Diagnosis Polyhydramnios is often seen during pregnancy, and prenatal diagnosis is common. Infants with gastric atresia will exhibit forceful vomiting upon the first feeding. Imaging\",\n \"-29.475972793530673\"\n ],\n [\n \"Intussusception (medical disorder) Signs and symptoms Early symptoms can include periodic abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting (sometimes green in color from bile), pulling legs to the chest area, and intermittent moderate to severe cramping abdominal pain. Pain is intermittent—not because the intussusception temporarily resolves, but because the intussuscepted bowel segment transiently stops contracting. Later signs include rectal bleeding, often with \\\"red currant jelly\\\" stool (stool mixed with blood and mucus), and lethargy. Physical examination may reveal a \\\"sausage-shaped\\\" mass, felt upon palpating the abdomen. Children, or those unable to communicate symptoms verbally, may cry, draw their knees up to their\",\n \"-29.45715552708134\"\n ],\n [\n \"regular intervals into the small intestine, which stimulates the pancreas to release fluid containing a high concentration of bicarbonate. This fluid neutralizes the gastric juices, which can damage the lining of the intestine and result in duodenal ulcer. Other secretions from the pancreas, gallbladder, liver, and glands in the intestinal wall help in digestion.\\nWhen food particles are sufficiently reduced in size and composition, they are absorbed by the intestinal wall and transported to the bloodstream. Some food material is passed from the small intestine to the large intestine. In the large intestine, bacteria break down any proteins and starches in\",\n \"-29.448460374725983\"\n ],\n [\n \"not normally associated with it is the hiccup. Hiccups are harmless and will diminish on their own; they also help to release gas that is in the digestive tract before it moves down to the intestines and causes bloating. Important but uncommon causes of abdominal bloating include ascites and tumors. Fiber Most cases of stomach bloating are due to improper diet. Gas occurs because of the bacteria in the colon and is a by-product of soluble fiber digestion. Inadequate or irregular intake of fiber and water will cause a person to experience bloating or constipation. The most common natural sources\",\n \"-29.412185590394074\"\n ],\n [\n \"end stage of type I and type II hernias occurs when the whole stomach migrates up into the chest by rotating 180° around its longitudinal axis, with the cardia and pylorus as fixed points. In this situation the abnormality is usually referred to as an intrathoracic stomach. Treatment In the great majority of cases, sufferers experience no life-altering discomfort, and no treatment is required. If there is pain or discomfort, 3 or 4 sips of room temperature water will usually relieve the pain. Symptomatic patients should elevate the head of their beds and avoid lying down directly after meals. If\",\n \"-29.386394782632124\"\n ],\n [\n \"Rovsing's sign Referral of pain This anomaly occurs because the pain nerves deep in the intestines do not localize well to an exact spot on the abdominal wall, unlike pain nerves in muscles. Pain from a stomach ulcer or gallstone can be interpreted by the brain as pain from the stomach, liver, gall bladder, duodenum, or first part of the small intestine. It will \\\"refer\\\" pain often to the mid upper abdomen, the epigastrum.\\nBecause the appendix is a piece of intestine, it follows a similar referral pattern. An appendix with some early inflammation may give a non-specific irritation\",\n \"-29.379316184669733\"\n ],\n [\n \"to chronic infections of the involved site. Esophageal dysmotility Presents as a sensation of food getting stuck (dysphagia) in the mid- or lower esophagus, atypical chest pain, or cough. People often state they must drink liquids to swallow solid food. This motility problem results from atrophy of the gastrointestinal tract wall smooth muscle. This change may occur with or without pathologic evidence of significant tissue fibrosis. Sclerodactyly Though it is the most easily recognizable manifestation, it is not prominent in all patients. Thickening generally only involves the skin of the fingers distal to the metacarpophalangeal joints in CREST.\",\n \"-29.320996734590153\"\n ],\n [\n \"pelvic flexure, but may also occur in the right dorsal colon and the cecum of the large intestines. The sand can cause colic signs similar to other impactions of the large colon, and often causes abdominal distention As the sand or dirt irritates the lining of the bowel it can cause diarrhea. The weight and abrasion of the sand or dirt causes the bowel wall to become inflamed and can cause a reduction in colonic motility and, in severe cases, leads to peritonitis.\\nDiagnosis is usually made by history, environmental conditions, auscultation of the ventral abdomen, radiographs, ultrasound, or fecal examination\",\n \"-29.312786405382212\"\n ],\n [\n \"(Ileus), which can cause excessive accumulation of fluid in the gastrointestinal tract. This is a functional rather than mechanical blockage of the intestine, but like the mechanical blockage seen with simple obstructions, it can have serious effects including severe dehydration. Inflammation of the bowel may lead to increased permeability and subsequent endotoxemia. The underlying cause of inflammation may be due to infection, toxin, or trauma, and may require special treatment in order to resolve the colic.\\nUlceration of the mucosal surface occurs very commonly in the stomach (gastric ulceration), due to damage from stomach acid or alteration in protective mechanisms of\",\n \"-29.275963373482227\"\n ],\n [\n \"often increased throughout the day and then resolving during sleep. The increase in girth combined with the fact that the total volume of flatus is not increased led to studies aiming to image the distribution of intestinal gas in patients with bloating. They found that gas was not distributed normally in these patients: there was segmental gas pooling and focal distension. In conclusion, abdominal distension, pain and bloating symptoms are the result of abnormal intestinal gas dynamics rather than increased flatus production. Excessive volume As mentioned above, the normal range of volumes of flatus in normal individuals varies hugely (476–1,491 ml/24 h).\",\n \"-29.242072671302594\"\n ],\n [\n \"of flatus in normal subjects. The volume of gas produced is partially dependent upon the composition of the intestinal microbiota, which is normally very resistant to change, but is also very different in different individuals. Some patients are predisposed to increased endogenous gas production by virtue of their gut microbiota composition. The greatest concentration of gut bacteria is in the colon, while the small intestine is normally nearly sterile. Fermentation occurs when unabsorbed food residues may arrive in the colon. Therefore, even more than the composition of the microbiota, diet is the primary factor that dictates the volume of flatus\",\n \"-29.239747819956392\"\n ],\n [\n \"signs and symptoms. The chest pain caused by GERD has a distinct 'burning' sensation, occurs after eating or at night, and worsens when a person lies down or bends over. It also is common in pregnant women, and may be triggered by consuming food in large quantities, or specific foods containing certain spices, high fat content, or high acid content. If the chest pain is suspected to be heartburn, patients may undergo an upper GI series to confirm the presence of acid reflux.\\nHeartburn or chest pain after eating or drinking and combined with difficulty swallowing may indicate esophageal spasms. GI\",\n \"-29.22691048955312\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dysmenorrhea Signs and symptoms The main symptom of dysmenorrhea is pain concentrated in the lower abdomen or pelvis. It is also commonly felt in the right or left side of the abdomen. It may radiate to the thighs and lower back.\\nSymptoms often co-occurring with menstrual pain include nausea and vomiting, diarrhea or constipation, headache, dizziness, disorientation, hypersensitivity to sound, light, smell and touch, fainting, and fatigue. Symptoms of dysmenorrhea often begin immediately after ovulation and can last until the end of menstruation. This is because dysmenorrhea is often associated with changes in hormonal levels in the body that occur with\",\n \"-29.195250692777336\"\n ],\n [\n \"strain to defecate (presents as an arched back and lifted tail), and may start showing overt signs of colic such as rolling and getting up and down. In later stages, the abdomen will distend as it continues to fill with gas and feces. Meconium impactions are often diagnosed by clinical signs, but digital examination to feel for impacted meconium, radiographs, and ultrasound may also be used.\\nTreatment for meconium impaction typically involves the use of enemas, although persistent cases may require mineral oil or IV fluids. It is possible to tell that the meconium has passed when the foal begins to\",\n \"-29.15492115926463\"\n ],\n [\n \"negative intra-abdominal pressure during\\nexhalation and bowel peristaltic motion.\\nInitially, peritoneal fluid accumulates in gravity-dependent spaces, the deep recesses of the pelvis and the lateral\\nparavesical spaces and then ascends cephalad through the paracolic gutters reaches the subdiaphragmatic spaces. As\\nthe left paracolic gutter is shallow and discontinuous with left subdiaphragmatic space at the phrenicocolic ligament,\\nmost of the fluid takes path through the right paracolic gutter. Completion of the circulatory pathway takes place\\ncaudally by redirection of fluid into the pelvis through the inframesocolic compartment13 (Fig. 3).\\nIn pathologic conditions the excessive fluid collects in well-defined areas of stasis or arrested flow including the\\nperitoneal recesses of\",\n \"-29.14152984987959\"\n ],\n [\n \"lining can cause the tissue to become swollen and congested. Ulceration is thought to be caused by resulting poor blood supply (ischemia), combined with repeated frictional trauma from the prolapsing lining, and exposure to increased pressure are thought to cause ulceration. Trauma from hard stools may also contribute.\\nThe site of the ulcer is typically on the anterior wall of the rectal ampulla, about 7–10 cm from the anus. However, the area may of ulceration may be closer to the anus, deeper inside, or on the lateral or posterior rectal walls. The name \\\"solitary\\\" can be misleading since there may be more\",\n \"-29.05206831661053\"\n ],\n [\n \"to connect the stomach to the duodenum so as to facilitate the passage of food from one to the other. This tube is called a gastroduodenostomy. Stenosis Pyloric stenosis refers to a pylorus that is narrow. This is due to congenital hypertrophy of the pyloric sphincter. The lumen of the pylorus is narrower, and less food is able to pass through. This problem is often detected in the early weeks of life. When it is present, a newborn baby may projectile vomit after eating, but despite vomiting remain hungry. Pyloric stenosis may be managed by the insertion of a stent,\",\n \"-28.94810561160557\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the stomach is lined with cilia (minute hairs) that compress undigested solids, which then pass through the intestine and out through the anus.\\nThere are no nephridia (\\\"little kidneys\\\") or other excretory organs in bryozoa, and it is thought that ammonia diffuses out through the body wall and lophophore. More complex waste products are not excreted but accumulate in the polypide, which degenerates after a few weeks. Some of the old polypide is recycled, but much of it remains as a large mass of dying cells containing accumulated wastes, and this is compressed into a \\\"brown body\\\". When the degeneration\",\n \"-28.94629369303584\"\n ],\n [\n \"hernias, in which the LES protrudes above the diaphragm along with the stomach, and only 5% are the \\\"rolling\\\" type (paraesophageal), in which the LES remains stationary, but the stomach protrudes above the diaphragm. \\nHiatal hernias are most common in North America and Western Europe and rare in rural African communities. Some have proposed that insufficient dietary fiber and the use of a high sitting position for defecation may increase the risk.\",\n \"-28.937408320838585\"\n ],\n [\n \"movement within the intestines slows down is the most common complication following cystectomy. This is due to a variety of factors including manipulation of the intestines due to their proximity of the bladder, the actual operation on the intestines to create a urinary diversion, or even certain medications such as narcotics. In addition to slowing of the small intestine, the small intestine can also become obstructed. After creation of a urinary diversion, intestinal contents can leak at the site where the intestine are reconnected. Urinary tract With creation of a urinary diversion it is possible for the\",\n \"-28.915477864677086\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the stomach and proximal duodenum, which are separated by the pyloric sphincter, creating the appearance of two bubbles visible on x-ray. Since the closure of the duodenum is complete in duodenal atresia, no air is seen in the distal duodenum.\\nAtresias occurring distal to the duodenum are usually caused by vascular accidents or ischemic insult, such as jejunoileal atresia. Physical examination During pregnancy, duodenal atresia is associated with increased amniotic fluid in the uterus, which is called polyhydramnios. This increase in amniotic fluid is caused by the inability of the fetus to swallow the amniotic fluid and absorb\",\n \"-28.900557618217135\"\n ],\n [\n \"may or may not be bloody. The nature of the diarrhea in Crohn's disease depends on the part of the small intestine or colon involved. Ileitis typically results in large-volume, watery feces. Colitis may result in a smaller volume of feces of higher frequency. Fecal consistency may range from solid to watery. In severe cases, an individual may have more than 20 bowel movements per day and may need to awaken at night to defecate. Visible bleeding in the feces is less common in Crohn's disease than in ulcerative colitis, but may be seen in the setting of Crohn's colitis.\",\n \"-28.84607912681531\"\n ],\n [\n \"oral intake. Eliciting a careful dietary history from patients with suspected malabsorption is therefore crucial. Excessive flatus and abdominal bloating may reflect excessive gas production due to fermentation of unabsorbed carbohydrate, especially among patients with primary or secondary disaccharidase deficiency. Malabsorption of dietary nutrients and excessive fluid secretion by inflamed small intestine also contribute to abdominal distention and bloating. Prevalence, severity, and character of abdominal pain vary considerably among the various disease processes associated with intestinal malabsorption. For example, pain is common in patients with chronic pancreatitis or pancreatic cancer and Crohn's disease, but it is absent in many patients\",\n \"-28.80346738625667\"\n ],\n [\n \"organisms, such as Salmonella and Clostridial species, but other possible contributing factors include Fusarium infection or high concentrate diets. The inflammation of the intestine leads to large secretions of electrolytes and fluid into its lumen, and thus large amounts of gastric reflux, leading to dehydration and occasionally shock.\\nSigns include acute onset of moderate to severe pain, large volumes orange-brown and fetid gastric reflux, distended small intestine on rectal examination, fever, depression, increased heart rate and respiratory rate, prolonged CRT, and darkened mucous membranes. Pain level usually improves after gastric decompression. It is important to differentiate DPI from small intestinal obstruction,\",\n \"-28.75747374398634\"\n ],\n [\n \"Azotorrhea Azotorrhea is the excessive discharge of nitrogenous substances in the feces or urine. As in when people eat a diet high in protein they may suffer from increased amount of amino acid byproduct (nitrogen) being broken and excreted through defecation or urination.\\nThis condition may also be present in situations of pancreatic disease, such as in chronic alcoholism or cystic fibrosis.\",\n \"-28.68964912550291\"\n ],\n [\n \"the stomach, and is usually not life-threatening. The right dorsal colon may also develop ulceration, usually secondary to excessive NSAID use, which alters the homeostatic balance of prostaglandins that protect the mucosa. Types This list of types of colic is not exhaustive but details some of the types which may be encountered. Gas and spasmodic colic Gas colic, also known as tympanic colic, is the result of gas buildup within the horse's digestive tract due to excessive fermentation within the intestines or a decreased ability to move gas through it. It is usually the result of a change in diet,\",\n \"-28.664146560593508\"\n ],\n [\n \"sphincter of the stomach, and delayed stomach emptying. Historically, vagotomy was combined with pyloroplasty or gastroenterostomy to counter this problem.\",\n \"-28.62657067901455\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gas gangrene Presentation Gas gangrene can cause myonecrosis (muscle tissue death), gas production, and sepsis. Progression to toxemia and shock is often very rapid. It can easily be noticed by the large, blackened sores that form, as well as a degree of loud and distinctive crepitus caused by gas escaping the necrotic tissue. Pathophysiology Gas gangrene is caused by exotoxin-producing Clostridium species (most often C. perfringens, and C. novyi,\\nbut less commonly C. septicum or C. ramnosum), which are mostly found in soil, but also found as normal gut flora, and other anaerobes (e.g., Bacteroides and anaerobic streptococci). The exotoxin is commonly found\",\n \"-28.535799576318823\"\n ],\n [\n \"produced. Diets that aim to reduce the amount of undigested fermentable food residues arriving in the colon have been shown to significantly reduce the volume of flatus produced. Again, increased volume of intestinal gas will not cause bloating and pain in normal subjects. Abnormal intestinal gas dynamics will create pain, distension, and bloating, regardless of whether there is high or low total flatus volume. Smell Although flatus possesses physiological smell, this may be abnormally increased in some patients and cause social distress to the patient. Increased smell of flatus presents a distinct clinical issue from other complaints related to intestinal\",\n \"-28.489322082372382\"\n ],\n [\n \"will be no purulent discharge. There may be regional lymphadenitis.\\nWhen pus forms, the pressure increases, with increasing pain, until it spontaneously drains and relieves the pain. When pus drains into the mouth, a bad taste and smell are perceived. Usually drainage occurs via the periodontal pocket, or else the infection may spread as a cellulitis or a purulent odontogenic infection. Local anatomic factors determine the direction of spread (see fascial spaces of the head and neck). There may be systemic upset, with an onset of malaise and pyrexia. Diagnosis Periodontal abscesses may be difficult to distinguish from periapical abscesses. Since\",\n \"-28.44013926162006\"\n ],\n [\n \"sounds can be heard all over. Patient stops passing flatus and motion, abdomen is distended.\\nThe symptoms of esophageal rupture may include sudden onset of chest pain. Causes Underlying causes include gastric ulcers, duodenal ulcers, appendicitis, gastrointestinal cancer, diverticulitis, inflammatory bowel disease, superior mesenteric artery syndrome, trauma and ascariasis. Typhoid fever, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, ingestion of corrosives may also be responsible.\\nEating multiple magnets can also lead to perforation if the magnets attract and stick to one another through different loops of the intestine. Diagnosis On x-rays, gas may be visible in the abdominal cavity. Gas is easily visualized on x-ray while\",\n \"-28.429803166771308\"\n ],\n [\n \"acid and the wall lining which is protected by mucus. When this mucus lining is disrupted for whatever reason, signs and symptoms of acidity result. This may result in upper abdominal pain, indigestion, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting and heartburn. When the condition is allowed to progress, the pain may become continuous; blood may start to leak and be seen in the stools. If the bleeding is rapid and of adequate volume it may even result in vomiting of bright red blood (hematemesis). When the acidity is uncontrolled, it can even cause severe blood loss (anemia) or lead to perforation\",\n \"-28.417112202383578\"\n ],\n [\n \"Type 1 Gastric volvulus of unknown cause comprises two thirds of cases and is presumably due to abnormal laxity of the gastrosplenic, gastroduodenal, gastrophrenic, and gastrohepatic ligaments. Type 1 gastric volvulus is more common in adults but has been reported in children. Type 2 Type 2 gastric volvulus is found in one third of patients and is usually associated with congenital or acquired abnormalities that result in abnormal mobility of the stomach. Diagnosis On chest radiography, a retrocardiac, gas-filled viscus may be seen in cases of intrathoracic stomach, which confirms the diagnosis. Plain abdominal radiography reveals a massively distended viscus\",\n \"-28.357965369417798\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gastroenteritis Signs and symptoms Gastroenteritis usually involves both diarrhea and vomiting. Sometimes, only one or the other is present. This may be accompanied by abdominal cramps. Signs and symptoms usually begin 12–72 hours after contracting the infectious agent. If due to a virus, the condition usually resolves within one week. Some viral infections also involve fever, fatigue, headache and muscle pain. If the stool is bloody, the cause is less likely to be viral and more likely to be bacterial. Some bacterial infections cause severe abdominal pain and may persist for several weeks.\\nChildren infected with rotavirus usually make a full recovery\",\n \"-28.346943427313818\"\n ],\n [\n \"ensuring that it does not become too acidic. These cells also produce mucus, which forms a viscous physical barrier to prevent gastric acid from damaging the stomach. The pancreas further produces large amounts of bicarbonate and secretes bicarbonate through the pancreatic duct to the duodenum to completely neutralize any gastric acid that passes further down into the digestive tract.\\nThe main constituent of gastric acid is hydrochloric acid which is produced by parietal cells (also called oxyntic cells) in the gastric glands in the stomach. Its secretion is a complex and relatively energetically expensive process. Parietal cells contain an extensive\",\n \"-28.294260534923524\"\n ],\n [\n \"severe than those induced by food allergy, but can include anaphylaxis. Research directions FODMAPs are fermentable oligo-, di-, monosaccharides and polyols, which are poorly absorbed in the small intestine and subsequently fermented by the bacteria in the distal small and proximal large intestine. This is a normal phenomenon, common to everyone. The resultant production of gas potentially results in bloating and flatulence. Although FODMAPs can produce certain digestive discomfort in some people, not only do they not cause intestinal inflammation, but they avoid it, because they produce beneficial alterations in the intestinal flora that contribute to maintain the good health\",\n \"-28.291758214472793\"\n ],\n [\n \"results in loss of stomach acid (hydrochloric acid). The vomited material does not contain bile because the pyloric obstruction prevents entry of duodenal contents (containing bile) into the stomach. The chloride loss results in a low blood chloride level which impairs the kidney's ability to excrete bicarbonate. This is the factor that prevents correction of the alkalosis leading to metabolic alkalosis.\\nA secondary hyperaldosteronism develops due to the decreased blood volume. The high aldosterone levels causes the kidneys to avidly retain Na⁺ (to correct the intravascular volume depletion), and excrete increased amounts of K⁺ into the urine (resulting in a low\",\n \"-28.289777570636943\"\n ],\n [\n \"and the serosa. The mucosa, the inner most layer and lining of the esophagus, is composed of stratified squamous epithelium, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae. At the end of the esophagus is the lower esophageal sphincter, which normally prevents stomach acid from enteringthe esophagus. \\nIf the sphincter is not sufficiently tight, it may allow acid to enter the esophagus, causing inflammation of one or more layers. Esophagitis may also occur if an infection is present, which may be due to bacteria, viruses, or fungi; or by diseases that affect the immune system. \\nIrritation can be caused by GERD, vomiting, surgery,\",\n \"-28.266597100067884\"\n ],\n [\n \"or rectovaginal fistulae can develop (holes that allow urine or faeces to seep into the vagina). This and other damage to the urethra and bladder can lead to infections and incontinence, pain during sexual intercourse and infertility. Painful periods are common because of the obstruction to the menstrual flow, and blood can stagnate in the vagina and uterus. Complete obstruction of the vagina can result in hematocolpos and hematometra (where the vagina and uterus fill with menstrual blood). The swelling of the abdomen and lack of menstruation can resemble pregnancy; Asma El Dareer, a Sudanese physician, reported in 1979 that\",\n \"-28.237988191804106\"\n ],\n [\n \"stomach. As ureases they hydrolyze urea to produce ammonia and carbonic acid. As the bacteria are localized to the stomach ammonia produced is readily taken up by the circulatory system from the gastric lumen. This results in elevated ammonia levels in the blood and is coined as hyperammonemia, eradication of Heliobacter pylori show marked decreases in ammonia levels.\\nUrease in peptic ulcers\\nHelicobacter pylori is also the cause of peptic ulcers with its manifestation in 55–68% reported cases. This was confirmed by decreased ulcer bleeding and ulcer reoccurrence after eradication of the pathogen. In the stomach there is an increase in\",\n \"-28.223975797416642\"\n ],\n [\n \"The stomach is then pushed through the esophageal hiatus (the hole where the esophagus passes through the diaphragm) and is joined to the remaining upper part of the esophagus at the neck.\\nThe traditional transthoracic approach enters the body through the chest, and has a number of variations. The thoracoabdominal approach opens the abdominal and thoracic cavities together, the two-stage Ivor Lewis (also called Lewis–Tanner) approach involves an initial laparotomy and construction of a gastric tube, followed by a right thoracotomy to excise the tumor and create an esophagogastric anastomosis. The three-stage McKeown approach adds a third incision in the neck\",\n \"-28.200620563235134\"\n ],\n [\n \"gallbladder to the intestines. Gallstones can get trapped in the gastrointestinal tract, most commonly at the connection between the small and large intestines (ileocecal valve). When a gallstone gets trapped, it can lead to an intestinal obstruction, called gallstone ileus, leading to abdominal pain, vomiting, constipation, and abdominal distension. Causes Cholecystitis occurs when the gallbladder becomes inflamed. Gallstones are the most common cause of gallbladder inflammation but it can also occur due to blockage from a tumor or scarring of the bile duct. The greatest risk factor for cholecystitis is gallstones. Risk factors for gallstones include female\",\n \"-28.184871574572753\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cricopharyngeal spasm Causes Causes include stress and anxiety. Other causes are not yet clear. In some cases, eating certain foods may bring on acute spasms, in susceptible individuals. Peanuts, pumpkin seeds and other nuts may trigger these spasms. Physiology There are two sphincters in the oesophagus. They are normally contracted and they relax when one swallows so that food can pass through them going to the stomach. They then squeeze closed again to prevent regurgitation of the stomach contents. If this normal contraction becomes a spasm, these symptoms begin.\",\n \"-28.182766892692598\"\n ],\n [\n \"wound. (By contrast, we do not perceive the shedding of the stomach lining as a structural failure.) This wound perception is reinforced by the fact that, during menstruation, the woman bleeds and may suffer from pain and discomfort. Martin contends that menstruation is a normal physiological function and process (not a dirty thing or a “secret illness”), which should be viewed as a success - i.e., the success of the female body in avoiding pregnancy, the success of the female body in ridding itself of potentially harmful material from the uterus. Yet, our language and culture prevent this.\",\n \"-28.143807071519404\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gastric outlet obstruction Signs and symptoms The main symptom is vomiting, which typically occurs after meals, of undigested food devoid of any bile. A history of previous peptic ulcers and loss of weight is not uncommon. In advanced cases, signs to look for on physical examination are wasting and dehydration. Visible peristalsis from left to right may be present. Succussion splash is a splash-like sound heard over the stomach in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen on shaking the patient, with or without the stethoscope. Bowel sound may be increased (borborygmi) due to excessive peristaltic action of the\",\n \"-28.141844039433636\"\n ],\n [\n \"quantify the total volume of gas produced by patients with irritable bowel syndrome (some including gas emitted from the mouth by eructation) have consistently failed to demonstrate increased volumes compared to healthy subjects. The proportion of hydrogen produced may be increased in some patients with irritable bowel syndrome, but this does not affect the total volume. Thirdly, the volume of flatus produced by patients with irritable bowel syndrome who have pain and abdominal distension would be tolerated in normal subjects without any complaints of pain.\\nPatients who complain of bloating frequently can be shown to have objective increases in abdominal girth,\",\n \"-28.11791115097003\"\n ],\n [\n \"the stomach is empty and to stop when the stomach is stretched). Leptin is produced by adipose tissue to signal fat storage reserves in the body, and mediates long-term appetitive controls (i.e. to eat more when fat storages are low and less when fat storages are high). Although administration of leptin may be effective in a small subset of obese individuals who are leptin-deficient, most obese individuals are thought to be leptin resistant and have been found to have high levels of leptin. This resistance is thought to explain in part why administration of leptin has not been shown to\",\n \"-28.110019396059215\"\n ],\n [\n \"stomach. Fullness in the left hypochondrium may also be present. Pathophysiology In a peptic ulcer it is believed to be a result of edema and scarring of the ulcer, followed by healing and fibrosis, which leads to obstruction of the gastroduodenal junction (usually an ulcer in the first part of the duodenum). Diagnosis The most confirmatory investigation is endoscopy of upper gastrointestinal tract.\\nLaboratory often find hypochloremic, hypokalemic, and alkalotic due to loss of hydrogen chloride and potassium. High urea and creatinine levels may also be observed if the patient is dehydrated.\\nAbdominal X-ray may show a gastric fluid level which would\",\n \"-28.10837537673069\"\n ],\n [\n \"notices that Jack feels no pain when she presses his belly. Cameron shows the team Jack's x-rays. She says he's constipated. Foreman diagnoses Hirschsprung's disease. They do a barium enema and a biopsy to confirm.\\nCameron reviews the x-rays they've done on Jack over the course of over a week which show his colon is clear. Cameron checks Jack's belly and says while it feels better, it appears larger. Just then, Jack's right eye fixes (lateral rectus palsy) and he seizes. They give him diazepam for the seizure. Foreman sees Jack's optic disc is swollen, indicating intracranial hypertension. They give him\",\n \"-28.061195579124615\"\n ],\n [\n \"somewhere near the umbilicus (belly button). Should the inflammation become severe, it may actually irritate the inner lining of the abdominal cavity called the peritoneum. This thin layer of tissue lies deep to the abdominal wall muscles. Now the pain has become \\\"localized\\\". If pressure is applied to the muscles of the right lower abdomen (or iliac fossa) near a very irritated appendix, then the muscle fibers in that area will be stretched and will hurt. Process A Rovsing's sign is elicited by pushing on the abdomen far away from the appendix in the left lower quadrant. The appendix, in\",\n \"-28.027747214306146\"\n ],\n [\n \"Abdominal distension Treatment Bloating is not life-threatening. In most cases, bloating can be handled with simple home remedies and changes in lifestyle. Persistent or recurrent bloating may be caused by intestinal parasites, other infections, or other medical conditions. Foods Certain foods have been known to worsen bloating. Poorly digested components of many foods are excreted into the large intestine where they are degraded by bacteria, producing excess gas. Depending on the undigested component, this may affect the odor and the volume of gas created.\\nExcess dietary fiber intake is a known cause of belching, gas and bloating. \\nMany vegetables\",\n \"-28.018272737797815\"\n ],\n [\n \"ulcers. Perianal candidiasis can cause anal itching; the lesion can be red, papular, or ulcerative in appearance, and it is not considered to be a sexually transmissible disease. Abnormal proliferation of the candida in the gut may lead to dysbiosis. While it is not yet clear, this alteration may be the source of symptoms generally described as the irritable bowel syndrome, and other gastrointestinal diseases. Causes Candida yeasts are generally present in healthy humans, frequently part of the human body's normal oral and intestinal flora, and particularly on the skin; however, their growth is normally limited by the human immune\",\n \"-27.990256544668227\"\n ],\n [\n \"of proteins, no substantial pressure gradient can be established to draw fluids from the tissue back into the blood stream. This results in the pooling of fluids, causing the swelling and distention of the abdomen.\\nThe low protein intake leads to some specific signs: edema of the hands and feet, irritability, anorexia, a desquamative rash, hair discolouration, and a large fatty liver. The typical swollen abdomen is due to two causes: ascites because of hypoalbuminemia (low oncotic pressure), and enlarged fatty liver.\\nIgnorance of nutrition can be a cause. Dr. Michael Latham, former director of the Program in International Nutrition at Cornell\",\n \"-27.983081117272377\"\n ],\n [\n \"erroneously believed that gastritis was the cause of ascites, typhoid fever, and meningitis. In 1854, Charles Handfield Jones and Wilson Fox described the microscopic changes of stomach inner lining in gastritis which existed in diffuse and segmental forms. In 1855, Baron Carl von Rokitansky first described hypetrophic gastritis. In 1859, British physician, William Brinton first described about acute, subacute, and chronic gastritis. In 1870, Samuel Fenwick noted that pernicious anemia causes glandular atrophy in gastritis. German surgeon, Georg Ernst Konjetzny noticed that gastric ulcer and gastric cancer are the result of gastric inflammation. Shields Warren and Willam A. Meissner described\",\n \"-27.979447231278755\"\n ],\n [\n \"by pushing stool from the anal canal back into the rectum.\\nOnce the voluntary signal to defecate is sent back from the brain, the abdominal muscles contract (straining) causing the intra-abdominal pressure to increase. The pelvic floor is lowered causing the anorectal angle to straighten out from ~90ᵒ to <15ᵒ and the external anal sphincter relaxes. The rectum now contracts and shortens in peristaltic waves, thus forcing fecal material out of the rectum, through the anal canal and out of the anus. The internal and external anal sphincters along with the puborectalis muscle allow the feces to be passed by pulling\",\n \"-27.976643572736066\"\n ],\n [\n \"back into the abdominal cavity, either spontaneously or with manipulation. However, it is more likely to occur spontaneously. This is the most common type of femoral hernia and is usually painless.\\nAn irreducible femoral hernia occurs when a femoral hernia cannot be completely reduced, typically due to adhesions between the hernia and the hernial sac. This can cause pain and a feeling of illness.\\nAn obstructed femoral hernia occurs when a part of the intestine involved in the hernia becomes twisted, kinked, or constricted, causing an intestinal obstruction.\\nA strangulated femoral hernia occurs when a constriction of the hernia limits or completely obstructs\",\n \"-27.94692253798712\"\n ],\n [\n \"use of an endoscope. A gastric emptying scan is considered the gold standard to assess gastric emptying rate.\\nA large number of studies have indicated that most cases of peptic ulcers, and gastritis, in humans are caused by Helicobacter pylori infection, and an association has been seen with the development of stomach cancer.\\nA stomach rumble is actually noise from the intestines.\\nThe stomach has to regenerate a new layer of mucus every two weeks, or else damage to the epithelium may result. Surgery In humans, many bariatric surgery procedures involve the stomach, in order to lose weight. A gastric band may be\",\n \"-27.853125962312333\"\n ],\n [\n \"main site of digestion. The intestine opens, via a short rectum, to an anus located at the terminal end of the body. Some species only defecate when they molt, leaving the feces behind with the shed cuticle.\\nThe brain develops in a bilaterally symmetric pattern. The brain includes multiple lobes, mostly consisting of three bilaterally paired clusters of neurons. The brain is attached to a large ganglion below the esophagus, from which a double ventral nerve cord runs the length of the body. The cord possesses one ganglion per segment, each of which produces lateral nerve fibres that run into the\",\n \"-27.839778450783342\"\n ],\n [\n \"a functional \\\"defect\\\", allowing part of the stomach to (periodically) \\\"herniate\\\" into the chest. Hiatus hernias may be either \\\"sliding\\\", in which the gastroesophageal junction itself slides through the defect into the chest, or non-sliding (also known as para-esophageal), in which case the junction remains fixed while another portion of the stomach moves up through the defect. Non-sliding or para-esophageal hernias can be dangerous as they may allow the stomach to rotate and obstruct. Repair is usually advised.\\nA congenital diaphragmatic hernia is a distinct problem, occurring in up to 1 in 2000 births, and requiring pediatric surgery. Intestinal organs may\",\n \"-27.790033840574324\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":584,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2t5hga"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What causes sociopathy?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["You will not, it's part inherited, part developed through childhood trauma. You will not likely recognize it in a person, because a sociopath has learned to emulate all emotions like a regular one. However since they are unable to feel empathy or love you could approach them with those subjects.","I am a diagnosed sociopath, I do not remember any traumatic event in my childhood whatsoever. Also, I have been like this for as long as I can remember so I think it's probably pretty genetic. My therapist says it may be because I didn't recieve emotional stimuli as a toddler so I didn't developp well the areas of the brain associated with that.","I have had several serious head injuries and feel like I have sociopathic tendencies as a result. I definitely remember being more emotionally sensitive. People are amazed about how cold I can be, and I know I wasn't always this way. If someone is depressed or experiencing grief I do my best to comfort them but on the inside I am annoyed by what I perceive as weakness. It depresses me because I also feel like less of a person.","I wonder if there are various degrees of being a sociopath ? For instance one can become emotional at some point, have a moral code within them not associated by emotions, and still on the larger scale lack the ability to feel in most situations. Because they know they are considered off, they learn to mimic behavior of the average person. I doubt if all sociopaths manipulate their envirnoment any more than the average normal person.","Although I am not a psychologist, I believe sociopathic tendencies are much more complicated than they look. I would also love to see professional opinion about this.There might be people that develop it early in life, as a survival mechanism after a major traumatic event, there also might be people that just didn't have those sympathetic connections wired through their brains at infancy. There also might be a physical trauma that injures said connections in the brain. As a \"condition\", as far as I know sociopaths are apathetic to other peoples feelings, and lack the conscience that says what is right and what is wrong on an emotional level. They might learn to define between those things, but they wouldn't care. With that in mind sociopaths can learn to read and imitate emotional reactions that are hot-wired into normal peoples brains, and so be aware of everything you feel and everything they let you see about them. So they can manipulate sympathetic people to their benefit.","Follow up: Why don't you ever hear of sociopaths just leading normal lives? Why do they often become serial killers, at least in the popular consciousness?","They learn to hide it from silent observation and researching how they should display emotion.","I have a little sort of hobby, where I try and find as much out of a person as I can by just looking, one guy who was a friend of mine always showed emotion and things like that but every time something sad happened or something unhappy was going on nothing, decided to look into it a little further. He was a sociopath, never felt guilt, sadness or anything of the sorts, he cheated on his girlfriend more than once and managed to weasel his way out of it, until he then cheated on her with my girlfriend of almost two years after we had a fight. We split up and she made me promise not to say anything for fear this guys girlfriend would hate her. Fuck me.","If I recall correctly, personality disorders, like sociopath and psychopathy aren't rooted in any sort of neurotransmitter deficiency or overabundance like most disorders (depression, schizophrenia, etc.) So they're looking into genetic predisposition and environmental triggers. But I could be wrong, it's been a while since college. A great book, which I'm rereading currently, is The Psychopath Test by Jon Ronson. Entertaining and extremely informative, written by a phenomenal investigative journalist.","There's and evolutionary response: you get the creeps or someone creeps you out. It is a warning sign that your brain detects something not quite right, even if you aren't aware of it.","Genetics, natal exposure to certain chemicals, nobody really knows. Just be clear that a socio path isn't necessarily bad unless they actually do something bad."],"string":"[\n \"You will not, it's part inherited, part developed through childhood trauma. You will not likely recognize it in a person, because a sociopath has learned to emulate all emotions like a regular one. However since they are unable to feel empathy or love you could approach them with those subjects.\",\n \"I am a diagnosed sociopath, I do not remember any traumatic event in my childhood whatsoever. Also, I have been like this for as long as I can remember so I think it's probably pretty genetic. My therapist says it may be because I didn't recieve emotional stimuli as a toddler so I didn't developp well the areas of the brain associated with that.\",\n \"I have had several serious head injuries and feel like I have sociopathic tendencies as a result. I definitely remember being more emotionally sensitive. People are amazed about how cold I can be, and I know I wasn't always this way. If someone is depressed or experiencing grief I do my best to comfort them but on the inside I am annoyed by what I perceive as weakness. It depresses me because I also feel like less of a person.\",\n \"I wonder if there are various degrees of being a sociopath ? For instance one can become emotional at some point, have a moral code within them not associated by emotions, and still on the larger scale lack the ability to feel in most situations. Because they know they are considered off, they learn to mimic behavior of the average person. I doubt if all sociopaths manipulate their envirnoment any more than the average normal person.\",\n \"Although I am not a psychologist, I believe sociopathic tendencies are much more complicated than they look. I would also love to see professional opinion about this.There might be people that develop it early in life, as a survival mechanism after a major traumatic event, there also might be people that just didn't have those sympathetic connections wired through their brains at infancy. There also might be a physical trauma that injures said connections in the brain. As a \\\"condition\\\", as far as I know sociopaths are apathetic to other peoples feelings, and lack the conscience that says what is right and what is wrong on an emotional level. They might learn to define between those things, but they wouldn't care. With that in mind sociopaths can learn to read and imitate emotional reactions that are hot-wired into normal peoples brains, and so be aware of everything you feel and everything they let you see about them. So they can manipulate sympathetic people to their benefit.\",\n \"Follow up: Why don't you ever hear of sociopaths just leading normal lives? Why do they often become serial killers, at least in the popular consciousness?\",\n \"They learn to hide it from silent observation and researching how they should display emotion.\",\n \"I have a little sort of hobby, where I try and find as much out of a person as I can by just looking, one guy who was a friend of mine always showed emotion and things like that but every time something sad happened or something unhappy was going on nothing, decided to look into it a little further. He was a sociopath, never felt guilt, sadness or anything of the sorts, he cheated on his girlfriend more than once and managed to weasel his way out of it, until he then cheated on her with my girlfriend of almost two years after we had a fight. We split up and she made me promise not to say anything for fear this guys girlfriend would hate her. Fuck me.\",\n \"If I recall correctly, personality disorders, like sociopath and psychopathy aren't rooted in any sort of neurotransmitter deficiency or overabundance like most disorders (depression, schizophrenia, etc.) So they're looking into genetic predisposition and environmental triggers. But I could be wrong, it's been a while since college. A great book, which I'm rereading currently, is The Psychopath Test by Jon Ronson. Entertaining and extremely informative, written by a phenomenal investigative journalist.\",\n \"There's and evolutionary response: you get the creeps or someone creeps you out. It is a warning sign that your brain detects something not quite right, even if you aren't aware of it.\",\n \"Genetics, natal exposure to certain chemicals, nobody really knows. Just be clear that a socio path isn't necessarily bad unless they actually do something bad.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["who violated legal or moral expectations or was considered inherently socially undesirable in some way.\nThe term sociopathy was popularized from 1929/30 by the American psychologist George E. Partridge and was originally intended as an alternative term to indicate that the defining feature was a pervasive failure to adhere to societal norms in a way that could harm others. The term psychopathy also gradually narrowed to the latter sense, based on interpretations of the work of a Scottish psychiatrist and especially checklists popularized by an American psychiatrist and later a Canadian psychologist. Psychopathy became defined in these quarters as a constellation","-32.18918079555442"],["reflect the user's views on the origins and determinants of the disorder. Hare contended that the term sociopathy is preferred by those that see the causes as due to social factors and early environment, and the term psychopathy preferred by those who believe that there are psychological, biological, and genetic factors involved in addition to environmental factors. Hare also provides his own definitions: he describes psychopathy as not having a sense of empathy or morality, but sociopathy as only differing from the average person in the sense of right and wrong. Precursors Ancient writings that have been connected to psychopathy","-31.92353003792232"],["psychopaths judged such actions to be more morally permissible. This result has been considered a reflection of psychopaths' failure to appreciate the emotional aspect of the victim's harmful experience. Cause Behavioral genetic studies have identified potential genetic and non-genetic contributors to psychopathy, including influences on brain function. Proponents of the triarchic model believe that psychopathy results from the interaction of genetic predispositions and an adverse environment. What is adverse may differ depending on the underlying predisposition: for example, it is hypothesized that persons having high boldness may respond poorly to punishment but may respond better to rewards and secure attachments.","-31.25582140287588"],["make social judgments, and may cause reflexive aggression. A common retort to these findings is that the higher incidence of cerebral lesions among the criminal population may be due to the peril associated with a life of crime. Along with this reasoning, it would be assumed that some other personality trait is responsible for the disregard of social acceptability and reduction in social aptitude.\nFurthermore, some think the dysfunction cannot be entirely to blame. There are interacting environmental factors that also have an influence on the likelihood of criminal action. This theory proposes that individuals with this deficit are less able","-30.724551985425933"],["irrational and maladaptive beliefs out of one's mind. Sociocultural influences The term sociocultural refers to the various circles of influence on the individual ranging from close friends and family to the institutions and policies of a country or the world as a whole. Discriminations, whether based on social class, income, race, and ethnicity, or gender, can influence the development of abnormal behaviour. Multiple causality The number of different theoretical perspectives in the field of psychological abnormality has made it difficult to properly explain psychopathology. The attempt to explain all mental disorders with the same theory leads to reductionism (explaining a","-30.706164806731977"],["nature that makes it prone to misuse. Signs and symptoms Socially, psychopathy expresses extensive callous and manipulative self-serving behaviors with no regard for others, and often is associated with repeated delinquency, crime and violence. Mentally, impairments in processes related to affect (emotion) and cognition, particularly socially related mental processes, have been found in those with the disorder. Developmentally, symptoms of psychopathy have been identified in young children with conduct disorder, and is suggestive of at least a partial constitutional factor that influences its development. Criminality In terms of simple correlations, the PCL-R manual states an average score of 22.1 has","-30.65127728151856"],["children exhibited characteristic behaviors of psychopathy, including: lack of empathy, lack of affection, and inappropriate social relationships (DSM III). This differed from \"socialized\" individuals, who were able to form healthy social attachments to others, and whose aggressive and antisocial acts typically derived from engagement in a deviant social group (e.g. youth gangs).\nFollowing the publication of DSM-III, these distinctions prompted research, but there were still issues with the terminology in diagnosing the core features of the undersocialized versus socialized subtype. The word undersocialized was used in order to avoid the negative connotations of psychopathy, but was commonly misinterpreted to mean that","-30.623820697453993"],["and antisocial personality disorder are adult externalizing disorders. Externalizing psychopathology is associated with antisocial behavior, which is different from and often confused for asociality. Signs and symptoms Externalizing disorders often involve emotion dysregulation problems and impulsivity that are manifested as antisocial behavior and aggression in opposition to authority, societal norms, and often violate the rights of others. Some examples of externalizing disorder symptoms include, often losing one's temper, excessive verbal aggression, physical aggression to people and animals, destruction of property, theft, and deliberate fire setting. As with all DSM-5 mental disorders, an individual must have functional impairment in at least","-30.522093224528362"],["is a core characteristic of this disorder: they can have significant difficulties in maintaining stable employment as well as fulfilling their social and financial obligations, and people with this disorder often lead exploitative, unlawful, or parasitic lifestyles.\nThose with antisocial personality disorder are often impulsive and reckless, failing to consider or disregarding the consequences of their actions. They may repeatedly disregard and jeopardize their own safety and the safety of others and place themselves and others in danger. They are often aggressive and hostile and display a dysregulated temper and can lash out violently with provocation or frustration. Individuals are prone","-30.279928070376627"],["with the generation of pleasurable feelings when a non-moral act is performed towards a hostile entity, a phenomenon called Schadenfreude. The cingulate cortex allows for conflict regulation when performing an immoral action and the feeling of envy when self identified entities are overcome by non identified ones. Psychopathy Psychopathy is a brain disorder remarked by lack of moral emotions, empathy, remorse and guilt. People with psychopathy appear to have defects in moral judgement, but not in moral reasoning. Neuroimaging of the psychopathic brain has revealed hypoperfusion and hypometabolism in areas of the frontal cortex. The areas of the medial prefrontal","-30.20699347955815"],["the definition of psychopathy to antisocial personality, and from 1930 suggested that a more apt name for it would be sociopathy. He suggested that anyone, and indeed groups of people acting together, could be considered sociopathic at times, but that sociopaths – or technically 'essential sociopaths' - were chronically and pervasively so in their motivation and behavior.!n 1933, American Psychiatrist Harry Stack Sullivan first coined the term \"Psychopathic child,\" which is now thought to be the first formulation of autism spectrum disorder, to describe interpersonal deficiency which starts from childhood. Scottish psychiatrist David Henderson published in 1939 a theory of \"psychopathic","-30.201857260166435"],["\"individuals who are chronically in trouble and do not seem to change as a result of experience or punishment, with no loyalties to anyone\", as well as being frequently callous and lacking responsibility, with an ability to 'rationalize' their behaviour. The dyssocial reaction was for \"individuals who disregard societal rules, although they are capable of strong loyalties to others or groups.\" Although the sociopathy category was very broad by today's definitions, the DSM-I itself pointed out that it was more specific and limited than the then current notions of 'constitutional psychopathic state' or 'psychopathic personality'.\nMeanwhile, other subtypes of psychopathy were","-30.094825970922102"],["Disorder\", which is believed to occur when groups or pairs of people are isolated from the world, developing paranoia, and in which one partner dominates the other. This is especially true of Léa, whose meek personality was overshadowed by obstinate and dominant Christine.\nThe case had a huge impact on the community and was debated furiously by the intelligentsia. Some people considered that the murders had been the result of \"exploitation of the workers\", considering that the maids worked fourteen-hour days, with only half a day off each week. Intellectuals empathized with the sisters' oppressive struggle of social classes. Les Bonnes","-29.82118775046547"],["suggested that autism is not caused by an innate deficit in a specific social circuitry in the brain, also citing other research suggesting that specificalized social brain mechanisms may not exist even in neurotypic people, but that particular features of appearance and/or minor details in behavior are met with exclusion from socialization that shows up as apparently reduced social ability. Psychopathy Psychopathy is a personality disorder partly characterized by antisocial and aggressive behaviors, as well as emotional and interpersonal deficits including shallow emotions and a lack of remorse and empathy. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and","-29.75706180427369"],["Social Risk Factors In many studies, the individuals displaying antisocial behavior developed in a family exhibiting \"deviant behavior,\" in an \"adverse home environment,\" or in something similar. However most studies do not specify the exact traits that characterize the tested 'deviant' or 'adverse' environment. Many that are cited include abuse, neglect, socioeconomic status, parental antisocial behavior, etc. There is no evidence that social factors, such as these, can induce antisocial behavior without accompanying biological factors. Adolescence-limited offenders Although the biological risk factor do not apply to this group, one point worth noting is that the myelination","-29.663266945572104"],["an environmental influence on the development of psychopathy because of evidence of its strong heritability. Brain injury Researchers have linked head injuries with psychopathy and violence. Since the 1980s, scientists have associated traumatic brain injury, such as damage to the prefrontal cortex, including the orbitofrontal cortex, with psychopathic behavior and a deficient ability to make morally and socially acceptable decisions, a condition that has been termed \"acquired sociopathy\", or \"pseudopsychopathy\". Individuals with damage to the area of the prefrontal cortex known as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex show remarkable similarities to diagnosed psychopathic individuals, displaying reduced autonomic response to emotional stimuli,","-29.63970238114416"],["and anti-social or violent behaviour. Such a morally pejorative concept is said to have not been intended by Koch; he had applied the term 'psychopathic' to mean originating from an organic defect in the brain, and the term inferiority to simply refer to dysfunction. However, it was probably his concept and terminology that provided the unfortunate conglomeration of aspects of inferiority, amorality and socially harmful behavior.","-29.632957840629388"],["population about OCD, largely as a result of gross misinformation about the disorder, often leads to assumptions that sufferers are criminals or deviants. This can then reinforce the belief in the mind of the sufferer that they really have committed a crime or immoral act, when they have not, or lead to doubts. This causes great distress for an OCD sufferer, and occasionally leads to the sufferer making \"confessions\" – sometimes to the police – and suicidal thoughts or attempts.\nIn the midst of the thoughts, the sexual obsessions may seem real. Occasionally, individuals with OCD believe that their","-29.407889930935198"],["personality disorder, and had more charges and convictions for criminal offenses. This brain maldevelopment was especially linked to lifelong antisocial behavior, i.e. a reckless disregarded for self and others, lack of remorse, and aggression.\nBigger right hippocampus. A 2004 study suggested that the psychopaths’ right hippocampus that partially controls emotions and regulates aggression was significantly bigger than the left. This asymmetry was also true in normal people, but it was much more noticeable in psychopaths.\nIncrease in the volume of the striatum. A study in 2010 found that psychopathic individuals showed a 10 percent increase in the volume of the striatum.\nDamage by","-29.396628820890328"],["of violent characters helps to reduce violent effects in the individual. Cause and effects Families greatly impact the causation of anti-social behaviour. Some other familial causes are parent history of anti-social behaviours, parental alcohol and drug abuse, unstable home life, absence of good parenting, physical abuse, parental instability (mental health issues/PTSD) and economic distress within the family.\nThere is a small link between antisocial personality characteristics in adulthood and more TV watching as a child. The risk of early adulthood criminal conviction increased by nearly 30 percent with each hour children spent watching TV on an average weekend. Peers can also","-29.393307805195946"],["the observed behaviour, in this case, anti-social behaviour. Antisocial Personality Disorder can only be diagnosed when a pattern of anti-social behaviour began being noticeable during childhood and/or early teens and remained stable and consistent across time and context. In the official DSM IV-TR for ASPD, it is specified that the anti-social behaviour has to occur outside of time frames surrounding traumatic life events or manic episodes (if the individual is diagnosed with another mental disorder). The diagnosis for ASPD cannot be done before the age of 18. For example, someone who exhibits anti-social behaviour with their family but pro-social behaviour","-29.389445566106588"],["abnormal population.\nDr. Hincks's committee describes a causal link between mental abnormality and immorality (illegitimacy, criminality, prostitution, dependency). The suggestion that bad behaviour and sexual immorality were directly related to mental deficiency gave rise to concern by the public and politicians that these individuals posed a threat to society.\nIn addition, the committee assumed that mental abnormality could be detected early in life with various test instruments. In the course of their examination, they also reviewed student behaviour at the elementary level by administering intelligence quotient tests to children who had been described by their teachers as “troublesome, mischief makers","-29.21956990752369"],["varying or contradictory views.\"\nNevertheless, criminologist sociologists William and Joan McCord were influential in narrowing the definition of psychopathy in some quarters to mean an antisocial lack of guilt accompanied by reactive aggression. From another direction, sociologist Lee Robins was also an influential figure in sociopathy research, stemming largely from her research-based 1966 book 'Deviant Children Grown Up: a sociological and psychiatric study of sociopathic personality', based on operational criteria provided by Eli Robins, which would shape the later diagnosis of Antisocial Personality Disorder.\nIn the Mental Health Act in England, a new category of 'Psychopathic Personality' was added in 1959, renamed","-29.21583485638257"],["them. Some violent offenders, however, have subtle structural or functional abnormalities and even highly experienced neuroradiologists cannot detect these irregularities right away. Yet, the abnormalities can be detected using brain imaging and state-of-the-art analytic tools. Neurophysiological studies Studies on structural deficiencies suggest that people consistently behaving antisocially have structurally impaired brains. The abnormalities can be either of general character or affect specific regions of the brain that control emotions, aggression or are responsible for ethical decisions:\nLow number of neurons in the prefrontal cortex.\nA study in 2000 determined that people with a history of persistent antisocial behavior had an 11 percent","-29.172393060696777"],["If social needs such as empathy, support, and understanding are not met, individuals are prone to this phenomenon. While anybody who has experienced victimization is susceptible to secondary victimization, prevalence rates are significantly elevated for some populations. This includes females, children, racial and sexual minorities, and those sexually assaulted by an acquaintance or stranger. Moreover, those experiencing a certain type of violence are at increased likelihood to experience secondary victimization. These include physical assault, sexual assault, and domestic violence Notably, rape victims are at highest risk of secondary victimization from the criminal justice system, with about half who report","-29.162057631183416"],["likely to link these physical cues to problems of social cohesion and consensus, of declining quality of social bonds and informal social control. Interpersonal communication and the mass media Hearing about events; knowing others who have been victimised– these are thought to raise perceptions of the risk of victimisation. This has been described as a 'crime multiplier', or processes operating in the residential environment that would 'spread' the impacts of criminal events. Such evidence exists that hearing of friends' or neighbours' victimisation increases anxiety that indirect experiences of crime may play a stronger role in anxieties about victimisation than direct","-29.158856350797578"],["and higher rates of health and social problems (obesity, mental illness, homicides, teenage births, incarceration, child conflict, drug use), and lower rates of social goods (life expectancy, educational performance, trust among strangers, women's status, social mobility, even numbers of patents issued per capita), on the other. The authors argue inequality leads to the social ills through the psychosocial stress, status anxiety it creates.\nA 2011 report by the International Monetary Fund by Andrew G. Berg and Jonathan D. Ostry found a strong association between lower levels of inequality and sustained periods of economic growth. Developing countries (such as Brazil, Cameroon, Jordan)","-29.155007366411155"],["psychopathy or criminal behavior, Mednick, William Gabrielli, and Barry Hutching in an article for Science showed anti-social behavior to have a genetic component, at least in relation to property crimes. Using an adoption paradigm, the authors found no correlation between criminal conviction in the adoptive parents and their children, but there was a correlation between biological father conviction and child conviction. The authors stressed that genetic influences do not mean that anti-social behavior is completely genetically determined, but that it has a genetic component. Earlier in his career, Mednick had hypothesized that autonomic under-arousal may be a genetic factor predisposing","-29.154603928080178"],["is used to explain extreme behaviors like genocide, harsh immigration policies, and eugenics, but it can also happen on a more regular, everyday discriminatory level. In laboratory studies, people who are portrayed as lacking human qualities have been found to be treated in a particularly harsh and violent manner.\nDehumanized perception has been indicated to occur when a subject experiences low frequencies of activation within their social cognition neural network. This includes areas of neural networking such as the superior temporal sulcus and the medial prefrontal cortex. A study by Frith & Frith in 2001 suggests the criticality of social interaction","-29.078601138666272"],["the spread of infectious diseases. Other characteristics such as strong in-group–out-group bias and willingness to defend the ingroup's honor may promote violence. A study found strong associations between several forms of violent criminal behavior and both infectious disease rates across U.S states and degree of cultural collectivism across U.S. states. The associations remained strong after controlling for income inequality. Specific forms Evolutionary psychology researchers have proposed several evolutionary explanations for psychopathy. One is that psychopathy represents a frequency-dependent, socially parasitic strategy. This may benefit the psychopath as long as there are few other psychopaths in the community since more psychopaths","-29.0676222720067"],["lower-classes live in close proximity this can result in feelings of anger, hostility, social injustice and frustration. Criminals experience poverty; and witness affluence they are deprived of and which is virtually impossible for them to attain through conventional means. The concept of neighborhood is central to this theory, as it defines the social learning, locus of control, cultural influences and access to social opportunity experienced by criminals and the groups they form. Fear of or lack of trust in mainstream authority may also be a key contributor to social disorganization; organized crime groups replicate such figures and thus ensure","-29.067046861251583"],["friends. Lesions in the right hemisphere's frontal lobe are associated with antisocial states and left frontal lesions are associated with increase in violent behaviors. Individuals with focal lesions in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the orbitofrontal cortex exhibit amoral choices in moral tasks and lack of empathy, compassion, shame, and guilt. Clinical neuropsychiatry The study of brain areas that relate to morality can be utilized to promote moral behavior through transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct-current stimulation. Stimulation of the medial prefrontal cortex results in reduction of racial biases and increase in rejection of unfair offers. Stimulation of the dorsolateral","-29.018057226174278"],["\"society\" as the cause. Hence, environmental criminology and other sub-schools study the spatial distribution of crimes and offenders (see Adolphe Quetelet, who discovered that crimes rates are relatively constant, and the Chicago School which, under the leadership of Robert E. Park, viewed the city as a form of superorganism, zoned into areas engaged in a continuous process of invasion, dominance, and succession). Meanwhile, Émile Durkheim identified society as a social phenomenon, external to individuals, with crime a normal part of a healthy society. Deviancy was nothing more than \"boundary setting,\" pushing to determine the current limits of morality","-28.983952987859084"],["on sex offenders is generally extremely negative, with sex offenders being one of the most hated types of people in society. Daniel J. Wood wrote, \"Many studies have been conducted to evaluate the public's attitude toward sex offenders and most, to put it bluntly, would like to torture them before they are sentenced to death\". Pedophiles and child molesters are also some of the most hated types of people in society. Pedophilia is one of the most stigmatized disorders. One study reported high levels of anger, fear and social rejection towards pedophiles who have not committed a crime. Society's attitude","-28.954202626424376"],["criminology.\nMillon, Simonsen and Birket-Smith have stated that \"K. Birnbaum (1909), writing in Germany at the time of Kraepelin's later editions, was the first to suggest that the term \"sociopathic\" might be the most apt designation for the majority of these cases\"\nThe term sociopathy would later gradually become popular in America, especially as expounded by psychologist George E. Partridge (1930) and adopted into early versions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and is still referred to as an alternative term for antisocial personality disorder. Birnbaum proposed several subtypes of sociopathy and argued that while there may be varying","-28.95387585568824"],["psychosocial health, nutrition, wellness, access to healthcare services, and threat of violence. The exchange of these elements in a home mediates in the impacts of geographical, cultural, and household patterns that result in inequality in health status and outcomes. Health-related behaviors, access and use of healthcare, stress, and psychosocial resources like social ties, coping, and spirituality all serve as factors that mediate health inequality. Household discrimination causes missing girls at birth, and the persistence of discrimination and poor service delivery perpetuates high female mortality. Societal causes Socioeconomic status has long been related to health, those higher in the social","-28.947828277065128"],["Psychopathy Definition A person suffering from a chronic mental disorder with abnormal or violent social behavior. Measurement An early and influential analysis from Harris and colleagues indicated that a discrete category, or taxon, may underlie PCL-R psychopathy, allowing it to be measured and analyzed. However, this was only found for the behavioral Factor 2 items they identified, child problem behaviors; adult criminal behavior did not support the existence of a taxon. Marcus, John, and Edens more recently performed a series of statistical analyses on PPI scores and concluded that psychopathy may best be conceptualized as having a \"dimensional latent structure\"","-28.93546353917918"],["International Classification of Diseases (ICD) list antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) and dissocial personality disorder, stating that these have been referred to or include what is referred to as psychopathy.\nA large body of research suggests that psychopathy is associated with atypical responses to distress cues (e.g. facial and vocal expressions of fear and sadness), including decreased activation of the fusiform and extrastriate cortical regions, which may partly account for impaired recognition of and reduced autonomic responsiveness to expressions of fear, and impairments of empathy. Studies on children with psychopathic tendencies have also shown such associations. The underlying biological surfaces for processing","-28.934622044758726"],["Psychopathy in the workplace The presence of psychopathy in the workplace—although psychopaths typically represent a relatively small percentage of workplace staff—can do enormous damage when in senior management roles. Psychopaths are usually most common at higher levels of corporate organizations and their actions often cause a ripple effect throughout an organization, setting the tone for an entire corporate culture. Examples of detrimental effects are increased bullying, conflict, stress, staff turnover and absenteeism; reduction in productivity and in social responsibility. Ethical standards of entire organisations can be badly damaged if a corporate psychopath is in charge. A 2017 UK study found","-28.92986792987722"],["Antisocial personality disorder Signs and symptoms Antisocial personality disorder is defined by a pervasive and persistent disregard for morals, social norms, and the rights and feelings of others. Individuals with this personality disorder will typically have no compunction in exploiting others in harmful ways for their own gain or pleasure and frequently manipulate and deceive other people, achieving this through wit and a façade of superficial charm or through intimidation and violence. They may display arrogance, think lowly and negatively of others, and lack remorse for their harmful actions and have a callous attitude to those they have harmed. Irresponsibility","-28.90748334636737"],["crime can be locked into social deprivation. Contributors to Social exclusion has many contributors. Major contributors include race, income, employment status, social class, geographic location, personal habits and appearance, education, religion, and political affiliation. Global and structural Globalization (global-capitalism), immigration, social welfare, and policy are broader social structures that have the potential to contribute negatively to one's access to resources and services, resulting in the social exclusion of individuals and groups. Similarly, increasing use of information technology and the company outsourcing have contributed to job insecurity and a widening gap between the rich and the poor. Alphonse, George & Moffat","-28.88094341872784"],["Sexual offending Psychopathy has been associated with commission of sexual crime, with some researchers arguing that it is correlated with a preference for violent sexual behavior. A 2011 study of conditional releases for Canadian male federal offenders found that psychopathy was related to more violent and non-violent offences but not more sexual offences. For child molesters, psychopathy was associated with more offences. A study on the relationship between psychopathy scores and types of aggression in a sample of sexual murderers, in which 84.2% of the sample had PCL-R scores above 20 and 47.4% above 30, found that 82.4% of those","-28.827849760709796"],["behavioral and moral dysfunction in the absence of an obvious mental illness or intellectual disability. He applied the term psychopathic inferiority (psychopathischen Minderwertigkeiten) to various chronic conditions and character disorders, and his work would influence the later conception of the personality disorder.\nThe term psychopathic came to be used to describe a diverse range of dysfunctional or antisocial behavior and mental and sexual deviances, including at the time homosexuality. It was often used to imply an underlying \"constitutional\" or genetic origin. Disparate early descriptions likely set the stage for modern controversies about the definition of psychopathy. 20th century An influential figure","-28.779316734930035"],["found to be negatively correlated to cognitive and affective empathy. Bully-victims There is a strong positive relationship between engaging in bullying behaviors and having been victimized by bullying behaviors. This is both a common finding in review of the research and is in tune with what is commonly observed during human adolescence; often victims of bullying go on to become bullies themselves. A history of victimization often leads to a perpetuation of similar behavior. Having low emotional intelligence increases the likelihood of being both a victim and a bully, which are apparently not mutually exclusive roles. This dual status is","-28.71619512118923"],["psychopathy, which describes its core affective (e.g. lack of empathy, fearlessness) and interpersonal (e.g. grandiosity, manipulativeness) personality disturbances. This is suggestive of two different forms, one associated more with impulsive behavior and emotional dysregulation, and the other with predatory aggression and affective disturbance, of the disorder.\nVarious other gene candidates for ASPD have been identified by a genome-wide association study published in 2016. Several of these gene candidates are shared with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, with which ASPD is comorbid. Hormones and neurotransmitters Traumatic events can lead to a disruption of the standard development of the central nervous system, which can generate","-28.690365164693503"],["Socioeconomic status and mental health Numerous studies around the world have found a relationship between socioeconomic status and mental health. There are higher rates of mental illness in groups with lower socioeconomic status (SES), but there is no clear consensus on the exact causative factors. The two principal models that attempt to explain this relationship are the social causation theory, which posits that socioeconomic inequality causes stress that gives rise to mental illness, and the downward drift approach, which assumes that people predisposed to mental illness are reduced in socioeconomic status as a result of the illness. Most literature on","-28.68605336858309"],["relative deprivation explains that people who feel jealous and discontent of others might turn to crime to acquire the things that they can not afford. Rural Criminology Rural criminology is the study of crime trends outside of metropolitan and suburban areas. Rural criminologists have used social disorganization and routine activity theories. The FBI Uniform Crime Report shows that rural communities have significantly different crime trends as opposed to metropolitan and suburban areas. The crime in rural communities consists predominantly of narcotic related crimes such as the production, use, and trafficking of narcotics. Social disorganization theory is used to examine the","-28.669911113087437"],["and the notion of the Deviancy Amplification Spiral. It helped to shift the focus of Criminology away from the causes of crime towards social reaction, the sociology of crime and Social Control. Cohen suggested the media overreact to an aspect of behaviour which may be seen as a challenge to existing social norms. However, the media response and representation of that behaviour actually helps to define it, communicate it and portrays it as a model for outsiders to observe and adopt. So the moral panic by society represented in the media arguably fuels further socially unacceptable behaviour.\nAlthough Cohen is credited","-28.63764545324375"],["have noted that psychopathy is dissociable from and not synonymous with violence.\nIt has been suggested that psychopathy is associated with \"instrumental\", also known as predatory, proactive, or \"cold blooded\" aggression, a form of aggression characterized by reduced emotion and conducted with a goal differing from but facilitated by the commission of harm. One conclusion in this regard was made by a 2002 study of homicide offenders, which reported that the homicides committed by homicidal offenders with psychopathy were almost always (93.3%) primarily instrumental, significantly more than the proportion (48.4%) of those committed by non-psychopathic homicidal offenders, with the instrumentality of","-28.63255702245806"],["may affect different areas of the nervous system at different times and ages. These range from social deprivation, genetic and metabolic diseases, immune disorders, infectious diseases, nutritional factors, physical trauma, and toxic and environmental factors. Some neurodevelopmental disorders, such as autism and other pervasive developmental disorders, are considered multifactorial syndromes which have many causes that converge to a more specific neurodevelopmental manifestation. Social deprivation Deprivation from social and emotional care causes severe delays in brain and cognitive development. Studies with children growing up in Romanian orphanages during Nicolae Ceauşescu's regime reveal profound effects of social deprivation and language deprivation on","-28.621627012078534"],["bullied in the workplace may have deteriorated self-esteem, suffer from isolation and become fearful and avoidant after being victimized. They may disengage and withdraw from their work community. Both child and adult victims are at greater risk of developing mental pathology. EI is found to be a significant predictor of variance in adolescent peer victimization in bullying and also has a negative correlation with adolescent bullying. Victim peer relations showed strong negative correlations with the emotional management and facilitation dimensions of EI conceptualized as Emotional Management and Control and Emotions Direct Cognitions respectively, both of which made significant semi-partial","-28.57514934951905"],["of personality traits allegedly associated with immorality, criminality, or in some cases socioeconomic success.\nOfficial psychiatric diagnostic manuals adopted a mixture of approaches, eventually going by the term antisocial or dissocial personality disorder. In the meantime concepts of psychopaths/sociopaths had become notorious among the general public and as characters in fiction. Early literature Labels for personality and behavior patterns consistent with psychopathy exist in most cultures. In rural Nigeria, the term Aranakan, was used by the Yoruba people to describe an individual who \"always goes his own way regardless of others, who is uncooperative, full of malice, and bullheaded.\" Similarly, the","-28.5742944709491"],["concept of psychopathy. It was used to indicate that the defining feature is violation of social norms, or antisocial behavior, and has often also been associated with postulating social as well as biological causation.\nThe term is used in various different ways in contemporary usage. Robert Hare stated in the popular science book entitled Snakes in Suits that sociopathy and psychopathy are often used interchangeably, but in some cases the term sociopathy is preferred because it is less likely than is psychopathy to be confused with psychosis, whereas in other cases the two terms may be used with different meanings that","-28.541650290833786"],["or her, the perception of rejection or humiliation at the hands of others, being under the influence of substances or a history of antisocial personality disorder, frontal lobe dysfunction or head injury. Associated psychopathology People who have homicidal ideation are at higher risk of other psychopathology than the normal population. This includes suicidal ideation, psychosis, delirium, or intoxication. It is well established that people with schizophrenia have an increased risk of committing violent acts, including homicide.\nHomicidal ideation may arise in relation to behavioural conditions such as personality disorder (particularly conduct disorder, narcissistic personality disorder and antisocial personality disorder). A study","-28.534171140068793"],["being cited as a cause of psychopathy. The concept fell into disrepute due partly to its use by the Nazis to justify eradicating their opposition. Early 20th century The meaning gradually narrowed, initially as 'psychopathic inferiors' covering all of what today might be called personality disorders and various other conditions, then intertwining with the terminology of the 'sociopath' (and eventually antisocial personality disorder), though psychopathy remained variously defined in both broad and narrow ways.\nEarly representations of psychopaths in film were often caricatured as sadistic, unpredictable, sexually depraved, and emotionally unstable (manic) characters with a compulsion to engage in random violence","-28.49584126487025"],["social periods of disruption result in greater anomie and higher rates of suicide and crimes. Merton theorizes that anomie (normative breakdown) and some forms of deviant behavior derive largely from a disjunction between “culturally prescribed aspirations” of a society and “socially structured avenues for realizing those aspirations\". In The Division of Labor in Society, Durkheim described anomie as one result of an inequitable division of labour within the society. Broadly speaking, then, during times of great upheaval, increasing numbers of individuals \"cease to accept the moral legitimacy of society,” as sociologist Anthony R. Mawson, University of Keele, UK, notes.\nCritical theory","-28.489121030870592"],["AIDS is related to homosexuality.\nEven so, research has found that societal structure and beliefs influence the prevalence stigma and discrimination. \"The two concepts of right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation have proven to be strong and reliable predictors of different types of prejudice.\" Similar to sexism, racism, and other forms of discrimination, the raised and taught belief to view PLHIV as deviants and outcasts as children who become adults with warped view of PLHIV. \"In order to cope with threat, people may adhere to a submissive authoritarian ideology, which will lead them to reject other groups that are perceived","-28.445442515570903"],["associated with psychopathic trends in young people. Intervention and treatment As a high prevalence mental health problem in children, many interventions and treatments are developed to prevent anti-social behaviours and to help reinforce pro-social behaviours.\nSeveral factors are considered as direct or indirect causes of developing anti-social behaviour in children. Addressing these factors are necessary to develop a reliable and effective intervention or treatment. Children's perinatal risk, temperament, intelligence, nutrition level, and interaction with parents or caregivers can influence their behaviours. As for parents or caregivers, their personality traits, behaviours, socioeconomic status, social network, and living environment can also affect children's","-28.437283541759825"],["Psychopathic Disorder in 1983 (then in 2007 removed entirely). This was a legal subcategory in addition to 'mental illness' which did not equate to any one psychiatric diagnosis but covered anyone with \"a persistent disorder or disability of mind which results in abnormally aggressive or seriously irresponsible conduct.\"\nOn the other hand, various analysts began to identify \"successful\" psychopaths in society, some even suggesting it was but an adaption to the social or economic mores of the age, others noting they could be hard to spot either because they were so good at hiding their lack of conscience, or because many","-28.43381057926308"],["of isolation and loneliness due to their overwhelming dependence on other people. Generally people with DPD are also pessimistic: they expect the worst out of situations or believe that the worst will happen. They tend to be more introverted and are more sensitive to criticism and fear rejection. Risk factors People with a history of neglect and an abusive upbringing are more susceptible to develop DPD, specifically those involved in long-term abusive relationships. Those with overprotective or authoritarian parents are also more at risk to develop DPD. Having a family history of anxiety disorder can play a role in the","-28.43275160578196"],["negative effects similar to the victimized children themselves.\"\nWhile most bullies, in the long term, grow up to be emotionally functional adults, many have an increased risk of developing antisocial personality disorder, which is linked to an increased risk of committing criminal acts (including domestic violence). Negative impact on educational quality and outcomes The educational effects on victims of school violence and bullying are significant. Violence and bullying at the hands of teachers or other students may make children and adolescents afraid to go to school and interfere with their ability to concentrate in class or participate in school activities. It","-28.42151961172931"],["sense, any behaviour or experience which causes impairment, distress or disability, particularly if it is thought to arise from a functional breakdown in either the cognitive or neurocognitive systems in the brain, may be classified as psychopathology. It remains unclear how strong the distinction between maladaptive traits and mental disorders actually is, e.g. neuroticism is often described as the personal level of minor psychiatric symptoms. DSM/RDoc debate Some scholars have argued that field should switch from the DSM categorical approach of mental disorders to the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) dimensional approach of mental disorders, although the consensus at present is","-28.417559052511933"],["stress disorder (PTSD), and major depression.\nIn mobbing targets with PTSD, Leymann notes that the \"mental effects were fully comparable with PTSD from war or prison camp experiences.\" Some patients may develop alcoholism or other substance abuse disorders. Family relationships routinely suffer. Workplace targets and witnesses may even develop brief psychotic episodes occupational psychosis generally with paranoid symptoms. Leymann estimated that 15% of suicides in Sweden could be directly attributed to workplace mobbing. Development of the concept Konrad Lorenz, in his book entitled On Aggression (1966), first described mobbing among birds and animals, attributing it to instincts rooted in the Darwinian","-28.41624164646737"],["cases where psychopathy is often seen as aggravating the crime.\nHare wants the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders to list psychopathy as a unique disorder, saying psychopathy has no precise equivalent in either the DSM-IV-TR, where it is most strongly correlated with the diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder, or the ICD-10, which has a similar diagnosis called dissocial personality disorder. Both organizations state their diagnoses have been referred to as or include the disorder of psychopathy. But only a minority of those in institutions whom Hare and his followers would diagnose as psychopaths are violent offenders. Other PCL-R findings","-28.38416970646358"],["Victimisation Victimisation (or victimization) is the process of being victimised or becoming a victim. The field that studies the process, rates, incidence, effects, and prevalence of victimisation is called victimology. Peer victimisation Peer victimisation is the experience among children of being a target of the aggressive behaviour of other children, who are not siblings and not necessarily age-mates. Prevalence Secondary victimization (also known as post crime victimization or double victimization ) refers to further victim-blaming from criminal justice authorities following a report of an original victimization. Rates of victimization are high, with an estimated 5.7 million individuals experiencing","-28.360886207141448"],["social norms that discourage or suppress accomplishment or even competence as forms of inequality. Violence Violence is prevalent in many dystopias, often in the form of war; urban crimes led by gangs (often of teenagers) (e.g. A Clockwork Orange) rampant crime met by blood sports (e.g. Battle Royale, The Running Man, The Hunger Games and Divergent). Also explained in Suzanne Berne's essay \"Ground Zero\", where she explains her experience of the aftermath of 11 September 2001. Nature Fictional dystopias are commonly urban and frequently isolate their characters from all contact with the natural world. Sometimes they require their characters to","-28.32031338021625"],["this category; a view that emotion is central to the disorder rather than necessarily deficient intellect; description of nearly 20 subtypes of psychopathic personalities (more akin to personality disorders than psychopathy as often defined today); a pivotal role for life events and social conditions in shaping whether someone with various psychopathic dispositions would end up engaging in antisocial or criminal behavior or not, and an insistence that even lifelong criminality does not necessarily mean underlying psychopathy.\nBirnbaum suggested that some forms of psychopathy involving moral or emotional immaturity or instability could be overcome by social-educative methods or spiritual leadership.\nIn 1930 in","-28.276402386072732"],["and is sometimes thought to be punishment for sins or moral transgressions. Socioeconomic factors also have a direct impact. Lower-class domestic workers who are often employed by those in a higher socioeconomic class may find their employment in jeopardy as physical manifestations of the disease become apparent. Skin discoloration and darker pigmentation resulting from the disease also have social repercussions.\nIn extreme cases in northern India, leprosy is equated with an \"untouchable\" status that \"often persists long after (individuals with leprosy) have been cured of the disease, creating lifelong prospects of divorce, eviction, loss of employment, and ostracism from family and","-28.268171807954786"],["who commit disorder and crime have a clear tie to groups suffering from financial instability and may be of minority status: \"The use of racial context to encode disorder does not necessarily mean that people are racially prejudiced in the sense of personal hostility.\" He notes that residents make a clear implication of who they believe is causing the disruption, which has been termed as implicit bias. He further states that research conducted on implicit bias and stereotyping of cultures suggests that community members hold unrelenting beliefs of African-Americans and other disadvantaged minority groups, associating them with crime, violence, disorder,","-28.258174046214208"],["be made up of societal, political, economic, or personal factors which create a sense of injustice. It is not based on absolute poverty, a condition where one cannot meet a necessary level to maintain basic living standards. Rather, relative deprivation enforces the idea that even if a person is financially stable, he or she can still feel relatively deprived. The perception of being relatively deprived can result in criminal behavior and/or morally problematic decisions. Relative deprivation theory has increasingly been used to partially explain crime as rising living standards can result in rising crime levels. In criminology, the theory of","-28.255532947054235"],["and motivations, social influence may constitute underhanded manipulation. Psychopathy Being manipulative is in Factor 1 of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist (PCL). In the workplace The workplace psychopath may often rapidly shift between emotions – used to manipulate people or cause high anxiety.\nThe authors of the book Snakes in Suits: When Psychopaths Go to Work describe a five phase model of how a typical workplace psychopath climbs to and maintains power. In phase three (manipulation) - the psychopath will create a scenario of \"psychopathic fiction\" where positive information about themselves and negative disinformation about others will be created, where your role","-28.245317961602268"],["degrees of 'constitutional' disposition towards disorders that could lead to maladjustment and crime, it was the effect of social forces and environments which shaped the eventual outcome.\nBirnbaum published in 1914 a large encyclopedic volume on criminal psychopaths, a second and revised edition of which would be released in 1926. Reviewers at the time noted different themes—a view of constitutional psychopathy as a form of degeneration with both inherited (genetic 'taint') and prenatally acquired (through injury to 'germ plasm') types, resulting in a disposition towards mental disorder or a reduced capacity to resist anti-social tendencies; rejection of the term 'inferiors' for","-28.217104957402626"],["unknown. Definition Social anhedonia is defined as a disinterest in social contact and a lack of pleasure in social situations, and is characterized by social withdrawal. This characteristic typically manifests as an indifference to other people. In contrast to introversion, a nonpathological dimension of human personality, social anhedonia represents a deficit in the ability to experience pleasure. Additionally, social anhedonia differs from social anxiety in that social anhedonia is predominantly typified by diminished positive affect, while social anxiety is distinguished by both decreased positive affect and exaggerated negative affect. This trait is currently seen as a central characteristic to, as","-28.202642845190894"],["violence on victims, there is little information on the economic effect, especially for economically vulnerable victims such as Black and Latina women. These consequences of sexual violence disproportionately harm these specific demographics, because they make up a large portion of the group afflicted by income-poverty and asset poverty. Simply being from one of these poverty backgrounds increases the risk of sexual violence and discourages victims from reporting a rape crime as there is less confidence in the police services and there is a higher crime rate in areas of poverty. Effects on men \"Toxic masculinity\"—a concept posited by some feminist","-28.199543579337842"],["rather than two ends of a continuum. Emotional and behavioral reactions Research has found that, depending on how the victim handles social undermining, it can have damaging effects when it comes to increased counterproductive behaviors, reciprocated social undermining, and decreased job satisfaction. These negative outcomes can cause the person to have depression, a decreased self-esteem and even psychosomatic symptoms.\nIn a study of victims' perceptions of undermining they had experienced, Crossley found that when an offense was severe, the victim was more likely to believe that the offender committed the action with malicious intent or due to personal greed. Generally, victims'","-28.19437976361951"],["related to specific (performance) social phobia, for example, regarding public speaking (Stemberg et al., 1995). As well as direct experiences, observing or hearing about the socially negative experiences of others (e.g. a faux pas committed by someone), or verbal warnings of social problems and dangers, may also make the development of a social anxiety disorder more likely. Social anxiety disorder may be caused by the longer-term effects of not fitting in, or being bullied, rejected or ignored (Beidel and Turner, 1998). Shy adolescents or avoidant adults have emphasised unpleasant experiences with peers or childhood bullying or harassment (Gilmartin, 1987). In","-28.192355869650783"],["socially deprived children have imbalances with hormones associated with affiliative and positive social behaviour, specifically oxytocin and vasopressin. Institutionalized children showed a marked decrease in vasopressin and oxytocin levels while interacting with their caregiver compared to controls. Failure to receive proper social interaction at a young age disrupts normal neuroendocrine system developments that mediate social behaviour. Mental illness A lack of social networking predisposes people to mental illness. Mental illness can be attributed to instability within the individual. Society provides a sense of stability and socially deprived people fail to fit within this social structure. It becomes","-28.191680915217148"],["children who exhibit anti-social behaviours at later ages had court appearances and police contact as a result of their behaviour.\nMany of the studies regarding the media's influence on anti-social behaviour have been deemed inconclusive. Violence, racism, sexism, and other anti-social acts are attributed to things such as genetic predisposition and violence in the home. Some reviews have found strong correlations between aggression and the viewing of violent media, while others find little evidence to support their case. The only unanimously accepted truth regarding anti-social behaviour is that parental guidance carries an undoubtedly strong influence; providing children with brief negative evaluations","-28.18752318265615"],["deficits in aversive conditioning, similar preferences in moral and economic decision making, and diminished empathy and social emotions like guilt or shame. These emotional and moral impairments may be especially severe when the brain injury occurs at a young age. Children with early damage in the prefrontal cortex may never fully develop social or moral reasoning and become \"psychopathic individuals ... characterized by high levels of aggression and antisocial behavior performed without guilt or empathy for their victims\". Additionally, damage to the amygdala may impair the ability of the prefrontal cortex to interpret feedback from the limbic system, which could result","-28.14608596279868"],["is bereavement, and troubled parental or partner relationships. Factors such as war, poverty, and unemployment may also contribute. Other predictors of self-harm and suicidal behavior include feelings of entrapment, defeat, lack of belonging, and perceiving oneself as a burden along with less effective social problem-solving skills. Self-harm is frequently described as an experience of depersonalisation or a dissociative state. As many as 70% of individuals with borderline personality disorder engage in self-harm. An estimated 30% of individuals with autism spectrum disorders engage in self-harm at some point, including eye-poking, skin-picking, hand-biting, and head-banging. The onset of puberty has also been","-28.13663346665271"],["and grievous bodily harm was done in intimate relations or within families. The violence in one form or another was observed in almost every fourth family. The reasons for domestic crimes were different and included quarrels and scandals, hostile relations on the basis of families' problems, housing and domestic conflicts, which were often of long-lasting character.\nAs the main causes over the whole population Artamoshkin referred to \"low morale\" and income problems, while in wealthy families crimes happened also due to jealousy and avarice. High unemployment frustrated people and led to the abuse of alcohol and violence towards women and adolescents.","-28.117783037516347"],["direct and indirect bullying behaviors. Bullies high in CU traits will probably be resistant to many of the interventions successful with bullies who are not. Although a defining characteristic of CU is a lack of empathy, which overlaps with bullies deficits in empathy as highlighted above, the other characteristics of the concept would make bullies high in CU less malleable than those who simply have lower EI. Victimization and emotional intelligence Being bullied can have a negative impact on the victim's life: Bullied children may go on to be maladjusted socially and emotionally, and worsen in behavior. Adults who are","-28.114005819516024"],["status is correlated with increased rates of morbidity and mortality. Mental health disorders are an important health problem for those of low socioeconomic status; they are two to five times more likely to suffer from a diagnosable disorder than those of high socioeconomic status, and are more likely to face barriers to getting treatment. Furthermore, this lack of treatment for mental disorders can affect educational and employment opportunities and achievement. Residential segregation Important to the understanding of migrant community health is the increasingly stratified American society, manifested in residential segregation. Beginning in the 1970s, the low to moderate","-28.104072021204047"],["tendencies have also shown such associations. Meta-analyses have also found evidence of impairments in both vocal and facial emotional recognition for several emotions (i.e., not only fear and sadness) in both adults and children/adolescents. Moral judgment Psychopathy has been associated with amorality—an absence of, indifference towards, or disregard for moral beliefs. There are few firm data on patterns of moral judgment. Studies of developmental level (sophistication) of moral reasoning found all possible results—lower, higher or the same as non-psychopaths. Studies that compared judgments of personal moral transgressions versus judgments of breaking conventional rules or laws found that psychopaths rated them","-28.101900684589054"],["Genetic Genetically informed studies of the personality characteristics typical of individuals with psychopathy have found moderate genetic (as well as non-genetic) influences. On the PPI, fearless dominance and impulsive antisociality were similarly influenced by genetic factors and uncorrelated with each other. Genetic factors may generally influence the development of psychopathy while environmental factors affect the specific expression of the traits that predominate. A study on a large group of children found more than 60% heritability for \"callous-unemotional traits\" and that conduct problems among children with these traits had a higher heritability than among children without these traits. Environment A study","-28.100819357903674"],["and poor self-esteem. Various theories suggest that psychopathology is a factor, and that abuse experienced as a child leads some people to be more violent as adults. Correlation has been found between juvenile delinquency and domestic violence in adulthood.\nStudies have found high incidence of psychopathology among domestic abusers. For instance, some research suggests that about 80% of both court-referred and self-referred men in these domestic violence studies exhibited diagnosable psychopathology, typically personality disorders. \"The estimate of personality disorders in the general population would be more in the 15–20% range [...] As violence becomes more severe and chronic in the relationship,","-28.097205067781033"],["such as psychopathy, borderline, narcissistic, and schizoid personality disorders; conduct disorder; schizophrenia; bipolar disorder; and depersonalization. Lack of affective empathy has also been associated with sex offenders. It was found that offenders that had been raised in an environment where they were shown a lack of empathy and had endured the same type of abuse, felt less affective empathy for their victims. Autism The interaction between empathy and autism is a complex and ongoing field of research. Several different factors are proposed to be at play.\nA study of high-functioning adults with autistic spectrum disorders found an increased prevalence of alexithymia,","-28.08905852175667"],["is the concept that criminal acts or the people doing said crimes do them because of internal factors driving them. It differs from biological positivism in the thought that that school of thought says criminals are born criminals, whereas the psychological perspective recognizes the internal factors are results of external factor such as, but are not limited to, abusive parents, abusive relationships, drug problems, etc.\nSocial Positivism, which oftentimes referred to as Sociological Positivism, discusses the thought process that criminals are produced by society. This school claims that low income levels, high poverty/unemployment rates, and poor educational systems create and fuel","-28.08777504740283"],["behavior which has not regard for the good of society and of individuals, and is therefore frequently destructive of both. \n CROSS: Is psychopathic personality a recognized mental disease? \n BINGER: It is... \n CROSS: Will you tell us, Dr. Binger, what some of the symptoms of a psychopathic personality are? \n BINGER: Well, they are quite variegated. They include chronic, persistent and repetitive lying; they include stealing; they include acts of deception and misrepresentations; they include alcoholism and drug addiction; abnormal sexuality; vagabondage; panhandling; inability to form stable attachments; and a tendency to make false accusations.\n In his","-28.076777762005804"],["in an area with more crime in said area. A 2013 study from Sweden argued that there was little effect of neighbourhood deprivation on criminality per se and rather that the higher rates of crime were due to observed and unobserved family and individual level factors, indicating that high-risk individuals were being selected into economically deprived areas.\nA World Bank study said, “Crime rates and inequality are positively correlated within countries and, particularly, between countries, and this correlation reflects causation from inequality to crime rates, even after controlling for other crime determinants.” Geographic factors Associated factors include areas with population size, neighborhood quality, residential","-28.03712276366423"],["and negative mob types, as the distinctive characteristics and behaviors of key figures can be positive or negative in nature. An antisocial leader can incite violent action, but an influential voice of non-violence in a crowd can lead to a mass sit-in. When a crowd described as above targets an individual, anti-social behaviors may emerge within its members.\nA major criticism of this theory is that the formation and following of new norms indicates a level of self-awareness that is often missing in the individuals in crowds (as evidenced by the study of deindividuation). Another criticism is that the idea of","-28.031516584102064"],["the increased incidence of these conditions in people with lower socioeconomic status (SES) suggest they are the result of poor diet, low levels of exercise, dangerous jobs (exposure to toxins etc.) and increased levels of smoking and alcohol intake in socially deprived populations. Hesdorffer et al. found that low SES, indexed by poor education and lack of home ownership, was a risk factor for epilepsy in adults, but not in children in a population study. Low socioeconomic status may have a cumulative effect for the risk of developing epilepsy over a lifetime. Classification Mesial temporal sclerosis is a specific pattern","-28.01010340891662"],["and on unifying and integrating forces at individual, group, social and spiritual levels that are associated with the limiting of crime and recovery from victimization. In traditional approaches the study of crime, violence and related behaviors emphasizes the negative aspects in people’s lives that are associated with deviance, criminality and victimization. A common understanding is that human relationships are affected more by destructive encounters than by constructive or positive ones. Positive criminology and victimology argue that a different approach is viable, based on three dimensions – social integration, emotional healing and spirituality – that constitute positive direction indicators. Prison abolition","-27.991185259932536"],["cruelty to animals during childhood are also linked to the development of antisocial personality. The condition is more common in males than in females, and among people who are in prison. Genetic Research into genetic associations in antisocial personality disorder is suggestive that ASPD has some or even a strong genetic basis. Prevalence of ASPD is higher in people related to someone afflicted by the disorder. Twin studies, which are designed to discern between genetic and environmental effects, have reported significant genetic influences on antisocial behavior and conduct disorder.\nIn the specific genes that may be involved, one gene that has","-27.963610535211046"],["the societal reaction is the most determinant of one's entry into this role of chronically ill. \nAccording to Scheff hospitalization of a mentally ill person further reinforces this social role and forces her/him to take this role as her/his self-perception. Once the person is institutionalized for mental disorder, s/he has been publicly labeled as \"crazy\" and forced to become a member of a deviant social group. It then becomes difficult for a deviant person to return to her/his former level of functioning as the status of 'patient' causes unfavorable evaluations by self and by others. Frank Tannenbaum Frank Tannenbaum is","-27.948463302949676"],["other factors. Furthermore, the prevalence of disabilities in impoverished populations has been predicted to follow a cyclical pattern by which those who live in poverty are more likely to acquire a disability and those who have a disability are more likely to become impoverished. The vicious circle Experts from the United Kingdom Disabled Persons Council attribute the connection between disability and poverty to many systemic factors that promote a “vicious circle.” Statistics affirm the mutually reinforcing nature of special needs and low socioeconomic status, showing that people with disabilities are significantly more likely to become impoverished and people who are","-27.90849079884356"],["Asociality Schizophrenia In schizophrenia, asociality is one of the main 5 \"negative symptoms\", the others being avolition, anhedonia, reduced affect and alogia. Due to a lack of desire to form relationships, social withdrawal is common in people with schizophrenia. People with schizophrenia may experience social deficits or dysfunction as a result of the disorder, leading to asocial behavior. Frequent or ongoing delusions and hallucinations can deteriorate relationships and other social ties, isolating individuals with schizophrenia from reality and in some cases leading to homelessness. Even when treated with medication for the disorder, they may be unable to engage in social","-27.902414814612712"],["lower performance appraisals among corporate professionals. The psychologist Oliver James identifies psychopathy as one of the dark triadic traits in the workplace, the others being narcissism and Machiavellianism, which, like psychopathy, can have negative consequences.\nAccording to a study from the University of Notre Dame published in the Journal of Business Ethics, psychopaths have a natural advantage in workplaces overrun by abusive supervision, and are more likely to thrive under abusive bosses, being more resistant to stress, including interpersonal abuse, and having less of a need for positive relationships than others. In fiction Characters with psychopathy or sociopathy are some of","-27.89980345100048"],["an underlying factor that interacts with the immediate factors to result in a disorder. Both causes play a key role in the development of a psychological disorder. For example, high neuroticism antedates most types of psychopathology.","-27.82776931989065"],["even more difficult for a person to fit in once labelled mentally ill because they now also carry a social stigma and receive a negative social attitude from the community.\nSocial deprivation is difficult to dissect because certain issues that may be considered outcomes of social exclusion may also be factored into causes of social stigma. Outcomes of adult social deprivation may include young parenthood, adult homelessness, lack of qualifications, or residence in social housing – yet all of these factors may cause society to treat the individual with disdain or intolerance, thus furthering their exclusion. These reciprocal influences can become","-27.817072745725454"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"who violated legal or moral expectations or was considered inherently socially undesirable in some way.\\nThe term sociopathy was popularized from 1929/30 by the American psychologist George E. Partridge and was originally intended as an alternative term to indicate that the defining feature was a pervasive failure to adhere to societal norms in a way that could harm others. The term psychopathy also gradually narrowed to the latter sense, based on interpretations of the work of a Scottish psychiatrist and especially checklists popularized by an American psychiatrist and later a Canadian psychologist. Psychopathy became defined in these quarters as a constellation\",\n \"-32.18918079555442\"\n ],\n [\n \"reflect the user's views on the origins and determinants of the disorder. Hare contended that the term sociopathy is preferred by those that see the causes as due to social factors and early environment, and the term psychopathy preferred by those who believe that there are psychological, biological, and genetic factors involved in addition to environmental factors. Hare also provides his own definitions: he describes psychopathy as not having a sense of empathy or morality, but sociopathy as only differing from the average person in the sense of right and wrong. Precursors Ancient writings that have been connected to psychopathy\",\n \"-31.92353003792232\"\n ],\n [\n \"psychopaths judged such actions to be more morally permissible. This result has been considered a reflection of psychopaths' failure to appreciate the emotional aspect of the victim's harmful experience. Cause Behavioral genetic studies have identified potential genetic and non-genetic contributors to psychopathy, including influences on brain function. Proponents of the triarchic model believe that psychopathy results from the interaction of genetic predispositions and an adverse environment. What is adverse may differ depending on the underlying predisposition: for example, it is hypothesized that persons having high boldness may respond poorly to punishment but may respond better to rewards and secure attachments.\",\n \"-31.25582140287588\"\n ],\n [\n \"make social judgments, and may cause reflexive aggression. A common retort to these findings is that the higher incidence of cerebral lesions among the criminal population may be due to the peril associated with a life of crime. Along with this reasoning, it would be assumed that some other personality trait is responsible for the disregard of social acceptability and reduction in social aptitude.\\nFurthermore, some think the dysfunction cannot be entirely to blame. There are interacting environmental factors that also have an influence on the likelihood of criminal action. This theory proposes that individuals with this deficit are less able\",\n \"-30.724551985425933\"\n ],\n [\n \"irrational and maladaptive beliefs out of one's mind. Sociocultural influences The term sociocultural refers to the various circles of influence on the individual ranging from close friends and family to the institutions and policies of a country or the world as a whole. Discriminations, whether based on social class, income, race, and ethnicity, or gender, can influence the development of abnormal behaviour. Multiple causality The number of different theoretical perspectives in the field of psychological abnormality has made it difficult to properly explain psychopathology. The attempt to explain all mental disorders with the same theory leads to reductionism (explaining a\",\n \"-30.706164806731977\"\n ],\n [\n \"nature that makes it prone to misuse. Signs and symptoms Socially, psychopathy expresses extensive callous and manipulative self-serving behaviors with no regard for others, and often is associated with repeated delinquency, crime and violence. Mentally, impairments in processes related to affect (emotion) and cognition, particularly socially related mental processes, have been found in those with the disorder. Developmentally, symptoms of psychopathy have been identified in young children with conduct disorder, and is suggestive of at least a partial constitutional factor that influences its development. Criminality In terms of simple correlations, the PCL-R manual states an average score of 22.1 has\",\n \"-30.65127728151856\"\n ],\n [\n \"children exhibited characteristic behaviors of psychopathy, including: lack of empathy, lack of affection, and inappropriate social relationships (DSM III). This differed from \\\"socialized\\\" individuals, who were able to form healthy social attachments to others, and whose aggressive and antisocial acts typically derived from engagement in a deviant social group (e.g. youth gangs).\\nFollowing the publication of DSM-III, these distinctions prompted research, but there were still issues with the terminology in diagnosing the core features of the undersocialized versus socialized subtype. The word undersocialized was used in order to avoid the negative connotations of psychopathy, but was commonly misinterpreted to mean that\",\n \"-30.623820697453993\"\n ],\n [\n \"and antisocial personality disorder are adult externalizing disorders. Externalizing psychopathology is associated with antisocial behavior, which is different from and often confused for asociality. Signs and symptoms Externalizing disorders often involve emotion dysregulation problems and impulsivity that are manifested as antisocial behavior and aggression in opposition to authority, societal norms, and often violate the rights of others. Some examples of externalizing disorder symptoms include, often losing one's temper, excessive verbal aggression, physical aggression to people and animals, destruction of property, theft, and deliberate fire setting. As with all DSM-5 mental disorders, an individual must have functional impairment in at least\",\n \"-30.522093224528362\"\n ],\n [\n \"is a core characteristic of this disorder: they can have significant difficulties in maintaining stable employment as well as fulfilling their social and financial obligations, and people with this disorder often lead exploitative, unlawful, or parasitic lifestyles.\\nThose with antisocial personality disorder are often impulsive and reckless, failing to consider or disregarding the consequences of their actions. They may repeatedly disregard and jeopardize their own safety and the safety of others and place themselves and others in danger. They are often aggressive and hostile and display a dysregulated temper and can lash out violently with provocation or frustration. Individuals are prone\",\n \"-30.279928070376627\"\n ],\n [\n \"with the generation of pleasurable feelings when a non-moral act is performed towards a hostile entity, a phenomenon called Schadenfreude. The cingulate cortex allows for conflict regulation when performing an immoral action and the feeling of envy when self identified entities are overcome by non identified ones. Psychopathy Psychopathy is a brain disorder remarked by lack of moral emotions, empathy, remorse and guilt. People with psychopathy appear to have defects in moral judgement, but not in moral reasoning. Neuroimaging of the psychopathic brain has revealed hypoperfusion and hypometabolism in areas of the frontal cortex. The areas of the medial prefrontal\",\n \"-30.20699347955815\"\n ],\n [\n \"the definition of psychopathy to antisocial personality, and from 1930 suggested that a more apt name for it would be sociopathy. He suggested that anyone, and indeed groups of people acting together, could be considered sociopathic at times, but that sociopaths – or technically 'essential sociopaths' - were chronically and pervasively so in their motivation and behavior.!n 1933, American Psychiatrist Harry Stack Sullivan first coined the term \\\"Psychopathic child,\\\" which is now thought to be the first formulation of autism spectrum disorder, to describe interpersonal deficiency which starts from childhood. Scottish psychiatrist David Henderson published in 1939 a theory of \\\"psychopathic\",\n \"-30.201857260166435\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"individuals who are chronically in trouble and do not seem to change as a result of experience or punishment, with no loyalties to anyone\\\", as well as being frequently callous and lacking responsibility, with an ability to 'rationalize' their behaviour. The dyssocial reaction was for \\\"individuals who disregard societal rules, although they are capable of strong loyalties to others or groups.\\\" Although the sociopathy category was very broad by today's definitions, the DSM-I itself pointed out that it was more specific and limited than the then current notions of 'constitutional psychopathic state' or 'psychopathic personality'.\\nMeanwhile, other subtypes of psychopathy were\",\n \"-30.094825970922102\"\n ],\n [\n \"Disorder\\\", which is believed to occur when groups or pairs of people are isolated from the world, developing paranoia, and in which one partner dominates the other. This is especially true of Léa, whose meek personality was overshadowed by obstinate and dominant Christine.\\nThe case had a huge impact on the community and was debated furiously by the intelligentsia. Some people considered that the murders had been the result of \\\"exploitation of the workers\\\", considering that the maids worked fourteen-hour days, with only half a day off each week. Intellectuals empathized with the sisters' oppressive struggle of social classes. Les Bonnes\",\n \"-29.82118775046547\"\n ],\n [\n \"suggested that autism is not caused by an innate deficit in a specific social circuitry in the brain, also citing other research suggesting that specificalized social brain mechanisms may not exist even in neurotypic people, but that particular features of appearance and/or minor details in behavior are met with exclusion from socialization that shows up as apparently reduced social ability. Psychopathy Psychopathy is a personality disorder partly characterized by antisocial and aggressive behaviors, as well as emotional and interpersonal deficits including shallow emotions and a lack of remorse and empathy. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and\",\n \"-29.75706180427369\"\n ],\n [\n \"Social Risk Factors In many studies, the individuals displaying antisocial behavior developed in a family exhibiting \\\"deviant behavior,\\\" in an \\\"adverse home environment,\\\" or in something similar. However most studies do not specify the exact traits that characterize the tested 'deviant' or 'adverse' environment. Many that are cited include abuse, neglect, socioeconomic status, parental antisocial behavior, etc. There is no evidence that social factors, such as these, can induce antisocial behavior without accompanying biological factors. Adolescence-limited offenders Although the biological risk factor do not apply to this group, one point worth noting is that the myelination\",\n \"-29.663266945572104\"\n ],\n [\n \"an environmental influence on the development of psychopathy because of evidence of its strong heritability. Brain injury Researchers have linked head injuries with psychopathy and violence. Since the 1980s, scientists have associated traumatic brain injury, such as damage to the prefrontal cortex, including the orbitofrontal cortex, with psychopathic behavior and a deficient ability to make morally and socially acceptable decisions, a condition that has been termed \\\"acquired sociopathy\\\", or \\\"pseudopsychopathy\\\". Individuals with damage to the area of the prefrontal cortex known as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex show remarkable similarities to diagnosed psychopathic individuals, displaying reduced autonomic response to emotional stimuli,\",\n \"-29.63970238114416\"\n ],\n [\n \"and anti-social or violent behaviour. Such a morally pejorative concept is said to have not been intended by Koch; he had applied the term 'psychopathic' to mean originating from an organic defect in the brain, and the term inferiority to simply refer to dysfunction. However, it was probably his concept and terminology that provided the unfortunate conglomeration of aspects of inferiority, amorality and socially harmful behavior.\",\n \"-29.632957840629388\"\n ],\n [\n \"population about OCD, largely as a result of gross misinformation about the disorder, often leads to assumptions that sufferers are criminals or deviants. This can then reinforce the belief in the mind of the sufferer that they really have committed a crime or immoral act, when they have not, or lead to doubts. This causes great distress for an OCD sufferer, and occasionally leads to the sufferer making \\\"confessions\\\" – sometimes to the police – and suicidal thoughts or attempts.\\nIn the midst of the thoughts, the sexual obsessions may seem real. Occasionally, individuals with OCD believe that their\",\n \"-29.407889930935198\"\n ],\n [\n \"personality disorder, and had more charges and convictions for criminal offenses. This brain maldevelopment was especially linked to lifelong antisocial behavior, i.e. a reckless disregarded for self and others, lack of remorse, and aggression.\\nBigger right hippocampus. A 2004 study suggested that the psychopaths’ right hippocampus that partially controls emotions and regulates aggression was significantly bigger than the left. This asymmetry was also true in normal people, but it was much more noticeable in psychopaths.\\nIncrease in the volume of the striatum. A study in 2010 found that psychopathic individuals showed a 10 percent increase in the volume of the striatum.\\nDamage by\",\n \"-29.396628820890328\"\n ],\n [\n \"of violent characters helps to reduce violent effects in the individual. Cause and effects Families greatly impact the causation of anti-social behaviour. Some other familial causes are parent history of anti-social behaviours, parental alcohol and drug abuse, unstable home life, absence of good parenting, physical abuse, parental instability (mental health issues/PTSD) and economic distress within the family.\\nThere is a small link between antisocial personality characteristics in adulthood and more TV watching as a child. The risk of early adulthood criminal conviction increased by nearly 30 percent with each hour children spent watching TV on an average weekend. Peers can also\",\n \"-29.393307805195946\"\n ],\n [\n \"the observed behaviour, in this case, anti-social behaviour. Antisocial Personality Disorder can only be diagnosed when a pattern of anti-social behaviour began being noticeable during childhood and/or early teens and remained stable and consistent across time and context. In the official DSM IV-TR for ASPD, it is specified that the anti-social behaviour has to occur outside of time frames surrounding traumatic life events or manic episodes (if the individual is diagnosed with another mental disorder). The diagnosis for ASPD cannot be done before the age of 18. For example, someone who exhibits anti-social behaviour with their family but pro-social behaviour\",\n \"-29.389445566106588\"\n ],\n [\n \"abnormal population.\\nDr. Hincks's committee describes a causal link between mental abnormality and immorality (illegitimacy, criminality, prostitution, dependency). The suggestion that bad behaviour and sexual immorality were directly related to mental deficiency gave rise to concern by the public and politicians that these individuals posed a threat to society.\\nIn addition, the committee assumed that mental abnormality could be detected early in life with various test instruments. In the course of their examination, they also reviewed student behaviour at the elementary level by administering intelligence quotient tests to children who had been described by their teachers as “troublesome, mischief makers\",\n \"-29.21956990752369\"\n ],\n [\n \"varying or contradictory views.\\\"\\nNevertheless, criminologist sociologists William and Joan McCord were influential in narrowing the definition of psychopathy in some quarters to mean an antisocial lack of guilt accompanied by reactive aggression. From another direction, sociologist Lee Robins was also an influential figure in sociopathy research, stemming largely from her research-based 1966 book 'Deviant Children Grown Up: a sociological and psychiatric study of sociopathic personality', based on operational criteria provided by Eli Robins, which would shape the later diagnosis of Antisocial Personality Disorder.\\nIn the Mental Health Act in England, a new category of 'Psychopathic Personality' was added in 1959, renamed\",\n \"-29.21583485638257\"\n ],\n [\n \"them. Some violent offenders, however, have subtle structural or functional abnormalities and even highly experienced neuroradiologists cannot detect these irregularities right away. Yet, the abnormalities can be detected using brain imaging and state-of-the-art analytic tools. Neurophysiological studies Studies on structural deficiencies suggest that people consistently behaving antisocially have structurally impaired brains. The abnormalities can be either of general character or affect specific regions of the brain that control emotions, aggression or are responsible for ethical decisions:\\nLow number of neurons in the prefrontal cortex.\\nA study in 2000 determined that people with a history of persistent antisocial behavior had an 11 percent\",\n \"-29.172393060696777\"\n ],\n [\n \"If social needs such as empathy, support, and understanding are not met, individuals are prone to this phenomenon. While anybody who has experienced victimization is susceptible to secondary victimization, prevalence rates are significantly elevated for some populations. This includes females, children, racial and sexual minorities, and those sexually assaulted by an acquaintance or stranger. Moreover, those experiencing a certain type of violence are at increased likelihood to experience secondary victimization. These include physical assault, sexual assault, and domestic violence Notably, rape victims are at highest risk of secondary victimization from the criminal justice system, with about half who report\",\n \"-29.162057631183416\"\n ],\n [\n \"likely to link these physical cues to problems of social cohesion and consensus, of declining quality of social bonds and informal social control. Interpersonal communication and the mass media Hearing about events; knowing others who have been victimised– these are thought to raise perceptions of the risk of victimisation. This has been described as a 'crime multiplier', or processes operating in the residential environment that would 'spread' the impacts of criminal events. Such evidence exists that hearing of friends' or neighbours' victimisation increases anxiety that indirect experiences of crime may play a stronger role in anxieties about victimisation than direct\",\n \"-29.158856350797578\"\n ],\n [\n \"and higher rates of health and social problems (obesity, mental illness, homicides, teenage births, incarceration, child conflict, drug use), and lower rates of social goods (life expectancy, educational performance, trust among strangers, women's status, social mobility, even numbers of patents issued per capita), on the other. The authors argue inequality leads to the social ills through the psychosocial stress, status anxiety it creates.\\nA 2011 report by the International Monetary Fund by Andrew G. Berg and Jonathan D. Ostry found a strong association between lower levels of inequality and sustained periods of economic growth. Developing countries (such as Brazil, Cameroon, Jordan)\",\n \"-29.155007366411155\"\n ],\n [\n \"psychopathy or criminal behavior, Mednick, William Gabrielli, and Barry Hutching in an article for Science showed anti-social behavior to have a genetic component, at least in relation to property crimes. Using an adoption paradigm, the authors found no correlation between criminal conviction in the adoptive parents and their children, but there was a correlation between biological father conviction and child conviction. The authors stressed that genetic influences do not mean that anti-social behavior is completely genetically determined, but that it has a genetic component. Earlier in his career, Mednick had hypothesized that autonomic under-arousal may be a genetic factor predisposing\",\n \"-29.154603928080178\"\n ],\n [\n \"is used to explain extreme behaviors like genocide, harsh immigration policies, and eugenics, but it can also happen on a more regular, everyday discriminatory level. In laboratory studies, people who are portrayed as lacking human qualities have been found to be treated in a particularly harsh and violent manner.\\nDehumanized perception has been indicated to occur when a subject experiences low frequencies of activation within their social cognition neural network. This includes areas of neural networking such as the superior temporal sulcus and the medial prefrontal cortex. A study by Frith & Frith in 2001 suggests the criticality of social interaction\",\n \"-29.078601138666272\"\n ],\n [\n \"the spread of infectious diseases. Other characteristics such as strong in-group–out-group bias and willingness to defend the ingroup's honor may promote violence. A study found strong associations between several forms of violent criminal behavior and both infectious disease rates across U.S states and degree of cultural collectivism across U.S. states. The associations remained strong after controlling for income inequality. Specific forms Evolutionary psychology researchers have proposed several evolutionary explanations for psychopathy. One is that psychopathy represents a frequency-dependent, socially parasitic strategy. This may benefit the psychopath as long as there are few other psychopaths in the community since more psychopaths\",\n \"-29.0676222720067\"\n ],\n [\n \"lower-classes live in close proximity this can result in feelings of anger, hostility, social injustice and frustration. Criminals experience poverty; and witness affluence they are deprived of and which is virtually impossible for them to attain through conventional means. The concept of neighborhood is central to this theory, as it defines the social learning, locus of control, cultural influences and access to social opportunity experienced by criminals and the groups they form. Fear of or lack of trust in mainstream authority may also be a key contributor to social disorganization; organized crime groups replicate such figures and thus ensure\",\n \"-29.067046861251583\"\n ],\n [\n \"friends. Lesions in the right hemisphere's frontal lobe are associated with antisocial states and left frontal lesions are associated with increase in violent behaviors. Individuals with focal lesions in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the orbitofrontal cortex exhibit amoral choices in moral tasks and lack of empathy, compassion, shame, and guilt. Clinical neuropsychiatry The study of brain areas that relate to morality can be utilized to promote moral behavior through transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct-current stimulation. Stimulation of the medial prefrontal cortex results in reduction of racial biases and increase in rejection of unfair offers. Stimulation of the dorsolateral\",\n \"-29.018057226174278\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"society\\\" as the cause. Hence, environmental criminology and other sub-schools study the spatial distribution of crimes and offenders (see Adolphe Quetelet, who discovered that crimes rates are relatively constant, and the Chicago School which, under the leadership of Robert E. Park, viewed the city as a form of superorganism, zoned into areas engaged in a continuous process of invasion, dominance, and succession). Meanwhile, Émile Durkheim identified society as a social phenomenon, external to individuals, with crime a normal part of a healthy society. Deviancy was nothing more than \\\"boundary setting,\\\" pushing to determine the current limits of morality\",\n \"-28.983952987859084\"\n ],\n [\n \"on sex offenders is generally extremely negative, with sex offenders being one of the most hated types of people in society. Daniel J. Wood wrote, \\\"Many studies have been conducted to evaluate the public's attitude toward sex offenders and most, to put it bluntly, would like to torture them before they are sentenced to death\\\". Pedophiles and child molesters are also some of the most hated types of people in society. Pedophilia is one of the most stigmatized disorders. One study reported high levels of anger, fear and social rejection towards pedophiles who have not committed a crime. Society's attitude\",\n \"-28.954202626424376\"\n ],\n [\n \"criminology.\\nMillon, Simonsen and Birket-Smith have stated that \\\"K. Birnbaum (1909), writing in Germany at the time of Kraepelin's later editions, was the first to suggest that the term \\\"sociopathic\\\" might be the most apt designation for the majority of these cases\\\"\\nThe term sociopathy would later gradually become popular in America, especially as expounded by psychologist George E. Partridge (1930) and adopted into early versions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and is still referred to as an alternative term for antisocial personality disorder. Birnbaum proposed several subtypes of sociopathy and argued that while there may be varying\",\n \"-28.95387585568824\"\n ],\n [\n \"psychosocial health, nutrition, wellness, access to healthcare services, and threat of violence. The exchange of these elements in a home mediates in the impacts of geographical, cultural, and household patterns that result in inequality in health status and outcomes. Health-related behaviors, access and use of healthcare, stress, and psychosocial resources like social ties, coping, and spirituality all serve as factors that mediate health inequality. Household discrimination causes missing girls at birth, and the persistence of discrimination and poor service delivery perpetuates high female mortality. Societal causes Socioeconomic status has long been related to health, those higher in the social\",\n \"-28.947828277065128\"\n ],\n [\n \"Psychopathy Definition A person suffering from a chronic mental disorder with abnormal or violent social behavior. Measurement An early and influential analysis from Harris and colleagues indicated that a discrete category, or taxon, may underlie PCL-R psychopathy, allowing it to be measured and analyzed. However, this was only found for the behavioral Factor 2 items they identified, child problem behaviors; adult criminal behavior did not support the existence of a taxon. Marcus, John, and Edens more recently performed a series of statistical analyses on PPI scores and concluded that psychopathy may best be conceptualized as having a \\\"dimensional latent structure\\\"\",\n \"-28.93546353917918\"\n ],\n [\n \"International Classification of Diseases (ICD) list antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) and dissocial personality disorder, stating that these have been referred to or include what is referred to as psychopathy.\\nA large body of research suggests that psychopathy is associated with atypical responses to distress cues (e.g. facial and vocal expressions of fear and sadness), including decreased activation of the fusiform and extrastriate cortical regions, which may partly account for impaired recognition of and reduced autonomic responsiveness to expressions of fear, and impairments of empathy. Studies on children with psychopathic tendencies have also shown such associations. The underlying biological surfaces for processing\",\n \"-28.934622044758726\"\n ],\n [\n \"Psychopathy in the workplace The presence of psychopathy in the workplace—although psychopaths typically represent a relatively small percentage of workplace staff—can do enormous damage when in senior management roles. Psychopaths are usually most common at higher levels of corporate organizations and their actions often cause a ripple effect throughout an organization, setting the tone for an entire corporate culture. Examples of detrimental effects are increased bullying, conflict, stress, staff turnover and absenteeism; reduction in productivity and in social responsibility. Ethical standards of entire organisations can be badly damaged if a corporate psychopath is in charge. A 2017 UK study found\",\n \"-28.92986792987722\"\n ],\n [\n \"Antisocial personality disorder Signs and symptoms Antisocial personality disorder is defined by a pervasive and persistent disregard for morals, social norms, and the rights and feelings of others. Individuals with this personality disorder will typically have no compunction in exploiting others in harmful ways for their own gain or pleasure and frequently manipulate and deceive other people, achieving this through wit and a façade of superficial charm or through intimidation and violence. They may display arrogance, think lowly and negatively of others, and lack remorse for their harmful actions and have a callous attitude to those they have harmed. Irresponsibility\",\n \"-28.90748334636737\"\n ],\n [\n \"crime can be locked into social deprivation. Contributors to Social exclusion has many contributors. Major contributors include race, income, employment status, social class, geographic location, personal habits and appearance, education, religion, and political affiliation. Global and structural Globalization (global-capitalism), immigration, social welfare, and policy are broader social structures that have the potential to contribute negatively to one's access to resources and services, resulting in the social exclusion of individuals and groups. Similarly, increasing use of information technology and the company outsourcing have contributed to job insecurity and a widening gap between the rich and the poor. Alphonse, George & Moffat\",\n \"-28.88094341872784\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sexual offending Psychopathy has been associated with commission of sexual crime, with some researchers arguing that it is correlated with a preference for violent sexual behavior. A 2011 study of conditional releases for Canadian male federal offenders found that psychopathy was related to more violent and non-violent offences but not more sexual offences. For child molesters, psychopathy was associated with more offences. A study on the relationship between psychopathy scores and types of aggression in a sample of sexual murderers, in which 84.2% of the sample had PCL-R scores above 20 and 47.4% above 30, found that 82.4% of those\",\n \"-28.827849760709796\"\n ],\n [\n \"behavioral and moral dysfunction in the absence of an obvious mental illness or intellectual disability. He applied the term psychopathic inferiority (psychopathischen Minderwertigkeiten) to various chronic conditions and character disorders, and his work would influence the later conception of the personality disorder.\\nThe term psychopathic came to be used to describe a diverse range of dysfunctional or antisocial behavior and mental and sexual deviances, including at the time homosexuality. It was often used to imply an underlying \\\"constitutional\\\" or genetic origin. Disparate early descriptions likely set the stage for modern controversies about the definition of psychopathy. 20th century An influential figure\",\n \"-28.779316734930035\"\n ],\n [\n \"found to be negatively correlated to cognitive and affective empathy. Bully-victims There is a strong positive relationship between engaging in bullying behaviors and having been victimized by bullying behaviors. This is both a common finding in review of the research and is in tune with what is commonly observed during human adolescence; often victims of bullying go on to become bullies themselves. A history of victimization often leads to a perpetuation of similar behavior. Having low emotional intelligence increases the likelihood of being both a victim and a bully, which are apparently not mutually exclusive roles. This dual status is\",\n \"-28.71619512118923\"\n ],\n [\n \"psychopathy, which describes its core affective (e.g. lack of empathy, fearlessness) and interpersonal (e.g. grandiosity, manipulativeness) personality disturbances. This is suggestive of two different forms, one associated more with impulsive behavior and emotional dysregulation, and the other with predatory aggression and affective disturbance, of the disorder.\\nVarious other gene candidates for ASPD have been identified by a genome-wide association study published in 2016. Several of these gene candidates are shared with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, with which ASPD is comorbid. Hormones and neurotransmitters Traumatic events can lead to a disruption of the standard development of the central nervous system, which can generate\",\n \"-28.690365164693503\"\n ],\n [\n \"Socioeconomic status and mental health Numerous studies around the world have found a relationship between socioeconomic status and mental health. There are higher rates of mental illness in groups with lower socioeconomic status (SES), but there is no clear consensus on the exact causative factors. The two principal models that attempt to explain this relationship are the social causation theory, which posits that socioeconomic inequality causes stress that gives rise to mental illness, and the downward drift approach, which assumes that people predisposed to mental illness are reduced in socioeconomic status as a result of the illness. Most literature on\",\n \"-28.68605336858309\"\n ],\n [\n \"relative deprivation explains that people who feel jealous and discontent of others might turn to crime to acquire the things that they can not afford. Rural Criminology Rural criminology is the study of crime trends outside of metropolitan and suburban areas. Rural criminologists have used social disorganization and routine activity theories. The FBI Uniform Crime Report shows that rural communities have significantly different crime trends as opposed to metropolitan and suburban areas. The crime in rural communities consists predominantly of narcotic related crimes such as the production, use, and trafficking of narcotics. Social disorganization theory is used to examine the\",\n \"-28.669911113087437\"\n ],\n [\n \"and the notion of the Deviancy Amplification Spiral. It helped to shift the focus of Criminology away from the causes of crime towards social reaction, the sociology of crime and Social Control. Cohen suggested the media overreact to an aspect of behaviour which may be seen as a challenge to existing social norms. However, the media response and representation of that behaviour actually helps to define it, communicate it and portrays it as a model for outsiders to observe and adopt. So the moral panic by society represented in the media arguably fuels further socially unacceptable behaviour.\\nAlthough Cohen is credited\",\n \"-28.63764545324375\"\n ],\n [\n \"have noted that psychopathy is dissociable from and not synonymous with violence.\\nIt has been suggested that psychopathy is associated with \\\"instrumental\\\", also known as predatory, proactive, or \\\"cold blooded\\\" aggression, a form of aggression characterized by reduced emotion and conducted with a goal differing from but facilitated by the commission of harm. One conclusion in this regard was made by a 2002 study of homicide offenders, which reported that the homicides committed by homicidal offenders with psychopathy were almost always (93.3%) primarily instrumental, significantly more than the proportion (48.4%) of those committed by non-psychopathic homicidal offenders, with the instrumentality of\",\n \"-28.63255702245806\"\n ],\n [\n \"may affect different areas of the nervous system at different times and ages. These range from social deprivation, genetic and metabolic diseases, immune disorders, infectious diseases, nutritional factors, physical trauma, and toxic and environmental factors. Some neurodevelopmental disorders, such as autism and other pervasive developmental disorders, are considered multifactorial syndromes which have many causes that converge to a more specific neurodevelopmental manifestation. Social deprivation Deprivation from social and emotional care causes severe delays in brain and cognitive development. Studies with children growing up in Romanian orphanages during Nicolae Ceauşescu's regime reveal profound effects of social deprivation and language deprivation on\",\n \"-28.621627012078534\"\n ],\n [\n \"bullied in the workplace may have deteriorated self-esteem, suffer from isolation and become fearful and avoidant after being victimized. They may disengage and withdraw from their work community. Both child and adult victims are at greater risk of developing mental pathology. EI is found to be a significant predictor of variance in adolescent peer victimization in bullying and also has a negative correlation with adolescent bullying. Victim peer relations showed strong negative correlations with the emotional management and facilitation dimensions of EI conceptualized as Emotional Management and Control and Emotions Direct Cognitions respectively, both of which made significant semi-partial\",\n \"-28.57514934951905\"\n ],\n [\n \"of personality traits allegedly associated with immorality, criminality, or in some cases socioeconomic success.\\nOfficial psychiatric diagnostic manuals adopted a mixture of approaches, eventually going by the term antisocial or dissocial personality disorder. In the meantime concepts of psychopaths/sociopaths had become notorious among the general public and as characters in fiction. Early literature Labels for personality and behavior patterns consistent with psychopathy exist in most cultures. In rural Nigeria, the term Aranakan, was used by the Yoruba people to describe an individual who \\\"always goes his own way regardless of others, who is uncooperative, full of malice, and bullheaded.\\\" Similarly, the\",\n \"-28.5742944709491\"\n ],\n [\n \"concept of psychopathy. It was used to indicate that the defining feature is violation of social norms, or antisocial behavior, and has often also been associated with postulating social as well as biological causation.\\nThe term is used in various different ways in contemporary usage. Robert Hare stated in the popular science book entitled Snakes in Suits that sociopathy and psychopathy are often used interchangeably, but in some cases the term sociopathy is preferred because it is less likely than is psychopathy to be confused with psychosis, whereas in other cases the two terms may be used with different meanings that\",\n \"-28.541650290833786\"\n ],\n [\n \"or her, the perception of rejection or humiliation at the hands of others, being under the influence of substances or a history of antisocial personality disorder, frontal lobe dysfunction or head injury. Associated psychopathology People who have homicidal ideation are at higher risk of other psychopathology than the normal population. This includes suicidal ideation, psychosis, delirium, or intoxication. It is well established that people with schizophrenia have an increased risk of committing violent acts, including homicide.\\nHomicidal ideation may arise in relation to behavioural conditions such as personality disorder (particularly conduct disorder, narcissistic personality disorder and antisocial personality disorder). A study\",\n \"-28.534171140068793\"\n ],\n [\n \"being cited as a cause of psychopathy. The concept fell into disrepute due partly to its use by the Nazis to justify eradicating their opposition. Early 20th century The meaning gradually narrowed, initially as 'psychopathic inferiors' covering all of what today might be called personality disorders and various other conditions, then intertwining with the terminology of the 'sociopath' (and eventually antisocial personality disorder), though psychopathy remained variously defined in both broad and narrow ways.\\nEarly representations of psychopaths in film were often caricatured as sadistic, unpredictable, sexually depraved, and emotionally unstable (manic) characters with a compulsion to engage in random violence\",\n \"-28.49584126487025\"\n ],\n [\n \"social periods of disruption result in greater anomie and higher rates of suicide and crimes. Merton theorizes that anomie (normative breakdown) and some forms of deviant behavior derive largely from a disjunction between “culturally prescribed aspirations” of a society and “socially structured avenues for realizing those aspirations\\\". In The Division of Labor in Society, Durkheim described anomie as one result of an inequitable division of labour within the society. Broadly speaking, then, during times of great upheaval, increasing numbers of individuals \\\"cease to accept the moral legitimacy of society,” as sociologist Anthony R. Mawson, University of Keele, UK, notes.\\nCritical theory\",\n \"-28.489121030870592\"\n ],\n [\n \"AIDS is related to homosexuality.\\nEven so, research has found that societal structure and beliefs influence the prevalence stigma and discrimination. \\\"The two concepts of right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation have proven to be strong and reliable predictors of different types of prejudice.\\\" Similar to sexism, racism, and other forms of discrimination, the raised and taught belief to view PLHIV as deviants and outcasts as children who become adults with warped view of PLHIV. \\\"In order to cope with threat, people may adhere to a submissive authoritarian ideology, which will lead them to reject other groups that are perceived\",\n \"-28.445442515570903\"\n ],\n [\n \"associated with psychopathic trends in young people. Intervention and treatment As a high prevalence mental health problem in children, many interventions and treatments are developed to prevent anti-social behaviours and to help reinforce pro-social behaviours.\\nSeveral factors are considered as direct or indirect causes of developing anti-social behaviour in children. Addressing these factors are necessary to develop a reliable and effective intervention or treatment. Children's perinatal risk, temperament, intelligence, nutrition level, and interaction with parents or caregivers can influence their behaviours. As for parents or caregivers, their personality traits, behaviours, socioeconomic status, social network, and living environment can also affect children's\",\n \"-28.437283541759825\"\n ],\n [\n \"Psychopathic Disorder in 1983 (then in 2007 removed entirely). This was a legal subcategory in addition to 'mental illness' which did not equate to any one psychiatric diagnosis but covered anyone with \\\"a persistent disorder or disability of mind which results in abnormally aggressive or seriously irresponsible conduct.\\\"\\nOn the other hand, various analysts began to identify \\\"successful\\\" psychopaths in society, some even suggesting it was but an adaption to the social or economic mores of the age, others noting they could be hard to spot either because they were so good at hiding their lack of conscience, or because many\",\n \"-28.43381057926308\"\n ],\n [\n \"of isolation and loneliness due to their overwhelming dependence on other people. Generally people with DPD are also pessimistic: they expect the worst out of situations or believe that the worst will happen. They tend to be more introverted and are more sensitive to criticism and fear rejection. Risk factors People with a history of neglect and an abusive upbringing are more susceptible to develop DPD, specifically those involved in long-term abusive relationships. Those with overprotective or authoritarian parents are also more at risk to develop DPD. Having a family history of anxiety disorder can play a role in the\",\n \"-28.43275160578196\"\n ],\n [\n \"negative effects similar to the victimized children themselves.\\\"\\nWhile most bullies, in the long term, grow up to be emotionally functional adults, many have an increased risk of developing antisocial personality disorder, which is linked to an increased risk of committing criminal acts (including domestic violence). Negative impact on educational quality and outcomes The educational effects on victims of school violence and bullying are significant. Violence and bullying at the hands of teachers or other students may make children and adolescents afraid to go to school and interfere with their ability to concentrate in class or participate in school activities. It\",\n \"-28.42151961172931\"\n ],\n [\n \"sense, any behaviour or experience which causes impairment, distress or disability, particularly if it is thought to arise from a functional breakdown in either the cognitive or neurocognitive systems in the brain, may be classified as psychopathology. It remains unclear how strong the distinction between maladaptive traits and mental disorders actually is, e.g. neuroticism is often described as the personal level of minor psychiatric symptoms. DSM/RDoc debate Some scholars have argued that field should switch from the DSM categorical approach of mental disorders to the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) dimensional approach of mental disorders, although the consensus at present is\",\n \"-28.417559052511933\"\n ],\n [\n \"stress disorder (PTSD), and major depression.\\nIn mobbing targets with PTSD, Leymann notes that the \\\"mental effects were fully comparable with PTSD from war or prison camp experiences.\\\" Some patients may develop alcoholism or other substance abuse disorders. Family relationships routinely suffer. Workplace targets and witnesses may even develop brief psychotic episodes occupational psychosis generally with paranoid symptoms. Leymann estimated that 15% of suicides in Sweden could be directly attributed to workplace mobbing. Development of the concept Konrad Lorenz, in his book entitled On Aggression (1966), first described mobbing among birds and animals, attributing it to instincts rooted in the Darwinian\",\n \"-28.41624164646737\"\n ],\n [\n \"cases where psychopathy is often seen as aggravating the crime.\\nHare wants the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders to list psychopathy as a unique disorder, saying psychopathy has no precise equivalent in either the DSM-IV-TR, where it is most strongly correlated with the diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder, or the ICD-10, which has a similar diagnosis called dissocial personality disorder. Both organizations state their diagnoses have been referred to as or include the disorder of psychopathy. But only a minority of those in institutions whom Hare and his followers would diagnose as psychopaths are violent offenders. Other PCL-R findings\",\n \"-28.38416970646358\"\n ],\n [\n \"Victimisation Victimisation (or victimization) is the process of being victimised or becoming a victim. The field that studies the process, rates, incidence, effects, and prevalence of victimisation is called victimology. Peer victimisation Peer victimisation is the experience among children of being a target of the aggressive behaviour of other children, who are not siblings and not necessarily age-mates. Prevalence Secondary victimization (also known as post crime victimization or double victimization ) refers to further victim-blaming from criminal justice authorities following a report of an original victimization. Rates of victimization are high, with an estimated 5.7 million individuals experiencing\",\n \"-28.360886207141448\"\n ],\n [\n \"social norms that discourage or suppress accomplishment or even competence as forms of inequality. Violence Violence is prevalent in many dystopias, often in the form of war; urban crimes led by gangs (often of teenagers) (e.g. A Clockwork Orange) rampant crime met by blood sports (e.g. Battle Royale, The Running Man, The Hunger Games and Divergent). Also explained in Suzanne Berne's essay \\\"Ground Zero\\\", where she explains her experience of the aftermath of 11 September 2001. Nature Fictional dystopias are commonly urban and frequently isolate their characters from all contact with the natural world. Sometimes they require their characters to\",\n \"-28.32031338021625\"\n ],\n [\n \"this category; a view that emotion is central to the disorder rather than necessarily deficient intellect; description of nearly 20 subtypes of psychopathic personalities (more akin to personality disorders than psychopathy as often defined today); a pivotal role for life events and social conditions in shaping whether someone with various psychopathic dispositions would end up engaging in antisocial or criminal behavior or not, and an insistence that even lifelong criminality does not necessarily mean underlying psychopathy.\\nBirnbaum suggested that some forms of psychopathy involving moral or emotional immaturity or instability could be overcome by social-educative methods or spiritual leadership.\\nIn 1930 in\",\n \"-28.276402386072732\"\n ],\n [\n \"and is sometimes thought to be punishment for sins or moral transgressions. Socioeconomic factors also have a direct impact. Lower-class domestic workers who are often employed by those in a higher socioeconomic class may find their employment in jeopardy as physical manifestations of the disease become apparent. Skin discoloration and darker pigmentation resulting from the disease also have social repercussions.\\nIn extreme cases in northern India, leprosy is equated with an \\\"untouchable\\\" status that \\\"often persists long after (individuals with leprosy) have been cured of the disease, creating lifelong prospects of divorce, eviction, loss of employment, and ostracism from family and\",\n \"-28.268171807954786\"\n ],\n [\n \"who commit disorder and crime have a clear tie to groups suffering from financial instability and may be of minority status: \\\"The use of racial context to encode disorder does not necessarily mean that people are racially prejudiced in the sense of personal hostility.\\\" He notes that residents make a clear implication of who they believe is causing the disruption, which has been termed as implicit bias. He further states that research conducted on implicit bias and stereotyping of cultures suggests that community members hold unrelenting beliefs of African-Americans and other disadvantaged minority groups, associating them with crime, violence, disorder,\",\n \"-28.258174046214208\"\n ],\n [\n \"be made up of societal, political, economic, or personal factors which create a sense of injustice. It is not based on absolute poverty, a condition where one cannot meet a necessary level to maintain basic living standards. Rather, relative deprivation enforces the idea that even if a person is financially stable, he or she can still feel relatively deprived. The perception of being relatively deprived can result in criminal behavior and/or morally problematic decisions. Relative deprivation theory has increasingly been used to partially explain crime as rising living standards can result in rising crime levels. In criminology, the theory of\",\n \"-28.255532947054235\"\n ],\n [\n \"and motivations, social influence may constitute underhanded manipulation. Psychopathy Being manipulative is in Factor 1 of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist (PCL). In the workplace The workplace psychopath may often rapidly shift between emotions – used to manipulate people or cause high anxiety.\\nThe authors of the book Snakes in Suits: When Psychopaths Go to Work describe a five phase model of how a typical workplace psychopath climbs to and maintains power. In phase three (manipulation) - the psychopath will create a scenario of \\\"psychopathic fiction\\\" where positive information about themselves and negative disinformation about others will be created, where your role\",\n \"-28.245317961602268\"\n ],\n [\n \"degrees of 'constitutional' disposition towards disorders that could lead to maladjustment and crime, it was the effect of social forces and environments which shaped the eventual outcome.\\nBirnbaum published in 1914 a large encyclopedic volume on criminal psychopaths, a second and revised edition of which would be released in 1926. Reviewers at the time noted different themes—a view of constitutional psychopathy as a form of degeneration with both inherited (genetic 'taint') and prenatally acquired (through injury to 'germ plasm') types, resulting in a disposition towards mental disorder or a reduced capacity to resist anti-social tendencies; rejection of the term 'inferiors' for\",\n \"-28.217104957402626\"\n ],\n [\n \"unknown. Definition Social anhedonia is defined as a disinterest in social contact and a lack of pleasure in social situations, and is characterized by social withdrawal. This characteristic typically manifests as an indifference to other people. In contrast to introversion, a nonpathological dimension of human personality, social anhedonia represents a deficit in the ability to experience pleasure. Additionally, social anhedonia differs from social anxiety in that social anhedonia is predominantly typified by diminished positive affect, while social anxiety is distinguished by both decreased positive affect and exaggerated negative affect. This trait is currently seen as a central characteristic to, as\",\n \"-28.202642845190894\"\n ],\n [\n \"violence on victims, there is little information on the economic effect, especially for economically vulnerable victims such as Black and Latina women. These consequences of sexual violence disproportionately harm these specific demographics, because they make up a large portion of the group afflicted by income-poverty and asset poverty. Simply being from one of these poverty backgrounds increases the risk of sexual violence and discourages victims from reporting a rape crime as there is less confidence in the police services and there is a higher crime rate in areas of poverty. Effects on men \\\"Toxic masculinity\\\"—a concept posited by some feminist\",\n \"-28.199543579337842\"\n ],\n [\n \"rather than two ends of a continuum. Emotional and behavioral reactions Research has found that, depending on how the victim handles social undermining, it can have damaging effects when it comes to increased counterproductive behaviors, reciprocated social undermining, and decreased job satisfaction. These negative outcomes can cause the person to have depression, a decreased self-esteem and even psychosomatic symptoms.\\nIn a study of victims' perceptions of undermining they had experienced, Crossley found that when an offense was severe, the victim was more likely to believe that the offender committed the action with malicious intent or due to personal greed. Generally, victims'\",\n \"-28.19437976361951\"\n ],\n [\n \"related to specific (performance) social phobia, for example, regarding public speaking (Stemberg et al., 1995). As well as direct experiences, observing or hearing about the socially negative experiences of others (e.g. a faux pas committed by someone), or verbal warnings of social problems and dangers, may also make the development of a social anxiety disorder more likely. Social anxiety disorder may be caused by the longer-term effects of not fitting in, or being bullied, rejected or ignored (Beidel and Turner, 1998). Shy adolescents or avoidant adults have emphasised unpleasant experiences with peers or childhood bullying or harassment (Gilmartin, 1987). In\",\n \"-28.192355869650783\"\n ],\n [\n \"socially deprived children have imbalances with hormones associated with affiliative and positive social behaviour, specifically oxytocin and vasopressin. Institutionalized children showed a marked decrease in vasopressin and oxytocin levels while interacting with their caregiver compared to controls. Failure to receive proper social interaction at a young age disrupts normal neuroendocrine system developments that mediate social behaviour. Mental illness A lack of social networking predisposes people to mental illness. Mental illness can be attributed to instability within the individual. Society provides a sense of stability and socially deprived people fail to fit within this social structure. It becomes\",\n \"-28.191680915217148\"\n ],\n [\n \"children who exhibit anti-social behaviours at later ages had court appearances and police contact as a result of their behaviour.\\nMany of the studies regarding the media's influence on anti-social behaviour have been deemed inconclusive. Violence, racism, sexism, and other anti-social acts are attributed to things such as genetic predisposition and violence in the home. Some reviews have found strong correlations between aggression and the viewing of violent media, while others find little evidence to support their case. The only unanimously accepted truth regarding anti-social behaviour is that parental guidance carries an undoubtedly strong influence; providing children with brief negative evaluations\",\n \"-28.18752318265615\"\n ],\n [\n \"deficits in aversive conditioning, similar preferences in moral and economic decision making, and diminished empathy and social emotions like guilt or shame. These emotional and moral impairments may be especially severe when the brain injury occurs at a young age. Children with early damage in the prefrontal cortex may never fully develop social or moral reasoning and become \\\"psychopathic individuals ... characterized by high levels of aggression and antisocial behavior performed without guilt or empathy for their victims\\\". Additionally, damage to the amygdala may impair the ability of the prefrontal cortex to interpret feedback from the limbic system, which could result\",\n \"-28.14608596279868\"\n ],\n [\n \"is bereavement, and troubled parental or partner relationships. Factors such as war, poverty, and unemployment may also contribute. Other predictors of self-harm and suicidal behavior include feelings of entrapment, defeat, lack of belonging, and perceiving oneself as a burden along with less effective social problem-solving skills. Self-harm is frequently described as an experience of depersonalisation or a dissociative state. As many as 70% of individuals with borderline personality disorder engage in self-harm. An estimated 30% of individuals with autism spectrum disorders engage in self-harm at some point, including eye-poking, skin-picking, hand-biting, and head-banging. The onset of puberty has also been\",\n \"-28.13663346665271\"\n ],\n [\n \"and grievous bodily harm was done in intimate relations or within families. The violence in one form or another was observed in almost every fourth family. The reasons for domestic crimes were different and included quarrels and scandals, hostile relations on the basis of families' problems, housing and domestic conflicts, which were often of long-lasting character.\\nAs the main causes over the whole population Artamoshkin referred to \\\"low morale\\\" and income problems, while in wealthy families crimes happened also due to jealousy and avarice. High unemployment frustrated people and led to the abuse of alcohol and violence towards women and adolescents.\",\n \"-28.117783037516347\"\n ],\n [\n \"direct and indirect bullying behaviors. Bullies high in CU traits will probably be resistant to many of the interventions successful with bullies who are not. Although a defining characteristic of CU is a lack of empathy, which overlaps with bullies deficits in empathy as highlighted above, the other characteristics of the concept would make bullies high in CU less malleable than those who simply have lower EI. Victimization and emotional intelligence Being bullied can have a negative impact on the victim's life: Bullied children may go on to be maladjusted socially and emotionally, and worsen in behavior. Adults who are\",\n \"-28.114005819516024\"\n ],\n [\n \"status is correlated with increased rates of morbidity and mortality. Mental health disorders are an important health problem for those of low socioeconomic status; they are two to five times more likely to suffer from a diagnosable disorder than those of high socioeconomic status, and are more likely to face barriers to getting treatment. Furthermore, this lack of treatment for mental disorders can affect educational and employment opportunities and achievement. Residential segregation Important to the understanding of migrant community health is the increasingly stratified American society, manifested in residential segregation. Beginning in the 1970s, the low to moderate\",\n \"-28.104072021204047\"\n ],\n [\n \"tendencies have also shown such associations. Meta-analyses have also found evidence of impairments in both vocal and facial emotional recognition for several emotions (i.e., not only fear and sadness) in both adults and children/adolescents. Moral judgment Psychopathy has been associated with amorality—an absence of, indifference towards, or disregard for moral beliefs. There are few firm data on patterns of moral judgment. Studies of developmental level (sophistication) of moral reasoning found all possible results—lower, higher or the same as non-psychopaths. Studies that compared judgments of personal moral transgressions versus judgments of breaking conventional rules or laws found that psychopaths rated them\",\n \"-28.101900684589054\"\n ],\n [\n \"Genetic Genetically informed studies of the personality characteristics typical of individuals with psychopathy have found moderate genetic (as well as non-genetic) influences. On the PPI, fearless dominance and impulsive antisociality were similarly influenced by genetic factors and uncorrelated with each other. Genetic factors may generally influence the development of psychopathy while environmental factors affect the specific expression of the traits that predominate. A study on a large group of children found more than 60% heritability for \\\"callous-unemotional traits\\\" and that conduct problems among children with these traits had a higher heritability than among children without these traits. Environment A study\",\n \"-28.100819357903674\"\n ],\n [\n \"and poor self-esteem. Various theories suggest that psychopathology is a factor, and that abuse experienced as a child leads some people to be more violent as adults. Correlation has been found between juvenile delinquency and domestic violence in adulthood.\\nStudies have found high incidence of psychopathology among domestic abusers. For instance, some research suggests that about 80% of both court-referred and self-referred men in these domestic violence studies exhibited diagnosable psychopathology, typically personality disorders. \\\"The estimate of personality disorders in the general population would be more in the 15–20% range [...] As violence becomes more severe and chronic in the relationship,\",\n \"-28.097205067781033\"\n ],\n [\n \"such as psychopathy, borderline, narcissistic, and schizoid personality disorders; conduct disorder; schizophrenia; bipolar disorder; and depersonalization. Lack of affective empathy has also been associated with sex offenders. It was found that offenders that had been raised in an environment where they were shown a lack of empathy and had endured the same type of abuse, felt less affective empathy for their victims. Autism The interaction between empathy and autism is a complex and ongoing field of research. Several different factors are proposed to be at play.\\nA study of high-functioning adults with autistic spectrum disorders found an increased prevalence of alexithymia,\",\n \"-28.08905852175667\"\n ],\n [\n \"is the concept that criminal acts or the people doing said crimes do them because of internal factors driving them. It differs from biological positivism in the thought that that school of thought says criminals are born criminals, whereas the psychological perspective recognizes the internal factors are results of external factor such as, but are not limited to, abusive parents, abusive relationships, drug problems, etc.\\nSocial Positivism, which oftentimes referred to as Sociological Positivism, discusses the thought process that criminals are produced by society. This school claims that low income levels, high poverty/unemployment rates, and poor educational systems create and fuel\",\n \"-28.08777504740283\"\n ],\n [\n \"behavior which has not regard for the good of society and of individuals, and is therefore frequently destructive of both. \\n CROSS: Is psychopathic personality a recognized mental disease? \\n BINGER: It is... \\n CROSS: Will you tell us, Dr. Binger, what some of the symptoms of a psychopathic personality are? \\n BINGER: Well, they are quite variegated. They include chronic, persistent and repetitive lying; they include stealing; they include acts of deception and misrepresentations; they include alcoholism and drug addiction; abnormal sexuality; vagabondage; panhandling; inability to form stable attachments; and a tendency to make false accusations.\\n In his\",\n \"-28.076777762005804\"\n ],\n [\n \"in an area with more crime in said area. A 2013 study from Sweden argued that there was little effect of neighbourhood deprivation on criminality per se and rather that the higher rates of crime were due to observed and unobserved family and individual level factors, indicating that high-risk individuals were being selected into economically deprived areas.\\nA World Bank study said, “Crime rates and inequality are positively correlated within countries and, particularly, between countries, and this correlation reflects causation from inequality to crime rates, even after controlling for other crime determinants.” Geographic factors Associated factors include areas with population size, neighborhood quality, residential\",\n \"-28.03712276366423\"\n ],\n [\n \"and negative mob types, as the distinctive characteristics and behaviors of key figures can be positive or negative in nature. An antisocial leader can incite violent action, but an influential voice of non-violence in a crowd can lead to a mass sit-in. When a crowd described as above targets an individual, anti-social behaviors may emerge within its members.\\nA major criticism of this theory is that the formation and following of new norms indicates a level of self-awareness that is often missing in the individuals in crowds (as evidenced by the study of deindividuation). Another criticism is that the idea of\",\n \"-28.031516584102064\"\n ],\n [\n \"the increased incidence of these conditions in people with lower socioeconomic status (SES) suggest they are the result of poor diet, low levels of exercise, dangerous jobs (exposure to toxins etc.) and increased levels of smoking and alcohol intake in socially deprived populations. Hesdorffer et al. found that low SES, indexed by poor education and lack of home ownership, was a risk factor for epilepsy in adults, but not in children in a population study. Low socioeconomic status may have a cumulative effect for the risk of developing epilepsy over a lifetime. Classification Mesial temporal sclerosis is a specific pattern\",\n \"-28.01010340891662\"\n ],\n [\n \"and on unifying and integrating forces at individual, group, social and spiritual levels that are associated with the limiting of crime and recovery from victimization. In traditional approaches the study of crime, violence and related behaviors emphasizes the negative aspects in people’s lives that are associated with deviance, criminality and victimization. A common understanding is that human relationships are affected more by destructive encounters than by constructive or positive ones. Positive criminology and victimology argue that a different approach is viable, based on three dimensions – social integration, emotional healing and spirituality – that constitute positive direction indicators. Prison abolition\",\n \"-27.991185259932536\"\n ],\n [\n \"cruelty to animals during childhood are also linked to the development of antisocial personality. The condition is more common in males than in females, and among people who are in prison. Genetic Research into genetic associations in antisocial personality disorder is suggestive that ASPD has some or even a strong genetic basis. Prevalence of ASPD is higher in people related to someone afflicted by the disorder. Twin studies, which are designed to discern between genetic and environmental effects, have reported significant genetic influences on antisocial behavior and conduct disorder.\\nIn the specific genes that may be involved, one gene that has\",\n \"-27.963610535211046\"\n ],\n [\n \"the societal reaction is the most determinant of one's entry into this role of chronically ill. \\nAccording to Scheff hospitalization of a mentally ill person further reinforces this social role and forces her/him to take this role as her/his self-perception. Once the person is institutionalized for mental disorder, s/he has been publicly labeled as \\\"crazy\\\" and forced to become a member of a deviant social group. It then becomes difficult for a deviant person to return to her/his former level of functioning as the status of 'patient' causes unfavorable evaluations by self and by others. Frank Tannenbaum Frank Tannenbaum is\",\n \"-27.948463302949676\"\n ],\n [\n \"other factors. Furthermore, the prevalence of disabilities in impoverished populations has been predicted to follow a cyclical pattern by which those who live in poverty are more likely to acquire a disability and those who have a disability are more likely to become impoverished. The vicious circle Experts from the United Kingdom Disabled Persons Council attribute the connection between disability and poverty to many systemic factors that promote a “vicious circle.” Statistics affirm the mutually reinforcing nature of special needs and low socioeconomic status, showing that people with disabilities are significantly more likely to become impoverished and people who are\",\n \"-27.90849079884356\"\n ],\n [\n \"Asociality Schizophrenia In schizophrenia, asociality is one of the main 5 \\\"negative symptoms\\\", the others being avolition, anhedonia, reduced affect and alogia. Due to a lack of desire to form relationships, social withdrawal is common in people with schizophrenia. People with schizophrenia may experience social deficits or dysfunction as a result of the disorder, leading to asocial behavior. Frequent or ongoing delusions and hallucinations can deteriorate relationships and other social ties, isolating individuals with schizophrenia from reality and in some cases leading to homelessness. Even when treated with medication for the disorder, they may be unable to engage in social\",\n \"-27.902414814612712\"\n ],\n [\n \"lower performance appraisals among corporate professionals. The psychologist Oliver James identifies psychopathy as one of the dark triadic traits in the workplace, the others being narcissism and Machiavellianism, which, like psychopathy, can have negative consequences.\\nAccording to a study from the University of Notre Dame published in the Journal of Business Ethics, psychopaths have a natural advantage in workplaces overrun by abusive supervision, and are more likely to thrive under abusive bosses, being more resistant to stress, including interpersonal abuse, and having less of a need for positive relationships than others. In fiction Characters with psychopathy or sociopathy are some of\",\n \"-27.89980345100048\"\n ],\n [\n \"an underlying factor that interacts with the immediate factors to result in a disorder. Both causes play a key role in the development of a psychological disorder. For example, high neuroticism antedates most types of psychopathology.\",\n \"-27.82776931989065\"\n ],\n [\n \"even more difficult for a person to fit in once labelled mentally ill because they now also carry a social stigma and receive a negative social attitude from the community.\\nSocial deprivation is difficult to dissect because certain issues that may be considered outcomes of social exclusion may also be factored into causes of social stigma. Outcomes of adult social deprivation may include young parenthood, adult homelessness, lack of qualifications, or residence in social housing – yet all of these factors may cause society to treat the individual with disdain or intolerance, thus furthering their exclusion. These reciprocal influences can become\",\n \"-27.817072745725454\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":585,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"468snf"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"If a cat is an \"outside\" cat, why does it return home and not go to another home?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["A reliable food source, basically. Sometimes you can 'poach' cats by putting out a reliable food source. Had this happen to one of our cats once.","My childhood cat was an \"outside cat\" he started not coming back at night, then a couple days, then over a week. And eventually stopped coming back all together. He had moved into a neighbors house, they renamed him Bob and he still walks the neighborhood from time to time. that treacherous bastard Bob!","Its for the food. Funny story, we have 3 outside cats and they always come home, but we feed 4 cats. There is a neighbor cat who comes to our house for food. We finally met the neighbor and talked to her and found out that she was putting her cat on a diet. He would then come to our house and my daughter would feed him as much as he wanted. He would come in our house and even sleep. I think he was ready to move in.","They want a reliable source of food, water, and (depending on the cat) affection. But sometimes they don't return home, and sometimes they move between homes. There's an outside cat that spends its time hanging around on my deck. Not sure if it's feral or just someone else's cat that likes my food better.","Growing up we had two cats, one was predominantly an outdoor cat, the other was mostly an indoor cat. After a few years we'd see less of Rocky (the outdoor one) and just figured he was sleeping outside.. turned out he was sleeping next door and still coming back to our house just for food/treats.","I've found that \"my\" outside cat liked to househop. Kinda made me sad when I found out \"my\" cat was food-whoring a good portion of the neighborhood and I was just another notch in her profurrbial belt. The only thing that made it better was knowing that I was the only one she would gift with decapitated chipmunks. No one else got gifts.","Cats can be weird. I inherited a cat that had beeen poorly socialized who was terrified of everything and everyone. I only got her to let me touch her by bribing her with ice cream. After I had had her for a year I moved to a fairly busy neighbourhood, with tons of foot traffic on the street. That cat's personality changed over-night, and she suddenly became everyone's freind. I'd come home from work, and find her getting pets and belly-rubs from complete strangers on the sidewalk. One day, I was riding my bike along the next block, and sufdenly I saw her come scampering out of a neighbours house. The neighbour told me that she was well known in the area, and at least 3 different places let her in, and fed her.","So, this apparently happened when I was little... We had a white outdoor cat (Mr. Cat, of course) that disappeared. Upon investigation and canvassing the neighborhood, we found out what happened. A neighbor had seen the cat on our roof while we were not home, assumed it was a stray (!?!?), brought a ladder over to \"rescue\" the cat, and had given it away to someone they knew. Thankfully, we were able to get the cat back!","Cats generally have two \"zones\" of territory: The inner, safe zone, where the food, water, bedding, etc. are. Then there's the outer zone, where the cat will patrol, looking for potential new threats, new sources of food, and the like. Indoor cats do the same thing, dividing up the house into zones.","Sometimes they do go to another home. My ex-girlfriend saw someone chasing after her outside cat once, and they actually got into a fight about whose cat it was. Apparently this cat that my ex had rescued from being a stray at a plant nursery had been going to this lady's house on off nights and eating her food and taking advantage of her hospitality. Cats also have defined territories they won't go beyond. When my ex would walk her dogs, the cat would follow sometimes, but would always stop at a certain street corner and just meow until she came back. It was calling her back as it refused to go beyond its territory into another cat's. Although there are frequently turf wars. The cat would occasionally come home with a bloodied ear and we'd hear some pretty crazy noises sometimes when cats were fighting over territory.","Animals also have territories, or ranges, that they live in and consider home. Tigers and Lions have big ones. I don't know the size a house cat would have, but our next door neighbor's cat uses our yard as much as his own (unfortunately... but chasing him is one of the few forms of exercise our chihuahua gets, lol). Generally, if a cat is fixed so it doesn't feel the need to roam for mates, and has plenty of food and shelter, it doesn't have a compelling reason to leave. I'm sure there are plenty of antidotes to the contrary, but just think about it from the animal's perspective. If you don't need to leave to have sex, find food, or have a good place to sleep, why would you?","Those kinds of cats often have multiple houses to visit or \"rounds\" they make. Source: Moved into a house in college that literally came with a cat. He had been at the same house for three tenants in a row and we met neighbors who had different names for him.","I own no cats. I routinely have 5-6 cats come in for treats or snuggles. I have one sleeping between my legs right now. I don't know its name. Pretty sure its a boy.","You are, presumably, an \"outside\" human. Why do you return home instead of going elsewhere? It's safe, familiar, warm, you may have people you love living with you, etc etc.","All of our cats are outdoor cats with indoor privileges. Sometimes they will go roaming for about 24-48 hours, but they always come back, because that's where the food and the warm place to sleep is. At least 2 of them just hang around the house, but the other two will go through phases of roaming and hanging around. Almost none of the cats prefer to stay inside indefinitely, so the semi open door policy seems to be precisely what they want. However, what they want often is in direct contrast with what we want. If we want them outside, they want inside. If we want them inside, they will just stand on the porch and stare at us like we are stupid.","Sometimes they don't return home consistently - our neighborhood was once plastered with \"missing cat\" posters and a few days later an update was pasted on top of them. It turned out \"Sam\" had been spending his time with two families on the block and one of them took him on vacation with them for a few weeks.","ITT Lots of people who feed cats that are not theirs. I thought it goes without saying that you don't do that.","Why do your children return home after leaving school? Except sometimes they have sleepovers, right? Home is where the family lives. Some cats will have multiple families. Some cats are just rangy and like to see what 'over there'. I had an abyssinian named Charlie that wore a collar with our phone number on it. We'd get calls from miles away, saying \"He just walked in and flopped down in the middle of the kitchen floor. What should we do?\" I'd tell them to give him a scratch or two, talk to him, ask if he's OK, then let him out. Same cat used to walk me six blocks to the train station every morning that wasn't raining. SOURCE: have 27 cats.","Some cats cheat on thier owners and have multiple homes. Someone put a GoPro on a cat and found he had a double life.","I worked at a cat rescue for 3 years and looked into this. The ELI5 answer is \"it often doesn't\". Life expectancy of an indoor cat is roughly 14 years, whereas an indoor/outdoor cat's life expectancy is 4 years. The problem is everyone knows a person (or is that person) who thinks it's cruel to keep your cat \"trapped in a house\" all day and \"I've had this cat 15 years and he's fine\". Great. You got lucky. Doesn't make it a good idea. Cars, diseases, and predators are big problems. Another big problem people don't think about is \"other people\". What I mean is some people will find an outdoor cat, befriend it, and coax it in and make it theirs. My cousin has done this at least 3 times with neighborhood cats. So listen up people: don't let your cats out.","As many others have said, the food. But also, for some cats they could just legitimately be attached to you and whoever else lives there, especially if you're affectionate towards them. Cats aren't actually heartless bastards; they are more than capable of loving you even if they are frequently reluctant to show you that love. XD","Ive read several times that outdoor cats were the most efficient ecosystem destroyers on the planet. I believe one country (Australia?) Tried to ban them outright this link is a pretty good read. URL_0 Edit : New Zealand, sorry Aussies","It's all about food and survival. When coroners find people that die in their homes with no one noticing, dogs will cuddle up next to their owners until they die too. Cats will start eating the owners face.","They do -- growing up we fed our dingus neighbors' cat because they thought it would survive outside on \"field mice\". It hung out with me all the time while I played video games.","My mum's cat was an outside cat. Turns out when it went outside it was actually going into the neighbours house. They named it and considered it their own house cat. It wasn't until they showed my mum a picture of their cat that they both realised they were being played for fools!","I swear my cat has other families that take care of him. Sometimes he will be gone for a week and come home clean and fed. The weird thing is that he has a collar on his neck with our information so the other family has to know he already has an owner.","Why do you go home? There's food and love and it's their home! (This coming from someone who has an outdoor cat and is pretty sure he had another family for a while)","Cats sometimes go to other cats homes for food. It's just their hunter instinct kicking in. They nearly always end up \"at home\" but not always.","Cats do have a degree of loyalty to their humans too and are capable of affection to those who take care of them.","We used to have mice around or old house. this cat who didn't seem to belong to anyone would chill there for days, then disappear, then come back again. That thing was one sadistic fuck. played with the mice before eating them, and letting people pet it for a few minutes, then turning around and biting the shit out of you. fuck that cat.","Well, my cat has his own garage. He normally goes out 'hunting' somewhere (we have a massive amount of land behind our house) and he returns at night. According to his breed he's not supposed to be outdoors either (he's a ragdoll) but he can't stand being inside the house for more than a couple hours. Maybe he has a girlfriend?","My mom had a cat that went back and forth between her and a neighbor,they found out when there was a storm and they were both looking for the same cat. my mom ended up keeping the cat after that because the other family's daughter didn't want the cat anymore","Coming in a little late, also not sure if it had been pointed out... Isn't this why they say a cat has 9 lives? I.E. A life with you, the neighbours, the little old lady around the block. So on and so forth.","pretty much for food, or because they like you. it's not uncommon for a cat to be shared between several families without each other ever finding out. your cat is never really your cat.","In some cases they will. When I moved to another house only a few blocks from the old one, my cat George would regularly walk back to the old house.","Because cats are lazy, selfish, fickle whores and they'll go wherever they get the best perks for the least amount of affection in return.","Didn't they attach cameras to a bunch of cats once and found out that they often had more than one home?","Same reason you don't feed bears, foxes, coyotes or other carnivores near your house...they'll keep coming back for more."],"string":"[\n \"A reliable food source, basically. Sometimes you can 'poach' cats by putting out a reliable food source. Had this happen to one of our cats once.\",\n \"My childhood cat was an \\\"outside cat\\\" he started not coming back at night, then a couple days, then over a week. And eventually stopped coming back all together. He had moved into a neighbors house, they renamed him Bob and he still walks the neighborhood from time to time. that treacherous bastard Bob!\",\n \"Its for the food. Funny story, we have 3 outside cats and they always come home, but we feed 4 cats. There is a neighbor cat who comes to our house for food. We finally met the neighbor and talked to her and found out that she was putting her cat on a diet. He would then come to our house and my daughter would feed him as much as he wanted. He would come in our house and even sleep. I think he was ready to move in.\",\n \"They want a reliable source of food, water, and (depending on the cat) affection. But sometimes they don't return home, and sometimes they move between homes. There's an outside cat that spends its time hanging around on my deck. Not sure if it's feral or just someone else's cat that likes my food better.\",\n \"Growing up we had two cats, one was predominantly an outdoor cat, the other was mostly an indoor cat. After a few years we'd see less of Rocky (the outdoor one) and just figured he was sleeping outside.. turned out he was sleeping next door and still coming back to our house just for food/treats.\",\n \"I've found that \\\"my\\\" outside cat liked to househop. Kinda made me sad when I found out \\\"my\\\" cat was food-whoring a good portion of the neighborhood and I was just another notch in her profurrbial belt. The only thing that made it better was knowing that I was the only one she would gift with decapitated chipmunks. No one else got gifts.\",\n \"Cats can be weird. I inherited a cat that had beeen poorly socialized who was terrified of everything and everyone. I only got her to let me touch her by bribing her with ice cream. After I had had her for a year I moved to a fairly busy neighbourhood, with tons of foot traffic on the street. That cat's personality changed over-night, and she suddenly became everyone's freind. I'd come home from work, and find her getting pets and belly-rubs from complete strangers on the sidewalk. One day, I was riding my bike along the next block, and sufdenly I saw her come scampering out of a neighbours house. The neighbour told me that she was well known in the area, and at least 3 different places let her in, and fed her.\",\n \"So, this apparently happened when I was little... We had a white outdoor cat (Mr. Cat, of course) that disappeared. Upon investigation and canvassing the neighborhood, we found out what happened. A neighbor had seen the cat on our roof while we were not home, assumed it was a stray (!?!?), brought a ladder over to \\\"rescue\\\" the cat, and had given it away to someone they knew. Thankfully, we were able to get the cat back!\",\n \"Cats generally have two \\\"zones\\\" of territory: The inner, safe zone, where the food, water, bedding, etc. are. Then there's the outer zone, where the cat will patrol, looking for potential new threats, new sources of food, and the like. Indoor cats do the same thing, dividing up the house into zones.\",\n \"Sometimes they do go to another home. My ex-girlfriend saw someone chasing after her outside cat once, and they actually got into a fight about whose cat it was. Apparently this cat that my ex had rescued from being a stray at a plant nursery had been going to this lady's house on off nights and eating her food and taking advantage of her hospitality. Cats also have defined territories they won't go beyond. When my ex would walk her dogs, the cat would follow sometimes, but would always stop at a certain street corner and just meow until she came back. It was calling her back as it refused to go beyond its territory into another cat's. Although there are frequently turf wars. The cat would occasionally come home with a bloodied ear and we'd hear some pretty crazy noises sometimes when cats were fighting over territory.\",\n \"Animals also have territories, or ranges, that they live in and consider home. Tigers and Lions have big ones. I don't know the size a house cat would have, but our next door neighbor's cat uses our yard as much as his own (unfortunately... but chasing him is one of the few forms of exercise our chihuahua gets, lol). Generally, if a cat is fixed so it doesn't feel the need to roam for mates, and has plenty of food and shelter, it doesn't have a compelling reason to leave. I'm sure there are plenty of antidotes to the contrary, but just think about it from the animal's perspective. If you don't need to leave to have sex, find food, or have a good place to sleep, why would you?\",\n \"Those kinds of cats often have multiple houses to visit or \\\"rounds\\\" they make. Source: Moved into a house in college that literally came with a cat. He had been at the same house for three tenants in a row and we met neighbors who had different names for him.\",\n \"I own no cats. I routinely have 5-6 cats come in for treats or snuggles. I have one sleeping between my legs right now. I don't know its name. Pretty sure its a boy.\",\n \"You are, presumably, an \\\"outside\\\" human. Why do you return home instead of going elsewhere? It's safe, familiar, warm, you may have people you love living with you, etc etc.\",\n \"All of our cats are outdoor cats with indoor privileges. Sometimes they will go roaming for about 24-48 hours, but they always come back, because that's where the food and the warm place to sleep is. At least 2 of them just hang around the house, but the other two will go through phases of roaming and hanging around. Almost none of the cats prefer to stay inside indefinitely, so the semi open door policy seems to be precisely what they want. However, what they want often is in direct contrast with what we want. If we want them outside, they want inside. If we want them inside, they will just stand on the porch and stare at us like we are stupid.\",\n \"Sometimes they don't return home consistently - our neighborhood was once plastered with \\\"missing cat\\\" posters and a few days later an update was pasted on top of them. It turned out \\\"Sam\\\" had been spending his time with two families on the block and one of them took him on vacation with them for a few weeks.\",\n \"ITT Lots of people who feed cats that are not theirs. I thought it goes without saying that you don't do that.\",\n \"Why do your children return home after leaving school? Except sometimes they have sleepovers, right? Home is where the family lives. Some cats will have multiple families. Some cats are just rangy and like to see what 'over there'. I had an abyssinian named Charlie that wore a collar with our phone number on it. We'd get calls from miles away, saying \\\"He just walked in and flopped down in the middle of the kitchen floor. What should we do?\\\" I'd tell them to give him a scratch or two, talk to him, ask if he's OK, then let him out. Same cat used to walk me six blocks to the train station every morning that wasn't raining. SOURCE: have 27 cats.\",\n \"Some cats cheat on thier owners and have multiple homes. Someone put a GoPro on a cat and found he had a double life.\",\n \"I worked at a cat rescue for 3 years and looked into this. The ELI5 answer is \\\"it often doesn't\\\". Life expectancy of an indoor cat is roughly 14 years, whereas an indoor/outdoor cat's life expectancy is 4 years. The problem is everyone knows a person (or is that person) who thinks it's cruel to keep your cat \\\"trapped in a house\\\" all day and \\\"I've had this cat 15 years and he's fine\\\". Great. You got lucky. Doesn't make it a good idea. Cars, diseases, and predators are big problems. Another big problem people don't think about is \\\"other people\\\". What I mean is some people will find an outdoor cat, befriend it, and coax it in and make it theirs. My cousin has done this at least 3 times with neighborhood cats. So listen up people: don't let your cats out.\",\n \"As many others have said, the food. But also, for some cats they could just legitimately be attached to you and whoever else lives there, especially if you're affectionate towards them. Cats aren't actually heartless bastards; they are more than capable of loving you even if they are frequently reluctant to show you that love. XD\",\n \"Ive read several times that outdoor cats were the most efficient ecosystem destroyers on the planet. I believe one country (Australia?) Tried to ban them outright this link is a pretty good read. URL_0 Edit : New Zealand, sorry Aussies\",\n \"It's all about food and survival. When coroners find people that die in their homes with no one noticing, dogs will cuddle up next to their owners until they die too. Cats will start eating the owners face.\",\n \"They do -- growing up we fed our dingus neighbors' cat because they thought it would survive outside on \\\"field mice\\\". It hung out with me all the time while I played video games.\",\n \"My mum's cat was an outside cat. Turns out when it went outside it was actually going into the neighbours house. They named it and considered it their own house cat. It wasn't until they showed my mum a picture of their cat that they both realised they were being played for fools!\",\n \"I swear my cat has other families that take care of him. Sometimes he will be gone for a week and come home clean and fed. The weird thing is that he has a collar on his neck with our information so the other family has to know he already has an owner.\",\n \"Why do you go home? There's food and love and it's their home! (This coming from someone who has an outdoor cat and is pretty sure he had another family for a while)\",\n \"Cats sometimes go to other cats homes for food. It's just their hunter instinct kicking in. They nearly always end up \\\"at home\\\" but not always.\",\n \"Cats do have a degree of loyalty to their humans too and are capable of affection to those who take care of them.\",\n \"We used to have mice around or old house. this cat who didn't seem to belong to anyone would chill there for days, then disappear, then come back again. That thing was one sadistic fuck. played with the mice before eating them, and letting people pet it for a few minutes, then turning around and biting the shit out of you. fuck that cat.\",\n \"Well, my cat has his own garage. He normally goes out 'hunting' somewhere (we have a massive amount of land behind our house) and he returns at night. According to his breed he's not supposed to be outdoors either (he's a ragdoll) but he can't stand being inside the house for more than a couple hours. Maybe he has a girlfriend?\",\n \"My mom had a cat that went back and forth between her and a neighbor,they found out when there was a storm and they were both looking for the same cat. my mom ended up keeping the cat after that because the other family's daughter didn't want the cat anymore\",\n \"Coming in a little late, also not sure if it had been pointed out... Isn't this why they say a cat has 9 lives? I.E. A life with you, the neighbours, the little old lady around the block. So on and so forth.\",\n \"pretty much for food, or because they like you. it's not uncommon for a cat to be shared between several families without each other ever finding out. your cat is never really your cat.\",\n \"In some cases they will. When I moved to another house only a few blocks from the old one, my cat George would regularly walk back to the old house.\",\n \"Because cats are lazy, selfish, fickle whores and they'll go wherever they get the best perks for the least amount of affection in return.\",\n \"Didn't they attach cameras to a bunch of cats once and found out that they often had more than one home?\",\n \"Same reason you don't feed bears, foxes, coyotes or other carnivores near your house...they'll keep coming back for more.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["their litters to survive and protect themselves by taking some small animal for the kittens to play with for practicing. Korat cats can remember their owner. If they see a stranger they might scare or make a noise, but they will run to their owner and play with them.","-31.568925518891774"],["kitten to a household can be a bad idea. If there already is an older cat present and another cat is added to their environment it may be better to get another older cat that has been socialized with other cats. When a kitten is introduced to a mature cat, that cat may show feline asocial aggression where they feel threatened and act aggressive to drive off the intruders. If this happens, the kitten and the cat should be separated, and slowly introduced by rubbing towels on the animals and presenting the towel to the other.\nCats use scent and pheromones","-31.450788508343976"],["type of litter used and maintaining a clean area for the litter boxes. The “1+1” rule for multiple cat owners is highly advised, where the house has a litter box for each cat they own, plus an additional one. If cats have urinated outside of the litter box in inappropriate places, thorough cleaning of the area is advised to reduce the interest of other cats. Placing litter boxes in areas of low noise and traffic and away from other pets is also suggested.\nMimicking natural behavior for a cat with chronic stress helps them relax. They benefit from “hide and","-30.200618443690473"],["enters the home. Animals lucky enough to survive until they are discovered are often in poor condition due to lack of resources such as food and water. Abandonment Pets are abandoned for a variety of reasons. Often, when abandoned, pets are forced to fend for themselves, and become feral. In particular, cats and dogs go to colonies. Feral cats are said to outnumber feral dogs. Feral cats are difficult to deal with, as often they become impossible to socialize enough to be re-introduced to a new human owner. In general, only some newly abandoned cats and very young feral kittens","-30.11943743051961"],["the meow of another cat in the house. Turned out the package had a cute red and white kitten which instantly wins Jerry's heart, but Tom takes an instant disliking to her.\nAs Jerry stares at the kitten as he is thinking \"I love kittens!\", Tom flips him back to his hole again. Tom deliberates on how to get rid of the kitten, because to him one cat in the house is heaven, but two cats will just be a living hell to Tom. When the owner leaves to get food for the kitten, Tom grabs the kitten. Jerry hears","-29.96654073012178"],["hunting and stalking play peaking later, at about five months.\nKittens are vulnerable because they like to find dark places to hide, sometimes with fatal results if they are not watched carefully. Cats have a habit of seeking refuge under or inside cars or on top of car tires during stormy or cold weather. This often leads to broken bones, burns, heat stroke, damaged internal organs or death.\nDomestic kittens are commonly sent to new homes at six to eight weeks of age, but it has been suggested that being with their mother and litter-mates from six to twelve weeks is important","-29.851572446146747"],["left alone for extended periods of time. Even though there are a number of benefits for owning a cat, there are a number of problematic behaviours that affect the human–cat relationship. One behaviour is when cats attack people by clawing and biting. This often occurs spontaneously or could be triggered by sudden movements. Another problematic behaviour is the \"petting and biting syndrome\", which involves the cat being petted and then suddenly attacking and running away. Other problems are house soiling, scratching furniture, and when a cat brings dead prey into the house. It is these kinds of behaviours that put","-29.728840441156535"],["not have a social survival strategy, or a pack mentality and always hunt alone.\nHowever, some pet cats are poorly socialized. In particular, older cats show aggressiveness towards newly arrived kittens, which include biting and scratching; this type of behavior is known as feline asocial aggression.\nLife in proximity to humans and other domestic animals has led to a symbiotic social adaptation in cats, and cats may express great affection toward humans or other animals. Ethologically, the human keeper of a cat functions as a sort of surrogate for the cat's mother. Adult cats live their lives in a kind of extended","-29.63819764892105"],["as this is a small city, I feared they would be stolen. I have made every endeavour to get another mate for \"Nellie\", but have not been successful. I never allowed them to mate, as they were brother and sister, and I thought it might alter \"Nellie's\" beautiful form, which is round and handsome, with body rather long. In winter they have a light fur on back and ridge of tail, which falls off in warm weather. They stand the cold weather the same as other cats. They are not like the hairless dogs, whose hide is solid and tough;","-29.545343946898356"],["Dried cat In some European cultures it was customary to place the dried or desiccated body of a cat inside the walls of a newly built home to ward off evil spirits or as a good luck charm. It was believed that the cats had a sixth sense and that putting a cat in the wall was a blood sacrifice so the animal could use psychic abilities to find and ward off unwanted spirits. Although some accounts claim the cats were walled in alive, examination of recovered specimens indicates post-mortem concealment in most cases. Origins In the British Isles, as","-29.447867002920248"],["food source. They are usually regularly fed in locations where food is left for no one cat in particular, and they find shelter \"accidentally\", such as in farm buildings, and sometimes deliberately from humans. A common reason to tolerate and even nourish these cats is so they kill vermin, or because of a general favorable feeling toward cats. Usually semi-ownership of cats contributes to cat overpopulation and excessive breeding when people nourish but not neuter the cats.\nOf horse breeds, the French Camargue was once thought of as a wild species, though increased contact with humans has made it semi-feral. These","-29.431614722241648"],["cats are allowed. However, if the tenants live in the Council's sheltered housing schemes, then there is a blanket ban on keeping dogs or cats.\nFor livestocks such as horses, donkeys, goats, pigs, ducks, geese, chickens or any other reptiles, written permission from the Council is needed. Reptiles and spiders are discouraged, unless the tenants can prove that they can meet the special care and welfare needs of them.\nYet, one must never keep animals prohibited by Dangerous Wild Animals Act 1976 due to safety concern. Exotic animals and farm animal, such as cockerels, are not allowed normally. Pet keeping requirements According","-29.18483548882068"],["to help organize their territory by marking prominent objects. If these objects or scents are removed it upsets the cat's perception of its environment. Importance of space for domestic and feral cats The domestic cat has become more sociable through contact of its own species through domestication. The domestic cat is more juvenile than the African wildcat; this promotes greater tolerance of other cats and domestic animals.\nIt has been documented that feral cat colonies have a social structure where the females of the group live together and help with each other's kittens whereas the males do not. There are also","-29.157895872718655"],["Farm cat The farm cat, also known as a barn cat, is a domestic cat, usually of mixed breed, that lives primarily out-of-doors, in a feral or semi-feral condition on agricultural properties, usually sheltering in outbuildings. They eat assorted vermin such as rodents and other small animals that live in or around outbuildings and farm fields. The need for the farm cat may have been the original reason cats were domesticated, to keep rodents from consuming or contaminating grain crops stored for later human consumption. They are still commonly kept for their effectiveness at controlling undesired vermin","-29.156029394966026"],["also have policies halting or limiting adoption of black cats immediately prior to Halloween for fear that the animals will be tortured, or used as \"living decorations\" for the holiday and then abandoned. Rabbits are sometimes treated in the same manner prior to Easter as well, though they are rarely found in regular shelters since they are considered \"exotic\" (anything not a dog or cat). Another popular fad is using a small dog, pretty white Persian kitten or other small pet as a fashion accessory to \"complement an outfit\". Such animals may end up discarded, abandoned, or","-29.05111214099452"],["you give it the attention it seeks and always seem to want to be held and hugged. They will constantly interact with people, even strangers. They love to play and cuddle. Environment It makes a good apartment cat, especially if owners will give it safe non-poisonous house plants near the windowsill, which the cat can explore. However, it is recommended that the Asian can only live in apartments, if it does not involve the city. The Asian does not enjoy loud noises from automobiles, buses, or trucks. So if needed to live in an apartment, it must be","-28.96104703313904"],["it in another person's home. Anyone picking up a cat or kitten from a fosterer's home can be subject to same home visits (pre- and post -oming) and the same terms and conditions as someone picking up a cat or kitten from a centre. Volunteer-run branches receive a small amount of funding from the charity's headquarters but are required to raise most of their funds from their local areas. They do not usually have any paid members of staff, and would take the cats home if they had to. Adoption centres Dedicated centres are of varying size and have paid","-28.85059039099724"],["is a challenge to socialize an adult. Socialized adult feral cats tend to trust only those who they trusted in their socialization period, and therefore can be very fearful around strangers.\nCats are also used for companion animals. Studies have shown that these animals provide many physiological and psychological benefits for the owner. Other aspects of cat behaviour that are deemed advantageous for the human–cat bond are cat hygiene (cats are known for good hygiene), they do not have to be taken outside (use of the litter box), they are perfect for smaller spaces, and they have no problems with being","-28.794626259594224"],["in the house taunt him, \"You are a fraidy cat! Ha, ha, ha!\", the cat's pride can only be satisfied by rushing back into the house and chasing the mice into the snow, at which point the old owner acts gently with the cat.","-28.784979879041202"],["household.\nBecause of the effects of predation on New Zealand wildlife, domestic cat ownership is sometimes a contentious issue. Since the 1990s, cat-free subdivisions have occasionally been established to prevent predation occurring within nearby natural areas by domestic cats. In 1996 a cat-free subdivision was established at Waihi Beach, a landmark decision by the Western Bay of Plenty District Council. It was sought by Forest and Bird and the Department of Conservation to protect wildlife in a nearby salt marsh.\nIn 2012, the operators of the Zealandia wildlife sanctuary called for cat owners not to replace their pet when they die as","-28.733026753368904"],["to live, food, water, and vet care. Feral Cats A feral cat is a cat without an owner that lives outside. These cats have very minimal to no human contact at all. They tend to hide from humans and do not allow themselves to be touched by them. Attempts to socialize feral cats often fail or take a long time, and even so some remain afraid of humans.\nThere are efforts to control the feral cat population, which is a big problem. There are trap neuter return programs, which capture the feral cats, neuter/spay them, and release them back outside. This","-28.665237921115477"],["that reinforces a nonthreatening position. This behavior is not exclusive to domestic house cats. Since cats can be very territorial, in the wild they utilize this slow blinking with other cats to signal themselves as friendly or nonthreatening. Tail Cats often use their tails to communicate. A cat holding its tail vertically generally indicates positive emotions such as happiness or confidence; the vertical tail is often used as a friendly greeting toward human beings or other cats (usually close relatives). A half-raised tail can indicate less pleasure, and unhappiness is indicated with a tail held low. In addition, a","-28.581426452030428"],["cats program is designed to place cats in safe environments where they are valued for their hunting skills as working cats. These programs are typically offered by animal shelters who will use otherwise unadoptable cats in the program as an alternative to euthanasia. The cats may not be suitable for adoption because they are feral cats or did not acclimate to living in close quarters with humans. Working cats programs usually provide cats that are spayed or neutered and fully vaccinated, and any adoption fee is often waived. In exchange for their services, the cats are to receive a place","-28.419809491722845"],["Abandoned pets Abandoned pets are companion animals that are either inadvertently or deliberately cast off by their owners. This commonly occurs when an owner dies, when a pet becomes disruptive or grows too large, or if the pet was acquired impulsively. The financial crisis of 2007–2010 has resulted in a number of pets abandoned for economic reasons. Typical of this group are pets left behind when the owner's home is foreclosed. These animals can be left alone on the property or dropped off at an animal shelter. They are often discovered after the foreclosure process, when the realtor or bank","-28.412136406172067"],["lead to signals of aggression, fear, dominance, friendship or territoriality being misinterpreted by the other species. Dogs have a natural instinct to chase smaller animals that flee, an instinct common among cats. Most cats flee from a dog, while others take actions such as hissing, arching their backs and swiping at the dog. After being scratched by a cat, some dogs can become fearful of cats.\nIf appropriately socialized, cats and dogs may have relationships that are not antagonistic, and dogs raised with cats may prefer the presence of cats to other dogs. Even cats and dogs that have got along","-28.34817383205518"],["and a few species of birds such as the carrion crow, Eurasian jays and food-storing magpies. Dogs are able to reach a level of object permanence that allows them to find food after it has been hidden beneath one of two cups and rotated 90°. Similarly, cats are able to understand object permanence but not to the same extent that dogs can. Cats fail to understand that if they see something go into an apparatus in one direction that it will still be there if the cat tries to enter from another direction. However, while cats did not","-28.347276633023284"],["instincts to expel bodily waste in dirt or sand. Therefore, with a new kitten, owners usually need to simply show the kitten where the litter box is located, and how to get in and out. On occasion, some training is required to help a new cat adjust to a litter box, or to help an older cat that suddenly stops using the litter box.\nCats may also be trained to use a human toilet. The benefits of this method are that cat owners can eliminate the task of maintaining a clean litter box on a regular basis and avoid the smell","-28.310232545227336"],["in its audience. Eventually the cat takes a few laps from the stream and bounds away out of sight, as the animals can only watch, powerless to stop it.\nMost of the animals disperse, but Tawny Owl pursues the Beast through the air, eventually finding the large cat in a ditch near the perimeter of the reserve. Annoyed at being discovered, The Beast asks about Tawny Owl's interest in it, and Owl tells it how terrified all the park's inhabitants are of it. He asks the cat whether it could hunt somewhere else instead and it refuses, but it makes a","-28.155394353350857"],["foxes killing cats usually involve kittens. Although most foxes do not prey on cats, some may do so, and may treat them more as competitors rather than food. Taming and domestication In their unmodified wild state, red foxes are generally unsuitable as pets. Many supposedly abandoned kits are adopted by well-meaning people during the spring period, though it is unlikely that vixens would abandon their young. Actual orphans are rare, and the ones that are adopted are likely kits that simply strayed from their den site. Kits require almost constant supervision; when still suckling, they require milk at four-hour intervals","-28.077199805837154"],["closes from the side and appears when the cat's eyelid opens. This membrane partially closes if the cat is sick, although in a sleepy state this membrane is often visible.\nCats often sleep during the day so they can \"hunt\" at night. Unlike humans, cats do not need to blink their eyes on a regular basis to keep their eyes lubricated (with tears). Unblinking eyes are probably an advantage when hunting. Cats will, however, \"squint\" their eyes, usually as a form of communication expressing affection and ease around another cat or human. Hearing Humans and cats have a similar range of","-28.065815189038403"],["first branches and smooth bark. It has been suggested they do this to avoid cats.","-28.061057112296112"],["in population and come out more often at night. Zoos In zoos, nocturnal animals are usually kept in special night-illumination enclosures to invert their normal sleep-wake cycle and to keep them active during the hours when visitors will be there to see them. Pets Hedgehogs and sugar gliders are just two of the many nocturnal species kept as (exotic) pets. Cats have adapted to domestication so that each individual, whether stray alley cat or pampered housecat, can change their activity level at will, becoming nocturnal or diurnal in response to their environment or the routine of their owners. Cats normally","-28.043378317554016"],["beautiful of all the cats, but he is unable to decide. Each seems lovely, so he walks back home with all of the cats following him. His wife is dismayed when he arrives, realizing immediately what her husband overlooked: they won't be able to feed and care for billions and trillions of cats. The wife suggests letting the cats decide which one should stay with them, asking \"Which one of you is the prettiest?\" This question incites an enormous cat fight, frightening the old man and woman, who run back into the house.\nSoon, all is quiet outside. When they venture","-27.983869073854294"],["cats with this disorder. Reassuring the cat during an episode keeps them calmer too even though they can appear to be absent and in a trance during episodes.","-27.940333938226104"],["Cats in New Zealand Cats are a popular pet in New Zealand. Cat ownership is occasionally raised as a controversial conservation issue due to the predation of endangered species, such as birds and lizards, by feral cats. Domesticated cats The domestic cat (Felis catus) first arrived at New Zealand on Captain James Cook's ship HMS Endeavour in the mid-18th century, but were established by European settlers a century later. As of 2011, there are an estimated 1.419 million domestic cats in New Zealand, with almost half of all households owning at least one and an average of 1.8 cats per","-27.925406711743562"],["restrained from hunting. If you see your cat making quick chirps, and moving their mouths extremely quickly while their eyes are set and staring at one place, they are chattering, and channeling their inner urge to hunt. Big cats do this as well. Although domesticated cats are not in the wild, they still have their innate need to hunt. Grown cats also do not meow to other grown cats. Cats meow in adult form to talk to other animals, such as dogs, and more importantly humans. Meowing to humans has been researched as that they do it to manipulate","-27.92122687875235"],["the \"prey\" item is long dead and therefore possibly toxic or decomposing). Whiskers To aid with navigation and sensation, cats have dozens of movable whiskers (vibrissae) over their body, especially their faces. These provide information on the width of gaps and on the location of objects in the dark, both by touching objects directly and by sensing air currents; they also trigger protective blink reflexes to protect the eyes from damage. Behavior Outdoor cats are active both day and night, although they tend to be slightly more active at night. Domestic cats spend the majority of their time in the","-27.903242874832358"],["Exotic felines as pets Definition and differentiations Hybrids of the domestic cat with non-domestic species (e. g. the Bengal cat or the Savannah cat) are not normally considered wild cats. While this distinction is often overlooked in the media and in the public eye, such cat breeds (especially the F5 and subsequent generations) are much closer to the domestic cat in terms of housing and husbandry requirements, behavior, and legality.\nUnlike many other exotic pet species, wild cats usually cannot be kept indoors and require a large outdoor enclosure. This blurs the distinction between a wild cat being kept as an","-27.877389483939623"],["and Veterinary Authority (AVA). If dog owners let their dogs defecate in public places and cause environmental damage, the National Environment Agency (NEA) will take actions against them.\nIn addition, the HDB expressly prohibited cats because cats would shed fur, defecate and urinate in public area, and they also make caterwauling sounds. Therefore, they would cause inconvenience to the neighbourhood. Taiwan The public housing in Taiwan, known as “National Housing” (國民住宅), is categorised into two types: for sale and for lease. According to the officials in the Department of Urban Development of Taipei City Government, in early years, the lease agreement","-27.87266676762374"],["mainly through starvation, disease, or other forms of predation. There is evidence that cats tend to take weak or sickly birds\".\n\"Those bird species that have undergone the most serious population declines in the UK (such as skylarks, tree sparrows and corn buntings) rarely encounter cats, so cats cannot be causing their declines. Research shows that these declines are usually caused by habitat change or loss, particularly on farmland.\" This evidence is despite the common practice in the U.K. of allowing owned cats access to the outdoors, which is recommended to prevent feline obesity (p. 138) and behavior problems and other health","-27.862901099433657"],["usual domestic pets are kept, including cats and pet dogs. As elsewhere, domestic cats threaten the bird life and eat rabbits and rodents; foxes and mink attack hens and ducks from time to time. Surrounding environment Heasta is isolated in the sense that there is a large surrounding belt of heather moorland which is devoid of any human habitation, in fact not even a wall or tree. Within the village though there are trees in the deep clefts by the streams. There are many waterfalls. The road from Heasta to the north towards Broadford rises high over the moors reaching","-27.83443144982266"],["Also, keeping cats indoors is a preventative measure. Other animals Sporotrichosis can be diagnosed in domestic and wild mammals. In veterinary medicine it is most frequently seen in cats and horses. Cats have a particularly severe form of cutaneous sporotrichosis and also can serve as a source of zoonotic infection to persons who handle them and are exposed to exudate from skin lesions.","-27.826848638113006"],["first four years of a cat's life but it is primarily observed during the first two months of life when cats are introduced into new homes is most common. Theories explaining why this behavior becomes active during this time suggest that early weaning and stress as a consequence of separation from the mother and litter-mates and exposure to a new environment are to blame. Eating wool or other substances may be a soothing mechanism that cats develops to cope with the changes. Pica is also observed predominately during 6–8 months of a cat's life when territorial and sexual behaviors","-27.819063161383383"],["out, there is no sign of the cats: they'd apparently eaten each other up in their jealous fury. Then, the old man notices one skinny cat hiding in a patch of tall grass. It had survived because it didn't consider itself pretty, so the other cats hadn't attacked it. The couple take the cat into their home, feed it and bathe it, watching it grow sleek and beautiful as the days pass: exactly the kind of cat they wanted. Legacy Wanda Gag pioneered the double-page spread in this book. Writer and reviewer Anita Silvey explained, \"She used both pages to","-27.81511025148211"],["and does it really well, without breaking any objects due to its agility and elegance. The oriental longhair is extremely intelligent and are ideal companions for people who like their pets always around. Some have been know to follow their owners everywhere. They are very loyal and most get along well with other cats, especially if they are of the same breed group. These cats are not adapted to a life of living alone and prefer an interactive home. Some Oriental tend to gravitate to one person in the home. Oriental Longhairs, like their cousin breed the Siamese, have loud","-27.789044568009558"],["areas. It seems to be common in central South American regions. In Bolivia, it is the second most common cat after the ocelot. Ecology and behaviour The Geoffroy's cat is nocturnal and a solitary hunter that contacts conspecifics only during the mating season. Geoffroy's cats have been observed to stand up on their hind legs to scan the surrounding landscape and use their tail as a support, an unusual behaviour among cats. It is able to climb trees but rarely does, except to leave faeces to scent mark its territory.\nIt is at the top of the food chain in its","-27.777322766982252"],["them.\nThe two cats decide they need to get out of the fire so they run through the window into the Twoleg nest. They think it is some kind of nightmare though they know the Twolegs are happy there they never want to go there again.\nRavenpaw and Barley sleep outside of the barn. On a hunting expedition the next day, Barley finds a dead rabbit that neither Ravenpaw nor Barley killed. When they go to the barn, they find Willie, Tess, Pounce and Snapper on the wood below the roof. Ravenpaw greets them warmly. Then, the three cats attack the chickens.","-27.765448329388164"],["caring for feral cats, instead allowing them to be captured and possibly euthanized at a local shelter.","-27.752718879724853"],["homes, while friendly adult cats are socialized by volunteers. Signs and brochures about the program are placed at locations along the trail where cats are most likely to be viewed, with reminders that it is illegal to abandon cats.\nTen wooden feeding stations were set up, built in a way to deter skunks and raccoons. Volunteers visit daily to provide food, water, and monitor the cats for veterinary needs. Members of the public are asked not to feed the cats, as it could interfere with trapping efforts. Population There were 175 cats and kittens at the location at the start of","-27.737828534969594"],["Cat repeller A cat repeller is a device or substance used to discourage cats from entering an area, or to encourage them to leave if they do enter. Such deterrents are most commonly used by gardeners, in order to prevent damage to their gardens, to avoid cat feces, or to protect birds. Ultrasonic devices Many retailers sell devices which exploit the discomforting effects of in-air ultrasound. These devices are usually combined with a motion sensor which is triggered by movement within the sensors range. This causes the device to emit high frequency noise which is uncomfortable to the cats, and","-27.619501892244443"],["to leaving pets at reception, as they are not allowed into the gardens.","-27.617609978828114"],["cat populations is not known.\nAdditionally, the disappearance of dingoes might increase the prevalence of kangaroo, rabbit, and Australian brushturkey numbers. In the areas outside the Dingo Fence, the number of dingoes and emus is lower than in the areas inside. However, the numbers changed depending on the habitat. Since the environment is the same on both sides of the fence, the dingo was assumed to be a strong factor for the regulation of these species. Therefore, some people demand that dingo numbers should be allowed to increase or dingoes should be reintroduced in areas with low dingo populations to","-27.614158744807355"],["Oregon has joked that the ringtail is one of two species – the domestic cat and the ringtail – that thus \"domesticated humans\" due to that pattern of behavior.\nOften a hole was cut in a small box and placed near a heat source (perhaps a stove) as a dark, warm place for the animal to sleep during the day, coming out after dark to rid the cabin of mice.","-27.605851446976885"],["to ensure cleanliness and animal welfare, in particular seeking to ensure that the cats are not disturbed by excessive and unwanted attention, such as by young children or when sleeping. Many cat cafés also seek to raise awareness of cat welfare issues, such as abandoned and stray cats and many often have cats from local animal shelters to help them lose any fear of humans and advertise them for possible adoption. From 2012 the cats could be displayed until 8 pm, but in 2016 the guidelines of the environment ministry state that they may visit and play with customers until 10 pm.\nOne","-27.582692493859213"],["housecat and humans respectively. In the book, instead of using \"said\", Cary uses the word \"mewed\". In response to a question at the Q&A section of the forum, Holmes explained that the cats' names come \"in two parts, either or both of which can reflect something about the cat's appearance, personality, or habits\". However, the names must also be part of the world the cats know; Holmes originally gave Tigerclaw the name Hammerclaw until one of the editors pointed out the cats wouldn't know what a hammer is. For the names, Kate Cary says that she takes in inspiration for","-27.54779157392477"],["keepers have to ensure that their pets have suitable places to live and the right food to eat. They should be protected from pain, suffering, injury and disease. If council home tenants neglect or abuse their pets, the Council will report to the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA).\nIf tenants allow pets to wander, urinate or foul in communal areas, landings and walkways, then they would breach the tenancy agreement with the Council, which would take back their right to keep pets and report to the RSPCA. Australia The Department of Housing and Public Works of","-27.537656605243683"],["to return the cat to avoid trouble.\nAfter suggesting that Orlo approach Cook about his inheritance after Cook is mellowed by a good dinner, Jeeves goes to visit his aunt, Mrs. Pigott. Plank remembers that Bertie is Alpine Joe, and he and Cook suspect Bertie of stealing the cat. Graham fails to return the cat, so Bertie tries to return it himself. Carrying the cat up to Eggesford Court, Bertie trips and loses it. The cat ultimately goes back to Bertie's cottage.\nOrlo is unable to convince Cook to give him his inheritance, yet Vanessa is happy that Orlo confronted her father","-27.447158329028753"],["take care of the cat and gain its trust.","-27.421783168421825"],["well as in northern Europe and North America, the dried or mummified bodies of cats are frequently found concealed within structures and are believed to have been placed there to bring good luck or to protect the building and its occupants from harm. The North American instances are strongly associated with European households and are most often found in buildings where shoes and witch bottles are also concealed. In some cases, the animals are found deliberately posed as if in the midst of attack. In other cases, they are accompanied by dried rats, mice, or birds.\nHistorian Ian Evans stated in","-27.409549631527625"],["unfailingly comes close the houses in search of easy domestic prey. Discussion A literature from the state of Gujarat mentions Dangis, an indigenous people from the Dang region of the state, revere Waghoba and have a wooden statue of the large cat in each of their villages. This illustrates how the same animal is viewed in different ways by different groups of people. Their views are framed by their cultural heritage which eventually defines their behaviour in a shared landscape. Research has shown that several communities sharing space with these animals often regard them as \"protectors\", \"owners\", \"family\" or","-27.385376264923252"],["owners interacting with their cats, problems can occur when the felines are exposed to dogs and strange people, with the cats possibly being too trusting and too friendly for their own good. Breeds known for these canine behaviors include the Abyssinian, Burmese, Maine Coon, Manx, and Ragdoll, though dog behavior traits can appear regardless of breed. Breeds The cultural assumption that cats are distant from people and lack affection compared to dogs has complications. Animals have individual characteristics based on their environment, particularly their past interactions with people.\nThe feline temperament is particularly malleable to a wide set of environmental factors,","-27.376425878028385"],["of existing households with pets who have a pet die or run away, more homes potentially become available each year for cats than the number of cats who enter shelters, while more than twice as many homes potentially become available each year for dogs than the number of dogs who enter shelters. ... As a movement, the humane community has accepted the idea that the best shelters can do for homeless animals is to adopt out some and kill the rest. To try to avoid criticism for this, to justify a paltry number of adoptions, these groups have perpetuated the","-27.365783846336853"],["to talk to when he's out prospecting and a flat cat is better than a wife because it can't talk back. It just purrs and snuggles up to you.\"\nThe boys take the flat cat onto the family space ship, where it soon has eight \"kittens\", each of which soon gives birth again, until the ship is overwhelmed with flat cats. The family solves the problem by rounding up the flat cats and putting them into the storage hold at low temperature, where they hibernate. They are later revived and sold to miners in the asteroid belt. Flat cats v. tribbles","-27.360789961749106"],["a guaranteed food supply, internal parasites, and greater physical exertion tends to make these cats thinner than their house cat counterparts, with a shorter lifespan. Others are kept as part-time pets, living both indoors and out, roaming freely, yet allowed inside to be fed supplemental cat food on a regular basis, and given routine veterinary care. Yet others live outdoors or in outbuildings full-time in semi-feral conditions, but are still tamed to be friendly toward humans and may be given basic veterinary care. All are subject to some risks inherent to outdoor life. Their prey may transmit","-27.3561870175472"],["not in the city of New York.\nThe Australian Federal government has banned the importation into Australia of the Savannah cat, as the larger cats could potentially threaten species of the country's native wildlife not threatened by smaller domestic cats. A government report on the proposed importation of the cats has warned the hybrid breed may introduce enhanced hunting skills and increased body size into feral cat populations, putting native species at risk. The report states the Savannah cats are not worth the risk.\nSavannah cats are legal in every province of Canada, although some provinces have restrictions on the ownership of","-27.34416076814523"],["education of people to control the reproduction of house cats (as a prevention for abandonment) are a waste of money, time and energy.\nSince August 1991, feral cats have been protected throughout Italy when a no-kill policy was introduced for both cats and dogs. Feral cats have the right to live free and cannot be permanently removed from their colony; cat caretakers can be formally registered; and TNR methods are outlined in the national law on the management of pets. South Korea Negative attitudes towards cats in general and free-roaming cats in particular are culturally entrenched. Cats are culled for meat,","-27.2873218706809"],["and their two cats reside back in her native Kentucky.","-27.263344124425203"],["is exposed to direct sunlight for prolonged periods. White cats, or cats with white faces and ears, should not be allowed out on sunny days. Depending on climate and time zone, between the hours of 10:00 am to 4:00 pm, it is recommended to keep domesticated cats indoors, as the sun is at its highest peak between these times. Sun block is also available for cats, which can help prevent skin irritation, and a veterinarian should be contacted to find out which brands are appropriate and to use on cats. Exposure to second-hand smoke Cats living in a smoker's household","-27.23931784182787"],["species.\nAs it is little altered from the wildcat, it can readily interbreed with the wildcat. This hybridization poses a danger to the genetic distinctiveness of some wildcat populations, particularly in Scotland and Hungary and possibly also the Iberian Peninsula. It lives on small islands with no human inhabitants.\nFeral cats can live in forests, grasslands, tundra, coastal areas, agricultural land, scrublands, urban areas, and wetlands. Feral cats Feral cats are domestic cats that were born in or have reverted to a wild state. They are unfamiliar with and wary of humans and roam freely in urban and rural areas. The numbers","-27.214586258880445"],["their family and indicate that they are easy to care for and engage in social behaviours such as allowing humans to hold, pet and play with them. Mutual affection and bonding is displayed between cats and their owners, indicating a sense of friendship. E. ferus Friendships between humans and domesticated horses (E. ferus) are often observed and occur when the horse is willing to allow the person into their flight distance and personal space through friendly interactions such as grooming, scratching and rubbing. Horses are social animals and once a person is accepted into their personal space, they become a","-27.196967999101616"],["2004, the cats returned from restoration and have been in place constantly since then.","-27.092512931092642"],["the new adopter can provide a safe, secure, and permanent home for the adopted pet. Responsible shelters, pounds, and rescue organizations refuse to supply pets to people whom they deem ineligible based on assessing their inability to supply the adopted animal with a suitable home. Sometimes, a new owner may face training or behavioral challenges with a pet who has been neglected, abused, or left untrained. In the vast majority of cases, patience, training, persistence and consistency of care will help the pet overcome its past.\nIn Canada, reputable animal shelters or humane societies go through an extensive process to ensure","-27.079370053950697"],["garden and open space, the breed and size of the pets, flat facilities, special needs of the pets, etc. Types of animals allowed and disallowed If the tenants have access to their own garden, then they can keep one dog or one cat, given that they do not cause nuisance or disturbance to other people. If they do not possess private gardens, they have to seek permission from the Council. If the tenants want to keep more than one pet, the Council will determine each pet request on its own merit before granting permission. Normally only one dog or two","-27.069461419363506"],["Big Cat, Little Cat Plot An older white cat is a family's sole companion until it is joined by a younger black cat. The white cat welcomes the black cat. Over the course of the story, the two cats age, until the white cat dies. The white cat is mourned by the family and the black cat, until one day a new white kitten joins the family. Background and publication Cooper was inspired to write the book based on experiences in his life. He had grown up on a farm, and had thus been familiar with animals \"cycling through\". As","-27.06733862205874"],["area to house the chickens, ducks, peacocks, geese, etc., was constructed to house these animals safely.\nFor years the cats available for adoption were housed in one of the dog kennels. So in 1981 a room in the old farmhouse was converted to a cat room where cats and kittens could play freely.\nAnyone who visited HSHC in the 1980s and early 90s knew there were many times when the front office was full of people and animals. It was impossible to hear the phone and at times, was dangerous with too many animals entering and exiting this confined space. In 1994","-27.058736909064464"],["House sitting Benefits for the home/pet owner Pets are the reason for 80 percent of house sitting arrangements, and for many people the cost of pet care during holidays is more than the cost of the vacation itself. Many pet owners prefer to leave their pets at home in familiar surroundings, cared for by other pet lovers. \nA secondary benefit to the home owner is that the property is maintained for the entire period they are away.\nIt also is generally implied that crime is deterred by the presence of a house sitter. This is supported by the fact that insurance","-26.999208349036053"],["can be very difficult. It is often said that they cannot be socialized. This is not true, but the process takes two to four years of diligent food bribes and handling, and mostly on the cat's terms. Eventually the cat may be persuaded to be comfortable with humans and the indoor environment.\nKittens learn to be feral either from their mothers or through bad experiences. They are more easily socialized when under six months of age. Socializing is done by keeping them confined in a small room (i.e. bathroom) and handling them for 3 or more hours each day. There are","-26.959839344315697"],["meat for survival. This cat eats small mammals, lizards, birds, eggs, invertebrates, and the occasional tree frog. Occasionally, the cat will eat grasses. The oncilla stalks its prey from a distance, and once in range, it pounces to catch and kill the prey.\nThey are generally nocturnal, but in areas such as Caatinga, where their main food source consists of diurnal lizards, they are more likely to be active during the day. Young oncillas have been observed to purr, while adults are known to make short, gurgling calls when close to one another. Reproduction Estrus lasts from 3 to 9 days,","-26.944041398677655"],["as a dog that gives chase to birds, squirrel, and cats. For some PBGVs, this instinct may be difficult to overcome with training. Most PBGVs make fine companion animals, and have suitable manners to live among cats and other animals without assuming a hunting role. Potential PBGV owners are cautioned to be aware of this instinct and, if cats are present in the home, work to acclimate the puppy or dog to recognize that the cat is part of the home \"pack.\" \nAs scent hounds, most PBGVs should be kept on-leash when in open, non-fenced outdoor areas. Even","-26.940908781485632"],["and see me sometime?\" The cat plays cat's cradle. When the other couples dance, the cat dances a moonwalk.\nWhen arriving back on Earth, the couples get deliveries from the stork but the cat does not. He is reunited with his bride who then physically abuses him.","-26.92920534775476"],["is termed \"trap-neuter-return\", where the cats are trapped, neutered, immunized against diseases such as rabies and the feline Panleukopenia and Leukemia viruses, and then released. Before releasing them back into their feral colonies, the attending veterinarian often nips the tip off one ear to mark it as neutered and inoculated, since these cats may be trapped again. Volunteers continue to feed and give care to these cats throughout their lives. Given this support, their lifespans are increased, and behavior and nuisance problems caused by competition for food are reduced. Interaction with humans Cats are common pets throughout the world, and","-26.91533386023002"],["Cat and Mouse in Partnership Plot A cat and a mouse, to the custom of their kinds, become friends, such good friends that they decide to share a home. That they might have something to fall back on in time of need, they buy a pot of fat and hide it away in a nook of a church for safekeeping. After a short time, the cat tells her housemate that one of her relations has given birth and that the mouse's friend has been asked to be godmother. Instead of going to a christening, though, the cat goes to the","-26.883972254872788"],["supplementary food, cats will exterminate much of the local rodent population and move on, leaving only a temporary void. However, one concern with providing supplemental outdoor feed is that it can attract skunks, raccoons and other vermin.\nFarm cats originate from a variety of sources. Sometimes, farm cat populations are spontaneously established when abandoned or stray animals, uninvited by humans, move into areas where prey is available, such as haystacks or farm outbuildings that contain stored crops or livestock fodder. In other cases, property owners obtain and release a few cats specifically for rodent control. Some animal","-26.873972538596718"],["though; if the third estimate were to be revised, there would have been an estimated 108–118 Iriomote cats at the time, meaning that the population is shrinking over time.\nAlong with the traffic accidents, logging due to development, and development of the swamplands, house pets are also causing problems. House cats and stray cats especially cause issues with competition, disease transmission, and genetic pollution due to hybrids born of inter-species breeding. It is also feared that dogs prey on the Iriomote cats.\nThe primary fear stems from house cats that have become feral or partially feral, but there has been no monitoring","-26.872732999559958"],["Pet adoption Unwanted pets People deal with their unwanted pets in many ways. Some people have the pet euthanized (also known as putting it down or putting it to sleep), although many veterinarians do not consider this to be an ethical use of their resources for young and healthy animals, while others argue that euthanasia is a more humane option than leaving a pet in a cage for very long periods of time. Other people simply release the pet into the wild or otherwise abandon it, with the expectation that it will be able to take care of itself or","-26.85942997573875"],["place in several locations inspired by similar locales in the United Kingdom. With the exception of a disused mine, the forest in which the cats live is based largely on the New Forest.\nThe main characters each come from two groups, each led by two brothers: Clear Sky and Gray Wing. Clear Sky's group consists largely of cats who are adept at hunting in the undergrowth, and a rare few who fish and swim (such as Falling Feather). Gray Wing's group lives on the moor, and those cats are mainly able to run extremely fast, which is good for catching rabbits","-26.830845517208218"],["year. They live in West London with their three cats.","-26.808699573390186"],["as \"barbaric\" on their website due to the physical harming of a cat or any other creature that comes into contact with an electric fence. Dogs Canines are naturally territorial and will keep cats at bay. Crystals A more traditional cat repeller is to use jelly-like crystals containing methyl nonyl ketone, designed to be scattered around the garden, or around the areas the cat likes to foul. These repellents give off a smell that is very unpleasant to the cat, causing it to avoid that place. Citronella Citronella oil, used for repelling insects, can also be used to get rid","-26.806336573281442"],["can be tamed.\nIn many states in the United States, it is illegal to abandon a pet. In Iowa, doing so is a misdemeanor. Foreclosure pets Currently the exact number of foreclosed pets is unknown. People often drop animals off at a shelter and claim they are moving, when in fact they are leaving due to foreclosure. In 2008, the number of foreclosure pets is believed to had increased due to high foreclosure rates. As homeowners run out of time and options, they often leave their animals behind. The animals are then classified as abandoned foreclosure pets.\nThe pets left behind in","-26.787046831595944"],["able to crawl about after just a few hours. They are able to walk within two weeks, begin taking solid food after about a month, and are fully weaned by two months of age.\nFemales may have up to two litters during the course of spring, summer, and autumn. They rear their kittens in a burrow, moving them to new locations regularly after the first week. In general, kittens develop more rapidly than other similarly sized cats, quickly adapting to a relatively hostile environment. They become independent by five months of age, but may remain within their mother's range. Threats Known","-26.786203582480084"],["homes are often left without food or water. Some do not survive because of the lack of resources and are found dead when realtors or banks enter the premises. The animals are put in harm's way, and it is often believed it is done as a way to retaliate against those who took the home away. Shelters Many animals left at a shelter are euthanized due to lack of space and financial resources for these animals. Shelters unable to raise additional funds to provide for the increased number of incoming animals have no choice but to euthanize them, sometimes within","-26.78612605080707"],["of National Housing banned pet keeping.\nHowever, in 2014, pets started to be allowed on the condition that the pets are not dangerous and would not bark, cause smell and urinate. If a pet owner is reported for noise nuisance, failure to clean up the urine of pets and causing injury to other residents for 3 times, then the tenancy of National Housing would be terminated.\nCurrently, Article 16 of the “Condominium Administration Act Building Administration Division” (《公寓大廈管理條例》) stipulates that “Inhabitants with pets may not hinder public sanitation, peace or safety.” If the National Housing households break the regulation, the management committee","-26.778405923745595"],["from the pieces of other cats.\nTraveling across the desert, they are brought to a house by the smell of food, and are invited inside by a man. They are fed, and when full the man attempts to turn them into soup, attacking them with a pair of scissors. He ends up falling into the cauldron, Nyatta cuts him into pieces with the scissors and the cats escape. Wandering further across the desert dehydrated, Nyatta digs and finds an elephant made of water, which cools them off and travels with them, though the elephant eventually evaporates from the heat. God accidentally","-26.759739942048327"],["species. Several tests showed that leopards, cougars, servals, and lynxes often reacted strongly to catnip in a manner similar to domestic cats; while lions and tigers can react strongly as well, they do not react as consistently.\nWith domestic cats, N. cataria is used as a recreational substance for pet cats' enjoyment, and catnip and catnip-laced products designed for use with domesticated cats are available to consumers. Common behaviors cats display when they sense the bruised leaves or stems of catnip are rubbing on the plant, rolling on the ground, pawing at it, licking it, and chewing it. Consuming much of","-26.736650390492287"],["domestic cats. Doves and pigeons are considered to be game birds, as many species have been hunted and used for food in many of the countries in which they are native.\nThe body feathers have dense, fluffy bases and are loosely attached to the skin, hence they drop out easily. When a predator catches it, large numbers of feathers come out in the attacker's mouth, and the pigeon may use this temporary distraction to make an escape. It also tends to drop the tail feathers when preyed upon or under traumatic conditions, probably as a distraction mechanism. Preening Pigeons primarily use","-26.64719281392172"],["to leave the house because its owner, an obnoxious, rich man from Bogotá's exclusive area, has new plans for it. The tenants are confronted with the authorities who are trying to evict everyone from the building. Then, the tenants decide to take a stand by locking doors and shooting at the policemen who try to carry out their orders.\nAfter this confrontation the tenants are given more time so everyone in the house has enough time to find a new place to live. The tenants are legally represented by \"Perro\" Romero (Frank Ramirez) —who is annoyed by anyone using the nickname","-26.643822070873284"],["bird (\"What kind of bird are you if you can't fly?\" – \"What kind of bird are you if you can't swim?\"). Peter's pet cat stalks them quietly, and the bird—warned by Peter—flies away. The cat then aims for the duck, but doesn't manage to catch it either. Peter's grandfather scolds him for being outside in the meadow alone (\"What if a wolf came out of the forest all of a sudden?\"), and takes him back into the house.\nIn response to Peter's comment (\"But what could happen anyway, with a cat, a duck and stupid little bird?\"), Annie continues narrating the","-26.632680436974624"],["a means of reducing the cat population. In 2013, Gareth Morgan, an economist and philanthropist, caused an international furore when he called for cats to be wiped out. He launched the \"Cats To Go\" website to support the stance. It is suggested that owners could euthanize their cats, but it is not seen as necessary. Some conservationists supported the stance taken by Morgan.\nEven though cats control rodents which also prey on native wildlife and thus have a protective role, the precautionary principle is recommended in certain cases such as adjacent to natural areas and in outer suburbs of cities.\nA study","-26.620804800419137"],["the \"Cat Parade\". The ancients believed that the cat is an animal which is afraid of rain and water. If it rained, the cat would cry. The ancients considered that if the cat cries it means that rain is going to fall. Some people believe that the cat represents drought. If the cat is wet, the drought will be driven away. Others believed that the cat has the power to make rain.\nTo perform a \"Cat Parade\", you must bring a female cat that has grey or black fur. The cats are then to be placed in baskets; only one cat","-26.598302298923954"],["who lived in the shed with the dogs. The cats lived in nesting boxes in the opposite corner of the shed from the dogs. Yellow Man greeted the dogs every morning and was curious of them. Marcy The wife of George. She and George find Squirrel and Bone on the side of the highway and take them home. Marcy wants to keep the dogs, and George doesn't allow her to. Marcy feeds them and cleans up their messes, hoping that they will become tame pets. George The husband of Marcy. He and Marcy find Squirrel and Bone on the side","-26.58723763213493"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"their litters to survive and protect themselves by taking some small animal for the kittens to play with for practicing. Korat cats can remember their owner. If they see a stranger they might scare or make a noise, but they will run to their owner and play with them.\",\n \"-31.568925518891774\"\n ],\n [\n \"kitten to a household can be a bad idea. If there already is an older cat present and another cat is added to their environment it may be better to get another older cat that has been socialized with other cats. When a kitten is introduced to a mature cat, that cat may show feline asocial aggression where they feel threatened and act aggressive to drive off the intruders. If this happens, the kitten and the cat should be separated, and slowly introduced by rubbing towels on the animals and presenting the towel to the other.\\nCats use scent and pheromones\",\n \"-31.450788508343976\"\n ],\n [\n \"type of litter used and maintaining a clean area for the litter boxes. The “1+1” rule for multiple cat owners is highly advised, where the house has a litter box for each cat they own, plus an additional one. If cats have urinated outside of the litter box in inappropriate places, thorough cleaning of the area is advised to reduce the interest of other cats. Placing litter boxes in areas of low noise and traffic and away from other pets is also suggested.\\nMimicking natural behavior for a cat with chronic stress helps them relax. They benefit from “hide and\",\n \"-30.200618443690473\"\n ],\n [\n \"enters the home. Animals lucky enough to survive until they are discovered are often in poor condition due to lack of resources such as food and water. Abandonment Pets are abandoned for a variety of reasons. Often, when abandoned, pets are forced to fend for themselves, and become feral. In particular, cats and dogs go to colonies. Feral cats are said to outnumber feral dogs. Feral cats are difficult to deal with, as often they become impossible to socialize enough to be re-introduced to a new human owner. In general, only some newly abandoned cats and very young feral kittens\",\n \"-30.11943743051961\"\n ],\n [\n \"the meow of another cat in the house. Turned out the package had a cute red and white kitten which instantly wins Jerry's heart, but Tom takes an instant disliking to her.\\nAs Jerry stares at the kitten as he is thinking \\\"I love kittens!\\\", Tom flips him back to his hole again. Tom deliberates on how to get rid of the kitten, because to him one cat in the house is heaven, but two cats will just be a living hell to Tom. When the owner leaves to get food for the kitten, Tom grabs the kitten. Jerry hears\",\n \"-29.96654073012178\"\n ],\n [\n \"hunting and stalking play peaking later, at about five months.\\nKittens are vulnerable because they like to find dark places to hide, sometimes with fatal results if they are not watched carefully. Cats have a habit of seeking refuge under or inside cars or on top of car tires during stormy or cold weather. This often leads to broken bones, burns, heat stroke, damaged internal organs or death.\\nDomestic kittens are commonly sent to new homes at six to eight weeks of age, but it has been suggested that being with their mother and litter-mates from six to twelve weeks is important\",\n \"-29.851572446146747\"\n ],\n [\n \"left alone for extended periods of time. Even though there are a number of benefits for owning a cat, there are a number of problematic behaviours that affect the human–cat relationship. One behaviour is when cats attack people by clawing and biting. This often occurs spontaneously or could be triggered by sudden movements. Another problematic behaviour is the \\\"petting and biting syndrome\\\", which involves the cat being petted and then suddenly attacking and running away. Other problems are house soiling, scratching furniture, and when a cat brings dead prey into the house. It is these kinds of behaviours that put\",\n \"-29.728840441156535\"\n ],\n [\n \"not have a social survival strategy, or a pack mentality and always hunt alone.\\nHowever, some pet cats are poorly socialized. In particular, older cats show aggressiveness towards newly arrived kittens, which include biting and scratching; this type of behavior is known as feline asocial aggression.\\nLife in proximity to humans and other domestic animals has led to a symbiotic social adaptation in cats, and cats may express great affection toward humans or other animals. Ethologically, the human keeper of a cat functions as a sort of surrogate for the cat's mother. Adult cats live their lives in a kind of extended\",\n \"-29.63819764892105\"\n ],\n [\n \"as this is a small city, I feared they would be stolen. I have made every endeavour to get another mate for \\\"Nellie\\\", but have not been successful. I never allowed them to mate, as they were brother and sister, and I thought it might alter \\\"Nellie's\\\" beautiful form, which is round and handsome, with body rather long. In winter they have a light fur on back and ridge of tail, which falls off in warm weather. They stand the cold weather the same as other cats. They are not like the hairless dogs, whose hide is solid and tough;\",\n \"-29.545343946898356\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dried cat In some European cultures it was customary to place the dried or desiccated body of a cat inside the walls of a newly built home to ward off evil spirits or as a good luck charm. It was believed that the cats had a sixth sense and that putting a cat in the wall was a blood sacrifice so the animal could use psychic abilities to find and ward off unwanted spirits. Although some accounts claim the cats were walled in alive, examination of recovered specimens indicates post-mortem concealment in most cases. Origins In the British Isles, as\",\n \"-29.447867002920248\"\n ],\n [\n \"food source. They are usually regularly fed in locations where food is left for no one cat in particular, and they find shelter \\\"accidentally\\\", such as in farm buildings, and sometimes deliberately from humans. A common reason to tolerate and even nourish these cats is so they kill vermin, or because of a general favorable feeling toward cats. Usually semi-ownership of cats contributes to cat overpopulation and excessive breeding when people nourish but not neuter the cats.\\nOf horse breeds, the French Camargue was once thought of as a wild species, though increased contact with humans has made it semi-feral. These\",\n \"-29.431614722241648\"\n ],\n [\n \"cats are allowed. However, if the tenants live in the Council's sheltered housing schemes, then there is a blanket ban on keeping dogs or cats.\\nFor livestocks such as horses, donkeys, goats, pigs, ducks, geese, chickens or any other reptiles, written permission from the Council is needed. Reptiles and spiders are discouraged, unless the tenants can prove that they can meet the special care and welfare needs of them.\\nYet, one must never keep animals prohibited by Dangerous Wild Animals Act 1976 due to safety concern. Exotic animals and farm animal, such as cockerels, are not allowed normally. Pet keeping requirements According\",\n \"-29.18483548882068\"\n ],\n [\n \"to help organize their territory by marking prominent objects. If these objects or scents are removed it upsets the cat's perception of its environment. Importance of space for domestic and feral cats The domestic cat has become more sociable through contact of its own species through domestication. The domestic cat is more juvenile than the African wildcat; this promotes greater tolerance of other cats and domestic animals.\\nIt has been documented that feral cat colonies have a social structure where the females of the group live together and help with each other's kittens whereas the males do not. There are also\",\n \"-29.157895872718655\"\n ],\n [\n \"Farm cat The farm cat, also known as a barn cat, is a domestic cat, usually of mixed breed, that lives primarily out-of-doors, in a feral or semi-feral condition on agricultural properties, usually sheltering in outbuildings. They eat assorted vermin such as rodents and other small animals that live in or around outbuildings and farm fields. The need for the farm cat may have been the original reason cats were domesticated, to keep rodents from consuming or contaminating grain crops stored for later human consumption. They are still commonly kept for their effectiveness at controlling undesired vermin\",\n \"-29.156029394966026\"\n ],\n [\n \"also have policies halting or limiting adoption of black cats immediately prior to Halloween for fear that the animals will be tortured, or used as \\\"living decorations\\\" for the holiday and then abandoned. Rabbits are sometimes treated in the same manner prior to Easter as well, though they are rarely found in regular shelters since they are considered \\\"exotic\\\" (anything not a dog or cat). Another popular fad is using a small dog, pretty white Persian kitten or other small pet as a fashion accessory to \\\"complement an outfit\\\". Such animals may end up discarded, abandoned, or\",\n \"-29.05111214099452\"\n ],\n [\n \"you give it the attention it seeks and always seem to want to be held and hugged. They will constantly interact with people, even strangers. They love to play and cuddle. Environment It makes a good apartment cat, especially if owners will give it safe non-poisonous house plants near the windowsill, which the cat can explore. However, it is recommended that the Asian can only live in apartments, if it does not involve the city. The Asian does not enjoy loud noises from automobiles, buses, or trucks. So if needed to live in an apartment, it must be\",\n \"-28.96104703313904\"\n ],\n [\n \"it in another person's home. Anyone picking up a cat or kitten from a fosterer's home can be subject to same home visits (pre- and post -oming) and the same terms and conditions as someone picking up a cat or kitten from a centre. Volunteer-run branches receive a small amount of funding from the charity's headquarters but are required to raise most of their funds from their local areas. They do not usually have any paid members of staff, and would take the cats home if they had to. Adoption centres Dedicated centres are of varying size and have paid\",\n \"-28.85059039099724\"\n ],\n [\n \"is a challenge to socialize an adult. Socialized adult feral cats tend to trust only those who they trusted in their socialization period, and therefore can be very fearful around strangers.\\nCats are also used for companion animals. Studies have shown that these animals provide many physiological and psychological benefits for the owner. Other aspects of cat behaviour that are deemed advantageous for the human–cat bond are cat hygiene (cats are known for good hygiene), they do not have to be taken outside (use of the litter box), they are perfect for smaller spaces, and they have no problems with being\",\n \"-28.794626259594224\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the house taunt him, \\\"You are a fraidy cat! Ha, ha, ha!\\\", the cat's pride can only be satisfied by rushing back into the house and chasing the mice into the snow, at which point the old owner acts gently with the cat.\",\n \"-28.784979879041202\"\n ],\n [\n \"household.\\nBecause of the effects of predation on New Zealand wildlife, domestic cat ownership is sometimes a contentious issue. Since the 1990s, cat-free subdivisions have occasionally been established to prevent predation occurring within nearby natural areas by domestic cats. In 1996 a cat-free subdivision was established at Waihi Beach, a landmark decision by the Western Bay of Plenty District Council. It was sought by Forest and Bird and the Department of Conservation to protect wildlife in a nearby salt marsh.\\nIn 2012, the operators of the Zealandia wildlife sanctuary called for cat owners not to replace their pet when they die as\",\n \"-28.733026753368904\"\n ],\n [\n \"to live, food, water, and vet care. Feral Cats A feral cat is a cat without an owner that lives outside. These cats have very minimal to no human contact at all. They tend to hide from humans and do not allow themselves to be touched by them. Attempts to socialize feral cats often fail or take a long time, and even so some remain afraid of humans.\\nThere are efforts to control the feral cat population, which is a big problem. There are trap neuter return programs, which capture the feral cats, neuter/spay them, and release them back outside. This\",\n \"-28.665237921115477\"\n ],\n [\n \"that reinforces a nonthreatening position. This behavior is not exclusive to domestic house cats. Since cats can be very territorial, in the wild they utilize this slow blinking with other cats to signal themselves as friendly or nonthreatening. Tail Cats often use their tails to communicate. A cat holding its tail vertically generally indicates positive emotions such as happiness or confidence; the vertical tail is often used as a friendly greeting toward human beings or other cats (usually close relatives). A half-raised tail can indicate less pleasure, and unhappiness is indicated with a tail held low. In addition, a\",\n \"-28.581426452030428\"\n ],\n [\n \"cats program is designed to place cats in safe environments where they are valued for their hunting skills as working cats. These programs are typically offered by animal shelters who will use otherwise unadoptable cats in the program as an alternative to euthanasia. The cats may not be suitable for adoption because they are feral cats or did not acclimate to living in close quarters with humans. Working cats programs usually provide cats that are spayed or neutered and fully vaccinated, and any adoption fee is often waived. In exchange for their services, the cats are to receive a place\",\n \"-28.419809491722845\"\n ],\n [\n \"Abandoned pets Abandoned pets are companion animals that are either inadvertently or deliberately cast off by their owners. This commonly occurs when an owner dies, when a pet becomes disruptive or grows too large, or if the pet was acquired impulsively. The financial crisis of 2007–2010 has resulted in a number of pets abandoned for economic reasons. Typical of this group are pets left behind when the owner's home is foreclosed. These animals can be left alone on the property or dropped off at an animal shelter. They are often discovered after the foreclosure process, when the realtor or bank\",\n \"-28.412136406172067\"\n ],\n [\n \"lead to signals of aggression, fear, dominance, friendship or territoriality being misinterpreted by the other species. Dogs have a natural instinct to chase smaller animals that flee, an instinct common among cats. Most cats flee from a dog, while others take actions such as hissing, arching their backs and swiping at the dog. After being scratched by a cat, some dogs can become fearful of cats.\\nIf appropriately socialized, cats and dogs may have relationships that are not antagonistic, and dogs raised with cats may prefer the presence of cats to other dogs. Even cats and dogs that have got along\",\n \"-28.34817383205518\"\n ],\n [\n \"and a few species of birds such as the carrion crow, Eurasian jays and food-storing magpies. Dogs are able to reach a level of object permanence that allows them to find food after it has been hidden beneath one of two cups and rotated 90°. Similarly, cats are able to understand object permanence but not to the same extent that dogs can. Cats fail to understand that if they see something go into an apparatus in one direction that it will still be there if the cat tries to enter from another direction. However, while cats did not\",\n \"-28.347276633023284\"\n ],\n [\n \"instincts to expel bodily waste in dirt or sand. Therefore, with a new kitten, owners usually need to simply show the kitten where the litter box is located, and how to get in and out. On occasion, some training is required to help a new cat adjust to a litter box, or to help an older cat that suddenly stops using the litter box.\\nCats may also be trained to use a human toilet. The benefits of this method are that cat owners can eliminate the task of maintaining a clean litter box on a regular basis and avoid the smell\",\n \"-28.310232545227336\"\n ],\n [\n \"in its audience. Eventually the cat takes a few laps from the stream and bounds away out of sight, as the animals can only watch, powerless to stop it.\\nMost of the animals disperse, but Tawny Owl pursues the Beast through the air, eventually finding the large cat in a ditch near the perimeter of the reserve. Annoyed at being discovered, The Beast asks about Tawny Owl's interest in it, and Owl tells it how terrified all the park's inhabitants are of it. He asks the cat whether it could hunt somewhere else instead and it refuses, but it makes a\",\n \"-28.155394353350857\"\n ],\n [\n \"foxes killing cats usually involve kittens. Although most foxes do not prey on cats, some may do so, and may treat them more as competitors rather than food. Taming and domestication In their unmodified wild state, red foxes are generally unsuitable as pets. Many supposedly abandoned kits are adopted by well-meaning people during the spring period, though it is unlikely that vixens would abandon their young. Actual orphans are rare, and the ones that are adopted are likely kits that simply strayed from their den site. Kits require almost constant supervision; when still suckling, they require milk at four-hour intervals\",\n \"-28.077199805837154\"\n ],\n [\n \"closes from the side and appears when the cat's eyelid opens. This membrane partially closes if the cat is sick, although in a sleepy state this membrane is often visible.\\nCats often sleep during the day so they can \\\"hunt\\\" at night. Unlike humans, cats do not need to blink their eyes on a regular basis to keep their eyes lubricated (with tears). Unblinking eyes are probably an advantage when hunting. Cats will, however, \\\"squint\\\" their eyes, usually as a form of communication expressing affection and ease around another cat or human. Hearing Humans and cats have a similar range of\",\n \"-28.065815189038403\"\n ],\n [\n \"first branches and smooth bark. It has been suggested they do this to avoid cats.\",\n \"-28.061057112296112\"\n ],\n [\n \"in population and come out more often at night. Zoos In zoos, nocturnal animals are usually kept in special night-illumination enclosures to invert their normal sleep-wake cycle and to keep them active during the hours when visitors will be there to see them. Pets Hedgehogs and sugar gliders are just two of the many nocturnal species kept as (exotic) pets. Cats have adapted to domestication so that each individual, whether stray alley cat or pampered housecat, can change their activity level at will, becoming nocturnal or diurnal in response to their environment or the routine of their owners. Cats normally\",\n \"-28.043378317554016\"\n ],\n [\n \"beautiful of all the cats, but he is unable to decide. Each seems lovely, so he walks back home with all of the cats following him. His wife is dismayed when he arrives, realizing immediately what her husband overlooked: they won't be able to feed and care for billions and trillions of cats. The wife suggests letting the cats decide which one should stay with them, asking \\\"Which one of you is the prettiest?\\\" This question incites an enormous cat fight, frightening the old man and woman, who run back into the house.\\nSoon, all is quiet outside. When they venture\",\n \"-27.983869073854294\"\n ],\n [\n \"cats with this disorder. Reassuring the cat during an episode keeps them calmer too even though they can appear to be absent and in a trance during episodes.\",\n \"-27.940333938226104\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cats in New Zealand Cats are a popular pet in New Zealand. Cat ownership is occasionally raised as a controversial conservation issue due to the predation of endangered species, such as birds and lizards, by feral cats. Domesticated cats The domestic cat (Felis catus) first arrived at New Zealand on Captain James Cook's ship HMS Endeavour in the mid-18th century, but were established by European settlers a century later. As of 2011, there are an estimated 1.419 million domestic cats in New Zealand, with almost half of all households owning at least one and an average of 1.8 cats per\",\n \"-27.925406711743562\"\n ],\n [\n \"restrained from hunting. If you see your cat making quick chirps, and moving their mouths extremely quickly while their eyes are set and staring at one place, they are chattering, and channeling their inner urge to hunt. Big cats do this as well. Although domesticated cats are not in the wild, they still have their innate need to hunt. Grown cats also do not meow to other grown cats. Cats meow in adult form to talk to other animals, such as dogs, and more importantly humans. Meowing to humans has been researched as that they do it to manipulate\",\n \"-27.92122687875235\"\n ],\n [\n \"the \\\"prey\\\" item is long dead and therefore possibly toxic or decomposing). Whiskers To aid with navigation and sensation, cats have dozens of movable whiskers (vibrissae) over their body, especially their faces. These provide information on the width of gaps and on the location of objects in the dark, both by touching objects directly and by sensing air currents; they also trigger protective blink reflexes to protect the eyes from damage. Behavior Outdoor cats are active both day and night, although they tend to be slightly more active at night. Domestic cats spend the majority of their time in the\",\n \"-27.903242874832358\"\n ],\n [\n \"Exotic felines as pets Definition and differentiations Hybrids of the domestic cat with non-domestic species (e. g. the Bengal cat or the Savannah cat) are not normally considered wild cats. While this distinction is often overlooked in the media and in the public eye, such cat breeds (especially the F5 and subsequent generations) are much closer to the domestic cat in terms of housing and husbandry requirements, behavior, and legality.\\nUnlike many other exotic pet species, wild cats usually cannot be kept indoors and require a large outdoor enclosure. This blurs the distinction between a wild cat being kept as an\",\n \"-27.877389483939623\"\n ],\n [\n \"and Veterinary Authority (AVA). If dog owners let their dogs defecate in public places and cause environmental damage, the National Environment Agency (NEA) will take actions against them.\\nIn addition, the HDB expressly prohibited cats because cats would shed fur, defecate and urinate in public area, and they also make caterwauling sounds. Therefore, they would cause inconvenience to the neighbourhood. Taiwan The public housing in Taiwan, known as “National Housing” (國民住宅), is categorised into two types: for sale and for lease. According to the officials in the Department of Urban Development of Taipei City Government, in early years, the lease agreement\",\n \"-27.87266676762374\"\n ],\n [\n \"mainly through starvation, disease, or other forms of predation. There is evidence that cats tend to take weak or sickly birds\\\".\\n\\\"Those bird species that have undergone the most serious population declines in the UK (such as skylarks, tree sparrows and corn buntings) rarely encounter cats, so cats cannot be causing their declines. Research shows that these declines are usually caused by habitat change or loss, particularly on farmland.\\\" This evidence is despite the common practice in the U.K. of allowing owned cats access to the outdoors, which is recommended to prevent feline obesity (p. 138) and behavior problems and other health\",\n \"-27.862901099433657\"\n ],\n [\n \"usual domestic pets are kept, including cats and pet dogs. As elsewhere, domestic cats threaten the bird life and eat rabbits and rodents; foxes and mink attack hens and ducks from time to time. Surrounding environment Heasta is isolated in the sense that there is a large surrounding belt of heather moorland which is devoid of any human habitation, in fact not even a wall or tree. Within the village though there are trees in the deep clefts by the streams. There are many waterfalls. The road from Heasta to the north towards Broadford rises high over the moors reaching\",\n \"-27.83443144982266\"\n ],\n [\n \"Also, keeping cats indoors is a preventative measure. Other animals Sporotrichosis can be diagnosed in domestic and wild mammals. In veterinary medicine it is most frequently seen in cats and horses. Cats have a particularly severe form of cutaneous sporotrichosis and also can serve as a source of zoonotic infection to persons who handle them and are exposed to exudate from skin lesions.\",\n \"-27.826848638113006\"\n ],\n [\n \"first four years of a cat's life but it is primarily observed during the first two months of life when cats are introduced into new homes is most common. Theories explaining why this behavior becomes active during this time suggest that early weaning and stress as a consequence of separation from the mother and litter-mates and exposure to a new environment are to blame. Eating wool or other substances may be a soothing mechanism that cats develops to cope with the changes. Pica is also observed predominately during 6–8 months of a cat's life when territorial and sexual behaviors\",\n \"-27.819063161383383\"\n ],\n [\n \"out, there is no sign of the cats: they'd apparently eaten each other up in their jealous fury. Then, the old man notices one skinny cat hiding in a patch of tall grass. It had survived because it didn't consider itself pretty, so the other cats hadn't attacked it. The couple take the cat into their home, feed it and bathe it, watching it grow sleek and beautiful as the days pass: exactly the kind of cat they wanted. Legacy Wanda Gag pioneered the double-page spread in this book. Writer and reviewer Anita Silvey explained, \\\"She used both pages to\",\n \"-27.81511025148211\"\n ],\n [\n \"and does it really well, without breaking any objects due to its agility and elegance. The oriental longhair is extremely intelligent and are ideal companions for people who like their pets always around. Some have been know to follow their owners everywhere. They are very loyal and most get along well with other cats, especially if they are of the same breed group. These cats are not adapted to a life of living alone and prefer an interactive home. Some Oriental tend to gravitate to one person in the home. Oriental Longhairs, like their cousin breed the Siamese, have loud\",\n \"-27.789044568009558\"\n ],\n [\n \"areas. It seems to be common in central South American regions. In Bolivia, it is the second most common cat after the ocelot. Ecology and behaviour The Geoffroy's cat is nocturnal and a solitary hunter that contacts conspecifics only during the mating season. Geoffroy's cats have been observed to stand up on their hind legs to scan the surrounding landscape and use their tail as a support, an unusual behaviour among cats. It is able to climb trees but rarely does, except to leave faeces to scent mark its territory.\\nIt is at the top of the food chain in its\",\n \"-27.777322766982252\"\n ],\n [\n \"them.\\nThe two cats decide they need to get out of the fire so they run through the window into the Twoleg nest. They think it is some kind of nightmare though they know the Twolegs are happy there they never want to go there again.\\nRavenpaw and Barley sleep outside of the barn. On a hunting expedition the next day, Barley finds a dead rabbit that neither Ravenpaw nor Barley killed. When they go to the barn, they find Willie, Tess, Pounce and Snapper on the wood below the roof. Ravenpaw greets them warmly. Then, the three cats attack the chickens.\",\n \"-27.765448329388164\"\n ],\n [\n \"caring for feral cats, instead allowing them to be captured and possibly euthanized at a local shelter.\",\n \"-27.752718879724853\"\n ],\n [\n \"homes, while friendly adult cats are socialized by volunteers. Signs and brochures about the program are placed at locations along the trail where cats are most likely to be viewed, with reminders that it is illegal to abandon cats.\\nTen wooden feeding stations were set up, built in a way to deter skunks and raccoons. Volunteers visit daily to provide food, water, and monitor the cats for veterinary needs. Members of the public are asked not to feed the cats, as it could interfere with trapping efforts. Population There were 175 cats and kittens at the location at the start of\",\n \"-27.737828534969594\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cat repeller A cat repeller is a device or substance used to discourage cats from entering an area, or to encourage them to leave if they do enter. Such deterrents are most commonly used by gardeners, in order to prevent damage to their gardens, to avoid cat feces, or to protect birds. Ultrasonic devices Many retailers sell devices which exploit the discomforting effects of in-air ultrasound. These devices are usually combined with a motion sensor which is triggered by movement within the sensors range. This causes the device to emit high frequency noise which is uncomfortable to the cats, and\",\n \"-27.619501892244443\"\n ],\n [\n \"to leaving pets at reception, as they are not allowed into the gardens.\",\n \"-27.617609978828114\"\n ],\n [\n \"cat populations is not known.\\nAdditionally, the disappearance of dingoes might increase the prevalence of kangaroo, rabbit, and Australian brushturkey numbers. In the areas outside the Dingo Fence, the number of dingoes and emus is lower than in the areas inside. However, the numbers changed depending on the habitat. Since the environment is the same on both sides of the fence, the dingo was assumed to be a strong factor for the regulation of these species. Therefore, some people demand that dingo numbers should be allowed to increase or dingoes should be reintroduced in areas with low dingo populations to\",\n \"-27.614158744807355\"\n ],\n [\n \"Oregon has joked that the ringtail is one of two species – the domestic cat and the ringtail – that thus \\\"domesticated humans\\\" due to that pattern of behavior.\\nOften a hole was cut in a small box and placed near a heat source (perhaps a stove) as a dark, warm place for the animal to sleep during the day, coming out after dark to rid the cabin of mice.\",\n \"-27.605851446976885\"\n ],\n [\n \"to ensure cleanliness and animal welfare, in particular seeking to ensure that the cats are not disturbed by excessive and unwanted attention, such as by young children or when sleeping. Many cat cafés also seek to raise awareness of cat welfare issues, such as abandoned and stray cats and many often have cats from local animal shelters to help them lose any fear of humans and advertise them for possible adoption. From 2012 the cats could be displayed until 8 pm, but in 2016 the guidelines of the environment ministry state that they may visit and play with customers until 10 pm.\\nOne\",\n \"-27.582692493859213\"\n ],\n [\n \"housecat and humans respectively. In the book, instead of using \\\"said\\\", Cary uses the word \\\"mewed\\\". In response to a question at the Q&A section of the forum, Holmes explained that the cats' names come \\\"in two parts, either or both of which can reflect something about the cat's appearance, personality, or habits\\\". However, the names must also be part of the world the cats know; Holmes originally gave Tigerclaw the name Hammerclaw until one of the editors pointed out the cats wouldn't know what a hammer is. For the names, Kate Cary says that she takes in inspiration for\",\n \"-27.54779157392477\"\n ],\n [\n \"keepers have to ensure that their pets have suitable places to live and the right food to eat. They should be protected from pain, suffering, injury and disease. If council home tenants neglect or abuse their pets, the Council will report to the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA).\\nIf tenants allow pets to wander, urinate or foul in communal areas, landings and walkways, then they would breach the tenancy agreement with the Council, which would take back their right to keep pets and report to the RSPCA. Australia The Department of Housing and Public Works of\",\n \"-27.537656605243683\"\n ],\n [\n \"to return the cat to avoid trouble.\\nAfter suggesting that Orlo approach Cook about his inheritance after Cook is mellowed by a good dinner, Jeeves goes to visit his aunt, Mrs. Pigott. Plank remembers that Bertie is Alpine Joe, and he and Cook suspect Bertie of stealing the cat. Graham fails to return the cat, so Bertie tries to return it himself. Carrying the cat up to Eggesford Court, Bertie trips and loses it. The cat ultimately goes back to Bertie's cottage.\\nOrlo is unable to convince Cook to give him his inheritance, yet Vanessa is happy that Orlo confronted her father\",\n \"-27.447158329028753\"\n ],\n [\n \"take care of the cat and gain its trust.\",\n \"-27.421783168421825\"\n ],\n [\n \"well as in northern Europe and North America, the dried or mummified bodies of cats are frequently found concealed within structures and are believed to have been placed there to bring good luck or to protect the building and its occupants from harm. The North American instances are strongly associated with European households and are most often found in buildings where shoes and witch bottles are also concealed. In some cases, the animals are found deliberately posed as if in the midst of attack. In other cases, they are accompanied by dried rats, mice, or birds.\\nHistorian Ian Evans stated in\",\n \"-27.409549631527625\"\n ],\n [\n \"unfailingly comes close the houses in search of easy domestic prey. Discussion A literature from the state of Gujarat mentions Dangis, an indigenous people from the Dang region of the state, revere Waghoba and have a wooden statue of the large cat in each of their villages. This illustrates how the same animal is viewed in different ways by different groups of people. Their views are framed by their cultural heritage which eventually defines their behaviour in a shared landscape. Research has shown that several communities sharing space with these animals often regard them as \\\"protectors\\\", \\\"owners\\\", \\\"family\\\" or\",\n \"-27.385376264923252\"\n ],\n [\n \"owners interacting with their cats, problems can occur when the felines are exposed to dogs and strange people, with the cats possibly being too trusting and too friendly for their own good. Breeds known for these canine behaviors include the Abyssinian, Burmese, Maine Coon, Manx, and Ragdoll, though dog behavior traits can appear regardless of breed. Breeds The cultural assumption that cats are distant from people and lack affection compared to dogs has complications. Animals have individual characteristics based on their environment, particularly their past interactions with people.\\nThe feline temperament is particularly malleable to a wide set of environmental factors,\",\n \"-27.376425878028385\"\n ],\n [\n \"of existing households with pets who have a pet die or run away, more homes potentially become available each year for cats than the number of cats who enter shelters, while more than twice as many homes potentially become available each year for dogs than the number of dogs who enter shelters. ... As a movement, the humane community has accepted the idea that the best shelters can do for homeless animals is to adopt out some and kill the rest. To try to avoid criticism for this, to justify a paltry number of adoptions, these groups have perpetuated the\",\n \"-27.365783846336853\"\n ],\n [\n \"to talk to when he's out prospecting and a flat cat is better than a wife because it can't talk back. It just purrs and snuggles up to you.\\\"\\nThe boys take the flat cat onto the family space ship, where it soon has eight \\\"kittens\\\", each of which soon gives birth again, until the ship is overwhelmed with flat cats. The family solves the problem by rounding up the flat cats and putting them into the storage hold at low temperature, where they hibernate. They are later revived and sold to miners in the asteroid belt. Flat cats v. tribbles\",\n \"-27.360789961749106\"\n ],\n [\n \"a guaranteed food supply, internal parasites, and greater physical exertion tends to make these cats thinner than their house cat counterparts, with a shorter lifespan. Others are kept as part-time pets, living both indoors and out, roaming freely, yet allowed inside to be fed supplemental cat food on a regular basis, and given routine veterinary care. Yet others live outdoors or in outbuildings full-time in semi-feral conditions, but are still tamed to be friendly toward humans and may be given basic veterinary care. All are subject to some risks inherent to outdoor life. Their prey may transmit\",\n \"-27.3561870175472\"\n ],\n [\n \"not in the city of New York.\\nThe Australian Federal government has banned the importation into Australia of the Savannah cat, as the larger cats could potentially threaten species of the country's native wildlife not threatened by smaller domestic cats. A government report on the proposed importation of the cats has warned the hybrid breed may introduce enhanced hunting skills and increased body size into feral cat populations, putting native species at risk. The report states the Savannah cats are not worth the risk.\\nSavannah cats are legal in every province of Canada, although some provinces have restrictions on the ownership of\",\n \"-27.34416076814523\"\n ],\n [\n \"education of people to control the reproduction of house cats (as a prevention for abandonment) are a waste of money, time and energy.\\nSince August 1991, feral cats have been protected throughout Italy when a no-kill policy was introduced for both cats and dogs. Feral cats have the right to live free and cannot be permanently removed from their colony; cat caretakers can be formally registered; and TNR methods are outlined in the national law on the management of pets. South Korea Negative attitudes towards cats in general and free-roaming cats in particular are culturally entrenched. Cats are culled for meat,\",\n \"-27.2873218706809\"\n ],\n [\n \"and their two cats reside back in her native Kentucky.\",\n \"-27.263344124425203\"\n ],\n [\n \"is exposed to direct sunlight for prolonged periods. White cats, or cats with white faces and ears, should not be allowed out on sunny days. Depending on climate and time zone, between the hours of 10:00 am to 4:00 pm, it is recommended to keep domesticated cats indoors, as the sun is at its highest peak between these times. Sun block is also available for cats, which can help prevent skin irritation, and a veterinarian should be contacted to find out which brands are appropriate and to use on cats. Exposure to second-hand smoke Cats living in a smoker's household\",\n \"-27.23931784182787\"\n ],\n [\n \"species.\\nAs it is little altered from the wildcat, it can readily interbreed with the wildcat. This hybridization poses a danger to the genetic distinctiveness of some wildcat populations, particularly in Scotland and Hungary and possibly also the Iberian Peninsula. It lives on small islands with no human inhabitants.\\nFeral cats can live in forests, grasslands, tundra, coastal areas, agricultural land, scrublands, urban areas, and wetlands. Feral cats Feral cats are domestic cats that were born in or have reverted to a wild state. They are unfamiliar with and wary of humans and roam freely in urban and rural areas. The numbers\",\n \"-27.214586258880445\"\n ],\n [\n \"their family and indicate that they are easy to care for and engage in social behaviours such as allowing humans to hold, pet and play with them. Mutual affection and bonding is displayed between cats and their owners, indicating a sense of friendship. E. ferus Friendships between humans and domesticated horses (E. ferus) are often observed and occur when the horse is willing to allow the person into their flight distance and personal space through friendly interactions such as grooming, scratching and rubbing. Horses are social animals and once a person is accepted into their personal space, they become a\",\n \"-27.196967999101616\"\n ],\n [\n \"2004, the cats returned from restoration and have been in place constantly since then.\",\n \"-27.092512931092642\"\n ],\n [\n \"the new adopter can provide a safe, secure, and permanent home for the adopted pet. Responsible shelters, pounds, and rescue organizations refuse to supply pets to people whom they deem ineligible based on assessing their inability to supply the adopted animal with a suitable home. Sometimes, a new owner may face training or behavioral challenges with a pet who has been neglected, abused, or left untrained. In the vast majority of cases, patience, training, persistence and consistency of care will help the pet overcome its past.\\nIn Canada, reputable animal shelters or humane societies go through an extensive process to ensure\",\n \"-27.079370053950697\"\n ],\n [\n \"garden and open space, the breed and size of the pets, flat facilities, special needs of the pets, etc. Types of animals allowed and disallowed If the tenants have access to their own garden, then they can keep one dog or one cat, given that they do not cause nuisance or disturbance to other people. If they do not possess private gardens, they have to seek permission from the Council. If the tenants want to keep more than one pet, the Council will determine each pet request on its own merit before granting permission. Normally only one dog or two\",\n \"-27.069461419363506\"\n ],\n [\n \"Big Cat, Little Cat Plot An older white cat is a family's sole companion until it is joined by a younger black cat. The white cat welcomes the black cat. Over the course of the story, the two cats age, until the white cat dies. The white cat is mourned by the family and the black cat, until one day a new white kitten joins the family. Background and publication Cooper was inspired to write the book based on experiences in his life. He had grown up on a farm, and had thus been familiar with animals \\\"cycling through\\\". As\",\n \"-27.06733862205874\"\n ],\n [\n \"area to house the chickens, ducks, peacocks, geese, etc., was constructed to house these animals safely.\\nFor years the cats available for adoption were housed in one of the dog kennels. So in 1981 a room in the old farmhouse was converted to a cat room where cats and kittens could play freely.\\nAnyone who visited HSHC in the 1980s and early 90s knew there were many times when the front office was full of people and animals. It was impossible to hear the phone and at times, was dangerous with too many animals entering and exiting this confined space. In 1994\",\n \"-27.058736909064464\"\n ],\n [\n \"House sitting Benefits for the home/pet owner Pets are the reason for 80 percent of house sitting arrangements, and for many people the cost of pet care during holidays is more than the cost of the vacation itself. Many pet owners prefer to leave their pets at home in familiar surroundings, cared for by other pet lovers. \\nA secondary benefit to the home owner is that the property is maintained for the entire period they are away.\\nIt also is generally implied that crime is deterred by the presence of a house sitter. This is supported by the fact that insurance\",\n \"-26.999208349036053\"\n ],\n [\n \"can be very difficult. It is often said that they cannot be socialized. This is not true, but the process takes two to four years of diligent food bribes and handling, and mostly on the cat's terms. Eventually the cat may be persuaded to be comfortable with humans and the indoor environment.\\nKittens learn to be feral either from their mothers or through bad experiences. They are more easily socialized when under six months of age. Socializing is done by keeping them confined in a small room (i.e. bathroom) and handling them for 3 or more hours each day. There are\",\n \"-26.959839344315697\"\n ],\n [\n \"meat for survival. This cat eats small mammals, lizards, birds, eggs, invertebrates, and the occasional tree frog. Occasionally, the cat will eat grasses. The oncilla stalks its prey from a distance, and once in range, it pounces to catch and kill the prey.\\nThey are generally nocturnal, but in areas such as Caatinga, where their main food source consists of diurnal lizards, they are more likely to be active during the day. Young oncillas have been observed to purr, while adults are known to make short, gurgling calls when close to one another. Reproduction Estrus lasts from 3 to 9 days,\",\n \"-26.944041398677655\"\n ],\n [\n \"as a dog that gives chase to birds, squirrel, and cats. For some PBGVs, this instinct may be difficult to overcome with training. Most PBGVs make fine companion animals, and have suitable manners to live among cats and other animals without assuming a hunting role. Potential PBGV owners are cautioned to be aware of this instinct and, if cats are present in the home, work to acclimate the puppy or dog to recognize that the cat is part of the home \\\"pack.\\\" \\nAs scent hounds, most PBGVs should be kept on-leash when in open, non-fenced outdoor areas. Even\",\n \"-26.940908781485632\"\n ],\n [\n \"and see me sometime?\\\" The cat plays cat's cradle. When the other couples dance, the cat dances a moonwalk.\\nWhen arriving back on Earth, the couples get deliveries from the stork but the cat does not. He is reunited with his bride who then physically abuses him.\",\n \"-26.92920534775476\"\n ],\n [\n \"is termed \\\"trap-neuter-return\\\", where the cats are trapped, neutered, immunized against diseases such as rabies and the feline Panleukopenia and Leukemia viruses, and then released. Before releasing them back into their feral colonies, the attending veterinarian often nips the tip off one ear to mark it as neutered and inoculated, since these cats may be trapped again. Volunteers continue to feed and give care to these cats throughout their lives. Given this support, their lifespans are increased, and behavior and nuisance problems caused by competition for food are reduced. Interaction with humans Cats are common pets throughout the world, and\",\n \"-26.91533386023002\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cat and Mouse in Partnership Plot A cat and a mouse, to the custom of their kinds, become friends, such good friends that they decide to share a home. That they might have something to fall back on in time of need, they buy a pot of fat and hide it away in a nook of a church for safekeeping. After a short time, the cat tells her housemate that one of her relations has given birth and that the mouse's friend has been asked to be godmother. Instead of going to a christening, though, the cat goes to the\",\n \"-26.883972254872788\"\n ],\n [\n \"supplementary food, cats will exterminate much of the local rodent population and move on, leaving only a temporary void. However, one concern with providing supplemental outdoor feed is that it can attract skunks, raccoons and other vermin.\\nFarm cats originate from a variety of sources. Sometimes, farm cat populations are spontaneously established when abandoned or stray animals, uninvited by humans, move into areas where prey is available, such as haystacks or farm outbuildings that contain stored crops or livestock fodder. In other cases, property owners obtain and release a few cats specifically for rodent control. Some animal\",\n \"-26.873972538596718\"\n ],\n [\n \"though; if the third estimate were to be revised, there would have been an estimated 108–118 Iriomote cats at the time, meaning that the population is shrinking over time.\\nAlong with the traffic accidents, logging due to development, and development of the swamplands, house pets are also causing problems. House cats and stray cats especially cause issues with competition, disease transmission, and genetic pollution due to hybrids born of inter-species breeding. It is also feared that dogs prey on the Iriomote cats.\\nThe primary fear stems from house cats that have become feral or partially feral, but there has been no monitoring\",\n \"-26.872732999559958\"\n ],\n [\n \"Pet adoption Unwanted pets People deal with their unwanted pets in many ways. Some people have the pet euthanized (also known as putting it down or putting it to sleep), although many veterinarians do not consider this to be an ethical use of their resources for young and healthy animals, while others argue that euthanasia is a more humane option than leaving a pet in a cage for very long periods of time. Other people simply release the pet into the wild or otherwise abandon it, with the expectation that it will be able to take care of itself or\",\n \"-26.85942997573875\"\n ],\n [\n \"place in several locations inspired by similar locales in the United Kingdom. With the exception of a disused mine, the forest in which the cats live is based largely on the New Forest.\\nThe main characters each come from two groups, each led by two brothers: Clear Sky and Gray Wing. Clear Sky's group consists largely of cats who are adept at hunting in the undergrowth, and a rare few who fish and swim (such as Falling Feather). Gray Wing's group lives on the moor, and those cats are mainly able to run extremely fast, which is good for catching rabbits\",\n \"-26.830845517208218\"\n ],\n [\n \"year. They live in West London with their three cats.\",\n \"-26.808699573390186\"\n ],\n [\n \"as \\\"barbaric\\\" on their website due to the physical harming of a cat or any other creature that comes into contact with an electric fence. Dogs Canines are naturally territorial and will keep cats at bay. Crystals A more traditional cat repeller is to use jelly-like crystals containing methyl nonyl ketone, designed to be scattered around the garden, or around the areas the cat likes to foul. These repellents give off a smell that is very unpleasant to the cat, causing it to avoid that place. Citronella Citronella oil, used for repelling insects, can also be used to get rid\",\n \"-26.806336573281442\"\n ],\n [\n \"can be tamed.\\nIn many states in the United States, it is illegal to abandon a pet. In Iowa, doing so is a misdemeanor. Foreclosure pets Currently the exact number of foreclosed pets is unknown. People often drop animals off at a shelter and claim they are moving, when in fact they are leaving due to foreclosure. In 2008, the number of foreclosure pets is believed to had increased due to high foreclosure rates. As homeowners run out of time and options, they often leave their animals behind. The animals are then classified as abandoned foreclosure pets.\\nThe pets left behind in\",\n \"-26.787046831595944\"\n ],\n [\n \"able to crawl about after just a few hours. They are able to walk within two weeks, begin taking solid food after about a month, and are fully weaned by two months of age.\\nFemales may have up to two litters during the course of spring, summer, and autumn. They rear their kittens in a burrow, moving them to new locations regularly after the first week. In general, kittens develop more rapidly than other similarly sized cats, quickly adapting to a relatively hostile environment. They become independent by five months of age, but may remain within their mother's range. Threats Known\",\n \"-26.786203582480084\"\n ],\n [\n \"homes are often left without food or water. Some do not survive because of the lack of resources and are found dead when realtors or banks enter the premises. The animals are put in harm's way, and it is often believed it is done as a way to retaliate against those who took the home away. Shelters Many animals left at a shelter are euthanized due to lack of space and financial resources for these animals. Shelters unable to raise additional funds to provide for the increased number of incoming animals have no choice but to euthanize them, sometimes within\",\n \"-26.78612605080707\"\n ],\n [\n \"of National Housing banned pet keeping.\\nHowever, in 2014, pets started to be allowed on the condition that the pets are not dangerous and would not bark, cause smell and urinate. If a pet owner is reported for noise nuisance, failure to clean up the urine of pets and causing injury to other residents for 3 times, then the tenancy of National Housing would be terminated.\\nCurrently, Article 16 of the “Condominium Administration Act Building Administration Division” (《公寓大廈管理條例》) stipulates that “Inhabitants with pets may not hinder public sanitation, peace or safety.” If the National Housing households break the regulation, the management committee\",\n \"-26.778405923745595\"\n ],\n [\n \"from the pieces of other cats.\\nTraveling across the desert, they are brought to a house by the smell of food, and are invited inside by a man. They are fed, and when full the man attempts to turn them into soup, attacking them with a pair of scissors. He ends up falling into the cauldron, Nyatta cuts him into pieces with the scissors and the cats escape. Wandering further across the desert dehydrated, Nyatta digs and finds an elephant made of water, which cools them off and travels with them, though the elephant eventually evaporates from the heat. God accidentally\",\n \"-26.759739942048327\"\n ],\n [\n \"species. Several tests showed that leopards, cougars, servals, and lynxes often reacted strongly to catnip in a manner similar to domestic cats; while lions and tigers can react strongly as well, they do not react as consistently.\\nWith domestic cats, N. cataria is used as a recreational substance for pet cats' enjoyment, and catnip and catnip-laced products designed for use with domesticated cats are available to consumers. Common behaviors cats display when they sense the bruised leaves or stems of catnip are rubbing on the plant, rolling on the ground, pawing at it, licking it, and chewing it. Consuming much of\",\n \"-26.736650390492287\"\n ],\n [\n \"domestic cats. Doves and pigeons are considered to be game birds, as many species have been hunted and used for food in many of the countries in which they are native.\\nThe body feathers have dense, fluffy bases and are loosely attached to the skin, hence they drop out easily. When a predator catches it, large numbers of feathers come out in the attacker's mouth, and the pigeon may use this temporary distraction to make an escape. It also tends to drop the tail feathers when preyed upon or under traumatic conditions, probably as a distraction mechanism. Preening Pigeons primarily use\",\n \"-26.64719281392172\"\n ],\n [\n \"to leave the house because its owner, an obnoxious, rich man from Bogotá's exclusive area, has new plans for it. The tenants are confronted with the authorities who are trying to evict everyone from the building. Then, the tenants decide to take a stand by locking doors and shooting at the policemen who try to carry out their orders.\\nAfter this confrontation the tenants are given more time so everyone in the house has enough time to find a new place to live. The tenants are legally represented by \\\"Perro\\\" Romero (Frank Ramirez) —who is annoyed by anyone using the nickname\",\n \"-26.643822070873284\"\n ],\n [\n \"bird (\\\"What kind of bird are you if you can't fly?\\\" – \\\"What kind of bird are you if you can't swim?\\\"). Peter's pet cat stalks them quietly, and the bird—warned by Peter—flies away. The cat then aims for the duck, but doesn't manage to catch it either. Peter's grandfather scolds him for being outside in the meadow alone (\\\"What if a wolf came out of the forest all of a sudden?\\\"), and takes him back into the house.\\nIn response to Peter's comment (\\\"But what could happen anyway, with a cat, a duck and stupid little bird?\\\"), Annie continues narrating the\",\n \"-26.632680436974624\"\n ],\n [\n \"a means of reducing the cat population. In 2013, Gareth Morgan, an economist and philanthropist, caused an international furore when he called for cats to be wiped out. He launched the \\\"Cats To Go\\\" website to support the stance. It is suggested that owners could euthanize their cats, but it is not seen as necessary. Some conservationists supported the stance taken by Morgan.\\nEven though cats control rodents which also prey on native wildlife and thus have a protective role, the precautionary principle is recommended in certain cases such as adjacent to natural areas and in outer suburbs of cities.\\nA study\",\n \"-26.620804800419137\"\n ],\n [\n \"the \\\"Cat Parade\\\". The ancients believed that the cat is an animal which is afraid of rain and water. If it rained, the cat would cry. The ancients considered that if the cat cries it means that rain is going to fall. Some people believe that the cat represents drought. If the cat is wet, the drought will be driven away. Others believed that the cat has the power to make rain.\\nTo perform a \\\"Cat Parade\\\", you must bring a female cat that has grey or black fur. The cats are then to be placed in baskets; only one cat\",\n \"-26.598302298923954\"\n ],\n [\n \"who lived in the shed with the dogs. The cats lived in nesting boxes in the opposite corner of the shed from the dogs. Yellow Man greeted the dogs every morning and was curious of them. Marcy The wife of George. She and George find Squirrel and Bone on the side of the highway and take them home. Marcy wants to keep the dogs, and George doesn't allow her to. Marcy feeds them and cleans up their messes, hoping that they will become tame pets. George The husband of Marcy. He and Marcy find Squirrel and Bone on the side\",\n \"-26.58723763213493\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":586,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2chgqc"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why is Ebola more dangerous than other diseases?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["TL;DR It's not. Ebola is contracted in poor African villages when people have to resort to eating dead animals (fruit-bats mainly) they've found in the rain forest. It then spreads through contact with an infected person's bodily fluids (blood, sperm, etc). These people can't afford the necessary healthcare and it tends to just wipe out a lot of people quite quickly (up to 90% fatality rate in central Africa according to WHO). I think people fear it as the symptoms are quite violent, with extreme vomiting and diarrhea being the main case. The thing is, it's quite treatable in first world countries, and isn't really any more dangerous than a lot of diseases you could contract eating infected raw meat. The media has just blown it out of proportion like it always does with 'super' diseases.","It's really a lot of reasons. #1 being the incubation time of the disease. You can have the disease for a very long time (2-21 days) without showing a single symptom but can still transmit the disease. Essentially if you had this disease you could infect everyone you come into contact with in almost a month, that's quite a large number when considering then those people would be infecting people as well. #2 is there is NO CURE. All we can do for people with Ebola is treat symptoms as they come and let them fight it off themselves, which contributes to the 90% mortality rate. Also they symptoms themselves in the early stages look appear to be the Flu or a bad cold, which includes.. Fever Vomiting Headache Muscle aches Sore throat General weakness Diarrhea Then as the virus progresses that's when the dangerous symptoms start including... Bleeding inside and outside of the body Rash Trouble breathing This can also lead to a very low white blood cell count which makes it harder for the body to fight off the virus. By this time it's likely too late for the patient to recover. Lastly it is HIGHLY INFECTIOUS. As stated it is easy to spread the virus through human contact. And as you can see from the symptoms (i.e. Vomiting, Diarrhea, Fever (causes sweating), and Bleeding in later stages) it would be easy to transmit the virus while treating a patient without proper protection and extreme caution. Also it is possible to get the virus from a dead body that had the virus so as people die and embalming/burials are carried out transmission of the virus can still be taking place. But there is good news for those who are afraid and living in first world! The main sources for the Ebola Virus is fruit bats, chimps, and other animals really only found and consumed in Africa. Also the 90% mortality rate is based on mostly outbreaks in Africa. Africa has a high rate of HIV as well and as you may know HIV severely inhibits immune function which is really the only way to fight the virus and any other infections that may come into play. And finally as we know Africa's medical establishments are not nearly as advanced as the rest of the developed world which also plays a part in the mortality rate. UPDATE/EDIT: as /u/nerdbebo has pointed out, infection does not normally take place until the patient is showing symptoms according to the CDC which would make the infectious period shorter but keep in mind that the first symptoms that show up mimic minor disease or the flu so people would still be going about like normal until they would figure out that something more serious is going on. Sources: URL_3 URL_0 URL_2 URL_1 ","In the scheme of things? Its not. It just has a really high \"if you get this your ass is dead\" rate in Africa. It also kills in a pretty nasty way."],"string":"[\n \"TL;DR It's not. Ebola is contracted in poor African villages when people have to resort to eating dead animals (fruit-bats mainly) they've found in the rain forest. It then spreads through contact with an infected person's bodily fluids (blood, sperm, etc). These people can't afford the necessary healthcare and it tends to just wipe out a lot of people quite quickly (up to 90% fatality rate in central Africa according to WHO). I think people fear it as the symptoms are quite violent, with extreme vomiting and diarrhea being the main case. The thing is, it's quite treatable in first world countries, and isn't really any more dangerous than a lot of diseases you could contract eating infected raw meat. The media has just blown it out of proportion like it always does with 'super' diseases.\",\n \"It's really a lot of reasons. #1 being the incubation time of the disease. You can have the disease for a very long time (2-21 days) without showing a single symptom but can still transmit the disease. Essentially if you had this disease you could infect everyone you come into contact with in almost a month, that's quite a large number when considering then those people would be infecting people as well. #2 is there is NO CURE. All we can do for people with Ebola is treat symptoms as they come and let them fight it off themselves, which contributes to the 90% mortality rate. Also they symptoms themselves in the early stages look appear to be the Flu or a bad cold, which includes.. Fever Vomiting Headache Muscle aches Sore throat General weakness Diarrhea Then as the virus progresses that's when the dangerous symptoms start including... Bleeding inside and outside of the body Rash Trouble breathing This can also lead to a very low white blood cell count which makes it harder for the body to fight off the virus. By this time it's likely too late for the patient to recover. Lastly it is HIGHLY INFECTIOUS. As stated it is easy to spread the virus through human contact. And as you can see from the symptoms (i.e. Vomiting, Diarrhea, Fever (causes sweating), and Bleeding in later stages) it would be easy to transmit the virus while treating a patient without proper protection and extreme caution. Also it is possible to get the virus from a dead body that had the virus so as people die and embalming/burials are carried out transmission of the virus can still be taking place. But there is good news for those who are afraid and living in first world! The main sources for the Ebola Virus is fruit bats, chimps, and other animals really only found and consumed in Africa. Also the 90% mortality rate is based on mostly outbreaks in Africa. Africa has a high rate of HIV as well and as you may know HIV severely inhibits immune function which is really the only way to fight the virus and any other infections that may come into play. And finally as we know Africa's medical establishments are not nearly as advanced as the rest of the developed world which also plays a part in the mortality rate. UPDATE/EDIT: as /u/nerdbebo has pointed out, infection does not normally take place until the patient is showing symptoms according to the CDC which would make the infectious period shorter but keep in mind that the first symptoms that show up mimic minor disease or the flu so people would still be going about like normal until they would figure out that something more serious is going on. Sources: URL_3 URL_0 URL_2 URL_1 \",\n \"In the scheme of things? Its not. It just has a really high \\\"if you get this your ass is dead\\\" rate in Africa. It also kills in a pretty nasty way.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["aim of protecting people from malaria during the disease's peak season. A spokesman said \"In the context of Ebola, malaria is a major concern, because people who are sick with malaria have the same symptoms as people sick with Ebola. As a result, most people turn up at Ebola treatment centres thinking that they have Ebola, when actually they have malaria. It's a huge load on the system, as well as being a huge stress on patients and their families.\"\nBetween 14 December and 17 December Sierra Leone reported 403 new cases with a total of 8,759 cases on the latter","-28.708701925119385"],["humans is caused by four of five viruses of the genus Ebolavirus. The four are Bundibugyo virus (BDBV), Sudan virus (SUDV), Taï Forest virus (TAFV) and one simply called Ebola virus (EBOV, formerly Zaire Ebola virus). EBOV, species Zaire ebolavirus, is the most dangerous of the known EVD-causing viruses, and is responsible for the largest number of outbreaks. The fifth virus, Reston virus (RESTV), is not thought to cause disease in humans, but has caused disease in other primates. All five viruses are closely related to marburgviruses. Virology Ebolaviruses contain single-stranded, non-infectious RNA genomes. Ebolavirus genomes contain seven genes including","-28.366066872084048"],["after they start. He sees globalization and global warming as contributing factors, as they have upset the ecological niches of bats, which he feels are the most likely viral reservoirs. The current outbreak, in his opinion, represents a \"perfect storm\" for a disease such as Ebola, having erupted in poor countries with meager medical care and where governments have little control over their populations.\nLobel adds that besides Ebola, there are other \"bad\" viruses out there, which the developed world prefers to ignore so long as they aren't affected. This has resulted in little research into other infectious diseases, with the","-28.244861942192074"],["of some such books admitted that they lacked medical credentials and were not technically qualified to give medical advice. The World Health Organization and the United Nations stated that such misinformation had contributed to the spread of the disease. Wild animals Ebola has a high mortality rate among primates. Frequent outbreaks of Ebola may have resulted in the deaths of 5,000 gorillas. Outbreaks of Ebola may have been responsible for an 88% decline in tracking indices of observed chimpanzee populations in the 420 km² Lossi Sanctuary between 2002 and 2003. Transmission among chimpanzees through meat consumption constitutes a significant risk factor,","-28.006523270349135"],["as Ebola, of which he is one of the world's few experts and its only academic researcher outside the U.S. “Ebola is the most lethal virus,\" he states. \"It can kill 90% of those afflicted. And there is no therapy to counter it. There is a vaccine thus far tested in animals, but it takes a relatively long time to build immunity.” As monoclonal antibodies are proteins that attack specific targets, including viruses, bacteria or other foreign bodies, “the antibodies will neutralize the virus, and avoid the dangerous side effects of the existing vaccine,” he says. He anticipates that they","-27.193704071862157"],["world is teetering on the edge of a pandemic that could kill a large fraction of the human population\" in American Scientist. He called for adequate resources to fight what he sees as a major world threat to possibly billions of lives. On September 29, 2005, David Nabarro, the newly appointed Senior United Nations System Coordinator for Avian and Human Influenza, warned the world that an outbreak of avian influenza could kill anywhere between 5 million and 150 million people. Experts have identified key events (creating new clades, infecting new species, spreading to new areas) marking the progression of an","-27.155491529323626"],["was deemed to be at risk with small numbers of cases in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Nigeria.\nIn October 2019, continuing cases of wild polio in Pakistan and Afghanistan, in addition to new vaccine-derived cases in Africa and Asia, was reviewed and remains a PHEIC. 2014 Ebola declaration Confirmed cases of Ebola were being reported in Guinea and Liberia in March 2014 and Sierra Leone by May 2014. On Friday, 8 August 2014, following the occurrence of Ebola in the United States and Europe and with the already intense transmission ongoing in three other countries for months, the WHO declared its third","-26.626908738981"],["behavior and other factors may trigger outbreaks among animal populations.\nEvidence indicates that both domestic dogs and pigs can also be infected with EBOV. Dogs do not appear to develop symptoms when they carry the virus, and pigs appear to be able to transmit the virus to at least some primates. Although some dogs in an area in which a human outbreak occurred had antibodies to EBOV, it is unclear whether they played a role in spreading the disease to people. Reservoir The natural reservoir for Ebola has yet to be confirmed; however, bats are considered to be the most likely","-26.59935973508982"],["to the prevalence of AIDS in Africa. 3,000 Africans die each day of AIDS and an additional 11,000 are infected. Less than one percent are actually treated. However, even with the widespread prevalence of AIDS (where infection rates can approach 30% among the sexually active population), and fatal infections such as the Ebola virus, other diseases are far more problematic. In fact, the situation with AIDS is improving in some nations as infection rates drop, and deaths from Ebola are rare. On the other hand, diseases once common but now almost unknown in most of the industrialized world, like","-26.514389062765986"],["of other species—but different need not mean worse.\" In addition, anti-malarial and mosquito control programs offer little realistic hope to the 300 million people in developing nations who will be infected with acute illnesses this year. Although trials are ongoing, she writes that if they fail: \"We should consider the ultimate swatting.\"\nBiologist E. O. Wilson has advocated the eradication of several species of mosquito, including malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. Wilson stated, \"I'm talking about a very small number of species that have co-evolved with us and are preying on humans, so it would certainly be acceptable to remove them. I","-26.152836765744723"],["Communicable diseases are infectious diseases that \"can be passed between people through proximity, social contact or intimate contact.\" Common diseases in this category include whooping cough or tuberculosis, HIV/AIDs, malaria, influenza (the flu), and mumps. \nAs low-to-middle income countries continue to develop, the types of diseases that affecting populations within these countries shifts primarily from infectious diseases, such as diarrhea and pneumonia, to primarily non-communicable diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, cancer and obesity. This shift is increasingly being referred to as the risk transition. Thus, as globalization and the proliferation of pre-packaged foods","-26.050983964523766"],["disease. 'And for 1 out of every 1,000 children who contract it, the disease is fatal.'\" \"The World Health Organization says measles is 'one of the leading causes of death among young children even though a safe and cost-effective vaccine is available'. There are about 140,000 deaths a year, mostly in poor countries. In Australia measles deaths are now rare because the disease has been controlled though widespread vaccination. When it does occur, the danger comes from complications such as pneumonia and encephalitis. Dr. Hambleton said while \"there were occasional adverse reactions to the vaccination, it was far more dangerous","-26.03621512488462"],["studied of the six species that infect humans, in part because of its low prevalence and milder clinical manifestations compared to the other species. It is widespread throughout sub-Saharan Africa, much of southeast Asia, Indonesia, on many of the islands of the western Pacific and in areas of the Amazon Basin of South America. In endemic regions, prevalence ranges from less than 4% to more than 20%, but there is evidence that P. malariae infections are vastly underreported.\nThe Center for Disease Control (CDC) has an application that allows people to view specific parts of the world and how they are","-26.035070018842816"],["Humans are thought to be the sole cause as other earlier migrations of animals into North America from Eurasia did not cause extinctions.\nThere are many problems with this theory, as this disease would have to meet several criteria: it has to be able to sustain itself in an environment with no hosts; it has to have a high infection rate; and be extremely lethal, with a mortality rate of 50–75%. Disease has to be very virulent to kill off all the individuals in a genus or species, and even such a virulent disease as West Nile fever is unlikely to","-26.00419726455584"],["worldwide are at risk from the disease because they live in countries where the organism is common. In 2012, 249 million people were in need of treatment to prevent the disease. This likely makes it the most common parasitic infection with malaria second and causing about 207 million cases in 2013.\nS. haematobium, the infectious agent responsible for urogenital schistosomiasis, infects over 112 million people annually in Sub-Saharan Africa alone. It is responsible for 32 million cases of dysuria, 10 million cases of hydronephrosis, and 150,000 deaths from renal failure annually, making S. haematobium the world’s deadliest schistosome. Deaths Estimates regarding","-26.000770853308495"],["virus are difficult to study because of EBOV's virulent characteristics. Transmission It is believed that between people, Ebola disease spreads only by direct contact with the blood or other body fluids of a person who has developed symptoms of the disease. Body fluids that may contain Ebola viruses include saliva, mucus, vomit, feces, sweat, tears, breast milk, urine and semen. The WHO states that only people who are very sick are able to spread Ebola disease in saliva, and whole virus has not been reported to be transmitted through sweat. Most people spread the virus through blood, feces and vomit.","-25.961594622138364"],["reported to be infected with Reston virus, so other interim or amplifying hosts may exist. Ebola virus outbreaks tend to occur when temperatures are lower and humidity is higher than usual for Africa. Even after a person recovers from the acute phase of the disease, Ebola virus survives for months in certain organs such as the eyes and testes. Ebola virus disease Ebola virus is one of the four ebolaviruses known to cause disease in humans. It has the highest case-fatality rate of these ebolaviruses, averaging 83 percent since the first outbreaks in 1976, although fatality rates up to 90","-25.862047650036402"],["average people cut themselves 38% of the time when butchering bushmeat, allowing for infected bodily fluid transmissions. African women are more likely to contract these dangerous zoonotic pathogens because they're the ones handing and cooking the bushmeat . Exotic trade and disease outbreaks Ebola Virus is a rare infectious disease that is transmitted by wild animals (macaque monkeys, fruit bats, hammer-headed bats, chimpanzees, etc.) to human populations. Transmission of this virus occurs when individuals live closely to infected habitats, exchange bodily liquids, or consume infected animals. West Africa's Ebola outbreak was termed the most destructive infectious disease epidemic in recent","-25.841475816094317"],["by those most in-the-know. Dr. David Nabarro, chief avian flu coordinator for the United Nations, describes himself as \"quite scared\"; says avian flu has too many unanswered questions; and if the disease starts spreading to humans, borders will close, airports will shut down, and travelers everywhere will be stranded. With evaluations of the threat ranging from those who say it is a hoax to those who warn of billions of humans dying, uncertainty and fear motivate personal behaviors around the world affecting many people even before the threat becomes reality. Pop culture The 1998 chart-topping hit song \"One Week\" by","-25.68380903097568"],["antibodies to Ebola virus have been detected along with viral RNA. No culturable virus has been isolated. It is not known whether these species are incidental hosts or a reservoir of Ebola virus infection for humans and other terrestrial mammals. Despite the fact that scientists have found evidence of Ebola infections in the little collared fruit bat, the bats don't seem to get sick from the virus.","-25.610826327931136"],["infectious diseases have appeared each year, and old diseases have mutated, making them more and more difficult to treat. The potential for a catastrophic global disease already exists. Why global epidemic disease? The origin of the global disease is the accumulated suffering of humans. Because of the dominance of yang over yin in the cosmic spring and summer, conflict has been the mode of development. Humans have struggled to overcome nature and each other. Men have oppressed women, some races have oppressed others, and heaven has dominated earth. So many people have suffered and harbored inside them deep bitterness and","-25.595034499070607"],["be limited to random outbreaks in a few countries, rendering it more of a public health nuisance than a crisis. Political and economic reverberations still would occur, with some companies and investors looking to reduce their exposure in East Asia, particularly China.\nThe next alternative is that \"SARS Gains a Foothold in Poor Countries, Regions. SARS could spread to poor countries in Africa or Asia, potentially generating more infections and deaths than before but with relatively\nlittle international economic impact. The risk of spread would continue, however, even if SARS\nemerged in poor countries or isolated regions of Russia and China with weak","-25.521708512533223"],["diseases. Finding vaccines at all for some diseases remains extremely difficult. Without vaccines, the global world remains vulnerable to infectious diseases.\nEvolution of disease presents a major threat in modern times. For example, the current \"swine flu\" or H1N1 virus is a new strain of an old form of flu, known for centuries as Asian flu based on its origin on that continent. From 1918–1920, a post-World War I global influenza epidemic killed an estimated 50–100 million people, including half a million in the United States alone. H1N1 is a virus that has evolved from and","-25.441754247352947"],["childhood illnesses\". Independent data shows that measles causes the most vaccine-preventable deaths of any disease. It resulted in about 96,000 deaths in 2013. Before immunization in the United States between three and four million cases occurred each year, and the fatality rate is approximately 0.2% of those infected. Most of those who are infected and who die are less than five years old.\nInfectious disease specialist Peter McIntyre has accused the group of manipulating research and statistics in order to make its case. \"It's been a real characteristic of the anti-vaccine movement ... [to claim] to be looking very extensively at","-25.358039486818598"],["to neighbouring villages. By March 2014 the outbreak was severe enough to raise the concern of local health officials who reported it to the Guinean Ministry of Health. By the middle of the year the epidemic had spread to Liberia and Sierra Leone. As of June 2015, the World Health Organization reported over 27,000 cases of the disease, which had resulted in more than 11,000 deaths.\nThe natural source of Ebola virus is probably bats. Marburg viruses are transmitted to humans by monkeys, and Lassa fever by rats (Mastomys natalensis). Zoonotic infections can be severe because humans often have no","-25.346799536579056"],["Reston virus (another member of genus Ebolavirus) between infected macaques. A similar change in the current circulating strains of EBOV could greatly increase the infection and disease rates caused by EBOV. However, there is no record of any Ebola strain ever having made this transition in humans.","-25.330379437597003"],["By experiencing the same stressful situations for decades, individuals become more susceptible to diseases like cardiovascular disease, obesity, diabetes, and mental illnesses including schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Diseases Together, diseases of poverty kill approximately 14 million people annually. Gastroenteritis with its associated diarrhea results in about 1.8 million deaths in children yearly with most of these in the world's poorest nations.\nAt the global level, the three primary PRDs are tuberculosis, AIDS/HIV and malaria. Developing countries account for 95% of the global AIDS prevalence and 98% of active tuberculosis infections. Furthermore, 90% of malaria deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa. Together, these","-25.229394031804986"],["Africa where social and economic inequalities are common. The central African countries are the most prevalent of EVD; like Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, Uganda, and Gabon\nIn 2014 there was an outbreak of the Ebola virus in West Africa. As of 19 October 2014, there had been 3,706 cases of Ebola in Sierra Leone, and 1,259 deaths, including that of the leading physician trying to control the outbreak, Sheik Umar Khan. In early August 2014 Guinea closed its borders to Sierra Leone to help contain the spreading of the virus, which originated in Guinea, as more new cases of the","-25.20493897545748"],["that lies at the centre of both a highly-mobile and densely populated region which has made tracking more difficult: \"This time, the virus is traveling effortlessly across borders by plane, car and foot, shifting from forests to cities and springing up in clusters far from any previously known infections. Border closures, flight bans and mass quarantines have been ineffective.\" Peter Piot, who co-discovered Ebola, said Ebola \"isn't striking in a 'linear fashion' this time. It's hopping around, especially in Liberia, Guinea and Sierra Leone\". Fear of healthcare workers and clinics Containment has also been difficult due to fear","-25.1700002886937"],["countries that had imported cases. As of 8 May 2016, 28,646 suspected cases and 11,323 deaths were reported; however, the WHO said that these numbers may be underestimated. Because they work closely with the body fluids of infected patients, healthcare workers were especially vulnerable to infection ; in August 2014, the WHO reported that 10% of the dead were healthcare workers.\nIn September 2014, it was estimated that the countries' capacity for treating Ebola patients was insufficient by the equivalent of 2,122 beds; by December there were a sufficient number of beds to treat and isolate all reported Ebola cases, although the uneven","-25.154930697055534"],["Messenger states in the book that she has raised three children \"vaccine-free and childhood disease-free\". The scientific data Independent data shows that measles causes the most vaccine-preventable deaths of any disease, resulting in about 96,000 deaths in 2013, and the vaccine is 97% effective after two shots. Measles is highly contagious – before immunization in the United States there were between three and four million cases annually – and the fatality rate is approximately 0.2% of those infected. Most of those who are infected and who die are less than five years old. Reception Although the book was first published","-25.118836464593187"],["was not recognized until March 2014. For several months the epidemic was spreading. This is something that public health experts in the affected locations, such as Medecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders), claimed was due to a deeply flawed and delayed response by health and government officials.\nIn an interview later in 2015, once Ebola had largely been brought under control, Nabarro said that when he started working on Ebola in 2014, he \"was aware that we were in the middle of a disease outbreak of enormous proportions. The number of people getting sick was doubling every week. Facilities were completely","-25.08953786670463"],["on these fallen fruits. This chain of events forms a possible indirect means of transmission from the natural host to animal populations.\nAlthough primates and other species may be intermediates, evidence suggests people primarily contract the virus from bats. Since most people buy smoked bushmeat, hunters and people preparing the food have the highest risk of infection. Hunters usually shoot, net, scavenge or catapult their prey, and butcher the bats without gloves, getting bites or scratches and coming in contact with their blood.\nIn 2014, the suspected index case for the Ebola outbreak in West Africa is a two-year-old child in","-25.005778420716524"],["life and the burden of disease and disability.\"\nOn 5 May 2014, WHO announced that the spread of polio was a world health emergency – outbreaks of the disease in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East were considered \"extraordinary\".\nOn 8 August 2014, WHO declared that the spread of Ebola was a public health emergency; an outbreak which was believed to have started in Guinea had spread to other nearby countries such as Liberia and Sierra Leone. The situation in West Africa was considered very serious. g) Health policy WHO addresses government health policy with two aims: firstly, \"to address the underlying","-24.983950857364107"],["is possible that they can be changed to increase their ability to cause disease, make them resistant to current medicines, or to increase their ability to be spread into the environment. Biological agents in the hands of terrorists pose serious threats to states’ security because they can be easily spread through the air, through water, and through food. Biological agents can also be difficult to detect and often do not cause illness for several hours to several days. A prominent example of a bioterrorist attack on the United States is the September 2001 anthrax attacks. On September 18,","-24.93687313157716"],["realities of living with the virus may be one reason why infection rates have been rising. However, the BBC also described bugchasing as more internet fantasy than reality, saying that, \"Dyer finds that the overwhelming majority of the talk is pure fantasy.\" The article also quotes Will Nutland, head of health promotion at Terrence Higgins Trust, as saying, \"The concepts of 'gift giving' and 'bug chasers' are definitely based more in fantasy than reality\" as well as Deborah Jack, chief executive of the National AIDS Trust, who said, \"There is very little evidence of people trying to get infected with","-24.901281608035788"],["7 million doses of vaccine have been exhausted in the vaccination campaign against the outbreak in Angola. If yellow fever spread to the 18 countries in Asia where the mosquito vector is present, more than 2 billion people would be at risk. They stated: \"Apocalyptic forecasts of the numbers of fatalities from Ebola turned out to be wildly wrong, and we can hope that will again be the case here, but given the way Zika has exploded in the Western hemisphere, we can't count on it.\" CDC said they could not assist as much in the outbreak because all","-24.855222337064333"],["in Mali\nSince October 2014, when Mali had its first Ebola virus outbreak, there has been a total of eight cases of Ebola with six deaths. However, due to the high number of outbreaks in neighboring countries like Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea, Mali is ranked as one of the top countries at risk for an outbreak of Ebola.\nRabies: Dog rabies is frequent within Mali, especially the Bamako area (the most hospitalized and urbanized). 17% of people living in Bamako are vaccinated, while others have received no immunization against the rabies. The World Health Organization has set the goal of recommended","-24.84261041157879"],["fastest-growing causes of disease burden over the last 26 years were diabetes (rate increased by 80%) and ischemic heart disease (up 34%). More than 60% of deaths, about 6.1 million, in 2016 were due to NCDs, up from about 38% in 1990. Increases in refugee urbanization, has led to a growing number of people diagnosed with chronic noncommunicable diseases.\nIn September 2011, the United Nations is hosting its first General Assembly Special Summit on the issue of non-communicable diseases. Noting that non-communicable diseases are the cause of some 35 million deaths each year, the international community is being increasingly called to","-24.796558556430682"],["not possible. This reduced rate of antigenic change, combined with its limited host range (inhibiting cross species antigenic shift), ensures that pandemics of influenza B do not occur. Influenzavirus C This genus has one species, influenza C virus, which infects humans, dogs and pigs, sometimes causing both severe illness and local epidemics. However, influenza C is less common than the other types and usually only causes mild disease in children. Influenzavirus D This genus has only one species, influenza D virus, which infects pigs and cattle. The virus has the potential to infect humans, although no such cases have been","-24.781417351099662"],["that averted an estimated 1.4 million measles deaths worldwide. The vaccine for measles has led to the near-complete elimination of the disease in the United States and other developed countries. While the vaccine is made with a live virus which can cause side effects, these are far fewer and less serious than the sickness and death caused by measles itself, side effects ranging from rashes to, rarely, convulsions, occur in a small percentage of recipients.\nMeasles is common worldwide. Although it was declared eliminated from the U.S. in 2000, high rates of vaccination and excellent communication with those who refuse vaccination","-24.722504772653338"],["lungs. In pregnant women in can cause miscarriages or pre-mature births. While measles is almost gone from the United States, it still kills about 164,000 people each year around the world. In developing countries that suffer from malnutrition and vitamin A deficiency, measles has been known to kill as many as 1 out of 4 people and it is the leading cause of blindness among African children. Transmission Measles spreads from person to person and is extremely contagious, 90% of people close to the infected individual that are not immune will become infected as well. The virus is spread through","-24.684095446020365"],["malaria, tuberculosis, tapeworm and dysentery often claim far more victims, particularly among the young. Polio has made a comeback recently due to misinformation spread by anti-American Islamic groups in Nigeria. Diseases native to Africa, such as sleeping sickness, also resist attempts at elimination too. Poor infrastructure Clean potable water is rare in most of Africa (even those parts outside the sub-Saharan region) despite the fact that the continent is crossed by several major rivers and contains some of the largest freshwater lakes in the world. However, many of the major population centres are coastal, and few major cities have adequate","-24.634594594710506"],["infection might even be beneficial to the host. The lethal viral diseases are believed to have resulted from an \"accidental\" jump of the virus from a species in which it is benign to a new one that is not accustomed to it (see zoonosis). For example, viruses that cause serious influenza in humans probably have pigs or birds as their natural host, and HIV is thought to derive from the benign non-human primate virus SIV.\nWhile it has been possible to prevent (certain) viral diseases by vaccination for a long time, the development of antiviral drugs to treat viral diseases is","-24.63249554327922"],["of contention.\nAlthough this disease is not dangerous to humans and rarely fatal to otherwise healthy animals, it reduces milk and meat production. Outbreaks can be stopped quickly if farmers and transporters are forced to abide by existing rules. Therefore, (besides temporary discomfort to the animals), any outbreak in the rich world should not be much more as a localized, cyclical economic problem. For countries with free roaming wildlife it is nearly impossible to prove that they are entirely free of this disease. If they try they are forced to erect nationwide fences, which destroys wildlife migration. Because detecting and reporting","-24.63217474349949"],["heightened risk for contracting HIV and pre-term deliveries.\nIn addition, availability of cures and recent advances in medicine have led to only three diseases being considered neglected diseases, namely, African trypanosomiasis, Chagas disease and Leishmaniasis. Malaria Africa accounts for a majority of malaria infections and deaths worldwide. Over 80 percent of the 300 to 500 million malaria infections occurring annually worldwide are in Africa. Each year, about one million children under the age of five die from malaria. Children who are poor, have mothers with little to no education, and live in rural areas are more susceptible to malaria and more","-24.53413834087405"],["rational responses to abnormal behavior. For example, Ebola received loads of media attention when it became rampant in Africa and eventually spread to the US, however, researchers never really paid attention to its psychological effects on the African brain. Extreme anxiety, struggles with grief, feelings of rejection and incompetence, depression leading to suicide, PTSD, and much more are only some of the noted affects of diseases like Ebola. These epidemics come and go, but their lasting effects on mental health are remaining for years to come, and even ending lives because of the lack of action. There has been some","-24.509634052810725"],["Post-Ebola virus syndrome Cause Although there is some progress that may potentially help Ebola survivors, adequate funding and further research is required to help provide more answers about post-Ebola syndrome. Studies from previous outbreaks reveal that the virus is able to survive for months after recovery in some parts of the body such as the eyes and testes, where the immune system cannot reach. It is not known if the neurologic symptoms seen in survivors are a direct result of the virus or, instead, triggered by the immune system’s response to the infection. It is known that","-24.505555056224694"],["a dangerous (and irreversible) rate and the people of the United States live in constant fear of biological terrorism attacks.\nThe ultimate source of the global virus in the novel is unknown; however, it is implied that the source of the virus was involved in one way or another in the inflamed war on terrorism. Though it is left ambiguous, it is possible that the ultimate source of the virus may have even been the United States government: this hypothesis is supported by an early epicenter of the virus being in the Middle East, which when considered with the virus'","-24.42946583583398"],["6,000), and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (5,600) had the most cases. A 2015 collaboration between the World Health Organization, World Organization of Animal Health (OIE), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (FAO), and Global Alliance for Rabies Control has a goal of eliminating deaths from rabies by 2030. India India has the highest rate of human rabies in the world, primarily because of stray dogs, whose number has greatly increased since a 2001 law forbade the killing of dogs. Effective control and treatment of rabies in India is hindered by a form of mass hysteria known","-24.404172575770644"],["to assist with tracking down the sources of infection. Contagiousness Infectious diseases are sometimes called contagious disease when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions (e.g., influenza). Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted. Other types of infectious, transmissible, or communicable diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually not regarded as \"contagious\", and often do not require medical isolation (sometimes loosely called quarantine) of victims. However, this specialized connotation of the word \"contagious\" and \"contagious","-24.36518449264986"],["appears to be essential for infection with both Ebola and Marburg virus. Two independent studies reported in the same issue of Nature showed that Ebola virus cell entry and replication requires NPC1. When cells from patients lacking NPC1 were exposed to Ebola virus in the laboratory, the cells survived and appeared immune to the virus, further indicating that Ebola relies on NPC1 to enter cells. This might imply that genetic mutations in the NPC1 gene in humans could make some people resistant to one of the deadliest known viruses affecting humans. The same studies described similar results with Marburg virus,","-24.322633501607925"],["respiratory infections. Nonetheless, infectious diseases are still a major cause of illness and death in the region, and the risk of new and reemerging diseases remains substantial. \nWidening income disparities, periodic economic shocks, and rampant urbanization have disrupted disease control efforts and contributed to widespread reemergence of cholera, malaria, TB, and dengue, especially in the poorer Central American and Caribbean countries and in the Amazon basin of South America. According to the AFMIC typology, Latin America's health care capacity is substantially more advanced than that of Sub-Saharan Africa and somewhat better than mainland Asia's, with 70–90% of populations having access","-24.316057530406397"],["\"catastrophic\" and \"deteriorating daily\". They reported that fears of Ebola among staff members and patients had shut down much of the city's health system, leaving many people without medical treatment for other conditions. In a 26 September statement, WHO said, \"The Ebola epidemic ravaging parts of West Africa is the most severe acute public health emergency seen in modern times. Never before in recorded history has a biosafety level four pathogen infected so many people so quickly, over such a broad geographical area, for so long.\"\nIntense contact tracing and strict isolation largely prevented further spread of the disease in the","-24.3157616131939"],["natural resistance to the infection and it is only when viruses become well-adapted to new host that their virulence decreases. Some zoonotic infections are often \"dead ends\", in that after the initial outbreak the rate of subsequent infections subsides because the viruses are not efficient at spreading from person to person.\nThe beginning of the 21st century saw an increase in the global awareness of devastating epidemics in developing countries, which, in previous decades had passed relatively unnoticed by the international health community. Beneficial viruses Sir Peter Medawar (1915–1987) described a virus as \"a piece of bad news wrapped","-24.23735196038615"],["Ebola due to a laboratory error, and has been placed into quarantine.\n United Kingdom On 29 December, Pauline Cafferkey, a healthcare worker returning from West Africa to Scotland, was diagnosed with Ebola. She was taken to a specialist treatment centre in London the next day.\n On December 29, confirmed cases exceeded 20,000 and confirmed deaths exceeded 7,800.\n Iraq On December 31, unnamed health officials in Mosul hospital allegedly maintained that Ebola had stricken \"Da'ish gunmen\" (ISIS jihad fighters) of African origin. The reports are not independently confirmed. January 2015 On January 3, confirmed deaths reach 8,000.\n On January 4, ISIS","-24.228089287353214"],["many other African nations due to improved access to antiretroviral therapy.\nSouth & South East Asia is the second most affected; in 2010 this region contained an estimated 4 million cases or 12% of all people living with HIV resulting in approximately 250,000 deaths. Approximately 2.4 million of these cases are in India.\nIn 2008 in the United States approximately 1.2 million people were living with HIV, resulting in about 17,500 deaths. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimated that in 2008 20% of infected Americans were unaware of their infection. As of 2016 about 675,000 people have died of HIV/AIDS in","-24.225103908102028"],["immunity to these viruses. The reasons people are unvaccinated range from lack of access to vaccines in areas of insecurity, to poor performing health systems, to vaccine refusals. We need to address each of these challenges if we’re going to meet global measles and rubella elimination goals,\" said Dr. Myrna Charles of the American Red Cross, as reported in a post in the Measles and Rubella Initiative's blog. A look at the WHO's epidemiological graph of measles over time from 2008-2013 show that, with little more of two years to go to 2015, measles cases in 2013 are moving in","-24.19159336501616"],["because it suggests that, in very densely populated or overcrowded areas, such as slums, natural selection may favour more virulent viruses.\nThis also helps explain why good hygiene is so important. Good hygiene selects against highly virulent viruses by lowering the ability of pathogens to transmit. Influenza The H5N1 virus is a particularly lethal strain of influenza. Currently, it can infect humans, but it is not contagious. Still, over 600 people have died from the H5N1 virus, and so the transmissibility of the virus is of major concern to scientists.\nSeveral serial passage experiments have been conducted to determine the feasibility of","-24.189088570303284"],["Contagious disease Effect on Public Health Response Most epidemics are caused by contagious diseases, with occasional exceptions, such as yellow fever. The spread of non-contagious communicable diseases is changed either very little or not at all by medical isolation of ill persons or medical quarantine for exposed persons. Thus, a \"contagious disease\" is sometimes defined in practical terms, as a disease for which isolation or quarantine are useful public health responses. Originally, the term referred to a contagion (a derivative of 'contact') or disease transmissible only by direct physical contact. In the modern-day, the term has sometimes been broadened to","-24.188176708179526"],["people died of Ebola in neighbouring Uganda.\nIn July 2019, an infected man travelled to Goma, home to more than 2 million people. One week later, on 17 July 2019, the WHO declared the Ebola outbreak a global health emergency, the fifth time such a declaration has been made by the organization. A government spokesman said that half of the Ebola cases are unidentified, and he added that the current outbreak could last up to three years. Weaponization Ebolavirus is classified as a biosafety level 4 agent, as well as a Category A bioterrorism agent by the Centers for Disease Control","-24.17203534930013"],["a faster rate, and over a wider geographic area, than in the past. The rapid re-emergence is due to expanding global transportation networks, the mosquito's increasing ability to adapt to urban settings, the disruption of traditional land use and the inability to control expanding mosquito populations. Like malaria, other arboviruses do not have a vaccine. The only exception is yellow fever. Prevention is focused on reducing the adult mosquito populations, controlling mosquito larvae and protecting individuals from mosquito bites. Depending on the mosquito vector, and the affected community, a variety of prevention methods may be deployed at one time. Insecticidal","-24.156577986170305"],["It is common for people to dread some risks but not others: They tend to be very afraid of epidemic diseases, nuclear power plant failures, and plane accidents but are relatively unconcerned about some highly frequent and deadly events, such as traffic crashes, household accidents, and medical errors. One key distinction of dreadful risks seems to be their potential for catastrophic consequences, threatening to kill a large number of people within a short period of time. For example, immediately after the 11 September attacks, many Americans were afraid to fly and took their car instead, a decision that led to","-24.154587274766527"],["Mosquito-borne disease Mosquito-borne diseases or mosquito-borne illnesses are diseases caused by bacteria, viruses or parasites transmitted by mosquitoes. They can transmit disease without being affected themselves. Nearly 700 million people get a mosquito-borne illness each year resulting in over one million deaths.\nDiseases transmitted by mosquitoes include malaria, dengue, West Nile virus, chikungunya, yellow fever, filariasis, tularemia, dirofilariasis, Japanese encephalitis, Saint Louis encephalitis, Western equine encephalitis, Eastern equine encephalitis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, Ross River fever, Barmah Forest fever, La Crosse encephalitis, and Zika fever, as well as newly detected Keystone virus and Rift Valley fever. Protozoa The female mosquito of the","-24.118393191842188"],["are vaccine-hesitant. Once such diseases (e.g., Haemophilus influenzae B) decrease in prevalence, people may no longer appreciate how serious the illness is due to a lack of familiarity with it and become complacent. The lack of personal experience with these diseases reduces the perceived danger and thus reduces the perceived benefit of immunization. Conversely, certain illnesses (e.g., influenza) remain so common that vaccine-hesitant people mistakenly perceive the illness to be non-threatening despite clear evidence that the illness poses a significant threat to human health. Omission and disconfirmation biases also contribute to vaccine hesitancy. \nVarious concerns about immunization have been raised.","-24.086295902729034"],["“If H7N9 viruses acquire the ability to transmit efficiently from person to person, a worldwide outbreak is almost certain since humans lack protective immune responses to these types of viruses.”\nOn August 6, 2013, the British Medical Journal released the results of epidemiological investigations conducted after a family cluster of two patients were infected with avian H7N9 in March 2013 and later died in April and May. A 60-year-old man became infected after an exposure to poultry and his daughter, who had not been exposed to poultry but had cared for her ill father, became infected as well. Genome sequence","-24.078967256995384"],["virus is one of several viruses identified by WHO as a likely cause of a future epidemic in a new plan developed after the Ebola epidemic for urgent research and development before and during an epidemic toward new diagnostic tests, vaccines and medicines.\nThe outbreak was originally mistaken for Japanese encephalitis, but physicians in the area noted that persons who had been vaccinated against Japanese encephalitis were not protected in the epidemic, and the number of cases among adults was unusual. Despite the fact that these observations were recorded in the first month of the outbreak, the Ministry of Health failed","-24.059948797548714"],["and would have posed no threat to humans. The rare epidemics of viral diseases originating in animals would have been short-lived because the viruses were not fully adapted to humans and the human populations were too small to maintain the chains of infection.\nOther, more ancient, viruses have been less of a threat. Herpes viruses first infected the ancestors of modern humans over 80 million years ago. Humans have developed a tolerance to these viruses, and most are infected with at least one species. Records of these milder virus infections are rare, but it is likely that early hominids suffered","-24.058840608311584"],["and 23% of deaths are caused by environmental factors (although they vary from developing countries with 25%, and developed with 17%). Several diseases found in the study included diarrhea, respiratory infections, malaria, and unintentional injuries caused by environmental factors that can be modified by policy. Infectious diseases is a higher burden in developing countries than in developed, attributed to more exposure to environmental risks and lack of access to health care. Diseases attributed to environmental factors decrease with development to either eradication, or to levels comparable to developed regions. Children are disproportionately affected by environmental hazards. WHO found that children","-24.04849120468134"],["Health Organization's ICD. This is periodically updated. Currently the last publication is the ICD-10. Causes Only some diseases such as influenza are contagious and commonly believed infectious. The micro-organisms that cause these diseases are known as pathogens and include varieties of bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungi. Infectious diseases can be transmitted, e.g. by hand-to-mouth contact with infectious material on surfaces, by bites of insects or other carriers of the disease, and from contaminated water or food (often via fecal contamination), etc. Also, there are sexually transmitted diseases. In some cases, microorganisms that are not readily spread from person to","-24.043998280947562"],["infectious disease cases. Malaria is major cause of death because of a lack of resources to treat patients. Additionally, the water is dirty with human and industrial waste which contributes to the spread of disease. Many deaths are caused by poverty rather than a lack of cures for a disease. Poverty is a major reason for death because poor families are not able to afford proper health services and hospitals are not able to buy enough supplies. Additionally, people living in South Africa who are illegal immigrants lack resources for health care that is non-emergency. For example, many of the","-24.03919162217062"],["and that diseases such as measles, mumps, rubella and chicken pox are benign conditions that do not kill children in industrialized countries. During a studio debate on Channel 7's Sunday Night current affairs program covering the death of a four-week-old baby from whooping cough, Dorey claimed that no one ever dies from the disease, and described her own children's case of the disease as a \"storm in a teacup\" that was easily handled with natural remedies. The NSW Health Care Complaints Commission criticised the AVN's position, saying that it \"ignores the risks of exposure to, and the adverse effects of","-24.0230039000744"],["in Southeast Asia were estimated to have about 3 million infections and 6,000 deaths annually. In 2019 the Philippines declared a national dengue epidemic due to the deaths reaching 622 people that year. It is reported in at least 22 countries in Africa; but is likely present in all of them with 20% of the population at risk. This makes it one of the most common vector-borne diseases worldwide.\nInfections are most commonly acquired in the urban environment. In recent decades, the expansion of villages, towns and cities in the areas in which it is common, and the increased mobility of people","-24.020156206184765"],["for emergencies at the World Health Organization, says that in the case of the Ebola outbreak, \"there was no way anyone could guarantee the right of medical evacuation for people affected by Ebola.” \nThe CDC will scale back global disease prevention efforts by 80 percent by October 2019 due to a lack of funding (as funding had been temporarily increased in 2014 to address the Ebola epidemic).","-23.99183653399814"],["species involved in trafficking.\nAnnually, 15.8% of human deaths have been associated with dangerous infectious disease outbreaks linked to exotic trafficking. Researchers, zoologists, and environmentalists determine that financially poor countries in Africa may attribute to nearly 44% of these deaths due to zoonosis related diseases. Cultural determinants linking Africa to disease exposure African populations are exposed to an increased risk of contracting and dispatching life-threatening zoonotic infections. The continent is considered a hot spot for emerging disease transmissions for reasons like socio-culture livelihood interests, livestock farming, land use methods, globalization influences, and consumption behavior practices. Socio-Culture livelihood factors Many native Africans","-23.988517349236645"],["every continent. Because it is so rare, and commonly misdiagnosed, exactly how many people are affected by this disease is not known. The literature frequently cites that fewer than 200 cases have been reported, though a consensus is building that many more cases occur around the world than have been reported.","-23.95988710859092"],["the host. It has been shown in some studies that the risk of encountering an infected victim increases when there is a higher cannibalism rate, though this risk drops as the number of available hosts decreases. However, this is only the case if the risk of disease transmission is low. Cannibalism is an ineffective method of disease spread as cannibalism in the animal kingdom is normally a one-on-one interaction, and the spread of disease requires group cannibalism; thereby it is rare for a disease to have evolved to rely solely on cannibalism to spread. Usually there are different means of","-23.957699800259434"],["mother, sister, and grandmother then became ill with similar symptoms and also died. People infected by those initial cases spread the disease to other villages.\nAlthough Ebola represents a major public health issue in sub-Saharan Africa, no cases had ever been reported in West Africa and the early cases were diagnosed as other diseases more common to the area. Thus, the disease had several months to spread before it was recognized as Ebola. Index Case The index case in Nigeria was a Liberian-American, Patrick Sawyer, who flew from Liberia to Nigeria's most populous city of Lagos on 20 July 2014. Sawyer","-23.940950823016465"],["the prevention of AIDS since people start to believe that no matter what measures they take, they can still be prone to contracting this disease. This makes them less careful when engaging in practices that put them at risk because they believe there is no point. \"Nearly half of the 500 African Americans surveyed said that HIV is man-made. More than one-quarter said they believed that AIDS was produced in a government laboratory, and 12 percent believed it was created and spread by the CIA... At the same time, 75 percent said they believe medical and public health agencies are","-23.927198135090293"],["around them. Pathogens and Disease Outbreaks When disease outbreaks occur, it can be detrimental to an ecosystem. When a disease hits, it will usually affect more than one species, thus causing a serious outbreak. This has the potential to set off a chain reaction thus, causing endangerment to a variety of species within that ecosystem. Human Contact Humans make the most sudden and long-term changes in an environment (e.g. pollution and waste). These changes either drive species out of their territory or force them to adapt to their new surroundings. These changes have the largest impact on an ecosystems population","-23.894307168840896"],["here). Diseases can arise from infection, environmental conditions, accidents, and inherited diseases.\nIt is not always easy to classify the source of a health problem. For instance, people can develop gout, which is known to cause permanent or near permanent changes to the human body, because of diet, inherited genetic predisposition, as a secondary condition from other diseases, or as an unintended side effect of certain medications.\nInfectious diseases can be caused by pathogens and microorganisms such as viruses, prions, bacteria, parasites, and fungi.\nFor infectious, environmental, and genetically predisposed conditions,\nlifestyle choices such as exercise, nutrition, stress level, hygiene, home and work environments,","-23.886949311417993"],["leptospirosis, scrub typhus, plague, Q fever, candidiasis, histoplasmosis, trypanosomiasis, visceral leishmaniasis, measles, and viral hepatitis among others.\nNon-infectious diseases that may result in symptoms similar to those of EVD include acute promyelocytic leukemia, hemolytic uremic syndrome, snake envenomation, clotting factor deficiencies/platelet disorders, thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia, Kawasaki disease, and warfarin poisoning. Vaccines Many Ebola vaccine candidates had been developed in the decade prior to 2014, but as of November 2014, none had been approved for use in humans in the United States. In December 2016, Ebola was found to be 70–100% prevented by rVSV-ZEBOV vaccine, making it the first","-23.883452070534986"],["of communicable diseases has occurred among them. Rohingya refugees are often not vaccinated and there is worry that outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases, such as polio, measles, and tetanus, will occur if living conditions are not improved. But the UN and the WHO, along with Bangladesh Government, were quick to begin mass vaccination of the population. Measles outbreak is a dangerous threat and in 2017, the WHO announced that 136,000 children under 15 years of age were vaccinated against measles and rubella. An oral polio vaccine was also given to 72,000 children. Permanent vaccination centers are in place to assist in","-23.797548409831506"],["be “highly protective” against the virus. This confirmed the results of a study published in 2015 that awarded the vaccine 100 percent effectiveness after tests on 4000 people in Guinea who had been in close contact with Ebola patients. However, a study sponsored by the National Institutes of Health, the Food and Drug Administration and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, and conducted by researchers from the U.S. National Academy of Medicine, called the vaccine’s effectiveness in preventing Ebola infections into question. In particular, the authors criticized the methodology of the patient trail, and argued that the protection","-23.757602725061588"],["UK and thousands of animals were killed and burnt.\nThe natural hosts of influenza viruses are pigs and birds, although it has probably infected humans since antiquity. The virus can cause mild to severe epizootics in wild and domesticated animals. Many species of wild birds migrate and this has spread influenza across the continents throughout the ages. The virus has evolved into numerous strains and continues to do so, posing an ever-present threat.\nIn the early years of the 21st century epizootics in livestock caused by viruses continue to have serious consequences. Bluetongue disease, a disease caused by an orbivirus broke out","-23.735883453075076"],["plans. The CDC states that normally it would be extremely rare to catch measles from an infected passenger due to the overall high rate of vaccinated passengers on average, but the recent anti-vaccination trends threatens to disrupt that model.\nThe measles is a highly contagious disease with a secondary attack rate of 90%. Measles outbreaks can be prevented through vaccines which after two doses have a 97% effective rate. Measles had been practically eradicated in the United States. The recent outbreaks have shed light on the fact that the number of people that are choosing not to vaccinate","-23.73259949259227"],["Home deaths, once commonplace, are now rare in the developed world.\nIn developing nations, inferior sanitary conditions and lack of access to modern medical technology makes death from infectious diseases more common than in developed countries. One such disease is tuberculosis, a bacterial disease which killed 1.8M people in 2015. Malaria causes about 400–900M cases of fever and 1–3M deaths annually. AIDS death toll in Africa may reach 90–100M by 2025.\nAccording to Jean Ziegler (United Nations Special Reporter on the Right to Food, 2000 – Mar 2008), mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality rate in 2006.","-23.718458198709413"],["tourists) or intentional (e.g., meat smuggling). The risk that the ASF virus can be introduced into the US and North America has increased because of changes in production practices, increasing globalization, and outbreaks of ASF in Europe. If the virus were to enter the US, control measures must be initiated to prevent the spread of the virus and eliminate it as quickly as possible, of which the primary control and eradication strategy will be depopulation of infected and exposed susceptible animals. Classical swine fever (hog cholera) Classical swine fever (hog cholera) Classical swine fever (CSF), also known","-23.710925458115526"],["Europe. Ninety-eight percent of the world's cases occur in Africa. India In September 1994, India experienced an outbreak of plague that killed 50 and caused travel to New Delhi by air to be suspended until the outbreak was brought under control. The outbreak was feared to be much worse because the plague superficially resembles other common diseases such as influenza and bronchitis; over 200 people that had been quarantined were released when they did not test positive for the plague. All but two of the deaths occurred around the city of Surat. China The People's Republic of China has eradicated","-23.709449091082206"],["disease epidemic could recur, either deliberately (as an act of bioterrorism) or by accident due to unrestricted imports, is causing some nations, notably New Zealand, to adopt relatively harsh restrictions against imported organisms. As one objective of asymmetric warfare is to cause attacks to appear initially as accidents, or blame slow responses on apparently incompetent governments, there is some concern that spreading a virulent organism among animals would be an effective way to attack humans, damage economies, and discredit governments who are lax on biosecurity. Technologies for scanning for dangerous organisms at ports and markets are also becoming","-23.69969629944535"],["may have a natural resistance to a particular infectious disease. However, except in some special cases such as malaria, these individuals make up such a small proportion of the total population that they can be ignored for the purposes of modelling an epidemic.","-23.69093767713639"],["because good health is seen as necessary for the continuation and growth of their lineage\". Without proper health the culture will not be able to thrive and grow. Unfortunately, \"health services in many countries are swamped by the need to care for increasing numbers of infected and sick people. Ameliorative drugs are too expensive for most victims, except for a very small number who are affluent\". The greatest number of sick people with the fewest doctors, Sub-Saharan Africa \"has 11 percent of the world's population but carries 24 percent of the global disease burden. With less than 1 percent of","-23.68256480526179"],["illness and death caused by infections such as polio, measles, mumps and rubella. Vaccines are available to prevent over fourteen viral infections of humans and more are used to prevent viral infections of animals. Vaccines may consist of either live or killed viruses. Live vaccines contain weakened forms of the virus, but these vaccines can be dangerous when given to people with weak immunity. In these people, the weakened virus can cause the original disease. Biotechnology and genetic engineering techniques are used to produce \"designer\" vaccines that only have the capsid proteins of the virus. Hepatitis B vaccine is an","-23.676677837967873"],["does this. Viruses and diseases Common human diseases caused by viruses include the common cold, the flu, chickenpox and cold sores. Serious diseases such as Ebola and AIDS are also caused by viruses. Many viruses cause little or no disease and are said to be \"benign\". The more harmful viruses are described as virulent.\nViruses cause different diseases depending on the types of cell that they infect.\nSome viruses can cause lifelong or chronic infections where the viruses continue to reproduce in the body despite the host's defence mechanisms. This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. People","-23.64272587452433"],["leads to limitations on where the diseases can\nthrive, acting almost as its ‘climate niche’. Persistence of H5N1 Avian Influenza H5N1, the highly pathogenic strain of influenza, was first detected in the goose population of Gaungdong, China in 1996.\nIn February 2004, avian influenza virus was detected in birds in Vietnam, increasing fears of the emergence of new variant strains. It is feared that if the avian influenza virus combines with a human influenza virus (in a bird or a human), the new subtype created could be both highly contagious and highly lethal.\nIn October 2005, cases of the avian flu (the deadly","-23.640052065544296"],[" They report that they \"are on the ground establishing Ebola treatment centres and strengthening capacity for laboratory testing, contact tracing, social mobilization, safe burials, and non-Ebola health care\" and \"continue to monitor for reports of rumoured or suspected cases from countries around the world.\" Other than cases where individuals are suspected or have been confirmed of being infected with Ebola, or have had contact with cases of Ebola, the WHO does not recommend any travel or trade restrictions.\nOn 16 September, the WHO Assistant Director General, Bruce Aylward, announced that the cost for combating the epidemic will be a","-23.638027902357862"],["population had traces of the pathogen within a 4 month period). While individuals of all ages risk exposure to malaria, those under the age of five are particularly susceptible to the disease. Children account for the majority of both local and global malaria cases because they lack the adaptive immunity that comes with repeated exposure. Other examples of holoendemic diseases include ocular trachoma in certain areas in sub-Saharan Africa, where virtually all children in those populations have been infected, and hepatitis B in areas of the Marquesas Islands.","-23.620859545248095"],["parasite due to multiple bites by mosquitoes that carry the parasite are at greater risk of dying. Infected humans can also transmit the disease to uninfected or healthy humans via contaminated blood. Health Effects The health effects caused by shifts in malaria transmission rates in the African Highlands have the potential to be severe. Research has shown that the effects of climate change on health will impact most populations over the next few decades. However, Africa, and specifically the African Highlands, are susceptible to being particularly negatively affected. In 2010, 91% of the global burden due to malaria deaths occurred","-23.617430162557866"],["pollution. Scientists predict the African continent will be the first to experience the effects of global warming where widespread poverty will put millions at further risk due to their limited capabilities to adapt. The potential is great for a more sustainable Africa with commitment from within and outside the region. Pneumonia is the number one killer of children in the world and indoor air pollution is a strongly significant risk factor for severe pneumonia. The global health community designated 2 November to be World Pneumonia Day in order to raise awareness about the disease and its causes.","-23.609234321746044"],["Risk factors for tuberculosis There are a number risk factors for tuberculosis infection; worldwide the most important of these is HIV. Co-infection with HIV is a particular problem in Sub-Saharan Africa, due to the high incidence of HIV in these countries. Smoking more than 20 cigarettes a day increases the risk of TB by two to four times while silicosis increases the risk about 30 fold. Diabetes mellitus is also an important risk factor that is growing in importance in developing countries. Other disease states that increase the risk of developing tuberculosis are Hodgkin lymphoma, end-stage renal disease, chronic lung","-23.595945308581577"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"aim of protecting people from malaria during the disease's peak season. A spokesman said \\\"In the context of Ebola, malaria is a major concern, because people who are sick with malaria have the same symptoms as people sick with Ebola. As a result, most people turn up at Ebola treatment centres thinking that they have Ebola, when actually they have malaria. It's a huge load on the system, as well as being a huge stress on patients and their families.\\\"\\nBetween 14 December and 17 December Sierra Leone reported 403 new cases with a total of 8,759 cases on the latter\",\n \"-28.708701925119385\"\n ],\n [\n \"humans is caused by four of five viruses of the genus Ebolavirus. The four are Bundibugyo virus (BDBV), Sudan virus (SUDV), Taï Forest virus (TAFV) and one simply called Ebola virus (EBOV, formerly Zaire Ebola virus). EBOV, species Zaire ebolavirus, is the most dangerous of the known EVD-causing viruses, and is responsible for the largest number of outbreaks. The fifth virus, Reston virus (RESTV), is not thought to cause disease in humans, but has caused disease in other primates. All five viruses are closely related to marburgviruses. Virology Ebolaviruses contain single-stranded, non-infectious RNA genomes. Ebolavirus genomes contain seven genes including\",\n \"-28.366066872084048\"\n ],\n [\n \"after they start. He sees globalization and global warming as contributing factors, as they have upset the ecological niches of bats, which he feels are the most likely viral reservoirs. The current outbreak, in his opinion, represents a \\\"perfect storm\\\" for a disease such as Ebola, having erupted in poor countries with meager medical care and where governments have little control over their populations.\\nLobel adds that besides Ebola, there are other \\\"bad\\\" viruses out there, which the developed world prefers to ignore so long as they aren't affected. This has resulted in little research into other infectious diseases, with the\",\n \"-28.244861942192074\"\n ],\n [\n \"of some such books admitted that they lacked medical credentials and were not technically qualified to give medical advice. The World Health Organization and the United Nations stated that such misinformation had contributed to the spread of the disease. Wild animals Ebola has a high mortality rate among primates. Frequent outbreaks of Ebola may have resulted in the deaths of 5,000 gorillas. Outbreaks of Ebola may have been responsible for an 88% decline in tracking indices of observed chimpanzee populations in the 420 km² Lossi Sanctuary between 2002 and 2003. Transmission among chimpanzees through meat consumption constitutes a significant risk factor,\",\n \"-28.006523270349135\"\n ],\n [\n \"as Ebola, of which he is one of the world's few experts and its only academic researcher outside the U.S. “Ebola is the most lethal virus,\\\" he states. \\\"It can kill 90% of those afflicted. And there is no therapy to counter it. There is a vaccine thus far tested in animals, but it takes a relatively long time to build immunity.” As monoclonal antibodies are proteins that attack specific targets, including viruses, bacteria or other foreign bodies, “the antibodies will neutralize the virus, and avoid the dangerous side effects of the existing vaccine,” he says. He anticipates that they\",\n \"-27.193704071862157\"\n ],\n [\n \"world is teetering on the edge of a pandemic that could kill a large fraction of the human population\\\" in American Scientist. He called for adequate resources to fight what he sees as a major world threat to possibly billions of lives. On September 29, 2005, David Nabarro, the newly appointed Senior United Nations System Coordinator for Avian and Human Influenza, warned the world that an outbreak of avian influenza could kill anywhere between 5 million and 150 million people. Experts have identified key events (creating new clades, infecting new species, spreading to new areas) marking the progression of an\",\n \"-27.155491529323626\"\n ],\n [\n \"was deemed to be at risk with small numbers of cases in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Nigeria.\\nIn October 2019, continuing cases of wild polio in Pakistan and Afghanistan, in addition to new vaccine-derived cases in Africa and Asia, was reviewed and remains a PHEIC. 2014 Ebola declaration Confirmed cases of Ebola were being reported in Guinea and Liberia in March 2014 and Sierra Leone by May 2014. On Friday, 8 August 2014, following the occurrence of Ebola in the United States and Europe and with the already intense transmission ongoing in three other countries for months, the WHO declared its third\",\n \"-26.626908738981\"\n ],\n [\n \"behavior and other factors may trigger outbreaks among animal populations.\\nEvidence indicates that both domestic dogs and pigs can also be infected with EBOV. Dogs do not appear to develop symptoms when they carry the virus, and pigs appear to be able to transmit the virus to at least some primates. Although some dogs in an area in which a human outbreak occurred had antibodies to EBOV, it is unclear whether they played a role in spreading the disease to people. Reservoir The natural reservoir for Ebola has yet to be confirmed; however, bats are considered to be the most likely\",\n \"-26.59935973508982\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the prevalence of AIDS in Africa. 3,000 Africans die each day of AIDS and an additional 11,000 are infected. Less than one percent are actually treated. However, even with the widespread prevalence of AIDS (where infection rates can approach 30% among the sexually active population), and fatal infections such as the Ebola virus, other diseases are far more problematic. In fact, the situation with AIDS is improving in some nations as infection rates drop, and deaths from Ebola are rare. On the other hand, diseases once common but now almost unknown in most of the industrialized world, like\",\n \"-26.514389062765986\"\n ],\n [\n \"of other species—but different need not mean worse.\\\" In addition, anti-malarial and mosquito control programs offer little realistic hope to the 300 million people in developing nations who will be infected with acute illnesses this year. Although trials are ongoing, she writes that if they fail: \\\"We should consider the ultimate swatting.\\\"\\nBiologist E. O. Wilson has advocated the eradication of several species of mosquito, including malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. Wilson stated, \\\"I'm talking about a very small number of species that have co-evolved with us and are preying on humans, so it would certainly be acceptable to remove them. I\",\n \"-26.152836765744723\"\n ],\n [\n \"Communicable diseases are infectious diseases that \\\"can be passed between people through proximity, social contact or intimate contact.\\\" Common diseases in this category include whooping cough or tuberculosis, HIV/AIDs, malaria, influenza (the flu), and mumps. \\nAs low-to-middle income countries continue to develop, the types of diseases that affecting populations within these countries shifts primarily from infectious diseases, such as diarrhea and pneumonia, to primarily non-communicable diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, cancer and obesity. This shift is increasingly being referred to as the risk transition. Thus, as globalization and the proliferation of pre-packaged foods\",\n \"-26.050983964523766\"\n ],\n [\n \"disease. 'And for 1 out of every 1,000 children who contract it, the disease is fatal.'\\\" \\\"The World Health Organization says measles is 'one of the leading causes of death among young children even though a safe and cost-effective vaccine is available'. There are about 140,000 deaths a year, mostly in poor countries. In Australia measles deaths are now rare because the disease has been controlled though widespread vaccination. When it does occur, the danger comes from complications such as pneumonia and encephalitis. Dr. Hambleton said while \\\"there were occasional adverse reactions to the vaccination, it was far more dangerous\",\n \"-26.03621512488462\"\n ],\n [\n \"studied of the six species that infect humans, in part because of its low prevalence and milder clinical manifestations compared to the other species. It is widespread throughout sub-Saharan Africa, much of southeast Asia, Indonesia, on many of the islands of the western Pacific and in areas of the Amazon Basin of South America. In endemic regions, prevalence ranges from less than 4% to more than 20%, but there is evidence that P. malariae infections are vastly underreported.\\nThe Center for Disease Control (CDC) has an application that allows people to view specific parts of the world and how they are\",\n \"-26.035070018842816\"\n ],\n [\n \"Humans are thought to be the sole cause as other earlier migrations of animals into North America from Eurasia did not cause extinctions.\\nThere are many problems with this theory, as this disease would have to meet several criteria: it has to be able to sustain itself in an environment with no hosts; it has to have a high infection rate; and be extremely lethal, with a mortality rate of 50–75%. Disease has to be very virulent to kill off all the individuals in a genus or species, and even such a virulent disease as West Nile fever is unlikely to\",\n \"-26.00419726455584\"\n ],\n [\n \"worldwide are at risk from the disease because they live in countries where the organism is common. In 2012, 249 million people were in need of treatment to prevent the disease. This likely makes it the most common parasitic infection with malaria second and causing about 207 million cases in 2013.\\nS. haematobium, the infectious agent responsible for urogenital schistosomiasis, infects over 112 million people annually in Sub-Saharan Africa alone. It is responsible for 32 million cases of dysuria, 10 million cases of hydronephrosis, and 150,000 deaths from renal failure annually, making S. haematobium the world’s deadliest schistosome. Deaths Estimates regarding\",\n \"-26.000770853308495\"\n ],\n [\n \"virus are difficult to study because of EBOV's virulent characteristics. Transmission It is believed that between people, Ebola disease spreads only by direct contact with the blood or other body fluids of a person who has developed symptoms of the disease. Body fluids that may contain Ebola viruses include saliva, mucus, vomit, feces, sweat, tears, breast milk, urine and semen. The WHO states that only people who are very sick are able to spread Ebola disease in saliva, and whole virus has not been reported to be transmitted through sweat. Most people spread the virus through blood, feces and vomit.\",\n \"-25.961594622138364\"\n ],\n [\n \"reported to be infected with Reston virus, so other interim or amplifying hosts may exist. Ebola virus outbreaks tend to occur when temperatures are lower and humidity is higher than usual for Africa. Even after a person recovers from the acute phase of the disease, Ebola virus survives for months in certain organs such as the eyes and testes. Ebola virus disease Ebola virus is one of the four ebolaviruses known to cause disease in humans. It has the highest case-fatality rate of these ebolaviruses, averaging 83 percent since the first outbreaks in 1976, although fatality rates up to 90\",\n \"-25.862047650036402\"\n ],\n [\n \"average people cut themselves 38% of the time when butchering bushmeat, allowing for infected bodily fluid transmissions. African women are more likely to contract these dangerous zoonotic pathogens because they're the ones handing and cooking the bushmeat . Exotic trade and disease outbreaks Ebola Virus is a rare infectious disease that is transmitted by wild animals (macaque monkeys, fruit bats, hammer-headed bats, chimpanzees, etc.) to human populations. Transmission of this virus occurs when individuals live closely to infected habitats, exchange bodily liquids, or consume infected animals. West Africa's Ebola outbreak was termed the most destructive infectious disease epidemic in recent\",\n \"-25.841475816094317\"\n ],\n [\n \"by those most in-the-know. Dr. David Nabarro, chief avian flu coordinator for the United Nations, describes himself as \\\"quite scared\\\"; says avian flu has too many unanswered questions; and if the disease starts spreading to humans, borders will close, airports will shut down, and travelers everywhere will be stranded. With evaluations of the threat ranging from those who say it is a hoax to those who warn of billions of humans dying, uncertainty and fear motivate personal behaviors around the world affecting many people even before the threat becomes reality. Pop culture The 1998 chart-topping hit song \\\"One Week\\\" by\",\n \"-25.68380903097568\"\n ],\n [\n \"antibodies to Ebola virus have been detected along with viral RNA. No culturable virus has been isolated. It is not known whether these species are incidental hosts or a reservoir of Ebola virus infection for humans and other terrestrial mammals. Despite the fact that scientists have found evidence of Ebola infections in the little collared fruit bat, the bats don't seem to get sick from the virus.\",\n \"-25.610826327931136\"\n ],\n [\n \"infectious diseases have appeared each year, and old diseases have mutated, making them more and more difficult to treat. The potential for a catastrophic global disease already exists. Why global epidemic disease? The origin of the global disease is the accumulated suffering of humans. Because of the dominance of yang over yin in the cosmic spring and summer, conflict has been the mode of development. Humans have struggled to overcome nature and each other. Men have oppressed women, some races have oppressed others, and heaven has dominated earth. So many people have suffered and harbored inside them deep bitterness and\",\n \"-25.595034499070607\"\n ],\n [\n \"be limited to random outbreaks in a few countries, rendering it more of a public health nuisance than a crisis. Political and economic reverberations still would occur, with some companies and investors looking to reduce their exposure in East Asia, particularly China.\\nThe next alternative is that \\\"SARS Gains a Foothold in Poor Countries, Regions. SARS could spread to poor countries in Africa or Asia, potentially generating more infections and deaths than before but with relatively\\nlittle international economic impact. The risk of spread would continue, however, even if SARS\\nemerged in poor countries or isolated regions of Russia and China with weak\",\n \"-25.521708512533223\"\n ],\n [\n \"diseases. Finding vaccines at all for some diseases remains extremely difficult. Without vaccines, the global world remains vulnerable to infectious diseases.\\nEvolution of disease presents a major threat in modern times. For example, the current \\\"swine flu\\\" or H1N1 virus is a new strain of an old form of flu, known for centuries as Asian flu based on its origin on that continent. From 1918–1920, a post-World War I global influenza epidemic killed an estimated 50–100 million people, including half a million in the United States alone. H1N1 is a virus that has evolved from and\",\n \"-25.441754247352947\"\n ],\n [\n \"childhood illnesses\\\". Independent data shows that measles causes the most vaccine-preventable deaths of any disease. It resulted in about 96,000 deaths in 2013. Before immunization in the United States between three and four million cases occurred each year, and the fatality rate is approximately 0.2% of those infected. Most of those who are infected and who die are less than five years old.\\nInfectious disease specialist Peter McIntyre has accused the group of manipulating research and statistics in order to make its case. \\\"It's been a real characteristic of the anti-vaccine movement ... [to claim] to be looking very extensively at\",\n \"-25.358039486818598\"\n ],\n [\n \"to neighbouring villages. By March 2014 the outbreak was severe enough to raise the concern of local health officials who reported it to the Guinean Ministry of Health. By the middle of the year the epidemic had spread to Liberia and Sierra Leone. As of June 2015, the World Health Organization reported over 27,000 cases of the disease, which had resulted in more than 11,000 deaths.\\nThe natural source of Ebola virus is probably bats. Marburg viruses are transmitted to humans by monkeys, and Lassa fever by rats (Mastomys natalensis). Zoonotic infections can be severe because humans often have no\",\n \"-25.346799536579056\"\n ],\n [\n \"Reston virus (another member of genus Ebolavirus) between infected macaques. A similar change in the current circulating strains of EBOV could greatly increase the infection and disease rates caused by EBOV. However, there is no record of any Ebola strain ever having made this transition in humans.\",\n \"-25.330379437597003\"\n ],\n [\n \"By experiencing the same stressful situations for decades, individuals become more susceptible to diseases like cardiovascular disease, obesity, diabetes, and mental illnesses including schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Diseases Together, diseases of poverty kill approximately 14 million people annually. Gastroenteritis with its associated diarrhea results in about 1.8 million deaths in children yearly with most of these in the world's poorest nations.\\nAt the global level, the three primary PRDs are tuberculosis, AIDS/HIV and malaria. Developing countries account for 95% of the global AIDS prevalence and 98% of active tuberculosis infections. Furthermore, 90% of malaria deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa. Together, these\",\n \"-25.229394031804986\"\n ],\n [\n \"Africa where social and economic inequalities are common. The central African countries are the most prevalent of EVD; like Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, Uganda, and Gabon\\nIn 2014 there was an outbreak of the Ebola virus in West Africa. As of 19 October 2014, there had been 3,706 cases of Ebola in Sierra Leone, and 1,259 deaths, including that of the leading physician trying to control the outbreak, Sheik Umar Khan. In early August 2014 Guinea closed its borders to Sierra Leone to help contain the spreading of the virus, which originated in Guinea, as more new cases of the\",\n \"-25.20493897545748\"\n ],\n [\n \"that lies at the centre of both a highly-mobile and densely populated region which has made tracking more difficult: \\\"This time, the virus is traveling effortlessly across borders by plane, car and foot, shifting from forests to cities and springing up in clusters far from any previously known infections. Border closures, flight bans and mass quarantines have been ineffective.\\\" Peter Piot, who co-discovered Ebola, said Ebola \\\"isn't striking in a 'linear fashion' this time. It's hopping around, especially in Liberia, Guinea and Sierra Leone\\\". Fear of healthcare workers and clinics Containment has also been difficult due to fear\",\n \"-25.1700002886937\"\n ],\n [\n \"countries that had imported cases. As of 8 May 2016, 28,646 suspected cases and 11,323 deaths were reported; however, the WHO said that these numbers may be underestimated. Because they work closely with the body fluids of infected patients, healthcare workers were especially vulnerable to infection ; in August 2014, the WHO reported that 10% of the dead were healthcare workers.\\nIn September 2014, it was estimated that the countries' capacity for treating Ebola patients was insufficient by the equivalent of 2,122 beds; by December there were a sufficient number of beds to treat and isolate all reported Ebola cases, although the uneven\",\n \"-25.154930697055534\"\n ],\n [\n \"Messenger states in the book that she has raised three children \\\"vaccine-free and childhood disease-free\\\". The scientific data Independent data shows that measles causes the most vaccine-preventable deaths of any disease, resulting in about 96,000 deaths in 2013, and the vaccine is 97% effective after two shots. Measles is highly contagious – before immunization in the United States there were between three and four million cases annually – and the fatality rate is approximately 0.2% of those infected. Most of those who are infected and who die are less than five years old. Reception Although the book was first published\",\n \"-25.118836464593187\"\n ],\n [\n \"was not recognized until March 2014. For several months the epidemic was spreading. This is something that public health experts in the affected locations, such as Medecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders), claimed was due to a deeply flawed and delayed response by health and government officials.\\nIn an interview later in 2015, once Ebola had largely been brought under control, Nabarro said that when he started working on Ebola in 2014, he \\\"was aware that we were in the middle of a disease outbreak of enormous proportions. The number of people getting sick was doubling every week. Facilities were completely\",\n \"-25.08953786670463\"\n ],\n [\n \"on these fallen fruits. This chain of events forms a possible indirect means of transmission from the natural host to animal populations.\\nAlthough primates and other species may be intermediates, evidence suggests people primarily contract the virus from bats. Since most people buy smoked bushmeat, hunters and people preparing the food have the highest risk of infection. Hunters usually shoot, net, scavenge or catapult their prey, and butcher the bats without gloves, getting bites or scratches and coming in contact with their blood.\\nIn 2014, the suspected index case for the Ebola outbreak in West Africa is a two-year-old child in\",\n \"-25.005778420716524\"\n ],\n [\n \"life and the burden of disease and disability.\\\"\\nOn 5 May 2014, WHO announced that the spread of polio was a world health emergency – outbreaks of the disease in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East were considered \\\"extraordinary\\\".\\nOn 8 August 2014, WHO declared that the spread of Ebola was a public health emergency; an outbreak which was believed to have started in Guinea had spread to other nearby countries such as Liberia and Sierra Leone. The situation in West Africa was considered very serious. g) Health policy WHO addresses government health policy with two aims: firstly, \\\"to address the underlying\",\n \"-24.983950857364107\"\n ],\n [\n \"is possible that they can be changed to increase their ability to cause disease, make them resistant to current medicines, or to increase their ability to be spread into the environment. Biological agents in the hands of terrorists pose serious threats to states’ security because they can be easily spread through the air, through water, and through food. Biological agents can also be difficult to detect and often do not cause illness for several hours to several days. A prominent example of a bioterrorist attack on the United States is the September 2001 anthrax attacks. On September 18,\",\n \"-24.93687313157716\"\n ],\n [\n \"realities of living with the virus may be one reason why infection rates have been rising. However, the BBC also described bugchasing as more internet fantasy than reality, saying that, \\\"Dyer finds that the overwhelming majority of the talk is pure fantasy.\\\" The article also quotes Will Nutland, head of health promotion at Terrence Higgins Trust, as saying, \\\"The concepts of 'gift giving' and 'bug chasers' are definitely based more in fantasy than reality\\\" as well as Deborah Jack, chief executive of the National AIDS Trust, who said, \\\"There is very little evidence of people trying to get infected with\",\n \"-24.901281608035788\"\n ],\n [\n \"7 million doses of vaccine have been exhausted in the vaccination campaign against the outbreak in Angola. If yellow fever spread to the 18 countries in Asia where the mosquito vector is present, more than 2 billion people would be at risk. They stated: \\\"Apocalyptic forecasts of the numbers of fatalities from Ebola turned out to be wildly wrong, and we can hope that will again be the case here, but given the way Zika has exploded in the Western hemisphere, we can't count on it.\\\" CDC said they could not assist as much in the outbreak because all\",\n \"-24.855222337064333\"\n ],\n [\n \"in Mali\\nSince October 2014, when Mali had its first Ebola virus outbreak, there has been a total of eight cases of Ebola with six deaths. However, due to the high number of outbreaks in neighboring countries like Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea, Mali is ranked as one of the top countries at risk for an outbreak of Ebola.\\nRabies: Dog rabies is frequent within Mali, especially the Bamako area (the most hospitalized and urbanized). 17% of people living in Bamako are vaccinated, while others have received no immunization against the rabies. The World Health Organization has set the goal of recommended\",\n \"-24.84261041157879\"\n ],\n [\n \"fastest-growing causes of disease burden over the last 26 years were diabetes (rate increased by 80%) and ischemic heart disease (up 34%). More than 60% of deaths, about 6.1 million, in 2016 were due to NCDs, up from about 38% in 1990. Increases in refugee urbanization, has led to a growing number of people diagnosed with chronic noncommunicable diseases.\\nIn September 2011, the United Nations is hosting its first General Assembly Special Summit on the issue of non-communicable diseases. Noting that non-communicable diseases are the cause of some 35 million deaths each year, the international community is being increasingly called to\",\n \"-24.796558556430682\"\n ],\n [\n \"not possible. This reduced rate of antigenic change, combined with its limited host range (inhibiting cross species antigenic shift), ensures that pandemics of influenza B do not occur. Influenzavirus C This genus has one species, influenza C virus, which infects humans, dogs and pigs, sometimes causing both severe illness and local epidemics. However, influenza C is less common than the other types and usually only causes mild disease in children. Influenzavirus D This genus has only one species, influenza D virus, which infects pigs and cattle. The virus has the potential to infect humans, although no such cases have been\",\n \"-24.781417351099662\"\n ],\n [\n \"that averted an estimated 1.4 million measles deaths worldwide. The vaccine for measles has led to the near-complete elimination of the disease in the United States and other developed countries. While the vaccine is made with a live virus which can cause side effects, these are far fewer and less serious than the sickness and death caused by measles itself, side effects ranging from rashes to, rarely, convulsions, occur in a small percentage of recipients.\\nMeasles is common worldwide. Although it was declared eliminated from the U.S. in 2000, high rates of vaccination and excellent communication with those who refuse vaccination\",\n \"-24.722504772653338\"\n ],\n [\n \"lungs. In pregnant women in can cause miscarriages or pre-mature births. While measles is almost gone from the United States, it still kills about 164,000 people each year around the world. In developing countries that suffer from malnutrition and vitamin A deficiency, measles has been known to kill as many as 1 out of 4 people and it is the leading cause of blindness among African children. Transmission Measles spreads from person to person and is extremely contagious, 90% of people close to the infected individual that are not immune will become infected as well. The virus is spread through\",\n \"-24.684095446020365\"\n ],\n [\n \"malaria, tuberculosis, tapeworm and dysentery often claim far more victims, particularly among the young. Polio has made a comeback recently due to misinformation spread by anti-American Islamic groups in Nigeria. Diseases native to Africa, such as sleeping sickness, also resist attempts at elimination too. Poor infrastructure Clean potable water is rare in most of Africa (even those parts outside the sub-Saharan region) despite the fact that the continent is crossed by several major rivers and contains some of the largest freshwater lakes in the world. However, many of the major population centres are coastal, and few major cities have adequate\",\n \"-24.634594594710506\"\n ],\n [\n \"infection might even be beneficial to the host. The lethal viral diseases are believed to have resulted from an \\\"accidental\\\" jump of the virus from a species in which it is benign to a new one that is not accustomed to it (see zoonosis). For example, viruses that cause serious influenza in humans probably have pigs or birds as their natural host, and HIV is thought to derive from the benign non-human primate virus SIV.\\nWhile it has been possible to prevent (certain) viral diseases by vaccination for a long time, the development of antiviral drugs to treat viral diseases is\",\n \"-24.63249554327922\"\n ],\n [\n \"of contention.\\nAlthough this disease is not dangerous to humans and rarely fatal to otherwise healthy animals, it reduces milk and meat production. Outbreaks can be stopped quickly if farmers and transporters are forced to abide by existing rules. Therefore, (besides temporary discomfort to the animals), any outbreak in the rich world should not be much more as a localized, cyclical economic problem. For countries with free roaming wildlife it is nearly impossible to prove that they are entirely free of this disease. If they try they are forced to erect nationwide fences, which destroys wildlife migration. Because detecting and reporting\",\n \"-24.63217474349949\"\n ],\n [\n \"heightened risk for contracting HIV and pre-term deliveries.\\nIn addition, availability of cures and recent advances in medicine have led to only three diseases being considered neglected diseases, namely, African trypanosomiasis, Chagas disease and Leishmaniasis. Malaria Africa accounts for a majority of malaria infections and deaths worldwide. Over 80 percent of the 300 to 500 million malaria infections occurring annually worldwide are in Africa. Each year, about one million children under the age of five die from malaria. Children who are poor, have mothers with little to no education, and live in rural areas are more susceptible to malaria and more\",\n \"-24.53413834087405\"\n ],\n [\n \"rational responses to abnormal behavior. For example, Ebola received loads of media attention when it became rampant in Africa and eventually spread to the US, however, researchers never really paid attention to its psychological effects on the African brain. Extreme anxiety, struggles with grief, feelings of rejection and incompetence, depression leading to suicide, PTSD, and much more are only some of the noted affects of diseases like Ebola. These epidemics come and go, but their lasting effects on mental health are remaining for years to come, and even ending lives because of the lack of action. There has been some\",\n \"-24.509634052810725\"\n ],\n [\n \"Post-Ebola virus syndrome Cause Although there is some progress that may potentially help Ebola survivors, adequate funding and further research is required to help provide more answers about post-Ebola syndrome. Studies from previous outbreaks reveal that the virus is able to survive for months after recovery in some parts of the body such as the eyes and testes, where the immune system cannot reach. It is not known if the neurologic symptoms seen in survivors are a direct result of the virus or, instead, triggered by the immune system’s response to the infection. It is known that\",\n \"-24.505555056224694\"\n ],\n [\n \"a dangerous (and irreversible) rate and the people of the United States live in constant fear of biological terrorism attacks.\\nThe ultimate source of the global virus in the novel is unknown; however, it is implied that the source of the virus was involved in one way or another in the inflamed war on terrorism. Though it is left ambiguous, it is possible that the ultimate source of the virus may have even been the United States government: this hypothesis is supported by an early epicenter of the virus being in the Middle East, which when considered with the virus'\",\n \"-24.42946583583398\"\n ],\n [\n \"6,000), and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (5,600) had the most cases. A 2015 collaboration between the World Health Organization, World Organization of Animal Health (OIE), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (FAO), and Global Alliance for Rabies Control has a goal of eliminating deaths from rabies by 2030. India India has the highest rate of human rabies in the world, primarily because of stray dogs, whose number has greatly increased since a 2001 law forbade the killing of dogs. Effective control and treatment of rabies in India is hindered by a form of mass hysteria known\",\n \"-24.404172575770644\"\n ],\n [\n \"to assist with tracking down the sources of infection. Contagiousness Infectious diseases are sometimes called contagious disease when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions (e.g., influenza). Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted. Other types of infectious, transmissible, or communicable diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually not regarded as \\\"contagious\\\", and often do not require medical isolation (sometimes loosely called quarantine) of victims. However, this specialized connotation of the word \\\"contagious\\\" and \\\"contagious\",\n \"-24.36518449264986\"\n ],\n [\n \"appears to be essential for infection with both Ebola and Marburg virus. Two independent studies reported in the same issue of Nature showed that Ebola virus cell entry and replication requires NPC1. When cells from patients lacking NPC1 were exposed to Ebola virus in the laboratory, the cells survived and appeared immune to the virus, further indicating that Ebola relies on NPC1 to enter cells. This might imply that genetic mutations in the NPC1 gene in humans could make some people resistant to one of the deadliest known viruses affecting humans. The same studies described similar results with Marburg virus,\",\n \"-24.322633501607925\"\n ],\n [\n \"respiratory infections. Nonetheless, infectious diseases are still a major cause of illness and death in the region, and the risk of new and reemerging diseases remains substantial. \\nWidening income disparities, periodic economic shocks, and rampant urbanization have disrupted disease control efforts and contributed to widespread reemergence of cholera, malaria, TB, and dengue, especially in the poorer Central American and Caribbean countries and in the Amazon basin of South America. According to the AFMIC typology, Latin America's health care capacity is substantially more advanced than that of Sub-Saharan Africa and somewhat better than mainland Asia's, with 70–90% of populations having access\",\n \"-24.316057530406397\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"catastrophic\\\" and \\\"deteriorating daily\\\". They reported that fears of Ebola among staff members and patients had shut down much of the city's health system, leaving many people without medical treatment for other conditions. In a 26 September statement, WHO said, \\\"The Ebola epidemic ravaging parts of West Africa is the most severe acute public health emergency seen in modern times. Never before in recorded history has a biosafety level four pathogen infected so many people so quickly, over such a broad geographical area, for so long.\\\"\\nIntense contact tracing and strict isolation largely prevented further spread of the disease in the\",\n \"-24.3157616131939\"\n ],\n [\n \"natural resistance to the infection and it is only when viruses become well-adapted to new host that their virulence decreases. Some zoonotic infections are often \\\"dead ends\\\", in that after the initial outbreak the rate of subsequent infections subsides because the viruses are not efficient at spreading from person to person.\\nThe beginning of the 21st century saw an increase in the global awareness of devastating epidemics in developing countries, which, in previous decades had passed relatively unnoticed by the international health community. Beneficial viruses Sir Peter Medawar (1915–1987) described a virus as \\\"a piece of bad news wrapped\",\n \"-24.23735196038615\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ebola due to a laboratory error, and has been placed into quarantine.\\n United Kingdom On 29 December, Pauline Cafferkey, a healthcare worker returning from West Africa to Scotland, was diagnosed with Ebola. She was taken to a specialist treatment centre in London the next day.\\n On December 29, confirmed cases exceeded 20,000 and confirmed deaths exceeded 7,800.\\n Iraq On December 31, unnamed health officials in Mosul hospital allegedly maintained that Ebola had stricken \\\"Da'ish gunmen\\\" (ISIS jihad fighters) of African origin. The reports are not independently confirmed. January 2015 On January 3, confirmed deaths reach 8,000.\\n On January 4, ISIS\",\n \"-24.228089287353214\"\n ],\n [\n \"many other African nations due to improved access to antiretroviral therapy.\\nSouth & South East Asia is the second most affected; in 2010 this region contained an estimated 4 million cases or 12% of all people living with HIV resulting in approximately 250,000 deaths. Approximately 2.4 million of these cases are in India.\\nIn 2008 in the United States approximately 1.2 million people were living with HIV, resulting in about 17,500 deaths. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimated that in 2008 20% of infected Americans were unaware of their infection. As of 2016 about 675,000 people have died of HIV/AIDS in\",\n \"-24.225103908102028\"\n ],\n [\n \"immunity to these viruses. The reasons people are unvaccinated range from lack of access to vaccines in areas of insecurity, to poor performing health systems, to vaccine refusals. We need to address each of these challenges if we’re going to meet global measles and rubella elimination goals,\\\" said Dr. Myrna Charles of the American Red Cross, as reported in a post in the Measles and Rubella Initiative's blog. A look at the WHO's epidemiological graph of measles over time from 2008-2013 show that, with little more of two years to go to 2015, measles cases in 2013 are moving in\",\n \"-24.19159336501616\"\n ],\n [\n \"because it suggests that, in very densely populated or overcrowded areas, such as slums, natural selection may favour more virulent viruses.\\nThis also helps explain why good hygiene is so important. Good hygiene selects against highly virulent viruses by lowering the ability of pathogens to transmit. Influenza The H5N1 virus is a particularly lethal strain of influenza. Currently, it can infect humans, but it is not contagious. Still, over 600 people have died from the H5N1 virus, and so the transmissibility of the virus is of major concern to scientists.\\nSeveral serial passage experiments have been conducted to determine the feasibility of\",\n \"-24.189088570303284\"\n ],\n [\n \"Contagious disease Effect on Public Health Response Most epidemics are caused by contagious diseases, with occasional exceptions, such as yellow fever. The spread of non-contagious communicable diseases is changed either very little or not at all by medical isolation of ill persons or medical quarantine for exposed persons. Thus, a \\\"contagious disease\\\" is sometimes defined in practical terms, as a disease for which isolation or quarantine are useful public health responses. Originally, the term referred to a contagion (a derivative of 'contact') or disease transmissible only by direct physical contact. In the modern-day, the term has sometimes been broadened to\",\n \"-24.188176708179526\"\n ],\n [\n \"people died of Ebola in neighbouring Uganda.\\nIn July 2019, an infected man travelled to Goma, home to more than 2 million people. One week later, on 17 July 2019, the WHO declared the Ebola outbreak a global health emergency, the fifth time such a declaration has been made by the organization. A government spokesman said that half of the Ebola cases are unidentified, and he added that the current outbreak could last up to three years. Weaponization Ebolavirus is classified as a biosafety level 4 agent, as well as a Category A bioterrorism agent by the Centers for Disease Control\",\n \"-24.17203534930013\"\n ],\n [\n \"a faster rate, and over a wider geographic area, than in the past. The rapid re-emergence is due to expanding global transportation networks, the mosquito's increasing ability to adapt to urban settings, the disruption of traditional land use and the inability to control expanding mosquito populations. Like malaria, other arboviruses do not have a vaccine. The only exception is yellow fever. Prevention is focused on reducing the adult mosquito populations, controlling mosquito larvae and protecting individuals from mosquito bites. Depending on the mosquito vector, and the affected community, a variety of prevention methods may be deployed at one time. Insecticidal\",\n \"-24.156577986170305\"\n ],\n [\n \"It is common for people to dread some risks but not others: They tend to be very afraid of epidemic diseases, nuclear power plant failures, and plane accidents but are relatively unconcerned about some highly frequent and deadly events, such as traffic crashes, household accidents, and medical errors. One key distinction of dreadful risks seems to be their potential for catastrophic consequences, threatening to kill a large number of people within a short period of time. For example, immediately after the 11 September attacks, many Americans were afraid to fly and took their car instead, a decision that led to\",\n \"-24.154587274766527\"\n ],\n [\n \"Mosquito-borne disease Mosquito-borne diseases or mosquito-borne illnesses are diseases caused by bacteria, viruses or parasites transmitted by mosquitoes. They can transmit disease without being affected themselves. Nearly 700 million people get a mosquito-borne illness each year resulting in over one million deaths.\\nDiseases transmitted by mosquitoes include malaria, dengue, West Nile virus, chikungunya, yellow fever, filariasis, tularemia, dirofilariasis, Japanese encephalitis, Saint Louis encephalitis, Western equine encephalitis, Eastern equine encephalitis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, Ross River fever, Barmah Forest fever, La Crosse encephalitis, and Zika fever, as well as newly detected Keystone virus and Rift Valley fever. Protozoa The female mosquito of the\",\n \"-24.118393191842188\"\n ],\n [\n \"are vaccine-hesitant. Once such diseases (e.g., Haemophilus influenzae B) decrease in prevalence, people may no longer appreciate how serious the illness is due to a lack of familiarity with it and become complacent. The lack of personal experience with these diseases reduces the perceived danger and thus reduces the perceived benefit of immunization. Conversely, certain illnesses (e.g., influenza) remain so common that vaccine-hesitant people mistakenly perceive the illness to be non-threatening despite clear evidence that the illness poses a significant threat to human health. Omission and disconfirmation biases also contribute to vaccine hesitancy. \\nVarious concerns about immunization have been raised.\",\n \"-24.086295902729034\"\n ],\n [\n \"“If H7N9 viruses acquire the ability to transmit efficiently from person to person, a worldwide outbreak is almost certain since humans lack protective immune responses to these types of viruses.”\\nOn August 6, 2013, the British Medical Journal released the results of epidemiological investigations conducted after a family cluster of two patients were infected with avian H7N9 in March 2013 and later died in April and May. A 60-year-old man became infected after an exposure to poultry and his daughter, who had not been exposed to poultry but had cared for her ill father, became infected as well. Genome sequence\",\n \"-24.078967256995384\"\n ],\n [\n \"virus is one of several viruses identified by WHO as a likely cause of a future epidemic in a new plan developed after the Ebola epidemic for urgent research and development before and during an epidemic toward new diagnostic tests, vaccines and medicines.\\nThe outbreak was originally mistaken for Japanese encephalitis, but physicians in the area noted that persons who had been vaccinated against Japanese encephalitis were not protected in the epidemic, and the number of cases among adults was unusual. Despite the fact that these observations were recorded in the first month of the outbreak, the Ministry of Health failed\",\n \"-24.059948797548714\"\n ],\n [\n \"and would have posed no threat to humans. The rare epidemics of viral diseases originating in animals would have been short-lived because the viruses were not fully adapted to humans and the human populations were too small to maintain the chains of infection.\\nOther, more ancient, viruses have been less of a threat. Herpes viruses first infected the ancestors of modern humans over 80 million years ago. Humans have developed a tolerance to these viruses, and most are infected with at least one species. Records of these milder virus infections are rare, but it is likely that early hominids suffered\",\n \"-24.058840608311584\"\n ],\n [\n \"and 23% of deaths are caused by environmental factors (although they vary from developing countries with 25%, and developed with 17%). Several diseases found in the study included diarrhea, respiratory infections, malaria, and unintentional injuries caused by environmental factors that can be modified by policy. Infectious diseases is a higher burden in developing countries than in developed, attributed to more exposure to environmental risks and lack of access to health care. Diseases attributed to environmental factors decrease with development to either eradication, or to levels comparable to developed regions. Children are disproportionately affected by environmental hazards. WHO found that children\",\n \"-24.04849120468134\"\n ],\n [\n \"Health Organization's ICD. This is periodically updated. Currently the last publication is the ICD-10. Causes Only some diseases such as influenza are contagious and commonly believed infectious. The micro-organisms that cause these diseases are known as pathogens and include varieties of bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungi. Infectious diseases can be transmitted, e.g. by hand-to-mouth contact with infectious material on surfaces, by bites of insects or other carriers of the disease, and from contaminated water or food (often via fecal contamination), etc. Also, there are sexually transmitted diseases. In some cases, microorganisms that are not readily spread from person to\",\n \"-24.043998280947562\"\n ],\n [\n \"infectious disease cases. Malaria is major cause of death because of a lack of resources to treat patients. Additionally, the water is dirty with human and industrial waste which contributes to the spread of disease. Many deaths are caused by poverty rather than a lack of cures for a disease. Poverty is a major reason for death because poor families are not able to afford proper health services and hospitals are not able to buy enough supplies. Additionally, people living in South Africa who are illegal immigrants lack resources for health care that is non-emergency. For example, many of the\",\n \"-24.03919162217062\"\n ],\n [\n \"and that diseases such as measles, mumps, rubella and chicken pox are benign conditions that do not kill children in industrialized countries. During a studio debate on Channel 7's Sunday Night current affairs program covering the death of a four-week-old baby from whooping cough, Dorey claimed that no one ever dies from the disease, and described her own children's case of the disease as a \\\"storm in a teacup\\\" that was easily handled with natural remedies. The NSW Health Care Complaints Commission criticised the AVN's position, saying that it \\\"ignores the risks of exposure to, and the adverse effects of\",\n \"-24.0230039000744\"\n ],\n [\n \"in Southeast Asia were estimated to have about 3 million infections and 6,000 deaths annually. In 2019 the Philippines declared a national dengue epidemic due to the deaths reaching 622 people that year. It is reported in at least 22 countries in Africa; but is likely present in all of them with 20% of the population at risk. This makes it one of the most common vector-borne diseases worldwide.\\nInfections are most commonly acquired in the urban environment. In recent decades, the expansion of villages, towns and cities in the areas in which it is common, and the increased mobility of people\",\n \"-24.020156206184765\"\n ],\n [\n \"for emergencies at the World Health Organization, says that in the case of the Ebola outbreak, \\\"there was no way anyone could guarantee the right of medical evacuation for people affected by Ebola.” \\nThe CDC will scale back global disease prevention efforts by 80 percent by October 2019 due to a lack of funding (as funding had been temporarily increased in 2014 to address the Ebola epidemic).\",\n \"-23.99183653399814\"\n ],\n [\n \"species involved in trafficking.\\nAnnually, 15.8% of human deaths have been associated with dangerous infectious disease outbreaks linked to exotic trafficking. Researchers, zoologists, and environmentalists determine that financially poor countries in Africa may attribute to nearly 44% of these deaths due to zoonosis related diseases. Cultural determinants linking Africa to disease exposure African populations are exposed to an increased risk of contracting and dispatching life-threatening zoonotic infections. The continent is considered a hot spot for emerging disease transmissions for reasons like socio-culture livelihood interests, livestock farming, land use methods, globalization influences, and consumption behavior practices. Socio-Culture livelihood factors Many native Africans\",\n \"-23.988517349236645\"\n ],\n [\n \"every continent. Because it is so rare, and commonly misdiagnosed, exactly how many people are affected by this disease is not known. The literature frequently cites that fewer than 200 cases have been reported, though a consensus is building that many more cases occur around the world than have been reported.\",\n \"-23.95988710859092\"\n ],\n [\n \"the host. It has been shown in some studies that the risk of encountering an infected victim increases when there is a higher cannibalism rate, though this risk drops as the number of available hosts decreases. However, this is only the case if the risk of disease transmission is low. Cannibalism is an ineffective method of disease spread as cannibalism in the animal kingdom is normally a one-on-one interaction, and the spread of disease requires group cannibalism; thereby it is rare for a disease to have evolved to rely solely on cannibalism to spread. Usually there are different means of\",\n \"-23.957699800259434\"\n ],\n [\n \"mother, sister, and grandmother then became ill with similar symptoms and also died. People infected by those initial cases spread the disease to other villages.\\nAlthough Ebola represents a major public health issue in sub-Saharan Africa, no cases had ever been reported in West Africa and the early cases were diagnosed as other diseases more common to the area. Thus, the disease had several months to spread before it was recognized as Ebola. Index Case The index case in Nigeria was a Liberian-American, Patrick Sawyer, who flew from Liberia to Nigeria's most populous city of Lagos on 20 July 2014. Sawyer\",\n \"-23.940950823016465\"\n ],\n [\n \"the prevention of AIDS since people start to believe that no matter what measures they take, they can still be prone to contracting this disease. This makes them less careful when engaging in practices that put them at risk because they believe there is no point. \\\"Nearly half of the 500 African Americans surveyed said that HIV is man-made. More than one-quarter said they believed that AIDS was produced in a government laboratory, and 12 percent believed it was created and spread by the CIA... At the same time, 75 percent said they believe medical and public health agencies are\",\n \"-23.927198135090293\"\n ],\n [\n \"around them. Pathogens and Disease Outbreaks When disease outbreaks occur, it can be detrimental to an ecosystem. When a disease hits, it will usually affect more than one species, thus causing a serious outbreak. This has the potential to set off a chain reaction thus, causing endangerment to a variety of species within that ecosystem. Human Contact Humans make the most sudden and long-term changes in an environment (e.g. pollution and waste). These changes either drive species out of their territory or force them to adapt to their new surroundings. These changes have the largest impact on an ecosystems population\",\n \"-23.894307168840896\"\n ],\n [\n \"here). Diseases can arise from infection, environmental conditions, accidents, and inherited diseases.\\nIt is not always easy to classify the source of a health problem. For instance, people can develop gout, which is known to cause permanent or near permanent changes to the human body, because of diet, inherited genetic predisposition, as a secondary condition from other diseases, or as an unintended side effect of certain medications.\\nInfectious diseases can be caused by pathogens and microorganisms such as viruses, prions, bacteria, parasites, and fungi.\\nFor infectious, environmental, and genetically predisposed conditions,\\nlifestyle choices such as exercise, nutrition, stress level, hygiene, home and work environments,\",\n \"-23.886949311417993\"\n ],\n [\n \"leptospirosis, scrub typhus, plague, Q fever, candidiasis, histoplasmosis, trypanosomiasis, visceral leishmaniasis, measles, and viral hepatitis among others.\\nNon-infectious diseases that may result in symptoms similar to those of EVD include acute promyelocytic leukemia, hemolytic uremic syndrome, snake envenomation, clotting factor deficiencies/platelet disorders, thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia, Kawasaki disease, and warfarin poisoning. Vaccines Many Ebola vaccine candidates had been developed in the decade prior to 2014, but as of November 2014, none had been approved for use in humans in the United States. In December 2016, Ebola was found to be 70–100% prevented by rVSV-ZEBOV vaccine, making it the first\",\n \"-23.883452070534986\"\n ],\n [\n \"of communicable diseases has occurred among them. Rohingya refugees are often not vaccinated and there is worry that outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases, such as polio, measles, and tetanus, will occur if living conditions are not improved. But the UN and the WHO, along with Bangladesh Government, were quick to begin mass vaccination of the population. Measles outbreak is a dangerous threat and in 2017, the WHO announced that 136,000 children under 15 years of age were vaccinated against measles and rubella. An oral polio vaccine was also given to 72,000 children. Permanent vaccination centers are in place to assist in\",\n \"-23.797548409831506\"\n ],\n [\n \"be “highly protective” against the virus. This confirmed the results of a study published in 2015 that awarded the vaccine 100 percent effectiveness after tests on 4000 people in Guinea who had been in close contact with Ebola patients. However, a study sponsored by the National Institutes of Health, the Food and Drug Administration and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, and conducted by researchers from the U.S. National Academy of Medicine, called the vaccine’s effectiveness in preventing Ebola infections into question. In particular, the authors criticized the methodology of the patient trail, and argued that the protection\",\n \"-23.757602725061588\"\n ],\n [\n \"UK and thousands of animals were killed and burnt.\\nThe natural hosts of influenza viruses are pigs and birds, although it has probably infected humans since antiquity. The virus can cause mild to severe epizootics in wild and domesticated animals. Many species of wild birds migrate and this has spread influenza across the continents throughout the ages. The virus has evolved into numerous strains and continues to do so, posing an ever-present threat.\\nIn the early years of the 21st century epizootics in livestock caused by viruses continue to have serious consequences. Bluetongue disease, a disease caused by an orbivirus broke out\",\n \"-23.735883453075076\"\n ],\n [\n \"plans. The CDC states that normally it would be extremely rare to catch measles from an infected passenger due to the overall high rate of vaccinated passengers on average, but the recent anti-vaccination trends threatens to disrupt that model.\\nThe measles is a highly contagious disease with a secondary attack rate of 90%. Measles outbreaks can be prevented through vaccines which after two doses have a 97% effective rate. Measles had been practically eradicated in the United States. The recent outbreaks have shed light on the fact that the number of people that are choosing not to vaccinate\",\n \"-23.73259949259227\"\n ],\n [\n \"Home deaths, once commonplace, are now rare in the developed world.\\nIn developing nations, inferior sanitary conditions and lack of access to modern medical technology makes death from infectious diseases more common than in developed countries. One such disease is tuberculosis, a bacterial disease which killed 1.8M people in 2015. Malaria causes about 400–900M cases of fever and 1–3M deaths annually. AIDS death toll in Africa may reach 90–100M by 2025.\\nAccording to Jean Ziegler (United Nations Special Reporter on the Right to Food, 2000 – Mar 2008), mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality rate in 2006.\",\n \"-23.718458198709413\"\n ],\n [\n \"tourists) or intentional (e.g., meat smuggling). The risk that the ASF virus can be introduced into the US and North America has increased because of changes in production practices, increasing globalization, and outbreaks of ASF in Europe. If the virus were to enter the US, control measures must be initiated to prevent the spread of the virus and eliminate it as quickly as possible, of which the primary control and eradication strategy will be depopulation of infected and exposed susceptible animals. Classical swine fever (hog cholera) Classical swine fever (hog cholera) Classical swine fever (CSF), also known\",\n \"-23.710925458115526\"\n ],\n [\n \"Europe. Ninety-eight percent of the world's cases occur in Africa. India In September 1994, India experienced an outbreak of plague that killed 50 and caused travel to New Delhi by air to be suspended until the outbreak was brought under control. The outbreak was feared to be much worse because the plague superficially resembles other common diseases such as influenza and bronchitis; over 200 people that had been quarantined were released when they did not test positive for the plague. All but two of the deaths occurred around the city of Surat. China The People's Republic of China has eradicated\",\n \"-23.709449091082206\"\n ],\n [\n \"disease epidemic could recur, either deliberately (as an act of bioterrorism) or by accident due to unrestricted imports, is causing some nations, notably New Zealand, to adopt relatively harsh restrictions against imported organisms. As one objective of asymmetric warfare is to cause attacks to appear initially as accidents, or blame slow responses on apparently incompetent governments, there is some concern that spreading a virulent organism among animals would be an effective way to attack humans, damage economies, and discredit governments who are lax on biosecurity. Technologies for scanning for dangerous organisms at ports and markets are also becoming\",\n \"-23.69969629944535\"\n ],\n [\n \"may have a natural resistance to a particular infectious disease. However, except in some special cases such as malaria, these individuals make up such a small proportion of the total population that they can be ignored for the purposes of modelling an epidemic.\",\n \"-23.69093767713639\"\n ],\n [\n \"because good health is seen as necessary for the continuation and growth of their lineage\\\". Without proper health the culture will not be able to thrive and grow. Unfortunately, \\\"health services in many countries are swamped by the need to care for increasing numbers of infected and sick people. Ameliorative drugs are too expensive for most victims, except for a very small number who are affluent\\\". The greatest number of sick people with the fewest doctors, Sub-Saharan Africa \\\"has 11 percent of the world's population but carries 24 percent of the global disease burden. With less than 1 percent of\",\n \"-23.68256480526179\"\n ],\n [\n \"illness and death caused by infections such as polio, measles, mumps and rubella. Vaccines are available to prevent over fourteen viral infections of humans and more are used to prevent viral infections of animals. Vaccines may consist of either live or killed viruses. Live vaccines contain weakened forms of the virus, but these vaccines can be dangerous when given to people with weak immunity. In these people, the weakened virus can cause the original disease. Biotechnology and genetic engineering techniques are used to produce \\\"designer\\\" vaccines that only have the capsid proteins of the virus. Hepatitis B vaccine is an\",\n \"-23.676677837967873\"\n ],\n [\n \"does this. Viruses and diseases Common human diseases caused by viruses include the common cold, the flu, chickenpox and cold sores. Serious diseases such as Ebola and AIDS are also caused by viruses. Many viruses cause little or no disease and are said to be \\\"benign\\\". The more harmful viruses are described as virulent.\\nViruses cause different diseases depending on the types of cell that they infect.\\nSome viruses can cause lifelong or chronic infections where the viruses continue to reproduce in the body despite the host's defence mechanisms. This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. People\",\n \"-23.64272587452433\"\n ],\n [\n \"leads to limitations on where the diseases can\\nthrive, acting almost as its ‘climate niche’. Persistence of H5N1 Avian Influenza H5N1, the highly pathogenic strain of influenza, was first detected in the goose population of Gaungdong, China in 1996.\\nIn February 2004, avian influenza virus was detected in birds in Vietnam, increasing fears of the emergence of new variant strains. It is feared that if the avian influenza virus combines with a human influenza virus (in a bird or a human), the new subtype created could be both highly contagious and highly lethal.\\nIn October 2005, cases of the avian flu (the deadly\",\n \"-23.640052065544296\"\n ],\n [\n \" They report that they \\\"are on the ground establishing Ebola treatment centres and strengthening capacity for laboratory testing, contact tracing, social mobilization, safe burials, and non-Ebola health care\\\" and \\\"continue to monitor for reports of rumoured or suspected cases from countries around the world.\\\" Other than cases where individuals are suspected or have been confirmed of being infected with Ebola, or have had contact with cases of Ebola, the WHO does not recommend any travel or trade restrictions.\\nOn 16 September, the WHO Assistant Director General, Bruce Aylward, announced that the cost for combating the epidemic will be a\",\n \"-23.638027902357862\"\n ],\n [\n \"population had traces of the pathogen within a 4 month period). While individuals of all ages risk exposure to malaria, those under the age of five are particularly susceptible to the disease. Children account for the majority of both local and global malaria cases because they lack the adaptive immunity that comes with repeated exposure. Other examples of holoendemic diseases include ocular trachoma in certain areas in sub-Saharan Africa, where virtually all children in those populations have been infected, and hepatitis B in areas of the Marquesas Islands.\",\n \"-23.620859545248095\"\n ],\n [\n \"parasite due to multiple bites by mosquitoes that carry the parasite are at greater risk of dying. Infected humans can also transmit the disease to uninfected or healthy humans via contaminated blood. Health Effects The health effects caused by shifts in malaria transmission rates in the African Highlands have the potential to be severe. Research has shown that the effects of climate change on health will impact most populations over the next few decades. However, Africa, and specifically the African Highlands, are susceptible to being particularly negatively affected. In 2010, 91% of the global burden due to malaria deaths occurred\",\n \"-23.617430162557866\"\n ],\n [\n \"pollution. Scientists predict the African continent will be the first to experience the effects of global warming where widespread poverty will put millions at further risk due to their limited capabilities to adapt. The potential is great for a more sustainable Africa with commitment from within and outside the region. Pneumonia is the number one killer of children in the world and indoor air pollution is a strongly significant risk factor for severe pneumonia. The global health community designated 2 November to be World Pneumonia Day in order to raise awareness about the disease and its causes.\",\n \"-23.609234321746044\"\n ],\n [\n \"Risk factors for tuberculosis There are a number risk factors for tuberculosis infection; worldwide the most important of these is HIV. Co-infection with HIV is a particular problem in Sub-Saharan Africa, due to the high incidence of HIV in these countries. Smoking more than 20 cigarettes a day increases the risk of TB by two to four times while silicosis increases the risk about 30 fold. Diabetes mellitus is also an important risk factor that is growing in importance in developing countries. Other disease states that increase the risk of developing tuberculosis are Hodgkin lymphoma, end-stage renal disease, chronic lung\",\n \"-23.595945308581577\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":587,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"28n0vu"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why are Conspiracies typically dismissed without investigation?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Usually, conspiracy theories **are** investigated, in some way. Quite thoroughly, in any instance where there could be truth to the allegations. But then the people who believe in them won't take \"that insane thing you said didn't happen\" for an answer. Instead, they decide that whoever did the investigating is part of the conspiracy. Obviously, some things do not require investigation. Like the conspiracy theory which states that the Queen of England is a reptilian space alien. We can dismiss that one out of hand. EDIT: A perfect example of a conspiracy theory that's been totally investigated to death: the idea that the moon landing was faked. Ludicrous amounts of evidence has been amassed, proving that it wasn't faked. The footage has been examined to a ridiculous level of detail. The fact of the matter is, it was not possible to fake the landing, using 1969 technology. But people refuse to accept that, and go on believing what they want...in part because it makes them feel good to be \"in the know,\" or \"not a sheep like everyone else.\" That's the main psychology, in my opinion. Conspiracy theorists are usually massive egotists. They can't stand the idea that they might not be smarter than everyone else, and they **certainly** cannot entertain the possibility that they might be incorrect.","There is a saying popularised by Carl Sagan which states \"Extraordinary claims require extraordinary proof\". Most conspiracy theorys fail to provide such proof, instead relying on hearsay or laymans opinion.","Most conspiracies that are widely believed, don't get called \"conspiracy\". For example, it is widely believed in the US that a group of about 20 Sunni Arabs plotted to fly 4 planes into very important buildings in the US. This was surely a group of people secretly plotting some action. It was a conspiracy. But by connotation, a conspiracy theory is not widely believed.","As others have said, quasi-rational and evidence based conspiracies are debunked, but there is a primary factor that keeps them 'alive': God of the Gaps - There are an endless 'long tail' of small details that can be highlighted and focused on with an ominous \"*Well... then how do you explain THIS?!?!*\""],"string":"[\n \"Usually, conspiracy theories **are** investigated, in some way. Quite thoroughly, in any instance where there could be truth to the allegations. But then the people who believe in them won't take \\\"that insane thing you said didn't happen\\\" for an answer. Instead, they decide that whoever did the investigating is part of the conspiracy. Obviously, some things do not require investigation. Like the conspiracy theory which states that the Queen of England is a reptilian space alien. We can dismiss that one out of hand. EDIT: A perfect example of a conspiracy theory that's been totally investigated to death: the idea that the moon landing was faked. Ludicrous amounts of evidence has been amassed, proving that it wasn't faked. The footage has been examined to a ridiculous level of detail. The fact of the matter is, it was not possible to fake the landing, using 1969 technology. But people refuse to accept that, and go on believing what they want...in part because it makes them feel good to be \\\"in the know,\\\" or \\\"not a sheep like everyone else.\\\" That's the main psychology, in my opinion. Conspiracy theorists are usually massive egotists. They can't stand the idea that they might not be smarter than everyone else, and they **certainly** cannot entertain the possibility that they might be incorrect.\",\n \"There is a saying popularised by Carl Sagan which states \\\"Extraordinary claims require extraordinary proof\\\". Most conspiracy theorys fail to provide such proof, instead relying on hearsay or laymans opinion.\",\n \"Most conspiracies that are widely believed, don't get called \\\"conspiracy\\\". For example, it is widely believed in the US that a group of about 20 Sunni Arabs plotted to fly 4 planes into very important buildings in the US. This was surely a group of people secretly plotting some action. It was a conspiracy. But by connotation, a conspiracy theory is not widely believed.\",\n \"As others have said, quasi-rational and evidence based conspiracies are debunked, but there is a primary factor that keeps them 'alive': God of the Gaps - There are an endless 'long tail' of small details that can be highlighted and focused on with an ominous \\\"*Well... then how do you explain THIS?!?!*\\\"\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["that genuine conspiracies do exist, but noted how infrequently conspirators have been able to achieve their goal.\nThe historian Bruce Cumings similarly rejects the notion that history is controlled by conspiracies, stating that where real conspiracies have appeared they have usually had little effect on history and have had unforeseen consequences for the conspirators. Cumings concludes that history is instead \"moved by the broad forces and large structures of human collectivities\".\nIn a 2009 article, the legal scholars Cass Sunstein and Adrian Vermeule considered a number of possible government responses to conspiracy theories, including censorship and taxation. They concluded that the","-26.40777447159053"],["in the conspiracy. Proof of which individual it was is usually not necessary.\nIt is also an option for prosecutors, when bringing conspiracy charges, to decline to indict all members of the conspiracy (though the existence of all members may be mentioned in an indictment). Such unindicted co-conspirators are commonly found when the identities or whereabouts of members of a conspiracy are unknown, or when the prosecution is concerned only with a particular individual among the conspirators. This is common when the target of the indictment is an elected official or an organized crime leader, and the co-conspirators are persons","-24.569046310374688"],["Revolution. Other conspirators Contrary to some relations of the folklore, it appears that a number of other people of lower social rank accompanied the conspirators. Some accounts cite the presence of Duncan Buchanan, a clerk for Aeneas MacDonald who acted as a Jacobite agent and messenger, instead of O'Sullivan.","-24.195334114128855"],["Forgery as covert operation Forgery is used by some governments and non-state actors as a tool of covert operation, disinformation and black propaganda. Letters, currency, speeches, documents, and literature are all falsified as a means to subvert a government’s political, military or economic assets. Forgeries are designed to attribute a false intention and aspirations on the intended target. They force the targeted government to spend a large amount of resources to refute the forgery. Forgeries are an effective tool because of their ability to hold influence even after being proven false. Counterfeit money Counterfeiting is the","-24.096294959912484"],["a conspiracy exists, then there is a conspiracy even if the details are never agreed to aloud by the participants. CIA covert operations, for instance, are by their very nature hard to prove definitively. But research into the agency's work, as well as revelations by former CIA employees, has suggested several cases where the agency tried to influence events. Between 1947 and 1989, the United States tried to change other nations' governments 72 times. During the Cold War, 26 of the United States' covert operations successfully brought a U.S.-backed government to power; the remaining 40 failed.\nA \"conspiracy theory\" is a","-24.039944489632035"],["by bribes, rebates, and secret business deals.\nA modification of the furtive fallacy holds that when the historical record provides no evidence explaining a particular set of events, this is itself evidence of a furtive cause.\nThe idea of the furtive fallacy is criticized by Jeffrey M. Bale, who cites the risk of historians underestimating the influence of political secret societies, vanguard parties, and intelligence agencies.","-24.020350423874334"],["hoax devised by people seeking advantage from misinformation. Attorney and historian George Levy maintains the \"conspiracy\" began as a con aimed at Confederate agents that evolved into a hoax exploited by Colonel Sweet for his own advantage. Levy wrote that believing in the Camp Douglas conspiracy was a matter of faith: Confederate agents thought they had created a workable plot, and Colonel Sweet made their dream come true. On the other hand, Kelly wrote that Sweet seemed to believe the plot to be real. Eisendrath also treated the plot as real. Writing at a time closer to the event, Bross","-24.010117321417056"],["relative lack of scruples makes it possible some came from corruption. Downfall and exile His removal from office in 1289 was not, however, as a result of judicial misconduct. On 20 July 1289 two of his servants committed a murder at a village fair, killing William Carwel, an Irish servant of the Earl of Norfolk. The killing may have been as a result of a drunken brawl, but it is probable it was part of bitter factional fighting between followers of the earl, of whom Weyland was one of the leading councillors. After the servants returned to his house at","-23.74766515698866"],["False lien A false lien is document that purports to describe a lien, but which has no legal basis, or which is based upon false, fictitious, or fraudulent statements or representations. The filing of false liens has been used as a tool of harassment in \"paper terrorism\", often against government officials. The practice was pioneered by the Posse Comitatus. The Bureau of Prisons has responded by treating lien documents and personal information (such as Social Security Numbers) of federal agents, judges, etc. as contraband in federal prisons.\nThe U.S. Congress has criminalized the filing of false liens, and the U.S. Sentencing","-23.69028761482332"],["forgery is often a fake manuscript or diary created to attribute certain ideological beliefs or actions to the figure. Literary forgery is often difficult to refute because the purported author is usually deceased. United States Secret Service The United States Secret Service is the agency within the United States' government tasked with the protection of U.S. currency. The Secret Service has jurisdiction over violations involving the counterfeiting of United States obligations and securities. Some of the counterfeited United States obligations and securities commonly investigated by the Secret Service include U.S. currency (to include coins), U.S. Treasury checks, Department of","-23.551331894879695"],["than common dismissals of conspiracy theory contend.\nTheories involving multiple conspirators that are proven to be correct, such as the Watergate scandal, are usually referred to as \"investigative journalism\" or \"historical analysis\" rather than conspiracy theory. By contrast, the term \"Watergate conspiracy theory\" is used to refer to a variety of hypotheses in which those convicted in the conspiracy were in fact the victims of a deeper conspiracy. Conspiracism as a world view The historian Richard Hofstadter addressed the role of paranoia and conspiracism throughout U.S. history in his 1964 essay \"The Paranoid Style in American Politics\". Bernard Bailyn's classic The","-23.46618460981699"],["the conspiracy and told the conspirators that the attempt was useless.","-23.425104093868867"],["before. \"Public figures may be more “fakeable” through this method than private ones. Visually routine situations, like a press conference, are more likely to be faked than entirely novel ones.\" Deepfakes can be very dangerous in the sense that they can be used to fake what people with high authority have said such as, the president and politicians. There have been many articles and discussions over the new discovery of deepfakes such as Youtuber Shane Dawson's video, \"Conspiracy Theories with Shane Dawson\" where he talks about the conspiracy of deepfakes and what they could mean for the world today.\nSocial hacking","-23.4145952109302"],["some spies' decisions, and seems particularly likely if they are bored with their life. Excitement is seldom a spy's primary motivation, but may be a contributing factor. One notable example is Christopher Cooke, who claimed to be fascinated with espionage, and who told investigators he specifically sought to involve himself in spycraft for that reason. Disaffection and grudges Some spies are motivated largely by personal, non-ideological hostility towards the country or organisation they are spying on. This may stem from some real or imagined wrong—a person may, for example, betray secrets to the enemy if they feel they have not","-23.271293272075127"],["presenting a truthful case before the tribunal.\nThe prosecution induced the approvers to state that at the end of the crucial meeting of 23 February 1951 the people present had agreed to overthrow the government. They had to tell this lie because otherwise the allegation of conspiracy would have fallen flat. According to the penal code a conspiracy is only established 'when two or more persons agree to commit an illegal act or a legal act by illegal means'. If there is no agreement there is no conspiracy under the law.\nThe Conspirators claimed that after eight long hours of discussion, of","-23.2598368942854"],["agencies to infiltrate organizations suspected of political dissent.\nDonner also cited the government's use of scapegoats to divert attention from government criticism onto other political groups.","-23.161058423909708"],["wealthy circles. Intrigues Very often, courtesans would betray one another in acts of political intrigue in attempts to climb into higher positions of power within royal courts. There are many cases throughout history where one courtesan would attempt (sometimes successfully) to supplant the mistress to a king or emperor. This was typically preceded by her discrediting the ruler's companion, often by divulging secrets that could lead to her rival being cast aside and replaced by her. However, this was a delicate process, and if a courtesan of \"lower status\" attempted to replace a courtesan who wielded a substantial amount of","-23.156435192871868"],["the poisoners. La Reynie sought to calm the king. The subsequent investigation of potential poisoners led to accusations of witchcraft, murder and more.\nAuthorities rounded up a number of fortune tellers and alchemists who were suspected of selling not only divinations, séances and aphrodisiacs, but also \"inheritance powders\" (a euphemism for poison). Some of them confessed under torture and gave authorities lists of their clients, who had allegedly bought poison to get rid of their spouses or rivals in the royal court.\nThe most famous case was that of the midwife Catherine Deshayes Monvoisin or La Voisin, who was arrested in 1679","-23.13536471661064"],["intimidation of voters who turned out, historiographers of Polish history invariably consider these elections to have been fraudulent - due to the above peculiarities.","-23.08940709201488"],["was there for English and German bankers to send Seyd here in the winter of 1872-3, to bribe congress to favor a measure that had already passed both houses of congress without a word of opposition from a single member? Granting that bankers are as willing to resort to bribery as Populists claim—and the word of those who forge government reports would, of course, be accepted as conclusive on this point—they should be credited with having sense enough not to use bribery when there is no necessity whatever for it.\nIn the end, the allegations of bribery seemed implausible and Luckenbach's","-23.02206664659934"],["indicting participants in the bribery plot, leading a few of them to flee the state or the country. As he began to win convictions, other men involved in corruption decided to testify against their associates. Steffens concludes the article by claiming that \"In all cities, the better classes—the business men—are the sources of corruption\"; Folk, he notes, \"has shown St. Louis that its bankers, brokers, corporation officers,—its business men are the sources of evil\". Furthermore, he warns, \"what went on in St. Louis is going on in most of our cities, towns, and villages. The problem","-23.014111586664512"],["also refer to misleading or inaccurate newspaper headlines, but this usage appears to be a more recent appropriation of the term.\nA big lie is one that attempts to trick the victim into believing something major, which will likely be contradicted by some information the victim already possesses, or by their common sense. When the lie is of sufficient magnitude it may succeed, due to the victim's reluctance to believe that an untruth on such a grand scale would indeed be concocted.\nTo bluff is to pretend to have a capability or intention one does not possess. Bluffing is an act of","-22.991567413366283"],["confession) claimed that the conspirators attempted to dig a tunnel from beneath Whynniard's house to Parliament, although this story may have been a government fabrication; no evidence for the existence of a tunnel was presented by the prosecution, and no trace of one has ever been found; Fawkes himself did not admit the existence of such a scheme until his fifth interrogation, but even then he could not locate the tunnel. If the story is true, however, by December 1604 the conspirators were busy tunnelling from their rented house to the House of Lords. They ceased their efforts when, during tunnelling,","-22.93244128441438"],["even though fraud on the part of the public authority had been alleged. In contrast, Lord Reid gave a dissenting opinion in which he doubted whether an order that had been obtained by corrupt or fraudulent means could be protected from being questioned in court. Despite the subsequent ruling in Anisminic, in R. v. Secretary of State for the Environment, ex parte Ostler (1976) the Court of Appeal of England and Wales applied Smith and upheld the validity of a partial ouster clause that gave the applicants six weeks to challenge a decision. Lord Denning, the Master of the Rolls,","-22.816171780679724"],["and political repression of the time.\nThe conspirators planned to assassinate the cabinet which was supposed to be together at a dinner. They would then seize key buildings, overthrow the government and establish a \"Committee of Public Safety\" to oversee a radical revolution. According to the prosecution at their trial, they had intended to form a provisional government headquartered in the Mansion House. Governmental crisis Hard economic times encouraged social unrest. The end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 further worsened the economy and saw the return of job-seeking veterans. King George III's death on 29 January 1820, created a","-22.796302129834658"],["archives, I understand the legacy of suspicion. It is difficult to overestimate the degree of suspicion.\"\nOminously, the Guardian noted:\nIn a number of colonies, as files were destroyed a certificate was completed and sent to London to show that the job had been done. Could these certificates also be stored at Hanslope Park, providing a glimpse of the contents of each file that was destroyed? The FCO was refusing to say on Tuesday, and insisted that any queries about such certificates should be the subject of an freedom of information request. Furthermore, Cary's report states that a separate inquiry is now","-22.773787835845724"],["the conspiracy because he thinks he will be able to rid himself of his debts if there is a rebellion. Calcagno wants Fiesco's wife Leonore. Bourgognino wants to finally marry his bride Bertha,Verrina's daughter. Her seduction and rape by Gianettino Doria provide the immediate motive for the conspiracy.\nThe behavior of Fiesco, the young Count of Lavagna, leaves the conspirators unsure about whether he is one of them or not. He woos the disreputable sister of the schemer Gianettino and behaves in general as an unprincipled playboy without any political ambition. Even Leonore, Fiesco's wife, does not know where she is","-22.773303124347876"],["This business of false conspiracy was followed by \"the business\" of Luxembourg, a conspiracy whose reality rested, still exclusively, on the false witnesses of individuals who, against various promises, had to deposit with the revolutionary Tribunal, and which sometimes themselves were carried out thereafter. Principals Ground after the lawsuit of Danton and its co-defendants to the prison of Luxembourg where was the ex-general Arthur Dillon, Lucile Desmoulins, or Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette, the imaginary conspiracies, revealed and denounced by agents of the political police in the prisons of Paris, put back on an amalgam various unknown people the ones with the others","-22.747775484836893"],["or ethical objections and that evidence of this was \"buried\" in footnotes to an article in a scientific journal and in two annual reports of the CSIRO, the relevant report years being unspecified.\n\nWindschuttle states: \nA real hoax, like that of Alan Sokal and Ern Malley, is designed to expose editors who are pretentious, ignorant or at least over-enthusiastic about certain subjects. The technique is to submit obvious nonsense for publication in order to expose the editor's ignorance of the topic. A real hoax defeats its purpose if it largely relies upon real issues, real people and real publications for its","-22.738551078429737"],["also evident on billboards, newspapers, magazines and even word of mouth. Hoaxing A hoax is something intended to deceive or defraud. When a newspaper or the news reports a fake story, it is known as a hoax. Misleading public stunts, scientific frauds, false bomb threats and business scams are examples of hoaxes. A common aspect that hoaxes have is that they are all meant to deceive or lie. For something to become a hoax, the lie must have something more to offer. It must be outrageous, dramatic but also has to be believable and ingenious. Above all, it must","-22.619275492921588"],["that the apprehension of terrorists had led to the discovery of financial support to them by clandestine and illegal means using tainted funds obtained through `hawala' transactions; that this had also disclosed a nexus between politicians, bureaucrats and criminals, who were recipients of money from unlawful sources, given for unlawful consideration that the CBI and other Government agencies had failed to investigate the matter, take it to its logical conclusion and prosecute all persons who were found to have committed and offence; that this was done with a view to protect the persons involved, who were very influential and powerful;","-22.583532666911196"],["the individual is bribed by the third party to intentionally conceal the damaging information.\nThe National Enquirer and its parent company American Media have attracted attention for using the practice.","-22.583145336204325"],["discredit the phenomena. Some even argue a conspiracy theory, with governments planting evidence of hoaxing to muddle the origins of the circles. When Ridley wrote negative articles in newspapers, he was accused of spreading \"government disinformation\" and of working for the UK military intelligence service MI5. Ridley responded by noting that many cereologists make good livings from selling books and providing high-priced personal tours through crop fields, and he claimed that they have vested interests in rejecting what is by far the most likely explanation for the circles.\nIn serious science magazines from the 80s and 90s, for example Science Illustrated,","-22.563822590818745"],["agencies. The primary targets of such suspicions were government employees, those in the entertainment industry, educators and union activists. Suspicions were often given credence despite inconclusive or questionable evidence and the level of threat posed by a person's real or supposed leftist associations or beliefs was often greatly exaggerated. Many people suffered loss of employment and/or destruction of their careers; and some even suffered imprisonment. Most of these punishments came about through trial verdicts later overturned, laws that would be declared unconstitutional, dismissals for reasons later declared illegal or actionable, or extra-legal procedures that would come into general disrepute. The","-22.46098864571104"],["to the cunning profession by outlawing \"persons pretending or professing to tell fortunes, or using any subtle craft, means and device, by palmistry or otherwise, to deceive and impose.\" The enacting of the law led to the increased prosecutions of cunning folk, something that would only begin to wane in the 1910s.\nA news report from 1870 detailed a number of cases brought before authorities in the nineteenth century where claims of powers were made, but it ridiculed the belief, and closed with an example where 'the charge was settled down to the more definite one of obtaining a shilling under","-22.368297705601435"],["Motives for spying Money For many spies, the primary motivation is the prospect of financial gain. Spies may seek to supplement their existing income, or to remedy financial difficulties. Sometimes these spies are detected due to extravagant spending of the money they receive. John Anthony Walker is an example of a spy who worked for money. Ideology, patriotism, or religion Some people become spies because of their beliefs. These can include political opinions, national allegiances, and cultural or religious beliefs. This was particularly true during the Cold War, when many spies were motivated by their support for the ideologies of","-22.31892485191929"],["of generating false credentials is to suborn one of the officials involved in the document-issuing process through bribery or intimidation. This may also be combined with the bootstrapping process mentioned above to mount complex attacks.\nCorruption in the document-issuing process is hard to counter, since as the value of a credential increases, the economic incentives for corruption also increase. This is particularly true in the case of fake ID cards that combine many functions in one document, and for documents which are issued in large numbers, thus requiring many thousands of people to have authorizing powers, thus creating a longer chain","-22.304333677905333"],["that actual ballots did not need to be faked and hence fraud \"is simply a matter of changing numbers on a spreadsheet.\" The Guardian Council of Iran has rejected this argument claiming that representatives of all candidates were present at most ballot boxes and during the process of counting votes, despite this not being constitutionally required. However, Mousavi has claimed that the government \"[had] prevented some of [his] representatives from being present at polling stations.\" General considerations Several statisticians have attempted to determine whether the results (or some of the results) are significantly different from what is expected. This","-22.30225454342758"],["as a result of the release of evidence in an alleged bribery scheme.","-22.294387616566382"],["the great test case of political corruption occurred; pretty well known in England, and unfortunately much better known in Europe, as the Marconi scandal. To narrate its alternate secrecies and sensations would be impossible here; but one fashionable fallacy about it may be exploded with advantage. An extraordinary notion still exists that the New Witness denounced Ministers for gambling on the Stock Exchange. It might be improper for Ministers to gamble; but gambling was certainly not a misdemeanor that would have hardened with any special horror so hearty an Anti-Puritan as the man of whom I write. The Marconi case","-22.233007878832723"],["ministers had been aware of a Jacobite plot to assassinate the King. The Earl used this information in an attempt to ruin the Duke, this however backfired and caused the Earl to spend a short while in the Tower of London. As a result of these allegations, Smith was taken from his lodgings in London and interviewed at the House of Lords.\nMemoirs of Secret Service is seen as the prototype of the literary genre of spy autobiographies and there is some controversy as to whether Smith wrote the book or whether his school friend and author Tom Brown did.","-22.210126118943663"],["scheme, Fraudsters mislead investors in order to sell securities in the dummy corporation, in this case, making investors incorrectly believe \"that they are buying shares in the real corporation\". The sale of securities through a fraudulent corporation is inherently illegal. Hiding identity Another use is to prevent speculators from intruding on imminent plans of the parent organisation. Dummy corporations may also be used in crime to hide the identity of a criminal, similar to the use of a criminal alias.\nRaymond Davis, a former Blairstown, New Jersey committee member, diverted $46,000 in public funds into a dummy corporation. The self-created dummy","-22.202475674469497"],["the scale of impersonation fraud has been greatly exaggerated by Republicans for political reasons.\nA 2012 investigation of 207 alleged dead voters in South Carolina found only five instances unexplained by clerical errors. For instance, sometimes a son with the same name as his dead father was accidentally recorded as voting under the father's name. A study of dead voters in the 2006 Georgia midterm election concluded that only fifteen of the 66 alleged instances of dead voting were potentially fraudulent. All but four of the dead votes were cast absentee, and most of the absentee voters in question cast early","-22.141316400186042"],["United States House Select Committee to Investigate Alleged Corruptions in Government The Select Committee to Investigate Alleged Corruptions in Government was a select committee of the United States House of Representatives which operated during the spring and summer of 1860 during the 36th Congress. The committee was charged with a broad investigation of the administration of President James Buchanan, including possible impeachment. It was also referred to as the Covode Committee after its chairman, John Covode of Pennsylvania. History and jurisdiction The committee was established March 5, 1860 when the House adopted a resolution offered by John Covode, which was","-22.140531532262685"],["the crime of bribery is complete once the bribe is accepted, whether or not the official performs the promised act. In United States v. Helstoski (1979), the Court held that the prosecution may not introduce any evidence of a past \"legislative act\" at trial. According to Weeks, \"[a]s a practical matter, it is extremely difficult to successfully prosecute a section 201 action if reference to a defendant's legislative acts is forbidden.\" Federalism Charles Ruff referred to \"the prosecution of local officials for acts of public corruption\" as \"perhaps the most sensitive area of federal-state cooperation.\" Several other commentators have expressed","-22.1395145918068"],["Spies and Lies Spies and Lies is a 1992 Nancy Drew and the Hardy Boys Supermystery crossover novel. It was written by Tracey West under the usual pseudonym Carolyn Keene. Plot Nancy Drew goes undercover as a rookie in the infamous Quantico, Virginia FBI Academy, serving Judy Noll, the daughter of a powerful political figure. Judy is immediately in danger when her roommate turns up dead, and also when she is revealed to be the target of a madman. Nancy lays herself a trap, with herself as the bait. The Hardys are also posing as trainees at the bureau, but","-22.131934135817573"],["conspirators were tried and convicted by Judges Alexander Contee Hanson, Col. James Johnson, and Upton Sheradine as traitors to the revolutionary cause. The men were sentenced to be hanged, drawn, and quartered in Frederick. On August 17, 1781, Sueman and two other conspirators, Casper Fritchie and Yost Peckler, were executed in Frederick. The other four conspirators were pardoned by Governor Thomas Sim Lee.\nBroad Run developed into a local industrial center for the surrounding farms. The Isaac Bond Atlas of Frederick County, drawn in 1858, shows a saw mill and a grist mill were located along the Broad Run Creek in","-22.111784924218227"],["Guidelines treat the filing of a false lien against a government official as equally serious as threatening the government officials of the United States. Various U.S. states have been developing ways of combating false liens.","-22.06207342960988"],["the justice system will condemn Mrs. De Falco, the least guilty party in the bribery scheme. He predicts that Lee's refusal to accept the bribery system will make the prosecution redouble their anti-radical efforts. More poison pen letters reach the Thornwells. When Cornelia's grandson Josiah is blackmailed for sexual misbehavior, the family's history of secret affairs is discussed along with similar behavior on the part of Boston's ruling elite and occasional bribes. Mrs. De Falco is found not guilty, but the prosecution responds as Vanzetti predicted.\nChapter 12: Shadows Before\nSwenson is joined by attorney Fred Moore and they struggle to identify","-22.047322991200076"],["revealing identities of covert agents. However, it was ultimately concluded by the Senate Judiciary and the Conference Committee that the measure is constitutionally sound. Individuals would only be prosecuted if they engage in a pattern of activities intended to identify and expose covert agents, on the grounds that such actions goes beyond information that might contribute to informed public debate on foreign policy or foreign intelligence activities.\nThe Conference Committee assured that U.S. intelligence critics would be beyond the reach of law so long as they do not actively seek to identify or expose covert agents. However, commentators are still wary","-21.9855805078696"],["of examination abuses. He explores cheating through the eyes of a university registrar who is forced to hire a detective due to the lack of trust he has in some of his applicants' résumés because test questions have been leaked. The detective later discovers a wide variety of examination abuses; from the parents who demand new test results for their children, to principals who allow students to bring in textbooks for closed examinations. The author believed it was partly the corruption of the nation's leaders that had permeated the society and led to rampant unethical excesses. In later years, the","-21.959368518295378"],["For a while there are no illegal transactions done, but the corruption soon continues in the society due to the threatening of the local mob to sign illegal documents and accept bribes. Meanwhile, the ACF finds that it is Badrinarayana (Sayaji Shinde) who is the real reason behind this corruption scenario. Then the kidnapping continues. The case is investigated by group of several old-aged senior level officials who are very slow-moving in their progress. However, Suryam (Prakash Raj), an IPS-passed guy who is working as a constable (unable to pay the bribe to get the officer-level job), takes up the","-21.95532395686314"],["and power to blackmail felons to extort money, or to prosecute them for the reward, which they actually did to sustain their own credibility to the authority. For private citizens, thief-takers played a valuable role in managing to return the stolen goods for a fee, by negotiating or prosecuting the thief. This is why they were not perceived so negatively as informers were. But the news of misconduct provoked the rage of the public.\nTheir dubious behaviour reached public attention also because of the rivalry between the two leading thief-takers: Charles Hitchen and Jonathan Wild. Hitchen became irritated by the great","-21.94775353433215"],[" Unfortunately, there appeared to be little evidence for a conspiracy, let alone an attempt at insurrection. Nevertheless, Dore ordered severe punishments for those thought to have planned an insurrection.\nDore died on 13 December 1800 leaving insufficient estate to pay his creditors.","-21.923075237847115"],["in cracking down on corruption is to send a message to those who step over some \"unknown acceptable level of graft\" or too obviously flaunt its benefits. Another reason is to show an angry public that the Party is doing something about the problem.\nIn many such cases, the origins of anti-corruption measures are a mystery. When Chen Liangyu was ousted, analysts said it was because he lost a power struggle with leaders in Beijing. Chen was Shanghai's party secretary and member of the powerful Politburo. In 2010, a re-release of the Communist Party of China 52 code of ethics was","-21.82776303126593"],["act of extortion under the Hobbs act was the \"rough equivalent\" of bribery. Because Ocasio did not ask the court to overrule Evans and because the Court had \"no occasion to do so\" sua sponte, Justice Alito held that \"we have no principled basis for precluding the prosecution of conspiracies to commit\" extortion under the Hobbs act. Justice Alito also rejected the argument that the Court's ruling would \"transform every bribe of a public official into a conspiracy to commit extortion\" because \"[i]n cases where the bribe payor is merely complying with an official demand, the payor lacks the mens","-21.803186352204648"],["man, and his assessors were at least not accessible to bribery. Verres vainly tried to get the trial postponed until 69 BC when his friend Marcus Caecilius Metellus would be the presiding judge. Hortensius tried two successive tactics to delay the trial. The first was trying to sideline Verres' prosecution by hoping to get a prosecution of a former governor of Bithynia to take precedence. When that failed, the defense then looked to procedural delays (and gaming the usual format of a Roman extortion trial) until after a lengthy and upcoming round of public holidays, after which there would be","-21.756488825863926"],["a spy.\nIn exchange for asylum, Inspector Voltaire then interrogates the Lookout for information on the thieves' backgrounds. He asks about the Mole, whom she says has already been caught. She then tells him about herself and says she steals because of \"a moral debt\". When discussing why the Locksmith disregards the law, she recalls the time when he had his hand broken after being caught counting cards in blackjack. The Lookout informs Inspector Voltaire that the Pickpocket used to be rich before he was arrested and that the Hacker had also been in trouble before; he was caught trespassing in","-21.718116736083175"],["dismissal violated U.S. State Department procedures because the State Department's Loyalty Security Board found no evidence of Service being disloyal or a security risk.\nIn The Amerasia Spy Case: Prelude to McCarthyism, authors Harvey Klehr and Ronald Radosh state \"[a]ny lingering doubts about Service's true position are erased by the evidence of the FBI surveillance. If he had been a secret Communist, much less a spy, some better evidence would likely have surfaced in the transcripts\".\nJonathan Mirsky, in his review, in the Wall Street Journal, of the 2009 biography of Service by Lynne Joiner states that: \"In two phone interviews with","-21.69772582103178"],["Perjury trap A perjury trap is a form of prosecutorial misconduct in which a prosecutor calls a witness to testify, typically before a grand jury, with the intent of coercing the witness into perjury (intentional deceit under oath). \nAs an example, suppose that a person committed a crime for which they were never prosecuted, but the statute of limitations on that crime has expired. A prosecutor could set a perjury trap for them by calling them as a witness before a grand jury in a case about a different crime, and ask them about the expired crime. If the witness","-21.653171558500617"],["layoffs were made against the police handling of corruption of elected officials from his party's Minister of the Interior and the police. The case became to be known as \"Peach Bag\". \"Peach Bag\" never matured into specific charges and attribute this to the dismissal of police commissioner Shafir. Shafir eventually admitted that he had leaked false information to the press on the investigation of the government minister, however he rejected all other allegations.","-21.64547148926067"],["only the practice in a minority of districts, but in some areas large bribes had become habitual. In areas without direct bribery, candidates were expected to provide food, drink and banquets. These various costs added up to the equivalent of several million modern pounds for the priciest campaigns, causing financial hardship even for wealthy candidates.\nIn the first elections held in the United States, canvassing was rare. Most elections were uncontested, and even in races with multiple candidates it was considered improper for a candidate to campaign on his own behalf. In the early 19th century as the party system developed,","-21.584466771058942"],["cast their votes. Bribery became such a commonplace practice in the later Republic that it was seen as a normal part of the political process, and ranged anywhere from the blatant promising of money to simply hosting games and entertaining the people. Sometime during the mid-second century, Polybius noted the prohibition of bribery, but this proved to be useless as it continued to be prominent in elections and was very difficult to differentiate between bribery and the patronage system. Some evidence suggests that as the dominance of the practice grew, the number of men who gained the consulship without any","-21.563013684557518"],["Fake defection Fake defection, often referred to as a \"provocation\" or \"dangle\" in intelligence circles, is a defection by an intelligence agent made on false pretenses. Fake defectors (who may be referred to as \"plant\"s) may spread disinformation or aid in uncovering moles. The risk that a defection may be fake is often a concern by intelligence agencies debriefing defectors.\nExamples of Soviet defectors that some sources have considered fake include Oleg Penkovsky (considered fake by Peter Wright and James Angleton) and Vitaly Yurchenko. Examples of US fake defection operations include Operation Shocker.\nIn fiction, examples of fake defection include the James","-21.53784979550983"],["provided, how can the court found there to be quid pro quo.\n3.It is impossible to understand why a company would claim to have given a bribe but it did not participate in the bidding process. This defies logic and common sense. How could the judges believe such a story?\nIn fact, such character assassination by the judiciary has been going on for a long time. When Minister Kuo was questioned for the first time and while the questioning was still under way, certain journalist was citing a “source” and reported that Minister Kuo had already admitted accepting the bribe. The record","-21.517895558063174"],["various spies throughout history, a pill which was taken by the spies when they were discovered to eliminate the possibility of being interrogated by an enemy.\nIt was reported in 2001 that since 1997, for every company with a poison pill which successfully resisted a hostile takeover, there were 20 companies with poison pills that accepted takeover offers. The trend since the early 2000s has been for shareholders to vote against poison pill authorization, since poison pills are designed to resist takeovers, whereas from the point of view of a shareholder, takeovers can be financially rewarding.\nSome have argued that poison","-21.473574490606552"],["(Kominsky 14). Prior to publishing The Hoaxers, the working title for the two volumes was Countdown—USA\nThe Hoaxers is a \"special study of the use of fabrications, distortions of truth, and out-of-context quotations.\" It examines such works as The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, the \"Ten Cannots\" of William J. H. Boetcker commonly misattributed to Abraham Lincoln and conspiracy theories such as the Bilderberg Group Conspiracy and the Illuminati. The book received favorable advance comments from Robert W. Kenny and Congressman Dalip Singh Saund among others, as printed on the dustcover.\nKominsky had run in 1938 for Governor","-21.432804569325526"],["1994 around the author's fraudulently claimed ancestry. Political A political scandal occurs when political corruption or other misbehavior is exposed. Politicians or government officials are accused of engaging in illegal, corrupt, or unethical practices. A political scandal can involve the breaking of the nation's laws or moral codes and may involve other types of scandal. Business In 2012, Michael Woodford who successfully steered Olympus, a Japanese company to fame, turned a whistleblower when even as a CEO of the firm, he exposed the financial scandal worth $1.7 billion and fled Japan fearing for his life. Though persecuted his revelations proved","-21.41919794762225"],["Ruef confesses Heney and Spreckels meanwhile met with officers of the major companies implicated in the bribery scheme and encouraged them to come forward and implicate Ruef and Schmitz. But the executives pretended that any rumors about bribery were baseless and denied any knowledge of the payoffs. The prosecution's only hope to convict the executives of bribery was to prove a conspiracy, that they gave money to Ruef, a non-public official, with the intent that he pass it on to the Supervisors, who were. The Supervisors' testimony, while important, was only circumstantial. They needed Ruef's testimony to implicate the other","-21.368043162785398"],["Edward Coke, conspiracy was originally a statutory remedy against false accusation and prosecution by \"a consultation and agreement between two or more to appeal or indict an innocent man falsely and maliciously of felony, whom they cause to be indicted and appealed; and afterward the party is lawfully acquitted\". In Poulterer's Case, 77 Eng. Rep. 813 (K.B. 1611), the court reasoned that the thrust of the crime was the confederating of two or more, and dropped the requirement that an actual indictment of an innocent take place, whereby precedent was set that conspiracy only need involve an attempted crime, and","-21.35271759686293"],["issues), miscarriages of justice, misconduct in public administrations and services... \"Plumbers' affair\" On 3 December 1973, policemen of the Directorate of Territorial Surveillance (DST), disguised as plumbers, were caught trying to install a spy microphone in the directorial office of Le Canard. The resulting scandal forced Interior Minister Raymond Marcellin to leave the government, though it is said that Marcellin was a scapegoat for other members of the government, especially the Defense Minister, who was intent on knowing the identities of informers for the newspaper. Robert Boulin affair A series of articles accusing long-serving Gaullist minister and possible Prime Ministerial","-21.351454958712566"],["truth. Evasions are closely related to equivocations and mental reservations; indeed, some statements fall under both descriptions. Question dodging Question dodging is a rhetorical technique involving the intentional avoidance of answering a question. This may occur when the person questioned either does not know the answer and wants to avoid embarrassment, or when the person is being interrogated or questioned in debate, and wants to avoid giving a direct response. Overt question dodging can sometimes be employed humorously, in order to sidestep giving a public answer in a political discussion: when a reporter asked Mayor Richard J. Daley why","-21.3385009129197"],["board for deceit in the hope that it too could be inveigled into believing lies. White stated in a media interviews that the Tribunal findings against him, were based on \"hearsay, innuendo and rumour\", – rather than the thousands of documents admitted as evidence and hundreds of days at hearing. Code of Discipline Inquiries relating to garda discipline can take years to unravel due to the overlay of legal formalism in the process. Procedures can be used to frustrate and delay simple and straightforward investigations. The Tribunal has made recommendations in respect of this. A new draft code of","-21.32313545740908"],["of these chosen jury members (Bell, 94) and to take away their sources of internet, such as phones, before the actual trial commences. Mistrials and alternatives Mistrials are the common response in cases where juror misconduct has occurred. Mistrials can be costly and thus will be avoided if possible. When mistrials are seen as a solution, they are compared to wasted assets “when it could have easily been avoided”. If the possibility presents itself, according to Eltis’s article, simply dismissing the misconduct as unacceptable would be less destructive than a mistrial. Dismissing this misconduct will be destructive since it would","-21.250661412508634"],["tradition than a need for actual secrecy.\nThis has led to a perception of more extensive secrecy among non-Freemasons. Anti-masons note the existence of “bloody oaths” by which the initiate swears to keep secret the key parts of masonic ceremonies. This perception of secrecy has led to the creation of many Masonic conspiracy theories. The Morgan Affair and its aftermath The mysterious disappearance of William Morgan in 1826 was said to be due to his threat to publish a book detailing the secret rituals of Freemasonry.\nAn attempt was made to burn down the publishing house, and separately, Morgan was arrested","-21.249732468731963"],["confidence trickster offers to let the mark put up some of the funds, with a promise of a greater monetary reward upon release of the prisoner plus a non-pecuniary incentive, gaining the hand of a beautiful woman represented to be the prisoner's daughter. After the mark has turned over the funds, he is informed further difficulties have arisen, and more money is needed. With such explanations, the trickster continues to press for more money until the victim is cleaned out, or declines to put up more funds. Characteristics Key features of the Spanish Prisoner trick are the emphasis on secrecy","-21.21699209417784"],["their exposure and arrests, which suggests that the longevity of their scam was concentrated on the passing off of lower level items.\nBalanced against this must be the success of sales to private individuals. They are unlikely to have had the same level of expertise at their disposal as institutions, and are probably less willing to advertise their losses once the forgeries were detected. Certainly they have not had the same exposure as the debacle surrounding the Bolton Museum, for example. Two individual buyers, \"wealthy Americans\" have been noticed, but only after they donated their purchase to the British Museum.\nAnother piece","-21.2159845136066"],["withheld from the panel about one of the impostors and it was up to the panelists to determine correctly to which of the impostors it applied. One at a time, each panelist would be given twenty seconds to question the impostor sitting directly across from them and would then say whether he/she believed the fact applied to that impostor. Wrong votes still paid $100 with $500 paid if the panel did not correctly determine to whom the fact pertained.\nThe 1980 edition of To Tell the Truth was a rarity in that it was still based in New York while nearly","-21.20891325089542"],["that had originally been rejected (after inspection by independent government examiners), without evidence or assurance that the surveys had been properly corrected or completed. Also, at least one such examiner in California was part of the syndicate, attempting to gain payment for some rejected surveys via bogus field \"examinations\" (which were themselves later rejected as fraudulent as the extent of the group's activities became known). Banks were also involved, providing the deposits and performance bonds required by the government, in exchange for a cut of the enormous profits generated. These banks later also paid for the syndicate's defense","-21.201544203271624"],["or a combination of both. \nContemporary media has the capacity to spread knowledge of a scandal further than in previous centuries and public interest has encouraged many cases of confected scandals relating to well-known people as well as genuine scandals relating to politics and business. Some scandals are revealed by whistleblowers who discover wrongdoing within organizations or groups, such as Deep Throat (William Mark Felt) during the Watergate scandal in the 1970s in the United States. Whistleblowers may be protected by laws which are used to obtain information of misdeeds and acts detrimental to their establishments. However, the possibility","-21.193819337917375"],["members despite the assertion by Democratic members that the investigation was incomplete and had failed to gather pertinent information. Notably, House Intelligence Republicans released a draft of their investigatory report which contradicted some findings of the U.S. Intelligence Community and was written without the input of House Democrats. In the wake of bitter disagreement about the committee's findings, Republican committee member Tom Rooney claimed that the committee had \"lost all credibility\" and had become \"a political forum for people to leak information to drive the day's news.\" In July 2018, the chair of the committee, Representative Devin Nunes, accused the","-21.18401108958642"],["imagined conspiracies, exaggerated notions of the scale and impact of covert activities, misunderstandings of the management and coordination of operations within and between national governments, and... an almost complete failure to place the actions and decisions in question in the appropriate historical context.\" According to Davies, \"the underlying problem is that Ganser has not really undertaken the most basic necessary research to be able to discuss covert action and special operations effectively.\" Olav Riste of the Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies, writing for the journal Intelligence and National Security, mentions several instances where his own research on the stay-behind network","-21.183167871890873"],["the only adversary dangerous enough to be likely to succeed in bringing the betrayers of the Fatherland to Justice.\nAll this was inspired by the principle—which is quite true within itself—that in the big lie there is always a certain force of credibility; because the broad masses of a nation are always more easily corrupted in the deeper strata of their emotional nature than consciously or voluntarily; and thus in the primitive simplicity of their minds they more readily fall victims to the big lie than the small lie, since they themselves often tell small lies in little matters but would","-21.165569518510893"],["conspirators to be dismissed, claiming the rebels had not been captured \"red-handed\", but this request was denied. They were more successful in another demand, managing to persuade the five military judges to allow witnesses to be called. The court agreed to their request to compel Khánh, Kỳ and the civilian Deputy Prime Minister Nguyễn Xuân Oánh to appear before the hearing. The accused officers claimed to have only intended to make a show of force, rather than overthrow Khánh. Đức claimed that the objective of his actions was to \"emphasize my ideas\" and said his actions did not constitute a","-21.150177161083093"],["asks Holmes insistently about the stolen document's contents, but Holmes only reveals to her that there would be very unfortunate consequences if the document were not found. Lady Hilda also begs Holmes to tell her husband nothing of her visit.\nHolmes's spy hunt does not go well. Four days after the murder, French police arrest the probable culprit of it, a woman whom Lucas has married in Paris, under the alias of \"Henri Fournaye\". She was seen in London near Eduardo Lucas' house the night of the crime, but she is now useless as a witness because she has gone insane.\nInspector","-21.13281273159373"],["acts set up coercive questioning regimes which operate outside the normal criminal processes. Direct testimonial evidence gained from this coercive questioning cannot be used in any subsequent criminal trial of the person providing the evidence, however a witness who testifies in his defense at a subsequent criminal trial who provides a different testimony to that during the questioning may face prosecution for perjury. New South Wales The state of New South Wales passed the Evidence Amendment (Evidence of Silence) Act 2013 which allows the judiciary to direct the jury to draw unfavourable inferences against a defendant who failed or","-21.10507093279739"],["to witness the documentary proceedings between private persons and to impress them with legal authenticity. They are not engaged in the chanceries, in order that they may be within easy reach of private individuals; they have a public character, so that their records, drawn up according to rule, are received as authentic accounts of the particular transaction, especially agreements, contracts, testaments, and wills.\nConsequently, public notaries may be appointed only by those authorities who possess jurisdiction in foro externo, and have a chancery, e.g. popes, bishops, emperors, reigning princes, and of course only within the limits of their jurisdiction; moreover, the","-21.094708863529377"],["Madoff scandal. Although the conspirators were quickly caught, unravelling the scam required three large insolvencies and four acts of Parliament over the course of more than forty years. It had been at least nine months in the making. After the meeting, Pitkin would leave London, absconding first to Scotland and later to Holland, and setting in motion an economic panic, an international manhunt, and a reform of English bankruptcy law.\nThomas Pitkin was born in the village of Berkhamsted, Buckinghamshire in 1665. He came from a middle-class family, and had entered the trade of linen draper, or wholesale cloth merchant. By","-21.075404910174257"],["further reading by David Southwell and Sean Twist in their book Unsolved Political Mysteries. Writing for The Star, James Mitchell observed, \"There's a huge amount packed in here, simply presented.\" Mitchell concluded, \"Read the Conspiracy Encyclopedia, and you'll either have your worst fears confirmed that there's a grand, unified conspiracy affecting everything ... or less exciting, that most of the time, vanilla rules: What you see is what you get!\"","-21.067602683854034"],["secretaries, Claude Nau de la Boisselière and Gilbert Curle, were likewise taken into custody and interrogated.\nThe conspirators were sentenced to death for treason and conspiracy against the crown, and were to be hanged, drawn, and quartered. This first group included Babington, Ballard, Chidiock Tichborne, Thomas Salisbury, Henry Donn, Robert Barnewell and John Savage. A further group of seven men including Edward Habington, Charles Tilney, Edward Jones, John Charnock, John Travers, Jerome Bellamy, and Robert Gage, were tried and convicted shortly afterward. Ballard and Babington were executed on 20 September 1586 along with the other men who had been tried with","-21.066920681245392"],["The Great Bank Hoax Plot There's intrigue and deception at a small-town bank when it is discovered that an unsuspecting employee (Paul Sand) has embezzled thousands of dollars. Leading bank officers Jack Stutz (Burgess Meredith) and Manny Benchly (Richard Basehart) decide to hide the theft in a seemingly clever plot that will make them even more money. However, when word of the crime gets out, the whole community becomes outraged and gets involved, resulting in plenty of trouble.","-21.04100115186884"],["suspicion is a low standard of proof to determine whether a brief investigative stop or search by a police officer or any government agent is warranted. It is important to note that this stop or search must be brief; its thoroughness is proportional to, and limited by, the low standard of evidence. A more definite standard of proof (often probable cause) would be required to justify a more thorough stop/search. In Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968), the Supreme Court ruled that reasonable suspicion requires specific, articulable, and individualized suspicion that crime is afoot. A mere guess or \"hunch\"","-21.02684298623035"],["of 1776. The conspirators largely belonged to the white upper class of Minas Gerais. Many had studied in Europe, especially in the University of Coimbra, and some had large debts with the colonial government. In the context of declining gold production, the intention of the Portuguese government to impose the obligatory payment of all debts (the derrama) was a leading cause behind the conspiracy. The conspirators wanted to create a Republic in which the leader would be chosen through democratic elections. The capital would be São João del Rei, and Ouro Preto would become a university town. The structure of","-21.0083738472822"],["manifest that somebody is going to be tricked. There is no genuine honest reason for making a secret of this kind. My hope is that it is the Nationalist party who are going to be tricked. It may be them, or it may be us, but that somebody is going to be tricked is perfectly plain..\"\nIt now appears that in late May Asquith sought any solution that would avoid, or at least postpone, an Irish civil war. He had not been frank about the new temporary-partition possibility, leaving everyone wondering what, exactly, they were voting for in the main Bill,","-21.008093723990896"],["a commission of inquiry into alleged bribery and coercion by ministerial assistants in the federal government known as the Rivard Affair.","-21.002922129031504"],["prosecution because of illegal wire taps and the government's unwillingness to reveal sources and methods favored a strategy of inversion where they would be above ground \"revolutionary leaders\". Jeremy Varon argues that by 1977 the WUO had disbanded.\nMatthew Steen appeared on the lead segment of CBS' 60 Minutes in 1976 and was interviewed by Mike Wallace about the ease of creating fake identification, the first ex-Weatherman interview on national television. (The House document has the date wrong, it aired February 1, 1976 and the title was Fake ID.)\nThe federal government estimated that only 38 Weathermen had gone underground in 1970,","-20.996294193377253"],["attempt to live out in real life, sometimes even inserting themselves into public events or ceremonies, or volunteering for interviews with journalists about their alleged experiences. Others are motivated by more direct gains, such as impressing employers, casting directors, audiences, investors, voters in political campaigns or romantic interests.\nOccasionally impostors use their claims in an attempt to intimidate others, such as claiming to be a trained sniper or ex-special forces, or use their fabricated experiences as a pretense of authority for their opinions on political matters. False claims of military service are also used by panhandlers to increase donations, sometimes","-20.974051403878548"],["since the mid-nineteenth century, under the decision of Barwick v English Joint Stock Bank. This liability was extended in the early 20th century, to cover fraudulent actions which were not of benefit to the employer, a previous requirement. Thereupon, the test for vicarious liability of fraud was whether it was within an employee's authority – either actual, or outwardly appearing – to carry out the fraudulent actions that he did. It was not enough that an employee merely asserted that he had supposed authority, however; the defrauded individual or company must have been assured or led to believe by the","-20.90646424737497"],["apothecaries, mid-wives, and all other persons who, by their status (état) or profession are the depositaries of secrets confided to them, revealing such secrets, except in cases in which the law obliges them to inform [hors les cas où la loi les oblige à se porter dénonciateurs] shall be punished with imprisonment from one to six months, and with a fine of from 100 to 500 francs.\nThe exception, mentioned in the article, of persons obliged by law to be informers, as pointed out by Dalloz, became obsolete because Arts 103–107, which dealt with the obligation of informing, were repealed by","-20.905826703819912"],["claimed fraud in several other government positions, as well as the murder of political opponents by incumbents. There were eyewitness claims as well. Loren Legarda claimed that she had evidence of being cheated by Noli de Castro, who won the vice presidency in 2004. Fraud techniques Electoral fraud in the country was usually done by manipulating the ballots. However, a new technique has arisen which just involves the manipulating the election return or ER, which is a summary of the votes in precincts. Evidence exist showing that the 32,000 sets of overprinted ERs of the Commission of Elections could manipulate","-20.901471811230294"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"that genuine conspiracies do exist, but noted how infrequently conspirators have been able to achieve their goal.\\nThe historian Bruce Cumings similarly rejects the notion that history is controlled by conspiracies, stating that where real conspiracies have appeared they have usually had little effect on history and have had unforeseen consequences for the conspirators. Cumings concludes that history is instead \\\"moved by the broad forces and large structures of human collectivities\\\".\\nIn a 2009 article, the legal scholars Cass Sunstein and Adrian Vermeule considered a number of possible government responses to conspiracy theories, including censorship and taxation. They concluded that the\",\n \"-26.40777447159053\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the conspiracy. Proof of which individual it was is usually not necessary.\\nIt is also an option for prosecutors, when bringing conspiracy charges, to decline to indict all members of the conspiracy (though the existence of all members may be mentioned in an indictment). Such unindicted co-conspirators are commonly found when the identities or whereabouts of members of a conspiracy are unknown, or when the prosecution is concerned only with a particular individual among the conspirators. This is common when the target of the indictment is an elected official or an organized crime leader, and the co-conspirators are persons\",\n \"-24.569046310374688\"\n ],\n [\n \"Revolution. Other conspirators Contrary to some relations of the folklore, it appears that a number of other people of lower social rank accompanied the conspirators. Some accounts cite the presence of Duncan Buchanan, a clerk for Aeneas MacDonald who acted as a Jacobite agent and messenger, instead of O'Sullivan.\",\n \"-24.195334114128855\"\n ],\n [\n \"Forgery as covert operation Forgery is used by some governments and non-state actors as a tool of covert operation, disinformation and black propaganda. Letters, currency, speeches, documents, and literature are all falsified as a means to subvert a government’s political, military or economic assets. Forgeries are designed to attribute a false intention and aspirations on the intended target. They force the targeted government to spend a large amount of resources to refute the forgery. Forgeries are an effective tool because of their ability to hold influence even after being proven false. Counterfeit money Counterfeiting is the\",\n \"-24.096294959912484\"\n ],\n [\n \"a conspiracy exists, then there is a conspiracy even if the details are never agreed to aloud by the participants. CIA covert operations, for instance, are by their very nature hard to prove definitively. But research into the agency's work, as well as revelations by former CIA employees, has suggested several cases where the agency tried to influence events. Between 1947 and 1989, the United States tried to change other nations' governments 72 times. During the Cold War, 26 of the United States' covert operations successfully brought a U.S.-backed government to power; the remaining 40 failed.\\nA \\\"conspiracy theory\\\" is a\",\n \"-24.039944489632035\"\n ],\n [\n \"by bribes, rebates, and secret business deals.\\nA modification of the furtive fallacy holds that when the historical record provides no evidence explaining a particular set of events, this is itself evidence of a furtive cause.\\nThe idea of the furtive fallacy is criticized by Jeffrey M. Bale, who cites the risk of historians underestimating the influence of political secret societies, vanguard parties, and intelligence agencies.\",\n \"-24.020350423874334\"\n ],\n [\n \"hoax devised by people seeking advantage from misinformation. Attorney and historian George Levy maintains the \\\"conspiracy\\\" began as a con aimed at Confederate agents that evolved into a hoax exploited by Colonel Sweet for his own advantage. Levy wrote that believing in the Camp Douglas conspiracy was a matter of faith: Confederate agents thought they had created a workable plot, and Colonel Sweet made their dream come true. On the other hand, Kelly wrote that Sweet seemed to believe the plot to be real. Eisendrath also treated the plot as real. Writing at a time closer to the event, Bross\",\n \"-24.010117321417056\"\n ],\n [\n \"relative lack of scruples makes it possible some came from corruption. Downfall and exile His removal from office in 1289 was not, however, as a result of judicial misconduct. On 20 July 1289 two of his servants committed a murder at a village fair, killing William Carwel, an Irish servant of the Earl of Norfolk. The killing may have been as a result of a drunken brawl, but it is probable it was part of bitter factional fighting between followers of the earl, of whom Weyland was one of the leading councillors. After the servants returned to his house at\",\n \"-23.74766515698866\"\n ],\n [\n \"False lien A false lien is document that purports to describe a lien, but which has no legal basis, or which is based upon false, fictitious, or fraudulent statements or representations. The filing of false liens has been used as a tool of harassment in \\\"paper terrorism\\\", often against government officials. The practice was pioneered by the Posse Comitatus. The Bureau of Prisons has responded by treating lien documents and personal information (such as Social Security Numbers) of federal agents, judges, etc. as contraband in federal prisons.\\nThe U.S. Congress has criminalized the filing of false liens, and the U.S. Sentencing\",\n \"-23.69028761482332\"\n ],\n [\n \"forgery is often a fake manuscript or diary created to attribute certain ideological beliefs or actions to the figure. Literary forgery is often difficult to refute because the purported author is usually deceased. United States Secret Service The United States Secret Service is the agency within the United States' government tasked with the protection of U.S. currency. The Secret Service has jurisdiction over violations involving the counterfeiting of United States obligations and securities. Some of the counterfeited United States obligations and securities commonly investigated by the Secret Service include U.S. currency (to include coins), U.S. Treasury checks, Department of\",\n \"-23.551331894879695\"\n ],\n [\n \"than common dismissals of conspiracy theory contend.\\nTheories involving multiple conspirators that are proven to be correct, such as the Watergate scandal, are usually referred to as \\\"investigative journalism\\\" or \\\"historical analysis\\\" rather than conspiracy theory. By contrast, the term \\\"Watergate conspiracy theory\\\" is used to refer to a variety of hypotheses in which those convicted in the conspiracy were in fact the victims of a deeper conspiracy. Conspiracism as a world view The historian Richard Hofstadter addressed the role of paranoia and conspiracism throughout U.S. history in his 1964 essay \\\"The Paranoid Style in American Politics\\\". Bernard Bailyn's classic The\",\n \"-23.46618460981699\"\n ],\n [\n \"the conspiracy and told the conspirators that the attempt was useless.\",\n \"-23.425104093868867\"\n ],\n [\n \"before. \\\"Public figures may be more “fakeable” through this method than private ones. Visually routine situations, like a press conference, are more likely to be faked than entirely novel ones.\\\" Deepfakes can be very dangerous in the sense that they can be used to fake what people with high authority have said such as, the president and politicians. There have been many articles and discussions over the new discovery of deepfakes such as Youtuber Shane Dawson's video, \\\"Conspiracy Theories with Shane Dawson\\\" where he talks about the conspiracy of deepfakes and what they could mean for the world today.\\nSocial hacking\",\n \"-23.4145952109302\"\n ],\n [\n \"some spies' decisions, and seems particularly likely if they are bored with their life. Excitement is seldom a spy's primary motivation, but may be a contributing factor. One notable example is Christopher Cooke, who claimed to be fascinated with espionage, and who told investigators he specifically sought to involve himself in spycraft for that reason. Disaffection and grudges Some spies are motivated largely by personal, non-ideological hostility towards the country or organisation they are spying on. This may stem from some real or imagined wrong—a person may, for example, betray secrets to the enemy if they feel they have not\",\n \"-23.271293272075127\"\n ],\n [\n \"presenting a truthful case before the tribunal.\\nThe prosecution induced the approvers to state that at the end of the crucial meeting of 23 February 1951 the people present had agreed to overthrow the government. They had to tell this lie because otherwise the allegation of conspiracy would have fallen flat. According to the penal code a conspiracy is only established 'when two or more persons agree to commit an illegal act or a legal act by illegal means'. If there is no agreement there is no conspiracy under the law.\\nThe Conspirators claimed that after eight long hours of discussion, of\",\n \"-23.2598368942854\"\n ],\n [\n \"agencies to infiltrate organizations suspected of political dissent.\\nDonner also cited the government's use of scapegoats to divert attention from government criticism onto other political groups.\",\n \"-23.161058423909708\"\n ],\n [\n \"wealthy circles. Intrigues Very often, courtesans would betray one another in acts of political intrigue in attempts to climb into higher positions of power within royal courts. There are many cases throughout history where one courtesan would attempt (sometimes successfully) to supplant the mistress to a king or emperor. This was typically preceded by her discrediting the ruler's companion, often by divulging secrets that could lead to her rival being cast aside and replaced by her. However, this was a delicate process, and if a courtesan of \\\"lower status\\\" attempted to replace a courtesan who wielded a substantial amount of\",\n \"-23.156435192871868\"\n ],\n [\n \"the poisoners. La Reynie sought to calm the king. The subsequent investigation of potential poisoners led to accusations of witchcraft, murder and more.\\nAuthorities rounded up a number of fortune tellers and alchemists who were suspected of selling not only divinations, séances and aphrodisiacs, but also \\\"inheritance powders\\\" (a euphemism for poison). Some of them confessed under torture and gave authorities lists of their clients, who had allegedly bought poison to get rid of their spouses or rivals in the royal court.\\nThe most famous case was that of the midwife Catherine Deshayes Monvoisin or La Voisin, who was arrested in 1679\",\n \"-23.13536471661064\"\n ],\n [\n \"intimidation of voters who turned out, historiographers of Polish history invariably consider these elections to have been fraudulent - due to the above peculiarities.\",\n \"-23.08940709201488\"\n ],\n [\n \"was there for English and German bankers to send Seyd here in the winter of 1872-3, to bribe congress to favor a measure that had already passed both houses of congress without a word of opposition from a single member? Granting that bankers are as willing to resort to bribery as Populists claim—and the word of those who forge government reports would, of course, be accepted as conclusive on this point—they should be credited with having sense enough not to use bribery when there is no necessity whatever for it.\\nIn the end, the allegations of bribery seemed implausible and Luckenbach's\",\n \"-23.02206664659934\"\n ],\n [\n \"indicting participants in the bribery plot, leading a few of them to flee the state or the country. As he began to win convictions, other men involved in corruption decided to testify against their associates. Steffens concludes the article by claiming that \\\"In all cities, the better classes—the business men—are the sources of corruption\\\"; Folk, he notes, \\\"has shown St. Louis that its bankers, brokers, corporation officers,—its business men are the sources of evil\\\". Furthermore, he warns, \\\"what went on in St. Louis is going on in most of our cities, towns, and villages. The problem\",\n \"-23.014111586664512\"\n ],\n [\n \"also refer to misleading or inaccurate newspaper headlines, but this usage appears to be a more recent appropriation of the term.\\nA big lie is one that attempts to trick the victim into believing something major, which will likely be contradicted by some information the victim already possesses, or by their common sense. When the lie is of sufficient magnitude it may succeed, due to the victim's reluctance to believe that an untruth on such a grand scale would indeed be concocted.\\nTo bluff is to pretend to have a capability or intention one does not possess. Bluffing is an act of\",\n \"-22.991567413366283\"\n ],\n [\n \"confession) claimed that the conspirators attempted to dig a tunnel from beneath Whynniard's house to Parliament, although this story may have been a government fabrication; no evidence for the existence of a tunnel was presented by the prosecution, and no trace of one has ever been found; Fawkes himself did not admit the existence of such a scheme until his fifth interrogation, but even then he could not locate the tunnel. If the story is true, however, by December 1604 the conspirators were busy tunnelling from their rented house to the House of Lords. They ceased their efforts when, during tunnelling,\",\n \"-22.93244128441438\"\n ],\n [\n \"even though fraud on the part of the public authority had been alleged. In contrast, Lord Reid gave a dissenting opinion in which he doubted whether an order that had been obtained by corrupt or fraudulent means could be protected from being questioned in court. Despite the subsequent ruling in Anisminic, in R. v. Secretary of State for the Environment, ex parte Ostler (1976) the Court of Appeal of England and Wales applied Smith and upheld the validity of a partial ouster clause that gave the applicants six weeks to challenge a decision. Lord Denning, the Master of the Rolls,\",\n \"-22.816171780679724\"\n ],\n [\n \"and political repression of the time.\\nThe conspirators planned to assassinate the cabinet which was supposed to be together at a dinner. They would then seize key buildings, overthrow the government and establish a \\\"Committee of Public Safety\\\" to oversee a radical revolution. According to the prosecution at their trial, they had intended to form a provisional government headquartered in the Mansion House. Governmental crisis Hard economic times encouraged social unrest. The end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 further worsened the economy and saw the return of job-seeking veterans. King George III's death on 29 January 1820, created a\",\n \"-22.796302129834658\"\n ],\n [\n \"archives, I understand the legacy of suspicion. It is difficult to overestimate the degree of suspicion.\\\"\\nOminously, the Guardian noted:\\nIn a number of colonies, as files were destroyed a certificate was completed and sent to London to show that the job had been done. Could these certificates also be stored at Hanslope Park, providing a glimpse of the contents of each file that was destroyed? The FCO was refusing to say on Tuesday, and insisted that any queries about such certificates should be the subject of an freedom of information request. Furthermore, Cary's report states that a separate inquiry is now\",\n \"-22.773787835845724\"\n ],\n [\n \"the conspiracy because he thinks he will be able to rid himself of his debts if there is a rebellion. Calcagno wants Fiesco's wife Leonore. Bourgognino wants to finally marry his bride Bertha,Verrina's daughter. Her seduction and rape by Gianettino Doria provide the immediate motive for the conspiracy.\\nThe behavior of Fiesco, the young Count of Lavagna, leaves the conspirators unsure about whether he is one of them or not. He woos the disreputable sister of the schemer Gianettino and behaves in general as an unprincipled playboy without any political ambition. Even Leonore, Fiesco's wife, does not know where she is\",\n \"-22.773303124347876\"\n ],\n [\n \"This business of false conspiracy was followed by \\\"the business\\\" of Luxembourg, a conspiracy whose reality rested, still exclusively, on the false witnesses of individuals who, against various promises, had to deposit with the revolutionary Tribunal, and which sometimes themselves were carried out thereafter. Principals Ground after the lawsuit of Danton and its co-defendants to the prison of Luxembourg where was the ex-general Arthur Dillon, Lucile Desmoulins, or Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette, the imaginary conspiracies, revealed and denounced by agents of the political police in the prisons of Paris, put back on an amalgam various unknown people the ones with the others\",\n \"-22.747775484836893\"\n ],\n [\n \"or ethical objections and that evidence of this was \\\"buried\\\" in footnotes to an article in a scientific journal and in two annual reports of the CSIRO, the relevant report years being unspecified.\\n\\nWindschuttle states: \\nA real hoax, like that of Alan Sokal and Ern Malley, is designed to expose editors who are pretentious, ignorant or at least over-enthusiastic about certain subjects. The technique is to submit obvious nonsense for publication in order to expose the editor's ignorance of the topic. A real hoax defeats its purpose if it largely relies upon real issues, real people and real publications for its\",\n \"-22.738551078429737\"\n ],\n [\n \"also evident on billboards, newspapers, magazines and even word of mouth. Hoaxing A hoax is something intended to deceive or defraud. When a newspaper or the news reports a fake story, it is known as a hoax. Misleading public stunts, scientific frauds, false bomb threats and business scams are examples of hoaxes. A common aspect that hoaxes have is that they are all meant to deceive or lie. For something to become a hoax, the lie must have something more to offer. It must be outrageous, dramatic but also has to be believable and ingenious. Above all, it must\",\n \"-22.619275492921588\"\n ],\n [\n \"that the apprehension of terrorists had led to the discovery of financial support to them by clandestine and illegal means using tainted funds obtained through `hawala' transactions; that this had also disclosed a nexus between politicians, bureaucrats and criminals, who were recipients of money from unlawful sources, given for unlawful consideration that the CBI and other Government agencies had failed to investigate the matter, take it to its logical conclusion and prosecute all persons who were found to have committed and offence; that this was done with a view to protect the persons involved, who were very influential and powerful;\",\n \"-22.583532666911196\"\n ],\n [\n \"the individual is bribed by the third party to intentionally conceal the damaging information.\\nThe National Enquirer and its parent company American Media have attracted attention for using the practice.\",\n \"-22.583145336204325\"\n ],\n [\n \"discredit the phenomena. Some even argue a conspiracy theory, with governments planting evidence of hoaxing to muddle the origins of the circles. When Ridley wrote negative articles in newspapers, he was accused of spreading \\\"government disinformation\\\" and of working for the UK military intelligence service MI5. Ridley responded by noting that many cereologists make good livings from selling books and providing high-priced personal tours through crop fields, and he claimed that they have vested interests in rejecting what is by far the most likely explanation for the circles.\\nIn serious science magazines from the 80s and 90s, for example Science Illustrated,\",\n \"-22.563822590818745\"\n ],\n [\n \"agencies. The primary targets of such suspicions were government employees, those in the entertainment industry, educators and union activists. Suspicions were often given credence despite inconclusive or questionable evidence and the level of threat posed by a person's real or supposed leftist associations or beliefs was often greatly exaggerated. Many people suffered loss of employment and/or destruction of their careers; and some even suffered imprisonment. Most of these punishments came about through trial verdicts later overturned, laws that would be declared unconstitutional, dismissals for reasons later declared illegal or actionable, or extra-legal procedures that would come into general disrepute. The\",\n \"-22.46098864571104\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the cunning profession by outlawing \\\"persons pretending or professing to tell fortunes, or using any subtle craft, means and device, by palmistry or otherwise, to deceive and impose.\\\" The enacting of the law led to the increased prosecutions of cunning folk, something that would only begin to wane in the 1910s.\\nA news report from 1870 detailed a number of cases brought before authorities in the nineteenth century where claims of powers were made, but it ridiculed the belief, and closed with an example where 'the charge was settled down to the more definite one of obtaining a shilling under\",\n \"-22.368297705601435\"\n ],\n [\n \"Motives for spying Money For many spies, the primary motivation is the prospect of financial gain. Spies may seek to supplement their existing income, or to remedy financial difficulties. Sometimes these spies are detected due to extravagant spending of the money they receive. John Anthony Walker is an example of a spy who worked for money. Ideology, patriotism, or religion Some people become spies because of their beliefs. These can include political opinions, national allegiances, and cultural or religious beliefs. This was particularly true during the Cold War, when many spies were motivated by their support for the ideologies of\",\n \"-22.31892485191929\"\n ],\n [\n \"of generating false credentials is to suborn one of the officials involved in the document-issuing process through bribery or intimidation. This may also be combined with the bootstrapping process mentioned above to mount complex attacks.\\nCorruption in the document-issuing process is hard to counter, since as the value of a credential increases, the economic incentives for corruption also increase. This is particularly true in the case of fake ID cards that combine many functions in one document, and for documents which are issued in large numbers, thus requiring many thousands of people to have authorizing powers, thus creating a longer chain\",\n \"-22.304333677905333\"\n ],\n [\n \"that actual ballots did not need to be faked and hence fraud \\\"is simply a matter of changing numbers on a spreadsheet.\\\" The Guardian Council of Iran has rejected this argument claiming that representatives of all candidates were present at most ballot boxes and during the process of counting votes, despite this not being constitutionally required. However, Mousavi has claimed that the government \\\"[had] prevented some of [his] representatives from being present at polling stations.\\\" General considerations Several statisticians have attempted to determine whether the results (or some of the results) are significantly different from what is expected. This\",\n \"-22.30225454342758\"\n ],\n [\n \"as a result of the release of evidence in an alleged bribery scheme.\",\n \"-22.294387616566382\"\n ],\n [\n \"the great test case of political corruption occurred; pretty well known in England, and unfortunately much better known in Europe, as the Marconi scandal. To narrate its alternate secrecies and sensations would be impossible here; but one fashionable fallacy about it may be exploded with advantage. An extraordinary notion still exists that the New Witness denounced Ministers for gambling on the Stock Exchange. It might be improper for Ministers to gamble; but gambling was certainly not a misdemeanor that would have hardened with any special horror so hearty an Anti-Puritan as the man of whom I write. The Marconi case\",\n \"-22.233007878832723\"\n ],\n [\n \"ministers had been aware of a Jacobite plot to assassinate the King. The Earl used this information in an attempt to ruin the Duke, this however backfired and caused the Earl to spend a short while in the Tower of London. As a result of these allegations, Smith was taken from his lodgings in London and interviewed at the House of Lords.\\nMemoirs of Secret Service is seen as the prototype of the literary genre of spy autobiographies and there is some controversy as to whether Smith wrote the book or whether his school friend and author Tom Brown did.\",\n \"-22.210126118943663\"\n ],\n [\n \"scheme, Fraudsters mislead investors in order to sell securities in the dummy corporation, in this case, making investors incorrectly believe \\\"that they are buying shares in the real corporation\\\". The sale of securities through a fraudulent corporation is inherently illegal. Hiding identity Another use is to prevent speculators from intruding on imminent plans of the parent organisation. Dummy corporations may also be used in crime to hide the identity of a criminal, similar to the use of a criminal alias.\\nRaymond Davis, a former Blairstown, New Jersey committee member, diverted $46,000 in public funds into a dummy corporation. The self-created dummy\",\n \"-22.202475674469497\"\n ],\n [\n \"the scale of impersonation fraud has been greatly exaggerated by Republicans for political reasons.\\nA 2012 investigation of 207 alleged dead voters in South Carolina found only five instances unexplained by clerical errors. For instance, sometimes a son with the same name as his dead father was accidentally recorded as voting under the father's name. A study of dead voters in the 2006 Georgia midterm election concluded that only fifteen of the 66 alleged instances of dead voting were potentially fraudulent. All but four of the dead votes were cast absentee, and most of the absentee voters in question cast early\",\n \"-22.141316400186042\"\n ],\n [\n \"United States House Select Committee to Investigate Alleged Corruptions in Government The Select Committee to Investigate Alleged Corruptions in Government was a select committee of the United States House of Representatives which operated during the spring and summer of 1860 during the 36th Congress. The committee was charged with a broad investigation of the administration of President James Buchanan, including possible impeachment. It was also referred to as the Covode Committee after its chairman, John Covode of Pennsylvania. History and jurisdiction The committee was established March 5, 1860 when the House adopted a resolution offered by John Covode, which was\",\n \"-22.140531532262685\"\n ],\n [\n \"the crime of bribery is complete once the bribe is accepted, whether or not the official performs the promised act. In United States v. Helstoski (1979), the Court held that the prosecution may not introduce any evidence of a past \\\"legislative act\\\" at trial. According to Weeks, \\\"[a]s a practical matter, it is extremely difficult to successfully prosecute a section 201 action if reference to a defendant's legislative acts is forbidden.\\\" Federalism Charles Ruff referred to \\\"the prosecution of local officials for acts of public corruption\\\" as \\\"perhaps the most sensitive area of federal-state cooperation.\\\" Several other commentators have expressed\",\n \"-22.1395145918068\"\n ],\n [\n \"Spies and Lies Spies and Lies is a 1992 Nancy Drew and the Hardy Boys Supermystery crossover novel. It was written by Tracey West under the usual pseudonym Carolyn Keene. Plot Nancy Drew goes undercover as a rookie in the infamous Quantico, Virginia FBI Academy, serving Judy Noll, the daughter of a powerful political figure. Judy is immediately in danger when her roommate turns up dead, and also when she is revealed to be the target of a madman. Nancy lays herself a trap, with herself as the bait. The Hardys are also posing as trainees at the bureau, but\",\n \"-22.131934135817573\"\n ],\n [\n \"conspirators were tried and convicted by Judges Alexander Contee Hanson, Col. James Johnson, and Upton Sheradine as traitors to the revolutionary cause. The men were sentenced to be hanged, drawn, and quartered in Frederick. On August 17, 1781, Sueman and two other conspirators, Casper Fritchie and Yost Peckler, were executed in Frederick. The other four conspirators were pardoned by Governor Thomas Sim Lee.\\nBroad Run developed into a local industrial center for the surrounding farms. The Isaac Bond Atlas of Frederick County, drawn in 1858, shows a saw mill and a grist mill were located along the Broad Run Creek in\",\n \"-22.111784924218227\"\n ],\n [\n \"Guidelines treat the filing of a false lien against a government official as equally serious as threatening the government officials of the United States. Various U.S. states have been developing ways of combating false liens.\",\n \"-22.06207342960988\"\n ],\n [\n \"the justice system will condemn Mrs. De Falco, the least guilty party in the bribery scheme. He predicts that Lee's refusal to accept the bribery system will make the prosecution redouble their anti-radical efforts. More poison pen letters reach the Thornwells. When Cornelia's grandson Josiah is blackmailed for sexual misbehavior, the family's history of secret affairs is discussed along with similar behavior on the part of Boston's ruling elite and occasional bribes. Mrs. De Falco is found not guilty, but the prosecution responds as Vanzetti predicted.\\nChapter 12: Shadows Before\\nSwenson is joined by attorney Fred Moore and they struggle to identify\",\n \"-22.047322991200076\"\n ],\n [\n \"revealing identities of covert agents. However, it was ultimately concluded by the Senate Judiciary and the Conference Committee that the measure is constitutionally sound. Individuals would only be prosecuted if they engage in a pattern of activities intended to identify and expose covert agents, on the grounds that such actions goes beyond information that might contribute to informed public debate on foreign policy or foreign intelligence activities.\\nThe Conference Committee assured that U.S. intelligence critics would be beyond the reach of law so long as they do not actively seek to identify or expose covert agents. However, commentators are still wary\",\n \"-21.9855805078696\"\n ],\n [\n \"of examination abuses. He explores cheating through the eyes of a university registrar who is forced to hire a detective due to the lack of trust he has in some of his applicants' résumés because test questions have been leaked. The detective later discovers a wide variety of examination abuses; from the parents who demand new test results for their children, to principals who allow students to bring in textbooks for closed examinations. The author believed it was partly the corruption of the nation's leaders that had permeated the society and led to rampant unethical excesses. In later years, the\",\n \"-21.959368518295378\"\n ],\n [\n \"For a while there are no illegal transactions done, but the corruption soon continues in the society due to the threatening of the local mob to sign illegal documents and accept bribes. Meanwhile, the ACF finds that it is Badrinarayana (Sayaji Shinde) who is the real reason behind this corruption scenario. Then the kidnapping continues. The case is investigated by group of several old-aged senior level officials who are very slow-moving in their progress. However, Suryam (Prakash Raj), an IPS-passed guy who is working as a constable (unable to pay the bribe to get the officer-level job), takes up the\",\n \"-21.95532395686314\"\n ],\n [\n \"and power to blackmail felons to extort money, or to prosecute them for the reward, which they actually did to sustain their own credibility to the authority. For private citizens, thief-takers played a valuable role in managing to return the stolen goods for a fee, by negotiating or prosecuting the thief. This is why they were not perceived so negatively as informers were. But the news of misconduct provoked the rage of the public.\\nTheir dubious behaviour reached public attention also because of the rivalry between the two leading thief-takers: Charles Hitchen and Jonathan Wild. Hitchen became irritated by the great\",\n \"-21.94775353433215\"\n ],\n [\n \" Unfortunately, there appeared to be little evidence for a conspiracy, let alone an attempt at insurrection. Nevertheless, Dore ordered severe punishments for those thought to have planned an insurrection.\\nDore died on 13 December 1800 leaving insufficient estate to pay his creditors.\",\n \"-21.923075237847115\"\n ],\n [\n \"in cracking down on corruption is to send a message to those who step over some \\\"unknown acceptable level of graft\\\" or too obviously flaunt its benefits. Another reason is to show an angry public that the Party is doing something about the problem.\\nIn many such cases, the origins of anti-corruption measures are a mystery. When Chen Liangyu was ousted, analysts said it was because he lost a power struggle with leaders in Beijing. Chen was Shanghai's party secretary and member of the powerful Politburo. In 2010, a re-release of the Communist Party of China 52 code of ethics was\",\n \"-21.82776303126593\"\n ],\n [\n \"act of extortion under the Hobbs act was the \\\"rough equivalent\\\" of bribery. Because Ocasio did not ask the court to overrule Evans and because the Court had \\\"no occasion to do so\\\" sua sponte, Justice Alito held that \\\"we have no principled basis for precluding the prosecution of conspiracies to commit\\\" extortion under the Hobbs act. Justice Alito also rejected the argument that the Court's ruling would \\\"transform every bribe of a public official into a conspiracy to commit extortion\\\" because \\\"[i]n cases where the bribe payor is merely complying with an official demand, the payor lacks the mens\",\n \"-21.803186352204648\"\n ],\n [\n \"man, and his assessors were at least not accessible to bribery. Verres vainly tried to get the trial postponed until 69 BC when his friend Marcus Caecilius Metellus would be the presiding judge. Hortensius tried two successive tactics to delay the trial. The first was trying to sideline Verres' prosecution by hoping to get a prosecution of a former governor of Bithynia to take precedence. When that failed, the defense then looked to procedural delays (and gaming the usual format of a Roman extortion trial) until after a lengthy and upcoming round of public holidays, after which there would be\",\n \"-21.756488825863926\"\n ],\n [\n \"a spy.\\nIn exchange for asylum, Inspector Voltaire then interrogates the Lookout for information on the thieves' backgrounds. He asks about the Mole, whom she says has already been caught. She then tells him about herself and says she steals because of \\\"a moral debt\\\". When discussing why the Locksmith disregards the law, she recalls the time when he had his hand broken after being caught counting cards in blackjack. The Lookout informs Inspector Voltaire that the Pickpocket used to be rich before he was arrested and that the Hacker had also been in trouble before; he was caught trespassing in\",\n \"-21.718116736083175\"\n ],\n [\n \"dismissal violated U.S. State Department procedures because the State Department's Loyalty Security Board found no evidence of Service being disloyal or a security risk.\\nIn The Amerasia Spy Case: Prelude to McCarthyism, authors Harvey Klehr and Ronald Radosh state \\\"[a]ny lingering doubts about Service's true position are erased by the evidence of the FBI surveillance. If he had been a secret Communist, much less a spy, some better evidence would likely have surfaced in the transcripts\\\".\\nJonathan Mirsky, in his review, in the Wall Street Journal, of the 2009 biography of Service by Lynne Joiner states that: \\\"In two phone interviews with\",\n \"-21.69772582103178\"\n ],\n [\n \"Perjury trap A perjury trap is a form of prosecutorial misconduct in which a prosecutor calls a witness to testify, typically before a grand jury, with the intent of coercing the witness into perjury (intentional deceit under oath). \\nAs an example, suppose that a person committed a crime for which they were never prosecuted, but the statute of limitations on that crime has expired. A prosecutor could set a perjury trap for them by calling them as a witness before a grand jury in a case about a different crime, and ask them about the expired crime. If the witness\",\n \"-21.653171558500617\"\n ],\n [\n \"layoffs were made against the police handling of corruption of elected officials from his party's Minister of the Interior and the police. The case became to be known as \\\"Peach Bag\\\". \\\"Peach Bag\\\" never matured into specific charges and attribute this to the dismissal of police commissioner Shafir. Shafir eventually admitted that he had leaked false information to the press on the investigation of the government minister, however he rejected all other allegations.\",\n \"-21.64547148926067\"\n ],\n [\n \"only the practice in a minority of districts, but in some areas large bribes had become habitual. In areas without direct bribery, candidates were expected to provide food, drink and banquets. These various costs added up to the equivalent of several million modern pounds for the priciest campaigns, causing financial hardship even for wealthy candidates.\\nIn the first elections held in the United States, canvassing was rare. Most elections were uncontested, and even in races with multiple candidates it was considered improper for a candidate to campaign on his own behalf. In the early 19th century as the party system developed,\",\n \"-21.584466771058942\"\n ],\n [\n \"cast their votes. Bribery became such a commonplace practice in the later Republic that it was seen as a normal part of the political process, and ranged anywhere from the blatant promising of money to simply hosting games and entertaining the people. Sometime during the mid-second century, Polybius noted the prohibition of bribery, but this proved to be useless as it continued to be prominent in elections and was very difficult to differentiate between bribery and the patronage system. Some evidence suggests that as the dominance of the practice grew, the number of men who gained the consulship without any\",\n \"-21.563013684557518\"\n ],\n [\n \"Fake defection Fake defection, often referred to as a \\\"provocation\\\" or \\\"dangle\\\" in intelligence circles, is a defection by an intelligence agent made on false pretenses. Fake defectors (who may be referred to as \\\"plant\\\"s) may spread disinformation or aid in uncovering moles. The risk that a defection may be fake is often a concern by intelligence agencies debriefing defectors.\\nExamples of Soviet defectors that some sources have considered fake include Oleg Penkovsky (considered fake by Peter Wright and James Angleton) and Vitaly Yurchenko. Examples of US fake defection operations include Operation Shocker.\\nIn fiction, examples of fake defection include the James\",\n \"-21.53784979550983\"\n ],\n [\n \"provided, how can the court found there to be quid pro quo.\\n3.It is impossible to understand why a company would claim to have given a bribe but it did not participate in the bidding process. This defies logic and common sense. How could the judges believe such a story?\\nIn fact, such character assassination by the judiciary has been going on for a long time. When Minister Kuo was questioned for the first time and while the questioning was still under way, certain journalist was citing a “source” and reported that Minister Kuo had already admitted accepting the bribe. The record\",\n \"-21.517895558063174\"\n ],\n [\n \"various spies throughout history, a pill which was taken by the spies when they were discovered to eliminate the possibility of being interrogated by an enemy.\\nIt was reported in 2001 that since 1997, for every company with a poison pill which successfully resisted a hostile takeover, there were 20 companies with poison pills that accepted takeover offers. The trend since the early 2000s has been for shareholders to vote against poison pill authorization, since poison pills are designed to resist takeovers, whereas from the point of view of a shareholder, takeovers can be financially rewarding.\\nSome have argued that poison\",\n \"-21.473574490606552\"\n ],\n [\n \"(Kominsky 14). Prior to publishing The Hoaxers, the working title for the two volumes was Countdown—USA\\nThe Hoaxers is a \\\"special study of the use of fabrications, distortions of truth, and out-of-context quotations.\\\" It examines such works as The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, the \\\"Ten Cannots\\\" of William J. H. Boetcker commonly misattributed to Abraham Lincoln and conspiracy theories such as the Bilderberg Group Conspiracy and the Illuminati. The book received favorable advance comments from Robert W. Kenny and Congressman Dalip Singh Saund among others, as printed on the dustcover.\\nKominsky had run in 1938 for Governor\",\n \"-21.432804569325526\"\n ],\n [\n \"1994 around the author's fraudulently claimed ancestry. Political A political scandal occurs when political corruption or other misbehavior is exposed. Politicians or government officials are accused of engaging in illegal, corrupt, or unethical practices. A political scandal can involve the breaking of the nation's laws or moral codes and may involve other types of scandal. Business In 2012, Michael Woodford who successfully steered Olympus, a Japanese company to fame, turned a whistleblower when even as a CEO of the firm, he exposed the financial scandal worth $1.7 billion and fled Japan fearing for his life. Though persecuted his revelations proved\",\n \"-21.41919794762225\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ruef confesses Heney and Spreckels meanwhile met with officers of the major companies implicated in the bribery scheme and encouraged them to come forward and implicate Ruef and Schmitz. But the executives pretended that any rumors about bribery were baseless and denied any knowledge of the payoffs. The prosecution's only hope to convict the executives of bribery was to prove a conspiracy, that they gave money to Ruef, a non-public official, with the intent that he pass it on to the Supervisors, who were. The Supervisors' testimony, while important, was only circumstantial. They needed Ruef's testimony to implicate the other\",\n \"-21.368043162785398\"\n ],\n [\n \"Edward Coke, conspiracy was originally a statutory remedy against false accusation and prosecution by \\\"a consultation and agreement between two or more to appeal or indict an innocent man falsely and maliciously of felony, whom they cause to be indicted and appealed; and afterward the party is lawfully acquitted\\\". In Poulterer's Case, 77 Eng. Rep. 813 (K.B. 1611), the court reasoned that the thrust of the crime was the confederating of two or more, and dropped the requirement that an actual indictment of an innocent take place, whereby precedent was set that conspiracy only need involve an attempted crime, and\",\n \"-21.35271759686293\"\n ],\n [\n \"issues), miscarriages of justice, misconduct in public administrations and services... \\\"Plumbers' affair\\\" On 3 December 1973, policemen of the Directorate of Territorial Surveillance (DST), disguised as plumbers, were caught trying to install a spy microphone in the directorial office of Le Canard. The resulting scandal forced Interior Minister Raymond Marcellin to leave the government, though it is said that Marcellin was a scapegoat for other members of the government, especially the Defense Minister, who was intent on knowing the identities of informers for the newspaper. Robert Boulin affair A series of articles accusing long-serving Gaullist minister and possible Prime Ministerial\",\n \"-21.351454958712566\"\n ],\n [\n \"truth. Evasions are closely related to equivocations and mental reservations; indeed, some statements fall under both descriptions. Question dodging Question dodging is a rhetorical technique involving the intentional avoidance of answering a question. This may occur when the person questioned either does not know the answer and wants to avoid embarrassment, or when the person is being interrogated or questioned in debate, and wants to avoid giving a direct response. Overt question dodging can sometimes be employed humorously, in order to sidestep giving a public answer in a political discussion: when a reporter asked Mayor Richard J. Daley why\",\n \"-21.3385009129197\"\n ],\n [\n \"board for deceit in the hope that it too could be inveigled into believing lies. White stated in a media interviews that the Tribunal findings against him, were based on \\\"hearsay, innuendo and rumour\\\", – rather than the thousands of documents admitted as evidence and hundreds of days at hearing. Code of Discipline Inquiries relating to garda discipline can take years to unravel due to the overlay of legal formalism in the process. Procedures can be used to frustrate and delay simple and straightforward investigations. The Tribunal has made recommendations in respect of this. A new draft code of\",\n \"-21.32313545740908\"\n ],\n [\n \"of these chosen jury members (Bell, 94) and to take away their sources of internet, such as phones, before the actual trial commences. Mistrials and alternatives Mistrials are the common response in cases where juror misconduct has occurred. Mistrials can be costly and thus will be avoided if possible. When mistrials are seen as a solution, they are compared to wasted assets “when it could have easily been avoided”. If the possibility presents itself, according to Eltis’s article, simply dismissing the misconduct as unacceptable would be less destructive than a mistrial. Dismissing this misconduct will be destructive since it would\",\n \"-21.250661412508634\"\n ],\n [\n \"tradition than a need for actual secrecy.\\nThis has led to a perception of more extensive secrecy among non-Freemasons. Anti-masons note the existence of “bloody oaths” by which the initiate swears to keep secret the key parts of masonic ceremonies. This perception of secrecy has led to the creation of many Masonic conspiracy theories. The Morgan Affair and its aftermath The mysterious disappearance of William Morgan in 1826 was said to be due to his threat to publish a book detailing the secret rituals of Freemasonry.\\nAn attempt was made to burn down the publishing house, and separately, Morgan was arrested\",\n \"-21.249732468731963\"\n ],\n [\n \"confidence trickster offers to let the mark put up some of the funds, with a promise of a greater monetary reward upon release of the prisoner plus a non-pecuniary incentive, gaining the hand of a beautiful woman represented to be the prisoner's daughter. After the mark has turned over the funds, he is informed further difficulties have arisen, and more money is needed. With such explanations, the trickster continues to press for more money until the victim is cleaned out, or declines to put up more funds. Characteristics Key features of the Spanish Prisoner trick are the emphasis on secrecy\",\n \"-21.21699209417784\"\n ],\n [\n \"their exposure and arrests, which suggests that the longevity of their scam was concentrated on the passing off of lower level items.\\nBalanced against this must be the success of sales to private individuals. They are unlikely to have had the same level of expertise at their disposal as institutions, and are probably less willing to advertise their losses once the forgeries were detected. Certainly they have not had the same exposure as the debacle surrounding the Bolton Museum, for example. Two individual buyers, \\\"wealthy Americans\\\" have been noticed, but only after they donated their purchase to the British Museum.\\nAnother piece\",\n \"-21.2159845136066\"\n ],\n [\n \"withheld from the panel about one of the impostors and it was up to the panelists to determine correctly to which of the impostors it applied. One at a time, each panelist would be given twenty seconds to question the impostor sitting directly across from them and would then say whether he/she believed the fact applied to that impostor. Wrong votes still paid $100 with $500 paid if the panel did not correctly determine to whom the fact pertained.\\nThe 1980 edition of To Tell the Truth was a rarity in that it was still based in New York while nearly\",\n \"-21.20891325089542\"\n ],\n [\n \"that had originally been rejected (after inspection by independent government examiners), without evidence or assurance that the surveys had been properly corrected or completed. Also, at least one such examiner in California was part of the syndicate, attempting to gain payment for some rejected surveys via bogus field \\\"examinations\\\" (which were themselves later rejected as fraudulent as the extent of the group's activities became known). Banks were also involved, providing the deposits and performance bonds required by the government, in exchange for a cut of the enormous profits generated. These banks later also paid for the syndicate's defense\",\n \"-21.201544203271624\"\n ],\n [\n \"or a combination of both. \\nContemporary media has the capacity to spread knowledge of a scandal further than in previous centuries and public interest has encouraged many cases of confected scandals relating to well-known people as well as genuine scandals relating to politics and business. Some scandals are revealed by whistleblowers who discover wrongdoing within organizations or groups, such as Deep Throat (William Mark Felt) during the Watergate scandal in the 1970s in the United States. Whistleblowers may be protected by laws which are used to obtain information of misdeeds and acts detrimental to their establishments. However, the possibility\",\n \"-21.193819337917375\"\n ],\n [\n \"members despite the assertion by Democratic members that the investigation was incomplete and had failed to gather pertinent information. Notably, House Intelligence Republicans released a draft of their investigatory report which contradicted some findings of the U.S. Intelligence Community and was written without the input of House Democrats. In the wake of bitter disagreement about the committee's findings, Republican committee member Tom Rooney claimed that the committee had \\\"lost all credibility\\\" and had become \\\"a political forum for people to leak information to drive the day's news.\\\" In July 2018, the chair of the committee, Representative Devin Nunes, accused the\",\n \"-21.18401108958642\"\n ],\n [\n \"imagined conspiracies, exaggerated notions of the scale and impact of covert activities, misunderstandings of the management and coordination of operations within and between national governments, and... an almost complete failure to place the actions and decisions in question in the appropriate historical context.\\\" According to Davies, \\\"the underlying problem is that Ganser has not really undertaken the most basic necessary research to be able to discuss covert action and special operations effectively.\\\" Olav Riste of the Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies, writing for the journal Intelligence and National Security, mentions several instances where his own research on the stay-behind network\",\n \"-21.183167871890873\"\n ],\n [\n \"the only adversary dangerous enough to be likely to succeed in bringing the betrayers of the Fatherland to Justice.\\nAll this was inspired by the principle—which is quite true within itself—that in the big lie there is always a certain force of credibility; because the broad masses of a nation are always more easily corrupted in the deeper strata of their emotional nature than consciously or voluntarily; and thus in the primitive simplicity of their minds they more readily fall victims to the big lie than the small lie, since they themselves often tell small lies in little matters but would\",\n \"-21.165569518510893\"\n ],\n [\n \"conspirators to be dismissed, claiming the rebels had not been captured \\\"red-handed\\\", but this request was denied. They were more successful in another demand, managing to persuade the five military judges to allow witnesses to be called. The court agreed to their request to compel Khánh, Kỳ and the civilian Deputy Prime Minister Nguyễn Xuân Oánh to appear before the hearing. The accused officers claimed to have only intended to make a show of force, rather than overthrow Khánh. Đức claimed that the objective of his actions was to \\\"emphasize my ideas\\\" and said his actions did not constitute a\",\n \"-21.150177161083093\"\n ],\n [\n \"asks Holmes insistently about the stolen document's contents, but Holmes only reveals to her that there would be very unfortunate consequences if the document were not found. Lady Hilda also begs Holmes to tell her husband nothing of her visit.\\nHolmes's spy hunt does not go well. Four days after the murder, French police arrest the probable culprit of it, a woman whom Lucas has married in Paris, under the alias of \\\"Henri Fournaye\\\". She was seen in London near Eduardo Lucas' house the night of the crime, but she is now useless as a witness because she has gone insane.\\nInspector\",\n \"-21.13281273159373\"\n ],\n [\n \"acts set up coercive questioning regimes which operate outside the normal criminal processes. Direct testimonial evidence gained from this coercive questioning cannot be used in any subsequent criminal trial of the person providing the evidence, however a witness who testifies in his defense at a subsequent criminal trial who provides a different testimony to that during the questioning may face prosecution for perjury. New South Wales The state of New South Wales passed the Evidence Amendment (Evidence of Silence) Act 2013 which allows the judiciary to direct the jury to draw unfavourable inferences against a defendant who failed or\",\n \"-21.10507093279739\"\n ],\n [\n \"to witness the documentary proceedings between private persons and to impress them with legal authenticity. They are not engaged in the chanceries, in order that they may be within easy reach of private individuals; they have a public character, so that their records, drawn up according to rule, are received as authentic accounts of the particular transaction, especially agreements, contracts, testaments, and wills.\\nConsequently, public notaries may be appointed only by those authorities who possess jurisdiction in foro externo, and have a chancery, e.g. popes, bishops, emperors, reigning princes, and of course only within the limits of their jurisdiction; moreover, the\",\n \"-21.094708863529377\"\n ],\n [\n \"Madoff scandal. Although the conspirators were quickly caught, unravelling the scam required three large insolvencies and four acts of Parliament over the course of more than forty years. It had been at least nine months in the making. After the meeting, Pitkin would leave London, absconding first to Scotland and later to Holland, and setting in motion an economic panic, an international manhunt, and a reform of English bankruptcy law.\\nThomas Pitkin was born in the village of Berkhamsted, Buckinghamshire in 1665. He came from a middle-class family, and had entered the trade of linen draper, or wholesale cloth merchant. By\",\n \"-21.075404910174257\"\n ],\n [\n \"further reading by David Southwell and Sean Twist in their book Unsolved Political Mysteries. Writing for The Star, James Mitchell observed, \\\"There's a huge amount packed in here, simply presented.\\\" Mitchell concluded, \\\"Read the Conspiracy Encyclopedia, and you'll either have your worst fears confirmed that there's a grand, unified conspiracy affecting everything ... or less exciting, that most of the time, vanilla rules: What you see is what you get!\\\"\",\n \"-21.067602683854034\"\n ],\n [\n \"secretaries, Claude Nau de la Boisselière and Gilbert Curle, were likewise taken into custody and interrogated.\\nThe conspirators were sentenced to death for treason and conspiracy against the crown, and were to be hanged, drawn, and quartered. This first group included Babington, Ballard, Chidiock Tichborne, Thomas Salisbury, Henry Donn, Robert Barnewell and John Savage. A further group of seven men including Edward Habington, Charles Tilney, Edward Jones, John Charnock, John Travers, Jerome Bellamy, and Robert Gage, were tried and convicted shortly afterward. Ballard and Babington were executed on 20 September 1586 along with the other men who had been tried with\",\n \"-21.066920681245392\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Great Bank Hoax Plot There's intrigue and deception at a small-town bank when it is discovered that an unsuspecting employee (Paul Sand) has embezzled thousands of dollars. Leading bank officers Jack Stutz (Burgess Meredith) and Manny Benchly (Richard Basehart) decide to hide the theft in a seemingly clever plot that will make them even more money. However, when word of the crime gets out, the whole community becomes outraged and gets involved, resulting in plenty of trouble.\",\n \"-21.04100115186884\"\n ],\n [\n \"suspicion is a low standard of proof to determine whether a brief investigative stop or search by a police officer or any government agent is warranted. It is important to note that this stop or search must be brief; its thoroughness is proportional to, and limited by, the low standard of evidence. A more definite standard of proof (often probable cause) would be required to justify a more thorough stop/search. In Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968), the Supreme Court ruled that reasonable suspicion requires specific, articulable, and individualized suspicion that crime is afoot. A mere guess or \\\"hunch\\\"\",\n \"-21.02684298623035\"\n ],\n [\n \"of 1776. The conspirators largely belonged to the white upper class of Minas Gerais. Many had studied in Europe, especially in the University of Coimbra, and some had large debts with the colonial government. In the context of declining gold production, the intention of the Portuguese government to impose the obligatory payment of all debts (the derrama) was a leading cause behind the conspiracy. The conspirators wanted to create a Republic in which the leader would be chosen through democratic elections. The capital would be São João del Rei, and Ouro Preto would become a university town. The structure of\",\n \"-21.0083738472822\"\n ],\n [\n \"manifest that somebody is going to be tricked. There is no genuine honest reason for making a secret of this kind. My hope is that it is the Nationalist party who are going to be tricked. It may be them, or it may be us, but that somebody is going to be tricked is perfectly plain..\\\"\\nIt now appears that in late May Asquith sought any solution that would avoid, or at least postpone, an Irish civil war. He had not been frank about the new temporary-partition possibility, leaving everyone wondering what, exactly, they were voting for in the main Bill,\",\n \"-21.008093723990896\"\n ],\n [\n \"a commission of inquiry into alleged bribery and coercion by ministerial assistants in the federal government known as the Rivard Affair.\",\n \"-21.002922129031504\"\n ],\n [\n \"prosecution because of illegal wire taps and the government's unwillingness to reveal sources and methods favored a strategy of inversion where they would be above ground \\\"revolutionary leaders\\\". Jeremy Varon argues that by 1977 the WUO had disbanded.\\nMatthew Steen appeared on the lead segment of CBS' 60 Minutes in 1976 and was interviewed by Mike Wallace about the ease of creating fake identification, the first ex-Weatherman interview on national television. (The House document has the date wrong, it aired February 1, 1976 and the title was Fake ID.)\\nThe federal government estimated that only 38 Weathermen had gone underground in 1970,\",\n \"-20.996294193377253\"\n ],\n [\n \"attempt to live out in real life, sometimes even inserting themselves into public events or ceremonies, or volunteering for interviews with journalists about their alleged experiences. Others are motivated by more direct gains, such as impressing employers, casting directors, audiences, investors, voters in political campaigns or romantic interests.\\nOccasionally impostors use their claims in an attempt to intimidate others, such as claiming to be a trained sniper or ex-special forces, or use their fabricated experiences as a pretense of authority for their opinions on political matters. False claims of military service are also used by panhandlers to increase donations, sometimes\",\n \"-20.974051403878548\"\n ],\n [\n \"since the mid-nineteenth century, under the decision of Barwick v English Joint Stock Bank. This liability was extended in the early 20th century, to cover fraudulent actions which were not of benefit to the employer, a previous requirement. Thereupon, the test for vicarious liability of fraud was whether it was within an employee's authority – either actual, or outwardly appearing – to carry out the fraudulent actions that he did. It was not enough that an employee merely asserted that he had supposed authority, however; the defrauded individual or company must have been assured or led to believe by the\",\n \"-20.90646424737497\"\n ],\n [\n \"apothecaries, mid-wives, and all other persons who, by their status (état) or profession are the depositaries of secrets confided to them, revealing such secrets, except in cases in which the law obliges them to inform [hors les cas où la loi les oblige à se porter dénonciateurs] shall be punished with imprisonment from one to six months, and with a fine of from 100 to 500 francs.\\nThe exception, mentioned in the article, of persons obliged by law to be informers, as pointed out by Dalloz, became obsolete because Arts 103–107, which dealt with the obligation of informing, were repealed by\",\n \"-20.905826703819912\"\n ],\n [\n \"claimed fraud in several other government positions, as well as the murder of political opponents by incumbents. There were eyewitness claims as well. Loren Legarda claimed that she had evidence of being cheated by Noli de Castro, who won the vice presidency in 2004. Fraud techniques Electoral fraud in the country was usually done by manipulating the ballots. However, a new technique has arisen which just involves the manipulating the election return or ER, which is a summary of the votes in precincts. Evidence exist showing that the 32,000 sets of overprinted ERs of the Commission of Elections could manipulate\",\n \"-20.901471811230294\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":588,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"3huyqv"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How do you get caught counting cards?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["You can tell by the way someone is betting. When the situation is favorable based on the count, that's when you want to start betting heavy. Also, card counters often work in groups and so if additional people start showing up at the table and everyone is betting heavy, it's a pretty good indicator that something's up.","Because usually they work in pairs or more to game more tables at once to find the table with the better odds, then signal for their partners to come and place bets and signal them so they all take a piece of the house. Besides that, working alone, someone maybe moves from table to table erratically after a certain amount of hands, or looks like they're paying too much attention for an everyday gambler. Plus, become a regular enough and they'll take note of you. Best way to count cards be to hit multiple casinos in pairs of two, say as honeymooners, with the woman bitching you out the whole time and making a stink and the husband leaving the table to sit with her after she signals she's winning, say calling him over to go get her a drink, at which point he says someone will come by with one for her and he just sits to join her at her table. I have no idea what I am talking about BTW.","The point of counting cards is to identify when the undealt cards are very favorable toward the player and bet a lot then (vs only betting a small amount when the count is unfavorable). The trick is finding a way to bet a lot when the count is favorable without the casino noticing. If one doesn't take advantage of the count via betting, from the casino's perspective their counting doesn't matter at all. The MIT group did this for quite a while by having the bet a lot be a different person (who feigned drunkenness and moved from table to table so obviously couldn't be counting) while the counters always bet small and signaled to the large better when the count was favorable.","Card counters have a very specific betting pattern. If you follow that pattern (and are winning) they will kick you out. Casinos kick people out for counting cards all the time. They don't have to have any evidence, it all falls under the \"we reserve the right to refuse service for any reason\" that all businesses have.","Why is it even a bad thing to do that? I mean it isn't cheating or anything is it?","Counting cards does not automatically make you money. It tells you *when* the cards are favorable to you, and you should increase your bets. Casinos have people observing players at all times, and if they spot a player who modifies his bet by 10x (betting $10 a hand, then suddenly $100 a hand), then they will watch them, checking to see whether their higher bets match favorable card counts. If they have suspicion that somebody is making a consistent profit, they will first take mild counter-measures. For example, they will shuffle the deck more often (so 'good counts' don't happen as much). But if a player is a consistent winner, especially over a number of visits, then the casino will ask the player to leave. Do they have evidence? Sure! They have a half-dozen different video cameras, facial recognition, observation reports from dealers and 'pit bosses' (dealer supervisors). They are tracking players better than they can track themselves. They won't kick you out on a hunch. There are different levels of card counting. The higher levels are difficult, but I understand they can result in profitable play with less modification of bets. This means that a player is less likely to be detected. Another way to 'hide' your counting is to use team play. /u/r3solv mentions this below. One person is just a 'grinder', playing little bets, but counting. When the count becomes favorable, then the 'whale' sits down, lays down some big bets for however long it's favorable, then leaves. In that manner, the 'grinder' doesn't turn a profit, but *the team* does. Google \"MIT Blackjack team\" for more gory details.","The casino hires people who know how to count cards and can tell if other people are counting cards by the way they bet. Counting cards is a pretty well known system and if you know it, it's easy to tell if someone else is following it."],"string":"[\n \"You can tell by the way someone is betting. When the situation is favorable based on the count, that's when you want to start betting heavy. Also, card counters often work in groups and so if additional people start showing up at the table and everyone is betting heavy, it's a pretty good indicator that something's up.\",\n \"Because usually they work in pairs or more to game more tables at once to find the table with the better odds, then signal for their partners to come and place bets and signal them so they all take a piece of the house. Besides that, working alone, someone maybe moves from table to table erratically after a certain amount of hands, or looks like they're paying too much attention for an everyday gambler. Plus, become a regular enough and they'll take note of you. Best way to count cards be to hit multiple casinos in pairs of two, say as honeymooners, with the woman bitching you out the whole time and making a stink and the husband leaving the table to sit with her after she signals she's winning, say calling him over to go get her a drink, at which point he says someone will come by with one for her and he just sits to join her at her table. I have no idea what I am talking about BTW.\",\n \"The point of counting cards is to identify when the undealt cards are very favorable toward the player and bet a lot then (vs only betting a small amount when the count is unfavorable). The trick is finding a way to bet a lot when the count is favorable without the casino noticing. If one doesn't take advantage of the count via betting, from the casino's perspective their counting doesn't matter at all. The MIT group did this for quite a while by having the bet a lot be a different person (who feigned drunkenness and moved from table to table so obviously couldn't be counting) while the counters always bet small and signaled to the large better when the count was favorable.\",\n \"Card counters have a very specific betting pattern. If you follow that pattern (and are winning) they will kick you out. Casinos kick people out for counting cards all the time. They don't have to have any evidence, it all falls under the \\\"we reserve the right to refuse service for any reason\\\" that all businesses have.\",\n \"Why is it even a bad thing to do that? I mean it isn't cheating or anything is it?\",\n \"Counting cards does not automatically make you money. It tells you *when* the cards are favorable to you, and you should increase your bets. Casinos have people observing players at all times, and if they spot a player who modifies his bet by 10x (betting $10 a hand, then suddenly $100 a hand), then they will watch them, checking to see whether their higher bets match favorable card counts. If they have suspicion that somebody is making a consistent profit, they will first take mild counter-measures. For example, they will shuffle the deck more often (so 'good counts' don't happen as much). But if a player is a consistent winner, especially over a number of visits, then the casino will ask the player to leave. Do they have evidence? Sure! They have a half-dozen different video cameras, facial recognition, observation reports from dealers and 'pit bosses' (dealer supervisors). They are tracking players better than they can track themselves. They won't kick you out on a hunch. There are different levels of card counting. The higher levels are difficult, but I understand they can result in profitable play with less modification of bets. This means that a player is less likely to be detected. Another way to 'hide' your counting is to use team play. /u/r3solv mentions this below. One person is just a 'grinder', playing little bets, but counting. When the count becomes favorable, then the 'whale' sits down, lays down some big bets for however long it's favorable, then leaves. In that manner, the 'grinder' doesn't turn a profit, but *the team* does. Google \\\"MIT Blackjack team\\\" for more gory details.\",\n \"The casino hires people who know how to count cards and can tell if other people are counting cards by the way they bet. Counting cards is a pretty well known system and if you know it, it's easy to tell if someone else is following it.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["cards. It works every single time. Sometimes, you can arrange it so that they do not know that they had to memorize the cards after writing them down. They may pick the wrong cards. Show them that they picked the wrong cards by looking at their paper. They will think the trick is over. Then, reveal the correct 3 cards. Popular types 1. Steps of math operations that use some secret knowledge of the audience like their birthday, and then reveal that secret knowledge in an unexpected way at the end. For example, think of any secret 3-digit number, multiply","-33.34792798166745"],["counting machines, some of which can detect a note's security features (e.g. magnetic ink, ultraviolet ink, magnetic strip, note density etc.) to identify counterfeit and damaged notes.\nOther extra features that facilitate everyday contact with cash may also be present. Electronic counters for bills/ money and coins Electronic counting systems, with no moving parts, exist that count both notes and coins on the same machine and sum the value of all denominations counted. They are normally used to count individual deposits or the content of cash drawers and do not sort or check for counterfeit or damaged notes.The machine uses","-32.97884131678438"],["four cards from one category, or one from each category, depending on the player's position on the board. Each card is placed in a colored quadrant of the board. The player then ranks these four items according to his or her preference using color-coded cards that are placed in an envelope. Next, other players (or teams) use numbered tiles to guess that player's order, and move forward one space for each correct guess when the order is revealed. If players choose to double a guess by placing a tile towards the center of the board, they move forward two spaces","-32.00424070836743"],["The skill lies both in convincing other players that the shuffle is legitimate and in ensuring that other players receive hands that are good enough to entice them into play, but not too good to arouse suspicion. Marked cards Marked cards are printed or altered so that the cheater can know the value of specific cards while only looking at the back. Ways of marking are too numerous to mention, but there are certain broad types. A common way of marking cards involves marks on a round design on the card so as to be read like a clock (an","-31.4780461609771"],["piles A third variation uses nine cards, selected at random. They are divided into three piles of three cards. A participant looks at the bottom card of one pile and memorizes it. That pile is then placed on top of the other two piles, such that the memorized card will be the third card from the top. The magician then begins dealing cards onto the table one at a time from the nine-card stack, one for each letter in a set of words according to a formula. At the end of every step except the last, the remaining cards are","-31.4430889627547"],["the tint of the cardstock or pattern. Another way to mark the cards is to fill in different small areas of the card with a marker the same colour as the surrounding ink to hide the pattern of the marking. They may even be marked 'live', while in use either with a sharpened finger nail or a tool (often a ring known as a \"poker ring\") made specifically for that purpose. Forcing decks These decks are used to force a spectator to select a particular card, which the magician already knows in advance. Such a feat can be","-31.188496033661067"],["pass around cards, attempting to build a hand of equal cards. When a player receives a card from another player which they have already seen, the card has already been around the entire group, and it can be assumed that no player wants that card, and so it is placed in the center of the playing area (face up). Any player with a card of that value in their playing hand must then put those cards in the pile in the center also (as it is not possible to win on that card).\nThe player who initially put the card down","-31.081670061990735"],["Shuffle track Shuffle tracking Shuffle tracking is an advanced technique used with card counting. Many types of shuffle tracking exist. Generally, the player, or a team member, keeps track of the count (high cards versus low cards) of one or more subsections of the cards as they are played. The selected sections may or may not be predetermined by observing and mapping the shuffle. These sections are referred to as tracking zones. The player may attempt to follow slugs of cards through the shuffle, or have a good idea of the final location by previously analyzing the shuffle. After the","-30.980174346914282"],["shape. Questions, answers, colors or numbers may be written on the fortune teller. Manipulations are done by various methods. The holder asks for a number or color. Once the number or color is chosen, the holder uses their fingers to switch between the two groups of colors and numbers inside the paper fortune teller. The holder switches these positions several times determined by the number of letters in the color , the number chosen, or the sum of both. Once the holder has finished switching positions, the player chooses one of the flaps revealed. These flaps often have colors or","-30.594437030580593"],["cards, he picks up a packet. Unters have to be played and must not be held back.\nAs soon as the first player has laid all his cards out, he calls \"Census!\" and the first 'census' (Volkszählung) is held. The remaining players score 10 penalty points for each card still held. \nThe game continues. When the second player is 'out', the next census is taken. Each remaining card now costs 20 points. In the third census the player who still has hand cards receives 30 penalty points per card and must also count the packets remaining on the table. Variations Quodlibet","-30.541054546338273"],["the round. Players are dealt four cards each,. Playing Each player looks at his hand and selects a card to get rid of, passing it face down to the player on his left. Players do this simultaneously, not in rotation, so that players cannot use the card they receive to decide what to shed. Once again, players examine their cards and pass one card to the left. This process continues until one player has collected a quartet in his hand (called a 'book' - Arnold).\nThe player with the quartet does not announce it, but quietly places his hand down and","-30.50230016684509"],["in the center of the table then picks up a card from the remaining pack, which they add to their hand (to replace the card lost), as do all players who placed a matching card down. Cards continue to be passed around the group, with this cycle of events repeating until one player collects four of a kind. If at any point a player picks up a card from the deck which is of a value which has been put down in the center already, that card can be added to the center pile and they can pick another card","-30.461795418406837"],["counted. Cards are even transferred without any regard to suit or value. Spot cards (cards from ace to ten) are taken at their face value, while jacks are valued at 11, queens at 12, and kings at 13.\nThe game is won when the top cards of the thirteen piles have a total value of 91. The easiest combination to obtain is a sequence of thirteen cards from ace to king (91=1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8+9+10+11+12+13). But there are many other combinations that add up to 91, such as four kings, four aces, three fives, and two tens for instance (91=13*4+1*4+3*5+10*2=52+4+15+20). It is up to","-30.440764232247602"],["usually involves picking a card from the stock and discarding a card to the discard pile. In some variations melds are revealed to all players by placing them face up on the table, in other variations each player keeps their hand hidden until the show. Some variations permit picking up the entire discard pile. A few variations permit stealing cards from their opponents melds. Show In most variations a player must put all of their cards into at least two melds (though they may be allowed to shed one card to the discard pile before showing). Once the player has","-30.250476097106002"],["skip a player's turn, make other players draw cards, change the color and allow a player to discard more than one card. The game includes 112 cards (2 identical sets of 56). The object of the game is to discard all the cards in your hand. Rules The cards are shuffled and each player receives eight. The rest of the deck becomes the draw pile. The top card in the draw pile is turned over and placed face up next to the draw pile to form a discard pile. The upper card of the discard pile is called the Leading","-30.175722442159895"],["they be [or do]?\" and lists six numbered choices. They then place the card down for everyone to see. Now, all players look through their number cards and pick the number card that corresponds to the answer they want. When all players have placed down a card, everyone flips theirs over. To move a player's token, they need to have picked the most popular answer. All players that have the most popular answer move 1 space, except the person who rolled the dice, who moves 2 if they picked the most popular answer.\nIf two or more answers are tied, all","-30.159443371288944"],["player gets to go twice is that he/she does not have the option to pick up a discarded card. Any player besides the person who discarded the card, may pick up discarded cards regardless of whose turn it is, following that the player who goes before them (the player in front of them) has the right to pick up the card before they do. Going Down The object of each hand is to come up with the correct combination of cards to be able to Go Down, or \"lay out\". The combination for each hand is different (see","-30.131529835998663"],["game. It is helpful to fan one's cards out so that if they have corner indices all their values can be seen at once. In most games, it is also useful to sort one's hand, rearranging the cards in a way appropriate to the game. For example, in a trick-taking game it may be easier to have all one's cards of the same suit together, whereas in a rummy game one might sort them by rank or by potential combinations. Rule infractions An infraction is any action which is against the rules of the game, such as playing a card","-30.120035371626727"],["cards based on a second dimension. However, five-year-old children are able to sort cards based on one dimension and can then switch to sorting cards on a second dimension. Multiple Classification Card Sorting Task In the Multiple Classification Card Sorting Task, children are shown cards and asked to sort them based on two different dimensions (e.g. by color, such as yellow and blue, and object type, such as animals and food) simultaneously into four piles within a matrix (e.g. yellow animals, yellow foods, blue animals and blue foods). This task appears to be more difficult as research has shown that","-30.001252930349438"],["flushes of 3 or more cards.\nIf no sequence cards are in the hand, the player can discard any one card.\nAfter the sequence cards are discarded, the player draws a card from the deck, or from the last discarded card(s). The player must draw one and only one card. \nEach player, when it is their turn, must either discard card(s) and draw a card, or declare a Jhyap; no player can 'pass' their turn.\nThis continues until a player has a hand-count of 5 points or less, when they can declare a jhyap. If no one counter jhyaps, that player gets","-29.957527154445415"],["is called the 27 card trick. It is identical in principle. Method The magician begins by handing the spectator the 21-card packet and asking them to look through it and select any one card to remember.\nThe cards are then dealt into three piles one at a time, like when dealing out hands in a card game. Each time they are dealt out, after the spectator indicates which pile contains the thought of card, the magician places that pile between the other two. After the first time, the card will be one of the ones in position 8-14. ","-29.949811547528952"],["punched card formats and character codes.\nThere were several methods used for alphabetical sorting, depending on the features provided by the particular sorter and the characteristics of the data to be sorted. A commonly used method on the 082 and earlier sorters was to sort the cards twice on the same column, first on digit rows 1-9, then on the zone rows 12, 11, and 0 (or vice versa, zone rows first then digit rows). Operator switches allow zone-sorting by \"switching off\" rows 1-9 for the second pass of the card for each column. \nOther special characters and punctuation marks were","-29.927333690910018"],["it counts 1 + 3 + 3 + 20 + 10, or 37 points. If a hand is left with only threes at the end of play, each three instead counts -50 points. Shuffle pressure If a player has to draw a card, but the stock is exhausted, they must then shuffle the cards remaining in the discard pile (except for the top card), and be subject to a shuffle pressure penalty. The first shuffle pressure adds 5 points to the player's score, and every shuffle pressure following doubles the score of the last one; for instance, the second","-29.89928724532365"],["cards, which adds an element of luck, such as \"Take an additional turn\" or \"Triple the value of your first guess\". Another option is to designate one player to keep track of the \"no\" answers that occur during play, so that turns aren't wasted on redundant inquiries, and there are no disputes at the end.\nAt any time during the game, a player can interrupt the game and ask another player (who has at least five unexposed cards) if his word is a specific word. If successful, the inquiring player earns the point value of all unexposed cards, plus 100 bonus","-29.803317170240916"],["certain position to indicate the number of the card, with the color or shape of the mark indicating suit. The magician shows the card to the audience and reads off the number and suit of the card without seeing it, indicating 'x-ray vision'. This principle is derived from similar card marking techniques used to cheat at gambling. \nThe cards of a marked deck may be marked in a number of ways. They may be manufactured with subtle variations in the back pattern. They may be marked by the user with tiny punctures or dots, or a barely detectable change of","-29.79722038791806"],["Counting-out game A counting-out game is a simple game intended to select a person to be \"it\", often for the purpose of playing another game. These games usually require no materials, and are played with spoken words (counting rhymes) or hand gestures. The historian Henry Carrington Bolton suggested in his 1888 book \"Counting Out Rhymes of Children\" that the custom of counting out originated in the \"superstitious practice of divination by lot.\"\nMany such games involve one person pointing at each participant in a circle of players while reciting a rhyme. A new person is pointed at as each word is","-29.793278416633257"],["four cards that are placed, face down, in a row in front of him or her. Each player looks at the two outermost cards in their row, at the beginning of the game. Players may not look at any cards during the game except through the use of a Peek card. The remaining cards form a draw pile, and the top one is turned over to form a discard pile (if this card is a power card, it is shuffled back into the draw pile and a replacement is dealt).","-29.771193767577643"],["money is hidden in. When a player searches that specific piece of furniture, the electronic organizer will first ask if (s)he has a particular item Clue card. If the answer is yes, it will then ask if the player has a specific person Clue card. If the answer is also yes, then that player wins. Optional \"Turn\" cards There are nine optional \"Turn\" cards: three marked \"Move\", three marked \"Look:, and three marked \"Let's talk\". These can be used by a player as flash card to keep track of their three actions during their turn. Other Uses In 2015, finalist","-29.7371232786536"],["the cards value, being Ace high and 7 low. The other cards, called \"point cards\" are generally used to keep track of points. The point cards are distributed to all the three players with 10 or 20 points. Suit must be followed. For example, if we allow 10 points to each player before the game begins, then the cards of value 5,3 and 2 of a particular suit is given to each player. The rest of the point cards are generally discarded or kept aside. Dealing The dealer shuffles the cards and the player to his left cuts the deck","-29.73709088139003"],["game of Rock-Paper-Scissors to determining who plays first, players take turns identifying sets of three cards in which the three features are either all the same or all different. (For example: Circle-Red-Black, Square-Red-White, Triangle-Red-Gray.) If they see a set, the player says \"Hap!\", and identifies the three cards. If the set is valid, the player scores a point. If the set is invalid, or has already been called, the player loses a point. If 10 seconds pass without a \"Hap!\" call, play passes to the other player.\nIf all of the sets have been identified, the player may call \"Gyul!\" If","-29.72206837963313"],["form rows, chips may be placed vertically, horizontally or diagonally. Each complete row of five (or four and a free corner space) is counted as a sequence. Sequences of the same color may intersect, but only at a single position.\nIf the draw deck becomes depleted during play, the discard pile is shuffled and drawing begins again.\nSequence rules dictate no table talk or coaching between team members and a precise order in which hands must be played (card, chip, replace card). If a player forgets to replace a card on their turn and if any of the other players points it","-29.676215131243225"],["markers are placed on worker placement spaces on the board to claim various benefits. Majority spaces advance the player with the most valuable goods or exploration cards along a company track. Tile spaces give an extra card for the next round. Other spaces allow a player to buy or sell cards for cash, or to claim the right to play first next round.\nAfter each round, players retrieve some of the cards they used in earlier rounds using a unique mechanic. Each active card is moved to one of several resting piles, after picking up just one","-29.660950581077486"],["bones — the exact number and type being rolled determined by each character's stats — and then draw a number of cards from a community playing card deck based on the results of that roll. The Marshal then calls out card values, starting from Aces and going all the way down to Deuces. The card's suit (in reverse alphabetical order) indicates who goes first if the same value of card is drawn. Fate Chips Along with Bones and Cards, characters get Fate Chips which are typically poker chips, although colored stones or coins can also be used. These are drawn","-29.6448710210243"],["80 series sorters sorted input cards into one of 13 pockets depending on the holes punched in a selected column and the sorter's settings. Basic operation The basic operation of a card sorter is to take a punched card, examine a single column, and place the card into a selected pocket. There are twelve rows on a punched card, and thirteen pockets in the sorter; one pocket is for blanks, rejects, and errors. (IBM 1962)\nCards are normally passed through the sorter face down with the bottom edge (\"9-edge\") first. A small metal brush or optical sensor is positioned","-29.61053738323244"],["so cards coming from both the front and back of the line that value to ten, twenty, or thirty are not considered consecutive unless they occupy a physically adjacent position to the card. After this has been repeated until no more discards are possible, a card is drawn from the stock and placed face up on the extreme right of the line (or on top of the stack if playing on one hand), and checking for discards is resumed.\nThe game continues until all cards are dealt or discarded, or when no more sets can be collected. The object of the","-29.609758863178286"],["for remembering long sequences of numbers, it can also be used to remember other sequences such as the order of a deck of playing cards. This works by establishing some method of systematically converting the objects into numbers. If the nine of clubs is associated with 39 (CN), for instance, then Chuck Norris or a roundhouse kick could be used in a story describing where the nine of clubs is in the deck.","-29.60967971601349"],["they will be able to spell the name of each card using only that stack. They will draw cards one at a time from the stack. For each card drawn, they spell one letter from the intended card's name, then place the card on the bottom of the deck. After the card's whole name is spelled, the next card drawn will be the intended card. For example, if the magician wishes to spell out \"ace\", they will draw three cards, saying the letters \"a\", \"c\", and \"e\" as they go. Then they will draw a fourth card, which will be","-29.607979042746592"],["be done by first sorting the cards by rank (using any sort), and then doing a stable sort by suit:\nWithin each suit, the stable sort preserves the ordering by rank that was already done. This idea can be extended to any number of keys and is utilised by radix sort. The same effect can be achieved with an unstable sort by using a lexicographic key comparison, which, e.g., compares first by suit, and then compares by rank if the suits are the same. Comparison of algorithms In this table, n is the number of records to be sorted. The columns","-29.586913433886366"],["the cards to each player. The cards are held face down. Every round, each player plays five cards face up vertically in between both players and slightly closer to themselves. Once both players have done this, they look for two or more cards having the same number. When a player finds one, he places another card on top of the cards with that number until all of the cards with the common number are covered. In other words, if there are three fours out then all three cards can get a new card on top of it. If a four","-29.57575157264364"],["it as well, the player in the first rotation gets to have that card. Often players signify in order when a card does not \"serve\" them by knocking on the table.\nIf a card placed on the discard pile can be added to any meld currently on the table it can be forced onto the meld and the player will have to \"pay\" for the card by discarding from their hand. If the player discarding the card is the same person with the meld, the card can be forced back to them, but if another player wants the card, they can","-29.564059912401717"],["point where no other cards can be laid down, the player discards one card face up on the discard pile and the turn passes to the next player to the left. Scoring of the round and paying penalties Once a player goes out, the remaining players add up points of cards they were caught with in their hands. The card values are as follows:\n3-9 5 points\n10-King 10 points\nDeuces 20 Points\nAces 20 Points\nJokers ","-29.562055559055807"],["since the last shuffle cannot be at the top of the deck and thus drawn, the counter can determine the high and low cards that have already been played. He or she thus knows the probability of getting a high card (10,J,Q,K,A) as compared to a low card (2,3,4,5,6).\nIn 1980, six MIT students and residents of the Burton-Conner House at MIT taught themselves card-counting. They traveled to Atlantic City during the spring break to win their fortune. The group went their separate ways when most of them graduated in May of that year. Most never gambled again, but some","-29.52302269321808"],["25 Words or Less Gameplay The game is played by one player from each of the two teams drawing a card (one between the two of them) and looking at the five words on the card. They then begin bidding words, starting at 25 and working backward, until one player passes. The player who passed then flips the timer, and the other player has one minute to give clues to their team, to try to get them to guess each of the five words on the card, where each word in the giver's clues counts as one of","-29.497252182132797"],["from the stock. The players then take turns playing or drawing cards and the first player who plays all his or her cards out wins the game. Penalties When a player has only one card left, they must call out \"one card\", the next player is then penalized by drawing a card. The player who has only one card is penalized in return if someone else calls out \"one card\" on the players turn first. If a player falsely calls “one card” while having multiple cards in their hand, they must draw a card. The stockpile The stockpile is the","-29.481227252370445"],["effects of the card are resolved before the hand ends, so if the card is a five, everyone else draws a card before scoring, and so on. The count If a two is played (including turned up by the dealer), \"the count\" begins, starting at a value of two. Each player must then play either an ace or a two, increasing the value of the count by either one or two, depending on the card played. If a player can not play an ace or two at this stage, they draw cards from the stock equating to the count","-29.439293436618755"],["dealer gets 13 and the rest of the cards are left as a central stack. The game begins when the dealer dumps a card. The next person can either pick up the disposed card if that card makes a set or adds to a set he has already or get one from the central stack. Collect hand combinations and dump unnecessary cards. The\npicking and discarding of cards goes on until someone wins by Tong-its, calls a draw or until the\ncentral stack runs out of cards. If this happens, the players tally the points of the cards they have at hand","-29.43170364163234"],["O'NO 99 Overview Up to eight players may take part. Each player picks a card from the deck, and the player drawing the highest-numbered card is the dealer. This person then deals four cards to each player, and places the remainder of the deck face down in the center of the table. The player to the dealer's left starts the hand by playing a numbered card face up in the center of the table and announces the number. They must then immediately draw the top card from the deck. Each subsequent player does likewise, announcing a new total by","-29.41363857158285"],["IBM card sorter An IBM card sorter is a machine for sorting decks of punched cards in the format popularized by the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), which dominated the punched card data processing industry for much of the twentieth century. Sorting was a major activity in most facilities that processed data on punched cards using unit record equipment. The work flow of many processes required decks of cards to be put into some specific order as determined by the data punched in the cards. The same deck might be sorted differently for different processing steps. The IBM","-29.39574977773009"],["use all five of the cards' numbers exactly once, using any combination of arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division), to form the objective card's number. The first player to come up with a correct formula is the winner. Krypto International Tournament Rules The official international rules for Krypto differ slightly from the house rules, and they involve a system of scorekeeping.\nFive cards are dealt face up in the center of the game table. (Each player works with the same set of five cards, rather than a set exclusive to them.) Then a sixth card is dealt face up in","-29.387809342704713"],["either, depending on what you are rolling the dice for. Sometimes you'll roll the dice because a card tells you to and you'll just look for the symbols the card asks for.\nThere are also colored blank tokens that came with your set. You can use these to show which challenges you are participating in. The numbered tokens can be used to help keep track of how much of an ability you've generated. The Pattern The Pattern is what the game is all about. Each turn a token is to be placed on the Pattern. Depending on how various challenges and","-29.385103852997418"],["normally done two or four cards at a time. The rest of the cards are set aside as a draw pile, and then play begins starting with the oya. Play On a player's turn, they may match by suit (such as month or flower) any one card in their hand with one on the table and take both into their point pile. If they cannot match a card from their hand, they must discard a card face up to the table. After matching or discarding a card, they then draw one card from the draw pile and place it face","-29.381795292254537"],["player chooses a numbered card. The amount is revealed and subtracted from the bank, then the clue is revealed. A player can guess the subject at any time, but they only get one guess. A correct guess adds the remaining money in the bank to the contestant's total winnings; if the guess is incorrect, no money is banked for that round. In the first four rounds, the incorrect guess will force the contestant to replay the round for the same maximum amount as the previous round that they got the incorrect answer on (this reduces the top prize); likewise, an","-29.361252011556644"],["have not won a hand yet and has to pay a bonus.\nThere are a variety of counting pieces used in different countries. They range from Chinese or Japanese counting sticks (thin sticks with various dots on them to represent various points), jetons, play money, paper and pencil, or various apps on touchscreen devices used to calculate and keep scores. Charleston In the American variations it is required that, before each hand begins, a Charleston be enacted. In the first exchange, three tiles are passed to the player on one's right; in the next exchange, the tiles are passed to the","-29.322531859354058"],["painted red or black in color. Usage Dealing shoes come in many colors and sizes, depending on the number of decks they are capable of holding (2, 4, 6, or 8 decks).\nWhen the cards are placed in the shoe, the dealer will insert a brightly colored blank plastic card. When this card is drawn it indicates that the current game is the last one before a new shuffle. This helps mitigate player advantage via card counting, as a significant portion (usually about 25 percent) of the full inventory of cards never comes into play. The percentage of cards","-29.311912983939692"],["down first before the piles are gathered). The discarded cards are set aside.\nThen without shuffling, the remaining cards are dealt this time into four piles. After this, the search the cards of the royal flush begins again with the same procedure already stated above. Once all four piles are searched and regathered, the remaining cards (again without reshuffling) are dealt into three piles. The process continues, and after the gathering of the piles, the cards are dealt into two piles and the procedure begins once more.\nWhen the two piles are regathered, the remaining cards at this point are then dealt","-29.285319087444805"],["In point-trick games, certain card values are worth varying points, and the players sum the points from cards in their \"scoring piles\" that were accumulated by taking tricks. Points for cards, and the method of counting points, vary by game; in Rook, for example, the 5-card of each color is worth 5 points, the 10 and 14 (or Ace) is worth 10, and the Rook Bird (or Joker) is worth 20, while all other cards are worth nothing. Many Chinese card games like Finding Friends use a very similar system, in which each 5-card is worth 5 points, and the","-29.27753213548567"],["of the top card of the deck. Once the value of the top card is known the cheat may resort to second dealing in order to avoid dealing a good card to an opponent, or to avoid dealing a bad card to himself or to a secret accomplice.\nIn order to secretly gain knowledge of the value of the top card, second dealing is always used in conjunction with other cheating methods. One of the easiest, and most common methods of gaining knowledge of the top card is to employ the use of marked cards. When marked cards are not in","-29.219818576140824"],["e-cards may be used. \nTraditional paper control cards are in form of a multiple-choice control card, which contain an official copy and a competitor copy, and folded in halves to make them overlap when the control card is punched. Before the competition, the name, number and class is filled, and the start and finish times are marked like in traditional orienteering. Moreover, There are fields for officials to record the times and answers at timed stations. The answers are recorded by punching the control card using the punch provided near the decision point for each control (or, in some competitions,","-29.189557136502117"],["task, four cards are used with the letters A or D on one side of the card and the numbers 4 or 7 on the other side. The cards are placed on the table to show one face of each letter and number. Participants are asked to determine the minimum number of cards they will need to turn over in order to determine if cards with vowels always have even numbers on their opposite side. Do groups perform better than individuals? This question has been tested by comparing group performance to the performance of individuals alone or in","-29.16199082529056"],["cards for a total of ten. The couple was given up to six clues to try to identify the puzzle, and each of the clues had a corresponding value of bank cards it would cost them to reveal it. Clues cost one, two or three bank cards, and were distributed by a shuffle that the couple stopped manually. They were then revealed in a clockwise fashion. The couple was given a guess at the Master Puzzle after each clue was revealed. A correct guess at any time earned the couple the value amount of bank cards remaining.\nOnce the Master Puzzle","-29.153672045074927"],["cards up into a face-down arrangement that allows players to count the number of tricks taken. The contents of each trick can not be viewed after this point, except to determine whether a player reneged (played an off-suit card including trumps when he could have and thus should have followed suit). The number of tricks a player has won cannot be disguised; if asked, each player must count out his tricks until everyone has agreed on the \"trick count\". The player who wins any given trick leads the next. Play continues until all players have exhausted their hands, which should","-29.143386160792943"],["cards, swap hands with another player, or move one to seven spaces as decided by a short slot machine style game. Finally, there is a card that will summon Doctor Eggman, who will steal the player's rings or swap their position on the board with another player.\nThere are a variety of different spaces on the board. The most common spaces increase or subtract the player's ring count. Rings can be used to purchase power-ups in the form of \"forcejewels\" at special shop spaces. These stones can give the player numerous advantages, such as selecting more than one card in one","-29.135749528446468"],["numerical sequence until reaching a point where they do not have the next card. The next player then continues the sequence if able to do so, otherwise that player must miss a turn and play is continued by the first player able to lay the required card.\nPlayers should announce their discards so that all players can follow what is happening easily; for example a player might say “eight, nine, ten, jack, no queen”. If the next player has a queen they would lay it and if possible a king as well. Discarding a king confers the right to start a","-29.104091549292207"],["include \"Roll Again\", \"Go to Nearest 'Score'\", \"Go to Start\", and \"Exchange Cards\" (in which the player swaps the Exchange card for any other card currently on the track.)\nIf a space is occupied by another pawn, the player rolls again (except for the Lose space), while disregarding any instructions on any adjacent track card (but still scoring a point on Score spaces). Scoring The object of the game is to play track cards in a way that directs one's pawn to a \"Score\" space, upon which the scorekeeper moves that player's peg ahead one point. A player can also score","-29.077717047242913"],["middle of the table, building colored piles in ascending numerical order according to color, and only starting new piles with a '1' card (placed anywhere near the middle of the table). New piles can be started anytime a '1' card becomes available to a player. Play is fast, and slow players will miss opportunities to place cards as faster players add to piles before others can react. Near-ties commonly occur among players discarding the same number card on a pile, but the person who was first is clearly the one whose card is underneath.\nIf players are unable to discard a","-29.053045318549266"],["to sort stimulus cards that differ in dimensions (shape, colour, or number). However, they are not told how to sort them. The only feedback they receive is whether or not a match is correct. Participants must discover the rule according to dimension. Once the participant matches a certain number of correct cards, the dimension changes and they must rediscover the new rule. This requires participants to remember the rule they were using and cognitively change the rule by which they use to sort. Dimensional Change Card Sort Task (DCCS) Participants are required to sort stimulus cards based on either shape","-29.04894268271164"],["cards from the community pile that add or equal a card from a players individual hands. After a deal the first person to the left of the dealer begins the play. The dealer also rotates to the left after each round. There are two ways to collect the cards from the community pile; a match or addition. Face cards cannot be won with addition and can only be won as a match. Only one card from the players hand can be played at a time and after a play is made play moves to the next player. Aces are valued","-29.04439455816464"],["card can either help or hinder second dealing. A playing deck with only a solid color back makes second dealing very difficult to detect. Less so are cards with a uniform pattern or a single logo, such as an airline promotional pack. Easiest to detect are cards with a strong white border design, which appears stationary on the top card as the second card is slid out from underneath.\nThe second deal can be performed using either one or two hands, and also from a tabled deck, again using one or two hands. The practice of using the dealing hand in","-29.032297489975463"],["a card shows an even number on one face, then its opposite face is red?\nA response that identifies a card that need not be inverted, or that fails to identify a card that needs to be inverted, is incorrect. The original task dealt with numbers (even, odd) and letters (vowels, consonants).\nThe test is of special interest because people have a hard time solving it in most scenarios but can usually solve it correctly in certain contexts. In particular, researchers have found that the puzzle is readily solved when the imagined context is policing a social rule. Use of logic The","-29.017527030053316"],["forgets to draw a new card before the next player plays, that player must remain one card short for the remainder of the hand. Play proceeds in this manner until a player cannot play without making the total value greater than ninety-nine. That player must turn in one of his or her tokens, all cards are then collected and a new hand is dealt. Any player without tokens loses and is out of the game, while the last player remaining with token wins. A variation is to play with dollar bills, instead of tokens. The dollar bill is","-29.003691027057357"],["melded all their cards they reveal their entire hand and the player submits their hand to validation. All other players reveal their melds and deadweight. The action of submitting the cards is called Showing. Scoring After a successful show, the winner or all players score their hand. In most variations numbered cards have certain assigned points and the royal cards (J-Q-K) have assigned points and the A often has a different point value. Scoring often involves each player adding up points in their melded cards (sets and runs) and deducting points from cards that have not been melded. The","-28.99836871289881"],["be started using either a \"1\" card or a Skip-Bo, and each player also has up to four personal discard piles. Each turn the active player draws until they have five cards in hand, though there are cases of not drawing more cards to equal five cards, instead doing a draw of a certain number of cards. They must play either the next card in sequential order or a wild Skip-Bo card, using either cards in hand, the top card of their stock pile, or the top card of any of their four discard piles. If the player can play","-28.97599271350191"],["drawn, so that card might as well be removed from the set altogether). Conclusively, the cards B/B and B/W are not of equal chances, because in the 50% of the cases B/W is drawn, this card is simply \"disqualified\".\nIf you would like to use a random web page to test this out for yourself, there is a page that allows a user to estimate the probability by repeatedly picking boxes and names out of three boxes. Estimating the Probability with Random Boxes and Names","-28.948515885538654"],["and take the card along with three additional cards from the top of the deck. It is up to the player whose turn it is, to allow this or to take the card themselves. That player must also check if any others want it left of the one whose turn it is until no players want it that will go before them. Any player may cut in at any time between a meld and the next players draw up to two times. If he loses count none=11 cards; one=14 cards; and 2 cut ins=17 cards. Melding Once the player has","-28.905646439976408"],["face up, sticking out of the player's pile of collected cards. The dealer should be careful to place his or her collected cards away from the deck, so as to avoid confusion. Players are not allowed to look at their collected cards until the end of the hand. At the end of the hand, the players count their total cards and points. End of game The game ends when one player or team reaches 100 points. In the rare event of a tie (2 players or teams finish even beyond the 100 point mark) there are various tie-breaking options, determined","-28.900128065011813"],["In some cases, the papers are marked by the bar staff. Alternatively, teams may have to mark their own answers and the handed-in papers are consulted only to check that prize claimants have not cheated by altering their answers. Another method is to have teams swap papers before marking, though this can be divisive.\nOne or two points are scored for each correct answer; some quizzes allow half marks for \"nearly right\" answers (such as a celebrity's surname when their full name was required). In some quizzes, certain questions score higher marks, particularly if they are unusually difficult. Cheating","-28.878178358507284"],["Cards for 1 Time. They can move their investigator to the murder scene and make that investigator the first player in the next round (Getting a Jump on the Case). Or they can use a location's ability or event-based actions for varying Time depending on the event/action. Board areas Areas are labeled with both colors and symbols, colors determining the type of area it is, and a symbol determining whether it is ritzy (diamond), normal (circle), or seedy (triangle). Entering a ritzy location allows a player to draw one of their Light Cards; entering a seedy location allows them to","-28.871200571971713"],["is dealt into five piles: two piles of eleven cards and three piles of ten. The player first turns the first pile up and looks for either an ace, a ten, a king, a queen, and a jack, cards which comprise a royal flush. Once such a card is found, the search ends there, with the cards on top of it discarded and those under it left alone. The search then proceeds into the next pile and the search for other cards in the royal flush continues. Also, the suit of the first card found determines the suit of the","-28.869978092217934"],["in their hand, but if they have 4 or less cards in their hand they don't have to put one out in their personal discard area. If they put all 5 cards out or put the fifth card out on their personal discard area they pick up 5 more cards and continues. They may ONLY put one card out on their personal discard area and may NOT play a buried card in their personal discard area when they are playing. When they put a card out on their personal discard area and have 1 or more cards left in their","-28.854642265906477"],["player plays his/her cards, one at a time, until he/she either draws another face card onto the pile or exhausts all of his/her allowed chances. If the challenged player is able to play a face card or Ace, the next player after him/her must beat it; if the initial face card could not be beaten in its allotted number of cards, the challenger who placed it takes the pile.\nAny player who takes a pile is always the one to start the next pile. When taken, piles are always added to a player's deck underneath, face-down. Cards are not shuffled.\nThe player","-28.847845916461665"],["placed on it is a seven.\nBuilding on the tableau is down by alternating colour. Only one card can be moved at a time. When a space occurs, it is filled with any available card.\nWhen the player has done all of the moves he could possibly make, the player can gather the cards on the tableau, shuffle them, and redeal them into eight piles. This can be done only twice during the game (three deals in all). However, when no moves are made after a deal (whether the original deal or one of the redeals), the deal does not count.\nThe game","-28.84382664709119"],["cards from their hand, adding it to the available cards in the centre of the table. After either scoring a hand or discarding, the play then moves to the next player in clockwise fashion.\n\nIf the player can combine one card from his hand with all of the cards on the board to total 15, this player has scored an Escoba, worth one additional point at the end of the round. Each escoba scored is typically noted by the player turning one card of their pile face up.\nAfter each player has exhausted their hand, the dealer will then deal a","-28.84216173220193"],["is a player's turn, he may 'meld' a combination, by placing it face up on the table. The value of the combinations placed is noted immediately by the recorder (Schriftführer). Furthermore, the same player may put cards from the hand on his own and other combinations, the individual value of which is also written down immediately. For example, a player melds the following combinations: 6-6-6 (18), D-K-A-2-3 (30). He also adds to combinations that have already been played: B, 7, 10 (27). The recorder notes for him: 18+30+27=75 points. Then the player places a discard on the staircase, and it","-28.83030402820441"],["six) of the same color are given to the player whose token matches that color. Then the question cards are placed in a pile or in the box provided. Rules The player that goes first rolls the die and moves the grey token that many spaces around the outside spaces, clockwise or counterclockwise. If the grey token lands on a name, that name becomes the subject of the card. The player then picks a question card and reads it out loud, inserting the subject into the blank space. A card usually says something like \"Imaginiff _____ was ... Which would","-28.82354886418034"],["player goes out, the hand ends, and the players count up their cards. Any cards left in each player's hand are counted up and added to the winner's score. The face cards count as 10 each, number cards as their face value, and aces as one. There are many variations. Common ones include counting an ace as 11 or 15. Variations In some instances, jokers are used as wildcards and can represent any card value when melding. They can be used in sets or runs but can not be replaced when 'melded', nor can a player lay off a card","-28.822632970375707"],["In a Pickle (card game) Gameplay In a Pickle contains 320 cards, each displaying a noun. To start the game, each player is dealt five cards, and four cards are placed face up in the shape of a \"plus\" sign in the center of the table. On their turn, a player may take a card from their hand and place it under or on top of one of the four piles in the center of the table. If the player places their card on top of the pile, the object represented by the noun on their card must be larger","-28.802473450661637"],["order that they appear in the input. When sorting some kinds of data, only part of the data is examined when determining the sort order. For example, in the card sorting example to the right, the cards are being sorted by their rank, and their suit is being ignored. This allows the possibility of multiple different correctly sorted versions of the original list. Stable sorting algorithms choose one of these, according to the following rule: if two items compare as equal, like the two 5 cards, then their relative order will be preserved, so that if one came before the","-28.80217986867501"],["\"cards\". Specific formats were often indicated by the number of character positions available, e.g. 80-column card. A sequence of cards that is input to or output from some step in an application's processing is called a card deck or simply deck. The rectangular, round, or oval bits of paper punched out were called chad (chads) or chips (in IBM usage). Sequential card columns allocated for a specific use, such as names, addresses, multi-digit numbers, etc., are known as a field. The first card of a group of cards, containing fixed or indicative information for that group, is known","-28.80140698955006"],["card is used, the next card under it in its stack can be turned over and then played. If a stack of the tableau is empty, a player can transfer any face-up card into that slot and turn over the following card. As during setup, face-up cards of the same rank may be placed on top of each other within the tableau.\nOnce either player has played all cards from their tableau, each player tries to slap the spit pile that they think is smaller. Whoever slaps first gets the pile that they slapped, and the other player takes the","-28.77261321018159"],["Counting sort Input and output assumptions In the most general case, the input to counting sort consists of a collection of n items, each of which has a non-negative integer key whose maximum value is at most k.\nIn some descriptions of counting sort, the input to be sorted is assumed to be more simply a sequence of integers itself, but this simplification does not accommodate many applications of counting sort. For instance, when used as a subroutine in radix sort, the keys for each call to counting sort are individual digits of larger item keys; it would not suffice to","-28.76212323846994"],["hand is played. The game continues until all the cards are used up. Scoring After all the cards have been played, the tricks are scored. However, it is not the card points (Augen) which are counted, but the number of court cards, aces and 10s. So the cards that count are: the Deuce/Ace, King, Ober/Queen, Unter/Jack and 10. In all there are 20 court cards in the game. If a player wins 11 of these cards, he has simply won. If he gets as many as 16 court cards and has thus made his opponent Schneider, he wins double,","-28.748038406381966"],["or 6, the shuffler is dealt first. If it's a 1, 5, 9, Zero Cash, Half Cash, Hundred Myriad, Thousand Myriad, or Myriad Myriad, the banker's opposite gets dealt first. Each player is dealt 8 cards counter-clockwise, first as a batch of four cards then singles. The remaining eight cards form the stock which is flipped to reveal the bottom card. Play The first person who was dealt leads. In a counter-clockwise rotation, each player then tries to take tricks; following suit is not required but only the highest card of the suit played wins. Players can also discard (sluff)","-28.737442454410484"],["the order of cards in the deck easier to predict and the cards could have been inadvertently or intentionally marked and manipulated. In his experiments, J. B. Rhine first shuffled the cards by hand but later decided to use a machine for shuffling.\nIn his book, The New Apocrypha, John Sladek expressed incredulity at the tests stating, \"It's astonishing that playing cards should have been chosen for ESP research at all. They are, after all, the instrument of stage magicians and second-dealing gamblers; they can be marked and manipulated in many traditional ways. At the best of times, card-shuffling is a","-28.70897262028302"],["accumulation (the act of collecting sufficient quantities of necessary cards) is very important in games with more than two players. Since there is a finite number of cards in a Viewpoint deck and the more players there are in a game then the faster the Draw Pile runs out, it is crucial for players to have enough cards in their Hand to enable them to reach 100 View-points. Experienced players typically draw lots of cards during these types of games or prepare their Hand so that they can exchange it or steal their opponents' cards should the Draw","-28.702546675747726"],["own stack. The player who accumulates all the cards wins.\nPlay proceeds with the players taking it in turns to remove a card from the top of their stack and place it face-up on a central pile. If two cards placed consecutively on the pile are identical (or, if a conventional pack of cards is used, are of the same number) then the first player to shout \"Snap!\" and place his hand on the top of the central pile does not need to take the cards. But the person that \"snaps\" the card last takes in all the cards. The","-28.699117048672633"],["card from the three \"row\" cards or from their \"stack\", they can look at every third card from the cards in their hand and play a card from the top of that pile if it goes on a pile on the table.\nOnce a player's hand has been completely passed through in this manner, it can be reshuffled by the player who then continues to play.\nWhen one of the three \"row\" cards is played, the space gets filled up with the top card from the \"stack\".\nPlay continues at a fast pace, with experienced players usually watching other players' rows and stacks","-28.654702983243624"],["Card Sorting Test (WCST). Subjects engaging in this task are instructed to sort cards according to the shape, color, or number of symbols appearing on them. The thought is that any given card can be associated with a number of actions and no single stimulus-response mapping will work. Human subjects with PFC damage are able to sort the card in the initial simple tasks, but unable to do so as the rules of classification change. \nMiller and Cohen conclude that the implications of their theory can explain how much of a role the PFC has in guiding control of cognitive","-28.63895350472194"],["match one card from their hand with one or more cards on the board to produce a total of 15. When using a traditional deck, all cards are worth their face value except for the 10 sota (Jack or Page), 11 caballo (Horse) and the 12 rey (King), which are reduced in value to 8, 9 and 10, respectively. All cards matched, including the one from the player's hand, are removed from the board and placed in a scoring pile beside the player. If the player is unable to make a total of 15, they must discard one of the","-28.63537209611968"],["in turn must place a card down in the community pile. A player does not have to make a match or addition even if the player owns a match or addition, this is explained in the Strategy section below. Winning After all four cards have been played from each of the hands of the players another 4 cards are dealt from the remaining deck of cards. Once the remaining deck of cards have all been dealt each player counts the cards from their individual separate pile of cards won. The player with the highest number of cards wins the round.","-28.615770926086043"],["worth anywhere from 50 to 500 points depending on how many other players play a Team Lottso! card in the same round; a shrewd player plays the Team Lottso! card when it is worth the most points. Also note that just because a card is filled does not mean it needs to be scratched, players can hold onto this card until a round where it is \"flashing\", which will multiply the points it is worth. Flashing cards begin showing up in round 6, with the total multiplied by a factor of two until round 9 where the total is multiplied","-28.585112506552832"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"cards. It works every single time. Sometimes, you can arrange it so that they do not know that they had to memorize the cards after writing them down. They may pick the wrong cards. Show them that they picked the wrong cards by looking at their paper. They will think the trick is over. Then, reveal the correct 3 cards. Popular types 1. Steps of math operations that use some secret knowledge of the audience like their birthday, and then reveal that secret knowledge in an unexpected way at the end. For example, think of any secret 3-digit number, multiply\",\n \"-33.34792798166745\"\n ],\n [\n \"counting machines, some of which can detect a note's security features (e.g. magnetic ink, ultraviolet ink, magnetic strip, note density etc.) to identify counterfeit and damaged notes.\\nOther extra features that facilitate everyday contact with cash may also be present. Electronic counters for bills/ money and coins Electronic counting systems, with no moving parts, exist that count both notes and coins on the same machine and sum the value of all denominations counted. They are normally used to count individual deposits or the content of cash drawers and do not sort or check for counterfeit or damaged notes.The machine uses\",\n \"-32.97884131678438\"\n ],\n [\n \"four cards from one category, or one from each category, depending on the player's position on the board. Each card is placed in a colored quadrant of the board. The player then ranks these four items according to his or her preference using color-coded cards that are placed in an envelope. Next, other players (or teams) use numbered tiles to guess that player's order, and move forward one space for each correct guess when the order is revealed. If players choose to double a guess by placing a tile towards the center of the board, they move forward two spaces\",\n \"-32.00424070836743\"\n ],\n [\n \"The skill lies both in convincing other players that the shuffle is legitimate and in ensuring that other players receive hands that are good enough to entice them into play, but not too good to arouse suspicion. Marked cards Marked cards are printed or altered so that the cheater can know the value of specific cards while only looking at the back. Ways of marking are too numerous to mention, but there are certain broad types. A common way of marking cards involves marks on a round design on the card so as to be read like a clock (an\",\n \"-31.4780461609771\"\n ],\n [\n \"piles A third variation uses nine cards, selected at random. They are divided into three piles of three cards. A participant looks at the bottom card of one pile and memorizes it. That pile is then placed on top of the other two piles, such that the memorized card will be the third card from the top. The magician then begins dealing cards onto the table one at a time from the nine-card stack, one for each letter in a set of words according to a formula. At the end of every step except the last, the remaining cards are\",\n \"-31.4430889627547\"\n ],\n [\n \"the tint of the cardstock or pattern. Another way to mark the cards is to fill in different small areas of the card with a marker the same colour as the surrounding ink to hide the pattern of the marking. They may even be marked 'live', while in use either with a sharpened finger nail or a tool (often a ring known as a \\\"poker ring\\\") made specifically for that purpose. Forcing decks These decks are used to force a spectator to select a particular card, which the magician already knows in advance. Such a feat can be\",\n \"-31.188496033661067\"\n ],\n [\n \"pass around cards, attempting to build a hand of equal cards. When a player receives a card from another player which they have already seen, the card has already been around the entire group, and it can be assumed that no player wants that card, and so it is placed in the center of the playing area (face up). Any player with a card of that value in their playing hand must then put those cards in the pile in the center also (as it is not possible to win on that card).\\nThe player who initially put the card down\",\n \"-31.081670061990735\"\n ],\n [\n \"Shuffle track Shuffle tracking Shuffle tracking is an advanced technique used with card counting. Many types of shuffle tracking exist. Generally, the player, or a team member, keeps track of the count (high cards versus low cards) of one or more subsections of the cards as they are played. The selected sections may or may not be predetermined by observing and mapping the shuffle. These sections are referred to as tracking zones. The player may attempt to follow slugs of cards through the shuffle, or have a good idea of the final location by previously analyzing the shuffle. After the\",\n \"-30.980174346914282\"\n ],\n [\n \"shape. Questions, answers, colors or numbers may be written on the fortune teller. Manipulations are done by various methods. The holder asks for a number or color. Once the number or color is chosen, the holder uses their fingers to switch between the two groups of colors and numbers inside the paper fortune teller. The holder switches these positions several times determined by the number of letters in the color , the number chosen, or the sum of both. Once the holder has finished switching positions, the player chooses one of the flaps revealed. These flaps often have colors or\",\n \"-30.594437030580593\"\n ],\n [\n \"cards, he picks up a packet. Unters have to be played and must not be held back.\\nAs soon as the first player has laid all his cards out, he calls \\\"Census!\\\" and the first 'census' (Volkszählung) is held. The remaining players score 10 penalty points for each card still held. \\nThe game continues. When the second player is 'out', the next census is taken. Each remaining card now costs 20 points. In the third census the player who still has hand cards receives 30 penalty points per card and must also count the packets remaining on the table. Variations Quodlibet\",\n \"-30.541054546338273\"\n ],\n [\n \"the round. Players are dealt four cards each,. Playing Each player looks at his hand and selects a card to get rid of, passing it face down to the player on his left. Players do this simultaneously, not in rotation, so that players cannot use the card they receive to decide what to shed. Once again, players examine their cards and pass one card to the left. This process continues until one player has collected a quartet in his hand (called a 'book' - Arnold).\\nThe player with the quartet does not announce it, but quietly places his hand down and\",\n \"-30.50230016684509\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the center of the table then picks up a card from the remaining pack, which they add to their hand (to replace the card lost), as do all players who placed a matching card down. Cards continue to be passed around the group, with this cycle of events repeating until one player collects four of a kind. If at any point a player picks up a card from the deck which is of a value which has been put down in the center already, that card can be added to the center pile and they can pick another card\",\n \"-30.461795418406837\"\n ],\n [\n \"counted. Cards are even transferred without any regard to suit or value. Spot cards (cards from ace to ten) are taken at their face value, while jacks are valued at 11, queens at 12, and kings at 13.\\nThe game is won when the top cards of the thirteen piles have a total value of 91. The easiest combination to obtain is a sequence of thirteen cards from ace to king (91=1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8+9+10+11+12+13). But there are many other combinations that add up to 91, such as four kings, four aces, three fives, and two tens for instance (91=13*4+1*4+3*5+10*2=52+4+15+20). It is up to\",\n \"-30.440764232247602\"\n ],\n [\n \"usually involves picking a card from the stock and discarding a card to the discard pile. In some variations melds are revealed to all players by placing them face up on the table, in other variations each player keeps their hand hidden until the show. Some variations permit picking up the entire discard pile. A few variations permit stealing cards from their opponents melds. Show In most variations a player must put all of their cards into at least two melds (though they may be allowed to shed one card to the discard pile before showing). Once the player has\",\n \"-30.250476097106002\"\n ],\n [\n \"skip a player's turn, make other players draw cards, change the color and allow a player to discard more than one card. The game includes 112 cards (2 identical sets of 56). The object of the game is to discard all the cards in your hand. Rules The cards are shuffled and each player receives eight. The rest of the deck becomes the draw pile. The top card in the draw pile is turned over and placed face up next to the draw pile to form a discard pile. The upper card of the discard pile is called the Leading\",\n \"-30.175722442159895\"\n ],\n [\n \"they be [or do]?\\\" and lists six numbered choices. They then place the card down for everyone to see. Now, all players look through their number cards and pick the number card that corresponds to the answer they want. When all players have placed down a card, everyone flips theirs over. To move a player's token, they need to have picked the most popular answer. All players that have the most popular answer move 1 space, except the person who rolled the dice, who moves 2 if they picked the most popular answer.\\nIf two or more answers are tied, all\",\n \"-30.159443371288944\"\n ],\n [\n \"player gets to go twice is that he/she does not have the option to pick up a discarded card. Any player besides the person who discarded the card, may pick up discarded cards regardless of whose turn it is, following that the player who goes before them (the player in front of them) has the right to pick up the card before they do. Going Down The object of each hand is to come up with the correct combination of cards to be able to Go Down, or \\\"lay out\\\". The combination for each hand is different (see\",\n \"-30.131529835998663\"\n ],\n [\n \"game. It is helpful to fan one's cards out so that if they have corner indices all their values can be seen at once. In most games, it is also useful to sort one's hand, rearranging the cards in a way appropriate to the game. For example, in a trick-taking game it may be easier to have all one's cards of the same suit together, whereas in a rummy game one might sort them by rank or by potential combinations. Rule infractions An infraction is any action which is against the rules of the game, such as playing a card\",\n \"-30.120035371626727\"\n ],\n [\n \"cards based on a second dimension. However, five-year-old children are able to sort cards based on one dimension and can then switch to sorting cards on a second dimension. Multiple Classification Card Sorting Task In the Multiple Classification Card Sorting Task, children are shown cards and asked to sort them based on two different dimensions (e.g. by color, such as yellow and blue, and object type, such as animals and food) simultaneously into four piles within a matrix (e.g. yellow animals, yellow foods, blue animals and blue foods). This task appears to be more difficult as research has shown that\",\n \"-30.001252930349438\"\n ],\n [\n \"flushes of 3 or more cards.\\nIf no sequence cards are in the hand, the player can discard any one card.\\nAfter the sequence cards are discarded, the player draws a card from the deck, or from the last discarded card(s). The player must draw one and only one card. \\nEach player, when it is their turn, must either discard card(s) and draw a card, or declare a Jhyap; no player can 'pass' their turn.\\nThis continues until a player has a hand-count of 5 points or less, when they can declare a jhyap. If no one counter jhyaps, that player gets\",\n \"-29.957527154445415\"\n ],\n [\n \"is called the 27 card trick. It is identical in principle. Method The magician begins by handing the spectator the 21-card packet and asking them to look through it and select any one card to remember.\\nThe cards are then dealt into three piles one at a time, like when dealing out hands in a card game. Each time they are dealt out, after the spectator indicates which pile contains the thought of card, the magician places that pile between the other two. After the first time, the card will be one of the ones in position 8-14. \",\n \"-29.949811547528952\"\n ],\n [\n \"punched card formats and character codes.\\nThere were several methods used for alphabetical sorting, depending on the features provided by the particular sorter and the characteristics of the data to be sorted. A commonly used method on the 082 and earlier sorters was to sort the cards twice on the same column, first on digit rows 1-9, then on the zone rows 12, 11, and 0 (or vice versa, zone rows first then digit rows). Operator switches allow zone-sorting by \\\"switching off\\\" rows 1-9 for the second pass of the card for each column. \\nOther special characters and punctuation marks were\",\n \"-29.927333690910018\"\n ],\n [\n \"it counts 1 + 3 + 3 + 20 + 10, or 37 points. If a hand is left with only threes at the end of play, each three instead counts -50 points. Shuffle pressure If a player has to draw a card, but the stock is exhausted, they must then shuffle the cards remaining in the discard pile (except for the top card), and be subject to a shuffle pressure penalty. The first shuffle pressure adds 5 points to the player's score, and every shuffle pressure following doubles the score of the last one; for instance, the second\",\n \"-29.89928724532365\"\n ],\n [\n \"cards, which adds an element of luck, such as \\\"Take an additional turn\\\" or \\\"Triple the value of your first guess\\\". Another option is to designate one player to keep track of the \\\"no\\\" answers that occur during play, so that turns aren't wasted on redundant inquiries, and there are no disputes at the end.\\nAt any time during the game, a player can interrupt the game and ask another player (who has at least five unexposed cards) if his word is a specific word. If successful, the inquiring player earns the point value of all unexposed cards, plus 100 bonus\",\n \"-29.803317170240916\"\n ],\n [\n \"certain position to indicate the number of the card, with the color or shape of the mark indicating suit. The magician shows the card to the audience and reads off the number and suit of the card without seeing it, indicating 'x-ray vision'. This principle is derived from similar card marking techniques used to cheat at gambling. \\nThe cards of a marked deck may be marked in a number of ways. They may be manufactured with subtle variations in the back pattern. They may be marked by the user with tiny punctures or dots, or a barely detectable change of\",\n \"-29.79722038791806\"\n ],\n [\n \"Counting-out game A counting-out game is a simple game intended to select a person to be \\\"it\\\", often for the purpose of playing another game. These games usually require no materials, and are played with spoken words (counting rhymes) or hand gestures. The historian Henry Carrington Bolton suggested in his 1888 book \\\"Counting Out Rhymes of Children\\\" that the custom of counting out originated in the \\\"superstitious practice of divination by lot.\\\"\\nMany such games involve one person pointing at each participant in a circle of players while reciting a rhyme. A new person is pointed at as each word is\",\n \"-29.793278416633257\"\n ],\n [\n \"four cards that are placed, face down, in a row in front of him or her. Each player looks at the two outermost cards in their row, at the beginning of the game. Players may not look at any cards during the game except through the use of a Peek card. The remaining cards form a draw pile, and the top one is turned over to form a discard pile (if this card is a power card, it is shuffled back into the draw pile and a replacement is dealt).\",\n \"-29.771193767577643\"\n ],\n [\n \"money is hidden in. When a player searches that specific piece of furniture, the electronic organizer will first ask if (s)he has a particular item Clue card. If the answer is yes, it will then ask if the player has a specific person Clue card. If the answer is also yes, then that player wins. Optional \\\"Turn\\\" cards There are nine optional \\\"Turn\\\" cards: three marked \\\"Move\\\", three marked \\\"Look:, and three marked \\\"Let's talk\\\". These can be used by a player as flash card to keep track of their three actions during their turn. Other Uses In 2015, finalist\",\n \"-29.7371232786536\"\n ],\n [\n \"the cards value, being Ace high and 7 low. The other cards, called \\\"point cards\\\" are generally used to keep track of points. The point cards are distributed to all the three players with 10 or 20 points. Suit must be followed. For example, if we allow 10 points to each player before the game begins, then the cards of value 5,3 and 2 of a particular suit is given to each player. The rest of the point cards are generally discarded or kept aside. Dealing The dealer shuffles the cards and the player to his left cuts the deck\",\n \"-29.73709088139003\"\n ],\n [\n \"game of Rock-Paper-Scissors to determining who plays first, players take turns identifying sets of three cards in which the three features are either all the same or all different. (For example: Circle-Red-Black, Square-Red-White, Triangle-Red-Gray.) If they see a set, the player says \\\"Hap!\\\", and identifies the three cards. If the set is valid, the player scores a point. If the set is invalid, or has already been called, the player loses a point. If 10 seconds pass without a \\\"Hap!\\\" call, play passes to the other player.\\nIf all of the sets have been identified, the player may call \\\"Gyul!\\\" If\",\n \"-29.72206837963313\"\n ],\n [\n \"form rows, chips may be placed vertically, horizontally or diagonally. Each complete row of five (or four and a free corner space) is counted as a sequence. Sequences of the same color may intersect, but only at a single position.\\nIf the draw deck becomes depleted during play, the discard pile is shuffled and drawing begins again.\\nSequence rules dictate no table talk or coaching between team members and a precise order in which hands must be played (card, chip, replace card). If a player forgets to replace a card on their turn and if any of the other players points it\",\n \"-29.676215131243225\"\n ],\n [\n \"markers are placed on worker placement spaces on the board to claim various benefits. Majority spaces advance the player with the most valuable goods or exploration cards along a company track. Tile spaces give an extra card for the next round. Other spaces allow a player to buy or sell cards for cash, or to claim the right to play first next round.\\nAfter each round, players retrieve some of the cards they used in earlier rounds using a unique mechanic. Each active card is moved to one of several resting piles, after picking up just one\",\n \"-29.660950581077486\"\n ],\n [\n \"bones — the exact number and type being rolled determined by each character's stats — and then draw a number of cards from a community playing card deck based on the results of that roll. The Marshal then calls out card values, starting from Aces and going all the way down to Deuces. The card's suit (in reverse alphabetical order) indicates who goes first if the same value of card is drawn. Fate Chips Along with Bones and Cards, characters get Fate Chips which are typically poker chips, although colored stones or coins can also be used. These are drawn\",\n \"-29.6448710210243\"\n ],\n [\n \"80 series sorters sorted input cards into one of 13 pockets depending on the holes punched in a selected column and the sorter's settings. Basic operation The basic operation of a card sorter is to take a punched card, examine a single column, and place the card into a selected pocket. There are twelve rows on a punched card, and thirteen pockets in the sorter; one pocket is for blanks, rejects, and errors. (IBM 1962)\\nCards are normally passed through the sorter face down with the bottom edge (\\\"9-edge\\\") first. A small metal brush or optical sensor is positioned\",\n \"-29.61053738323244\"\n ],\n [\n \"so cards coming from both the front and back of the line that value to ten, twenty, or thirty are not considered consecutive unless they occupy a physically adjacent position to the card. After this has been repeated until no more discards are possible, a card is drawn from the stock and placed face up on the extreme right of the line (or on top of the stack if playing on one hand), and checking for discards is resumed.\\nThe game continues until all cards are dealt or discarded, or when no more sets can be collected. The object of the\",\n \"-29.609758863178286\"\n ],\n [\n \"for remembering long sequences of numbers, it can also be used to remember other sequences such as the order of a deck of playing cards. This works by establishing some method of systematically converting the objects into numbers. If the nine of clubs is associated with 39 (CN), for instance, then Chuck Norris or a roundhouse kick could be used in a story describing where the nine of clubs is in the deck.\",\n \"-29.60967971601349\"\n ],\n [\n \"they will be able to spell the name of each card using only that stack. They will draw cards one at a time from the stack. For each card drawn, they spell one letter from the intended card's name, then place the card on the bottom of the deck. After the card's whole name is spelled, the next card drawn will be the intended card. For example, if the magician wishes to spell out \\\"ace\\\", they will draw three cards, saying the letters \\\"a\\\", \\\"c\\\", and \\\"e\\\" as they go. Then they will draw a fourth card, which will be\",\n \"-29.607979042746592\"\n ],\n [\n \"be done by first sorting the cards by rank (using any sort), and then doing a stable sort by suit:\\nWithin each suit, the stable sort preserves the ordering by rank that was already done. This idea can be extended to any number of keys and is utilised by radix sort. The same effect can be achieved with an unstable sort by using a lexicographic key comparison, which, e.g., compares first by suit, and then compares by rank if the suits are the same. Comparison of algorithms In this table, n is the number of records to be sorted. The columns\",\n \"-29.586913433886366\"\n ],\n [\n \"the cards to each player. The cards are held face down. Every round, each player plays five cards face up vertically in between both players and slightly closer to themselves. Once both players have done this, they look for two or more cards having the same number. When a player finds one, he places another card on top of the cards with that number until all of the cards with the common number are covered. In other words, if there are three fours out then all three cards can get a new card on top of it. If a four\",\n \"-29.57575157264364\"\n ],\n [\n \"it as well, the player in the first rotation gets to have that card. Often players signify in order when a card does not \\\"serve\\\" them by knocking on the table.\\nIf a card placed on the discard pile can be added to any meld currently on the table it can be forced onto the meld and the player will have to \\\"pay\\\" for the card by discarding from their hand. If the player discarding the card is the same person with the meld, the card can be forced back to them, but if another player wants the card, they can\",\n \"-29.564059912401717\"\n ],\n [\n \"point where no other cards can be laid down, the player discards one card face up on the discard pile and the turn passes to the next player to the left. Scoring of the round and paying penalties Once a player goes out, the remaining players add up points of cards they were caught with in their hands. The card values are as follows:\\n3-9 5 points\\n10-King 10 points\\nDeuces 20 Points\\nAces 20 Points\\nJokers \",\n \"-29.562055559055807\"\n ],\n [\n \"since the last shuffle cannot be at the top of the deck and thus drawn, the counter can determine the high and low cards that have already been played. He or she thus knows the probability of getting a high card (10,J,Q,K,A) as compared to a low card (2,3,4,5,6).\\nIn 1980, six MIT students and residents of the Burton-Conner House at MIT taught themselves card-counting. They traveled to Atlantic City during the spring break to win their fortune. The group went their separate ways when most of them graduated in May of that year. Most never gambled again, but some\",\n \"-29.52302269321808\"\n ],\n [\n \"25 Words or Less Gameplay The game is played by one player from each of the two teams drawing a card (one between the two of them) and looking at the five words on the card. They then begin bidding words, starting at 25 and working backward, until one player passes. The player who passed then flips the timer, and the other player has one minute to give clues to their team, to try to get them to guess each of the five words on the card, where each word in the giver's clues counts as one of\",\n \"-29.497252182132797\"\n ],\n [\n \"from the stock. The players then take turns playing or drawing cards and the first player who plays all his or her cards out wins the game. Penalties When a player has only one card left, they must call out \\\"one card\\\", the next player is then penalized by drawing a card. The player who has only one card is penalized in return if someone else calls out \\\"one card\\\" on the players turn first. If a player falsely calls “one card” while having multiple cards in their hand, they must draw a card. The stockpile The stockpile is the\",\n \"-29.481227252370445\"\n ],\n [\n \"effects of the card are resolved before the hand ends, so if the card is a five, everyone else draws a card before scoring, and so on. The count If a two is played (including turned up by the dealer), \\\"the count\\\" begins, starting at a value of two. Each player must then play either an ace or a two, increasing the value of the count by either one or two, depending on the card played. If a player can not play an ace or two at this stage, they draw cards from the stock equating to the count\",\n \"-29.439293436618755\"\n ],\n [\n \"dealer gets 13 and the rest of the cards are left as a central stack. The game begins when the dealer dumps a card. The next person can either pick up the disposed card if that card makes a set or adds to a set he has already or get one from the central stack. Collect hand combinations and dump unnecessary cards. The\\npicking and discarding of cards goes on until someone wins by Tong-its, calls a draw or until the\\ncentral stack runs out of cards. If this happens, the players tally the points of the cards they have at hand\",\n \"-29.43170364163234\"\n ],\n [\n \"O'NO 99 Overview Up to eight players may take part. Each player picks a card from the deck, and the player drawing the highest-numbered card is the dealer. This person then deals four cards to each player, and places the remainder of the deck face down in the center of the table. The player to the dealer's left starts the hand by playing a numbered card face up in the center of the table and announces the number. They must then immediately draw the top card from the deck. Each subsequent player does likewise, announcing a new total by\",\n \"-29.41363857158285\"\n ],\n [\n \"IBM card sorter An IBM card sorter is a machine for sorting decks of punched cards in the format popularized by the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), which dominated the punched card data processing industry for much of the twentieth century. Sorting was a major activity in most facilities that processed data on punched cards using unit record equipment. The work flow of many processes required decks of cards to be put into some specific order as determined by the data punched in the cards. The same deck might be sorted differently for different processing steps. The IBM\",\n \"-29.39574977773009\"\n ],\n [\n \"use all five of the cards' numbers exactly once, using any combination of arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division), to form the objective card's number. The first player to come up with a correct formula is the winner. Krypto International Tournament Rules The official international rules for Krypto differ slightly from the house rules, and they involve a system of scorekeeping.\\nFive cards are dealt face up in the center of the game table. (Each player works with the same set of five cards, rather than a set exclusive to them.) Then a sixth card is dealt face up in\",\n \"-29.387809342704713\"\n ],\n [\n \"either, depending on what you are rolling the dice for. Sometimes you'll roll the dice because a card tells you to and you'll just look for the symbols the card asks for.\\nThere are also colored blank tokens that came with your set. You can use these to show which challenges you are participating in. The numbered tokens can be used to help keep track of how much of an ability you've generated. The Pattern The Pattern is what the game is all about. Each turn a token is to be placed on the Pattern. Depending on how various challenges and\",\n \"-29.385103852997418\"\n ],\n [\n \"normally done two or four cards at a time. The rest of the cards are set aside as a draw pile, and then play begins starting with the oya. Play On a player's turn, they may match by suit (such as month or flower) any one card in their hand with one on the table and take both into their point pile. If they cannot match a card from their hand, they must discard a card face up to the table. After matching or discarding a card, they then draw one card from the draw pile and place it face\",\n \"-29.381795292254537\"\n ],\n [\n \"player chooses a numbered card. The amount is revealed and subtracted from the bank, then the clue is revealed. A player can guess the subject at any time, but they only get one guess. A correct guess adds the remaining money in the bank to the contestant's total winnings; if the guess is incorrect, no money is banked for that round. In the first four rounds, the incorrect guess will force the contestant to replay the round for the same maximum amount as the previous round that they got the incorrect answer on (this reduces the top prize); likewise, an\",\n \"-29.361252011556644\"\n ],\n [\n \"have not won a hand yet and has to pay a bonus.\\nThere are a variety of counting pieces used in different countries. They range from Chinese or Japanese counting sticks (thin sticks with various dots on them to represent various points), jetons, play money, paper and pencil, or various apps on touchscreen devices used to calculate and keep scores. Charleston In the American variations it is required that, before each hand begins, a Charleston be enacted. In the first exchange, three tiles are passed to the player on one's right; in the next exchange, the tiles are passed to the\",\n \"-29.322531859354058\"\n ],\n [\n \"painted red or black in color. Usage Dealing shoes come in many colors and sizes, depending on the number of decks they are capable of holding (2, 4, 6, or 8 decks).\\nWhen the cards are placed in the shoe, the dealer will insert a brightly colored blank plastic card. When this card is drawn it indicates that the current game is the last one before a new shuffle. This helps mitigate player advantage via card counting, as a significant portion (usually about 25 percent) of the full inventory of cards never comes into play. The percentage of cards\",\n \"-29.311912983939692\"\n ],\n [\n \"down first before the piles are gathered). The discarded cards are set aside.\\nThen without shuffling, the remaining cards are dealt this time into four piles. After this, the search the cards of the royal flush begins again with the same procedure already stated above. Once all four piles are searched and regathered, the remaining cards (again without reshuffling) are dealt into three piles. The process continues, and after the gathering of the piles, the cards are dealt into two piles and the procedure begins once more.\\nWhen the two piles are regathered, the remaining cards at this point are then dealt\",\n \"-29.285319087444805\"\n ],\n [\n \"In point-trick games, certain card values are worth varying points, and the players sum the points from cards in their \\\"scoring piles\\\" that were accumulated by taking tricks. Points for cards, and the method of counting points, vary by game; in Rook, for example, the 5-card of each color is worth 5 points, the 10 and 14 (or Ace) is worth 10, and the Rook Bird (or Joker) is worth 20, while all other cards are worth nothing. Many Chinese card games like Finding Friends use a very similar system, in which each 5-card is worth 5 points, and the\",\n \"-29.27753213548567\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the top card of the deck. Once the value of the top card is known the cheat may resort to second dealing in order to avoid dealing a good card to an opponent, or to avoid dealing a bad card to himself or to a secret accomplice.\\nIn order to secretly gain knowledge of the value of the top card, second dealing is always used in conjunction with other cheating methods. One of the easiest, and most common methods of gaining knowledge of the top card is to employ the use of marked cards. When marked cards are not in\",\n \"-29.219818576140824\"\n ],\n [\n \"e-cards may be used. \\nTraditional paper control cards are in form of a multiple-choice control card, which contain an official copy and a competitor copy, and folded in halves to make them overlap when the control card is punched. Before the competition, the name, number and class is filled, and the start and finish times are marked like in traditional orienteering. Moreover, There are fields for officials to record the times and answers at timed stations. The answers are recorded by punching the control card using the punch provided near the decision point for each control (or, in some competitions,\",\n \"-29.189557136502117\"\n ],\n [\n \"task, four cards are used with the letters A or D on one side of the card and the numbers 4 or 7 on the other side. The cards are placed on the table to show one face of each letter and number. Participants are asked to determine the minimum number of cards they will need to turn over in order to determine if cards with vowels always have even numbers on their opposite side. Do groups perform better than individuals? This question has been tested by comparing group performance to the performance of individuals alone or in\",\n \"-29.16199082529056\"\n ],\n [\n \"cards for a total of ten. The couple was given up to six clues to try to identify the puzzle, and each of the clues had a corresponding value of bank cards it would cost them to reveal it. Clues cost one, two or three bank cards, and were distributed by a shuffle that the couple stopped manually. They were then revealed in a clockwise fashion. The couple was given a guess at the Master Puzzle after each clue was revealed. A correct guess at any time earned the couple the value amount of bank cards remaining.\\nOnce the Master Puzzle\",\n \"-29.153672045074927\"\n ],\n [\n \"cards up into a face-down arrangement that allows players to count the number of tricks taken. The contents of each trick can not be viewed after this point, except to determine whether a player reneged (played an off-suit card including trumps when he could have and thus should have followed suit). The number of tricks a player has won cannot be disguised; if asked, each player must count out his tricks until everyone has agreed on the \\\"trick count\\\". The player who wins any given trick leads the next. Play continues until all players have exhausted their hands, which should\",\n \"-29.143386160792943\"\n ],\n [\n \"cards, swap hands with another player, or move one to seven spaces as decided by a short slot machine style game. Finally, there is a card that will summon Doctor Eggman, who will steal the player's rings or swap their position on the board with another player.\\nThere are a variety of different spaces on the board. The most common spaces increase or subtract the player's ring count. Rings can be used to purchase power-ups in the form of \\\"forcejewels\\\" at special shop spaces. These stones can give the player numerous advantages, such as selecting more than one card in one\",\n \"-29.135749528446468\"\n ],\n [\n \"numerical sequence until reaching a point where they do not have the next card. The next player then continues the sequence if able to do so, otherwise that player must miss a turn and play is continued by the first player able to lay the required card.\\nPlayers should announce their discards so that all players can follow what is happening easily; for example a player might say “eight, nine, ten, jack, no queen”. If the next player has a queen they would lay it and if possible a king as well. Discarding a king confers the right to start a\",\n \"-29.104091549292207\"\n ],\n [\n \"include \\\"Roll Again\\\", \\\"Go to Nearest 'Score'\\\", \\\"Go to Start\\\", and \\\"Exchange Cards\\\" (in which the player swaps the Exchange card for any other card currently on the track.)\\nIf a space is occupied by another pawn, the player rolls again (except for the Lose space), while disregarding any instructions on any adjacent track card (but still scoring a point on Score spaces). Scoring The object of the game is to play track cards in a way that directs one's pawn to a \\\"Score\\\" space, upon which the scorekeeper moves that player's peg ahead one point. A player can also score\",\n \"-29.077717047242913\"\n ],\n [\n \"middle of the table, building colored piles in ascending numerical order according to color, and only starting new piles with a '1' card (placed anywhere near the middle of the table). New piles can be started anytime a '1' card becomes available to a player. Play is fast, and slow players will miss opportunities to place cards as faster players add to piles before others can react. Near-ties commonly occur among players discarding the same number card on a pile, but the person who was first is clearly the one whose card is underneath.\\nIf players are unable to discard a\",\n \"-29.053045318549266\"\n ],\n [\n \"to sort stimulus cards that differ in dimensions (shape, colour, or number). However, they are not told how to sort them. The only feedback they receive is whether or not a match is correct. Participants must discover the rule according to dimension. Once the participant matches a certain number of correct cards, the dimension changes and they must rediscover the new rule. This requires participants to remember the rule they were using and cognitively change the rule by which they use to sort. Dimensional Change Card Sort Task (DCCS) Participants are required to sort stimulus cards based on either shape\",\n \"-29.04894268271164\"\n ],\n [\n \"cards from the community pile that add or equal a card from a players individual hands. After a deal the first person to the left of the dealer begins the play. The dealer also rotates to the left after each round. There are two ways to collect the cards from the community pile; a match or addition. Face cards cannot be won with addition and can only be won as a match. Only one card from the players hand can be played at a time and after a play is made play moves to the next player. Aces are valued\",\n \"-29.04439455816464\"\n ],\n [\n \"card can either help or hinder second dealing. A playing deck with only a solid color back makes second dealing very difficult to detect. Less so are cards with a uniform pattern or a single logo, such as an airline promotional pack. Easiest to detect are cards with a strong white border design, which appears stationary on the top card as the second card is slid out from underneath.\\nThe second deal can be performed using either one or two hands, and also from a tabled deck, again using one or two hands. The practice of using the dealing hand in\",\n \"-29.032297489975463\"\n ],\n [\n \"a card shows an even number on one face, then its opposite face is red?\\nA response that identifies a card that need not be inverted, or that fails to identify a card that needs to be inverted, is incorrect. The original task dealt with numbers (even, odd) and letters (vowels, consonants).\\nThe test is of special interest because people have a hard time solving it in most scenarios but can usually solve it correctly in certain contexts. In particular, researchers have found that the puzzle is readily solved when the imagined context is policing a social rule. Use of logic The\",\n \"-29.017527030053316\"\n ],\n [\n \"forgets to draw a new card before the next player plays, that player must remain one card short for the remainder of the hand. Play proceeds in this manner until a player cannot play without making the total value greater than ninety-nine. That player must turn in one of his or her tokens, all cards are then collected and a new hand is dealt. Any player without tokens loses and is out of the game, while the last player remaining with token wins. A variation is to play with dollar bills, instead of tokens. The dollar bill is\",\n \"-29.003691027057357\"\n ],\n [\n \"melded all their cards they reveal their entire hand and the player submits their hand to validation. All other players reveal their melds and deadweight. The action of submitting the cards is called Showing. Scoring After a successful show, the winner or all players score their hand. In most variations numbered cards have certain assigned points and the royal cards (J-Q-K) have assigned points and the A often has a different point value. Scoring often involves each player adding up points in their melded cards (sets and runs) and deducting points from cards that have not been melded. The\",\n \"-28.99836871289881\"\n ],\n [\n \"be started using either a \\\"1\\\" card or a Skip-Bo, and each player also has up to four personal discard piles. Each turn the active player draws until they have five cards in hand, though there are cases of not drawing more cards to equal five cards, instead doing a draw of a certain number of cards. They must play either the next card in sequential order or a wild Skip-Bo card, using either cards in hand, the top card of their stock pile, or the top card of any of their four discard piles. If the player can play\",\n \"-28.97599271350191\"\n ],\n [\n \"drawn, so that card might as well be removed from the set altogether). Conclusively, the cards B/B and B/W are not of equal chances, because in the 50% of the cases B/W is drawn, this card is simply \\\"disqualified\\\".\\nIf you would like to use a random web page to test this out for yourself, there is a page that allows a user to estimate the probability by repeatedly picking boxes and names out of three boxes. Estimating the Probability with Random Boxes and Names\",\n \"-28.948515885538654\"\n ],\n [\n \"and take the card along with three additional cards from the top of the deck. It is up to the player whose turn it is, to allow this or to take the card themselves. That player must also check if any others want it left of the one whose turn it is until no players want it that will go before them. Any player may cut in at any time between a meld and the next players draw up to two times. If he loses count none=11 cards; one=14 cards; and 2 cut ins=17 cards. Melding Once the player has\",\n \"-28.905646439976408\"\n ],\n [\n \"face up, sticking out of the player's pile of collected cards. The dealer should be careful to place his or her collected cards away from the deck, so as to avoid confusion. Players are not allowed to look at their collected cards until the end of the hand. At the end of the hand, the players count their total cards and points. End of game The game ends when one player or team reaches 100 points. In the rare event of a tie (2 players or teams finish even beyond the 100 point mark) there are various tie-breaking options, determined\",\n \"-28.900128065011813\"\n ],\n [\n \"In some cases, the papers are marked by the bar staff. Alternatively, teams may have to mark their own answers and the handed-in papers are consulted only to check that prize claimants have not cheated by altering their answers. Another method is to have teams swap papers before marking, though this can be divisive.\\nOne or two points are scored for each correct answer; some quizzes allow half marks for \\\"nearly right\\\" answers (such as a celebrity's surname when their full name was required). In some quizzes, certain questions score higher marks, particularly if they are unusually difficult. Cheating\",\n \"-28.878178358507284\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cards for 1 Time. They can move their investigator to the murder scene and make that investigator the first player in the next round (Getting a Jump on the Case). Or they can use a location's ability or event-based actions for varying Time depending on the event/action. Board areas Areas are labeled with both colors and symbols, colors determining the type of area it is, and a symbol determining whether it is ritzy (diamond), normal (circle), or seedy (triangle). Entering a ritzy location allows a player to draw one of their Light Cards; entering a seedy location allows them to\",\n \"-28.871200571971713\"\n ],\n [\n \"is dealt into five piles: two piles of eleven cards and three piles of ten. The player first turns the first pile up and looks for either an ace, a ten, a king, a queen, and a jack, cards which comprise a royal flush. Once such a card is found, the search ends there, with the cards on top of it discarded and those under it left alone. The search then proceeds into the next pile and the search for other cards in the royal flush continues. Also, the suit of the first card found determines the suit of the\",\n \"-28.869978092217934\"\n ],\n [\n \"in their hand, but if they have 4 or less cards in their hand they don't have to put one out in their personal discard area. If they put all 5 cards out or put the fifth card out on their personal discard area they pick up 5 more cards and continues. They may ONLY put one card out on their personal discard area and may NOT play a buried card in their personal discard area when they are playing. When they put a card out on their personal discard area and have 1 or more cards left in their\",\n \"-28.854642265906477\"\n ],\n [\n \"player plays his/her cards, one at a time, until he/she either draws another face card onto the pile or exhausts all of his/her allowed chances. If the challenged player is able to play a face card or Ace, the next player after him/her must beat it; if the initial face card could not be beaten in its allotted number of cards, the challenger who placed it takes the pile.\\nAny player who takes a pile is always the one to start the next pile. When taken, piles are always added to a player's deck underneath, face-down. Cards are not shuffled.\\nThe player\",\n \"-28.847845916461665\"\n ],\n [\n \"placed on it is a seven.\\nBuilding on the tableau is down by alternating colour. Only one card can be moved at a time. When a space occurs, it is filled with any available card.\\nWhen the player has done all of the moves he could possibly make, the player can gather the cards on the tableau, shuffle them, and redeal them into eight piles. This can be done only twice during the game (three deals in all). However, when no moves are made after a deal (whether the original deal or one of the redeals), the deal does not count.\\nThe game\",\n \"-28.84382664709119\"\n ],\n [\n \"cards from their hand, adding it to the available cards in the centre of the table. After either scoring a hand or discarding, the play then moves to the next player in clockwise fashion.\\n\\nIf the player can combine one card from his hand with all of the cards on the board to total 15, this player has scored an Escoba, worth one additional point at the end of the round. Each escoba scored is typically noted by the player turning one card of their pile face up.\\nAfter each player has exhausted their hand, the dealer will then deal a\",\n \"-28.84216173220193\"\n ],\n [\n \"is a player's turn, he may 'meld' a combination, by placing it face up on the table. The value of the combinations placed is noted immediately by the recorder (Schriftführer). Furthermore, the same player may put cards from the hand on his own and other combinations, the individual value of which is also written down immediately. For example, a player melds the following combinations: 6-6-6 (18), D-K-A-2-3 (30). He also adds to combinations that have already been played: B, 7, 10 (27). The recorder notes for him: 18+30+27=75 points. Then the player places a discard on the staircase, and it\",\n \"-28.83030402820441\"\n ],\n [\n \"six) of the same color are given to the player whose token matches that color. Then the question cards are placed in a pile or in the box provided. Rules The player that goes first rolls the die and moves the grey token that many spaces around the outside spaces, clockwise or counterclockwise. If the grey token lands on a name, that name becomes the subject of the card. The player then picks a question card and reads it out loud, inserting the subject into the blank space. A card usually says something like \\\"Imaginiff _____ was ... Which would\",\n \"-28.82354886418034\"\n ],\n [\n \"player goes out, the hand ends, and the players count up their cards. Any cards left in each player's hand are counted up and added to the winner's score. The face cards count as 10 each, number cards as their face value, and aces as one. There are many variations. Common ones include counting an ace as 11 or 15. Variations In some instances, jokers are used as wildcards and can represent any card value when melding. They can be used in sets or runs but can not be replaced when 'melded', nor can a player lay off a card\",\n \"-28.822632970375707\"\n ],\n [\n \"In a Pickle (card game) Gameplay In a Pickle contains 320 cards, each displaying a noun. To start the game, each player is dealt five cards, and four cards are placed face up in the shape of a \\\"plus\\\" sign in the center of the table. On their turn, a player may take a card from their hand and place it under or on top of one of the four piles in the center of the table. If the player places their card on top of the pile, the object represented by the noun on their card must be larger\",\n \"-28.802473450661637\"\n ],\n [\n \"order that they appear in the input. When sorting some kinds of data, only part of the data is examined when determining the sort order. For example, in the card sorting example to the right, the cards are being sorted by their rank, and their suit is being ignored. This allows the possibility of multiple different correctly sorted versions of the original list. Stable sorting algorithms choose one of these, according to the following rule: if two items compare as equal, like the two 5 cards, then their relative order will be preserved, so that if one came before the\",\n \"-28.80217986867501\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"cards\\\". Specific formats were often indicated by the number of character positions available, e.g. 80-column card. A sequence of cards that is input to or output from some step in an application's processing is called a card deck or simply deck. The rectangular, round, or oval bits of paper punched out were called chad (chads) or chips (in IBM usage). Sequential card columns allocated for a specific use, such as names, addresses, multi-digit numbers, etc., are known as a field. The first card of a group of cards, containing fixed or indicative information for that group, is known\",\n \"-28.80140698955006\"\n ],\n [\n \"card is used, the next card under it in its stack can be turned over and then played. If a stack of the tableau is empty, a player can transfer any face-up card into that slot and turn over the following card. As during setup, face-up cards of the same rank may be placed on top of each other within the tableau.\\nOnce either player has played all cards from their tableau, each player tries to slap the spit pile that they think is smaller. Whoever slaps first gets the pile that they slapped, and the other player takes the\",\n \"-28.77261321018159\"\n ],\n [\n \"Counting sort Input and output assumptions In the most general case, the input to counting sort consists of a collection of n items, each of which has a non-negative integer key whose maximum value is at most k.\\nIn some descriptions of counting sort, the input to be sorted is assumed to be more simply a sequence of integers itself, but this simplification does not accommodate many applications of counting sort. For instance, when used as a subroutine in radix sort, the keys for each call to counting sort are individual digits of larger item keys; it would not suffice to\",\n \"-28.76212323846994\"\n ],\n [\n \"hand is played. The game continues until all the cards are used up. Scoring After all the cards have been played, the tricks are scored. However, it is not the card points (Augen) which are counted, but the number of court cards, aces and 10s. So the cards that count are: the Deuce/Ace, King, Ober/Queen, Unter/Jack and 10. In all there are 20 court cards in the game. If a player wins 11 of these cards, he has simply won. If he gets as many as 16 court cards and has thus made his opponent Schneider, he wins double,\",\n \"-28.748038406381966\"\n ],\n [\n \"or 6, the shuffler is dealt first. If it's a 1, 5, 9, Zero Cash, Half Cash, Hundred Myriad, Thousand Myriad, or Myriad Myriad, the banker's opposite gets dealt first. Each player is dealt 8 cards counter-clockwise, first as a batch of four cards then singles. The remaining eight cards form the stock which is flipped to reveal the bottom card. Play The first person who was dealt leads. In a counter-clockwise rotation, each player then tries to take tricks; following suit is not required but only the highest card of the suit played wins. Players can also discard (sluff)\",\n \"-28.737442454410484\"\n ],\n [\n \"the order of cards in the deck easier to predict and the cards could have been inadvertently or intentionally marked and manipulated. In his experiments, J. B. Rhine first shuffled the cards by hand but later decided to use a machine for shuffling.\\nIn his book, The New Apocrypha, John Sladek expressed incredulity at the tests stating, \\\"It's astonishing that playing cards should have been chosen for ESP research at all. They are, after all, the instrument of stage magicians and second-dealing gamblers; they can be marked and manipulated in many traditional ways. At the best of times, card-shuffling is a\",\n \"-28.70897262028302\"\n ],\n [\n \"accumulation (the act of collecting sufficient quantities of necessary cards) is very important in games with more than two players. Since there is a finite number of cards in a Viewpoint deck and the more players there are in a game then the faster the Draw Pile runs out, it is crucial for players to have enough cards in their Hand to enable them to reach 100 View-points. Experienced players typically draw lots of cards during these types of games or prepare their Hand so that they can exchange it or steal their opponents' cards should the Draw\",\n \"-28.702546675747726\"\n ],\n [\n \"own stack. The player who accumulates all the cards wins.\\nPlay proceeds with the players taking it in turns to remove a card from the top of their stack and place it face-up on a central pile. If two cards placed consecutively on the pile are identical (or, if a conventional pack of cards is used, are of the same number) then the first player to shout \\\"Snap!\\\" and place his hand on the top of the central pile does not need to take the cards. But the person that \\\"snaps\\\" the card last takes in all the cards. The\",\n \"-28.699117048672633\"\n ],\n [\n \"card from the three \\\"row\\\" cards or from their \\\"stack\\\", they can look at every third card from the cards in their hand and play a card from the top of that pile if it goes on a pile on the table.\\nOnce a player's hand has been completely passed through in this manner, it can be reshuffled by the player who then continues to play.\\nWhen one of the three \\\"row\\\" cards is played, the space gets filled up with the top card from the \\\"stack\\\".\\nPlay continues at a fast pace, with experienced players usually watching other players' rows and stacks\",\n \"-28.654702983243624\"\n ],\n [\n \"Card Sorting Test (WCST). Subjects engaging in this task are instructed to sort cards according to the shape, color, or number of symbols appearing on them. The thought is that any given card can be associated with a number of actions and no single stimulus-response mapping will work. Human subjects with PFC damage are able to sort the card in the initial simple tasks, but unable to do so as the rules of classification change. \\nMiller and Cohen conclude that the implications of their theory can explain how much of a role the PFC has in guiding control of cognitive\",\n \"-28.63895350472194\"\n ],\n [\n \"match one card from their hand with one or more cards on the board to produce a total of 15. When using a traditional deck, all cards are worth their face value except for the 10 sota (Jack or Page), 11 caballo (Horse) and the 12 rey (King), which are reduced in value to 8, 9 and 10, respectively. All cards matched, including the one from the player's hand, are removed from the board and placed in a scoring pile beside the player. If the player is unable to make a total of 15, they must discard one of the\",\n \"-28.63537209611968\"\n ],\n [\n \"in turn must place a card down in the community pile. A player does not have to make a match or addition even if the player owns a match or addition, this is explained in the Strategy section below. Winning After all four cards have been played from each of the hands of the players another 4 cards are dealt from the remaining deck of cards. Once the remaining deck of cards have all been dealt each player counts the cards from their individual separate pile of cards won. The player with the highest number of cards wins the round.\",\n \"-28.615770926086043\"\n ],\n [\n \"worth anywhere from 50 to 500 points depending on how many other players play a Team Lottso! card in the same round; a shrewd player plays the Team Lottso! card when it is worth the most points. Also note that just because a card is filled does not mean it needs to be scratched, players can hold onto this card until a round where it is \\\"flashing\\\", which will multiply the points it is worth. Flashing cards begin showing up in round 6, with the total multiplied by a factor of two until round 9 where the total is multiplied\",\n \"-28.585112506552832\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":589,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"23xtul"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How to explain depression to my spouse who believes it's not a real disease and can be controlled by deciding to not be sad."},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Well, let me try to help. I'm not a psychologist, psychiatrist or health professional of aky kind, but I have experienced different levels of depression through the last few years, and maybe that qualifies me to provide you some input. The main issue when trying to explain depression is simply the fact that the word \"depression\" is widely missused to identify \"sadness\". People say \"I'm depressed\" when, in fact, what they are experiencing is a normal reaction to a bad situation, such as the loss of a loved one or the end of a relationship. Depression is NOT sadness. Far from it. Actually, if you are sad, and can pinpoint the cause of your sadness, you are not likely to be depressed. In my experience, the word that most accurately describes depression is \"numbness\". You know when you spend too much time lying on your arm, or too long sitting with your elbows against your knees, and you arm/leg \"falls asleep\"? That's depression, but instead of not feeling anything in your arms or legs, you don't feel any propper emotion. That's why sometimes people DO get depressed after a specially traumatic event, just like your limbs get numb after too much pressure on a certain point. The parts of you that are responsible for feeling certain things simply fail to do so. They \"fall asleep\". Depressed people are usually seen as \"sad\" by others for the simple fact that they are not feeling anything and, therefore, show no signs of stimulation. You tell them something that should be really heartbreaking and they reply with a simple \"yeah, I know, that sucks\", because for them no emotional response was triggered by the information you just provided. It's just like poking a numb limb with a toothpick, and assuming that it is dead because it didnt jerk or twitch or cause that person to say \"ouch\". It is not dead, its just not feeling that poke. That is tremendously hard to explain to other people for another very simple reason: your subjective experience of life cannot be shared with others. There is no way to do it, no way you can explain someone how the color red looks to you without resorting to some sort of comparisson (\"red is the color of tomatoes and Super Mario's hat!\"), which is a technique that doesnt really work since there is no way to tell if the other person sees tomatoes and Super Mario the same way that you do. Maybe the way I see the color of a tomato is, for you, what you would call green. There is no way to know. So when your spouse sees your actions and perceives them as a sign of you being sad, he is naturally going to assume that it should be easy to fix by simply doing something fun and chasing the sadness away. He is failing to realize that you cannot experience the sensation of \"something fun\", because the parts of you that are responsible for feeling that are \"asleep\". And when you tell him \"this is not sadness, it is depression!\", what he hears is \"this is not sadness, it is sadness!\", since the word is so widely missused. And then he does something that should make you feel better if you were just sad, but you don't, and he assumes that you simply refuse to feel better, because he can't experience what you are experiencing. Try and get your spouse to do some reading about depression, and ask him to give you some credit and believe that what you feel is different than what he feels. If he is a reasonable guy, he'll get it eventually. Finally, I'm sorry you're feeling that way. Its a terrible thing, and it kind of feeds itself be keeping you away from the world. The more depressed you are, the less appealing the world seems to you and you end up doing less and less things, which gets you deeper and deeper into depression. But there is one thing your spouse is right about: you do have to do something about it. It feels wrong, it feels like nothing is going to help because you never feel anything anyway, but you need to look for help, maybe get a therapist, maybe get medicated. Think of it like getting up in the morning to go out for a jog - it feels terrible to do it, and once you do get to it you dont feel any thinner. But if you keep at it, keep doing it even though you are tired or sleepy or lazy, you WILL get thinner, you WILL feel less and less lazy, and it WILL be better for you. TL;DR: Depression is a numbness of the mind, and you cant explain that to people because nobody REALLY understands how another person feels, subjectivelly. Depression is not sadness, it is failure to properly perceive stimulation. (BTW, English is not my first language, so please forgive any grammar mistakes)","This cartoon explains it as well as anybody or anything can . URL_0 . hang in there dude/dudette.","Go to a counselor/psychologist along with your spouse. You speak to the counselor first and explain your situation and then let the counselor speak to your spouse and explain why depression should be taken seriously. When a person is depressed, the immediate family also needs counseling on how to handle the situation. If someone gives you tough-love or compares your issues with someone else's, just ignore them.","Does she wear eyeglasses? Take away her glasses and tell her to will herself to have better eyesight. Depression is just like that.","One of the biggest difficulties people have, is understanding the Depression is not a symptom, it *is* the malady. You can have a loving wife, great kids, more money than you can count, a holiday home in the Bahamas, a nobel prize in science, be an Eagle scout and the love of everyone you know, and still suffer from depression. It's not simply being overly sad because small things are bothering you, it's being so compleltey smothered by an all infecting black pall which has sapped your will power, and drained your self-esteem that nothing feels good, nothing tastes good, nothing brings enjoyment. Your spouse is ignorant of depression because she doesn't suffer from it, and as much as her kind of ignorance irritates me, I'm glad for her to be that way. I wouldn't sic that Black Dog on anyone.","The hyperboleandahalf comic is probably the best representation I've ever seen. But if that doesn't work: 1) Brain chemistry is real - it's responsible for every feeling. It's not 'feeling sad', it's a chemical reaction that makes it impossible to feel positive or happy. You can't think your way into creating another chemical reaction in your brain, it's like saying that you can think your way out of indigestion, or the flu, or cancer. You can't. Diseases are physical things, just because it has an emotional manifestation rather than physical symptoms doesn't make it any different. 2) Now this isn't that helpful, but if my partner consistently told me that they think I could feel happier if I wanted to, I'd tell them to fuck right off. You don't need to understand depression or have it, but you do need to be a good spouse. That's basically his job. He doesn't need to understand something to know that it affects you or to support you.","[ URL_0 ]( URL_0 ) [ URL_1 ]( URL_1 ) Mostly Part Two, although Part One sets it up a bit.","imagine you are in quicksand, every move you make just seems to pull you down further but doing nothing still makes you sink. now imagine you just told the person in the quicksand to just decide not to be in quicksand. you give the person a hand, pull them out. they need someone outside the quicksand to anchor to or they are going to sink.","That's like saying your leg got broken, why do you need a cast? Can't you just unbreak your leg?","Depression in my experience was like... living in molasses. The apathy, the numbness, and the inability to feel motivated to do ANYTHING was the characteristic. Yes, sadness was there.... the part of that cartoon that hit me was walking by the couch and sitting down \"for a minute\" and finding yourself still there hours or days later. I couldn't even get the motivation up to take a shower. Staying in bed, sleeping or laying there hoping I would sleep soon, that was all there was. I had a new husband, was accepted to a new PhD program, and should have been happy. There was nothing for me to be sad about... but yet I was in the blackest, darkest funk that I could imagine. I didn't even think about suicide... not because I cared if I lived, but because that was planning and thought and effort and there was no way that was possible. Depression is absolutely a real disease, caused by imbalances in neurotransmitters or the receptors for those chemicals. Does he believe that ANY mental illness exists? Do people with anxiety disorders need to stop worrying? Do people with bipolar or schizophrenia just need to \"act normal?\" I'm just wondering how depression is any different, in his mind.","The best way to explain depression to someone who doesn't understand the concept is to show that depressed/suicidal people have physical differences in their brain that can be quantified and studied. URL_2 > MARK UNDERWOOD, NEUROSCIENTIST, NEW YORK STATE PSYCHIATRIC INSTITUTE: We have found hat there are approximately 30 percent more of these serotonin neurons in the suicide victims than in the controls. To find more neurons would suggest something very fundamental, such that you may in fact be born with your biological risk for suicide behavior. URL_0 > A meta-analysis of studies investigating electrodermal activity in depressed patients, suggested that electrodermal hyporeactivity is sensitive and specific for suicide. [There now exist devices that can determine if a person is depressed/suicidal by simply measuring certain physical quantities (i.e. sweat gland activity)]( URL_1 ) If your spouse still doesn't believe depression is real, then there is something wrong with her, perhaps she is incapable of demonstrating empathy.","As someone who has struggled with depression for almost 40 years, people who don't think it is at all about being sad need to actually understand the disease before they speak. Here is a link to the definition of clinical depression on Mayo Clinic's site: URL_0 Depression is a complicated. Don't mean to be rude about it, but I think only trained people should give advice on clinical conditions. Incorrect advice can lead to serious problems. Even when you lead with I am not a trained professional, some people will take your word as the gospel, and people with serious conditions like depression are sometimes more ready to accept something because they do not have the energy to do the research themselves.","This comic is widely regarded as an excellent portrayal of what depression really is. URL_0 There are things you can do to mitigate mild depression. For me, being a bum and sitting on the couch for a month encourages depression. Getting out and physically fit reduces it, but doesn't end it entirely. When it gets really bad, working out (however you do it) won't help, it's just going through the motions.","Pull a Tyler Durden. Put lye on their hand and tell them the pain doesn't exist, and to will it away. Or, some milder variation works too, I guess.","Have him read this - it's from Allie Brosh, who is the author of \"Hyperbole and a Half.\" [Depression, Part 2]( URL_0 )","Someone on /r/MorbidReality made a great post about it. [Although it is long I would say it is worth the read.]( URL_0 )","Tell her its a chemical problem in your brain. Or divorce her"],"string":"[\n \"Well, let me try to help. I'm not a psychologist, psychiatrist or health professional of aky kind, but I have experienced different levels of depression through the last few years, and maybe that qualifies me to provide you some input. The main issue when trying to explain depression is simply the fact that the word \\\"depression\\\" is widely missused to identify \\\"sadness\\\". People say \\\"I'm depressed\\\" when, in fact, what they are experiencing is a normal reaction to a bad situation, such as the loss of a loved one or the end of a relationship. Depression is NOT sadness. Far from it. Actually, if you are sad, and can pinpoint the cause of your sadness, you are not likely to be depressed. In my experience, the word that most accurately describes depression is \\\"numbness\\\". You know when you spend too much time lying on your arm, or too long sitting with your elbows against your knees, and you arm/leg \\\"falls asleep\\\"? That's depression, but instead of not feeling anything in your arms or legs, you don't feel any propper emotion. That's why sometimes people DO get depressed after a specially traumatic event, just like your limbs get numb after too much pressure on a certain point. The parts of you that are responsible for feeling certain things simply fail to do so. They \\\"fall asleep\\\". Depressed people are usually seen as \\\"sad\\\" by others for the simple fact that they are not feeling anything and, therefore, show no signs of stimulation. You tell them something that should be really heartbreaking and they reply with a simple \\\"yeah, I know, that sucks\\\", because for them no emotional response was triggered by the information you just provided. It's just like poking a numb limb with a toothpick, and assuming that it is dead because it didnt jerk or twitch or cause that person to say \\\"ouch\\\". It is not dead, its just not feeling that poke. That is tremendously hard to explain to other people for another very simple reason: your subjective experience of life cannot be shared with others. There is no way to do it, no way you can explain someone how the color red looks to you without resorting to some sort of comparisson (\\\"red is the color of tomatoes and Super Mario's hat!\\\"), which is a technique that doesnt really work since there is no way to tell if the other person sees tomatoes and Super Mario the same way that you do. Maybe the way I see the color of a tomato is, for you, what you would call green. There is no way to know. So when your spouse sees your actions and perceives them as a sign of you being sad, he is naturally going to assume that it should be easy to fix by simply doing something fun and chasing the sadness away. He is failing to realize that you cannot experience the sensation of \\\"something fun\\\", because the parts of you that are responsible for feeling that are \\\"asleep\\\". And when you tell him \\\"this is not sadness, it is depression!\\\", what he hears is \\\"this is not sadness, it is sadness!\\\", since the word is so widely missused. And then he does something that should make you feel better if you were just sad, but you don't, and he assumes that you simply refuse to feel better, because he can't experience what you are experiencing. Try and get your spouse to do some reading about depression, and ask him to give you some credit and believe that what you feel is different than what he feels. If he is a reasonable guy, he'll get it eventually. Finally, I'm sorry you're feeling that way. Its a terrible thing, and it kind of feeds itself be keeping you away from the world. The more depressed you are, the less appealing the world seems to you and you end up doing less and less things, which gets you deeper and deeper into depression. But there is one thing your spouse is right about: you do have to do something about it. It feels wrong, it feels like nothing is going to help because you never feel anything anyway, but you need to look for help, maybe get a therapist, maybe get medicated. Think of it like getting up in the morning to go out for a jog - it feels terrible to do it, and once you do get to it you dont feel any thinner. But if you keep at it, keep doing it even though you are tired or sleepy or lazy, you WILL get thinner, you WILL feel less and less lazy, and it WILL be better for you. TL;DR: Depression is a numbness of the mind, and you cant explain that to people because nobody REALLY understands how another person feels, subjectivelly. Depression is not sadness, it is failure to properly perceive stimulation. (BTW, English is not my first language, so please forgive any grammar mistakes)\",\n \"This cartoon explains it as well as anybody or anything can . URL_0 . hang in there dude/dudette.\",\n \"Go to a counselor/psychologist along with your spouse. You speak to the counselor first and explain your situation and then let the counselor speak to your spouse and explain why depression should be taken seriously. When a person is depressed, the immediate family also needs counseling on how to handle the situation. If someone gives you tough-love or compares your issues with someone else's, just ignore them.\",\n \"Does she wear eyeglasses? Take away her glasses and tell her to will herself to have better eyesight. Depression is just like that.\",\n \"One of the biggest difficulties people have, is understanding the Depression is not a symptom, it *is* the malady. You can have a loving wife, great kids, more money than you can count, a holiday home in the Bahamas, a nobel prize in science, be an Eagle scout and the love of everyone you know, and still suffer from depression. It's not simply being overly sad because small things are bothering you, it's being so compleltey smothered by an all infecting black pall which has sapped your will power, and drained your self-esteem that nothing feels good, nothing tastes good, nothing brings enjoyment. Your spouse is ignorant of depression because she doesn't suffer from it, and as much as her kind of ignorance irritates me, I'm glad for her to be that way. I wouldn't sic that Black Dog on anyone.\",\n \"The hyperboleandahalf comic is probably the best representation I've ever seen. But if that doesn't work: 1) Brain chemistry is real - it's responsible for every feeling. It's not 'feeling sad', it's a chemical reaction that makes it impossible to feel positive or happy. You can't think your way into creating another chemical reaction in your brain, it's like saying that you can think your way out of indigestion, or the flu, or cancer. You can't. Diseases are physical things, just because it has an emotional manifestation rather than physical symptoms doesn't make it any different. 2) Now this isn't that helpful, but if my partner consistently told me that they think I could feel happier if I wanted to, I'd tell them to fuck right off. You don't need to understand depression or have it, but you do need to be a good spouse. That's basically his job. He doesn't need to understand something to know that it affects you or to support you.\",\n \"[ URL_0 ]( URL_0 ) [ URL_1 ]( URL_1 ) Mostly Part Two, although Part One sets it up a bit.\",\n \"imagine you are in quicksand, every move you make just seems to pull you down further but doing nothing still makes you sink. now imagine you just told the person in the quicksand to just decide not to be in quicksand. you give the person a hand, pull them out. they need someone outside the quicksand to anchor to or they are going to sink.\",\n \"That's like saying your leg got broken, why do you need a cast? Can't you just unbreak your leg?\",\n \"Depression in my experience was like... living in molasses. The apathy, the numbness, and the inability to feel motivated to do ANYTHING was the characteristic. Yes, sadness was there.... the part of that cartoon that hit me was walking by the couch and sitting down \\\"for a minute\\\" and finding yourself still there hours or days later. I couldn't even get the motivation up to take a shower. Staying in bed, sleeping or laying there hoping I would sleep soon, that was all there was. I had a new husband, was accepted to a new PhD program, and should have been happy. There was nothing for me to be sad about... but yet I was in the blackest, darkest funk that I could imagine. I didn't even think about suicide... not because I cared if I lived, but because that was planning and thought and effort and there was no way that was possible. Depression is absolutely a real disease, caused by imbalances in neurotransmitters or the receptors for those chemicals. Does he believe that ANY mental illness exists? Do people with anxiety disorders need to stop worrying? Do people with bipolar or schizophrenia just need to \\\"act normal?\\\" I'm just wondering how depression is any different, in his mind.\",\n \"The best way to explain depression to someone who doesn't understand the concept is to show that depressed/suicidal people have physical differences in their brain that can be quantified and studied. URL_2 > MARK UNDERWOOD, NEUROSCIENTIST, NEW YORK STATE PSYCHIATRIC INSTITUTE: We have found hat there are approximately 30 percent more of these serotonin neurons in the suicide victims than in the controls. To find more neurons would suggest something very fundamental, such that you may in fact be born with your biological risk for suicide behavior. URL_0 > A meta-analysis of studies investigating electrodermal activity in depressed patients, suggested that electrodermal hyporeactivity is sensitive and specific for suicide. [There now exist devices that can determine if a person is depressed/suicidal by simply measuring certain physical quantities (i.e. sweat gland activity)]( URL_1 ) If your spouse still doesn't believe depression is real, then there is something wrong with her, perhaps she is incapable of demonstrating empathy.\",\n \"As someone who has struggled with depression for almost 40 years, people who don't think it is at all about being sad need to actually understand the disease before they speak. Here is a link to the definition of clinical depression on Mayo Clinic's site: URL_0 Depression is a complicated. Don't mean to be rude about it, but I think only trained people should give advice on clinical conditions. Incorrect advice can lead to serious problems. Even when you lead with I am not a trained professional, some people will take your word as the gospel, and people with serious conditions like depression are sometimes more ready to accept something because they do not have the energy to do the research themselves.\",\n \"This comic is widely regarded as an excellent portrayal of what depression really is. URL_0 There are things you can do to mitigate mild depression. For me, being a bum and sitting on the couch for a month encourages depression. Getting out and physically fit reduces it, but doesn't end it entirely. When it gets really bad, working out (however you do it) won't help, it's just going through the motions.\",\n \"Pull a Tyler Durden. Put lye on their hand and tell them the pain doesn't exist, and to will it away. Or, some milder variation works too, I guess.\",\n \"Have him read this - it's from Allie Brosh, who is the author of \\\"Hyperbole and a Half.\\\" [Depression, Part 2]( URL_0 )\",\n \"Someone on /r/MorbidReality made a great post about it. [Although it is long I would say it is worth the read.]( URL_0 )\",\n \"Tell her its a chemical problem in your brain. Or divorce her\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["with depression act in ways that maintain their depression and locates the origin of depressive episodes in the environment. While BA theories do not deny biological factors that contribute to depression, they assert that it is ultimately the combination of a stressful event in an individual's life and their reaction to the event that produces a depressive episode. Individuals with depression may display socially aversive behaviors, fail to engage in enjoyable activities, ruminate on their problems, or engage in other maladaptive activities. According to BA theory, these behaviors most often function as avoidance mechanisms while the individual tries to cope","-35.5989409999238"],["risk factors, and is itself linked directly or indirectly to risk factors such as smoking and obesity. People with major depression are less likely to follow medical recommendations for treating and preventing cardiovascular disorders, which further increases their risk of medical complications. In addition, cardiologists may not recognize underlying depression that complicates a cardiovascular problem under their care. Cause The cause of major depressive disorder is unknown. The biopsychosocial model proposes that biological, psychological, and social factors all play a role in causing depression. The diathesis–stress model specifies that depression results when a preexisting vulnerability, or diathesis, is activated by","-35.401680275831495"],["used to explain why some individuals are more at risk for developing a disorder than others. For example, children who have a family history of depression are generally more vulnerable to developing a depressive disorder themselves. A child who has a family history of depression and who has been exposed to a particular stressor, such as exclusion or rejection by his or her peers, would be more likely to develop depression than a child with a family history of depression that has an otherwise positive social network of peers.\nThe diathesis–stress model has also served as useful in explaining other","-35.3280754969519"],["a spouse are often in need of help and assistance from others. Such individuals who have few conflicts with their social partners are predicted to experience grief—a means, in part, to signal need to others. Such individuals who have many conflicts with their social partners, in contrast, are predicted to experience depression—a means, in part, to credibly signal need to others who might be skeptical that the need is genuine. Bargaining theory Depression is not only costly to the sufferer, it also imposes a significant burden on family, friends, and society at large—yet another reason it is thought to be","-34.78206099966337"],["refer to other mood disorders or simply to a low mood. People's conceptualizations of depression vary widely, both within and among cultures. \"Because of the lack of scientific certainty,\" one commentator has observed, \"the debate over depression turns on questions of language. What we call it—'disease,' 'disorder,' 'state of mind'—affects how we view, diagnose, and treat it.\" There are cultural differences in the extent to which serious depression is considered an illness requiring personal professional treatment, or is an indicator of something else, such as the need to address social or moral problems, the result of biological imbalances, or a","-34.74416540823586"],["the potential for depression in relation to social media use and FOMO. They describe depression as an emotional state that does not allow an individual to feel things of pleasure or if they do, it is severely diminished. They go on to mention that depression often includes two extremes of emotion. This is when positives or good moods are low, and negatives or bad moods are high. Those who suffer from depression also experience feelings and symptoms of distress, sadness, anguish, and other extreme emotions. Depression interrupts daily activity and hinders one's ability to concentrate, sleep, eat, or even move.","-34.71191519846616"],["often do not realize the extent of terminal patients' depression.\nBecause depression is common among terminal patients, the American College of Physicians recommends regular assessments for depression for this population and appropriate prescription of antidepressants.\nAnxiety disorders are also relatively common for terminal patients as they face their mortality. Patients may feel distressed when thinking about what the future may hold, especially when considering the future of their families as well. It is important to note, however, that some palliative medications may facilitate anxiety. Coping for patients Caregivers may listen to the concerns of terminal patients to help them reflect on their","-34.5349046927804"],["Animal models of depression Animal models of depression are research tools used to investigate depression and action of antidepressants as a simulation to investigate the symptomatology and pathophysiology of depressive illness or used to screen novel antidepressants. Depression Major depressive disorder, also called \"clinical depression\" or often simply \"depression\", is a common, long-lasting and diverse psychiatric syndrome that significantly affects a person's thoughts, behavior, feelings and sense of well-being. Symptoms include low mood and aversion to activity. Depressed people may also feel sad, anxious, empty, hopeless, worried, helpless, worthless, guilty, irritable, hurt, or restless. They may lose interest in activities","-34.248105509650486"],["Management of depression Depression is a symptom of some physical diseases; a side effect of some drugs and medical treatments; and a symptom of some mood disorders such as major depressive disorder or dysthymia. Physical causes are ruled out with a clinical assessment of depression that measures vitamins, minerals, electrolytes, and hormones. Management of depression may involve a number of different therapies: medications, behavior therapy, psychotherapy, and medical devices.\nThough psychiatric medication is the most frequently prescribed therapy for major depression, psychotherapy may be effective, either alone or in combination with medication. Combining psychotherapy and antidepressants may provide a \"slight","-34.2084181313985"],["Although depression is currently categorized as a separate disorder, there is ongoing debate because individuals diagnosed with major depression often experience some hypomanic symptoms, indicating a mood disorder continuum. Further differential diagnoses involve chronic fatigue syndrome.\nOther disorders need to be ruled out before diagnosing major depressive disorder. They include depressions due to physical illness, medications, and substance abuse. Depression due to physical illness is diagnosed as a mood disorder due to a general medical condition. This condition is determined based on history, laboratory findings, or physical examination. When the depression is caused by a medication, drug of abuse, or exposure","-34.14558397199653"],["is a widespread, debilitating disease affecting persons of all ages and backgrounds. Depression is characterized by a plethora of emotional and physiological symptoms including feelings of sadness, hopelessness, pessimism, guilt, a general loss of interest in life, and a sense of reduced emotional well-being or low energy. Very little is known about the underlying pathophysiology of clinical depression and other related mood-disorders including anxiety, bipolar disorder, ADD, ADHD, and Schizophrenia.\nThe p11 protein has been intimately linked to mood disorders, to be specific, depression, due to its role in serotonin systems via its interactions with serotonin 5-HT receptors. Serotonin affects diverse","-34.14496488993427"],["depression must be distinguished from intrusive thoughts, because suicidal thoughts—unlike harmless sexual, aggressive, or religious thoughts—can be dangerous. Postpartum depression and OCD Unwanted thoughts by mothers about harming infants are common in postpartum depression. A 1999 study of 65 women with postpartum major depression by Katherine Wisner et al. found the most frequent aggressive thought for women with postpartum depression was causing harm to their newborn infants. A study of 85 new parents found that 89% experienced intrusive images, for example, of the baby suffocating, having an accident, being harmed, or being kidnapped.\nSome women may develop symptoms","-34.11097138519108"],["associated with many forms of victimization, including sexual victimization, violent crime, property crime, peer victimization, and domestic abuse. Indicators of depression include irritable or sad mood for prolonged periods of time, lack of interest in most activities, significant changes in weight/appetite, activity, and sleep patterns, loss of energy and concentration, excessive feelings of guilt or worthlessness, and suicidality. The loss of energy, interest, and concentration associated with depression may impact individuals who have experienced victimization academically or professionally. Depression can impact many other areas of a person's life as well, including interpersonal relationships and physical health. Depression in response to","-34.11065208566379"],["seven years, a study was done on about 200 children whose mother had \"a history of juvenile-onset unipolar depressive disorder\" or simply, depression as children themselves. In the cases of unipolar depression, a person generally displays more negative affect and less positive affect than a person without depression. Or, they are more likely to show when they are sad or upset, than when they are excited or happy. This study that was published in 2010 discovered that the children of mothers that suffer from unipolar depression, had lower levels of positive affect when compared to the control group. Even as","-34.049006147601176"],["is a metaphorical illness that is inappropriately regarded as an actual disease. There has also been concern that the DSM, as well as the field of descriptive psychiatry that employs it, tends to reify abstract phenomena such as depression, which may in fact be social constructs. American archetypal psychologist James Hillman writes that depression can be healthy for the soul, insofar as \"it brings refuge, limitation, focus, gravity, weight, and humble powerlessness.\" Hillman argues that therapeutic attempts to eliminate depression echo the Christian theme of resurrection, but have the unfortunate effect of demonizing a soulful state of being. Stigma Historical","-33.89702055627731"],["those suffering from other types of anxiety, who often have depleted ability to generate neutral, positive, or pleasant imagery. Depression The capacity to evoke pleasant and positively affirming imagery, either voluntarily or involuntarily, may be a critical requisite for precipitating and sustaining positive moods or feelings and optimism; and this ability is often impaired in those suffering from depression. Depression consists of emotional distress and cognitive impairment that may include feelings of hopelessness, pervasive sadness, pessimism, lack of motivation, social withdrawal, difficulty in concentrating on mental or physical tasks, and disrupted sleep.\nWhilst depression is frequently associated with negative rumination of","-33.85317238698917"],["and environmental factors that cause their symptoms. A family history of depression and perceived poor intimate relationships are internal risk factors associated with this type of depression. It is important to know these risk factors in order to take steps to recognize and help prevent this illness. Prevalence This type of depression often occurs due to biological reasons. Since symptoms are due to an internal phenomena, prevalence rates tend to be higher in older adults and more prevalent among women. Although endogenous depression has been associated with increased age, there has been few attempts to evaluate this fully. More research","-33.849180596360384"],["been established, involvement in any sex or drug use is cause for concern. Children who develop major depression are more likely to have a family history of the disorder (often a parent who experienced depression at an early age) than patients with adolescent- or adult-onset depression. Adolescents with depression are also likely to have a family history of depression, though the correlation is not as high as it is for children. Comorbidity Research has shown that there is a high rate of comorbidity with depression in children with dysthymia. There is also a substantial comorbidity rate with depression in children","-33.752843744441634"],["user. Depression is also associated with drug use and prostitution. There are also trapping factors: injecting any kind of substance into their body, using hard drugs such as crack cocaine or methamphetamine, taking part in sex work while underage, working outdoors or in multiple areas, and having any convictions. These factors \"trap\" a person into the life they are in, especially if multiple of the factors effect them, making it much harder for them to escape their situation. The people most vulnerable to prostitution are those that have experienced these factors. The way behavioral therapies are used Behavioral therapies help","-33.704193811336154"],["or immune dysregulation in asthma). Depression may also be iatrogenic (the result of healthcare), such as drug-induced depression. Therapies associated with depression include interferons, beta-blockers, isotretinoin, contraceptives, cardiac agents, anticonvulsants, antimigraine drugs, antipsychotics, and hormonal agents such as gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist. Drug abuse in early age is also associated with increased risk of developing depression later in life. Depression that occurs as a result of pregnancy is called postpartum depression, and is thought to be the result of hormonal changes associated with pregnancy. Seasonal affective disorder, a type of depression associated with seasonal changes in sunlight, is thought to be","-33.67132708685949"],["stress that increases the depressive symptoms on individuals that have endure high levels of social undermining. This can happen, because the support that a person can get from their spouse compared to a close friend is more exclusive and generally involves more frequent and emotionally intense interactions (Cutrone 1996; Vinokur & Vinokur & Vinokur- Kaplan, 1990) and depending on their relationship that can influence the social support or even the social undermining that affect the relationship.\nCranford found that spouse undermining and not spouse support can increase depressive symptoms within that relationship. Social undermining has been found to be a stronger","-33.55731060353719"],["depressive symptoms are more likely to develop postpartum depression, which can also have negative consequences on children, such as emotional and behavior problems, attachment difficulties, cognitive deficits, physical growth and development, and feeding habits and attitudes. Related, maternal depression affects parenting behaviors, which in turn could affect child outcomes. Thus, women’s mental health throughout the perinatal period should be a priority, not only to support women, but also to promote optimal functioning for their infants. Prenatal Depression and Infant Health Depressive symptoms in pregnant women are linked with poor health outcomes in infants. The rates of hospitalization are found increased","-33.45888636298696"],["collectively called 'depressive syndrome' and includes a long-lasting depressed mood, feelings of guilt, anxiety, and recurrent thoughts of death and suicide. Other symptoms including poor concentration, a disturbance of sleep rhythms (insomnia or hypersomnia), and severe fatigue may also occur. Individual patients present differing subsets of symptoms, which may change over the course of the disease highlighting its multifaceted and heterogeneous nature. Depression is often highly comorbid with other diseases, e.g. cardiovascular disease (myocardial infarction, stroke), diabetes, cancer, Depressed subjects are prone to smoking, substance abuse, eating disorders, obesity, high blood pressure, pathological gambling and internet addiction, and on average","-33.43710008706694"],["lead to depression and anxiety. There is no data on the divorce rates of agents, but strain on relationships does occur. This can be a result of a need for secrecy and an inability to share work problems, and the unpredictable work schedule, personality and lifestyle changes and the length of separation can all result in problems for relationships.\nStress can also result from an apparent lack of direction of the investigation or not knowing when it will end. The amount of elaborate planning, risk, and expenditure can pressure an agent to succeed, which can cause considerable stress.","-33.41892710061438"],["of certain substances can worsen the effects of depression. \nOther psychiatric disorders that may predict treatment-resistant depression include attention deficit hiperactivity disorder, personality disorders, obsessive compulsive disorder, and eating disorders. Comorbid medical disorders Some people who are diagnosed with treatment-resistant depression may have an underlying undiagnosed health condition that is causing or contributing to their depression. Endocrine disorders like hypothyroidism, Cushing's disease, and Addison's disease are among the most commonly identified as contributing to depression. Others include diabetes, coronary artery disease, cancer, HIV, and Parkinson's disease. \nAnother factor is that medications used to treat comorbid medical disorders may lessen the","-33.40196165825182"],["or even biology. Aaron Beck argues that depression is due to unrealistic negative views about the world. Beck starts treatment by engaging in conversation with clients about their unhelpful thoughts. Pessimists, however, are often able to provide arguments that suggest that their understanding of reality is justified; as in Depressive realism or (pessimistic realism). Deflection is a common method used by those who are depressed. They let people assume they are revealing everything which proves to be an effective way of hiding. The pessimism item on the Beck Depression Inventory has been judged useful in predicting suicides. The","-33.3955475226885"],["not initiate the disorder. Depending on the individual's subjective perception of an event, the diathesis leads to a certain psychological illness. Depression Through several cognitive biases, selective mood-congruent cues become established over long intervals. Emotional stimuli matching the emotional concerns create an aggregate effect on symptoms related to depression. Depression is associated with selective orientation. It prevents attention toward emotional cues that do not fit the internalized scheme to which the individual has become vulnerable, and leads to comorbid anxiety. When individuals who are prone to depression are asked to recall a specific event, they explain the general","-33.37212662506499"],["relationships—most often marital relationships—and economic disparities have been cited as the main social drivers of depression.\nIt was found that Indian women typically describe the somatic symptoms rather than the emotional and psychological stressors that trigger the symptoms of depression. This often makes it difficult to accurately assess depression among women in India in light of no admonition of depression. Gender plays a major role in postnatal depression among Indian women. Mothers are often blamed for the birth of a female child. Furthermore, women who already have a female child often face additional pressures to have male","-33.36021787604841"],["loss, or have attention, learning, behavioral, or anxiety disorders are at a higher risk for depression. Childhood depression is often comorbid with mental disorders outside of other mood disorders; most commonly anxiety disorder and conduct disorder. Depression also tends to run in families. Psychologists have developed different treatments to assist children and adolescents suffering from depression, though the legitimacy of the diagnosis of childhood depression as a psychiatric disorder, as well as the efficacy of various methods of assessment and treatment, remains controversial. Base rates and prevalence About 8% of children and adolescents suffer from depression. This year, 51 percent","-33.27911560321809"],["not necessarily because of depressed mood, but rather due to increasing levels of stress or because of personal difficulties that may be situation-related. This is hypothesized to be because of the chronic nature of the disorder, and how depressed mood is often thought to be a characterological pattern for the individual with the condition. Thus, it is only when the person experiences increasing stress that he or she thinks to go to some sort of trained professional for symptom relief. It is usually through the administration of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV that dysthymia is first diagnosed. At this","-33.25927338763722"],["threatening, and positive stimuli, clinically depressed people were found to show preferential attention to sad faces, emotion words, and adjectives. Depressed people displayed biases for stimuli concerned with sadness and loss.\nPeople who are depressed often fail to satisfy their need for belonging in relationships and therefore, report fewer intimate relationships. Those who are depressed appear to induce negative affect in other individuals, which consequently elicits rejection and the loss of socially rewarding opportunities. Depressed people are less likely to feel a sense of belonging and are more likely to pay attention to negative social interactions. Research has found that depressive","-33.177452847343375"],["diagnose depression more often in women than in men even when they display identical symptoms. Often communication between health care providers and women is authoritarian leading to either the under-treatment or over-treatment of these women. Organizations Women's College Hospital has a program called the \"Women's Mental Health Program\" where doctors and nurses help treat and educate women regarding mental health collaboratively, individually, and online by answering questions from the public.\nAnother Canadian organization serving mental health needs is the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH). CAMH is one of Canada's largest and most well-known health and addiction facilities, and it","-33.17072409824323"],["illness with extreme sadness or violence. Now that children are becoming more and more open to technology and the media itself, future generations will then continue to pair mental illness with negative thoughts. The media should be explaining that many people with disorders like ADHD and anxiety, with the right treatment, can live ordinary lives and should not be punished for something they cannot help.\nSueki, (2013) carried out a study titled “The effect of suicide–related internet use on users’ mental health: A longitudinal Study”. This study investigated the effects of suicide-related internet use on user’s suicidal thoughts, predisposition to depression","-33.12471482900946"],["who had experienced a major depressive disorder at some time in their lives than among individuals who had never experienced major depression or among individuals with no psychiatric diagnosis. People with major depression are also much less likely to quit due to the increased risk of experiencing mild to severe states of depression, including a major depressive episode. Depressed smokers appear to experience more withdrawal symptoms on quitting, are less likely to be successful at quitting, and are more likely to relapse. Pregnancy A number of studies have shown that tobacco use is a significant factor in miscarriages among pregnant","-33.12093911715601"],["without an actual disease present, this neurotic thinking often results in severe anxiety, sleep disturbance, and mood swings which may hinder social relationships. Individuals with endogenous depression may experience inconsistencies in symptom severity which is often the reason for delayed treatment. If left untreated, symptoms may progress to a major depressive episode. Risk factors Endogenous depression occurs as the results of an internal stressor—commonly cognitive or biological—and not an external factor. Potential risk factors include these cognitive or biological factors. Patients with endogenous depression often are more likely to have a positive family history of disorders and fewer psychosocial","-33.10055667963388"],["a 1℃ change in body temperature. Therefore, depression allows one to conserve and allocate energy to the immune system more efficiently.\nDepression further prevents infection by discouraging social interactions and activities that may result in exchange of infections. For example, the loss of interest discourages one from engaging in sexual activity, which, in turn, prevents the exchange of sexually transmitted diseases. Similarly, depressed mothers may interact less with their children, reducing the probability of the mother infecting her kin.\nLastly, the lack of appetite associated with depression may also reduce exposure to food-borne parasites.\nHowever, it should also be noted that chronic illness","-33.086430826497235"],["SAD had one or more additional mental health disorders. SAD often occurs alongside low self-esteem and most commonly clinical depression, perhaps due to a lack of personal relationships and long periods of isolation related to social avoidance. Clinical depression is 1.49 to 3.5 times more likely to occur in those with SAD. Anxiety disorders other than SAD are also very common in patients with SAD, in particular generalized anxiety disorder. Avoidant personality disorder is likewise highly correlated with SAD, with comorbidity rates ranging from 25% to 89%.\nTo try to reduce their anxiety and alleviate depression, people with social phobia may","-33.06738508269518"],["circumstances, such as the loss of a friend, are imposing a threat to biological fitness. It motivates the sufferer to cease activities that led to the costly situation, if possible, and it causes him or her to learn to avoid similar circumstances in the future. Proponents of this view tend to focus on low mood, and regard clinical depression as a dysfunctional extreme of low mood—and not as a unique set of characteristics that are physiologically distanced from regular depressed mood.\nAlongside the absence of pleasure, other noticeable changes include psychomotor retardation, disrupted patterns of sleeping and feeding, a loss of","-33.03338035053457"],["Their research also concluded that people who lack emotional expression are inclined to anti-social behaviors (e.g., drug and alcohol abuse, physical fights, vandalism), which are a direct reflection of their mental health and suppressed emotions. Adults and children with mental illness may experience social stigma, which can exacerbate the issues. Mental well-being Mental health can be seen as an unstable continuum, where an individual's mental health may have many different possible values. Mental wellness is generally viewed as a positive attribute, even if the person does not have any diagnosed mental health condition. This definition of mental health highlights emotional","-33.00896786492012"],["definition of the specific criteria for a clinically significant depressed mood in relation to the cognitive and behavioral symptoms. Some psychologists argue that the effects of mood disorders in children and adolescents that exist (but do not fully meet the criteria for depression) do not have severe enough risks. Children in this area of severity, they argue, should receive some sort of treatment since the effects could still be severe. However, since there has yet to be enough research or scientific evidence to support that children that fall within the area just shy of a clinical diagnosis require treatment, other","-32.992076149675995"],["behaviors, and the proposed explanations for the evolution of depression remain controversial. Background Major depression (also called \"major depressive disorder\", \"clinical depression\" or often simply \"depression\") is a leading cause of disability worldwide, and in 2000 was the fourth leading contributor to the global burden of disease (measured in DALYs); it is also an important risk factor for suicide. It is understandable, then, that clinical depression is thought to be a pathology—a major dysfunction of the brain.\nIn most cases, rates of organ dysfunction increase with age, with low rates in adolescents and young adults, and the highest rates in the","-32.986493259082636"],["and somatoform and dissociative disorders compared to men in the study. Furthermore, the research attributed depressive symptoms to social interactions both in the workplace and home that fostered a sense of learned helplessness. This stems from feelings of powerlessness in different types of relationships that are male-dominated and do not offer equity for women. Other social stressors that contribute as influences in mental illnesses include marriage, pregnancy, family, with pressure to fit into certain traditional roles ascribed to women in India.\nFurthermore, another 2006 study conducted by Vikram Patel et al., published in Archives of General Psychiatry, further examined specific aspects","-32.978517649593414"],["are due to a biological phenomenon, prevalence rates tend to be higher in older adults. Due to this fact, biological-focused treatment plans are often used in therapy to ensure the best prognosis. History Endogenous depression was initially considered valuable as a means of diagnostic differentiation with reactive depression. While the latter's onset could be attributed to adverse life events and treated with talk therapy, the former would indicate treatment with antidepressants. Indeed, this view of endogenous depression is at the root of the popular view that mood disorders are a reflection of a 'chemical imbalance' in the brain. More recent","-32.969616650669195"],["Differential diagnoses of depression Depression, one of the most commonly diagnosed psychiatric disorders, is being diagnosed in increasing numbers in various segments of the population worldwide. Depression in the United States alone affects 17.6 million Americans each year or 1 in 6 people. Depressed patients are at increased risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and suicide. Within the next twenty years depression is expected to become the second leading cause of disability worldwide and the leading cause in high-income nations, including the United States. In approximately 75% of completed suicides, the individuals had seen a physician within the prior","-32.96850713910135"],["PTSD. The family structure can become a trigger for mental health issues in single mothers. They are especially at risk for having higher levels of depressive symptoms.\nStudies from the 1970s showed that single mothers who are not financially stable are more likely to experience depression. In a more current study it was proven that financial strain was directly correlated with sky rocket levels of depression. Among low-income, single mothers, depressive symptoms may be as high as 60%.\nInadequate access to mental health care services is prevalent amongst impoverished women. Low-income women are less likely to receive mental health care for numerous","-32.95729916220557"],["candidate gene on depression, either alone or in combination with life stress. Research focusing on specific candidate genes has been criticized for its tendency to generate false positive findings. There are also other efforts to examine interactions between life stress and polygenic risk for depression. Other health problems Depression may also come secondary to a chronic or terminal medical condition, such as HIV/AIDS or asthma, and may be labeled \"secondary depression.\" It is unknown whether the underlying diseases induce depression through effect on quality of life, of through shared etiologies (such as degeneration of the basal ganglia in Parkinson's disease","-32.920442443091815"],["support to clinical depression. A meta-analysis that pooled the results of 11 well-designed longitudinal studies indicated that a number of facets of the psychosocial work environment (e.g., low decision latitude, high psychological workload, lack of social support at work, effort-reward imbalance, and job insecurity) increase the risk of common mental disorders such as depression. Personality disorders Depending on the diagnosis, severity and individual, and the job itself, personality disorders can be associated with difficulty coping with work or the workplace, potentially leading to problems with others by interfering with interpersonal relationships. Indirect effects also play a role; for example,","-32.891521477629794"],["the depressive under status quo socioeconomic arrangements.\nThus depression may be a social adaptation especially useful in motivating a variety of social partners, all at once, to help the depressive initiate major fitness-enhancing changes in their socioeconomic life. There are diverse circumstances under which this may become necessary in human social life, ranging from loss of rank or a key social ally which makes the current social niche uneconomic to having a set of creative new ideas about how to make a livelihood which begs for a new niche. The social navigation hypothesis emphasizes that an individual can become tightly ensnared","-32.85726626280666"],["effect when provided with the usual care in patients who have had three or more depressive episodes, although the usual care did not include antidepressant treatment or any psychotherapy, and the improvement observed may have reflected non-specific or placebo effects.\nInterpersonal psychotherapy focuses on the social and interpersonal triggers that may cause depression. There is evidence that it is an effective treatment for depression. Here, the therapy takes a structured course with a set number of weekly sessions (often 12) as in the case of CBT; however, the focus is on relationships with others. Therapy can be used to help a","-32.83522961498238"],["Major depressive disorder Signs and symptoms Major depression significantly affects a person's family and personal relationships, work or school life, sleeping and eating habits, and general health. Its impact on functioning and well-being has been compared to that of other chronic medical conditions, such as diabetes.\nA person having a major depressive episode usually exhibits a very low mood, which pervades all aspects of life, and an inability to experience pleasure in activities that were formerly enjoyed. Depressed people may be preoccupied with, or ruminate over, thoughts and feelings of worthlessness, inappropriate guilt or regret, helplessness, hopelessness, and self-hatred. In severe","-32.777214186644414"],["and depression symptoms, is that depression is a disorder that stems from immune responses across the body. Due in large part to the systems that bring them about both involving the same pro-inflammatory cytokines, the suggestion is that strong or prolonged immune responses allow for those with susceptibilities to depression to experience it outside of experiences with any other risk factors. Of the ways this might happen, one is that those whose immune responses have been shifted to be pro-inflammatory without sufficient anti-inflammatory compensation have elevated risk of experiencing inflammation intense enough to cause depression. Another suggestion is that variation","-32.73833148095582"],["happen. Determining when someone is mentally distant from their happiness set point and what events trigger those changes can be extremely helpful in treating conditions such as depression. When a change occurs, clinical psychologists work with patients to recover from the depressive spell and return to their hedonic set point more quickly. Because acts of kindness often promote long-term well-being, one treatment method is to provide patients with different altruistic activities that can help a person raise his or her hedonic set point. This can in turn be helpful in reducing reckless habits in the pursuit of well-being. Further, helping","-32.665433553323965"],["Lyn and her coauthors propose that many cases of depression may be caused by prejudice from the self or from another person. \"This depression caused by prejudice – which the researchers call deprejudice — can occur at many levels. In the classic case, prejudice causes depression at the societal level (e.g., Nazis’ prejudice causing Jews’ depression), but this causal chain can also occur at the interpersonal level (e.g., an abuser’s prejudice causing an abusee’s depression), or even at the intrapersonal level, within a single person (e.g., a man’s prejudice against himself causing his depression).\"\nAlong with her frequent collaborator Lauren Alloy,","-32.64834645999872"],["main contributions are described below: \nFirst. They have scientifically proven that depressions require different treatments depending on the specific type of depression, against the current trend driven by American psychiatry, and some psychiatrists in Spain. This trend does not distinguish differential treatment in all cases depression in the same manner and with the same drugs. They believe that it must be treated very differently the depressions of biological cause (endogenous) from depressions of psychological or social causes (neurotic or reactive). Thus at the time defended the use of old tricyclics and MAOIs in atypical depression and endogenous, and","-32.62980484876607"],["defend us from feelings of vulnerability and mortality. Researchers have found that mildly depressed individuals often lack this bias and actually have more realistic perceptions of reality (as measured by the opinions of others).\nHeuristics are cognitive short cuts. Instead of weighing all the evidence when making a decision, people rely on heuristics to save time and energy. The availability heuristic occurs when people estimate the probability of an outcome based on how easy that outcome is to imagine. As such, vivid or highly memorable possibilities will be perceived as more likely than those that are harder to picture or are","-32.5672613139468"],["Raison oblige theory Depression Depression is accompanied by very low self-esteem and has therefore been a topic of strong interest for those investigating self verifying behaviors. Depression is always accompanied by low self-esteem but having low self-esteem does not necessarily mean you are depressed.\nIt argued that those suffering with depression, or with generally low negative self-views, will actively seek negative feedback in order to confirm their self-view; they find it more favourable. Giesler et al. (1996) tested this prediction by classifying participants into three separate groups; high self-esteem, low self-esteem and depressed individuals. When offered a choice of positive or","-32.5586478205405"],["relax those constraints enough to allow the depressive to move forward with their life under an improved set of social contracts. This theory has been the subject of criticism. Prevention of infection It has been hypothesized that depression is an evolutionary adaptation because it helps prevent infection in both the affected individual and his/her kin.\nFirst, the associated symptoms of depression, such as inactivity and lethargy, encourage the affected individual to rest. Energy conserved through such methods is highly crucial, as immune activation against infections is relatively costly; there must be, for instance, a 10% increase in metabolic activity for even","-32.547598102903976"],["for the diagnosis of a major depressive episode. Depressed mood is the most common symptom seen in major depressive episodes. Interest or pleasure in everyday activities can be decreased; this is referred to as anhedonia. These feelings must be present on an everyday basis for two weeks or longer to meet DSM-V criteria for a major depressive episode. In addition, the person may experience one or more of the following emotions: sadness, emptiness, hopelessness, indifference, anxiety, tearfulness, pessimism, emotional numbness, or irritability. In children and adolescents, a depressed mood often appears more irritable in nature. There may be a loss","-32.46769488105201"],["to reduce emotional regulation. The lack of problem-focused coping suggests that individuals had low perceived control. Individuals that blame powerful groups in society for occurrence of sexual assault showed negative effects on perceived control and psychological well-being Depression and self-blame The hopelessness theory of depression proposes that depression is caused by two variables: attribution of negative events to stable and global causes, and other cognitive factors like low self-esteem (Krith, 2014). CSB attributes occurrence of events to stable aspects of the individual that are not controllable. CSB attributions seem likely to cause helplessness, since individuals believe they are powerless to","-32.46024054053851"],["Over the years, researchers have found out that social media use is a cause of depression. As individuals increase their media exposure, it leads them vulnerable to depression and can even make it worse with FOMO and other media based anxieties.\nAnxiety is defined as a state of mind in which one is concerned about difficult situations or threats.Traditional literature suggests that anxious people are likely to suffer from multiple disorders. The idea that anxious people see their anxious state as problematic, chronic and inescapable is something that scholars disagree on. During their anxious state, anxious people tend to be fatigue,","-32.44591500268143"],["individuals with a serious mental illness \"have general medical conditions that are largely undiagnosed and untreated and may cause or exacerbate psychiatric symptoms\".\nIn a case of misdiagnosed depression recounted in Newsweek, a writer received treatment for depression for years; during the last 10 years of her depression the symptoms worsened, resulting in multiple suicide attempts and psychiatric hospitalizations. When an MRI finally was performed, it showed the presence of a tumor. However, she was told by a neurologist that it was benign. After a worsening of symptoms, and upon the second opinion of another neurologist, the tumor was removed. After","-32.43924800733657"],["much as possible: strong phenomenological similarities and similar pathophysiology (face validity), comparable etiology (construct validity), and common treatment (predictive validity). Again, depression is a heterogeneous disorder and its many symptoms are hard to be produced in laboratory animals. The question therefore remains whether we can know the animal is \"depressed\". Actually, few models of depression fully fit these validating criteria, and most models currently used rely on either actions of known antidepressants or responses to stress. It is not necessary for an \"ideal\" animal model of depression to exhibit all the abnormalities of depression-relevant behaviors, just as not all patients","-32.4293671238338"],["the distortion of one uncontrollable aspect of a person's life being viewed as representative of all aspects of their life – suggesting a mismatch between ultimate cause and modern manifestation. Analytical rumination hypothesis This hypothesis suggests that depression is an adaptation that causes the affected individual to concentrate his or her attention and focus on a complex problem in order to analyze and solve it.\nOne way depression increases the individual's focus on a problem is by inducing rumination. Depression activates the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, which increases attention control and maintains problem-related information in an \"active, accessible state\" referred to","-32.40987944142762"],["of depression across individuals Changes in gender roles across countries and cultures in this study served to explain varying levels of stress and responsibility that changed on the basis of gender. These ever changing expectations and these additional responsibilities on the basis of gender increased levels of depression.\nThe differences in gender roles within a community also impact one's level of depression. According to Wichstrøm (1999) women tend to ruminate more and therefore symptoms of depression can be accentuated. Since women are encouraged to talk about and share their feelings, they can get caught talking about and staying in a","-32.36166668642545"],["Beck's cognitive triad Beck's cognitive model of depression From a cognitive perspective, depressive disorders are characterized by people's dysfunctional negative views of themselves, their life experience (and the world in general), and their future—the cognitive triad.\nPeople with depression often view themselves as unlovable, helpless, doomed or deficient. They tend to attribute their unpleasant experiences to their presumed physical, mental, and/or moral deficits. They tend to feel excessively guilty, believing that they are worthless, blameworthy, and rejected by self and others. They may have a very difficult time viewing themselves as people who could ever succeed, be accepted, or feel good","-32.34199501294643"],["or \"clinically depressed\" really are more helpful or indicative of seriousness than possible alternatives. Oaks says that for decades he has been exploring the depths of sanism and has not yet found an end, and suggests it may be the most pernicious 'ism' because people tend to define themselves by their rationality and their core feelings. One possible response is to critique conceptions of normality and the problems associated with normative functioning around the world, although in some ways that could also potentially constitute a form of mentalism. After his 2012 accident breaking his neck and subsequent retirement, Oaks refers","-32.33046807128994"],["Example statements include \"I'm worthless\", \"I've let people down\", \"I can't get started\" and \"My future is bleak\". Depression It has been suggested in some studies that depression is associated with having increased levels of automatic negative thoughts. Additionally, the extent of automatic negative thoughts experienced is associated with depression severity. Social anxiety disorder In this disorder, people experience a high degree of fear and avoidance of social situations. There has not been much research conducted to date on the association between automatic thoughts and social anxiety disorder. However, one study by Iancu and colleagues attempted to evaluate a possible","-32.314546260706265"],["a profound effect on a person’s mental health. According to Alyssa Brown of the Washington D.C. Gallup, 31% of people living in poverty have reported at some point been diagnosed with depression compared with 15.8% of those not in poverty. Many people attribute their depression to unemployment, life stressors, and witnessing more violence. These are very relevant in the impoverished world.\nIt is uncertain whether poverty induces depression or depression causes poverty. What is certain is that the two are closely linked. A reason for this link could be due to the lack of support groups such as church community centers.","-32.30196319089919"],["and 60. The risk of major depression is increased with neurological conditions such as stroke, Parkinson's disease, or multiple sclerosis and during the first year after childbirth. The risk of major depression has also been related to environmental stressors faced by population groups such as war combatants or physicians in training.\nIt is also more common after cardiovascular illnesses, and is related more to a poor outcome than to a better one Studies conflict on the prevalence of depression in the elderly, but most data suggest there is a reduction in this age group. Depressive disorders are most common in urban","-32.29821086521952"],["may or may not be co-morbidly occurring with maternal depression can independently influence infants' and toddlers' subsequent social-emotional development through effects on regulatory processes within the child-parent attachment. Maternal interpersonal violence-related post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), for example, has been associated with subsequent dysregulation of emotion and aggression by ages 4–7 years. Cocaine Research has provided conflicting evidence regarding the effect of maternal substance abuse during and after pregnancy on children's development. Children exposed to cocaine weigh less than those not exposed at numerous ages ranging from 6 to 30 months. Furthermore, studies indicate that the head circumference of children exposed","-32.29199213003085"],["in an overly restrictive matrix of social exchange contracts, and that this situation sometimes necessitates a radical contractual upheaval that is beyond conventional methods of negotiation. Regarding the treatment of depression, this hypothesis calls into question any assumptions by the clinician that the typical cause of depression is related to maladaptive perverted thinking processes or other purely endogenous sources. The social navigation hypothesis calls instead for analysis of the depressive's talents and dreams, identification of relevant social constraints (especially those with a relatively diffuse non-point source within the social network of the depressive), and practical social problem-solving therapy designed to","-32.29053225903772"],["more likely to respond to their children's difficult behaviors with anger or irritability, which increases the likelihood the children will develop further behavioral problems. However, if parents (both mothers and fathers) with depressive symptoms have a partner with strong social support, the association between parental depression and child behaviors was weaker. For early child development, Leve believed that a stable connection with the primary caregiver is essential for the children's development. Her research with the Society for Prevention Research showed that prevention programs for drug use proved to be more effective and economical than programs for treating it. \nIn the","-32.27420535564306"],["Behavioral theories of depression Behavioral theories of depression explain the etiology of depression based on the behavioural sciences, and they form the basis for behavioral therapies for depression. Introduction Depression is a significant mental illness with physiological and psychological consequences, including sluggishness, diminished interest and pleasure, and disturbances in sleep and appetite. It is predicted that by the year 2030, depression will be the number one cause of disability in the United States and other high-income countries.\nBehavioral theories of depression emphasize the role maladaptive actions play in the onset and maintenance of depression. These theories stem from work concerning the","-32.25591168032042"],["risk of major depression is increased with neurological conditions such as stroke, Parkinson's disease, or multiple sclerosis, and during the first year after childbirth. It is also more common after cardiovascular illnesses, and is related more to those with a poor cardiac disease outcome than to a better one. Studies conflict on the prevalence of depression in the elderly, but most data suggest there is a reduction in this age group. Depressive disorders are more common in urban populations than in rural ones and the prevalence is increased in groups with poorer socioeconomic factors, e.g., homelessness. History The Ancient Greek","-32.211676342436476"],["Depression in childhood and adolescence Depression is a state of low mood and aversion to activity. It may be a normal reaction to occurring life events or circumstances, a symptom of a medical condition, a side effect of drugs or medical treatments, or a symptom of certain psychiatric syndromes, such as the mood disorders major depressive disorder and dysthymia. Depression in childhood and adolescence is similar to adult major depressive disorder, although young sufferers may exhibit increased irritability or aggressive and self-destructive behavior, rather than the all-encompassing sadness associated with adult forms of depression. Children who are under stress, experience","-32.18591732127243"],["for example, that Abraham Lincoln's lifelong depression was a source of insight and strength. Some even suggest that \"we aren't designed to have happiness as our natural default\" and so a state of depression is the evolutionary norm.\nThe following hypotheses attempt to identify a benefit of depression that outweighs its obvious costs.\nSuch hypotheses are not necessarily incompatible with one another and may explain different aspects, causes, and symptoms of depression. Psychic pain hypothesis One reason depression is thought to be a pathology is that it causes so much psychic pain and distress. However, physical pain is also very distressful, yet","-32.18146228614023"],["they become vulnerable to the development of depression. Alternatively, individuals with dominant goal personality value person achievement and success. These individuals become vulnerable to depression when they realize that they cannot or have not reached their goals. More generally, depression has been linked to differences in attributional styles and affect. Negative affect, the tendency to react negatively and to be overly sensitive to negative stimuli, predisposes individuals to depression. Conversely, positive affect, the tendency to react positively and to maintain high energy levels and high amounts of positive emotion, may serve as a buffer against depression. Additionally, the tendency to","-32.17006202512857"],["I.V. form. Depression Major depressive disorder, otherwise known as depression, is a disorder that is characterized by a pervasive and persistent low mood that is accompanied by low self-esteem and by a loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities. Encephalitis Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain. It is usually caused by a foreign substance or a viral infection. Symptoms of this disease include headache, neck pain, drowsiness, nausea, and fever. If caused by the West Nile virus, it may be lethal to humans, as well as birds and horses. Epilepsy/Seizures Epilepsy is an unpredictable, serious, and potentially","-32.16410607807484"],["consideration factors such as chronic conditions, body mass index, and social relationships. In addition to exercise, behavioral rehabilitation and prescribed antidepressants, which is well tolerated in older adults, can be used to treat depression. Anxiety Anxiety is a relatively uncommon diagnosis in older adults and it difficult to determine its prevalence. Anxiety disorders in late life are more likely to be under-diagnosed because of medical comorbidity, cognitive decline, and changes in life circumstances that younger adults do not face. However, in the Epidemiological Catchment Area Project, researchers found that 6-month prevalence rates for anxiety disorders were","-32.161986288425396"],["cases, depressed people may have symptoms of psychosis. These symptoms include delusions or, less commonly, hallucinations, usually unpleasant. Other symptoms of depression include poor concentration and memory (especially in those with melancholic or psychotic features), withdrawal from social situations and activities, reduced sex drive, irritability, and thoughts of death or suicide. Insomnia is common among the depressed. In the typical pattern, a person wakes very early and cannot get back to sleep. Hypersomnia, or oversleeping, can also happen. Some antidepressants may also cause insomnia due to their stimulating effect.\nA depressed person may report multiple physical symptoms such as fatigue, headaches,","-32.136983264950686"],["Epidemiology of depression The epidemiology of depression has been studied across the world.\nDepression is a major cause of morbidity worldwide, as the epidemiology has shown. Lifetime prevalence estimates vary widely, from 3% in Japan to 17% in the US. Epidemiological data shows higher rates of depression in the Middle East, North Africa, South Asia and America than in other countries. Among the 10 countries studied, the number of people who would suffer from depression during their lives falls within an 8–12% range in most of them.\nIn North America, the probability of having a major depressive episode within any year-long period","-32.1322855710132"],["with a chronic general medical condition will develop major depression. Common comorbid disorders include: eating disorders, substance-related disorders, panic disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Up to 25% of people who experience a major depressive episode have a pre-existing dysthymic disorder.\nSome persons who have a fatal illness or are at the end of their life may experience depression, although this is not universal.","-32.12542495638536"],["affect any individual, those who are depressed are more sensitive to these painful experiences. Due to the importance of social experiences to people's well-being, and to etiology and maintenance of depression, it is vital to examine how depressed people's well-being is enhanced or eroded by positive and negative social interactions.\nWhen people experience positive social interactions, they should feel a sense of belonging. However, depressed people's social information-processing biases make them less likely to recognize cues of acceptance and belonging in social interactions. For example, in a laboratory study using information-processing tasks assessing attention and memory for sad, physically threatening, socially","-32.1101463472296"],["of mental illness. Those with anxiety tend to view themselves as the center of all events around them, regardless of their nature or how unrelated they are to oneself. On the other hand, people suffering from depression may have a lower tendency towards egocentricity, as evidenced by the fact that they tend to more realistically rate their contributions to group work, while non-depressed participants often overreport their additions. Voting The egocentric bias has also been shown to contribute to a citizen's decision to vote in elections. Firstly, people tend to view their personal choice between voting and abstinence as","-32.109500161823235"],["depression in all cultural groups. Many theorize that in at least one significant relationship one should feel able to disclose nearly completely in order for a healthy personality to develop. While parental behavioral control was once thought to provide the greatest benefits to children in limiting their activities and serving as a source of forced protection, more recent research strongly suggests that disclosures to parents that provide the parents with information about daily activities actually shows the most promise in fostering positive development through childhood and adolescence. Development of reciprocity Reciprocity in children's self-disclosures is often examined in children's friendships.","-32.08076921231077"],["the emotional distress caused by infidelity and health-compromising behaviors, perception of blame and self-esteem, and the differences in the reactions of men and women.\nNot only did they prove the connection between the distress and risky behavior, but they also found that those who blamed themselves for their partners unfaithfulness were also more like to participate in risky behavior.\nThe researchers proved the more distress you feel the more likely the individual is to take part in unhealthy acts and the more the victim blamed themselves the more distress they experienced. They also found that women felt more emotional distress than men","-32.08057925344474"],["unnecessary harm. In this way, depression helps maintain a social hierarchy. This theory is a special case of a more general theory derived from the psychic pain hypothesis: that the cognitive response that produces modern-day depression evolved as a mechanism that allows people to assess whether they are in pursuit of an unreachable goal, and if they are, to motivate them to desist. Social risk hypothesis This hypothesis is similar to the social rank hypothesis but focuses more on the importance of avoiding exclusion from social groups, rather than direct dominance contests. The fitness benefits of forming cooperative bonds","-32.05693226858057"],["This finding held true even when the depression was manipulated experimentally. However, when replicating the findings Msetfi et al. (2005, 2007) found that the overestimation of control in nondepressed people only showed up when the interval was long enough, implying that this is because they take more aspects of a situation into account than their depressed counterparts. Also, Dykman et al. (1989) showed that depressed people believe they have no control in situations where they actually do, so their perception is not more accurate overall. Allan et al. (2007) has proposed that the pessimistic bias of depressives resulted in \"depressive","-32.041518953992636"],["and Stress: Effective Therapeutic Intervention, Causes of Anxiety and Depression in Marriage, and Conjoint Therapy for Marital Problems, Divorce: Can and Should it be prevented? While the online tracking of health parameters is available for therapists and patients through Lifetrack.com and is systematically presented through cases for therapists in an eBook for therapists; Breakthrough Intimacy – Sad to Happy Through Closeness, or compared to other approaches such as Maslow, Murray, Freud and others on Positive Mental Health Foundation, these teaching materials give preference to those familiar with online technologies. For Lifetrack to spread, additional clinical teaching or academic","-32.02202824085816"],["decision-making, even if the decision has already been made. This atypically high activity in the right anterior insula is thought to contribute to the experience of negative and worrisome feelings. In major depressive disorder, anxiety is often a part of the emotional state that characterizes depression.","-32.01927811712085"],["pathological. Yet if sufferers of depression have real but unmet needs, they might have to provide an incentive to others to address those needs.\nThe bargaining theory of depression is similar to the honest signaling, niche change, and social navigation theories of depression described below. It draws on theories of labor strikes developed by economists to basically add one additional element to honest signaling theory: The fitness of social partners is generally correlated. When a wife suffers depression and reduces her investment in offspring, for example, the husband's fitness is also put at risk. Thus, not only do the symptoms of","-32.00038867309922"],[" This model proposes that emotional pain, like physical pain, serves a useful adaptive purpose. Negative emotions like disappointment, sadness, grief, fear, anxiety, anger, and guilt are described as \"evolved strategies that allow for the identification and avoidance of specific problems, especially in the social domain.\" Depression is characteristically associated with anhedonia and lack of energy, and those experiencing it are risk-aversive and perceive more negative and pessimistic outcomes because they are focused on preventing further loss. Although the model views depression as an adaptive response, it does not suggest that it is beneficial by the standards","-31.97818962427118"],["evidence suggesting that inflammation is not sufficient for the development of major depression, evidence for a lack of complete overlap also comes from findings that depression often occurs without existing immune challenges, with social adversity appearing to cause depression without the requirement of underlying inflammation. Similarly, the existence of variation in the degree to which depressed individuals experience inflammation has also been seen to suggest that it is possible that some instances of depression may occur without inflammation. However, it is possible that all instances of depression involve increased inflammation, something which is consistent with the idea that depression","-31.963454619217373"],["afflicted. Whereas the relatives and shrinks ... they rather welcome it: You are quiet and you suffer. Views on mental illness Millett disputed diagnoses and labels like manic depression (bipolar disorder) and schizophrenia, which she claimed are placed upon people who exhibit socially unacceptable behavior. \"Many healthy people, she said, are 'driven to mental illness' by society's disapproval and by the 'authoritarian institution of psychiatry.' She attributed her own depression to her diagnosis, and not the other way around, writing, \"When you have been told that your mind is unsound, there is a kind of despair that takes over\". Millett documented","-31.90063491114455"],["anxiety disorder 12% of the population. Women are 1.5 times more likely to suffer from mood and anxiety disorders. WHO points out that there are distinct gender differences in patterns of mental health and illness. The lack of power and control over their socioeconomic status, gender based violence; low social position and responsibility for the care of others render women vulnerable to mental health risks. Since more women than men seek help regarding a mental health problem, this has led to not only gender stereotyping but also reinforcing social stigma. WHO has found that this stereotyping has led doctors to","-31.86489985774824"],["include social activities, resulting in social withdrawal.\nSocial skills training can be adapted to the treatment of depression with a focus on assertiveness training. Depressed patients often benefit from learning to set limits to others, to obtain satisfaction for their own needs, and to feel more self-confident in social interactions. Research suggests that patients who are depressed because they tend to withdraw from others can benefit from social skills training by learning to increase positive social interactions with others instead of pulling back. Social anxiety disorder Asocial behavior is observed in people with social anxiety disorder (SAD), who experience perpetual and","-31.85498639108846"],["very similar to major depressive disorder in the symptoms present. Generally, a person's mood is affected by thoughts and feelings of being sad or down on themself or by a loss of interest in nearly all activities. People can experience ups and downs in their life everyday where an event, action, stress or many other factors can affect their feelings on that day. However, depression occurs when those feelings of sadness persist for longer than a few weeks.\nA person is considered to have minor depressive disorder if they experience 2 to 4 depressive symptoms during a 2-week period. The Diagnostic","-31.85270718704851"],["terminally ill may not always come to accept their impending death. For example, a person who finds strength in denial may never reach a point of acceptance or accommodation and may react negatively to any statement that threatens this defense mechanism. Impact on patient Depression is relatively common among terminal patients, and the prevalence increases as patients become sicker. Depression causes quality of life to go down, and a sizable portion of patients who request assisted suicide are depressed. These negative emotions may be heightened by lack of sleep and pain as well. Depression can be treated with antidepressants and/or therapy, but doctors","-31.836871433028136"],["irritable mood rather than a depressed one, and show varying symptoms depending on age and situation. Most lose interest in school and show a decline in academic performance. They may be described as clingy, demanding, dependent, or insecure. Diagnosis may be delayed or missed when symptoms are interpreted as \"normal moodiness.\" Associated conditions Major depression frequently co-occurs with other psychiatric problems. The 1990–92 National Comorbidity Survey (US) reports that half of those with major depression also have lifetime anxiety and its associated disorders such as generalized anxiety disorder. Anxiety symptoms can have a major impact on the course of a","-31.829971197752457"],["Endogenous depression Endogenous depression (melancholia) is an atypical sub-class of the mood disorder, major depressive disorder (clinical depression). It could be caused by genetic and biological factors. Endogenous depression occurs due to the presence of an internal (cognitive, biological) stressor instead of an external (social, environmental) stressor. Endogenous depression includes patients with treatment-resistant, non-psychotic, major depressive disorder, characterized by abnormal behavior of the endogenous opioid system but not the monoaminergic system. Symptoms vary in severity, type, and frequency and can be attributed to cognitive, social, biological, or environmental factors that result in persistent feelings of sadness and distress. Since symptoms","-31.818917774992087"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"with depression act in ways that maintain their depression and locates the origin of depressive episodes in the environment. While BA theories do not deny biological factors that contribute to depression, they assert that it is ultimately the combination of a stressful event in an individual's life and their reaction to the event that produces a depressive episode. Individuals with depression may display socially aversive behaviors, fail to engage in enjoyable activities, ruminate on their problems, or engage in other maladaptive activities. According to BA theory, these behaviors most often function as avoidance mechanisms while the individual tries to cope\",\n \"-35.5989409999238\"\n ],\n [\n \"risk factors, and is itself linked directly or indirectly to risk factors such as smoking and obesity. People with major depression are less likely to follow medical recommendations for treating and preventing cardiovascular disorders, which further increases their risk of medical complications. In addition, cardiologists may not recognize underlying depression that complicates a cardiovascular problem under their care. Cause The cause of major depressive disorder is unknown. The biopsychosocial model proposes that biological, psychological, and social factors all play a role in causing depression. The diathesis–stress model specifies that depression results when a preexisting vulnerability, or diathesis, is activated by\",\n \"-35.401680275831495\"\n ],\n [\n \"used to explain why some individuals are more at risk for developing a disorder than others. For example, children who have a family history of depression are generally more vulnerable to developing a depressive disorder themselves. A child who has a family history of depression and who has been exposed to a particular stressor, such as exclusion or rejection by his or her peers, would be more likely to develop depression than a child with a family history of depression that has an otherwise positive social network of peers.\\nThe diathesis–stress model has also served as useful in explaining other\",\n \"-35.3280754969519\"\n ],\n [\n \"a spouse are often in need of help and assistance from others. Such individuals who have few conflicts with their social partners are predicted to experience grief—a means, in part, to signal need to others. Such individuals who have many conflicts with their social partners, in contrast, are predicted to experience depression—a means, in part, to credibly signal need to others who might be skeptical that the need is genuine. Bargaining theory Depression is not only costly to the sufferer, it also imposes a significant burden on family, friends, and society at large—yet another reason it is thought to be\",\n \"-34.78206099966337\"\n ],\n [\n \"refer to other mood disorders or simply to a low mood. People's conceptualizations of depression vary widely, both within and among cultures. \\\"Because of the lack of scientific certainty,\\\" one commentator has observed, \\\"the debate over depression turns on questions of language. What we call it—'disease,' 'disorder,' 'state of mind'—affects how we view, diagnose, and treat it.\\\" There are cultural differences in the extent to which serious depression is considered an illness requiring personal professional treatment, or is an indicator of something else, such as the need to address social or moral problems, the result of biological imbalances, or a\",\n \"-34.74416540823586\"\n ],\n [\n \"the potential for depression in relation to social media use and FOMO. They describe depression as an emotional state that does not allow an individual to feel things of pleasure or if they do, it is severely diminished. They go on to mention that depression often includes two extremes of emotion. This is when positives or good moods are low, and negatives or bad moods are high. Those who suffer from depression also experience feelings and symptoms of distress, sadness, anguish, and other extreme emotions. Depression interrupts daily activity and hinders one's ability to concentrate, sleep, eat, or even move.\",\n \"-34.71191519846616\"\n ],\n [\n \"often do not realize the extent of terminal patients' depression.\\nBecause depression is common among terminal patients, the American College of Physicians recommends regular assessments for depression for this population and appropriate prescription of antidepressants.\\nAnxiety disorders are also relatively common for terminal patients as they face their mortality. Patients may feel distressed when thinking about what the future may hold, especially when considering the future of their families as well. It is important to note, however, that some palliative medications may facilitate anxiety. Coping for patients Caregivers may listen to the concerns of terminal patients to help them reflect on their\",\n \"-34.5349046927804\"\n ],\n [\n \"Animal models of depression Animal models of depression are research tools used to investigate depression and action of antidepressants as a simulation to investigate the symptomatology and pathophysiology of depressive illness or used to screen novel antidepressants. Depression Major depressive disorder, also called \\\"clinical depression\\\" or often simply \\\"depression\\\", is a common, long-lasting and diverse psychiatric syndrome that significantly affects a person's thoughts, behavior, feelings and sense of well-being. Symptoms include low mood and aversion to activity. Depressed people may also feel sad, anxious, empty, hopeless, worried, helpless, worthless, guilty, irritable, hurt, or restless. They may lose interest in activities\",\n \"-34.248105509650486\"\n ],\n [\n \"Management of depression Depression is a symptom of some physical diseases; a side effect of some drugs and medical treatments; and a symptom of some mood disorders such as major depressive disorder or dysthymia. Physical causes are ruled out with a clinical assessment of depression that measures vitamins, minerals, electrolytes, and hormones. Management of depression may involve a number of different therapies: medications, behavior therapy, psychotherapy, and medical devices.\\nThough psychiatric medication is the most frequently prescribed therapy for major depression, psychotherapy may be effective, either alone or in combination with medication. Combining psychotherapy and antidepressants may provide a \\\"slight\",\n \"-34.2084181313985\"\n ],\n [\n \"Although depression is currently categorized as a separate disorder, there is ongoing debate because individuals diagnosed with major depression often experience some hypomanic symptoms, indicating a mood disorder continuum. Further differential diagnoses involve chronic fatigue syndrome.\\nOther disorders need to be ruled out before diagnosing major depressive disorder. They include depressions due to physical illness, medications, and substance abuse. Depression due to physical illness is diagnosed as a mood disorder due to a general medical condition. This condition is determined based on history, laboratory findings, or physical examination. When the depression is caused by a medication, drug of abuse, or exposure\",\n \"-34.14558397199653\"\n ],\n [\n \"is a widespread, debilitating disease affecting persons of all ages and backgrounds. Depression is characterized by a plethora of emotional and physiological symptoms including feelings of sadness, hopelessness, pessimism, guilt, a general loss of interest in life, and a sense of reduced emotional well-being or low energy. Very little is known about the underlying pathophysiology of clinical depression and other related mood-disorders including anxiety, bipolar disorder, ADD, ADHD, and Schizophrenia.\\nThe p11 protein has been intimately linked to mood disorders, to be specific, depression, due to its role in serotonin systems via its interactions with serotonin 5-HT receptors. Serotonin affects diverse\",\n \"-34.14496488993427\"\n ],\n [\n \"depression must be distinguished from intrusive thoughts, because suicidal thoughts—unlike harmless sexual, aggressive, or religious thoughts—can be dangerous. Postpartum depression and OCD Unwanted thoughts by mothers about harming infants are common in postpartum depression. A 1999 study of 65 women with postpartum major depression by Katherine Wisner et al. found the most frequent aggressive thought for women with postpartum depression was causing harm to their newborn infants. A study of 85 new parents found that 89% experienced intrusive images, for example, of the baby suffocating, having an accident, being harmed, or being kidnapped.\\nSome women may develop symptoms\",\n \"-34.11097138519108\"\n ],\n [\n \"associated with many forms of victimization, including sexual victimization, violent crime, property crime, peer victimization, and domestic abuse. Indicators of depression include irritable or sad mood for prolonged periods of time, lack of interest in most activities, significant changes in weight/appetite, activity, and sleep patterns, loss of energy and concentration, excessive feelings of guilt or worthlessness, and suicidality. The loss of energy, interest, and concentration associated with depression may impact individuals who have experienced victimization academically or professionally. Depression can impact many other areas of a person's life as well, including interpersonal relationships and physical health. Depression in response to\",\n \"-34.11065208566379\"\n ],\n [\n \"seven years, a study was done on about 200 children whose mother had \\\"a history of juvenile-onset unipolar depressive disorder\\\" or simply, depression as children themselves. In the cases of unipolar depression, a person generally displays more negative affect and less positive affect than a person without depression. Or, they are more likely to show when they are sad or upset, than when they are excited or happy. This study that was published in 2010 discovered that the children of mothers that suffer from unipolar depression, had lower levels of positive affect when compared to the control group. Even as\",\n \"-34.049006147601176\"\n ],\n [\n \"is a metaphorical illness that is inappropriately regarded as an actual disease. There has also been concern that the DSM, as well as the field of descriptive psychiatry that employs it, tends to reify abstract phenomena such as depression, which may in fact be social constructs. American archetypal psychologist James Hillman writes that depression can be healthy for the soul, insofar as \\\"it brings refuge, limitation, focus, gravity, weight, and humble powerlessness.\\\" Hillman argues that therapeutic attempts to eliminate depression echo the Christian theme of resurrection, but have the unfortunate effect of demonizing a soulful state of being. Stigma Historical\",\n \"-33.89702055627731\"\n ],\n [\n \"those suffering from other types of anxiety, who often have depleted ability to generate neutral, positive, or pleasant imagery. Depression The capacity to evoke pleasant and positively affirming imagery, either voluntarily or involuntarily, may be a critical requisite for precipitating and sustaining positive moods or feelings and optimism; and this ability is often impaired in those suffering from depression. Depression consists of emotional distress and cognitive impairment that may include feelings of hopelessness, pervasive sadness, pessimism, lack of motivation, social withdrawal, difficulty in concentrating on mental or physical tasks, and disrupted sleep.\\nWhilst depression is frequently associated with negative rumination of\",\n \"-33.85317238698917\"\n ],\n [\n \"and environmental factors that cause their symptoms. A family history of depression and perceived poor intimate relationships are internal risk factors associated with this type of depression. It is important to know these risk factors in order to take steps to recognize and help prevent this illness. Prevalence This type of depression often occurs due to biological reasons. Since symptoms are due to an internal phenomena, prevalence rates tend to be higher in older adults and more prevalent among women. Although endogenous depression has been associated with increased age, there has been few attempts to evaluate this fully. More research\",\n \"-33.849180596360384\"\n ],\n [\n \"been established, involvement in any sex or drug use is cause for concern. Children who develop major depression are more likely to have a family history of the disorder (often a parent who experienced depression at an early age) than patients with adolescent- or adult-onset depression. Adolescents with depression are also likely to have a family history of depression, though the correlation is not as high as it is for children. Comorbidity Research has shown that there is a high rate of comorbidity with depression in children with dysthymia. There is also a substantial comorbidity rate with depression in children\",\n \"-33.752843744441634\"\n ],\n [\n \"user. Depression is also associated with drug use and prostitution. There are also trapping factors: injecting any kind of substance into their body, using hard drugs such as crack cocaine or methamphetamine, taking part in sex work while underage, working outdoors or in multiple areas, and having any convictions. These factors \\\"trap\\\" a person into the life they are in, especially if multiple of the factors effect them, making it much harder for them to escape their situation. The people most vulnerable to prostitution are those that have experienced these factors. The way behavioral therapies are used Behavioral therapies help\",\n \"-33.704193811336154\"\n ],\n [\n \"or immune dysregulation in asthma). Depression may also be iatrogenic (the result of healthcare), such as drug-induced depression. Therapies associated with depression include interferons, beta-blockers, isotretinoin, contraceptives, cardiac agents, anticonvulsants, antimigraine drugs, antipsychotics, and hormonal agents such as gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist. Drug abuse in early age is also associated with increased risk of developing depression later in life. Depression that occurs as a result of pregnancy is called postpartum depression, and is thought to be the result of hormonal changes associated with pregnancy. Seasonal affective disorder, a type of depression associated with seasonal changes in sunlight, is thought to be\",\n \"-33.67132708685949\"\n ],\n [\n \"stress that increases the depressive symptoms on individuals that have endure high levels of social undermining. This can happen, because the support that a person can get from their spouse compared to a close friend is more exclusive and generally involves more frequent and emotionally intense interactions (Cutrone 1996; Vinokur & Vinokur & Vinokur- Kaplan, 1990) and depending on their relationship that can influence the social support or even the social undermining that affect the relationship.\\nCranford found that spouse undermining and not spouse support can increase depressive symptoms within that relationship. Social undermining has been found to be a stronger\",\n \"-33.55731060353719\"\n ],\n [\n \"depressive symptoms are more likely to develop postpartum depression, which can also have negative consequences on children, such as emotional and behavior problems, attachment difficulties, cognitive deficits, physical growth and development, and feeding habits and attitudes. Related, maternal depression affects parenting behaviors, which in turn could affect child outcomes. Thus, women’s mental health throughout the perinatal period should be a priority, not only to support women, but also to promote optimal functioning for their infants. Prenatal Depression and Infant Health Depressive symptoms in pregnant women are linked with poor health outcomes in infants. The rates of hospitalization are found increased\",\n \"-33.45888636298696\"\n ],\n [\n \"collectively called 'depressive syndrome' and includes a long-lasting depressed mood, feelings of guilt, anxiety, and recurrent thoughts of death and suicide. Other symptoms including poor concentration, a disturbance of sleep rhythms (insomnia or hypersomnia), and severe fatigue may also occur. Individual patients present differing subsets of symptoms, which may change over the course of the disease highlighting its multifaceted and heterogeneous nature. Depression is often highly comorbid with other diseases, e.g. cardiovascular disease (myocardial infarction, stroke), diabetes, cancer, Depressed subjects are prone to smoking, substance abuse, eating disorders, obesity, high blood pressure, pathological gambling and internet addiction, and on average\",\n \"-33.43710008706694\"\n ],\n [\n \"lead to depression and anxiety. There is no data on the divorce rates of agents, but strain on relationships does occur. This can be a result of a need for secrecy and an inability to share work problems, and the unpredictable work schedule, personality and lifestyle changes and the length of separation can all result in problems for relationships.\\nStress can also result from an apparent lack of direction of the investigation or not knowing when it will end. The amount of elaborate planning, risk, and expenditure can pressure an agent to succeed, which can cause considerable stress.\",\n \"-33.41892710061438\"\n ],\n [\n \"of certain substances can worsen the effects of depression. \\nOther psychiatric disorders that may predict treatment-resistant depression include attention deficit hiperactivity disorder, personality disorders, obsessive compulsive disorder, and eating disorders. Comorbid medical disorders Some people who are diagnosed with treatment-resistant depression may have an underlying undiagnosed health condition that is causing or contributing to their depression. Endocrine disorders like hypothyroidism, Cushing's disease, and Addison's disease are among the most commonly identified as contributing to depression. Others include diabetes, coronary artery disease, cancer, HIV, and Parkinson's disease. \\nAnother factor is that medications used to treat comorbid medical disorders may lessen the\",\n \"-33.40196165825182\"\n ],\n [\n \"or even biology. Aaron Beck argues that depression is due to unrealistic negative views about the world. Beck starts treatment by engaging in conversation with clients about their unhelpful thoughts. Pessimists, however, are often able to provide arguments that suggest that their understanding of reality is justified; as in Depressive realism or (pessimistic realism). Deflection is a common method used by those who are depressed. They let people assume they are revealing everything which proves to be an effective way of hiding. The pessimism item on the Beck Depression Inventory has been judged useful in predicting suicides. The\",\n \"-33.3955475226885\"\n ],\n [\n \"not initiate the disorder. Depending on the individual's subjective perception of an event, the diathesis leads to a certain psychological illness. Depression Through several cognitive biases, selective mood-congruent cues become established over long intervals. Emotional stimuli matching the emotional concerns create an aggregate effect on symptoms related to depression. Depression is associated with selective orientation. It prevents attention toward emotional cues that do not fit the internalized scheme to which the individual has become vulnerable, and leads to comorbid anxiety. When individuals who are prone to depression are asked to recall a specific event, they explain the general\",\n \"-33.37212662506499\"\n ],\n [\n \"relationships—most often marital relationships—and economic disparities have been cited as the main social drivers of depression.\\nIt was found that Indian women typically describe the somatic symptoms rather than the emotional and psychological stressors that trigger the symptoms of depression. This often makes it difficult to accurately assess depression among women in India in light of no admonition of depression. Gender plays a major role in postnatal depression among Indian women. Mothers are often blamed for the birth of a female child. Furthermore, women who already have a female child often face additional pressures to have male\",\n \"-33.36021787604841\"\n ],\n [\n \"loss, or have attention, learning, behavioral, or anxiety disorders are at a higher risk for depression. Childhood depression is often comorbid with mental disorders outside of other mood disorders; most commonly anxiety disorder and conduct disorder. Depression also tends to run in families. Psychologists have developed different treatments to assist children and adolescents suffering from depression, though the legitimacy of the diagnosis of childhood depression as a psychiatric disorder, as well as the efficacy of various methods of assessment and treatment, remains controversial. Base rates and prevalence About 8% of children and adolescents suffer from depression. This year, 51 percent\",\n \"-33.27911560321809\"\n ],\n [\n \"not necessarily because of depressed mood, but rather due to increasing levels of stress or because of personal difficulties that may be situation-related. This is hypothesized to be because of the chronic nature of the disorder, and how depressed mood is often thought to be a characterological pattern for the individual with the condition. Thus, it is only when the person experiences increasing stress that he or she thinks to go to some sort of trained professional for symptom relief. It is usually through the administration of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV that dysthymia is first diagnosed. At this\",\n \"-33.25927338763722\"\n ],\n [\n \"threatening, and positive stimuli, clinically depressed people were found to show preferential attention to sad faces, emotion words, and adjectives. Depressed people displayed biases for stimuli concerned with sadness and loss.\\nPeople who are depressed often fail to satisfy their need for belonging in relationships and therefore, report fewer intimate relationships. Those who are depressed appear to induce negative affect in other individuals, which consequently elicits rejection and the loss of socially rewarding opportunities. Depressed people are less likely to feel a sense of belonging and are more likely to pay attention to negative social interactions. Research has found that depressive\",\n \"-33.177452847343375\"\n ],\n [\n \"diagnose depression more often in women than in men even when they display identical symptoms. Often communication between health care providers and women is authoritarian leading to either the under-treatment or over-treatment of these women. Organizations Women's College Hospital has a program called the \\\"Women's Mental Health Program\\\" where doctors and nurses help treat and educate women regarding mental health collaboratively, individually, and online by answering questions from the public.\\nAnother Canadian organization serving mental health needs is the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH). CAMH is one of Canada's largest and most well-known health and addiction facilities, and it\",\n \"-33.17072409824323\"\n ],\n [\n \"illness with extreme sadness or violence. Now that children are becoming more and more open to technology and the media itself, future generations will then continue to pair mental illness with negative thoughts. The media should be explaining that many people with disorders like ADHD and anxiety, with the right treatment, can live ordinary lives and should not be punished for something they cannot help.\\nSueki, (2013) carried out a study titled “The effect of suicide–related internet use on users’ mental health: A longitudinal Study”. This study investigated the effects of suicide-related internet use on user’s suicidal thoughts, predisposition to depression\",\n \"-33.12471482900946\"\n ],\n [\n \"who had experienced a major depressive disorder at some time in their lives than among individuals who had never experienced major depression or among individuals with no psychiatric diagnosis. People with major depression are also much less likely to quit due to the increased risk of experiencing mild to severe states of depression, including a major depressive episode. Depressed smokers appear to experience more withdrawal symptoms on quitting, are less likely to be successful at quitting, and are more likely to relapse. Pregnancy A number of studies have shown that tobacco use is a significant factor in miscarriages among pregnant\",\n \"-33.12093911715601\"\n ],\n [\n \"without an actual disease present, this neurotic thinking often results in severe anxiety, sleep disturbance, and mood swings which may hinder social relationships. Individuals with endogenous depression may experience inconsistencies in symptom severity which is often the reason for delayed treatment. If left untreated, symptoms may progress to a major depressive episode. Risk factors Endogenous depression occurs as the results of an internal stressor—commonly cognitive or biological—and not an external factor. Potential risk factors include these cognitive or biological factors. Patients with endogenous depression often are more likely to have a positive family history of disorders and fewer psychosocial\",\n \"-33.10055667963388\"\n ],\n [\n \"a 1℃ change in body temperature. Therefore, depression allows one to conserve and allocate energy to the immune system more efficiently.\\nDepression further prevents infection by discouraging social interactions and activities that may result in exchange of infections. For example, the loss of interest discourages one from engaging in sexual activity, which, in turn, prevents the exchange of sexually transmitted diseases. Similarly, depressed mothers may interact less with their children, reducing the probability of the mother infecting her kin.\\nLastly, the lack of appetite associated with depression may also reduce exposure to food-borne parasites.\\nHowever, it should also be noted that chronic illness\",\n \"-33.086430826497235\"\n ],\n [\n \"SAD had one or more additional mental health disorders. SAD often occurs alongside low self-esteem and most commonly clinical depression, perhaps due to a lack of personal relationships and long periods of isolation related to social avoidance. Clinical depression is 1.49 to 3.5 times more likely to occur in those with SAD. Anxiety disorders other than SAD are also very common in patients with SAD, in particular generalized anxiety disorder. Avoidant personality disorder is likewise highly correlated with SAD, with comorbidity rates ranging from 25% to 89%.\\nTo try to reduce their anxiety and alleviate depression, people with social phobia may\",\n \"-33.06738508269518\"\n ],\n [\n \"circumstances, such as the loss of a friend, are imposing a threat to biological fitness. It motivates the sufferer to cease activities that led to the costly situation, if possible, and it causes him or her to learn to avoid similar circumstances in the future. Proponents of this view tend to focus on low mood, and regard clinical depression as a dysfunctional extreme of low mood—and not as a unique set of characteristics that are physiologically distanced from regular depressed mood.\\nAlongside the absence of pleasure, other noticeable changes include psychomotor retardation, disrupted patterns of sleeping and feeding, a loss of\",\n \"-33.03338035053457\"\n ],\n [\n \"Their research also concluded that people who lack emotional expression are inclined to anti-social behaviors (e.g., drug and alcohol abuse, physical fights, vandalism), which are a direct reflection of their mental health and suppressed emotions. Adults and children with mental illness may experience social stigma, which can exacerbate the issues. Mental well-being Mental health can be seen as an unstable continuum, where an individual's mental health may have many different possible values. Mental wellness is generally viewed as a positive attribute, even if the person does not have any diagnosed mental health condition. This definition of mental health highlights emotional\",\n \"-33.00896786492012\"\n ],\n [\n \"definition of the specific criteria for a clinically significant depressed mood in relation to the cognitive and behavioral symptoms. Some psychologists argue that the effects of mood disorders in children and adolescents that exist (but do not fully meet the criteria for depression) do not have severe enough risks. Children in this area of severity, they argue, should receive some sort of treatment since the effects could still be severe. However, since there has yet to be enough research or scientific evidence to support that children that fall within the area just shy of a clinical diagnosis require treatment, other\",\n \"-32.992076149675995\"\n ],\n [\n \"behaviors, and the proposed explanations for the evolution of depression remain controversial. Background Major depression (also called \\\"major depressive disorder\\\", \\\"clinical depression\\\" or often simply \\\"depression\\\") is a leading cause of disability worldwide, and in 2000 was the fourth leading contributor to the global burden of disease (measured in DALYs); it is also an important risk factor for suicide. It is understandable, then, that clinical depression is thought to be a pathology—a major dysfunction of the brain.\\nIn most cases, rates of organ dysfunction increase with age, with low rates in adolescents and young adults, and the highest rates in the\",\n \"-32.986493259082636\"\n ],\n [\n \"and somatoform and dissociative disorders compared to men in the study. Furthermore, the research attributed depressive symptoms to social interactions both in the workplace and home that fostered a sense of learned helplessness. This stems from feelings of powerlessness in different types of relationships that are male-dominated and do not offer equity for women. Other social stressors that contribute as influences in mental illnesses include marriage, pregnancy, family, with pressure to fit into certain traditional roles ascribed to women in India.\\nFurthermore, another 2006 study conducted by Vikram Patel et al., published in Archives of General Psychiatry, further examined specific aspects\",\n \"-32.978517649593414\"\n ],\n [\n \"are due to a biological phenomenon, prevalence rates tend to be higher in older adults. Due to this fact, biological-focused treatment plans are often used in therapy to ensure the best prognosis. History Endogenous depression was initially considered valuable as a means of diagnostic differentiation with reactive depression. While the latter's onset could be attributed to adverse life events and treated with talk therapy, the former would indicate treatment with antidepressants. Indeed, this view of endogenous depression is at the root of the popular view that mood disorders are a reflection of a 'chemical imbalance' in the brain. More recent\",\n \"-32.969616650669195\"\n ],\n [\n \"Differential diagnoses of depression Depression, one of the most commonly diagnosed psychiatric disorders, is being diagnosed in increasing numbers in various segments of the population worldwide. Depression in the United States alone affects 17.6 million Americans each year or 1 in 6 people. Depressed patients are at increased risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and suicide. Within the next twenty years depression is expected to become the second leading cause of disability worldwide and the leading cause in high-income nations, including the United States. In approximately 75% of completed suicides, the individuals had seen a physician within the prior\",\n \"-32.96850713910135\"\n ],\n [\n \"PTSD. The family structure can become a trigger for mental health issues in single mothers. They are especially at risk for having higher levels of depressive symptoms.\\nStudies from the 1970s showed that single mothers who are not financially stable are more likely to experience depression. In a more current study it was proven that financial strain was directly correlated with sky rocket levels of depression. Among low-income, single mothers, depressive symptoms may be as high as 60%.\\nInadequate access to mental health care services is prevalent amongst impoverished women. Low-income women are less likely to receive mental health care for numerous\",\n \"-32.95729916220557\"\n ],\n [\n \"candidate gene on depression, either alone or in combination with life stress. Research focusing on specific candidate genes has been criticized for its tendency to generate false positive findings. There are also other efforts to examine interactions between life stress and polygenic risk for depression. Other health problems Depression may also come secondary to a chronic or terminal medical condition, such as HIV/AIDS or asthma, and may be labeled \\\"secondary depression.\\\" It is unknown whether the underlying diseases induce depression through effect on quality of life, of through shared etiologies (such as degeneration of the basal ganglia in Parkinson's disease\",\n \"-32.920442443091815\"\n ],\n [\n \"support to clinical depression. A meta-analysis that pooled the results of 11 well-designed longitudinal studies indicated that a number of facets of the psychosocial work environment (e.g., low decision latitude, high psychological workload, lack of social support at work, effort-reward imbalance, and job insecurity) increase the risk of common mental disorders such as depression. Personality disorders Depending on the diagnosis, severity and individual, and the job itself, personality disorders can be associated with difficulty coping with work or the workplace, potentially leading to problems with others by interfering with interpersonal relationships. Indirect effects also play a role; for example,\",\n \"-32.891521477629794\"\n ],\n [\n \"the depressive under status quo socioeconomic arrangements.\\nThus depression may be a social adaptation especially useful in motivating a variety of social partners, all at once, to help the depressive initiate major fitness-enhancing changes in their socioeconomic life. There are diverse circumstances under which this may become necessary in human social life, ranging from loss of rank or a key social ally which makes the current social niche uneconomic to having a set of creative new ideas about how to make a livelihood which begs for a new niche. The social navigation hypothesis emphasizes that an individual can become tightly ensnared\",\n \"-32.85726626280666\"\n ],\n [\n \"effect when provided with the usual care in patients who have had three or more depressive episodes, although the usual care did not include antidepressant treatment or any psychotherapy, and the improvement observed may have reflected non-specific or placebo effects.\\nInterpersonal psychotherapy focuses on the social and interpersonal triggers that may cause depression. There is evidence that it is an effective treatment for depression. Here, the therapy takes a structured course with a set number of weekly sessions (often 12) as in the case of CBT; however, the focus is on relationships with others. Therapy can be used to help a\",\n \"-32.83522961498238\"\n ],\n [\n \"Major depressive disorder Signs and symptoms Major depression significantly affects a person's family and personal relationships, work or school life, sleeping and eating habits, and general health. Its impact on functioning and well-being has been compared to that of other chronic medical conditions, such as diabetes.\\nA person having a major depressive episode usually exhibits a very low mood, which pervades all aspects of life, and an inability to experience pleasure in activities that were formerly enjoyed. Depressed people may be preoccupied with, or ruminate over, thoughts and feelings of worthlessness, inappropriate guilt or regret, helplessness, hopelessness, and self-hatred. In severe\",\n \"-32.777214186644414\"\n ],\n [\n \"and depression symptoms, is that depression is a disorder that stems from immune responses across the body. Due in large part to the systems that bring them about both involving the same pro-inflammatory cytokines, the suggestion is that strong or prolonged immune responses allow for those with susceptibilities to depression to experience it outside of experiences with any other risk factors. Of the ways this might happen, one is that those whose immune responses have been shifted to be pro-inflammatory without sufficient anti-inflammatory compensation have elevated risk of experiencing inflammation intense enough to cause depression. Another suggestion is that variation\",\n \"-32.73833148095582\"\n ],\n [\n \"happen. Determining when someone is mentally distant from their happiness set point and what events trigger those changes can be extremely helpful in treating conditions such as depression. When a change occurs, clinical psychologists work with patients to recover from the depressive spell and return to their hedonic set point more quickly. Because acts of kindness often promote long-term well-being, one treatment method is to provide patients with different altruistic activities that can help a person raise his or her hedonic set point. This can in turn be helpful in reducing reckless habits in the pursuit of well-being. Further, helping\",\n \"-32.665433553323965\"\n ],\n [\n \"Lyn and her coauthors propose that many cases of depression may be caused by prejudice from the self or from another person. \\\"This depression caused by prejudice – which the researchers call deprejudice — can occur at many levels. In the classic case, prejudice causes depression at the societal level (e.g., Nazis’ prejudice causing Jews’ depression), but this causal chain can also occur at the interpersonal level (e.g., an abuser’s prejudice causing an abusee’s depression), or even at the intrapersonal level, within a single person (e.g., a man’s prejudice against himself causing his depression).\\\"\\nAlong with her frequent collaborator Lauren Alloy,\",\n \"-32.64834645999872\"\n ],\n [\n \"main contributions are described below: \\nFirst. They have scientifically proven that depressions require different treatments depending on the specific type of depression, against the current trend driven by American psychiatry, and some psychiatrists in Spain. This trend does not distinguish differential treatment in all cases depression in the same manner and with the same drugs. They believe that it must be treated very differently the depressions of biological cause (endogenous) from depressions of psychological or social causes (neurotic or reactive). Thus at the time defended the use of old tricyclics and MAOIs in atypical depression and endogenous, and\",\n \"-32.62980484876607\"\n ],\n [\n \"defend us from feelings of vulnerability and mortality. Researchers have found that mildly depressed individuals often lack this bias and actually have more realistic perceptions of reality (as measured by the opinions of others).\\nHeuristics are cognitive short cuts. Instead of weighing all the evidence when making a decision, people rely on heuristics to save time and energy. The availability heuristic occurs when people estimate the probability of an outcome based on how easy that outcome is to imagine. As such, vivid or highly memorable possibilities will be perceived as more likely than those that are harder to picture or are\",\n \"-32.5672613139468\"\n ],\n [\n \"Raison oblige theory Depression Depression is accompanied by very low self-esteem and has therefore been a topic of strong interest for those investigating self verifying behaviors. Depression is always accompanied by low self-esteem but having low self-esteem does not necessarily mean you are depressed.\\nIt argued that those suffering with depression, or with generally low negative self-views, will actively seek negative feedback in order to confirm their self-view; they find it more favourable. Giesler et al. (1996) tested this prediction by classifying participants into three separate groups; high self-esteem, low self-esteem and depressed individuals. When offered a choice of positive or\",\n \"-32.5586478205405\"\n ],\n [\n \"relax those constraints enough to allow the depressive to move forward with their life under an improved set of social contracts. This theory has been the subject of criticism. Prevention of infection It has been hypothesized that depression is an evolutionary adaptation because it helps prevent infection in both the affected individual and his/her kin.\\nFirst, the associated symptoms of depression, such as inactivity and lethargy, encourage the affected individual to rest. Energy conserved through such methods is highly crucial, as immune activation against infections is relatively costly; there must be, for instance, a 10% increase in metabolic activity for even\",\n \"-32.547598102903976\"\n ],\n [\n \"for the diagnosis of a major depressive episode. Depressed mood is the most common symptom seen in major depressive episodes. Interest or pleasure in everyday activities can be decreased; this is referred to as anhedonia. These feelings must be present on an everyday basis for two weeks or longer to meet DSM-V criteria for a major depressive episode. In addition, the person may experience one or more of the following emotions: sadness, emptiness, hopelessness, indifference, anxiety, tearfulness, pessimism, emotional numbness, or irritability. In children and adolescents, a depressed mood often appears more irritable in nature. There may be a loss\",\n \"-32.46769488105201\"\n ],\n [\n \"to reduce emotional regulation. The lack of problem-focused coping suggests that individuals had low perceived control. Individuals that blame powerful groups in society for occurrence of sexual assault showed negative effects on perceived control and psychological well-being Depression and self-blame The hopelessness theory of depression proposes that depression is caused by two variables: attribution of negative events to stable and global causes, and other cognitive factors like low self-esteem (Krith, 2014). CSB attributes occurrence of events to stable aspects of the individual that are not controllable. CSB attributions seem likely to cause helplessness, since individuals believe they are powerless to\",\n \"-32.46024054053851\"\n ],\n [\n \"Over the years, researchers have found out that social media use is a cause of depression. As individuals increase their media exposure, it leads them vulnerable to depression and can even make it worse with FOMO and other media based anxieties.\\nAnxiety is defined as a state of mind in which one is concerned about difficult situations or threats.Traditional literature suggests that anxious people are likely to suffer from multiple disorders. The idea that anxious people see their anxious state as problematic, chronic and inescapable is something that scholars disagree on. During their anxious state, anxious people tend to be fatigue,\",\n \"-32.44591500268143\"\n ],\n [\n \"individuals with a serious mental illness \\\"have general medical conditions that are largely undiagnosed and untreated and may cause or exacerbate psychiatric symptoms\\\".\\nIn a case of misdiagnosed depression recounted in Newsweek, a writer received treatment for depression for years; during the last 10 years of her depression the symptoms worsened, resulting in multiple suicide attempts and psychiatric hospitalizations. When an MRI finally was performed, it showed the presence of a tumor. However, she was told by a neurologist that it was benign. After a worsening of symptoms, and upon the second opinion of another neurologist, the tumor was removed. After\",\n \"-32.43924800733657\"\n ],\n [\n \"much as possible: strong phenomenological similarities and similar pathophysiology (face validity), comparable etiology (construct validity), and common treatment (predictive validity). Again, depression is a heterogeneous disorder and its many symptoms are hard to be produced in laboratory animals. The question therefore remains whether we can know the animal is \\\"depressed\\\". Actually, few models of depression fully fit these validating criteria, and most models currently used rely on either actions of known antidepressants or responses to stress. It is not necessary for an \\\"ideal\\\" animal model of depression to exhibit all the abnormalities of depression-relevant behaviors, just as not all patients\",\n \"-32.4293671238338\"\n ],\n [\n \"the distortion of one uncontrollable aspect of a person's life being viewed as representative of all aspects of their life – suggesting a mismatch between ultimate cause and modern manifestation. Analytical rumination hypothesis This hypothesis suggests that depression is an adaptation that causes the affected individual to concentrate his or her attention and focus on a complex problem in order to analyze and solve it.\\nOne way depression increases the individual's focus on a problem is by inducing rumination. Depression activates the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, which increases attention control and maintains problem-related information in an \\\"active, accessible state\\\" referred to\",\n \"-32.40987944142762\"\n ],\n [\n \"of depression across individuals Changes in gender roles across countries and cultures in this study served to explain varying levels of stress and responsibility that changed on the basis of gender. These ever changing expectations and these additional responsibilities on the basis of gender increased levels of depression.\\nThe differences in gender roles within a community also impact one's level of depression. According to Wichstrøm (1999) women tend to ruminate more and therefore symptoms of depression can be accentuated. Since women are encouraged to talk about and share their feelings, they can get caught talking about and staying in a\",\n \"-32.36166668642545\"\n ],\n [\n \"Beck's cognitive triad Beck's cognitive model of depression From a cognitive perspective, depressive disorders are characterized by people's dysfunctional negative views of themselves, their life experience (and the world in general), and their future—the cognitive triad.\\nPeople with depression often view themselves as unlovable, helpless, doomed or deficient. They tend to attribute their unpleasant experiences to their presumed physical, mental, and/or moral deficits. They tend to feel excessively guilty, believing that they are worthless, blameworthy, and rejected by self and others. They may have a very difficult time viewing themselves as people who could ever succeed, be accepted, or feel good\",\n \"-32.34199501294643\"\n ],\n [\n \"or \\\"clinically depressed\\\" really are more helpful or indicative of seriousness than possible alternatives. Oaks says that for decades he has been exploring the depths of sanism and has not yet found an end, and suggests it may be the most pernicious 'ism' because people tend to define themselves by their rationality and their core feelings. One possible response is to critique conceptions of normality and the problems associated with normative functioning around the world, although in some ways that could also potentially constitute a form of mentalism. After his 2012 accident breaking his neck and subsequent retirement, Oaks refers\",\n \"-32.33046807128994\"\n ],\n [\n \"Example statements include \\\"I'm worthless\\\", \\\"I've let people down\\\", \\\"I can't get started\\\" and \\\"My future is bleak\\\". Depression It has been suggested in some studies that depression is associated with having increased levels of automatic negative thoughts. Additionally, the extent of automatic negative thoughts experienced is associated with depression severity. Social anxiety disorder In this disorder, people experience a high degree of fear and avoidance of social situations. There has not been much research conducted to date on the association between automatic thoughts and social anxiety disorder. However, one study by Iancu and colleagues attempted to evaluate a possible\",\n \"-32.314546260706265\"\n ],\n [\n \"a profound effect on a person’s mental health. According to Alyssa Brown of the Washington D.C. Gallup, 31% of people living in poverty have reported at some point been diagnosed with depression compared with 15.8% of those not in poverty. Many people attribute their depression to unemployment, life stressors, and witnessing more violence. These are very relevant in the impoverished world.\\nIt is uncertain whether poverty induces depression or depression causes poverty. What is certain is that the two are closely linked. A reason for this link could be due to the lack of support groups such as church community centers.\",\n \"-32.30196319089919\"\n ],\n [\n \"and 60. The risk of major depression is increased with neurological conditions such as stroke, Parkinson's disease, or multiple sclerosis and during the first year after childbirth. The risk of major depression has also been related to environmental stressors faced by population groups such as war combatants or physicians in training.\\nIt is also more common after cardiovascular illnesses, and is related more to a poor outcome than to a better one Studies conflict on the prevalence of depression in the elderly, but most data suggest there is a reduction in this age group. Depressive disorders are most common in urban\",\n \"-32.29821086521952\"\n ],\n [\n \"may or may not be co-morbidly occurring with maternal depression can independently influence infants' and toddlers' subsequent social-emotional development through effects on regulatory processes within the child-parent attachment. Maternal interpersonal violence-related post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), for example, has been associated with subsequent dysregulation of emotion and aggression by ages 4–7 years. Cocaine Research has provided conflicting evidence regarding the effect of maternal substance abuse during and after pregnancy on children's development. Children exposed to cocaine weigh less than those not exposed at numerous ages ranging from 6 to 30 months. Furthermore, studies indicate that the head circumference of children exposed\",\n \"-32.29199213003085\"\n ],\n [\n \"in an overly restrictive matrix of social exchange contracts, and that this situation sometimes necessitates a radical contractual upheaval that is beyond conventional methods of negotiation. Regarding the treatment of depression, this hypothesis calls into question any assumptions by the clinician that the typical cause of depression is related to maladaptive perverted thinking processes or other purely endogenous sources. The social navigation hypothesis calls instead for analysis of the depressive's talents and dreams, identification of relevant social constraints (especially those with a relatively diffuse non-point source within the social network of the depressive), and practical social problem-solving therapy designed to\",\n \"-32.29053225903772\"\n ],\n [\n \"more likely to respond to their children's difficult behaviors with anger or irritability, which increases the likelihood the children will develop further behavioral problems. However, if parents (both mothers and fathers) with depressive symptoms have a partner with strong social support, the association between parental depression and child behaviors was weaker. For early child development, Leve believed that a stable connection with the primary caregiver is essential for the children's development. Her research with the Society for Prevention Research showed that prevention programs for drug use proved to be more effective and economical than programs for treating it. \\nIn the\",\n \"-32.27420535564306\"\n ],\n [\n \"Behavioral theories of depression Behavioral theories of depression explain the etiology of depression based on the behavioural sciences, and they form the basis for behavioral therapies for depression. Introduction Depression is a significant mental illness with physiological and psychological consequences, including sluggishness, diminished interest and pleasure, and disturbances in sleep and appetite. It is predicted that by the year 2030, depression will be the number one cause of disability in the United States and other high-income countries.\\nBehavioral theories of depression emphasize the role maladaptive actions play in the onset and maintenance of depression. These theories stem from work concerning the\",\n \"-32.25591168032042\"\n ],\n [\n \"risk of major depression is increased with neurological conditions such as stroke, Parkinson's disease, or multiple sclerosis, and during the first year after childbirth. It is also more common after cardiovascular illnesses, and is related more to those with a poor cardiac disease outcome than to a better one. Studies conflict on the prevalence of depression in the elderly, but most data suggest there is a reduction in this age group. Depressive disorders are more common in urban populations than in rural ones and the prevalence is increased in groups with poorer socioeconomic factors, e.g., homelessness. History The Ancient Greek\",\n \"-32.211676342436476\"\n ],\n [\n \"Depression in childhood and adolescence Depression is a state of low mood and aversion to activity. It may be a normal reaction to occurring life events or circumstances, a symptom of a medical condition, a side effect of drugs or medical treatments, or a symptom of certain psychiatric syndromes, such as the mood disorders major depressive disorder and dysthymia. Depression in childhood and adolescence is similar to adult major depressive disorder, although young sufferers may exhibit increased irritability or aggressive and self-destructive behavior, rather than the all-encompassing sadness associated with adult forms of depression. Children who are under stress, experience\",\n \"-32.18591732127243\"\n ],\n [\n \"for example, that Abraham Lincoln's lifelong depression was a source of insight and strength. Some even suggest that \\\"we aren't designed to have happiness as our natural default\\\" and so a state of depression is the evolutionary norm.\\nThe following hypotheses attempt to identify a benefit of depression that outweighs its obvious costs.\\nSuch hypotheses are not necessarily incompatible with one another and may explain different aspects, causes, and symptoms of depression. Psychic pain hypothesis One reason depression is thought to be a pathology is that it causes so much psychic pain and distress. However, physical pain is also very distressful, yet\",\n \"-32.18146228614023\"\n ],\n [\n \"they become vulnerable to the development of depression. Alternatively, individuals with dominant goal personality value person achievement and success. These individuals become vulnerable to depression when they realize that they cannot or have not reached their goals. More generally, depression has been linked to differences in attributional styles and affect. Negative affect, the tendency to react negatively and to be overly sensitive to negative stimuli, predisposes individuals to depression. Conversely, positive affect, the tendency to react positively and to maintain high energy levels and high amounts of positive emotion, may serve as a buffer against depression. Additionally, the tendency to\",\n \"-32.17006202512857\"\n ],\n [\n \"I.V. form. Depression Major depressive disorder, otherwise known as depression, is a disorder that is characterized by a pervasive and persistent low mood that is accompanied by low self-esteem and by a loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities. Encephalitis Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain. It is usually caused by a foreign substance or a viral infection. Symptoms of this disease include headache, neck pain, drowsiness, nausea, and fever. If caused by the West Nile virus, it may be lethal to humans, as well as birds and horses. Epilepsy/Seizures Epilepsy is an unpredictable, serious, and potentially\",\n \"-32.16410607807484\"\n ],\n [\n \"consideration factors such as chronic conditions, body mass index, and social relationships. In addition to exercise, behavioral rehabilitation and prescribed antidepressants, which is well tolerated in older adults, can be used to treat depression. Anxiety Anxiety is a relatively uncommon diagnosis in older adults and it difficult to determine its prevalence. Anxiety disorders in late life are more likely to be under-diagnosed because of medical comorbidity, cognitive decline, and changes in life circumstances that younger adults do not face. However, in the Epidemiological Catchment Area Project, researchers found that 6-month prevalence rates for anxiety disorders were\",\n \"-32.161986288425396\"\n ],\n [\n \"cases, depressed people may have symptoms of psychosis. These symptoms include delusions or, less commonly, hallucinations, usually unpleasant. Other symptoms of depression include poor concentration and memory (especially in those with melancholic or psychotic features), withdrawal from social situations and activities, reduced sex drive, irritability, and thoughts of death or suicide. Insomnia is common among the depressed. In the typical pattern, a person wakes very early and cannot get back to sleep. Hypersomnia, or oversleeping, can also happen. Some antidepressants may also cause insomnia due to their stimulating effect.\\nA depressed person may report multiple physical symptoms such as fatigue, headaches,\",\n \"-32.136983264950686\"\n ],\n [\n \"Epidemiology of depression The epidemiology of depression has been studied across the world.\\nDepression is a major cause of morbidity worldwide, as the epidemiology has shown. Lifetime prevalence estimates vary widely, from 3% in Japan to 17% in the US. Epidemiological data shows higher rates of depression in the Middle East, North Africa, South Asia and America than in other countries. Among the 10 countries studied, the number of people who would suffer from depression during their lives falls within an 8–12% range in most of them.\\nIn North America, the probability of having a major depressive episode within any year-long period\",\n \"-32.1322855710132\"\n ],\n [\n \"with a chronic general medical condition will develop major depression. Common comorbid disorders include: eating disorders, substance-related disorders, panic disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Up to 25% of people who experience a major depressive episode have a pre-existing dysthymic disorder.\\nSome persons who have a fatal illness or are at the end of their life may experience depression, although this is not universal.\",\n \"-32.12542495638536\"\n ],\n [\n \"affect any individual, those who are depressed are more sensitive to these painful experiences. Due to the importance of social experiences to people's well-being, and to etiology and maintenance of depression, it is vital to examine how depressed people's well-being is enhanced or eroded by positive and negative social interactions.\\nWhen people experience positive social interactions, they should feel a sense of belonging. However, depressed people's social information-processing biases make them less likely to recognize cues of acceptance and belonging in social interactions. For example, in a laboratory study using information-processing tasks assessing attention and memory for sad, physically threatening, socially\",\n \"-32.1101463472296\"\n ],\n [\n \"of mental illness. Those with anxiety tend to view themselves as the center of all events around them, regardless of their nature or how unrelated they are to oneself. On the other hand, people suffering from depression may have a lower tendency towards egocentricity, as evidenced by the fact that they tend to more realistically rate their contributions to group work, while non-depressed participants often overreport their additions. Voting The egocentric bias has also been shown to contribute to a citizen's decision to vote in elections. Firstly, people tend to view their personal choice between voting and abstinence as\",\n \"-32.109500161823235\"\n ],\n [\n \"depression in all cultural groups. Many theorize that in at least one significant relationship one should feel able to disclose nearly completely in order for a healthy personality to develop. While parental behavioral control was once thought to provide the greatest benefits to children in limiting their activities and serving as a source of forced protection, more recent research strongly suggests that disclosures to parents that provide the parents with information about daily activities actually shows the most promise in fostering positive development through childhood and adolescence. Development of reciprocity Reciprocity in children's self-disclosures is often examined in children's friendships.\",\n \"-32.08076921231077\"\n ],\n [\n \"the emotional distress caused by infidelity and health-compromising behaviors, perception of blame and self-esteem, and the differences in the reactions of men and women.\\nNot only did they prove the connection between the distress and risky behavior, but they also found that those who blamed themselves for their partners unfaithfulness were also more like to participate in risky behavior.\\nThe researchers proved the more distress you feel the more likely the individual is to take part in unhealthy acts and the more the victim blamed themselves the more distress they experienced. They also found that women felt more emotional distress than men\",\n \"-32.08057925344474\"\n ],\n [\n \"unnecessary harm. In this way, depression helps maintain a social hierarchy. This theory is a special case of a more general theory derived from the psychic pain hypothesis: that the cognitive response that produces modern-day depression evolved as a mechanism that allows people to assess whether they are in pursuit of an unreachable goal, and if they are, to motivate them to desist. Social risk hypothesis This hypothesis is similar to the social rank hypothesis but focuses more on the importance of avoiding exclusion from social groups, rather than direct dominance contests. The fitness benefits of forming cooperative bonds\",\n \"-32.05693226858057\"\n ],\n [\n \"This finding held true even when the depression was manipulated experimentally. However, when replicating the findings Msetfi et al. (2005, 2007) found that the overestimation of control in nondepressed people only showed up when the interval was long enough, implying that this is because they take more aspects of a situation into account than their depressed counterparts. Also, Dykman et al. (1989) showed that depressed people believe they have no control in situations where they actually do, so their perception is not more accurate overall. Allan et al. (2007) has proposed that the pessimistic bias of depressives resulted in \\\"depressive\",\n \"-32.041518953992636\"\n ],\n [\n \"and Stress: Effective Therapeutic Intervention, Causes of Anxiety and Depression in Marriage, and Conjoint Therapy for Marital Problems, Divorce: Can and Should it be prevented? While the online tracking of health parameters is available for therapists and patients through Lifetrack.com and is systematically presented through cases for therapists in an eBook for therapists; Breakthrough Intimacy – Sad to Happy Through Closeness, or compared to other approaches such as Maslow, Murray, Freud and others on Positive Mental Health Foundation, these teaching materials give preference to those familiar with online technologies. For Lifetrack to spread, additional clinical teaching or academic\",\n \"-32.02202824085816\"\n ],\n [\n \"decision-making, even if the decision has already been made. This atypically high activity in the right anterior insula is thought to contribute to the experience of negative and worrisome feelings. In major depressive disorder, anxiety is often a part of the emotional state that characterizes depression.\",\n \"-32.01927811712085\"\n ],\n [\n \"pathological. Yet if sufferers of depression have real but unmet needs, they might have to provide an incentive to others to address those needs.\\nThe bargaining theory of depression is similar to the honest signaling, niche change, and social navigation theories of depression described below. It draws on theories of labor strikes developed by economists to basically add one additional element to honest signaling theory: The fitness of social partners is generally correlated. When a wife suffers depression and reduces her investment in offspring, for example, the husband's fitness is also put at risk. Thus, not only do the symptoms of\",\n \"-32.00038867309922\"\n ],\n [\n \" This model proposes that emotional pain, like physical pain, serves a useful adaptive purpose. Negative emotions like disappointment, sadness, grief, fear, anxiety, anger, and guilt are described as \\\"evolved strategies that allow for the identification and avoidance of specific problems, especially in the social domain.\\\" Depression is characteristically associated with anhedonia and lack of energy, and those experiencing it are risk-aversive and perceive more negative and pessimistic outcomes because they are focused on preventing further loss. Although the model views depression as an adaptive response, it does not suggest that it is beneficial by the standards\",\n \"-31.97818962427118\"\n ],\n [\n \"evidence suggesting that inflammation is not sufficient for the development of major depression, evidence for a lack of complete overlap also comes from findings that depression often occurs without existing immune challenges, with social adversity appearing to cause depression without the requirement of underlying inflammation. Similarly, the existence of variation in the degree to which depressed individuals experience inflammation has also been seen to suggest that it is possible that some instances of depression may occur without inflammation. However, it is possible that all instances of depression involve increased inflammation, something which is consistent with the idea that depression\",\n \"-31.963454619217373\"\n ],\n [\n \"afflicted. Whereas the relatives and shrinks ... they rather welcome it: You are quiet and you suffer. Views on mental illness Millett disputed diagnoses and labels like manic depression (bipolar disorder) and schizophrenia, which she claimed are placed upon people who exhibit socially unacceptable behavior. \\\"Many healthy people, she said, are 'driven to mental illness' by society's disapproval and by the 'authoritarian institution of psychiatry.' She attributed her own depression to her diagnosis, and not the other way around, writing, \\\"When you have been told that your mind is unsound, there is a kind of despair that takes over\\\". Millett documented\",\n \"-31.90063491114455\"\n ],\n [\n \"anxiety disorder 12% of the population. Women are 1.5 times more likely to suffer from mood and anxiety disorders. WHO points out that there are distinct gender differences in patterns of mental health and illness. The lack of power and control over their socioeconomic status, gender based violence; low social position and responsibility for the care of others render women vulnerable to mental health risks. Since more women than men seek help regarding a mental health problem, this has led to not only gender stereotyping but also reinforcing social stigma. WHO has found that this stereotyping has led doctors to\",\n \"-31.86489985774824\"\n ],\n [\n \"include social activities, resulting in social withdrawal.\\nSocial skills training can be adapted to the treatment of depression with a focus on assertiveness training. Depressed patients often benefit from learning to set limits to others, to obtain satisfaction for their own needs, and to feel more self-confident in social interactions. Research suggests that patients who are depressed because they tend to withdraw from others can benefit from social skills training by learning to increase positive social interactions with others instead of pulling back. Social anxiety disorder Asocial behavior is observed in people with social anxiety disorder (SAD), who experience perpetual and\",\n \"-31.85498639108846\"\n ],\n [\n \"very similar to major depressive disorder in the symptoms present. Generally, a person's mood is affected by thoughts and feelings of being sad or down on themself or by a loss of interest in nearly all activities. People can experience ups and downs in their life everyday where an event, action, stress or many other factors can affect their feelings on that day. However, depression occurs when those feelings of sadness persist for longer than a few weeks.\\nA person is considered to have minor depressive disorder if they experience 2 to 4 depressive symptoms during a 2-week period. The Diagnostic\",\n \"-31.85270718704851\"\n ],\n [\n \"terminally ill may not always come to accept their impending death. For example, a person who finds strength in denial may never reach a point of acceptance or accommodation and may react negatively to any statement that threatens this defense mechanism. Impact on patient Depression is relatively common among terminal patients, and the prevalence increases as patients become sicker. Depression causes quality of life to go down, and a sizable portion of patients who request assisted suicide are depressed. These negative emotions may be heightened by lack of sleep and pain as well. Depression can be treated with antidepressants and/or therapy, but doctors\",\n \"-31.836871433028136\"\n ],\n [\n \"irritable mood rather than a depressed one, and show varying symptoms depending on age and situation. Most lose interest in school and show a decline in academic performance. They may be described as clingy, demanding, dependent, or insecure. Diagnosis may be delayed or missed when symptoms are interpreted as \\\"normal moodiness.\\\" Associated conditions Major depression frequently co-occurs with other psychiatric problems. The 1990–92 National Comorbidity Survey (US) reports that half of those with major depression also have lifetime anxiety and its associated disorders such as generalized anxiety disorder. Anxiety symptoms can have a major impact on the course of a\",\n \"-31.829971197752457\"\n ],\n [\n \"Endogenous depression Endogenous depression (melancholia) is an atypical sub-class of the mood disorder, major depressive disorder (clinical depression). It could be caused by genetic and biological factors. Endogenous depression occurs due to the presence of an internal (cognitive, biological) stressor instead of an external (social, environmental) stressor. Endogenous depression includes patients with treatment-resistant, non-psychotic, major depressive disorder, characterized by abnormal behavior of the endogenous opioid system but not the monoaminergic system. Symptoms vary in severity, type, and frequency and can be attributed to cognitive, social, biological, or environmental factors that result in persistent feelings of sadness and distress. Since symptoms\",\n \"-31.818917774992087\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":590,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"1vzi61"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Do ex-prisoners who have been found not-guilty a while into their wrongful sentencing receive any compensation for their unnecessary time in prison?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["It depends on a lot of factors. For instance, some states will only pay *exonerated* prisoners. Note that being \"exonerated\" is different from being found \"not guilty\" on appeal or at a new trial. \"Exonerated\" is defined by some states as being absolutely ruled out as a guilty person-- for instance, by DNA evidence. It is not enough to be found \"not guilty\" on appeal because of, for instance, bad jury instructions. Other states only offer compensation for people who are convicted because of misconduct by prosecutors or police-- not just a bad jury decision that is later set aside. That can make getting compensation very hard in cases of coerced confessions (which *do* happen). In many states, there are legal guidelines for payouts to the wrongfully imprisoned, but the money isn't paid automatically. People who are wrongfully sent to prison often have to sue to get this money-- and the cost involved in suing can make it hard. The Innocence Project has a [good guide to which states in the United States have laws to pay the wrongfully imprisoned]( URL_0 ). For instance, Nevada doesn't have any laws to pay people wrongfully sent to prison. Texas, on the other hand, provides $80k per year in prison, plus $25k per year spent on the sex offender registry, college tuition, and back child support payments-- but only if the wrongfully imprisoned person has been pardoned or \"granted relief on the basis of actual innocence\". The short answer is: it varies significantly from place to place. And this is a fairly US-centric answer: I have no idea what the laws are outside the United States.","There are some states that won't even expunge your record if you are found to have been wrongly convicted. I watched a movie once about a few people who were wrongly convicted then later released because of DNA evidence. One guy was wrongly accused of rape simply because he was wearing the wrong color sweatshirt at the time. 15 years later they got the correct guy and let him out. On record he was still a convicted rapist and had to tell people he was a convicted felon. He was fighting to get his record expunged but it was time consuming and expensive. The guy actually carried his exoneration papers around with him everywhere he went because he was afraid the police would stop him, see that it their system listed him as a convicted rapist and arrest him thinking he had escaped from prison.","Yes! In Germany, for example, it is 25€ each day imprisoned.","If only you could save it up and use it as credit on future sentences. \"I hear by charge you and sentence you to 3 years in jail\" - \"Thanks judge, I'ed like to use some of my credit have 5 years racked up thus far.\" - \"Officer, let this free man go, sentenced to time already served.\"","there's a.. strong suggestion of a 50k compensation for every year of wrongful imprisonment, but it's upto the individual states to determine how much they actually give. some give nothing, many give change for a taxi and a meal, and only a handful give the full 50k.","It really depends on the case and what the prosecutor did. Being wrongfully convicted of a crime doesn't make the state liable unless they IGNORED something or did something wrong.","What? An apology isn't enough? In all seriousness, I worked for a company that kept track of how many people were freed thanks to our DNA tests.","Last legislative session a law was adopted in Washington state providing 20k per year of imprsonment following exoneration. Came from a case out of Clark Co where two guys were convicted of rape and exonerated by DNA evidence after 18 years in prison. Before that, no compensation.","Do any states (or I guess non-US countries as well) pay compensation to families of innocent people who were executed?","There's this [paper]( URL_0 ) which goes into some details about compensation for wrongful conviction in Australia. To summarise there are 3 ways you can receive compensation * Ex Gratia payment - The state can make a payment to you however they do not admit any wrong doing and the process is fairly secretive. The paper I linked to is quite critical of these payments * Sue someone - Generally you have to show that someone was responsible for your false conviction. This is hard to do and in some cases it's not possible at all. * Private bill - You get a politician to sponsor a bill that will get you compensation. This is extremely rare. You can get compensation in Australia but it's neither guaranteed nor is the process transparent.","\"Life after death row\" by Saundra westervelt she is one if my professors at UNCG.","I think this question belongs more in /r/answers, seeing how it's a T/F question."],"string":"[\n \"It depends on a lot of factors. For instance, some states will only pay *exonerated* prisoners. Note that being \\\"exonerated\\\" is different from being found \\\"not guilty\\\" on appeal or at a new trial. \\\"Exonerated\\\" is defined by some states as being absolutely ruled out as a guilty person-- for instance, by DNA evidence. It is not enough to be found \\\"not guilty\\\" on appeal because of, for instance, bad jury instructions. Other states only offer compensation for people who are convicted because of misconduct by prosecutors or police-- not just a bad jury decision that is later set aside. That can make getting compensation very hard in cases of coerced confessions (which *do* happen). In many states, there are legal guidelines for payouts to the wrongfully imprisoned, but the money isn't paid automatically. People who are wrongfully sent to prison often have to sue to get this money-- and the cost involved in suing can make it hard. The Innocence Project has a [good guide to which states in the United States have laws to pay the wrongfully imprisoned]( URL_0 ). For instance, Nevada doesn't have any laws to pay people wrongfully sent to prison. Texas, on the other hand, provides $80k per year in prison, plus $25k per year spent on the sex offender registry, college tuition, and back child support payments-- but only if the wrongfully imprisoned person has been pardoned or \\\"granted relief on the basis of actual innocence\\\". The short answer is: it varies significantly from place to place. And this is a fairly US-centric answer: I have no idea what the laws are outside the United States.\",\n \"There are some states that won't even expunge your record if you are found to have been wrongly convicted. I watched a movie once about a few people who were wrongly convicted then later released because of DNA evidence. One guy was wrongly accused of rape simply because he was wearing the wrong color sweatshirt at the time. 15 years later they got the correct guy and let him out. On record he was still a convicted rapist and had to tell people he was a convicted felon. He was fighting to get his record expunged but it was time consuming and expensive. The guy actually carried his exoneration papers around with him everywhere he went because he was afraid the police would stop him, see that it their system listed him as a convicted rapist and arrest him thinking he had escaped from prison.\",\n \"Yes! In Germany, for example, it is 25€ each day imprisoned.\",\n \"If only you could save it up and use it as credit on future sentences. \\\"I hear by charge you and sentence you to 3 years in jail\\\" - \\\"Thanks judge, I'ed like to use some of my credit have 5 years racked up thus far.\\\" - \\\"Officer, let this free man go, sentenced to time already served.\\\"\",\n \"there's a.. strong suggestion of a 50k compensation for every year of wrongful imprisonment, but it's upto the individual states to determine how much they actually give. some give nothing, many give change for a taxi and a meal, and only a handful give the full 50k.\",\n \"It really depends on the case and what the prosecutor did. Being wrongfully convicted of a crime doesn't make the state liable unless they IGNORED something or did something wrong.\",\n \"What? An apology isn't enough? In all seriousness, I worked for a company that kept track of how many people were freed thanks to our DNA tests.\",\n \"Last legislative session a law was adopted in Washington state providing 20k per year of imprsonment following exoneration. Came from a case out of Clark Co where two guys were convicted of rape and exonerated by DNA evidence after 18 years in prison. Before that, no compensation.\",\n \"Do any states (or I guess non-US countries as well) pay compensation to families of innocent people who were executed?\",\n \"There's this [paper]( URL_0 ) which goes into some details about compensation for wrongful conviction in Australia. To summarise there are 3 ways you can receive compensation * Ex Gratia payment - The state can make a payment to you however they do not admit any wrong doing and the process is fairly secretive. The paper I linked to is quite critical of these payments * Sue someone - Generally you have to show that someone was responsible for your false conviction. This is hard to do and in some cases it's not possible at all. * Private bill - You get a politician to sponsor a bill that will get you compensation. This is extremely rare. You can get compensation in Australia but it's neither guaranteed nor is the process transparent.\",\n \"\\\"Life after death row\\\" by Saundra westervelt she is one if my professors at UNCG.\",\n \"I think this question belongs more in /r/answers, seeing how it's a T/F question.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["years per count).\nUnder Arizona law, his sentence was to be served without possibility of probation, parole, pardon or clemency. Thus, all three sentences would have assured that Berger would die in prison. The appeals Berger's lawyers appealed the sentence, citing the Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which prohibits \"cruel and unusual punishment\". They argued that although each 10-year sentence was not too long in itself, the cumulative total of 200 years was grossly disproportionate to Berger's conduct overall, given that it was a longer sentence than those imposed for murder or rape of a child in","-29.1482108879718"],["the court in exchange for having their cases moved forward. Some of those who paid did not get anything in return. Owing partly to a shortage of judges and other qualified judicial officials, defendants are often kept in pretrial detention for long periods, which sometimes are longer than the terms they would have been sentenced to if put on trial and found guilty. Also, there is considerable judicial corruption, with the executive branch exerting influence over judges, and lawyers bribing judges. Judges who support the ruling party are given higher positions than those who support an independent judiciary. ","-29.069712726541184"],["the courts and the prisons with remand prisoners. It is in the public interest that pending criminal cases be disposed off as expeditiously as possible and accused persons who plead guilty be imposed with a reduced sentence. Honesty is an universal obligation and a reduced sentence encourages honesty when an accused pleads guilty, the end result being that more accused persons would willingly admit guilt without a trial, thus, reducing the workload of the prosecutor's office and the clearance of the backlog of cases. Family and Social Service In 1976, he married Devagey Raru. A son, Sashikharan was born in","-29.026018206146546"],["to be stripped of his position following the sentencing. He has already begun serving his sentence.\n12 others were sentenced to 10 years in prison and one accused was sentenced to six months. One of the convicts facing life sentence is due to only serve 10 years since he was a minor at the time of the incident. Three of the tried have been acquitted. More than 30 suspects are still at large.","-28.665871816167964"],["15 to 20 years before being paroled, although those convicted of exceptionally grave crimes remain behind bars for considerably longer; Ian Huntley was given a minimum term of 40 years. Some receive whole life sentences which make it almost certain that they will die in prison; they can only be considered for release on appeal to the High Court, or in exceptional circumstances such as great age or ill health.\nBy 2015, there were at least 60 prisoners in England and Wales serving such sentences, issued by either the High Court or the Home Office. These include \"Yorkshire Ripper\" Peter Sutcliffe.","-28.663762958720326"],["to either serve three months in prison or pay 200 dinars (US$530). On 28 March 2013, 21 of the 23 convictions were overturned by an appeals court. The remaining two health workers had chosen not to appeal their sentences. Torture of health workers Many of the detained health workers stated that they were ill-treated or tortured while in custody, leading Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International to call for independent investigations. Authorities reportedly forced detainees to stand for long periods, beat them with boards and rubber hoses, and deprived them of sleep in an effort to force confessions. In one","-28.626168440983747"],["Practices vary from state to state, but the clemency process usually requires the governor or board of advisors or both. Since 1976 273 death row inmates have been granted clemency for humanitarian reasons. These include doubts about the petitioner's guilt or a governor's personal stance on capital punishment. Innocence Work Overturning a conviction after dozens of appeals and petitions have been denied is notoriously difficult, though prisoners have some options at their disposal. They can still attain freedom if legitimate innocence can be proven. The most common method is by using DNA evidence to disprove a crime that happened before","-28.42438550433144"],["— and acquitted him on one count of making false statements. Given current federal sentencing guidelines, which are not mandatory, the convictions could result in a sentence ranging from no imprisonment to imprisonment of up to 25 years and a fine of one million US dollars. Given those non-binding guidelines, according to lawyer, author, New Yorker staff writer, and CNN senior legal analyst Jeffrey Toobin on Anderson Cooper 360°, such a sentence could likely be between \"one and a half to three years\". Sentencing was scheduled for June 2007. His lawyers have announced their intention to seek a new","-28.35511708201375"],["But the sentence is still 'life' and there is no guarantee they will ever get out. Former Board chairman, Sir David Carruthers says murderers and those given indefinite sentences will remain behind bars until they are no longer considered a risk to the community. If they are released, they remain subject to release conditions for the rest of their life and can be recalled if they break their conditions in any way. Parole conditions Having served the minimum non-parole period of their sentence, if the Board feels that an offender no longer poses an undue risk, it may agree to","-28.253956897184253"],["seven convicts were jointly sentenced to pay had been paid. Because earlier deadlines for payment had passed, the amount to be paid had increased to 68,00 euro. If the full amount was not paid by 14 January 2017, they could be put under pressure to pay in two ways: each person could be incarcerated for up to one year (this would not lower the amount of compensation), and a bailiff could seize the property of each mature convict (in this case only El-Hasan D.).\nBecause El-Hasan D. was on welfare so that he could not comply with payment arrangements and the other","-28.246170318656368"],["with prosecutors asking for two to four years imprisonment with a three-year stay of execution. Citing the young age of the offenders and the fact that some had already been admitted to college or hired for jobs, the judges refused the charges against even these ten, instead sending them to Juvenile Court. One factor in this decision was that the father of one of the victims formed an agreement with some of the offenders to plead for leniency after receiving a large sum of money. The father was an alcoholic who had divorced the victim's mother three years prior due","-28.020797218603548"],["no way for a defendant to agree to plead guilty in exchange for having a case dealt with by magistrates.\nMagistrates' courts have limited powers of sentencing; for example, they may not impose a sentence of imprisonment longer than six months. If the defendant is tried summarily in the Magistrates' Court and is convicted, there may still be a committal to the Crown Court for sentencing if the magistrates think that their sentencing powers are inadequate. Thus it is not possible for a defendant to avoid the harsher sentences available in the Crown Court simply by accepting a summary trial. History","-27.923974260804243"],["period of 18 to 22 years before they become eligible for parole. \nIn the case of child murder involving rape or torture, the premeditated murder of a state official (since 2011), and terrorism resulting in death, the court can impose a safety period of up to 30 years, or order that the prisoner is ineligible for parole at all, and thus will spend the rest of their natural lives in prison.\nIt is possible to give a reduction of the safety period for serious signs of social re-adaptation (even if the court has ordered that the prisoner is to spend the","-27.923868476471398"],["and mental health Forensic psychologist Eric Cullen and prison governor Tim Newell claim that prisoners face a throffer once they are told that they must acknowledge their guilt before they are offered parole or moved to an open prison. Cullen and Newell cite the example of a prisoner who falsely admitted guilt to move to an open prison; once there, however, he felt he could no longer lie about his guilt, and confessed to the prison's governor. He was subsequently transferred back to a maximum security prison. In the case of sex offenders, a throffer is presented when they are","-27.853600737871602"],["to make a recorded statement disavowing her husband and praising the party which airs during the trial. The prisoners are variously sentenced to either death or life imprisonment, with Artur given the latter. When their interrogators do not return to them, the prisoners panic and threaten to appeal, but are told by their court-appointed lawyers that the sentences are only for the party's benefit and will not be enforced if they do not appeal. The convicted men appear in court one final time to accept their sentences and waive their right to appeal.\nAfterwards, Artur and some of his colleagues are","-27.848040364769986"],["Julian Young, Hodgson's lawyer, also commented that Hodgson did not receive any official support to adjust to life after 27 years. Inmates who serve out a long sentence undergo a long process of re-integration into society. \"A person released after a conviction is quashed is not entitled to the same level of support; Sean was, in fact, released with a one-off discharge payment of £46. That was it.\" Compensatory action can be difficult to obtain. A compensation fund exists \"from which, unbelievably, the government deducts 'board and lodging' for the time spent in prison.\" In the years it can take for","-27.826094944030046"],["high pay began, was exonerated of all charges. Subsequently, on March 21, a juror wrote notes to the judge requesting reconsideration of past verdicts, and another juror wrote a note accusing other jurors of bad behavior. \"It seems that all hell has broken loose,\" remarked the judge to attorneys in the case. After another day of deliberation, the judge declared a mistrial on all remaining counts, leaving the prosecution to determine if they wanted the case retried. Former City Manager and assistant At Rizzo's hearing, documents acquired from former Assistant City Manager Angela Spaccia's computer by District Attorney Steve Cooley","-27.74838784802705"],["jurors had to decide if Hayes should be executed or imprisoned for life. The second day of these deliberations began on November 6, 2010. Defense attorney Thomas Ullman told the jury that a sentence of life in prison would be the harshest possible punishment for his client Hayes, because he was so tormented by his crimes and would be isolated in prison. \"Life in prison without the possibility of release is the harshest penalty,\" Ullman said. \"It is a fate worse than death. If you want to end his misery, put him to death,\" he added. \"If you want him","-27.741902833324275"],["an offender to pay a fine to avoid further prosecution. Prosecutors have tremendous discretion to dispose of crimes through the use of transactions. However, transactions can only be offered in cases where the maximum statutory prison sentence is less than six years. Approximately 90% of crimes can be appropriately disposed of via a transaction. Yet, in practice, roughly 30% of all cases are settled through the use of a transaction, with prosecutorial guidelines established to minimise arbitrariness. Transactions provide an opportunity for offenders to forgo the stigmatisation that results from the more traditional disposition of cases. Critics however allege that","-27.713934128551045"],["murderers should spend in prison before being considered for parole. Judges are not obliged to follow the guidelines, but must give reasons in court if they depart from them - whether recommending a lesser or higher minimum term than in accordance with the guidelines.\nThe guidelines recommended that multiple murderers (who murder two or more people) whose crimes involved sexual abuse, pre-planning, abduction or terrorism should never be released from prison. Such a sentence is known as a \"whole life order\". The murder of a single child following abduction, sexual or sadistic conduct also qualifies, as does the murder of a","-27.67777948686853"],["crime eligible for $160,000 for each year of incarceration—half paid as a lump sum, and half paid out over the claimant’s lifetime as an annuity—and provide them with free college tuition. Texas law firm Glasheen, Valles & Inderman also worked with Texas Senator John Cornyn to convince the United States Internal Revenue Service that compensation for incarceration stemming from a wrongful conviction should not be treated as taxable income, that instead it should be treated the same as compensation for personal injuries which is not taxable income. This ultimately led to the passing of the Protecting Americans from Tax Hikes","-27.671006344065972"],["the funds to be cleared, many victims of miscarriages of justice live off social security payments.\nGerry Conlon, who was wrongly imprisoned for 15 years, also warns that after-release support is inadequate. After the imposed routine of prison life, outside prison \"you are lost\". Suicidal thoughts and attempts, panic attacks, nightmares and drug use are common. \"Most people released after miscarriages of justice end up as recluses, their marriages fail, they aren't talking to their children, they become drug addicts and alcoholics, they die premature deaths.\"\nHodgson's release has sparked debate about the use of the death penalty, particularly about its fallibility. Neil","-27.6626754963072"],["the end of his sentence and so help him in the community.\nIt is most important that we stop offenders in their tracks early. If we do that, we will build respect for the police and our institutions. However, that will take a long time and it might take 10 years to roll back the contempt which has been built into our society.\nAs a criminal practitioner with years of experience in the law, I know that many of my clients with records have received non-custodial sentences. They have walked away from court and their parting words to me have often been,","-27.62771885562688"],["probation. . . . Forty-five percent of all prisoners are repeat offenders. Thus there are very few nonviolent first offenders in prison, and nearly all of those have already failed the court's attempt at alternative punishment. The convicts in prison are there because they deserve to be. [While prison cells are expensive], not providing those cells is far more expensive. . . . A typical multi-offender inmate will commit 187 crimes per year, for a total crime cost to society of $430,000. With this comparison, the $25,800 cost of imprisoning criminals seems reasonable.\"","-27.616381934960373"],["were sentenced on 22 February 2008 to 37 months of imprisonment. They were given no remission for the time they had spent in the United States awaiting trial. They were also required to repay $7.3 million to Royal Bank of Scotland, the successor bank to Greenwich NatWest, of which $1.25 million would be due when the men surrendered themselves to prison authorities. During sentencing, the Three each made brief statements to the judge. Mulgrew said that he had shown a \"lack of integrity\" and \"exercised poor judgement\", concluding that \"I have no one to blame but myself\". Darby admitted","-27.57948128521093"],["formally amended in 1951 to conform to the abolition. Previous death sentences were replaced by life imprisonment. As the constitution requires that prisoners have a chance of regaining freedom with other means than extralegal pardon only, prisoners are checked for release on parole after 15 years for regular intervals. Since the introduction of this provision, courts may in extreme cases declare special gravity of guilt which is meant and popularized as life without parole.\nAlthough article 21.1 of the constitution of the German state of Hesse provided capital punishment for high crimes, this provision was inoperative due to the federal ban","-27.399707313103136"],["statute to a maximum sum of £1,000,000 for those who have been incarcerated for more than ten years and £500,000 for any other cases, with deductions for the cost of food and prison cell during that time. See also Overturned convictions in the United Kingdom.\nRichard Foster, the Chairman of the Criminal Cases Review Commission (CCRC), reported in October 2018 that the single biggest cause of miscarriage of justice was the failure to disclose vital evidence. England, Wales and Northern Ireland Until 2005, the parole system assumed all convicted persons were guilty, and poorly handled those who were not. To be","-27.376255531504285"],["proper deference to the policy judgments that find expression in the legislature's choice of sanctions.\" Ewing's sentence might be long, but it \"reflects a rational judgment, entitled to deference, that offenders who have committed serious or violent felonies and who continue to commit felonies must be incapacitated.\" For this reason, O'Connor reasoned that Ewing's 25-years-to-life sentence did not violate the Eighth Amendment.\nJustice Scalia was willing to accept that the Eighth Amendment contained a gross disproportionality requirement \"if I felt I could intelligently apply it.\" However, because a criminal sentence can have many justifications—not simply retribution, a goal","-27.37491143733496"],["shortcomings are even more felt in the remand prisons, including the Pankrác Prison. Although the principle of \"not guilty until proven otherwise\" applies, in reality the inmates held on remand face worse regime than those convicted, as they cannot take part in educational, sport or working activities, mostly because they are expected to be held only for a limited time (the average is approximately 100 days) before being either released or moved after the verdict.\nThe prisoners held on remand spend up to 23 hours a day locked in their prison cells, where there is no access to warm water and","-27.361853173468262"],["detainees can be held for up to 23 days after arrest, with no state-funded legal representation. They are typically interrogated for 12 hours a day: no lawyers can be present, no recordings are made, and they are put under constant pressure to confess. Once convicted, it is very difficult to obtain a re-trial and prisoners can remain under sentence of death for many years.\nAmnesty also reports allegations of abuse of suspects during these interrogations. There are reports of physical abuse, sleep deprivation and denial of food, water and use of a toilet. One of its biggest criticisms is that inmates","-27.308310291206"],["to avoid another sentencing hearing and was sentenced to life in prison without parole in September, 2018.","-27.29706091236585"],["judges to give credit to individuals who have spent time incarcerated prior to conviction. Until then, as discussed by Justice Arbour in R v. Wust, credit for pre-sentencing custody was not determined by a 'mathematical formula', but many judges frequently granted a two-for-one credit.\nThat is justified by the quantitative and qualitative differences between pre-and post-sentencing incarceration. Most individuals who are incarcerated will not serve the full length of their sentence, and because time spent incarcerated pre-sentence does not count towards remission time, if a lengthy pre-sentence incarceration is credited equally to post-sentencing incarceration, the convicted individual will serve","-27.296561604947783"],["as the United States will merely result in a default judgment being rendered in absentia if the defendant willfully declines to appear by law, a substantial number of indigent debtors are legally incarcerated for the crime of failing to appear at civil debt proceedings as ordered by a judge. In this case, the crime is not indigence, but disobeying the judge's order to appear before the court. Critics argue that the \"willful\" terminology is subject to individual mens rea determination by a judge, rather than statute, and that since this presents the potential for judges to incarcerate legitimately indigent","-27.283191869279108"],["stated on the record of the case is that the case was dismissed after conviction. If the petitioner is later convicted of the same crime again, then the expungement may be reversed. Certificate of rehabilitation For persons who serve sentences in the state prison system (felons), they must apply to the Superior Court for a Certificate of Rehabilitation (CR). The CR does not remove or expunge anything negative from the individual's record; however, it places something positive on it. Among other requirements, the applicant must live in California and have done so for at least 5 consecutive","-27.282270170049742"],["plead guilty if the chance of acquittal is low, or if the expected sentence on a guilty plea is less than the amount of jail time that would be served pretrial. Pretrial detainees may also find it harder to mount an effective defense.\nThe Open Society Foundation report also concluded that some detainees face worse conditions than convicted prisoners; for example the suicide rate is three times higher worldwide.","-27.20352729014121"],["of light punishment for first-time offenders. Under the plea agreement in which they would have forfeited $100,000 and faced 6–15 months in prison, they would have been able to keep their homes. If found guilty at trial, they could have received up to 5 years imprisonment and a fine of $250,000 per count, but they would not have to agree to cooperate with the University investigation.\nLess than a week after Martin backed out of his plea agreement, several former players were subpoenaed to testify before grand juries. In August 2000, Traylor and Bullock, by this time professional basketball","-27.183942390489392"],["allowances over the period that they were ineligible to sit. The government could demand repayment of such amounts or it can waive repayment. In Re Culleton (No 2) (2017), for example, the government demanded repayment from Rod Culleton, after he was found to have been ineligible, as \"a debt to the commonwealth\", and indicated it might also seek repayment of superannuation payments, other entitlements and staff payments. There is also possibility of an action being brought under s 3 of the Common Informers (Parliamentary Disqualifications) Act 1975, which provides that any person can bring an action for a penalty against","-27.1720525638666"],["the available sentencing power of two years' detention is adequate to punish the offender if found guilty. History See section 64 of the Criminal Law Act 1977. \nGrand juries were abolished in 1933. Offences triable only on indictment Some offences such as murder and rape are considered so serious that they can only be tried on indictment at the Crown Court where the widest range of sentencing powers is available to the judge.\nThe expression indictable-only offence was defined by section 51 of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, as originally enacted, as an offence triable only on indictment. Sections 51","-27.147765864938265"],["fines or probation fees. Consequently, they resort to jail term as opposed to community corrections sentence.\nA 2014 study revealed that judges subconsciously utilize the assumption that minorities are more likely to recidivate to issue a longer sentencing that will prevent the defendants from reengaging in criminal offenses. Additionally, theorists advocate that minorities are stereotypically identified as more violent and guilty than whites. This perception encourages judges to believe that they are preventing the onset of future crimes by imprisoning the defendants for a longer duration. This preconception that minorities are unable to economically support themselves warns the judicial system that","-27.13826190723921"],["a day for up to 12 months Detainees may be able to work but also have to undertake rehabilitation programmes to address the causes of their offending. Any leave of absence to attend work, rehabilitation programmes, or important appointments such as the doctor, requires pre-approval of the offender's probation officer.\nIn 2014, approximately 1,800 offenders were serving sentences of home detention. Offenders are likely to be sent to prison if they leave the address without permission or breach the home detention rules. However, 'breaches' sometimes occur because the signal 'drops out' giving the impression that the offender has absconded from the","-27.1314374479698"],["sentenced to 10-month imprisonment (with three years suspended). The Supreme Court considered that the contested decision of the Court of Appeals had no legal justification and presented logical gaps, inconsistencies, and shortcomings. Moreover, the Supreme Court ruling that any disclosure of the outcome of the conference only a court is no longer a criminal offense [sic], which means that the three defendants will be treated under more favorable conditions when judged again by the court.\nIn October 2013 it was reported that fourteen persons, including Abbot Efrem and monk Arsenios were indicted on several counts including money laundering related to the","-27.129164954298176"],["making sentences more predictable.\nA counter-argument is that criminal sentencing laws are \"lumpy\", in that the sentencing ranges are not as precise as the dollars-and-cents calibration that can be achieved in civil case settlements. Furthermore, because some defendants facing small amounts of prison time are jailed pending trial, they may find it in their interests to plead guilty so as to be sentenced to time served, or in any event to end up serving less time than they would serve waiting for trial. Outcomes in criminal cases are also made less predictable by the fact that, while a plaintiff in a","-27.127442995959427"],["each given a suspended imposition of sentence for 10 years. If they re-offend they can be sent back to prison for 21 years.\nFactors cited by prosecutor Scott Ellington for agreeing to the plea deal included that two of the victims' families had joined the cause of the defense, that the mother of a witness who testified about Echols's confession had questioned her daughter's truthfulness, and that the State Crime Lab employee who collected fiber evidence at the Echols and Baldwin homes after their arrests had died. As part of the plea deal, the three men cannot pursue civil action against","-27.072067871893523"],["still be imposed, but the finding that the circumstances of the crime justify the sentence must be made by a jury, rather than by the judge.\nOn November 23, 2016, Roeder was re-sentenced to life in prison but now eligible to apply for parole after serving 25 years rather than after 50 years. As before, besides the sentence for murder, Roeder was also sentenced to two additional years for aggravated assault because he had threatened to shoot two church ushers while fleeing the murder. Sedgwick County District Attorney Marc Bennett said that prosecutors made the decision not to convene","-27.03404356498504"],["when deciding sentences, call for between eight and ten years behind bars. According to The Wall Street Journal, Vanity Fair, and CBS, prosecutors are recommending 36 months of supervised release. In addition, Tobin has agreed to forfeit $4 million as part of his plea deal. Tobin was scheduled for sentencing at a hearing in June 2019, but this did not in fact take place.\nOn March 12, 2019, federal prosecutors in Boston unsealed a criminal complaint charging 50 people with conspiracy to commit felony mail fraud and honest services mail fraud in violation of Title 18 United States Code, Section 1349. Those","-26.989853668259457"],["the date the defendant completed their sentence in a misdemeanor case or three years in cases that resulted in a felony conviction. There is no waiting period in the case of criminal proceedings that resulted in an acquittal or dismissal with prejudice, however; where a no bill is returned by a grand jury as to an individual, or the proceedings against them are dismissed without prejudice, they are ineligible to petition for the records of the case to be sealed until two years have passed from the date it was returned. Convictions for certain offenses are ineligible for sealing, including","-26.963021891686367"],["mitigate the effect of penalties.\nIn some jurisdictions, the criminal record of the guilty party will still carry the offense, even after probation is adequately served. In other cases, the process of deferred adjudication prevents the conviction from appearing on a person's criminal record, once probation had been completed. \nIn the federal system, judges' authority to suspend sentences has been abolished, by the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984, through the United States Sentencing Commission, and upheld by Mistretta v. United States. Russia In Russia suspended sentence (Russian: условный срок, lit. 'Conditional sentence or probation') is a commonplace and its application is stipulated","-26.948979691020213"],["rehabilitation, saying:\n\"In view of your appalling criminal history, and in view of the particularly serious nature of the crime for which you have been convicted, it is only appropriate that you be sentenced to life imprisonment. Even if the murder of Nicole Patterson had never occurred, I would have no hesitation in imposing a term of life imprisonment upon you.\n\"It is clear, both in the present case and from your previous convictions for rape and like offences, that your offending is connected with a need by you to vindicate a perverted and sadistic hatred of women and a contempt for","-26.922570877109138"],["have shown no remorse for your crimes at all. Your reputation now lies in ruins, you have been stripped of your honours but you have no one to blame but yourself.\" Some sentences were expected to run consecutively, and Harris was expected to serve half of the total time in prison. He was told he must pay prosecution costs, though not compensation to the victims. The sentence was referred to the Attorney General Dominic Grieve after complaints that it was too lenient. On 30 July 2014 the new Attorney General, Jeremy Wright, announced that he would not be referring the","-26.921602275877376"],["sophistication as the average offender, there is a greater likelihood that their deficiency in communicative ability will be interpreted by juries as a lack of remorse for their crimes. They typically make poor witnesses, being more prone to suggestion and willing to \"confess\" in order to placate or please their questioner. Thus, there is a greater risk that the jury may impose the death penalty despite the existence of evidence that suggests that a lesser penalty should be imposed. In light of the \"evolving standards of decency\" that the Eighth Amendment demands, the fact that the goals of retribution and","-26.907748051249655"],["Study\" conducted by the Urban Institute from 2001 to 2006 found that ex-prisoners who worked before imprisonment, and those who find employment soon after release, are less likely to be re-incarcerated within a year of release. The same study found that releasing prisoners to parole supervision both reduces the likelihood that they will engage in substance use and makes it easier for them to find employment after release. Healthcare Other reentry programs focus on improving health among ex-prisoners, which tends to be significantly worse than that of people who have never been imprisoned. Re-entry for women prisoners Women prisoners and","-26.907573849428445"],["been sentenced to life imprisonment under the Crime (Sentences) Act 1997 had been freed on parole since 2000. Victims of crime and their families Gill Smith, whose 18-year-old daughter Louise was murdered in December 1995, praised Mr Blunkett for giving judges the power to set longer minimum terms. Her daughter's killer, David Frost, was convicted of murder and sentenced to life but with a minimum of 14 years, as he had confessed to the crime as well as expressing remorse in court. Mrs Smith felt that 14 years was a very short time, especially when one of the men who","-26.877015773847234"],["your extreme denial and complete absence of any remorse, and the assessment of risk, I have come to the conclusion that a custodial sentence is the only appropriate disposal. In my opinion, the repeated abuse and violent behaviour towards your three former wives and stepdaughter over a period of 28 years outweighs other factors.\" Within a few weeks, lawyers acting on his behalf appeared at the High Court in Edinburgh to appeal against a custodial sentence and this was quickly dismissed.\nHe was released from HM Prison Dumfries on 21 March 2014 under automatic early release rules after serving half of","-26.871074785420205"],["and poor prison conditions\". The government responded to business chambers' concerns by exempting nine of the economic crimes originally targeted. Only offences punishable by at least three years in prison would trigger the transfer of a fugitive, up from the previously stated one year. Nonetheless, these amendments failed to assuage the business community's concerns. According to the CBC, ”[What the] rich business people fear is that the extradition law would destroy the freedoms people and businesses in the territory have grown to expect\". Due to the vast power that politicians and officials exert over the mainland legal system, \"businesses that","-26.855119128362276"],["the public. Since 2004, it has also been possible for preventive detention to be ordered by a court after the original sentencing if the danger that a criminal poses upon release becomes obvious during their imprisonment. Despite its non-punitive status and the broadness of its potential application, though, preventive detention is used only in exceptional cases.\nParoled prisoners usually must stay in regular contact with a civilian \"parole helper\" (Bewährungshelfer) for the duration of their parole. The parole period in the case of life imprisonment is five years (§ 57 III StGB). 1977 judgement on life imprisonment Prior to 1977, all","-26.840258355320657"],["family, who believed that her killing warranted a harsher sentence, and later by Cantat himself, who wanted the higher court to reclassify his crime as manslaughter, and therefore lessen his sentence. Both parties ultimately decided to cancel their appeals, which rendered final the original sentence of eight years. At the request of his lawyers, Cantat was moved from a Lithuanian prison to a prison near Muret, France, September 2004. Cantat served four years of his eight-year sentence in prison. According to French law, after half of a prison sentence has been served, a criminal with good behavior can be released","-26.832176173804328"],["months in one case, and one year in the other. Both sentences were suspended as the defendants were exceptionally remorseful, still mentally ill, and retired. They accepted the verdicts immediately.","-26.818487172713503"],["convictions remain on an individual's criminal record. For example, fines remain on the record for 2 years from the date of payment, unconditional convictions for 5 years from date of release from prison, and suspended sentences for 3 years from the conviction date. Any older convictions will be struck from the record.\nIn order to obtain a criminal record check in Denmark an individual or third party (with written consent) can apply in person at a local police station or by way of email to the National Police Authority. Available languages for the certificate include English, German, Danish, French and Spanish","-26.80987684993306"],["at double the rate, and a third or later offence at treble. Should an offender not pay the fine or give security, they were to be imprisoned in the house of correction for ten days of hard labour; if a soldier or seaman, they were to be set in the stocks for an hour (or for two hours, for multiple offences). The offender was liable for all costs, or for six additional days imprisonment if costs were not paid, and all fines were to be disposed of to the poor of the parish.\nAny justice or magistrate who avoided carrying out","-26.787134030848392"],["detainment or jail through a lens of cost benefit analysis. When those accused of crimes await trial in jail as opposed to paying bail, they are removed from family, work, and education. Pre-trial detainees await disposition of felony charges an average of 95 days. This is an expensive proposition. In a New York Times blog on this issue, Mr. Jacobson proposed NYC could save $125 million if case processing times were improved and those accused of crimes did not need to spend excessive amounts of time in jail.\nIn the future, ISLG seeks to expand its cost benefit","-26.786352864583023"],["at least 40 years before being considered for parole. As a result, he is likely to remain in prison until at least 2045 and the age of 72. This sentence is one of the longest recommended minimum terms ever made by a judge or politician in England and Wales. Bertram Byfield Bertram Byfield had been jailed in 1997 for dealing in crack cocaine. Despite his criminal background Toni-Ann, who was living under the care of Birmingham Social Services, had been allowed to visit him at his bedsit in an ex-offenders' hostel.\nAs well as serving time in prison Byfield, who was","-26.771697379648685"],["behavior after they serve two-thirds of their sentence, or three-fourths if sentenced in cases of terrorism or sex crimes, in prison. However, parole is only possible if the inmate made no violations of prison rules. For those sentenced to less than one year in prison, they can be released after serving half the sentence.\nArticle 107 LES also provides that released prisoners are subject to a supervision period (tr: denetim süresi) that lasts half of the time spent in prison. Only after this period the sentence will count as being executed. Paragraph 16 of Article 107 LES provides that people convicted","-26.765223825117573"],["deport or extradite individuals who might be subjected to torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, in the recipient state. Bamber Case On 9 July 2013, UK prisoner Jeremy Bamber won an appeal to the European Court of Human Rights that whole life imprisonment (with no chance of parole) was in contravention of Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights.\nThe Grand Chamber voted overwhelmingly in favour of the decision by 16-1, meaning that the UK government will now be forced to review 49 instances of whole life sentences. Ataun Rojo v. Spain Case In this case, which ran","-26.75704119715374"],["attempt to avoid imprisonment for the offences. He was sentenced to one year in prison for evasion of tax payments. The sentence was suspended and resulted in no jail time served, provided he does not offend again during the suspended sentence.","-26.7554797163466"],["time after having served the sentence must have elapsed (6 months, 2 years, 3 years or 5 years depending on the sentence); 2) no further crime has been committed in the interim; 3) civil compensation has been paid or the person has been declared without money. To cancel a criminal record, the individual either makes a free of charge formal request to the Ministry of Justice or the Central Criminal Records Registry cancels the record itself. Sweden In Sweden, the police has a record of convictions (\"Belastningsregistret\"). It does not contain arrests, and its information is not available for general","-26.754357554978924"],["defendant could be imprisoned until the debt and costs were satisfied. As in English law, the plaintiff was required to maintain the debtor in prison by paying what was called groats. The defendant could say on oath that he had no means of maintaining himself in prison. If this occurred, the plaintiff had to provide maintenance for him in prison according to the order of the Court. If the amount ordered by the court was not paid for one week, the debtor could be discharged from prison and also discharged from the debt. Appeals There was a right of appeal","-26.72340472007636"],["the first woman to be exonerated by the Correction Review Unit. In addition, Gathers was granted a $2.4 million settlement in a claim for compensation in the New York Court of Claims. Darryl Austin, Alvena Jennette, and Robert Hill In 2014, three half-brothers, Darryl Austin, Alvena Jennette, and Robert Hill, were exonerated of all indictment charges and convictions of second-degree murder. Unfortunately, Austin passed away in 2000 after serving 13 years of the 18 years to life sentence which followed the 1988 trial for the 1985 murder of Ronnie Durant in which his co-defendant was Jennette. Receiving an identical sentence,","-26.722555682470556"],["are being put off for another month ... [meaning] these defendants miss work, lose wages and in some cases their jobs.\"\nNew York City's use of remand (pre-trial detention) has also been criticized. Almost without exception, New York judges only set two kinds of bail at arraignment, straight cash or commercial bail bond, while other options exist such as partially secured bonds, which only require a tenth of the full amount as a down payment to the court (and presumably refunded when redeemed), and unsecured bonds, which don't require any up front payment. The New York City Criminal Justice Agency has","-26.710277791600674"],["lie with the prison authorities and always be based on an individual risk assessment of the prisoner concerned; further, the regime should be applied for as short a time as possible, which implies that the decision imposing it should be reviewed at regular intervals. Pardon and conditional release Article 107 of the Law on the Execution of Sentences (LES) provides that in case of good conduct (tr: iyi hâl) prisoners may be released on condition. In cases of rehabilitation, ill health, or permanent disability, the President of the Republic may pardon inmates. Prisoners sentenced to aggravated life imprisonment can be","-26.689486783288885"],["was sentenced to life in prison. Two of the four men died in prison after serving almost 30 years, and two others were released after serving 32 and 36 years. In July 2007, U.S. District Judge Nancy Gertner in Boston found that the Bureau had helped convict the four men using false witness accounts given by mobster Joseph Barboza. The U.S. Government was ordered to pay $100 million in damages to the four defendants. Special FBI teams In 1982, the FBI formed an elite unit to help with problems that might arise at the 1984 Summer Olympics to be held","-26.673115296987817"],["while 156 sentenced to death have had their death sentences vacated, indicating that more than one in ten death row inmates were wrongly sentenced. It is impossible to assess how many have been wrongly executed, since courts do not generally investigate the innocence of a dead defendant, and defense attorneys tend to concentrate their efforts on clients whose lives can still be saved; however, there is strong evidence of innocence in many cases.\nImproper procedure may also result in unfair executions. For example, Amnesty International argues that in Singapore \"the Misuse of Drugs Act contains a series of presumptions which shift","-26.658480775426142"],["people in 25 states were released from death row when new evidence of their innocence emerged. Whether all of these exonerations are cases of actual innocence rather than technical exonerations of the defendants due to legal issues in their cases that allow their convictions to be legally quashed is disputed by death penalty supporters.\nStatistics likely understate the actual problem of wrongful convictions because once an execution has occurred there is often insufficient motivation and finance to keep a case open, and it becomes unlikely at that point that the miscarriage of justice will ever be exposed. In the case of","-26.656779926037416"],["an elderly woman for robbery shortly after being paroled from a life sentence imposed for a similar crime. Stays of execution According to Article 475 of the Japanese Code of Criminal Procedure, the death penalty must be executed within six months after the failure of the prisoner's final appeal upon an order from the Minister of Justice. However, the period requesting retrial or pardon is exempt from this regulation. Therefore, in practice, the typical stay on death row is between five and seven years; a quarter of the prisoners have been on death row for over ten years. For several,","-26.654663916342543"],["sets a non-parole period after which the prisoner can apply for release under parole conditions, or in the case of a criminal who has committed particularly heinous crimes, the sentencing judge may order that the person is \"never to be released\". High-security prisons For extremely low-risk offenders that has committed murders and sexual assault but where no real threat the country, Australia operates several supermax prisons. Cost of prisons in Australia In 2016-17, Australia spent $3.1 billion on prisons. Immigration detention facilities Australia also operates several immigration detention facilities. A non-citizen may be detained pending deportation because their visa has","-26.632318082731217"],["do so even if the expected sanction would be worse if they proceeded to trial. The study concluded that \"[t]his somewhat counterintuitive 'cost of innocence', where the preferences of innocents lead them collectively to fare worse than their guilty counterparts, is further increased by the practice of imposing much harsher sentences at trial on defendants who contest the charges. This 'trial penalty' seeks to facilitate guilty pleas by guilty defendants [...and ironically...] disproportionately, collectively, penalizes innocents, who reject on fairness grounds some offers their guilty counterparts accept.\"\nThe extent to which innocent people will accept a plea bargain and plead guilty","-26.612609659321606"],["bracelets. Causes Although offenders are being released, most have not received proper rehabilitation tactics to keep them from committing another crime. This often leads reoccurring offenders back into the prison system. There has been an increase in waitlisted or lack of specialized programs (drug, alcohol, intoxicated driving courses) that allow inmates to have the proper rehabilitation. Some crimes are just simply not given the option for parole, which holds inmates in the system for an extended time or even life.","-26.610497840280004"],["good conduct to five years and three months' imprisonment. The other defendants were acquitted or dropped because of the statute of limitation.\nThe verdict was quashed by the Court of Cassation ruling that the defendants had to be given the opportunity to plead, on changed charges and had to be heard again. On 30 September 2009 Diyarbakır Heavy Penal Court No. 3 went on hearing the case again.","-26.59955664165318"],["abused and gave coerced confessions were offered reduced sentences in exchange for dropping charges. A plea agreement was reached with one convicted victim. Aaron Patterson rejected the plea deal.\nOn January 11, 2003, having lost confidence in the state's death penalty system, outgoing Republican Governor George Ryan commuted the death sentences of 167 prisoners on Illinois' death row. He granted clemency by converting their death sentences to sentences of life without parole in most cases, while reducing some sentences.\nIn addition, Ryan had already pardoned four death row inmates: Madison Hobley, Aaron Patterson, Leroy Orange and Stanley Howard, who were among the","-26.585469399055"],["concerns about the robustness of a report authored by retired Canadian Supreme Court judge Ian Binnie, which recommended that David Bain should be paid compensation for the 13 years he spent in prison before being acquitted at retrial in 2009. The report had been presented to Collins on 31 August 2012, but the dispute only became public after Binnie threatened to release the report on his own. Collins had provided a copy of the report to the police and the Solicitor-General and ordered a peer review by former New Zealand High Court judge Robert Fisher, sending a \"34-point list of","-26.56199296755949"],["raise a life sentence to death. Ultimately, a five-member petty bench of the Supreme Court has the final say on the penalty, Article 411 of Code of Criminal Procedure allowing it to remand the case or change the punishment if the one handed down by the high court is \"seriously unfair\".\nIn only three cases since 1945, the Supreme Court ruled a high court-imposed life sentence too lenient, and ordered a retrial for death sentence. Among them are Norio Nagayama and Takayuki Fukuda, both under 20 at time of crime. The third case was that of a man convicted of murdering","-26.561243189149536"],["Back-to-back life sentences In judicial practice, back-to-back life sentences are two or more consecutive life sentences given to a felon. This penalty is typically used to prevent the felon from ever getting released from prison.\nThis is a common punishment for a double murder in the United States, and is effective because the defendant may be awarded parole after 25 years when he or she is eligible, and then must serve an additional 25 years in prison to be eligible for parole again. It also serves as a type of insurance that the defendant will have to serve the maximum length","-26.55029816919705"],["in a US U.S. Federal Prison in exchange for his guilty plea for stealing money from homeless children. No comments were made in the plea agreement pertaining to the exposure of potential prison violence due in part to the nature of his crimes upon homeless and displaced children. As a Federal Inmate, he will be required to serve his time in a |US Federal prison. The Federal prison system has no parole. \nUnder the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984, Congress eliminated parole for federal defendants convicted of crimes committed after November 1, 1987. The Sentencing Reform Act also requires DiMaggio","-26.55019905732479"],["fine which the court could have imposed in respect of the original offense committed by the offender. Grave offenses not entitled to probation Male persons convicted of grave offenses are not entitled to probation., like those punishable with the penalty of death or transportation for life or of heinous offenses of the nature, as described in the PPC under sections 216-A (penalty for harboring robbers or dacoits), 311 (for being a thug), 328 (theft after preparation made for causing death, hurt or restraint in order to the committing of the theft), 386-389 (putting a person in fear of injury or","-26.546476483163133"],["non-parole period of four months. However, after successfully appealing his punishment, his lawyers successfully argued that due to his age and frailty, he was deemed to be too unfit for a retrial and therefore no further sentence was imposed on Durham before his death in 2002.\nIn 2003, the Queensland Government accidentally sent confidential documents to one of Durham's victims, who was angry that not only Durham had walked free but that she had been told there was no record of Father Reginald Durham being at the orphanage when he abused her at the age of 14, so refused to","-26.53968424012419"],["the intent of the guidelines to curtail disparities. Determinate sentencing has also failed to reduce racial disparity in sentencing.\nAlso, some juries have been acquitting guilty defendants to save them from what they regard as overly harsh mandatory minimum sentences, such as those imposed by the Rockefeller Drug Laws and California's three-strikes law. There have been movements to abolish sentencing commissions and guideline systems and inform jurors of their right to nullify. Decisions like Apprendi v. New Jersey (requiring a jury, rather than a judge, to find any facts that would increase a defendant's maximum sentence) and Ring v. Arizona (requiring","-26.513457531575114"],["prisoners over 75 years of age sentenced to ten years or less whose sentences had not been served, as well as cancelling all court proceedings which had been ongoing for longer than eight years. By 11 January 6,318 prisoners had been released due to the amnesty, with other cases pending the outcome of court appeals. In addition, dozens of high-profile long-running corruption trials ended due to the amnesty, causing the greatest public anger.\nThe extent of the amnesty was widely criticized in the Czech Republic, with the opposition demanding a vote of no confidence against Prime Minister Petr Nečas, who countersigned","-26.50383629568387"],["could be awarded by prison officials. By the mid-1970s, indeterminate sentencing was under attack, as arguments were made that racial and other invidious biases influenced officials; that rehabilitative treatment programs were ineffective; and that broad, standardless discretion denied constitutional due process and permitted undue leniency that undermined the deterrent effects of sanctions. Federal supervised release is also sometimes cited as an example of indeterminate sentencing.","-26.476547004131135"],["in the third degree – carrying a loaded, unlicensed weapon in a public place. He was sentenced to six months in jail, one year's psychiatric treatment, five years' probation, 200 hours community service, and a $5,000 fine. An appellate court affirmed the conviction and changed the sentence to one year in jail without probation. The order of the appellate court was affirmed because the trial court had not erred in instructing the jury that, if it found the People had proved each of the elements of the crime beyond a reasonable doubt, it \"must\" find the defendant guilty. This was","-26.47435149521334"],["was re-sentenced to five years behind bars but remains free on bail pending an appeal.","-26.470746716637223"],["in prison (he can be paroled after 10 years; but he can be confined after the 21 years are up, allowable for five years at a time, if he is viewed as still dangerous, resulting in an actual life sentence). The Rector said they were obliged to follow the regulations, which allowed it because his grades were good enough. It will be done in solitary confinement, with guards delivering his assignments and the finished work and the grades. In October 2018, it was reported that course materials were being provided to Breivik by a prison officer and that he","-26.468903263274115"],["a day, judges can offer defendants a chance at parole. In the United States federal system, only sentences exceeding one year allow prisoners to obtain early release for good time while incarcerated. As a result, a sentence of a year and a day can lead to less time served than a sentence of a year.","-26.45860699133482"],["and overseas decisions against Finnish citizens or permanent residents.\nThe length of time convictions are kept on the record varies according to type of conviction. Convictions will be removed from a criminal record after 5 years (suspended sentences, fines, and community service supplementary to a suspended sentence), 10 years (custodial sentences less than 2 years, community service) or 20 years (custodial sentences between 2–5 years). If no recent convictions have been added to an individual's records, judgments will be removed upon death or when the individual reaches 90 years old.\nThere are multiple avenues in which an individual can obtain a criminal","-26.45484896452399"],["years was given to Kenny Alezander Bendibú Salazar and Roberto Antonio Mariscal for being accomplices in homicide, but were acquitted of kidnapping charges. Coupled with all this, all of them would be disqualified from public functions for a term of 10 years once they serve out their sentences.","-26.454765654925723"],["eventual sentencing in the corruption case. Under federal sentencing guidelines, having a criminal history can increase the recommended amount of time a defendant should spend incarcerated.","-26.428676987765357"],["the board has reduced the number of offenders returning to prison, particularly on what are considered technical violations. In FY 2012, only 20 percent of parole violation cases resulted in the offender returning to prison, and only 12 percent of those cases were solely for technical reasons. In most cases, parole is continued, although possibly with additional conditions, or the individual is referred for a short period of time to an intermediate sanction facility or substance abuse felony punishment facility.\nMore than 22,000 preliminary and revocation hearings were held in Fiscal Year 2012. Medical cases The board also reviews cases of","-26.42699343408458"],["penology and insulated from political pressures, determined when prisoners had been rehabilitated and could be reintegrated into society.\nThe process of preparing a presentence report, which takes weeks, only begins after the defendant is convicted, since if he/she were to be acquitted, the effort that went into preparing the report would be wasted. It would, therefore, not be possible for juries to sentence the defendant at the time of conviction, if the jury needed to rely on a presentence report in making its sentencing decision; rather, the jury would need to be broken up and reassembled later, which could be unworkable","-26.419912737663253"],["reprieve is granted by the President or if, upon appeal, the conviction is quashed.\nOver 3,200 people nationwide are serving life terms without a chance of parole for nonviolent offenses. Of those prisoners, 80 percent are behind bars for drug-related convictions: 65 percent are African-American, 18 percent are Latino, and 16 percent are white. The ACLU has called the statistics proof of \"extreme racial disparities.\" Some of the crimes that led to life sentences include stealing gas from a truck and shoplifting but only for those with a pattern of habitual criminal offenses. A large number of those imprisoned for life","-26.401662090735044"],["of parole being granted after 17 years. The sentencing judge may, taking into account the aggravating and mitigating factors of the offence, extend the non-parole period or impose life imprisonment with no possibility of parole.:102–4\nOn 14 August 2019, it was reported that Tarrant had been able to send seven letters from prison, two to his mother and five to unnamed recipients. One of these letters was subsequently posted on the Internet message boards 4chan and 8chan by far-right supporters. Minister of Corrections Kelvin Davis and the Department of Corrections were criticised for allowing the distribution of these letters. On 19","-26.40106277790619"],["It is accordingly quashed. The appellant will be discharged. There will be no new trial.\"\nAccompanied by his brother Peter, Hodgson walked out of the Royal Courts of Justice a free and innocent man after 27 years of wrongful imprisonment. Hodgson's barrister at the 1982 trial, Robin Grey QC, was there to shake his hand as he was released. Grey said: \"As a human being I feel glad that we no longer have capital punishment. As a defence barrister I didn't get him off, and I have bitter feelings of guilt about that.\"\nHodgson may be eligible for up to £1 million in compensation.","-26.400226223515347"],["held that all accused persons who are being prosecuted for offences punishable up to 7 years and have been in prison for more than one year should be released immediately on bail and accordingly four hundred and twenty people were immediately released. Controversy In 2011 The Bar Council of Delhi found Aggarwal in two professions chartered accountancy and advocacy simultaneously. However, Aggarwal denied the charge and said though he has a chartered accountant's degree but only involved in the profession of law.","-26.396648865324096"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"years per count).\\nUnder Arizona law, his sentence was to be served without possibility of probation, parole, pardon or clemency. Thus, all three sentences would have assured that Berger would die in prison. The appeals Berger's lawyers appealed the sentence, citing the Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which prohibits \\\"cruel and unusual punishment\\\". They argued that although each 10-year sentence was not too long in itself, the cumulative total of 200 years was grossly disproportionate to Berger's conduct overall, given that it was a longer sentence than those imposed for murder or rape of a child in\",\n \"-29.1482108879718\"\n ],\n [\n \"the court in exchange for having their cases moved forward. Some of those who paid did not get anything in return. Owing partly to a shortage of judges and other qualified judicial officials, defendants are often kept in pretrial detention for long periods, which sometimes are longer than the terms they would have been sentenced to if put on trial and found guilty. Also, there is considerable judicial corruption, with the executive branch exerting influence over judges, and lawyers bribing judges. Judges who support the ruling party are given higher positions than those who support an independent judiciary. \",\n \"-29.069712726541184\"\n ],\n [\n \"the courts and the prisons with remand prisoners. It is in the public interest that pending criminal cases be disposed off as expeditiously as possible and accused persons who plead guilty be imposed with a reduced sentence. Honesty is an universal obligation and a reduced sentence encourages honesty when an accused pleads guilty, the end result being that more accused persons would willingly admit guilt without a trial, thus, reducing the workload of the prosecutor's office and the clearance of the backlog of cases. Family and Social Service In 1976, he married Devagey Raru. A son, Sashikharan was born in\",\n \"-29.026018206146546\"\n ],\n [\n \"to be stripped of his position following the sentencing. He has already begun serving his sentence.\\n12 others were sentenced to 10 years in prison and one accused was sentenced to six months. One of the convicts facing life sentence is due to only serve 10 years since he was a minor at the time of the incident. Three of the tried have been acquitted. More than 30 suspects are still at large.\",\n \"-28.665871816167964\"\n ],\n [\n \"15 to 20 years before being paroled, although those convicted of exceptionally grave crimes remain behind bars for considerably longer; Ian Huntley was given a minimum term of 40 years. Some receive whole life sentences which make it almost certain that they will die in prison; they can only be considered for release on appeal to the High Court, or in exceptional circumstances such as great age or ill health.\\nBy 2015, there were at least 60 prisoners in England and Wales serving such sentences, issued by either the High Court or the Home Office. These include \\\"Yorkshire Ripper\\\" Peter Sutcliffe.\",\n \"-28.663762958720326\"\n ],\n [\n \"to either serve three months in prison or pay 200 dinars (US$530). On 28 March 2013, 21 of the 23 convictions were overturned by an appeals court. The remaining two health workers had chosen not to appeal their sentences. Torture of health workers Many of the detained health workers stated that they were ill-treated or tortured while in custody, leading Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International to call for independent investigations. Authorities reportedly forced detainees to stand for long periods, beat them with boards and rubber hoses, and deprived them of sleep in an effort to force confessions. In one\",\n \"-28.626168440983747\"\n ],\n [\n \"Practices vary from state to state, but the clemency process usually requires the governor or board of advisors or both. Since 1976 273 death row inmates have been granted clemency for humanitarian reasons. These include doubts about the petitioner's guilt or a governor's personal stance on capital punishment. Innocence Work Overturning a conviction after dozens of appeals and petitions have been denied is notoriously difficult, though prisoners have some options at their disposal. They can still attain freedom if legitimate innocence can be proven. The most common method is by using DNA evidence to disprove a crime that happened before\",\n \"-28.42438550433144\"\n ],\n [\n \"— and acquitted him on one count of making false statements. Given current federal sentencing guidelines, which are not mandatory, the convictions could result in a sentence ranging from no imprisonment to imprisonment of up to 25 years and a fine of one million US dollars. Given those non-binding guidelines, according to lawyer, author, New Yorker staff writer, and CNN senior legal analyst Jeffrey Toobin on Anderson Cooper 360°, such a sentence could likely be between \\\"one and a half to three years\\\". Sentencing was scheduled for June 2007. His lawyers have announced their intention to seek a new\",\n \"-28.35511708201375\"\n ],\n [\n \"But the sentence is still 'life' and there is no guarantee they will ever get out. Former Board chairman, Sir David Carruthers says murderers and those given indefinite sentences will remain behind bars until they are no longer considered a risk to the community. If they are released, they remain subject to release conditions for the rest of their life and can be recalled if they break their conditions in any way. Parole conditions Having served the minimum non-parole period of their sentence, if the Board feels that an offender no longer poses an undue risk, it may agree to\",\n \"-28.253956897184253\"\n ],\n [\n \"seven convicts were jointly sentenced to pay had been paid. Because earlier deadlines for payment had passed, the amount to be paid had increased to 68,00 euro. If the full amount was not paid by 14 January 2017, they could be put under pressure to pay in two ways: each person could be incarcerated for up to one year (this would not lower the amount of compensation), and a bailiff could seize the property of each mature convict (in this case only El-Hasan D.).\\nBecause El-Hasan D. was on welfare so that he could not comply with payment arrangements and the other\",\n \"-28.246170318656368\"\n ],\n [\n \"with prosecutors asking for two to four years imprisonment with a three-year stay of execution. Citing the young age of the offenders and the fact that some had already been admitted to college or hired for jobs, the judges refused the charges against even these ten, instead sending them to Juvenile Court. One factor in this decision was that the father of one of the victims formed an agreement with some of the offenders to plead for leniency after receiving a large sum of money. The father was an alcoholic who had divorced the victim's mother three years prior due\",\n \"-28.020797218603548\"\n ],\n [\n \"no way for a defendant to agree to plead guilty in exchange for having a case dealt with by magistrates.\\nMagistrates' courts have limited powers of sentencing; for example, they may not impose a sentence of imprisonment longer than six months. If the defendant is tried summarily in the Magistrates' Court and is convicted, there may still be a committal to the Crown Court for sentencing if the magistrates think that their sentencing powers are inadequate. Thus it is not possible for a defendant to avoid the harsher sentences available in the Crown Court simply by accepting a summary trial. History\",\n \"-27.923974260804243\"\n ],\n [\n \"period of 18 to 22 years before they become eligible for parole. \\nIn the case of child murder involving rape or torture, the premeditated murder of a state official (since 2011), and terrorism resulting in death, the court can impose a safety period of up to 30 years, or order that the prisoner is ineligible for parole at all, and thus will spend the rest of their natural lives in prison.\\nIt is possible to give a reduction of the safety period for serious signs of social re-adaptation (even if the court has ordered that the prisoner is to spend the\",\n \"-27.923868476471398\"\n ],\n [\n \"and mental health Forensic psychologist Eric Cullen and prison governor Tim Newell claim that prisoners face a throffer once they are told that they must acknowledge their guilt before they are offered parole or moved to an open prison. Cullen and Newell cite the example of a prisoner who falsely admitted guilt to move to an open prison; once there, however, he felt he could no longer lie about his guilt, and confessed to the prison's governor. He was subsequently transferred back to a maximum security prison. In the case of sex offenders, a throffer is presented when they are\",\n \"-27.853600737871602\"\n ],\n [\n \"to make a recorded statement disavowing her husband and praising the party which airs during the trial. The prisoners are variously sentenced to either death or life imprisonment, with Artur given the latter. When their interrogators do not return to them, the prisoners panic and threaten to appeal, but are told by their court-appointed lawyers that the sentences are only for the party's benefit and will not be enforced if they do not appeal. The convicted men appear in court one final time to accept their sentences and waive their right to appeal.\\nAfterwards, Artur and some of his colleagues are\",\n \"-27.848040364769986\"\n ],\n [\n \"Julian Young, Hodgson's lawyer, also commented that Hodgson did not receive any official support to adjust to life after 27 years. Inmates who serve out a long sentence undergo a long process of re-integration into society. \\\"A person released after a conviction is quashed is not entitled to the same level of support; Sean was, in fact, released with a one-off discharge payment of £46. That was it.\\\" Compensatory action can be difficult to obtain. A compensation fund exists \\\"from which, unbelievably, the government deducts 'board and lodging' for the time spent in prison.\\\" In the years it can take for\",\n \"-27.826094944030046\"\n ],\n [\n \"high pay began, was exonerated of all charges. Subsequently, on March 21, a juror wrote notes to the judge requesting reconsideration of past verdicts, and another juror wrote a note accusing other jurors of bad behavior. \\\"It seems that all hell has broken loose,\\\" remarked the judge to attorneys in the case. After another day of deliberation, the judge declared a mistrial on all remaining counts, leaving the prosecution to determine if they wanted the case retried. Former City Manager and assistant At Rizzo's hearing, documents acquired from former Assistant City Manager Angela Spaccia's computer by District Attorney Steve Cooley\",\n \"-27.74838784802705\"\n ],\n [\n \"jurors had to decide if Hayes should be executed or imprisoned for life. The second day of these deliberations began on November 6, 2010. Defense attorney Thomas Ullman told the jury that a sentence of life in prison would be the harshest possible punishment for his client Hayes, because he was so tormented by his crimes and would be isolated in prison. \\\"Life in prison without the possibility of release is the harshest penalty,\\\" Ullman said. \\\"It is a fate worse than death. If you want to end his misery, put him to death,\\\" he added. \\\"If you want him\",\n \"-27.741902833324275\"\n ],\n [\n \"an offender to pay a fine to avoid further prosecution. Prosecutors have tremendous discretion to dispose of crimes through the use of transactions. However, transactions can only be offered in cases where the maximum statutory prison sentence is less than six years. Approximately 90% of crimes can be appropriately disposed of via a transaction. Yet, in practice, roughly 30% of all cases are settled through the use of a transaction, with prosecutorial guidelines established to minimise arbitrariness. Transactions provide an opportunity for offenders to forgo the stigmatisation that results from the more traditional disposition of cases. Critics however allege that\",\n \"-27.713934128551045\"\n ],\n [\n \"murderers should spend in prison before being considered for parole. Judges are not obliged to follow the guidelines, but must give reasons in court if they depart from them - whether recommending a lesser or higher minimum term than in accordance with the guidelines.\\nThe guidelines recommended that multiple murderers (who murder two or more people) whose crimes involved sexual abuse, pre-planning, abduction or terrorism should never be released from prison. Such a sentence is known as a \\\"whole life order\\\". The murder of a single child following abduction, sexual or sadistic conduct also qualifies, as does the murder of a\",\n \"-27.67777948686853\"\n ],\n [\n \"crime eligible for $160,000 for each year of incarceration—half paid as a lump sum, and half paid out over the claimant’s lifetime as an annuity—and provide them with free college tuition. Texas law firm Glasheen, Valles & Inderman also worked with Texas Senator John Cornyn to convince the United States Internal Revenue Service that compensation for incarceration stemming from a wrongful conviction should not be treated as taxable income, that instead it should be treated the same as compensation for personal injuries which is not taxable income. This ultimately led to the passing of the Protecting Americans from Tax Hikes\",\n \"-27.671006344065972\"\n ],\n [\n \"the funds to be cleared, many victims of miscarriages of justice live off social security payments.\\nGerry Conlon, who was wrongly imprisoned for 15 years, also warns that after-release support is inadequate. After the imposed routine of prison life, outside prison \\\"you are lost\\\". Suicidal thoughts and attempts, panic attacks, nightmares and drug use are common. \\\"Most people released after miscarriages of justice end up as recluses, their marriages fail, they aren't talking to their children, they become drug addicts and alcoholics, they die premature deaths.\\\"\\nHodgson's release has sparked debate about the use of the death penalty, particularly about its fallibility. Neil\",\n \"-27.6626754963072\"\n ],\n [\n \"the end of his sentence and so help him in the community.\\nIt is most important that we stop offenders in their tracks early. If we do that, we will build respect for the police and our institutions. However, that will take a long time and it might take 10 years to roll back the contempt which has been built into our society.\\nAs a criminal practitioner with years of experience in the law, I know that many of my clients with records have received non-custodial sentences. They have walked away from court and their parting words to me have often been,\",\n \"-27.62771885562688\"\n ],\n [\n \"probation. . . . Forty-five percent of all prisoners are repeat offenders. Thus there are very few nonviolent first offenders in prison, and nearly all of those have already failed the court's attempt at alternative punishment. The convicts in prison are there because they deserve to be. [While prison cells are expensive], not providing those cells is far more expensive. . . . A typical multi-offender inmate will commit 187 crimes per year, for a total crime cost to society of $430,000. With this comparison, the $25,800 cost of imprisoning criminals seems reasonable.\\\"\",\n \"-27.616381934960373\"\n ],\n [\n \"were sentenced on 22 February 2008 to 37 months of imprisonment. They were given no remission for the time they had spent in the United States awaiting trial. They were also required to repay $7.3 million to Royal Bank of Scotland, the successor bank to Greenwich NatWest, of which $1.25 million would be due when the men surrendered themselves to prison authorities. During sentencing, the Three each made brief statements to the judge. Mulgrew said that he had shown a \\\"lack of integrity\\\" and \\\"exercised poor judgement\\\", concluding that \\\"I have no one to blame but myself\\\". Darby admitted\",\n \"-27.57948128521093\"\n ],\n [\n \"formally amended in 1951 to conform to the abolition. Previous death sentences were replaced by life imprisonment. As the constitution requires that prisoners have a chance of regaining freedom with other means than extralegal pardon only, prisoners are checked for release on parole after 15 years for regular intervals. Since the introduction of this provision, courts may in extreme cases declare special gravity of guilt which is meant and popularized as life without parole.\\nAlthough article 21.1 of the constitution of the German state of Hesse provided capital punishment for high crimes, this provision was inoperative due to the federal ban\",\n \"-27.399707313103136\"\n ],\n [\n \"statute to a maximum sum of £1,000,000 for those who have been incarcerated for more than ten years and £500,000 for any other cases, with deductions for the cost of food and prison cell during that time. See also Overturned convictions in the United Kingdom.\\nRichard Foster, the Chairman of the Criminal Cases Review Commission (CCRC), reported in October 2018 that the single biggest cause of miscarriage of justice was the failure to disclose vital evidence. England, Wales and Northern Ireland Until 2005, the parole system assumed all convicted persons were guilty, and poorly handled those who were not. To be\",\n \"-27.376255531504285\"\n ],\n [\n \"proper deference to the policy judgments that find expression in the legislature's choice of sanctions.\\\" Ewing's sentence might be long, but it \\\"reflects a rational judgment, entitled to deference, that offenders who have committed serious or violent felonies and who continue to commit felonies must be incapacitated.\\\" For this reason, O'Connor reasoned that Ewing's 25-years-to-life sentence did not violate the Eighth Amendment.\\nJustice Scalia was willing to accept that the Eighth Amendment contained a gross disproportionality requirement \\\"if I felt I could intelligently apply it.\\\" However, because a criminal sentence can have many justifications—not simply retribution, a goal\",\n \"-27.37491143733496\"\n ],\n [\n \"shortcomings are even more felt in the remand prisons, including the Pankrác Prison. Although the principle of \\\"not guilty until proven otherwise\\\" applies, in reality the inmates held on remand face worse regime than those convicted, as they cannot take part in educational, sport or working activities, mostly because they are expected to be held only for a limited time (the average is approximately 100 days) before being either released or moved after the verdict.\\nThe prisoners held on remand spend up to 23 hours a day locked in their prison cells, where there is no access to warm water and\",\n \"-27.361853173468262\"\n ],\n [\n \"detainees can be held for up to 23 days after arrest, with no state-funded legal representation. They are typically interrogated for 12 hours a day: no lawyers can be present, no recordings are made, and they are put under constant pressure to confess. Once convicted, it is very difficult to obtain a re-trial and prisoners can remain under sentence of death for many years.\\nAmnesty also reports allegations of abuse of suspects during these interrogations. There are reports of physical abuse, sleep deprivation and denial of food, water and use of a toilet. One of its biggest criticisms is that inmates\",\n \"-27.308310291206\"\n ],\n [\n \"to avoid another sentencing hearing and was sentenced to life in prison without parole in September, 2018.\",\n \"-27.29706091236585\"\n ],\n [\n \"judges to give credit to individuals who have spent time incarcerated prior to conviction. Until then, as discussed by Justice Arbour in R v. Wust, credit for pre-sentencing custody was not determined by a 'mathematical formula', but many judges frequently granted a two-for-one credit.\\nThat is justified by the quantitative and qualitative differences between pre-and post-sentencing incarceration. Most individuals who are incarcerated will not serve the full length of their sentence, and because time spent incarcerated pre-sentence does not count towards remission time, if a lengthy pre-sentence incarceration is credited equally to post-sentencing incarceration, the convicted individual will serve\",\n \"-27.296561604947783\"\n ],\n [\n \"as the United States will merely result in a default judgment being rendered in absentia if the defendant willfully declines to appear by law, a substantial number of indigent debtors are legally incarcerated for the crime of failing to appear at civil debt proceedings as ordered by a judge. In this case, the crime is not indigence, but disobeying the judge's order to appear before the court. Critics argue that the \\\"willful\\\" terminology is subject to individual mens rea determination by a judge, rather than statute, and that since this presents the potential for judges to incarcerate legitimately indigent\",\n \"-27.283191869279108\"\n ],\n [\n \"stated on the record of the case is that the case was dismissed after conviction. If the petitioner is later convicted of the same crime again, then the expungement may be reversed. Certificate of rehabilitation For persons who serve sentences in the state prison system (felons), they must apply to the Superior Court for a Certificate of Rehabilitation (CR). The CR does not remove or expunge anything negative from the individual's record; however, it places something positive on it. Among other requirements, the applicant must live in California and have done so for at least 5 consecutive\",\n \"-27.282270170049742\"\n ],\n [\n \"plead guilty if the chance of acquittal is low, or if the expected sentence on a guilty plea is less than the amount of jail time that would be served pretrial. Pretrial detainees may also find it harder to mount an effective defense.\\nThe Open Society Foundation report also concluded that some detainees face worse conditions than convicted prisoners; for example the suicide rate is three times higher worldwide.\",\n \"-27.20352729014121\"\n ],\n [\n \"of light punishment for first-time offenders. Under the plea agreement in which they would have forfeited $100,000 and faced 6–15 months in prison, they would have been able to keep their homes. If found guilty at trial, they could have received up to 5 years imprisonment and a fine of $250,000 per count, but they would not have to agree to cooperate with the University investigation.\\nLess than a week after Martin backed out of his plea agreement, several former players were subpoenaed to testify before grand juries. In August 2000, Traylor and Bullock, by this time professional basketball\",\n \"-27.183942390489392\"\n ],\n [\n \"allowances over the period that they were ineligible to sit. The government could demand repayment of such amounts or it can waive repayment. In Re Culleton (No 2) (2017), for example, the government demanded repayment from Rod Culleton, after he was found to have been ineligible, as \\\"a debt to the commonwealth\\\", and indicated it might also seek repayment of superannuation payments, other entitlements and staff payments. There is also possibility of an action being brought under s 3 of the Common Informers (Parliamentary Disqualifications) Act 1975, which provides that any person can bring an action for a penalty against\",\n \"-27.1720525638666\"\n ],\n [\n \"the available sentencing power of two years' detention is adequate to punish the offender if found guilty. History See section 64 of the Criminal Law Act 1977. \\nGrand juries were abolished in 1933. Offences triable only on indictment Some offences such as murder and rape are considered so serious that they can only be tried on indictment at the Crown Court where the widest range of sentencing powers is available to the judge.\\nThe expression indictable-only offence was defined by section 51 of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, as originally enacted, as an offence triable only on indictment. Sections 51\",\n \"-27.147765864938265\"\n ],\n [\n \"fines or probation fees. Consequently, they resort to jail term as opposed to community corrections sentence.\\nA 2014 study revealed that judges subconsciously utilize the assumption that minorities are more likely to recidivate to issue a longer sentencing that will prevent the defendants from reengaging in criminal offenses. Additionally, theorists advocate that minorities are stereotypically identified as more violent and guilty than whites. This perception encourages judges to believe that they are preventing the onset of future crimes by imprisoning the defendants for a longer duration. This preconception that minorities are unable to economically support themselves warns the judicial system that\",\n \"-27.13826190723921\"\n ],\n [\n \"a day for up to 12 months Detainees may be able to work but also have to undertake rehabilitation programmes to address the causes of their offending. Any leave of absence to attend work, rehabilitation programmes, or important appointments such as the doctor, requires pre-approval of the offender's probation officer.\\nIn 2014, approximately 1,800 offenders were serving sentences of home detention. Offenders are likely to be sent to prison if they leave the address without permission or breach the home detention rules. However, 'breaches' sometimes occur because the signal 'drops out' giving the impression that the offender has absconded from the\",\n \"-27.1314374479698\"\n ],\n [\n \"sentenced to 10-month imprisonment (with three years suspended). The Supreme Court considered that the contested decision of the Court of Appeals had no legal justification and presented logical gaps, inconsistencies, and shortcomings. Moreover, the Supreme Court ruling that any disclosure of the outcome of the conference only a court is no longer a criminal offense [sic], which means that the three defendants will be treated under more favorable conditions when judged again by the court.\\nIn October 2013 it was reported that fourteen persons, including Abbot Efrem and monk Arsenios were indicted on several counts including money laundering related to the\",\n \"-27.129164954298176\"\n ],\n [\n \"making sentences more predictable.\\nA counter-argument is that criminal sentencing laws are \\\"lumpy\\\", in that the sentencing ranges are not as precise as the dollars-and-cents calibration that can be achieved in civil case settlements. Furthermore, because some defendants facing small amounts of prison time are jailed pending trial, they may find it in their interests to plead guilty so as to be sentenced to time served, or in any event to end up serving less time than they would serve waiting for trial. Outcomes in criminal cases are also made less predictable by the fact that, while a plaintiff in a\",\n \"-27.127442995959427\"\n ],\n [\n \"each given a suspended imposition of sentence for 10 years. If they re-offend they can be sent back to prison for 21 years.\\nFactors cited by prosecutor Scott Ellington for agreeing to the plea deal included that two of the victims' families had joined the cause of the defense, that the mother of a witness who testified about Echols's confession had questioned her daughter's truthfulness, and that the State Crime Lab employee who collected fiber evidence at the Echols and Baldwin homes after their arrests had died. As part of the plea deal, the three men cannot pursue civil action against\",\n \"-27.072067871893523\"\n ],\n [\n \"still be imposed, but the finding that the circumstances of the crime justify the sentence must be made by a jury, rather than by the judge.\\nOn November 23, 2016, Roeder was re-sentenced to life in prison but now eligible to apply for parole after serving 25 years rather than after 50 years. As before, besides the sentence for murder, Roeder was also sentenced to two additional years for aggravated assault because he had threatened to shoot two church ushers while fleeing the murder. Sedgwick County District Attorney Marc Bennett said that prosecutors made the decision not to convene\",\n \"-27.03404356498504\"\n ],\n [\n \"when deciding sentences, call for between eight and ten years behind bars. According to The Wall Street Journal, Vanity Fair, and CBS, prosecutors are recommending 36 months of supervised release. In addition, Tobin has agreed to forfeit $4 million as part of his plea deal. Tobin was scheduled for sentencing at a hearing in June 2019, but this did not in fact take place.\\nOn March 12, 2019, federal prosecutors in Boston unsealed a criminal complaint charging 50 people with conspiracy to commit felony mail fraud and honest services mail fraud in violation of Title 18 United States Code, Section 1349. Those\",\n \"-26.989853668259457\"\n ],\n [\n \"the date the defendant completed their sentence in a misdemeanor case or three years in cases that resulted in a felony conviction. There is no waiting period in the case of criminal proceedings that resulted in an acquittal or dismissal with prejudice, however; where a no bill is returned by a grand jury as to an individual, or the proceedings against them are dismissed without prejudice, they are ineligible to petition for the records of the case to be sealed until two years have passed from the date it was returned. Convictions for certain offenses are ineligible for sealing, including\",\n \"-26.963021891686367\"\n ],\n [\n \"mitigate the effect of penalties.\\nIn some jurisdictions, the criminal record of the guilty party will still carry the offense, even after probation is adequately served. In other cases, the process of deferred adjudication prevents the conviction from appearing on a person's criminal record, once probation had been completed. \\nIn the federal system, judges' authority to suspend sentences has been abolished, by the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984, through the United States Sentencing Commission, and upheld by Mistretta v. United States. Russia In Russia suspended sentence (Russian: условный срок, lit. 'Conditional sentence or probation') is a commonplace and its application is stipulated\",\n \"-26.948979691020213\"\n ],\n [\n \"rehabilitation, saying:\\n\\\"In view of your appalling criminal history, and in view of the particularly serious nature of the crime for which you have been convicted, it is only appropriate that you be sentenced to life imprisonment. Even if the murder of Nicole Patterson had never occurred, I would have no hesitation in imposing a term of life imprisonment upon you.\\n\\\"It is clear, both in the present case and from your previous convictions for rape and like offences, that your offending is connected with a need by you to vindicate a perverted and sadistic hatred of women and a contempt for\",\n \"-26.922570877109138\"\n ],\n [\n \"have shown no remorse for your crimes at all. Your reputation now lies in ruins, you have been stripped of your honours but you have no one to blame but yourself.\\\" Some sentences were expected to run consecutively, and Harris was expected to serve half of the total time in prison. He was told he must pay prosecution costs, though not compensation to the victims. The sentence was referred to the Attorney General Dominic Grieve after complaints that it was too lenient. On 30 July 2014 the new Attorney General, Jeremy Wright, announced that he would not be referring the\",\n \"-26.921602275877376\"\n ],\n [\n \"sophistication as the average offender, there is a greater likelihood that their deficiency in communicative ability will be interpreted by juries as a lack of remorse for their crimes. They typically make poor witnesses, being more prone to suggestion and willing to \\\"confess\\\" in order to placate or please their questioner. Thus, there is a greater risk that the jury may impose the death penalty despite the existence of evidence that suggests that a lesser penalty should be imposed. In light of the \\\"evolving standards of decency\\\" that the Eighth Amendment demands, the fact that the goals of retribution and\",\n \"-26.907748051249655\"\n ],\n [\n \"Study\\\" conducted by the Urban Institute from 2001 to 2006 found that ex-prisoners who worked before imprisonment, and those who find employment soon after release, are less likely to be re-incarcerated within a year of release. The same study found that releasing prisoners to parole supervision both reduces the likelihood that they will engage in substance use and makes it easier for them to find employment after release. Healthcare Other reentry programs focus on improving health among ex-prisoners, which tends to be significantly worse than that of people who have never been imprisoned. Re-entry for women prisoners Women prisoners and\",\n \"-26.907573849428445\"\n ],\n [\n \"been sentenced to life imprisonment under the Crime (Sentences) Act 1997 had been freed on parole since 2000. Victims of crime and their families Gill Smith, whose 18-year-old daughter Louise was murdered in December 1995, praised Mr Blunkett for giving judges the power to set longer minimum terms. Her daughter's killer, David Frost, was convicted of murder and sentenced to life but with a minimum of 14 years, as he had confessed to the crime as well as expressing remorse in court. Mrs Smith felt that 14 years was a very short time, especially when one of the men who\",\n \"-26.877015773847234\"\n ],\n [\n \"your extreme denial and complete absence of any remorse, and the assessment of risk, I have come to the conclusion that a custodial sentence is the only appropriate disposal. In my opinion, the repeated abuse and violent behaviour towards your three former wives and stepdaughter over a period of 28 years outweighs other factors.\\\" Within a few weeks, lawyers acting on his behalf appeared at the High Court in Edinburgh to appeal against a custodial sentence and this was quickly dismissed.\\nHe was released from HM Prison Dumfries on 21 March 2014 under automatic early release rules after serving half of\",\n \"-26.871074785420205\"\n ],\n [\n \"and poor prison conditions\\\". The government responded to business chambers' concerns by exempting nine of the economic crimes originally targeted. Only offences punishable by at least three years in prison would trigger the transfer of a fugitive, up from the previously stated one year. Nonetheless, these amendments failed to assuage the business community's concerns. According to the CBC, ”[What the] rich business people fear is that the extradition law would destroy the freedoms people and businesses in the territory have grown to expect\\\". Due to the vast power that politicians and officials exert over the mainland legal system, \\\"businesses that\",\n \"-26.855119128362276\"\n ],\n [\n \"the public. Since 2004, it has also been possible for preventive detention to be ordered by a court after the original sentencing if the danger that a criminal poses upon release becomes obvious during their imprisonment. Despite its non-punitive status and the broadness of its potential application, though, preventive detention is used only in exceptional cases.\\nParoled prisoners usually must stay in regular contact with a civilian \\\"parole helper\\\" (Bewährungshelfer) for the duration of their parole. The parole period in the case of life imprisonment is five years (§ 57 III StGB). 1977 judgement on life imprisonment Prior to 1977, all\",\n \"-26.840258355320657\"\n ],\n [\n \"family, who believed that her killing warranted a harsher sentence, and later by Cantat himself, who wanted the higher court to reclassify his crime as manslaughter, and therefore lessen his sentence. Both parties ultimately decided to cancel their appeals, which rendered final the original sentence of eight years. At the request of his lawyers, Cantat was moved from a Lithuanian prison to a prison near Muret, France, September 2004. Cantat served four years of his eight-year sentence in prison. According to French law, after half of a prison sentence has been served, a criminal with good behavior can be released\",\n \"-26.832176173804328\"\n ],\n [\n \"months in one case, and one year in the other. Both sentences were suspended as the defendants were exceptionally remorseful, still mentally ill, and retired. They accepted the verdicts immediately.\",\n \"-26.818487172713503\"\n ],\n [\n \"convictions remain on an individual's criminal record. For example, fines remain on the record for 2 years from the date of payment, unconditional convictions for 5 years from date of release from prison, and suspended sentences for 3 years from the conviction date. Any older convictions will be struck from the record.\\nIn order to obtain a criminal record check in Denmark an individual or third party (with written consent) can apply in person at a local police station or by way of email to the National Police Authority. Available languages for the certificate include English, German, Danish, French and Spanish\",\n \"-26.80987684993306\"\n ],\n [\n \"at double the rate, and a third or later offence at treble. Should an offender not pay the fine or give security, they were to be imprisoned in the house of correction for ten days of hard labour; if a soldier or seaman, they were to be set in the stocks for an hour (or for two hours, for multiple offences). The offender was liable for all costs, or for six additional days imprisonment if costs were not paid, and all fines were to be disposed of to the poor of the parish.\\nAny justice or magistrate who avoided carrying out\",\n \"-26.787134030848392\"\n ],\n [\n \"detainment or jail through a lens of cost benefit analysis. When those accused of crimes await trial in jail as opposed to paying bail, they are removed from family, work, and education. Pre-trial detainees await disposition of felony charges an average of 95 days. This is an expensive proposition. In a New York Times blog on this issue, Mr. Jacobson proposed NYC could save $125 million if case processing times were improved and those accused of crimes did not need to spend excessive amounts of time in jail.\\nIn the future, ISLG seeks to expand its cost benefit\",\n \"-26.786352864583023\"\n ],\n [\n \"at least 40 years before being considered for parole. As a result, he is likely to remain in prison until at least 2045 and the age of 72. This sentence is one of the longest recommended minimum terms ever made by a judge or politician in England and Wales. Bertram Byfield Bertram Byfield had been jailed in 1997 for dealing in crack cocaine. Despite his criminal background Toni-Ann, who was living under the care of Birmingham Social Services, had been allowed to visit him at his bedsit in an ex-offenders' hostel.\\nAs well as serving time in prison Byfield, who was\",\n \"-26.771697379648685\"\n ],\n [\n \"behavior after they serve two-thirds of their sentence, or three-fourths if sentenced in cases of terrorism or sex crimes, in prison. However, parole is only possible if the inmate made no violations of prison rules. For those sentenced to less than one year in prison, they can be released after serving half the sentence.\\nArticle 107 LES also provides that released prisoners are subject to a supervision period (tr: denetim süresi) that lasts half of the time spent in prison. Only after this period the sentence will count as being executed. Paragraph 16 of Article 107 LES provides that people convicted\",\n \"-26.765223825117573\"\n ],\n [\n \"deport or extradite individuals who might be subjected to torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, in the recipient state. Bamber Case On 9 July 2013, UK prisoner Jeremy Bamber won an appeal to the European Court of Human Rights that whole life imprisonment (with no chance of parole) was in contravention of Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights.\\nThe Grand Chamber voted overwhelmingly in favour of the decision by 16-1, meaning that the UK government will now be forced to review 49 instances of whole life sentences. Ataun Rojo v. Spain Case In this case, which ran\",\n \"-26.75704119715374\"\n ],\n [\n \"attempt to avoid imprisonment for the offences. He was sentenced to one year in prison for evasion of tax payments. The sentence was suspended and resulted in no jail time served, provided he does not offend again during the suspended sentence.\",\n \"-26.7554797163466\"\n ],\n [\n \"time after having served the sentence must have elapsed (6 months, 2 years, 3 years or 5 years depending on the sentence); 2) no further crime has been committed in the interim; 3) civil compensation has been paid or the person has been declared without money. To cancel a criminal record, the individual either makes a free of charge formal request to the Ministry of Justice or the Central Criminal Records Registry cancels the record itself. Sweden In Sweden, the police has a record of convictions (\\\"Belastningsregistret\\\"). It does not contain arrests, and its information is not available for general\",\n \"-26.754357554978924\"\n ],\n [\n \"defendant could be imprisoned until the debt and costs were satisfied. As in English law, the plaintiff was required to maintain the debtor in prison by paying what was called groats. The defendant could say on oath that he had no means of maintaining himself in prison. If this occurred, the plaintiff had to provide maintenance for him in prison according to the order of the Court. If the amount ordered by the court was not paid for one week, the debtor could be discharged from prison and also discharged from the debt. Appeals There was a right of appeal\",\n \"-26.72340472007636\"\n ],\n [\n \"the first woman to be exonerated by the Correction Review Unit. In addition, Gathers was granted a $2.4 million settlement in a claim for compensation in the New York Court of Claims. Darryl Austin, Alvena Jennette, and Robert Hill In 2014, three half-brothers, Darryl Austin, Alvena Jennette, and Robert Hill, were exonerated of all indictment charges and convictions of second-degree murder. Unfortunately, Austin passed away in 2000 after serving 13 years of the 18 years to life sentence which followed the 1988 trial for the 1985 murder of Ronnie Durant in which his co-defendant was Jennette. Receiving an identical sentence,\",\n \"-26.722555682470556\"\n ],\n [\n \"are being put off for another month ... [meaning] these defendants miss work, lose wages and in some cases their jobs.\\\"\\nNew York City's use of remand (pre-trial detention) has also been criticized. Almost without exception, New York judges only set two kinds of bail at arraignment, straight cash or commercial bail bond, while other options exist such as partially secured bonds, which only require a tenth of the full amount as a down payment to the court (and presumably refunded when redeemed), and unsecured bonds, which don't require any up front payment. The New York City Criminal Justice Agency has\",\n \"-26.710277791600674\"\n ],\n [\n \"lie with the prison authorities and always be based on an individual risk assessment of the prisoner concerned; further, the regime should be applied for as short a time as possible, which implies that the decision imposing it should be reviewed at regular intervals. Pardon and conditional release Article 107 of the Law on the Execution of Sentences (LES) provides that in case of good conduct (tr: iyi hâl) prisoners may be released on condition. In cases of rehabilitation, ill health, or permanent disability, the President of the Republic may pardon inmates. Prisoners sentenced to aggravated life imprisonment can be\",\n \"-26.689486783288885\"\n ],\n [\n \"was sentenced to life in prison. Two of the four men died in prison after serving almost 30 years, and two others were released after serving 32 and 36 years. In July 2007, U.S. District Judge Nancy Gertner in Boston found that the Bureau had helped convict the four men using false witness accounts given by mobster Joseph Barboza. The U.S. Government was ordered to pay $100 million in damages to the four defendants. Special FBI teams In 1982, the FBI formed an elite unit to help with problems that might arise at the 1984 Summer Olympics to be held\",\n \"-26.673115296987817\"\n ],\n [\n \"while 156 sentenced to death have had their death sentences vacated, indicating that more than one in ten death row inmates were wrongly sentenced. It is impossible to assess how many have been wrongly executed, since courts do not generally investigate the innocence of a dead defendant, and defense attorneys tend to concentrate their efforts on clients whose lives can still be saved; however, there is strong evidence of innocence in many cases.\\nImproper procedure may also result in unfair executions. For example, Amnesty International argues that in Singapore \\\"the Misuse of Drugs Act contains a series of presumptions which shift\",\n \"-26.658480775426142\"\n ],\n [\n \"people in 25 states were released from death row when new evidence of their innocence emerged. Whether all of these exonerations are cases of actual innocence rather than technical exonerations of the defendants due to legal issues in their cases that allow their convictions to be legally quashed is disputed by death penalty supporters.\\nStatistics likely understate the actual problem of wrongful convictions because once an execution has occurred there is often insufficient motivation and finance to keep a case open, and it becomes unlikely at that point that the miscarriage of justice will ever be exposed. In the case of\",\n \"-26.656779926037416\"\n ],\n [\n \"an elderly woman for robbery shortly after being paroled from a life sentence imposed for a similar crime. Stays of execution According to Article 475 of the Japanese Code of Criminal Procedure, the death penalty must be executed within six months after the failure of the prisoner's final appeal upon an order from the Minister of Justice. However, the period requesting retrial or pardon is exempt from this regulation. Therefore, in practice, the typical stay on death row is between five and seven years; a quarter of the prisoners have been on death row for over ten years. For several,\",\n \"-26.654663916342543\"\n ],\n [\n \"sets a non-parole period after which the prisoner can apply for release under parole conditions, or in the case of a criminal who has committed particularly heinous crimes, the sentencing judge may order that the person is \\\"never to be released\\\". High-security prisons For extremely low-risk offenders that has committed murders and sexual assault but where no real threat the country, Australia operates several supermax prisons. Cost of prisons in Australia In 2016-17, Australia spent $3.1 billion on prisons. Immigration detention facilities Australia also operates several immigration detention facilities. A non-citizen may be detained pending deportation because their visa has\",\n \"-26.632318082731217\"\n ],\n [\n \"do so even if the expected sanction would be worse if they proceeded to trial. The study concluded that \\\"[t]his somewhat counterintuitive 'cost of innocence', where the preferences of innocents lead them collectively to fare worse than their guilty counterparts, is further increased by the practice of imposing much harsher sentences at trial on defendants who contest the charges. This 'trial penalty' seeks to facilitate guilty pleas by guilty defendants [...and ironically...] disproportionately, collectively, penalizes innocents, who reject on fairness grounds some offers their guilty counterparts accept.\\\"\\nThe extent to which innocent people will accept a plea bargain and plead guilty\",\n \"-26.612609659321606\"\n ],\n [\n \"bracelets. Causes Although offenders are being released, most have not received proper rehabilitation tactics to keep them from committing another crime. This often leads reoccurring offenders back into the prison system. There has been an increase in waitlisted or lack of specialized programs (drug, alcohol, intoxicated driving courses) that allow inmates to have the proper rehabilitation. Some crimes are just simply not given the option for parole, which holds inmates in the system for an extended time or even life.\",\n \"-26.610497840280004\"\n ],\n [\n \"good conduct to five years and three months' imprisonment. The other defendants were acquitted or dropped because of the statute of limitation.\\nThe verdict was quashed by the Court of Cassation ruling that the defendants had to be given the opportunity to plead, on changed charges and had to be heard again. On 30 September 2009 Diyarbakır Heavy Penal Court No. 3 went on hearing the case again.\",\n \"-26.59955664165318\"\n ],\n [\n \"abused and gave coerced confessions were offered reduced sentences in exchange for dropping charges. A plea agreement was reached with one convicted victim. Aaron Patterson rejected the plea deal.\\nOn January 11, 2003, having lost confidence in the state's death penalty system, outgoing Republican Governor George Ryan commuted the death sentences of 167 prisoners on Illinois' death row. He granted clemency by converting their death sentences to sentences of life without parole in most cases, while reducing some sentences.\\nIn addition, Ryan had already pardoned four death row inmates: Madison Hobley, Aaron Patterson, Leroy Orange and Stanley Howard, who were among the\",\n \"-26.585469399055\"\n ],\n [\n \"concerns about the robustness of a report authored by retired Canadian Supreme Court judge Ian Binnie, which recommended that David Bain should be paid compensation for the 13 years he spent in prison before being acquitted at retrial in 2009. The report had been presented to Collins on 31 August 2012, but the dispute only became public after Binnie threatened to release the report on his own. Collins had provided a copy of the report to the police and the Solicitor-General and ordered a peer review by former New Zealand High Court judge Robert Fisher, sending a \\\"34-point list of\",\n \"-26.56199296755949\"\n ],\n [\n \"raise a life sentence to death. Ultimately, a five-member petty bench of the Supreme Court has the final say on the penalty, Article 411 of Code of Criminal Procedure allowing it to remand the case or change the punishment if the one handed down by the high court is \\\"seriously unfair\\\".\\nIn only three cases since 1945, the Supreme Court ruled a high court-imposed life sentence too lenient, and ordered a retrial for death sentence. Among them are Norio Nagayama and Takayuki Fukuda, both under 20 at time of crime. The third case was that of a man convicted of murdering\",\n \"-26.561243189149536\"\n ],\n [\n \"Back-to-back life sentences In judicial practice, back-to-back life sentences are two or more consecutive life sentences given to a felon. This penalty is typically used to prevent the felon from ever getting released from prison.\\nThis is a common punishment for a double murder in the United States, and is effective because the defendant may be awarded parole after 25 years when he or she is eligible, and then must serve an additional 25 years in prison to be eligible for parole again. It also serves as a type of insurance that the defendant will have to serve the maximum length\",\n \"-26.55029816919705\"\n ],\n [\n \"in a US U.S. Federal Prison in exchange for his guilty plea for stealing money from homeless children. No comments were made in the plea agreement pertaining to the exposure of potential prison violence due in part to the nature of his crimes upon homeless and displaced children. As a Federal Inmate, he will be required to serve his time in a |US Federal prison. The Federal prison system has no parole. \\nUnder the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984, Congress eliminated parole for federal defendants convicted of crimes committed after November 1, 1987. The Sentencing Reform Act also requires DiMaggio\",\n \"-26.55019905732479\"\n ],\n [\n \"fine which the court could have imposed in respect of the original offense committed by the offender. Grave offenses not entitled to probation Male persons convicted of grave offenses are not entitled to probation., like those punishable with the penalty of death or transportation for life or of heinous offenses of the nature, as described in the PPC under sections 216-A (penalty for harboring robbers or dacoits), 311 (for being a thug), 328 (theft after preparation made for causing death, hurt or restraint in order to the committing of the theft), 386-389 (putting a person in fear of injury or\",\n \"-26.546476483163133\"\n ],\n [\n \"non-parole period of four months. However, after successfully appealing his punishment, his lawyers successfully argued that due to his age and frailty, he was deemed to be too unfit for a retrial and therefore no further sentence was imposed on Durham before his death in 2002.\\nIn 2003, the Queensland Government accidentally sent confidential documents to one of Durham's victims, who was angry that not only Durham had walked free but that she had been told there was no record of Father Reginald Durham being at the orphanage when he abused her at the age of 14, so refused to\",\n \"-26.53968424012419\"\n ],\n [\n \"the intent of the guidelines to curtail disparities. Determinate sentencing has also failed to reduce racial disparity in sentencing.\\nAlso, some juries have been acquitting guilty defendants to save them from what they regard as overly harsh mandatory minimum sentences, such as those imposed by the Rockefeller Drug Laws and California's three-strikes law. There have been movements to abolish sentencing commissions and guideline systems and inform jurors of their right to nullify. Decisions like Apprendi v. New Jersey (requiring a jury, rather than a judge, to find any facts that would increase a defendant's maximum sentence) and Ring v. Arizona (requiring\",\n \"-26.513457531575114\"\n ],\n [\n \"prisoners over 75 years of age sentenced to ten years or less whose sentences had not been served, as well as cancelling all court proceedings which had been ongoing for longer than eight years. By 11 January 6,318 prisoners had been released due to the amnesty, with other cases pending the outcome of court appeals. In addition, dozens of high-profile long-running corruption trials ended due to the amnesty, causing the greatest public anger.\\nThe extent of the amnesty was widely criticized in the Czech Republic, with the opposition demanding a vote of no confidence against Prime Minister Petr Nečas, who countersigned\",\n \"-26.50383629568387\"\n ],\n [\n \"could be awarded by prison officials. By the mid-1970s, indeterminate sentencing was under attack, as arguments were made that racial and other invidious biases influenced officials; that rehabilitative treatment programs were ineffective; and that broad, standardless discretion denied constitutional due process and permitted undue leniency that undermined the deterrent effects of sanctions. Federal supervised release is also sometimes cited as an example of indeterminate sentencing.\",\n \"-26.476547004131135\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the third degree – carrying a loaded, unlicensed weapon in a public place. He was sentenced to six months in jail, one year's psychiatric treatment, five years' probation, 200 hours community service, and a $5,000 fine. An appellate court affirmed the conviction and changed the sentence to one year in jail without probation. The order of the appellate court was affirmed because the trial court had not erred in instructing the jury that, if it found the People had proved each of the elements of the crime beyond a reasonable doubt, it \\\"must\\\" find the defendant guilty. This was\",\n \"-26.47435149521334\"\n ],\n [\n \"was re-sentenced to five years behind bars but remains free on bail pending an appeal.\",\n \"-26.470746716637223\"\n ],\n [\n \"in prison (he can be paroled after 10 years; but he can be confined after the 21 years are up, allowable for five years at a time, if he is viewed as still dangerous, resulting in an actual life sentence). The Rector said they were obliged to follow the regulations, which allowed it because his grades were good enough. It will be done in solitary confinement, with guards delivering his assignments and the finished work and the grades. In October 2018, it was reported that course materials were being provided to Breivik by a prison officer and that he\",\n \"-26.468903263274115\"\n ],\n [\n \"a day, judges can offer defendants a chance at parole. In the United States federal system, only sentences exceeding one year allow prisoners to obtain early release for good time while incarcerated. As a result, a sentence of a year and a day can lead to less time served than a sentence of a year.\",\n \"-26.45860699133482\"\n ],\n [\n \"and overseas decisions against Finnish citizens or permanent residents.\\nThe length of time convictions are kept on the record varies according to type of conviction. Convictions will be removed from a criminal record after 5 years (suspended sentences, fines, and community service supplementary to a suspended sentence), 10 years (custodial sentences less than 2 years, community service) or 20 years (custodial sentences between 2–5 years). If no recent convictions have been added to an individual's records, judgments will be removed upon death or when the individual reaches 90 years old.\\nThere are multiple avenues in which an individual can obtain a criminal\",\n \"-26.45484896452399\"\n ],\n [\n \"years was given to Kenny Alezander Bendibú Salazar and Roberto Antonio Mariscal for being accomplices in homicide, but were acquitted of kidnapping charges. Coupled with all this, all of them would be disqualified from public functions for a term of 10 years once they serve out their sentences.\",\n \"-26.454765654925723\"\n ],\n [\n \"eventual sentencing in the corruption case. Under federal sentencing guidelines, having a criminal history can increase the recommended amount of time a defendant should spend incarcerated.\",\n \"-26.428676987765357\"\n ],\n [\n \"the board has reduced the number of offenders returning to prison, particularly on what are considered technical violations. In FY 2012, only 20 percent of parole violation cases resulted in the offender returning to prison, and only 12 percent of those cases were solely for technical reasons. In most cases, parole is continued, although possibly with additional conditions, or the individual is referred for a short period of time to an intermediate sanction facility or substance abuse felony punishment facility.\\nMore than 22,000 preliminary and revocation hearings were held in Fiscal Year 2012. Medical cases The board also reviews cases of\",\n \"-26.42699343408458\"\n ],\n [\n \"penology and insulated from political pressures, determined when prisoners had been rehabilitated and could be reintegrated into society.\\nThe process of preparing a presentence report, which takes weeks, only begins after the defendant is convicted, since if he/she were to be acquitted, the effort that went into preparing the report would be wasted. It would, therefore, not be possible for juries to sentence the defendant at the time of conviction, if the jury needed to rely on a presentence report in making its sentencing decision; rather, the jury would need to be broken up and reassembled later, which could be unworkable\",\n \"-26.419912737663253\"\n ],\n [\n \"reprieve is granted by the President or if, upon appeal, the conviction is quashed.\\nOver 3,200 people nationwide are serving life terms without a chance of parole for nonviolent offenses. Of those prisoners, 80 percent are behind bars for drug-related convictions: 65 percent are African-American, 18 percent are Latino, and 16 percent are white. The ACLU has called the statistics proof of \\\"extreme racial disparities.\\\" Some of the crimes that led to life sentences include stealing gas from a truck and shoplifting but only for those with a pattern of habitual criminal offenses. A large number of those imprisoned for life\",\n \"-26.401662090735044\"\n ],\n [\n \"of parole being granted after 17 years. The sentencing judge may, taking into account the aggravating and mitigating factors of the offence, extend the non-parole period or impose life imprisonment with no possibility of parole.:102–4\\nOn 14 August 2019, it was reported that Tarrant had been able to send seven letters from prison, two to his mother and five to unnamed recipients. One of these letters was subsequently posted on the Internet message boards 4chan and 8chan by far-right supporters. Minister of Corrections Kelvin Davis and the Department of Corrections were criticised for allowing the distribution of these letters. On 19\",\n \"-26.40106277790619\"\n ],\n [\n \"It is accordingly quashed. The appellant will be discharged. There will be no new trial.\\\"\\nAccompanied by his brother Peter, Hodgson walked out of the Royal Courts of Justice a free and innocent man after 27 years of wrongful imprisonment. Hodgson's barrister at the 1982 trial, Robin Grey QC, was there to shake his hand as he was released. Grey said: \\\"As a human being I feel glad that we no longer have capital punishment. As a defence barrister I didn't get him off, and I have bitter feelings of guilt about that.\\\"\\nHodgson may be eligible for up to £1 million in compensation.\",\n \"-26.400226223515347\"\n ],\n [\n \"held that all accused persons who are being prosecuted for offences punishable up to 7 years and have been in prison for more than one year should be released immediately on bail and accordingly four hundred and twenty people were immediately released. Controversy In 2011 The Bar Council of Delhi found Aggarwal in two professions chartered accountancy and advocacy simultaneously. However, Aggarwal denied the charge and said though he has a chartered accountant's degree but only involved in the profession of law.\",\n \"-26.396648865324096\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":591,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"6srr2d"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"After detecting a missile launch, how does a country know if it's an attack or just a test?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Normally they tell the other country they are launching a missile. [Though sometimes they forget and there's a bit of a nuclear scare]( URL_0 ). So far this hasn't torched off a nuclear war because most tests are just 1 rocket. And a full first strike would involve hundreds of rockets. Also the missile might not be headed in the direction of anything of value. If the choice was potentially starting a nuclear war on accident or losing an uninhabited island in the middle of the pacific that you technically own, most people pick the latter.","As others have said, you can calculate the trajectory of the missile to determine where it will land - A test launch won't be aimed at another country. Another thing to note is that any attack is likely to involve lots of missiles being launched simultaneously, seeing just one on radar is definitely cause for doubt that it's an intentional attack.","Could I add a sub-question? How do countries know when a missile has been launched by another country? Are they always watching via satellite? Surely their radar doesn't cover everywhere? Also, do they have missiles that can change direction mid flight to confuse the intended target?","Article about the U.S.' launch under attack process: URL_0 ","Typically a test is anouncwd via an international NOTAM: Notice To Airman. When a launch is detected without a NOTAM, all hell breaks loose to track where it's going. Once that's determined then decissions are made made based on the preliminary trajectory. Needless to say, getting it right, with typically no more than 20 minutes of time to decide, is the money shot!","Standard practice is for the country doing the test to tell all others that they are doing a test. If a country fails to do this the trajectory is calculated and if it looks like it could be an attack it is assumed to be one.","They track the launch using radar to determine where it's headed. If it's not headed in your direction, it's not an attack (or at least not a successful one)."],"string":"[\n \"Normally they tell the other country they are launching a missile. [Though sometimes they forget and there's a bit of a nuclear scare]( URL_0 ). So far this hasn't torched off a nuclear war because most tests are just 1 rocket. And a full first strike would involve hundreds of rockets. Also the missile might not be headed in the direction of anything of value. If the choice was potentially starting a nuclear war on accident or losing an uninhabited island in the middle of the pacific that you technically own, most people pick the latter.\",\n \"As others have said, you can calculate the trajectory of the missile to determine where it will land - A test launch won't be aimed at another country. Another thing to note is that any attack is likely to involve lots of missiles being launched simultaneously, seeing just one on radar is definitely cause for doubt that it's an intentional attack.\",\n \"Could I add a sub-question? How do countries know when a missile has been launched by another country? Are they always watching via satellite? Surely their radar doesn't cover everywhere? Also, do they have missiles that can change direction mid flight to confuse the intended target?\",\n \"Article about the U.S.' launch under attack process: URL_0 \",\n \"Typically a test is anouncwd via an international NOTAM: Notice To Airman. When a launch is detected without a NOTAM, all hell breaks loose to track where it's going. Once that's determined then decissions are made made based on the preliminary trajectory. Needless to say, getting it right, with typically no more than 20 minutes of time to decide, is the money shot!\",\n \"Standard practice is for the country doing the test to tell all others that they are doing a test. If a country fails to do this the trajectory is calculated and if it looks like it could be an attack it is assumed to be one.\",\n \"They track the launch using radar to determine where it's headed. If it's not headed in your direction, it's not an attack (or at least not a successful one).\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["toward the approximate intercept location, and then as it approached, fed information on where to look for the target.\nFerranti began development of a small digital computer to perform these intercept calculations. The computer would first be fed the target location from a new remote tactical control radar, already under development as Orange Yeoman. The computer would then calculate an approximate intercept point and feed that information to the missile's autopilot. The computer also sent the current angular location of the target relative to the missile, the \"angle error\", so the missile could keep the receiver aimed in the right direction,","-29.927815374801867"],["target is based on the target's size and the \"beam quality\" of the firing ship. The amount of damage caused by a hit are reduced with distance, making it primarily a short-range weapon. In addition, ships are armed with missiles or torpedoes for long-range fire. Missiles fly to a location in space relative to the ship after movement and then explode regardless if there is a target in that location. Torpedoes are fired in a particular direction (the eight cardinals) and explode if they pass within two grid spaces of any other material object (except other torpedoes). Some ships also","-29.798454109055456"],["intends to rendezvous with an object already in orbit, the launch must be carefully timed to occur around the times that the target vehicle's orbital plane intersects the launch site.\nEarth observation satellites are often launched into sun-synchronous orbits which are near-polar. For these orbits, the launch window occurs at the time of day when the launch site location is aligned with the plane of the required orbit. To launch at another time would require an orbital plane change maneuver which would require a large amount of propellant.\nFor launches above low Earth orbit (LEO), the actual launch time can be somewhat","-28.975549100490753"],["a missile is dependent upon the guidance system knowing the exact position of the missile at any given moment during its flight, the fact that stars are a fixed reference point from which to calculate that position makes this a potentially very effective means of improving accuracy. In the Trident system this was achieved by a single camera that was trained to spot just one star in its expected position. If it was not quite aligned to where it should be, it would indicate that the inertial system was not precisely on target and a correction would be made.\nThe equipment","-28.737389603978954"],["at the control station, and a POO is triangulated and displayed. The UTAMS subsystem can also detect and locate the point of impact (POI), but, due to the difference between the speeds of sound and light, it may take UTAMS as long as 30 seconds to determine the POO for a rocket launch 13 km away. This means UTAMS may detect a rocket POI prior to the POO, providing very little if any warning time. but the electro-optical component of RLS will detect the rocket POO earlier. Infrared MASINT While infrared IMINT and MASINT operate in the same wavelengths, MASINT does","-28.606417546398006"],["knowing the exact position of the missile at any given moment during its flight, the fact that stars are a fixed reference point from which to calculate that position makes this a potentially very effective means of improving accuracy.\nIn the Trident missile system this was achieved by a single camera that was trained to spot just one star in its expected position (it is believed that the missiles from Soviet submarines would track two separate stars to achieve this), if it was not quite aligned to where it should be then this would indicate that the inertial system was not","-28.54689770459663"],["difficult to detect. Any infrared launch signature occurs in orbit, at no fixed position. The infrared launch signature also has a much smaller magnitude compared to a ballistic missile launch. One drawback of the system is that the weapon's sensors would almost certainly be blind during atmospheric reentry due to the plasma sheath that would develop ahead of it, so a mobile target could be difficult to hit if it performed an unexpected maneuver. The system would also have to cope with atmospheric heating from re-entry, which could melt non-tungsten components of the weapon.\nThe phrase \"Rods from God\" is also","-28.268735075602308"],["the Russian government in May 2010. 2010 tests Testing was resumed for the first time after the probe on 7 October 2010. The missile was launched from the submerged Dmitry Donskoy, in the White Sea, and the warheads successfully hit their targets at the Kura testing range, 380 kilometres (240 mi) to the north of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky in the Russian Far East. The launch reportedly took place at 07:15 UTC. The missile travelled over 6,000 kilometres (3,700 mi), and the rocket's trajectory was within the normal parameters, according to a Navy official.\nThe second test launch in 2010 from Dmitry Donskoy was set to","-28.097485501668416"],["the US DoD, the missile has been test fired on May 4 and May 9 of 2019 with two missiles were launched in each of the tests.","-27.954675926361233"],["it is known that the interceptor missile (named Tamir) is equipped with electro-optic sensors and several steering fins, providing it with high maneuverability. The system's radar identifies the rocket launch, extrapolates its flight path and transfers this information to the control center, which then uses this information to determine the projected impact location. If the projected target justifies an interception, then an interceptor missile is fired. Refugees In May 2007, a significant increase in rocket attacks from Gaza prompted the temporary evacuation of thousands of residents from Sderot. According to the United Nations, 40 percent of the city's residents left","-27.649244994317996"],["of such missiles makes an engagement with anti-ship missiles between surface ships fairly unlikely because for one ship to launch its missiles it would have to bring itself within range of the enemies missiles. Even with surprise the flight time of such missiles is long enough for an enemy to return fire before being hit making such an engagement extremely dangerous without some additional advantage. The Battle of Latakia during the Yom Kippur War saw Israeli missile boats sink an equal number of Syrian boats by using electronic counter measures and chaff to successfully avoid missile fire but modern missiles","-27.622178498539142"],["operator would then search for the target in elevation. The operator's field of view would depend on the target range: \"wide\" at about 20 degrees or \"track\" at about 4.8 degrees. When the target was found the operator switches to \"track\" and uses a joystick to keep the target centred in the telescope. Once a steady track was established the missile was fired. The TV camera on the tracker was tuned to track the four flares on the missile's tail. Like the operator's telescope, the TV system had two views, one about 11 degrees wide for the initial \"capture\", and","-27.468986079853494"],["intercepting missile.\nOn December 10, 2015 Arrow 3 scored its first intercept in a complex test designed to validate how the system can detect, identify, track and then discriminate real from decoy targets delivered into space by an improved Silver Sparrow target missile. According to officials, the milestone test paves the way toward low-rate initial production of the Arrow 3.\nOn February 19, 2018 Arrow 3 flight test took place in Israel. Another test took place on January 22, 2019.\nIn a series of tests in July 2019 at the Pacific Spaceport Complex in Kodiak, Alaska, the Arrow 3 system successfully intercepted","-27.427445661160164"],["coverage.\nOne issue that emerged from these studies was the problem of providing early warning to the SCD sites. The SCD's MSR radars provided detection at perhaps 100 miles (160 km), which meant targets would appear on their radars only seconds before launches would have to be carried out. In a sneak attack scenario, there would not be enough time to receive command authority for the release of nuclear weapons. This meant the bases would require launch on warning authority, which was politically unacceptable.\nThis led to proposals for a new radar dedicated solely to the early warning role, determining only which MAR","-27.332553946151165"],["the exact launch sites and types of these two missiles are not clarified in Chinese news, although it was rumored that the interceptor was designated the DN-1 or \"Dong Neng 1\".\nAccording to The Pentagon, Beijing did not inform the test in advance. And the statement \"We detected two geographically separated missile launch events with an exo-atmospheric collision also being observed by space-based sensors\", by The Pentagon spokeswoman Major Maureen Schumann, also proves the profile and results of the test.","-27.21244573779404"],["radar guidance when approaching a target, the missile can fly to an altitude of 14,000 m (46,000 ft) before descending to sea-skimming altitude of 5 m at the final stage, useful up to sea state 7. \"These complexes are able to destroy both sea and ground targets at a distance of 350 kilometers at sea and almost 450 kilometers over land,\" Shoigu said at Russian President Vladimir Putin’s meeting with representatives of the Defense Ministry. Operational history On 2 March 2011, it was reported that Russia would be deploying the system on the Kuril Islands in the Far East. The deployment was finally","-27.119013895120588"],["sea, missiles decrease the range at which the target ships can detect them by a significant amount. Flying at a lower altitude increases the amount of time the missile is under the horizon from the perspective of the target ship, making it harder to detect due to radar clutter from the sea and similar effects. The real-life success of sea skimming depends on its exact implementation, the sophistication of the detection equipment, as well as the infrared and radar signature of the missile. Sea skimming can significantly reduce the available response time that a ship's missile defenses have to work","-27.06012994865887"],["time on 13 December 2014. Later that month, China confirmed that the launch occurred, saying it has a legitimate right to conduct scientific tests within its border, that they were not targeting any country, and the development of the missile did not affect China's policy of not using nuclear weapons first in a conflict. The launch took place at the Wuzhai Missile and Space Test Center in central China and impacted in the west of the country.\nIn August 2015, the missile was flight-tested for the fourth time.\nIn December 2015, the missile was flight-tested for the fifth time. The flight","-26.993117490084842"],["has to determine if the detection is valid, under investigation, or anomalous due to computer, mechanical or personnel error. After that, the crew determines the number of launched vehicles and provides impact predictions on North America. Once the information is determined, the unit passes updates to the appropriate authorities. ICBM detection The 7th SWS's corollary mission of Missile Defense supports the Ground-Based Midcourse Defense (GMD) element of the Ballistic Missile Defense System. This program's objective is the defense of the United States against a threat of a limited strategic ballistic missile attack. The unit's Upgraded Early Warning Radar (UEWR) detects,","-26.98352131433785"],["achieve the mission plotted against the launch time. Launch Window The launch window is defined by the first launch point and ending launch point. It may be continuous (i.e. able to launch every second in the launch window) or may be a collection of discrete instantaneous points between the open and close. Launch windows and days are usually calculated in UTC and then converted to the local time of where the rocket and spacecraft operators are located (frequently multiple time zones for USA launches).\nFor trips into largely arbitrary Earth orbits, no specific launch time is required. But if the spacecraft","-26.89451689829002"],["rolled out to the launch area several times before surface and upper atmosphere conditions are acceptable for launch.\nDuring the flight, data is transmitted to the ground for quick-look analysis, and is usually recorded on board as well. Scientists on the ground usually actively control the payload. An astronomical telescope, for example, can be real time directed toward a variety of sources for observations, or left in an autonomous mode of operation.","-26.888001086656004"],["scan for nearby stars. When the target is located and scanned, players will get an analysis report of that planet, including radius, mass, temperature, water coverage, and Earth similarity. Once discovered, players can give the planet a name of their choice. Spaceship Exploration Every time the players finish a mission, the story progresses as they return to the spaceship, unlocking new missions and areas for exploration. When the players click on an interactable item or facility, dialog will show up and sometimes clues can be found for unlocking special missions, where the target can be stars, asteroids, and even supernova.","-26.80168145096468"],["in central Turkey, officials said. Together, the three radar sites form an arc that U.S. officials say can detect missile launches from northern, western and southern Iran. Those sites will enable U.S. officials and allied militaries to track missiles launched from deep inside Iran, which has an arsenal of missiles capable of reaching Israel and parts of Europe. The radar installations, in turn, are being linked to missile-interceptor batteries throughout the region and to U.S. ships with high-altitude interceptor rockets. The X-Band radar provides images that can be used to pinpoint rockets in flight.\nU.S. official also stated that the U.S.","-26.651003437465988"],["launch precision air strikes against bordering countries. These strikes can be performed on military, civilian, industrial, or nuclear targets. Military, industrial, and civilian targets can only be attacked if the diplomatic relationship with a country is very bad. Military strikes may destroy a very few army units (five main battle tanks, for example). Civilian and industrial strikes are done particularly to reduce diplomatic relationships.\nNuclear targets can be attacked at any time, and doing so retards or even eliminates the development of that country's nuclear program (which then continues as before, but from its reduced development level). However, if the country","-26.65005057421513"],["range.\nA prediction for the possible range, following an optimum trajectory, has been given at 6,700 kilometres (4,200 mi) or as much as 10,400 kilometres (6,500 mi) not taking into account the Earth’s rotation. If true, then this brings the U.S. states of Alaska and Hawaii within the missile's range. Second test flight Preparations for a second test flight were detected by US intelligence as early as 20 July. On 28 July, the missile was fired at 11:41 p.m local time, the first time which a night time launch was carried out. The missile was fired at a lofted trajectory with apogee of","-26.63278125632496"],["Launch status check A launch status check, also known as a \"go/no go poll\" and several other terms occurs at the beginning of an American spaceflight mission in which flight controllers monitoring various systems are queried for operation and readiness status before a launch can proceed. For Space Shuttle missions, in the firing room at the Launch Control Center, the NASA Test Director (NTD) performed this check via a voice communications link with other NASA personnel. The NTD was the leader of the shuttle test team responsible for directing and integrating all flight crew, orbiter, external tank/solid rocket booster and","-26.579461464702035"],["rocket reaches the desired orbit, the satellites will be powered on by the launch vehicle before finally separating from the launch vehicle.\nThe third phase will begin once the two nanosatellites are ejected from the rocket. During this phase, there will be a 30-minute period where the satellites will go through a check out and initialization process. After this period, the satellites will begin transmitting beacon messages containing telemetry information that will help determine each satellite's status. During this phase the ground station will attempt to establish first contact with the satellites and perform a check out procedure to make","-26.53838264096703"],["about 20 km.\nMounted on either side of the tracking radar antenna is a small J band parabolic dish antenna to track the missile. Below that is a small circular antenna which emits an I band uplink capture beam to gather the missile shortly after launch. The final antennas in the array are two small white rectangular ones, one on either side of the array mounted alongside the I band. These are used for command uplink to the missile. This twin antenna system permits the 'Land Roll' radar to control up to two missiles simultaneously against a single target. Furthermore, the two","-26.530885773478076"],["impact, the ship was moving at high speed. After the ship executed a rapid turn away from the missile in the limited time available, a few seconds, the Exocet struck the port side adjacent to the hangar near the stern. The turn had prevented the missile from striking the ship's side perpendicularly and penetrating; instead it hit the deck coaming at an angle, near the port Seacat launcher, skidded on the deck, and exploded. This made a 10 by 15 feet (3.0 m × 4.6 m) hole in the hangar deck and a 5 by 4 feet (1.5 m × 1.2 m) hole in the galley","-26.408515179762617"],["Missile was launched from the USS Tripoli, near Kauai. The missile reached space, and was intercepted by two SM-2 missiles launched from a destroyer, after re-entry. The SM-2 missiles did not reach space. Simulated AEGIS test A further test of the AEGIS system was conducted on 13 June, when two Medium Range Target Missiles were launched from Barking Sands. The missiles were tracked by US Navy destroyers, and simulated SM-3 missiles were launched to intercept them. THAAD test On 26 June, the United States conducted its third ABM test of the month, when a THAAD missile was used to intercept a","-26.395389254554175"],["of the sites at RAF Watton. Tracking As the interceptor missile had to be launched shortly after detection and had to place itself relatively close to the ultimate intercept location, detailed tracking information was required as early as possible. To arrange this, radars would be forward deployed in the Netherlands at two sites, one in the south near Terneuzen and the second in the north on the island of Terschelling. These would be able to look sideways at the missiles as they passed, giving them an excellent image of the warheads and boosters. It was assumed the booster would be","-26.382469263102394"],["system uses the ship's three-dimensional circular scan radar for target tracking. Up to three missiles can be aimed simultaneously. The range is up to 30 km (19 mi) against targets with speeds up to 830 metres per second (2,700 ft/s). The ship carries 48 Shtil missiles. Guns The ship's 130-millimetre (5.1 in) guns are the AK-130-MR-184. The system includes a computer control system with electronic and television sighting. The gun can be operated in fully automatic mode from the radar control system, under autonomous control using the turret mounted Kondensor optical sighting system and can also be laid manually. Rate of fire is disputed,","-26.343713138019666"],["Aftermath The Diyarbakir space surveillance site operated a detection radar (FPS-17) and a tracking radar (FPS-79) throughout the 1960s and 1970s. If a new space object was sensed by the detection radar's fans, then the tracking radar could be oriented to achieve lock-on and tracking. The orientation was governed by knowledge of the appropriate \"normal\" object's astrodynamic laws of motion, or by an assumption as to launch point. Thus, if an unknown was detected, and if it followed an unusual path, it was unlikely that it could, or would, be tracked. Furthermore, the director of the radar could make a","-26.336894846055657"],["missile is launched from Scotland and detonates over the North Pole. A terrorist named Pendragon delivers an ultimatum to heads of state in London, Paris, Rome and Bonn. Russia and USA are excluded. The British secret service contacts AXE for assistance.\nThe missile launch is traced to Blackscape – an island in the Orkney archipelago controlled by Lord Hardesty – the richest man in the world. His objective is to provoke the destruction of Russia. Carter heads to the north coast of Scotland to begin his investigation. He meets Gwen Leith one of two British Special Branch agents assigned to the","-26.327941812225617"],["an attack, it might not be immediately clear what the targets are. The only way to be sure would be to wait until well into the attack and then respond in kind. This took long enough that some portion of the US fleet would be caught on the ground, and this \"retaliation after ride-out\" concept was considered too risky. Instead, the US policy moved to launch on warning, where they would respond to an attack as soon as it was clear one was in the making. This was not ideal, as it required them to maintain a high alert level","-26.218735353671946"],["2013 North Korean missile tests May 2013 tests On May 2013, North Korea launched three short-range guided missiles into the Sea of Japan. The first two missiles were shot in the morning, while the third was in the afternoon. The missiles were launched from the same location where two missiles had been displayed, fueled, and then removed weeks before.\nOn 19 May 2013, North Korea launched a fourth missile that landed in the Sea of Japan.\nOn 20 May 2013, North Korea launched short-range projectiles that landed in waters off the country's eastern coast.","-26.186110866547097"],["the attacker and its target. In addition, the torpedo would have to strike the target at a sufficiently blunt angle to explode on impact, unless fitted with a proximity fuse, and also dependent upon the efficiency of the weapon. This angle is called the attack vector and consists of the number of degrees of arc on each side of the target’s course.\nA convoy typically proceeded at 15 knots, which would provide an attack vector based upon a relatively wide area, but if the submarine was forced to submerge, the area of the attack vector would be drastically reduced.\nBattle fleets in","-26.169081935348345"],["previous direct ascent tests that intentionally did not result in an intercept, on July 7, 2005 and February 6, 2006.\nA classified U.S. State Department cable revealed by WikiLeaks indicates that the same system was tested against a ballistic target in January 2010 in what the Chinese government publicly described as a test of \"ground-based midcourse missile interception technology\". That description also closely matches the Chinese government's description of another test in January 2013, which has led some analysts to conclude that it was yet another test of the same ASAT system, again against a ballistic target and not a satellite.","-26.120646417955868"],["the United States or South Korea time to conduct airstrikes and destroy the missiles before they could be launched.\nHowever, North Korea may also be studying Soviet encapsulation techniques such as those used in the UR-100 ICBM, where each missile comes prefueled in a maintenance-free capsule with a mean time between overhauls of several years and a preparation time required before launch reduces to minutes. This appears to have been proven with the successful test launches of the Pukkuksong-2 solid-fueled ballistic missile in both land (PGS-2/KN-15) and submarine launched (PGS-1/KN-11) variants in 2017.","-26.120611590566114"],["UTAMS Motor, Rocket, Explosive Detector System concept Three to five acoustic arrays are set up in a roughly equilateral configuration several hundred meters from each other. Each array detects an impulsive event such as motor/rocket launch and determines the line of bearing from the array to the launch site. The lines of bearing from each array are transmitted via radio link to a central point where the results are combined to establish the location of the firing point through triangulation. Impact points are detected and located the same way. Results are displayed on a georeferenced map as icons using a","-26.075740062020486"],["tests; in addition, a nuclear-detection satellite of the Vela type was also reported to have detected a nuclear detonation in the Indian Ocean in 1978 that was believed to be a South African nuclear test in what was famously called the Vela Incident. Early-warning satellites can also be used to detect tactical missile launches; this capability was used during Desert Storm, when America was able to provide advance warning to Israel of Iraqi SS-1 SCUD missile launches. Global Positioning Systems The second application of space militarisation currently in use is GPS or Global Positioning System. This satellite navigation system is used for","-26.015083814563695"],["reliable method of identifying who the attacker is. Using SLBMs as a second-strike capability has a serious problem, because in retaliation for a submarine-launched ICBM, the wrong country could be targeted, and can cause a conflict to escalate. However, implementation of second strikes is crucial to deter a first strike. Countries with nuclear weapons make it their primary purpose to convince their opponents that a first strike is not worth facing a second strike. Such countries have many diverse launch mechanisms, prepared responses to various nuclear attack scenarios, launch mechanisms in many different areas of the country, and underground launch","-25.992055236943997"],[" another at 0.55 degrees for midcourse tracking.\nThe difference between the line-of-sight of the operator's telescope and the missile's flare was calculated by the computer in the base of the launcher. Guidance updates were sent to the missile through the transmitter on the launcher platform, and received on small antennas on the rear of the mid-body fins. The operator simply kept the telescope's crosshairs on the target using the joystick, and the missile would automatically fly into the line-of-sight, a system of operation known as SACLOS. The basic concept is very similar to the one used by most anti-tank missiles,","-25.925254097674042"],["Space Tracking and Surveillance System The United States Missile Defense Agency (MDA) is developing a Space Tracking and Surveillance System (STSS) which it will use to research the space-based detection and tracking of ballistic missiles. Data from STSS satellites could allow interceptors to engage incoming missiles earlier in flight than would be possible with other missile detection systems. The STSS program began in 2001, when the \"SBIRS Low\" program was transferred to MDA from the United States Air Force. Launch Two demonstration satellites were launched together on a single Delta II launch vehicle. Launch took place September 25, 2009,","-25.913178538932698"],["detection system was malfunctioning. It was subsequently determined that the false alarm had been created by a rare alignment of sunlight on high-altitude clouds above North Dakota and the Molniya orbits of the satellites, an error later corrected by cross-referencing a geostationary satellite.\nPetrov later indicated that the influences on his decision included that he had been told a US strike would be all-out, so five missiles seemed an illogical start; that the launch detection system was new and, in his view, not yet wholly trustworthy; that the message passed through 30 layers of verification too quickly; and that ground radar","-25.7081381684402"],["that 22 (rather than 32) missiles hit their targets, that 66 (rather than 71) were intercepted, and that other incoming missiles had suffered technical malfunctions. According to Russia, 46 missiles were intercepted in five areas of the capital of Syria and Duvali, Dumayr, Blai, and Mazzeh nearby airfields, and 20 missiles were intercepted in three areas of the Homs air defense zone. The MoD did agree that the U.S. hit all three of the publicly targeted sites. The MoD also displayed remnants of SCALP and Storm Shadow missiles purportedly shot down; Jane's stated that \"The missile remnants it displayed could","-25.702176172511827"],["destroy the missiles. Yak-38 aircraft take off from Kiev in order to sink the American nuclear submarine which fired the missiles. But Admiral Rink communicates with Spirin and convinces him to postpone the attack for 10 minutes explaining that the launch of the missiles is a consequence of a malfunction, the Americans themselves will sink the submarine after the crew leaves it. Spirin agrees with the words: “If in 10 minutes they do not sink the submarine, then we will”.\nThe crew is evacuated from the submarine, which goes to the bottom. The missile cruiser Kirov (065th) is ordered to take","-25.680663054343313"],["an ICBM test, and most of the launch crew also did not know 10B's true mission, as the missile was shipped to CCAS carrying a standard blunt Atlas RV and only the night before the launch was the satellite mounted on top of it. Orbital launches required a considerably different flight path than missiles, and during launch, the Range Safety Officer, who assumed it was a routine Atlas missile test, almost pressed the destruct button on noticing that the trajectory was \"off\", but he was quickly talked out of it. SCORE transmitted a tape-recorded Christmas greeting from President Eisenhower and","-25.630920160445385"],["the basis of modern computer-based torpedo targeting systems. Prior to this attack, no target had been sunk by torpedo where the firing ship had to consider the target's position in three-dimensional terms, where the depth of the target was variable and not a fixed value. The computation thus differs fundamentally from those performed by analogue torpedo fire-control computers which regarded the target in strictly 2D terms with a constant depth determined by the target's draught.\nThe torpedoes were released in 17 second intervals beginning at 12:12, and all taking four minutes to reach their target. Launders then dived Venturer suddenly to","-25.55647959734779"],["counter a military threat. The MoD states that, although ballistic missile attack is a minor threat currently, this could change in the long-term future, if as-yet unknown enemies develop missiles as a means to overcome large distances to strike at the UK.","-25.55449263274204"],["United States, it would be able to hit anywhere in Alaska. The test prompted an Emergency Debate of the United Nations Security Council.\nOn July 28, 2017, North Korea launched an additional ballistic missile from Chagang Province, reaching an altitude of 3,000 km (1,865 mi). Jeffrey Lewis, researcher at the James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, estimated that the missile could have a range of approximately 10,000 km based on its 45-minute flight time. With this range, the missile could potentially reach major U.S. cities such as Denver and Chicago. This is the fourteenth missile test conducted by North Korea in the year 2017.","-25.53243836364709"],["each one could only launch perhaps one or two Excaliburs before Soviet missiles were already on their way. Additionally, the launch would reveal the location of the submarine, leaving it a \"sitting duck\". These issues led the Office of Technology Assessment to conclude that \"the practicality of a global scheme involving pop-up X-ray lasers of this type is doubtful.\"\nAnother challenge was geometric in nature. For missiles launched close to the submarines, the laser would be shining through only the uppermost atmosphere. For ICBMs launched from Kazakhstan, some 3,000 kilometers (1,900 mi) from the Arctic Ocean, the curvature of the Earth meant","-25.51966140291188"],["and 10 m, from the target. A 25-round burst of AHEAD rounds produces 3,800 of these small projectiles to destroy the incoming missile. Cruise missiles can be destroyed at 2.5 km and high speed missiles at 1.5 km range.\nThe system's anti-missile capability is further enhanced by adding Denel's Closed Loop Fire Correction System, which tracks projectiles all the way to the target. This allows for real-time correction of bias errors in the control system and compensation for atmospheric conditions.","-25.436309419106692"],["fired individually or in small groups in several-second intervals. A PG-1M panoramic telescope with K-1 collimator can be used for sighting. The BM-21 can be packed up and ready to move in two minutes, which can be necessary when engaged by counter-battery fire. Reloading is done manually and takes about 10 minutes.\nEach 2.87-meter (9 ft 5 in) rocket is slowly spun by rifling in its tube as it exits, which along with its primary fin stabilization keeps it on course. Rockets armed with high explosive-fragmentation, incendiary, or chemical warheads can be fired 20 kilometers (12 mi). Newer high explosive and cargo (used to","-25.39450069324812"],["2009 North Korean missile tests Events Missiles have been fired from the launch site at the port of Wonsan on the east coast of the country. Based on information from an anonymous government representative in Seoul, Korean agency Yonhap reported that the missiles are of the Scud type with a range of around 400 kilometers.\nDuring the week North Korea announced upcoming military exercises in the Sea of Japan, and with it declared an area closed to navigation around the port of Vonsan and into the Sea of Japan and covering an area of 450 by 110 kilometers. The planned military","-25.39127878891304"],["set up a mobile missile launcher on the side of a hill. The men have been tasked with shooting down an orbiting satellite with a missile. As the missile is launched, the satellite is struck by a meteorite and explodes, with the meteorite continuing on and striking the Earth.\nBrooke returns home and meets with her parents, while Max heads back to the sheriff's office. There he learns from fellow deputy Davidson that the meteorite has caused a brush fire. Davidson tells him that the military advised them to avoid the area due to possible chemical contamination,","-25.370374744767105"],["the element of surprise. However, upon clearing the place, it is then found out that the mission was to be aborted as the terrorists have suddenly gained an upper hand, where they succeeded taking control of a missile launch base, threatening to fire a nuclear missile. Raptor is then extracted while Owl continues in stealth. Somehow, when Owl arrives in the control room, the missile has been triggered to fire, and he is told to look for the scientists who can stop the bomb. They arrive swiftly, stopping the launch sequence.\nThe terrorists escape to the Middle East where they have","-25.345218684116844"],["acquires, and tracks inbound missiles to provide the necessary data to classify and engage the target. This target data allows the GMD Fire Control and Communications element to generate a weapons task plan, allowing for the engagement, interception, and negation of threat of a ballistic missile reentry vehicle in the exoatmospheric region of space. Satellite catalog In addition, the squadron helps track earth-orbiting satellites, and reports the information to the Joint Space Operations Center (JSpOC) at Vandenberg Air Force Base, northwest of Lompoc, California. This information is then combined with information from other sensors to form a satellite catalog. The","-25.30630197163555"],["for a particular target might not see that target on their sensors, or two ships might attempt to attack the same target while ignoring another. This could be addressed by adding inter-ship radio or flag signals as another input to the map, but the workload of moving so many bits of data was enormous. This led to the second major problem, the high inherent manpower requirements and lack of shipboard space.\nDuring World War II and the immediate post-war era, major navies started studying these problems in depth, as concerns about coordinated attacks by long-range high-speed aircraft became a serious threat.","-25.284201994538307"],["was a missile defence test, conducted on 18 July by the US Air Force and MDA. A Polaris missile, in the STARS configuration, was launched from Kodiak Island at 22:47 UTC. It was tracked by land and sea-based radar systems, and the US early warning satellite systems. Intercepts of the missile by SM-3 and THAAD missiles were simulated from ships in the Pacific Ocean, and ground-based systems at Vandenberg Air Force Base, respectively. The test was successful. Russian SLBM test A Russian SLBM test was conducted from the submarine Ryazan, located in the Barents Sea, on 1 August. The test","-25.279714571952354"],["ship course and speed for a desired relative wind to launch or recover aircraft. Ships most frequently used maneuvering boards to estimate the course and speed of other ships and determine the closest point of approach. Naval ships used such information to avoid or intercept other ships and to provide intercept courses for straight-running torpedoes. Ships operating together used maneuvering boards to determine course and speed required to change station within formation.","-25.276448219898157"],["information needed to time the drop.\nIn Norden's version of the system, the bombardier first looked up the expected time it would take for the bombs to fall from the current altitude. This time was set into a countdown stopwatch, and the bombardier waited for the target to line up with a crosshair in the telescope. When the target passed through the crosshair, the timer was started, and the bombardier then rotated the telescope around its vertical axis to track the target as they approached it. This movement was linked to a second crosshair through a gearing system that caused the","-25.262251753825694"],["conducted from complex 4 of Wheeler Island, Odisha at 11.05 IST. This was the second canisterised test of the missile and will now pave way for user trials of the missile by the Strategic Forces Command (SFC). Fifth test launch On 18 January 2018, a fifth test of the missile was successfully conducted from the Wheeler Island facility, Odisha at 09.53 IST. This was the third consecutive canisterised test of the missile on a road mobile launcher and the first in its final operational configuration. The missile covered a distance of 4,900 km in 19 minutes. Sixth test launch On","-25.230969063035445"],["The first launch attempt was made on 21 May 2010, during a launch window opening at 03:25 UTC and closing at 03:43. A problem with spacecraft telemetry was detected, but resolved in time for an attempt to be made at the end of the window, however it recurred during the last minutes of the countdown. With no launch window remaining, the launch was scrubbed. The launch was rescheduled for 24 May, between 03:17 and 03:35 UTC, but scrubbed early in the countdown to allow further time to resolve the problem which had occurred during the previous attempt. An attempt on","-25.229235928039998"],["also pointed out that there is no way to verify that Russia has detargeted its missiles.","-25.181989650707692"],["attack. Without informing his superiors, the General decides to launch early by trimming safety procedures, a decision Shirotsugh agrees to. When the Republic’s forces cross the border, an evacuation is ordered, but Shirotsugh rallies the crew to proceed with the countdown. The combined ground-air assault ceases with the rocket’s unexpected launch, and the Republic forces withdraw. \nFrom orbit, Shirotsugh makes a broadcast, uncertain if anyone is listening; although mankind has brought ruin to each new frontier, he asks nevertheless to give thanks for this moment, and for forgiveness and guidance. As the capsule crosses into the dayside,","-25.169627855782892"],["The missile follows the initial inertial course until it reaches a pre-programmed point where it activates its infrared seeker. The infrared seeker only scans a programmed area of the sky to prevent it from locking onto the sun. From that point it switches to passive infrared homing for the terminal phase of the flight.\nThe infrared seeker does not use IR filters to reject decoys, although there is a degree of protection provided by the use of intermediate frequency seeker scanning pattern.\nEach launcher is equipped with an optical director than can be used instead of the radar in a high ECM","-25.132971253740834"],["launch of a long-range, ballistic missile capable of carrying a nuclear warhead from the reported launch site at the Palmachim Airbase south of Tel Aviv. Israeli radio identified the missile as a Jericho III and the Hebrew YNet news Web site quoted unnamed defence officials as saying the test had been \"dramatic\" and that the new missile can reach \"extremely long distances\", without elaborating. Soon after the successful test launch, Isaac Ben-Israel, a retired army general and Tel Aviv University professor, told Israeli Channel 2 TV:\nEverybody can do the math and understand that the significance is that we can reach","-25.096123159106355"],["by an explosion immediately after the missile launch; no indication remained of who was directly responsible for the attacks. Another missile was fired from off the Icelandic coast and detonated over East Europe and Russia. This launch hit major cities like St. Petersburg and Moscow. Another nuclear missile was detonated over Japan and South Korea. The U.S. government is said to have believed that an alliance between Iran and North Korea was responsible for the attacks, and that the United States attacked Iran and North Korea with nuclear weapons in retaliation. It was also mentioned that the U.S. withdrew all","-25.090965038572904"],["Force Base.\nFrom 15 June 1955, when the first Soviet missile was detected, to 1 March 1964, 508 incidents (sightings) were reported, 147 of them during the last two years of the period. Measurements and processing Data on target missiles or satellites were recorded in each radar channel by photographing a five-inch (127 mm) intensity-modulated oscilloscope with the camera shutter open on a 35 mm film moving approximately five inches per minute. The range of an individual target was represented by its location across the width of the film, the time by a dotdash code along the length. In addition to this","-25.085508909862256"],["have come from missiles that hit their targets or failed in a previous attack\". Russian government sources claimed they had recovered as duds one Tomahawk and one 'precision air launched' missile, and would study them to improve their own weapons systems; the US denied the claims as \"absurd\".\nOn 21 April, the OPCW Fact-Finding Mission visited a site in Douma to collect samples, and on 25 April visited a second site in Douma to collect further samples. The team also interviewed people related to incident in Damascus. On 4 May, the OPCW announced that the initial deployment of the Fact-Finding Mission","-25.028715218184516"],["rules, teams were required to firstly identify the latitude and longitude of the target to within 100 meters. Teams that succeeded in this task were permitted to attempt to drop the package and complete the challenge.\nOutback Joe was first spotted in 2010 by the University of North Dakota team. In 2012, the Canberra UAV team's aircraft automatically located the target the first fully automatic detection during all events. In 2014, 5 teams correctly identified the target location allowing them to drop a package to him. The winner of the challenge was CanberraUAV, who dropped a water bottle to within 2.6","-25.020342846866697"],["six minutes of their launch. These capabilities led Soviet leaders to believe that the only way to survive a Pershing II strike was to preempt it. This fear of an undetected Pershing II attack, according to CIA historian Benjamin B. Fischer, was explicitly linked to the mandate of Operation RYaN: to detect a decision by the United States to launch a nuclear attack and to preempt it. False alarm from the Soviet missile early warning system On the night of September 26, 1983, the Soviet orbital missile early warning system (SPRN), code-named Oko, reported a single intercontinental ballistic missile launch","-24.905740065383725"],["missile is fired from North Korea, the missile would take approximately 20 minutes to reach Hawaii. PACOM would take less than 5 minutes to make a determination that the missile could strike Hawaii and would then notify the Hawaii Emergency Management Agency (HI-EMA). HI-EMA would issue the Civil Defense Warning (CDW) that an inbound missile could strike Hawaii and that people should Shelter-in-Place: Get Inside, Stay Inside, and Stay Tuned. People in Hawaii would have 12 to 15 minutes before impact. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is not required to be notified for approval to cancel an alert. Signal carriers","-24.891888427053345"],["about the use of radar reflectors as decoys in space, suggesting that because they would slow down rapidly in the lower atmosphere, they could begin to be picked out at about 200,000 feet (61,000 m), but might not be fully distinguished until 75,000 feet (23,000 m). This represented a serious problem for systems like Violet Friend, as there was no way to distinguish the decoys until long after the missiles had to be launched; the only solution would be to launch a volley of missiles at all the potential targets.\nSumming up the meeting, Robert Cockburn noted that the three countries had concepts","-24.798461307422258"],["the pre-designed target in the Indian Ocean with an accuracy of a few metres. Third test launch On 31 January 2015, India conducted a third successful test flight of the Agni-V from the Wheeler Island facility. The test used a canisterised version of the missile, mounted over a Tatra truck. The Integrated Test Range Director, M. V. K. V. Prasad, said: \"The missile, witnessed a flawless 'auto launch' and detailed results will be known after all data is retrieved from different radars and network systems.\" Fourth test launch On 26 December 2016, a fourth test of the missile was successfully","-24.780337976524606"],["launch their missiles against Russian cities, on the condition that they detect an electromagnetic pulse consistent with a nuclear attack.\nThe Russian missiles strike their targets all over the United States, although (true to Razov's word) no nuclear weapons are detonated. As the US and Russian forces agree to a ceasefire and disengage from combat, Lambert, Filipov and Razov climb upstairs to the heavily damaged Red Square. Still angry, Filipov says farewell to his former friend Lambert, as Razov hints that he was the “Damocles” source all that time. Epilogue Three months after the formal cease of hostilities, the security situation","-24.753365591896"],["was able to strike a test satellite at a 300-kilometre (186 mi) altitude in low earth orbit (LEO), thus successfully testing its ASAT missile. The interceptor was launched at around 05:40 UTC at the Integrated Test Range (ITR) in Chandipur, Odisha and hit its target Microsat-R after 168 seconds. The operation was named Mission Shakti. The missile system was developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)—a research wing of the Indian defence services. With this test,India became the fourth nation with anti-satellite missile capabilities. India stated that this capability is a deterrent and is not directed against any nation.","-24.751204814878292"],["empty.\nBy 1999, six missiles had been test fired, and another eight were earmarked for test firing. In June 2016, a Trident II D-5 missile \"veered off in the wrong direction towards America\" after being launched from Vengeance off the coast of Florida. The incident was not revealed until January 2017; the Sunday Times reported that Downing Street had \"covered up\" the incident \"just weeks before the crucial House of Commons vote on the future of the missile system.\" Subsequent media reports said the delay was at the request of the United States. Successful Royal Navy test firings had occurred in","-24.55592771206284"],["had been detected, the Soviet Union's strategy was an immediate and compulsory nuclear counter-attack against the United States (launch on warning), specified in the doctrine of mutual assured destruction.\nShortly after midnight, the bunker's computers reported that one intercontinental ballistic missile was heading toward the Soviet Union from the United States. Petrov considered the detection a computer error, since a first-strike nuclear attack by the United States was likely to involve hundreds of simultaneous missile launches in order to disable any Soviet means of a counterattack. Furthermore, the satellite system's reliability had been questioned in the past. Petrov dismissed the warning","-24.555541365174577"],["were detached from the warheads as the missiles reached as close as 100 kilometers to the targets.\nIn an interview with BBC Persian, Farzin Nadimi, an independent military expert, stated that judging by the videos and satellite images, it looks like two unknown targets were nearly hit. Babak Taghvaie, an Iranian author and defense researcher in the same news agency reported that two missiles landed in the target area, one hit open land 150 meters off the specified target (the headquarters of ISIL regional command, in the building that was previously a school called Al-reshad), and the other hit a building","-24.554175703204237"],["precisely on target and a correction would be made. Terrestrial guidance TERCOM, for \"terrain contour matching\", uses altitude maps of the strip of land from the launch site to the target, and compares them with information from a radar altimeter on board. More sophisticated TERCOM systems allow the missile to fly a complex route over a full 3D map, instead of flying directly to the target. TERCOM is the typical system for cruise missile guidance, but is being supplanted by GPS systems and by DSMAC, Digital Scene-Matching Area Correlator, which employs a camera to view an area of land, digitizes","-24.544160156336147"],["(430 mi) and reaching an altitude upwards of 2,000 km (1,200 mi). June On June 8, 2017 North Korea fired four anti-ship missiles off its east coast, near the port city of Wonsan. July On July 4, 2017 North Korea tested an ICBM. The missile flew for approximately 40 minutes, falling 930 km (580 mi) away from the launch site in the Sea of Japan. The missile, named the Hwasong-14, reached an altitude of 2,802 km (1,741 mi). It is estimated that the missile has the capability of reaching 6,700 km (4,200 mi) on a standard trajectory, meaning that although it would not be capable of reaching the Contiguous","-24.508651337120682"],["a very strong reaction from the international community.\" Following the missile test, the United Nations Security Council held an emergency meeting and strongly condemned the actions, though no official sanctions resulted at the time.\nThen, in early October 2006, North Korea claimed that it was preparing to test a nuclear explosive device. While the rumors could not be substantiated by satellite surveillance beforehand, the test was actually carried out on October 9, 2006 with only twenty minutes warning. The nuclear detonation test was, purportedly, in response to the United States's decision to not hold direct bilateral talks with the regime, as","-24.491061869135592"],["alarm and part of an \"electronic attack\" by Israel and the US on the Syrian radar system.\nAccording to Syrian state television, two days after the strikes, Syrian forces discovered two unexploded missiles and handed them over the Russian military. They had been launched on 14 April but failed to detonate for unknown reasons. Russia’s defense ministry did not confirm the report, but the weapons were reportedly shipped by aircraft to Moscow on 17 April.\nAccording to Jane's IHS, on 25 April 2018, the Russian Ministry of Defence (MoD) \"appeared to contradict\" the MoD's earlier 16 April account, and was now stating","-24.47708495533152"],["phaser and Voyager beams her out, banking away from the planet as the missile explodes.","-24.47081701341085"],["as a false alarm, though accounts of the event differ as to whether he notified his superiors or not after he concluded that the computer detections were false and that no missile had been launched. Petrov's suspicion that the warning system was malfunctioning was confirmed when no missile in fact arrived. Later, the computers identified four additional missiles in the air, all directed towards the Soviet Union. Petrov suspected that the computer system was malfunctioning again, despite having no direct means to confirm this. The Soviet Union's land radar was incapable of detecting missiles beyond the horizon.\nIt was","-24.44224562060117"],["East. Seven launches have been conducted since the probe, all successful. On 28 June 2011, the missile was launched for the first time from its standard carrier, Borei-class submarine Yury Dolgorukiy, and on 27 August 2011 the first full-range (over 9,000 km (5,600 mi)) flight test was conducted. After this successful launch, the start of serial production of Bulava missiles in the same configuration was announced on 28 June 2011. A successful salvo launch on 23 December 2011 concluded the flight test programme. The missile was officially approved for service on 27 December 2011, and was reported to be commissioned aboard Yuri","-24.42273289176228"],["missiles.\nThe main sensor is Saab's (formerly Ericsson Microwave System) HARD AESA air search 3D radar with an instrumented range of 20 km or an Infra-red search and track, depending upon the customer's specifications. The effector is the latest version of the Saab Bofors Dynamics RBS 70 surface-to-air missile, called Bolide. The missile is a laser guidance beam riding short range missile equipped with a highly effective proximity fuze. It is supposed to be effective against cruise missiles.\nEach unit is equipped with four ready-to-fire missiles and an optical day and night sight to continually point the laser beam at the target. This","-24.31726284394972"],["entering the missile-base shroud and damaging the electronic components. Indian Defence Minister Pranab Mukherjee reported it as \"partial success\" (a trade euphemism to indicate the test generated useful data for diagnosis and correction) as the missile was air-borne for only 5 minutes instead of the expected 15 minutes.\nAgni-III was test fired again on 12 April 2007, from the Abdul Kalam Island off the coast of Odisha. This time, the launch was declared as a success. India's Cabinet Committee on Security announced that \"This test confirms the extent of India's nuclear reach and India's nuclear deterrence as the missile can accurately","-24.26774890499655"],["cruise missile target. During the test, a THAAD system on Wake Island detected and destroyed a short-range target simulating a short-range ballistic missile that was launched by parachute ejected from a C-17 transport plane. At the same time, the THAAD system and the USS John Paul Jones guided missile destroyer both launched missiles to intercept a medium-range ballistic missile, launched by parachute from a second C-17. 2017 Korean deployment decision Korean decision to deploy THAAD to protect itself against North Korea have caused backlash and retaliation measures from China. Europe and the Middle East By March 2016, Army Space and","-24.244249273906462"],["for the detection of ballistic missiles to over 2000 km, since 2018 all 4 Zeven Provincien class Frigates of the Royal Netherlands Navy have been equipped with the update.\nOn the 25th of September 2017, as part of the exercise Formidable Shield 2017 the SMART-L MM radar system mounted on the test tower at the Thales premises in Hengelo, detected and tracked a ballistic missile launched from the Hebrides in Scotland at an average range of more than 1500 km without difficulties. The Thales SMART-L Multi Mission radar in Hengelo detected the target as soon as it appeared over the horizon and maintained","-24.21980952611193"],["Tracking ship A tracking ship, also called a missile range instrumentation ship or range ship, is a ship equipped with antennas and electronics to support the launching and tracking of missiles and rockets. Since many missile ranges launch over ocean areas for safety reasons, range ships are used to extend the range of shore-based tracking facilities.\nIn the United States, the initial tracking ships were constructed by the U.S. Army and then the U.S. Air Force to support their missile programs. They were generally built on a surplus Liberty ship or Victory ship hull. By 1964, the U.S. Navy took over","-24.20276730961632"],["Force. According to IRGC general Ramazan Sharif, the attack was coordinated in advance with the Syrian government, and the missiles passed through Iraqi airspace to reach their targets. Official statements In a public statement related to the strikes, published by its Public Relations Office, the IRGC cautioned that the missile strikes were just a warning to deter any further action by the terrorists. It specifically read that the \"IRGC warns the Takfiri terrorists and their regional and trans-regional supporters that they would be engulfed by its revolutionary wrath and flames of the fire of its revenge in case they repeat","-24.17817572504282"],["Television guidance Television guidance (TGM) is a type of missile guidance system using a television camera in the missile or glide bomb that sends its signal back to the launch platform. There, a weapons officer or bomb aimer watches the image on a television screen and sends corrections to the missile, typically over a radio control link. Television guidance is not a seeker because it is not automated, although semi-automated systems with autopilots to smooth out the motion are known. They should not be confused with contrast seekers, which also use a television camera but are true automated seeker systems.\nThe","-24.132714308187133"],["naval units conducted these tests in a desert location. Air Force commander Hossein Salami advised that Iran was ready to retaliate to military threats, saying \"We warn the enemies who intend to threaten us with military exercises and empty psychological operations that our hand will always be on the trigger and our missiles will always be ready to launch\".\nOne day later, on July 9, 2008, Iran once-again fired a version of the Shahab-3, amongst other missiles, which officials have said has a range of 1,250 miles (2,010 km) and is armed with a 1-ton conventional warhead. These tests were conducted at","-24.128074605803704"],["seeker can tilt in the range of +/− 38 degrees. On the launcher, the missile runs up the gyro in 2 seconds, and total reaction time is 5 seconds. The all-aspect two-color (2–4 and 3–5 µm) cooled IR-seeker of Mistral is developed by SAT, and the missile adopts both laser proximity and impact fuzes.\nA close-in weapon system based on Mistral is a six-missile version called Sadral, with a stabilized rapid-reload launcher that is fully automated. A CSEE developed fire control director is integrated to the launcher, consisted of TV camera and FLIR. Image produced by both directors appear on the screen","-24.110909689450637"],["of chemical and biological weapons. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR) said the attack sites included a scientific research center in Damascus and another in the Homs area, as well as military bases in Damascus and Homs.\nThe US armed forces said all missiles hit their intended targets without interference, and according to Lieutenant General Kenneth McKenzie, the Syrian air defences fired 40 intercepting surface-to-air missiles but failed to hit any of the targets. He said most were fired after the last incoming missile had struck its target. Similarly, France said none of the twelve missiles it fired appear to","-24.094473464996554"],["conducted from Chandipur, Odisha. Around 100 scientists are working as part of the missile development program led by Developed by Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL). DRDO’s other labs including RCI, R&D Engineers and ITR are also contributing to the missile development effort. On 22 December, the missile was test fired for the third time. While the test was initially reported to be a success, The Print reported that the test failed with the missile being unresponsive after it took off. The fourth test took place on 8 October 2018 and was reported to be successful. Fifth test was","-24.073841580946464"],["Seaborne target Seaborne targets are vessels or floating structures that are shot at for practice by naval or air forces. They may be remotely controlled and mobile, or towed behind other craft, or just set adrift in the sea. Target ships Target ships are vessels, typically obsolete or captured warships, used for naval gunnery practice or for weapons testing – perhaps most spectacularly in Operation Crossroads (1946), where 95 ships were sunk in a U.S. nuclear weapons test at Bikini Atoll. Towed targets Targets can also be towed behind other craft, the counterparts of target tugs in aviation. \nThe U.S.","-24.04535251983907"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"toward the approximate intercept location, and then as it approached, fed information on where to look for the target.\\nFerranti began development of a small digital computer to perform these intercept calculations. The computer would first be fed the target location from a new remote tactical control radar, already under development as Orange Yeoman. The computer would then calculate an approximate intercept point and feed that information to the missile's autopilot. The computer also sent the current angular location of the target relative to the missile, the \\\"angle error\\\", so the missile could keep the receiver aimed in the right direction,\",\n \"-29.927815374801867\"\n ],\n [\n \"target is based on the target's size and the \\\"beam quality\\\" of the firing ship. The amount of damage caused by a hit are reduced with distance, making it primarily a short-range weapon. In addition, ships are armed with missiles or torpedoes for long-range fire. Missiles fly to a location in space relative to the ship after movement and then explode regardless if there is a target in that location. Torpedoes are fired in a particular direction (the eight cardinals) and explode if they pass within two grid spaces of any other material object (except other torpedoes). Some ships also\",\n \"-29.798454109055456\"\n ],\n [\n \"intends to rendezvous with an object already in orbit, the launch must be carefully timed to occur around the times that the target vehicle's orbital plane intersects the launch site.\\nEarth observation satellites are often launched into sun-synchronous orbits which are near-polar. For these orbits, the launch window occurs at the time of day when the launch site location is aligned with the plane of the required orbit. To launch at another time would require an orbital plane change maneuver which would require a large amount of propellant.\\nFor launches above low Earth orbit (LEO), the actual launch time can be somewhat\",\n \"-28.975549100490753\"\n ],\n [\n \"a missile is dependent upon the guidance system knowing the exact position of the missile at any given moment during its flight, the fact that stars are a fixed reference point from which to calculate that position makes this a potentially very effective means of improving accuracy. In the Trident system this was achieved by a single camera that was trained to spot just one star in its expected position. If it was not quite aligned to where it should be, it would indicate that the inertial system was not precisely on target and a correction would be made.\\nThe equipment\",\n \"-28.737389603978954\"\n ],\n [\n \"at the control station, and a POO is triangulated and displayed. The UTAMS subsystem can also detect and locate the point of impact (POI), but, due to the difference between the speeds of sound and light, it may take UTAMS as long as 30 seconds to determine the POO for a rocket launch 13 km away. This means UTAMS may detect a rocket POI prior to the POO, providing very little if any warning time. but the electro-optical component of RLS will detect the rocket POO earlier. Infrared MASINT While infrared IMINT and MASINT operate in the same wavelengths, MASINT does\",\n \"-28.606417546398006\"\n ],\n [\n \"knowing the exact position of the missile at any given moment during its flight, the fact that stars are a fixed reference point from which to calculate that position makes this a potentially very effective means of improving accuracy.\\nIn the Trident missile system this was achieved by a single camera that was trained to spot just one star in its expected position (it is believed that the missiles from Soviet submarines would track two separate stars to achieve this), if it was not quite aligned to where it should be then this would indicate that the inertial system was not\",\n \"-28.54689770459663\"\n ],\n [\n \"difficult to detect. Any infrared launch signature occurs in orbit, at no fixed position. The infrared launch signature also has a much smaller magnitude compared to a ballistic missile launch. One drawback of the system is that the weapon's sensors would almost certainly be blind during atmospheric reentry due to the plasma sheath that would develop ahead of it, so a mobile target could be difficult to hit if it performed an unexpected maneuver. The system would also have to cope with atmospheric heating from re-entry, which could melt non-tungsten components of the weapon.\\nThe phrase \\\"Rods from God\\\" is also\",\n \"-28.268735075602308\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Russian government in May 2010. 2010 tests Testing was resumed for the first time after the probe on 7 October 2010. The missile was launched from the submerged Dmitry Donskoy, in the White Sea, and the warheads successfully hit their targets at the Kura testing range, 380 kilometres (240 mi) to the north of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky in the Russian Far East. The launch reportedly took place at 07:15 UTC. The missile travelled over 6,000 kilometres (3,700 mi), and the rocket's trajectory was within the normal parameters, according to a Navy official.\\nThe second test launch in 2010 from Dmitry Donskoy was set to\",\n \"-28.097485501668416\"\n ],\n [\n \"the US DoD, the missile has been test fired on May 4 and May 9 of 2019 with two missiles were launched in each of the tests.\",\n \"-27.954675926361233\"\n ],\n [\n \"it is known that the interceptor missile (named Tamir) is equipped with electro-optic sensors and several steering fins, providing it with high maneuverability. The system's radar identifies the rocket launch, extrapolates its flight path and transfers this information to the control center, which then uses this information to determine the projected impact location. If the projected target justifies an interception, then an interceptor missile is fired. Refugees In May 2007, a significant increase in rocket attacks from Gaza prompted the temporary evacuation of thousands of residents from Sderot. According to the United Nations, 40 percent of the city's residents left\",\n \"-27.649244994317996\"\n ],\n [\n \"of such missiles makes an engagement with anti-ship missiles between surface ships fairly unlikely because for one ship to launch its missiles it would have to bring itself within range of the enemies missiles. Even with surprise the flight time of such missiles is long enough for an enemy to return fire before being hit making such an engagement extremely dangerous without some additional advantage. The Battle of Latakia during the Yom Kippur War saw Israeli missile boats sink an equal number of Syrian boats by using electronic counter measures and chaff to successfully avoid missile fire but modern missiles\",\n \"-27.622178498539142\"\n ],\n [\n \"operator would then search for the target in elevation. The operator's field of view would depend on the target range: \\\"wide\\\" at about 20 degrees or \\\"track\\\" at about 4.8 degrees. When the target was found the operator switches to \\\"track\\\" and uses a joystick to keep the target centred in the telescope. Once a steady track was established the missile was fired. The TV camera on the tracker was tuned to track the four flares on the missile's tail. Like the operator's telescope, the TV system had two views, one about 11 degrees wide for the initial \\\"capture\\\", and\",\n \"-27.468986079853494\"\n ],\n [\n \"intercepting missile.\\nOn December 10, 2015 Arrow 3 scored its first intercept in a complex test designed to validate how the system can detect, identify, track and then discriminate real from decoy targets delivered into space by an improved Silver Sparrow target missile. According to officials, the milestone test paves the way toward low-rate initial production of the Arrow 3.\\nOn February 19, 2018 Arrow 3 flight test took place in Israel. Another test took place on January 22, 2019.\\nIn a series of tests in July 2019 at the Pacific Spaceport Complex in Kodiak, Alaska, the Arrow 3 system successfully intercepted\",\n \"-27.427445661160164\"\n ],\n [\n \"coverage.\\nOne issue that emerged from these studies was the problem of providing early warning to the SCD sites. The SCD's MSR radars provided detection at perhaps 100 miles (160 km), which meant targets would appear on their radars only seconds before launches would have to be carried out. In a sneak attack scenario, there would not be enough time to receive command authority for the release of nuclear weapons. This meant the bases would require launch on warning authority, which was politically unacceptable.\\nThis led to proposals for a new radar dedicated solely to the early warning role, determining only which MAR\",\n \"-27.332553946151165\"\n ],\n [\n \"the exact launch sites and types of these two missiles are not clarified in Chinese news, although it was rumored that the interceptor was designated the DN-1 or \\\"Dong Neng 1\\\".\\nAccording to The Pentagon, Beijing did not inform the test in advance. And the statement \\\"We detected two geographically separated missile launch events with an exo-atmospheric collision also being observed by space-based sensors\\\", by The Pentagon spokeswoman Major Maureen Schumann, also proves the profile and results of the test.\",\n \"-27.21244573779404\"\n ],\n [\n \"radar guidance when approaching a target, the missile can fly to an altitude of 14,000 m (46,000 ft) before descending to sea-skimming altitude of 5 m at the final stage, useful up to sea state 7. \\\"These complexes are able to destroy both sea and ground targets at a distance of 350 kilometers at sea and almost 450 kilometers over land,\\\" Shoigu said at Russian President Vladimir Putin’s meeting with representatives of the Defense Ministry. Operational history On 2 March 2011, it was reported that Russia would be deploying the system on the Kuril Islands in the Far East. The deployment was finally\",\n \"-27.119013895120588\"\n ],\n [\n \"sea, missiles decrease the range at which the target ships can detect them by a significant amount. Flying at a lower altitude increases the amount of time the missile is under the horizon from the perspective of the target ship, making it harder to detect due to radar clutter from the sea and similar effects. The real-life success of sea skimming depends on its exact implementation, the sophistication of the detection equipment, as well as the infrared and radar signature of the missile. Sea skimming can significantly reduce the available response time that a ship's missile defenses have to work\",\n \"-27.06012994865887\"\n ],\n [\n \"time on 13 December 2014. Later that month, China confirmed that the launch occurred, saying it has a legitimate right to conduct scientific tests within its border, that they were not targeting any country, and the development of the missile did not affect China's policy of not using nuclear weapons first in a conflict. The launch took place at the Wuzhai Missile and Space Test Center in central China and impacted in the west of the country.\\nIn August 2015, the missile was flight-tested for the fourth time.\\nIn December 2015, the missile was flight-tested for the fifth time. The flight\",\n \"-26.993117490084842\"\n ],\n [\n \"has to determine if the detection is valid, under investigation, or anomalous due to computer, mechanical or personnel error. After that, the crew determines the number of launched vehicles and provides impact predictions on North America. Once the information is determined, the unit passes updates to the appropriate authorities. ICBM detection The 7th SWS's corollary mission of Missile Defense supports the Ground-Based Midcourse Defense (GMD) element of the Ballistic Missile Defense System. This program's objective is the defense of the United States against a threat of a limited strategic ballistic missile attack. The unit's Upgraded Early Warning Radar (UEWR) detects,\",\n \"-26.98352131433785\"\n ],\n [\n \"achieve the mission plotted against the launch time. Launch Window The launch window is defined by the first launch point and ending launch point. It may be continuous (i.e. able to launch every second in the launch window) or may be a collection of discrete instantaneous points between the open and close. Launch windows and days are usually calculated in UTC and then converted to the local time of where the rocket and spacecraft operators are located (frequently multiple time zones for USA launches).\\nFor trips into largely arbitrary Earth orbits, no specific launch time is required. But if the spacecraft\",\n \"-26.89451689829002\"\n ],\n [\n \"rolled out to the launch area several times before surface and upper atmosphere conditions are acceptable for launch.\\nDuring the flight, data is transmitted to the ground for quick-look analysis, and is usually recorded on board as well. Scientists on the ground usually actively control the payload. An astronomical telescope, for example, can be real time directed toward a variety of sources for observations, or left in an autonomous mode of operation.\",\n \"-26.888001086656004\"\n ],\n [\n \"scan for nearby stars. When the target is located and scanned, players will get an analysis report of that planet, including radius, mass, temperature, water coverage, and Earth similarity. Once discovered, players can give the planet a name of their choice. Spaceship Exploration Every time the players finish a mission, the story progresses as they return to the spaceship, unlocking new missions and areas for exploration. When the players click on an interactable item or facility, dialog will show up and sometimes clues can be found for unlocking special missions, where the target can be stars, asteroids, and even supernova.\",\n \"-26.80168145096468\"\n ],\n [\n \"in central Turkey, officials said. Together, the three radar sites form an arc that U.S. officials say can detect missile launches from northern, western and southern Iran. Those sites will enable U.S. officials and allied militaries to track missiles launched from deep inside Iran, which has an arsenal of missiles capable of reaching Israel and parts of Europe. The radar installations, in turn, are being linked to missile-interceptor batteries throughout the region and to U.S. ships with high-altitude interceptor rockets. The X-Band radar provides images that can be used to pinpoint rockets in flight.\\nU.S. official also stated that the U.S.\",\n \"-26.651003437465988\"\n ],\n [\n \"launch precision air strikes against bordering countries. These strikes can be performed on military, civilian, industrial, or nuclear targets. Military, industrial, and civilian targets can only be attacked if the diplomatic relationship with a country is very bad. Military strikes may destroy a very few army units (five main battle tanks, for example). Civilian and industrial strikes are done particularly to reduce diplomatic relationships.\\nNuclear targets can be attacked at any time, and doing so retards or even eliminates the development of that country's nuclear program (which then continues as before, but from its reduced development level). However, if the country\",\n \"-26.65005057421513\"\n ],\n [\n \"range.\\nA prediction for the possible range, following an optimum trajectory, has been given at 6,700 kilometres (4,200 mi) or as much as 10,400 kilometres (6,500 mi) not taking into account the Earth’s rotation. If true, then this brings the U.S. states of Alaska and Hawaii within the missile's range. Second test flight Preparations for a second test flight were detected by US intelligence as early as 20 July. On 28 July, the missile was fired at 11:41 p.m local time, the first time which a night time launch was carried out. The missile was fired at a lofted trajectory with apogee of\",\n \"-26.63278125632496\"\n ],\n [\n \"Launch status check A launch status check, also known as a \\\"go/no go poll\\\" and several other terms occurs at the beginning of an American spaceflight mission in which flight controllers monitoring various systems are queried for operation and readiness status before a launch can proceed. For Space Shuttle missions, in the firing room at the Launch Control Center, the NASA Test Director (NTD) performed this check via a voice communications link with other NASA personnel. The NTD was the leader of the shuttle test team responsible for directing and integrating all flight crew, orbiter, external tank/solid rocket booster and\",\n \"-26.579461464702035\"\n ],\n [\n \"rocket reaches the desired orbit, the satellites will be powered on by the launch vehicle before finally separating from the launch vehicle.\\nThe third phase will begin once the two nanosatellites are ejected from the rocket. During this phase, there will be a 30-minute period where the satellites will go through a check out and initialization process. After this period, the satellites will begin transmitting beacon messages containing telemetry information that will help determine each satellite's status. During this phase the ground station will attempt to establish first contact with the satellites and perform a check out procedure to make\",\n \"-26.53838264096703\"\n ],\n [\n \"about 20 km.\\nMounted on either side of the tracking radar antenna is a small J band parabolic dish antenna to track the missile. Below that is a small circular antenna which emits an I band uplink capture beam to gather the missile shortly after launch. The final antennas in the array are two small white rectangular ones, one on either side of the array mounted alongside the I band. These are used for command uplink to the missile. This twin antenna system permits the 'Land Roll' radar to control up to two missiles simultaneously against a single target. Furthermore, the two\",\n \"-26.530885773478076\"\n ],\n [\n \"impact, the ship was moving at high speed. After the ship executed a rapid turn away from the missile in the limited time available, a few seconds, the Exocet struck the port side adjacent to the hangar near the stern. The turn had prevented the missile from striking the ship's side perpendicularly and penetrating; instead it hit the deck coaming at an angle, near the port Seacat launcher, skidded on the deck, and exploded. This made a 10 by 15 feet (3.0 m × 4.6 m) hole in the hangar deck and a 5 by 4 feet (1.5 m × 1.2 m) hole in the galley\",\n \"-26.408515179762617\"\n ],\n [\n \"Missile was launched from the USS Tripoli, near Kauai. The missile reached space, and was intercepted by two SM-2 missiles launched from a destroyer, after re-entry. The SM-2 missiles did not reach space. Simulated AEGIS test A further test of the AEGIS system was conducted on 13 June, when two Medium Range Target Missiles were launched from Barking Sands. The missiles were tracked by US Navy destroyers, and simulated SM-3 missiles were launched to intercept them. THAAD test On 26 June, the United States conducted its third ABM test of the month, when a THAAD missile was used to intercept a\",\n \"-26.395389254554175\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the sites at RAF Watton. Tracking As the interceptor missile had to be launched shortly after detection and had to place itself relatively close to the ultimate intercept location, detailed tracking information was required as early as possible. To arrange this, radars would be forward deployed in the Netherlands at two sites, one in the south near Terneuzen and the second in the north on the island of Terschelling. These would be able to look sideways at the missiles as they passed, giving them an excellent image of the warheads and boosters. It was assumed the booster would be\",\n \"-26.382469263102394\"\n ],\n [\n \"system uses the ship's three-dimensional circular scan radar for target tracking. Up to three missiles can be aimed simultaneously. The range is up to 30 km (19 mi) against targets with speeds up to 830 metres per second (2,700 ft/s). The ship carries 48 Shtil missiles. Guns The ship's 130-millimetre (5.1 in) guns are the AK-130-MR-184. The system includes a computer control system with electronic and television sighting. The gun can be operated in fully automatic mode from the radar control system, under autonomous control using the turret mounted Kondensor optical sighting system and can also be laid manually. Rate of fire is disputed,\",\n \"-26.343713138019666\"\n ],\n [\n \"Aftermath The Diyarbakir space surveillance site operated a detection radar (FPS-17) and a tracking radar (FPS-79) throughout the 1960s and 1970s. If a new space object was sensed by the detection radar's fans, then the tracking radar could be oriented to achieve lock-on and tracking. The orientation was governed by knowledge of the appropriate \\\"normal\\\" object's astrodynamic laws of motion, or by an assumption as to launch point. Thus, if an unknown was detected, and if it followed an unusual path, it was unlikely that it could, or would, be tracked. Furthermore, the director of the radar could make a\",\n \"-26.336894846055657\"\n ],\n [\n \"missile is launched from Scotland and detonates over the North Pole. A terrorist named Pendragon delivers an ultimatum to heads of state in London, Paris, Rome and Bonn. Russia and USA are excluded. The British secret service contacts AXE for assistance.\\nThe missile launch is traced to Blackscape – an island in the Orkney archipelago controlled by Lord Hardesty – the richest man in the world. His objective is to provoke the destruction of Russia. Carter heads to the north coast of Scotland to begin his investigation. He meets Gwen Leith one of two British Special Branch agents assigned to the\",\n \"-26.327941812225617\"\n ],\n [\n \"an attack, it might not be immediately clear what the targets are. The only way to be sure would be to wait until well into the attack and then respond in kind. This took long enough that some portion of the US fleet would be caught on the ground, and this \\\"retaliation after ride-out\\\" concept was considered too risky. Instead, the US policy moved to launch on warning, where they would respond to an attack as soon as it was clear one was in the making. This was not ideal, as it required them to maintain a high alert level\",\n \"-26.218735353671946\"\n ],\n [\n \"2013 North Korean missile tests May 2013 tests On May 2013, North Korea launched three short-range guided missiles into the Sea of Japan. The first two missiles were shot in the morning, while the third was in the afternoon. The missiles were launched from the same location where two missiles had been displayed, fueled, and then removed weeks before.\\nOn 19 May 2013, North Korea launched a fourth missile that landed in the Sea of Japan.\\nOn 20 May 2013, North Korea launched short-range projectiles that landed in waters off the country's eastern coast.\",\n \"-26.186110866547097\"\n ],\n [\n \"the attacker and its target. In addition, the torpedo would have to strike the target at a sufficiently blunt angle to explode on impact, unless fitted with a proximity fuse, and also dependent upon the efficiency of the weapon. This angle is called the attack vector and consists of the number of degrees of arc on each side of the target’s course.\\nA convoy typically proceeded at 15 knots, which would provide an attack vector based upon a relatively wide area, but if the submarine was forced to submerge, the area of the attack vector would be drastically reduced.\\nBattle fleets in\",\n \"-26.169081935348345\"\n ],\n [\n \"previous direct ascent tests that intentionally did not result in an intercept, on July 7, 2005 and February 6, 2006.\\nA classified U.S. State Department cable revealed by WikiLeaks indicates that the same system was tested against a ballistic target in January 2010 in what the Chinese government publicly described as a test of \\\"ground-based midcourse missile interception technology\\\". That description also closely matches the Chinese government's description of another test in January 2013, which has led some analysts to conclude that it was yet another test of the same ASAT system, again against a ballistic target and not a satellite.\",\n \"-26.120646417955868\"\n ],\n [\n \"the United States or South Korea time to conduct airstrikes and destroy the missiles before they could be launched.\\nHowever, North Korea may also be studying Soviet encapsulation techniques such as those used in the UR-100 ICBM, where each missile comes prefueled in a maintenance-free capsule with a mean time between overhauls of several years and a preparation time required before launch reduces to minutes. This appears to have been proven with the successful test launches of the Pukkuksong-2 solid-fueled ballistic missile in both land (PGS-2/KN-15) and submarine launched (PGS-1/KN-11) variants in 2017.\",\n \"-26.120611590566114\"\n ],\n [\n \"UTAMS Motor, Rocket, Explosive Detector System concept Three to five acoustic arrays are set up in a roughly equilateral configuration several hundred meters from each other. Each array detects an impulsive event such as motor/rocket launch and determines the line of bearing from the array to the launch site. The lines of bearing from each array are transmitted via radio link to a central point where the results are combined to establish the location of the firing point through triangulation. Impact points are detected and located the same way. Results are displayed on a georeferenced map as icons using a\",\n \"-26.075740062020486\"\n ],\n [\n \"tests; in addition, a nuclear-detection satellite of the Vela type was also reported to have detected a nuclear detonation in the Indian Ocean in 1978 that was believed to be a South African nuclear test in what was famously called the Vela Incident. Early-warning satellites can also be used to detect tactical missile launches; this capability was used during Desert Storm, when America was able to provide advance warning to Israel of Iraqi SS-1 SCUD missile launches. Global Positioning Systems The second application of space militarisation currently in use is GPS or Global Positioning System. This satellite navigation system is used for\",\n \"-26.015083814563695\"\n ],\n [\n \"reliable method of identifying who the attacker is. Using SLBMs as a second-strike capability has a serious problem, because in retaliation for a submarine-launched ICBM, the wrong country could be targeted, and can cause a conflict to escalate. However, implementation of second strikes is crucial to deter a first strike. Countries with nuclear weapons make it their primary purpose to convince their opponents that a first strike is not worth facing a second strike. Such countries have many diverse launch mechanisms, prepared responses to various nuclear attack scenarios, launch mechanisms in many different areas of the country, and underground launch\",\n \"-25.992055236943997\"\n ],\n [\n \" another at 0.55 degrees for midcourse tracking.\\nThe difference between the line-of-sight of the operator's telescope and the missile's flare was calculated by the computer in the base of the launcher. Guidance updates were sent to the missile through the transmitter on the launcher platform, and received on small antennas on the rear of the mid-body fins. The operator simply kept the telescope's crosshairs on the target using the joystick, and the missile would automatically fly into the line-of-sight, a system of operation known as SACLOS. The basic concept is very similar to the one used by most anti-tank missiles,\",\n \"-25.925254097674042\"\n ],\n [\n \"Space Tracking and Surveillance System The United States Missile Defense Agency (MDA) is developing a Space Tracking and Surveillance System (STSS) which it will use to research the space-based detection and tracking of ballistic missiles. Data from STSS satellites could allow interceptors to engage incoming missiles earlier in flight than would be possible with other missile detection systems. The STSS program began in 2001, when the \\\"SBIRS Low\\\" program was transferred to MDA from the United States Air Force. Launch Two demonstration satellites were launched together on a single Delta II launch vehicle. Launch took place September 25, 2009,\",\n \"-25.913178538932698\"\n ],\n [\n \"detection system was malfunctioning. It was subsequently determined that the false alarm had been created by a rare alignment of sunlight on high-altitude clouds above North Dakota and the Molniya orbits of the satellites, an error later corrected by cross-referencing a geostationary satellite.\\nPetrov later indicated that the influences on his decision included that he had been told a US strike would be all-out, so five missiles seemed an illogical start; that the launch detection system was new and, in his view, not yet wholly trustworthy; that the message passed through 30 layers of verification too quickly; and that ground radar\",\n \"-25.7081381684402\"\n ],\n [\n \"that 22 (rather than 32) missiles hit their targets, that 66 (rather than 71) were intercepted, and that other incoming missiles had suffered technical malfunctions. According to Russia, 46 missiles were intercepted in five areas of the capital of Syria and Duvali, Dumayr, Blai, and Mazzeh nearby airfields, and 20 missiles were intercepted in three areas of the Homs air defense zone. The MoD did agree that the U.S. hit all three of the publicly targeted sites. The MoD also displayed remnants of SCALP and Storm Shadow missiles purportedly shot down; Jane's stated that \\\"The missile remnants it displayed could\",\n \"-25.702176172511827\"\n ],\n [\n \"destroy the missiles. Yak-38 aircraft take off from Kiev in order to sink the American nuclear submarine which fired the missiles. But Admiral Rink communicates with Spirin and convinces him to postpone the attack for 10 minutes explaining that the launch of the missiles is a consequence of a malfunction, the Americans themselves will sink the submarine after the crew leaves it. Spirin agrees with the words: “If in 10 minutes they do not sink the submarine, then we will”.\\nThe crew is evacuated from the submarine, which goes to the bottom. The missile cruiser Kirov (065th) is ordered to take\",\n \"-25.680663054343313\"\n ],\n [\n \"an ICBM test, and most of the launch crew also did not know 10B's true mission, as the missile was shipped to CCAS carrying a standard blunt Atlas RV and only the night before the launch was the satellite mounted on top of it. Orbital launches required a considerably different flight path than missiles, and during launch, the Range Safety Officer, who assumed it was a routine Atlas missile test, almost pressed the destruct button on noticing that the trajectory was \\\"off\\\", but he was quickly talked out of it. SCORE transmitted a tape-recorded Christmas greeting from President Eisenhower and\",\n \"-25.630920160445385\"\n ],\n [\n \"the basis of modern computer-based torpedo targeting systems. Prior to this attack, no target had been sunk by torpedo where the firing ship had to consider the target's position in three-dimensional terms, where the depth of the target was variable and not a fixed value. The computation thus differs fundamentally from those performed by analogue torpedo fire-control computers which regarded the target in strictly 2D terms with a constant depth determined by the target's draught.\\nThe torpedoes were released in 17 second intervals beginning at 12:12, and all taking four minutes to reach their target. Launders then dived Venturer suddenly to\",\n \"-25.55647959734779\"\n ],\n [\n \"counter a military threat. The MoD states that, although ballistic missile attack is a minor threat currently, this could change in the long-term future, if as-yet unknown enemies develop missiles as a means to overcome large distances to strike at the UK.\",\n \"-25.55449263274204\"\n ],\n [\n \"United States, it would be able to hit anywhere in Alaska. The test prompted an Emergency Debate of the United Nations Security Council.\\nOn July 28, 2017, North Korea launched an additional ballistic missile from Chagang Province, reaching an altitude of 3,000 km (1,865 mi). Jeffrey Lewis, researcher at the James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, estimated that the missile could have a range of approximately 10,000 km based on its 45-minute flight time. With this range, the missile could potentially reach major U.S. cities such as Denver and Chicago. This is the fourteenth missile test conducted by North Korea in the year 2017.\",\n \"-25.53243836364709\"\n ],\n [\n \"each one could only launch perhaps one or two Excaliburs before Soviet missiles were already on their way. Additionally, the launch would reveal the location of the submarine, leaving it a \\\"sitting duck\\\". These issues led the Office of Technology Assessment to conclude that \\\"the practicality of a global scheme involving pop-up X-ray lasers of this type is doubtful.\\\"\\nAnother challenge was geometric in nature. For missiles launched close to the submarines, the laser would be shining through only the uppermost atmosphere. For ICBMs launched from Kazakhstan, some 3,000 kilometers (1,900 mi) from the Arctic Ocean, the curvature of the Earth meant\",\n \"-25.51966140291188\"\n ],\n [\n \"and 10 m, from the target. A 25-round burst of AHEAD rounds produces 3,800 of these small projectiles to destroy the incoming missile. Cruise missiles can be destroyed at 2.5 km and high speed missiles at 1.5 km range.\\nThe system's anti-missile capability is further enhanced by adding Denel's Closed Loop Fire Correction System, which tracks projectiles all the way to the target. This allows for real-time correction of bias errors in the control system and compensation for atmospheric conditions.\",\n \"-25.436309419106692\"\n ],\n [\n \"fired individually or in small groups in several-second intervals. A PG-1M panoramic telescope with K-1 collimator can be used for sighting. The BM-21 can be packed up and ready to move in two minutes, which can be necessary when engaged by counter-battery fire. Reloading is done manually and takes about 10 minutes.\\nEach 2.87-meter (9 ft 5 in) rocket is slowly spun by rifling in its tube as it exits, which along with its primary fin stabilization keeps it on course. Rockets armed with high explosive-fragmentation, incendiary, or chemical warheads can be fired 20 kilometers (12 mi). Newer high explosive and cargo (used to\",\n \"-25.39450069324812\"\n ],\n [\n \"2009 North Korean missile tests Events Missiles have been fired from the launch site at the port of Wonsan on the east coast of the country. Based on information from an anonymous government representative in Seoul, Korean agency Yonhap reported that the missiles are of the Scud type with a range of around 400 kilometers.\\nDuring the week North Korea announced upcoming military exercises in the Sea of Japan, and with it declared an area closed to navigation around the port of Vonsan and into the Sea of Japan and covering an area of 450 by 110 kilometers. The planned military\",\n \"-25.39127878891304\"\n ],\n [\n \"set up a mobile missile launcher on the side of a hill. The men have been tasked with shooting down an orbiting satellite with a missile. As the missile is launched, the satellite is struck by a meteorite and explodes, with the meteorite continuing on and striking the Earth.\\nBrooke returns home and meets with her parents, while Max heads back to the sheriff's office. There he learns from fellow deputy Davidson that the meteorite has caused a brush fire. Davidson tells him that the military advised them to avoid the area due to possible chemical contamination,\",\n \"-25.370374744767105\"\n ],\n [\n \"the element of surprise. However, upon clearing the place, it is then found out that the mission was to be aborted as the terrorists have suddenly gained an upper hand, where they succeeded taking control of a missile launch base, threatening to fire a nuclear missile. Raptor is then extracted while Owl continues in stealth. Somehow, when Owl arrives in the control room, the missile has been triggered to fire, and he is told to look for the scientists who can stop the bomb. They arrive swiftly, stopping the launch sequence.\\nThe terrorists escape to the Middle East where they have\",\n \"-25.345218684116844\"\n ],\n [\n \"acquires, and tracks inbound missiles to provide the necessary data to classify and engage the target. This target data allows the GMD Fire Control and Communications element to generate a weapons task plan, allowing for the engagement, interception, and negation of threat of a ballistic missile reentry vehicle in the exoatmospheric region of space. Satellite catalog In addition, the squadron helps track earth-orbiting satellites, and reports the information to the Joint Space Operations Center (JSpOC) at Vandenberg Air Force Base, northwest of Lompoc, California. This information is then combined with information from other sensors to form a satellite catalog. The\",\n \"-25.30630197163555\"\n ],\n [\n \"for a particular target might not see that target on their sensors, or two ships might attempt to attack the same target while ignoring another. This could be addressed by adding inter-ship radio or flag signals as another input to the map, but the workload of moving so many bits of data was enormous. This led to the second major problem, the high inherent manpower requirements and lack of shipboard space.\\nDuring World War II and the immediate post-war era, major navies started studying these problems in depth, as concerns about coordinated attacks by long-range high-speed aircraft became a serious threat.\",\n \"-25.284201994538307\"\n ],\n [\n \"was a missile defence test, conducted on 18 July by the US Air Force and MDA. A Polaris missile, in the STARS configuration, was launched from Kodiak Island at 22:47 UTC. It was tracked by land and sea-based radar systems, and the US early warning satellite systems. Intercepts of the missile by SM-3 and THAAD missiles were simulated from ships in the Pacific Ocean, and ground-based systems at Vandenberg Air Force Base, respectively. The test was successful. Russian SLBM test A Russian SLBM test was conducted from the submarine Ryazan, located in the Barents Sea, on 1 August. The test\",\n \"-25.279714571952354\"\n ],\n [\n \"ship course and speed for a desired relative wind to launch or recover aircraft. Ships most frequently used maneuvering boards to estimate the course and speed of other ships and determine the closest point of approach. Naval ships used such information to avoid or intercept other ships and to provide intercept courses for straight-running torpedoes. Ships operating together used maneuvering boards to determine course and speed required to change station within formation.\",\n \"-25.276448219898157\"\n ],\n [\n \"information needed to time the drop.\\nIn Norden's version of the system, the bombardier first looked up the expected time it would take for the bombs to fall from the current altitude. This time was set into a countdown stopwatch, and the bombardier waited for the target to line up with a crosshair in the telescope. When the target passed through the crosshair, the timer was started, and the bombardier then rotated the telescope around its vertical axis to track the target as they approached it. This movement was linked to a second crosshair through a gearing system that caused the\",\n \"-25.262251753825694\"\n ],\n [\n \"conducted from complex 4 of Wheeler Island, Odisha at 11.05 IST. This was the second canisterised test of the missile and will now pave way for user trials of the missile by the Strategic Forces Command (SFC). Fifth test launch On 18 January 2018, a fifth test of the missile was successfully conducted from the Wheeler Island facility, Odisha at 09.53 IST. This was the third consecutive canisterised test of the missile on a road mobile launcher and the first in its final operational configuration. The missile covered a distance of 4,900 km in 19 minutes. Sixth test launch On\",\n \"-25.230969063035445\"\n ],\n [\n \"The first launch attempt was made on 21 May 2010, during a launch window opening at 03:25 UTC and closing at 03:43. A problem with spacecraft telemetry was detected, but resolved in time for an attempt to be made at the end of the window, however it recurred during the last minutes of the countdown. With no launch window remaining, the launch was scrubbed. The launch was rescheduled for 24 May, between 03:17 and 03:35 UTC, but scrubbed early in the countdown to allow further time to resolve the problem which had occurred during the previous attempt. An attempt on\",\n \"-25.229235928039998\"\n ],\n [\n \"also pointed out that there is no way to verify that Russia has detargeted its missiles.\",\n \"-25.181989650707692\"\n ],\n [\n \"attack. Without informing his superiors, the General decides to launch early by trimming safety procedures, a decision Shirotsugh agrees to. When the Republic’s forces cross the border, an evacuation is ordered, but Shirotsugh rallies the crew to proceed with the countdown. The combined ground-air assault ceases with the rocket’s unexpected launch, and the Republic forces withdraw. \\nFrom orbit, Shirotsugh makes a broadcast, uncertain if anyone is listening; although mankind has brought ruin to each new frontier, he asks nevertheless to give thanks for this moment, and for forgiveness and guidance. As the capsule crosses into the dayside,\",\n \"-25.169627855782892\"\n ],\n [\n \"The missile follows the initial inertial course until it reaches a pre-programmed point where it activates its infrared seeker. The infrared seeker only scans a programmed area of the sky to prevent it from locking onto the sun. From that point it switches to passive infrared homing for the terminal phase of the flight.\\nThe infrared seeker does not use IR filters to reject decoys, although there is a degree of protection provided by the use of intermediate frequency seeker scanning pattern.\\nEach launcher is equipped with an optical director than can be used instead of the radar in a high ECM\",\n \"-25.132971253740834\"\n ],\n [\n \"launch of a long-range, ballistic missile capable of carrying a nuclear warhead from the reported launch site at the Palmachim Airbase south of Tel Aviv. Israeli radio identified the missile as a Jericho III and the Hebrew YNet news Web site quoted unnamed defence officials as saying the test had been \\\"dramatic\\\" and that the new missile can reach \\\"extremely long distances\\\", without elaborating. Soon after the successful test launch, Isaac Ben-Israel, a retired army general and Tel Aviv University professor, told Israeli Channel 2 TV:\\nEverybody can do the math and understand that the significance is that we can reach\",\n \"-25.096123159106355\"\n ],\n [\n \"by an explosion immediately after the missile launch; no indication remained of who was directly responsible for the attacks. Another missile was fired from off the Icelandic coast and detonated over East Europe and Russia. This launch hit major cities like St. Petersburg and Moscow. Another nuclear missile was detonated over Japan and South Korea. The U.S. government is said to have believed that an alliance between Iran and North Korea was responsible for the attacks, and that the United States attacked Iran and North Korea with nuclear weapons in retaliation. It was also mentioned that the U.S. withdrew all\",\n \"-25.090965038572904\"\n ],\n [\n \"Force Base.\\nFrom 15 June 1955, when the first Soviet missile was detected, to 1 March 1964, 508 incidents (sightings) were reported, 147 of them during the last two years of the period. Measurements and processing Data on target missiles or satellites were recorded in each radar channel by photographing a five-inch (127 mm) intensity-modulated oscilloscope with the camera shutter open on a 35 mm film moving approximately five inches per minute. The range of an individual target was represented by its location across the width of the film, the time by a dotdash code along the length. In addition to this\",\n \"-25.085508909862256\"\n ],\n [\n \"have come from missiles that hit their targets or failed in a previous attack\\\". Russian government sources claimed they had recovered as duds one Tomahawk and one 'precision air launched' missile, and would study them to improve their own weapons systems; the US denied the claims as \\\"absurd\\\".\\nOn 21 April, the OPCW Fact-Finding Mission visited a site in Douma to collect samples, and on 25 April visited a second site in Douma to collect further samples. The team also interviewed people related to incident in Damascus. On 4 May, the OPCW announced that the initial deployment of the Fact-Finding Mission\",\n \"-25.028715218184516\"\n ],\n [\n \"rules, teams were required to firstly identify the latitude and longitude of the target to within 100 meters. Teams that succeeded in this task were permitted to attempt to drop the package and complete the challenge.\\nOutback Joe was first spotted in 2010 by the University of North Dakota team. In 2012, the Canberra UAV team's aircraft automatically located the target the first fully automatic detection during all events. In 2014, 5 teams correctly identified the target location allowing them to drop a package to him. The winner of the challenge was CanberraUAV, who dropped a water bottle to within 2.6\",\n \"-25.020342846866697\"\n ],\n [\n \"six minutes of their launch. These capabilities led Soviet leaders to believe that the only way to survive a Pershing II strike was to preempt it. This fear of an undetected Pershing II attack, according to CIA historian Benjamin B. Fischer, was explicitly linked to the mandate of Operation RYaN: to detect a decision by the United States to launch a nuclear attack and to preempt it. False alarm from the Soviet missile early warning system On the night of September 26, 1983, the Soviet orbital missile early warning system (SPRN), code-named Oko, reported a single intercontinental ballistic missile launch\",\n \"-24.905740065383725\"\n ],\n [\n \"missile is fired from North Korea, the missile would take approximately 20 minutes to reach Hawaii. PACOM would take less than 5 minutes to make a determination that the missile could strike Hawaii and would then notify the Hawaii Emergency Management Agency (HI-EMA). HI-EMA would issue the Civil Defense Warning (CDW) that an inbound missile could strike Hawaii and that people should Shelter-in-Place: Get Inside, Stay Inside, and Stay Tuned. People in Hawaii would have 12 to 15 minutes before impact. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is not required to be notified for approval to cancel an alert. Signal carriers\",\n \"-24.891888427053345\"\n ],\n [\n \"about the use of radar reflectors as decoys in space, suggesting that because they would slow down rapidly in the lower atmosphere, they could begin to be picked out at about 200,000 feet (61,000 m), but might not be fully distinguished until 75,000 feet (23,000 m). This represented a serious problem for systems like Violet Friend, as there was no way to distinguish the decoys until long after the missiles had to be launched; the only solution would be to launch a volley of missiles at all the potential targets.\\nSumming up the meeting, Robert Cockburn noted that the three countries had concepts\",\n \"-24.798461307422258\"\n ],\n [\n \"the pre-designed target in the Indian Ocean with an accuracy of a few metres. Third test launch On 31 January 2015, India conducted a third successful test flight of the Agni-V from the Wheeler Island facility. The test used a canisterised version of the missile, mounted over a Tatra truck. The Integrated Test Range Director, M. V. K. V. Prasad, said: \\\"The missile, witnessed a flawless 'auto launch' and detailed results will be known after all data is retrieved from different radars and network systems.\\\" Fourth test launch On 26 December 2016, a fourth test of the missile was successfully\",\n \"-24.780337976524606\"\n ],\n [\n \"launch their missiles against Russian cities, on the condition that they detect an electromagnetic pulse consistent with a nuclear attack.\\nThe Russian missiles strike their targets all over the United States, although (true to Razov's word) no nuclear weapons are detonated. As the US and Russian forces agree to a ceasefire and disengage from combat, Lambert, Filipov and Razov climb upstairs to the heavily damaged Red Square. Still angry, Filipov says farewell to his former friend Lambert, as Razov hints that he was the “Damocles” source all that time. Epilogue Three months after the formal cease of hostilities, the security situation\",\n \"-24.753365591896\"\n ],\n [\n \"was able to strike a test satellite at a 300-kilometre (186 mi) altitude in low earth orbit (LEO), thus successfully testing its ASAT missile. The interceptor was launched at around 05:40 UTC at the Integrated Test Range (ITR) in Chandipur, Odisha and hit its target Microsat-R after 168 seconds. The operation was named Mission Shakti. The missile system was developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)—a research wing of the Indian defence services. With this test,India became the fourth nation with anti-satellite missile capabilities. India stated that this capability is a deterrent and is not directed against any nation.\",\n \"-24.751204814878292\"\n ],\n [\n \"empty.\\nBy 1999, six missiles had been test fired, and another eight were earmarked for test firing. In June 2016, a Trident II D-5 missile \\\"veered off in the wrong direction towards America\\\" after being launched from Vengeance off the coast of Florida. The incident was not revealed until January 2017; the Sunday Times reported that Downing Street had \\\"covered up\\\" the incident \\\"just weeks before the crucial House of Commons vote on the future of the missile system.\\\" Subsequent media reports said the delay was at the request of the United States. Successful Royal Navy test firings had occurred in\",\n \"-24.55592771206284\"\n ],\n [\n \"had been detected, the Soviet Union's strategy was an immediate and compulsory nuclear counter-attack against the United States (launch on warning), specified in the doctrine of mutual assured destruction.\\nShortly after midnight, the bunker's computers reported that one intercontinental ballistic missile was heading toward the Soviet Union from the United States. Petrov considered the detection a computer error, since a first-strike nuclear attack by the United States was likely to involve hundreds of simultaneous missile launches in order to disable any Soviet means of a counterattack. Furthermore, the satellite system's reliability had been questioned in the past. Petrov dismissed the warning\",\n \"-24.555541365174577\"\n ],\n [\n \"were detached from the warheads as the missiles reached as close as 100 kilometers to the targets.\\nIn an interview with BBC Persian, Farzin Nadimi, an independent military expert, stated that judging by the videos and satellite images, it looks like two unknown targets were nearly hit. Babak Taghvaie, an Iranian author and defense researcher in the same news agency reported that two missiles landed in the target area, one hit open land 150 meters off the specified target (the headquarters of ISIL regional command, in the building that was previously a school called Al-reshad), and the other hit a building\",\n \"-24.554175703204237\"\n ],\n [\n \"precisely on target and a correction would be made. Terrestrial guidance TERCOM, for \\\"terrain contour matching\\\", uses altitude maps of the strip of land from the launch site to the target, and compares them with information from a radar altimeter on board. More sophisticated TERCOM systems allow the missile to fly a complex route over a full 3D map, instead of flying directly to the target. TERCOM is the typical system for cruise missile guidance, but is being supplanted by GPS systems and by DSMAC, Digital Scene-Matching Area Correlator, which employs a camera to view an area of land, digitizes\",\n \"-24.544160156336147\"\n ],\n [\n \"(430 mi) and reaching an altitude upwards of 2,000 km (1,200 mi). June On June 8, 2017 North Korea fired four anti-ship missiles off its east coast, near the port city of Wonsan. July On July 4, 2017 North Korea tested an ICBM. The missile flew for approximately 40 minutes, falling 930 km (580 mi) away from the launch site in the Sea of Japan. The missile, named the Hwasong-14, reached an altitude of 2,802 km (1,741 mi). It is estimated that the missile has the capability of reaching 6,700 km (4,200 mi) on a standard trajectory, meaning that although it would not be capable of reaching the Contiguous\",\n \"-24.508651337120682\"\n ],\n [\n \"a very strong reaction from the international community.\\\" Following the missile test, the United Nations Security Council held an emergency meeting and strongly condemned the actions, though no official sanctions resulted at the time.\\nThen, in early October 2006, North Korea claimed that it was preparing to test a nuclear explosive device. While the rumors could not be substantiated by satellite surveillance beforehand, the test was actually carried out on October 9, 2006 with only twenty minutes warning. The nuclear detonation test was, purportedly, in response to the United States's decision to not hold direct bilateral talks with the regime, as\",\n \"-24.491061869135592\"\n ],\n [\n \"alarm and part of an \\\"electronic attack\\\" by Israel and the US on the Syrian radar system.\\nAccording to Syrian state television, two days after the strikes, Syrian forces discovered two unexploded missiles and handed them over the Russian military. They had been launched on 14 April but failed to detonate for unknown reasons. Russia’s defense ministry did not confirm the report, but the weapons were reportedly shipped by aircraft to Moscow on 17 April.\\nAccording to Jane's IHS, on 25 April 2018, the Russian Ministry of Defence (MoD) \\\"appeared to contradict\\\" the MoD's earlier 16 April account, and was now stating\",\n \"-24.47708495533152\"\n ],\n [\n \"phaser and Voyager beams her out, banking away from the planet as the missile explodes.\",\n \"-24.47081701341085\"\n ],\n [\n \"as a false alarm, though accounts of the event differ as to whether he notified his superiors or not after he concluded that the computer detections were false and that no missile had been launched. Petrov's suspicion that the warning system was malfunctioning was confirmed when no missile in fact arrived. Later, the computers identified four additional missiles in the air, all directed towards the Soviet Union. Petrov suspected that the computer system was malfunctioning again, despite having no direct means to confirm this. The Soviet Union's land radar was incapable of detecting missiles beyond the horizon.\\nIt was\",\n \"-24.44224562060117\"\n ],\n [\n \"East. Seven launches have been conducted since the probe, all successful. On 28 June 2011, the missile was launched for the first time from its standard carrier, Borei-class submarine Yury Dolgorukiy, and on 27 August 2011 the first full-range (over 9,000 km (5,600 mi)) flight test was conducted. After this successful launch, the start of serial production of Bulava missiles in the same configuration was announced on 28 June 2011. A successful salvo launch on 23 December 2011 concluded the flight test programme. The missile was officially approved for service on 27 December 2011, and was reported to be commissioned aboard Yuri\",\n \"-24.42273289176228\"\n ],\n [\n \"missiles.\\nThe main sensor is Saab's (formerly Ericsson Microwave System) HARD AESA air search 3D radar with an instrumented range of 20 km or an Infra-red search and track, depending upon the customer's specifications. The effector is the latest version of the Saab Bofors Dynamics RBS 70 surface-to-air missile, called Bolide. The missile is a laser guidance beam riding short range missile equipped with a highly effective proximity fuze. It is supposed to be effective against cruise missiles.\\nEach unit is equipped with four ready-to-fire missiles and an optical day and night sight to continually point the laser beam at the target. This\",\n \"-24.31726284394972\"\n ],\n [\n \"entering the missile-base shroud and damaging the electronic components. Indian Defence Minister Pranab Mukherjee reported it as \\\"partial success\\\" (a trade euphemism to indicate the test generated useful data for diagnosis and correction) as the missile was air-borne for only 5 minutes instead of the expected 15 minutes.\\nAgni-III was test fired again on 12 April 2007, from the Abdul Kalam Island off the coast of Odisha. This time, the launch was declared as a success. India's Cabinet Committee on Security announced that \\\"This test confirms the extent of India's nuclear reach and India's nuclear deterrence as the missile can accurately\",\n \"-24.26774890499655\"\n ],\n [\n \"cruise missile target. During the test, a THAAD system on Wake Island detected and destroyed a short-range target simulating a short-range ballistic missile that was launched by parachute ejected from a C-17 transport plane. At the same time, the THAAD system and the USS John Paul Jones guided missile destroyer both launched missiles to intercept a medium-range ballistic missile, launched by parachute from a second C-17. 2017 Korean deployment decision Korean decision to deploy THAAD to protect itself against North Korea have caused backlash and retaliation measures from China. Europe and the Middle East By March 2016, Army Space and\",\n \"-24.244249273906462\"\n ],\n [\n \"for the detection of ballistic missiles to over 2000 km, since 2018 all 4 Zeven Provincien class Frigates of the Royal Netherlands Navy have been equipped with the update.\\nOn the 25th of September 2017, as part of the exercise Formidable Shield 2017 the SMART-L MM radar system mounted on the test tower at the Thales premises in Hengelo, detected and tracked a ballistic missile launched from the Hebrides in Scotland at an average range of more than 1500 km without difficulties. The Thales SMART-L Multi Mission radar in Hengelo detected the target as soon as it appeared over the horizon and maintained\",\n \"-24.21980952611193\"\n ],\n [\n \"Tracking ship A tracking ship, also called a missile range instrumentation ship or range ship, is a ship equipped with antennas and electronics to support the launching and tracking of missiles and rockets. Since many missile ranges launch over ocean areas for safety reasons, range ships are used to extend the range of shore-based tracking facilities.\\nIn the United States, the initial tracking ships were constructed by the U.S. Army and then the U.S. Air Force to support their missile programs. They were generally built on a surplus Liberty ship or Victory ship hull. By 1964, the U.S. Navy took over\",\n \"-24.20276730961632\"\n ],\n [\n \"Force. According to IRGC general Ramazan Sharif, the attack was coordinated in advance with the Syrian government, and the missiles passed through Iraqi airspace to reach their targets. Official statements In a public statement related to the strikes, published by its Public Relations Office, the IRGC cautioned that the missile strikes were just a warning to deter any further action by the terrorists. It specifically read that the \\\"IRGC warns the Takfiri terrorists and their regional and trans-regional supporters that they would be engulfed by its revolutionary wrath and flames of the fire of its revenge in case they repeat\",\n \"-24.17817572504282\"\n ],\n [\n \"Television guidance Television guidance (TGM) is a type of missile guidance system using a television camera in the missile or glide bomb that sends its signal back to the launch platform. There, a weapons officer or bomb aimer watches the image on a television screen and sends corrections to the missile, typically over a radio control link. Television guidance is not a seeker because it is not automated, although semi-automated systems with autopilots to smooth out the motion are known. They should not be confused with contrast seekers, which also use a television camera but are true automated seeker systems.\\nThe\",\n \"-24.132714308187133\"\n ],\n [\n \"naval units conducted these tests in a desert location. Air Force commander Hossein Salami advised that Iran was ready to retaliate to military threats, saying \\\"We warn the enemies who intend to threaten us with military exercises and empty psychological operations that our hand will always be on the trigger and our missiles will always be ready to launch\\\".\\nOne day later, on July 9, 2008, Iran once-again fired a version of the Shahab-3, amongst other missiles, which officials have said has a range of 1,250 miles (2,010 km) and is armed with a 1-ton conventional warhead. These tests were conducted at\",\n \"-24.128074605803704\"\n ],\n [\n \"seeker can tilt in the range of +/− 38 degrees. On the launcher, the missile runs up the gyro in 2 seconds, and total reaction time is 5 seconds. The all-aspect two-color (2–4 and 3–5 µm) cooled IR-seeker of Mistral is developed by SAT, and the missile adopts both laser proximity and impact fuzes.\\nA close-in weapon system based on Mistral is a six-missile version called Sadral, with a stabilized rapid-reload launcher that is fully automated. A CSEE developed fire control director is integrated to the launcher, consisted of TV camera and FLIR. Image produced by both directors appear on the screen\",\n \"-24.110909689450637\"\n ],\n [\n \"of chemical and biological weapons. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR) said the attack sites included a scientific research center in Damascus and another in the Homs area, as well as military bases in Damascus and Homs.\\nThe US armed forces said all missiles hit their intended targets without interference, and according to Lieutenant General Kenneth McKenzie, the Syrian air defences fired 40 intercepting surface-to-air missiles but failed to hit any of the targets. He said most were fired after the last incoming missile had struck its target. Similarly, France said none of the twelve missiles it fired appear to\",\n \"-24.094473464996554\"\n ],\n [\n \"conducted from Chandipur, Odisha. Around 100 scientists are working as part of the missile development program led by Developed by Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL). DRDO’s other labs including RCI, R&D Engineers and ITR are also contributing to the missile development effort. On 22 December, the missile was test fired for the third time. While the test was initially reported to be a success, The Print reported that the test failed with the missile being unresponsive after it took off. The fourth test took place on 8 October 2018 and was reported to be successful. Fifth test was\",\n \"-24.073841580946464\"\n ],\n [\n \"Seaborne target Seaborne targets are vessels or floating structures that are shot at for practice by naval or air forces. They may be remotely controlled and mobile, or towed behind other craft, or just set adrift in the sea. Target ships Target ships are vessels, typically obsolete or captured warships, used for naval gunnery practice or for weapons testing – perhaps most spectacularly in Operation Crossroads (1946), where 95 ships were sunk in a U.S. nuclear weapons test at Bikini Atoll. Towed targets Targets can also be towed behind other craft, the counterparts of target tugs in aviation. \\nThe U.S.\",\n \"-24.04535251983907\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":592,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2wde60"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why the USA needs, or doesn't need, to have its military at the size that it is."},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["There are three states that the world can be in: *One superpower* *Multiple superpowers* *No super powers (every country equally as strong as another)* Lets start with the last one. By nature, countries will compete for dominance over one another for political, economic, and security reasons. Therefore this state is almost unattainable. Not all countries can afford or care to keep up with the others, so there will never be a time when no country is more powerful than others. Now for the middle state, *multiple superpowers*. This is what the cold war was. This ends up the same as we discussed above, because the countries that CAN afford to compete for power DO compete, and end up in 'cold' wars with one another. This can happen with any number of countries, for instance during the last half of the 20th century it was two (US and USSR), but it could easily happen with three, four, or more countries competing for dominance. First on this list is close to what we have now, *one superpower*. The united states 'won' the cold war because the other guy quit competing. That left it with no other country even CLOSE to being as powerful militarily or spending as much as they did. Here they had two options: stop spending because our main threat is 'gone', or keep spending to PREVENT them from being able to come back. The US chose the latter, obviously. Many people think that a system of one superpower is the most realistic 'best' option. It is unrealistic to think that countries will not compete with each other, and a cold war is dangerous for the entire planet because nuclear arms exist. The theory is this: If the US spends so much money and has such a large military presence in most of the world that they can counter any emerging threats before they get too big, that *theoretically* means that other countries would have a hard time becoming powerful enough to inflict major harm on other countries because the US *could* swoop in at any time and stop them. While the US is not a perfect country, most of the world (the west and some of Asia) thinks that the US is a good choice because *the other candidates are worse*. Russia? Most of the world doesn't want them to have the power. China? Same thing. Both have terrible human rights records and less obligation to do things fairly because they don't answer to their citizens in the same way. While the US doesn't do things fairly or always do the 'right' thing, it's pretty much the only candidate for the job that has a *chance* of doing the right thing. Ancillary reasons: With the US military being so large and powerful, many Europeans countries can spend WAY less money per capita on their military. This is good for them. Part of the reason the US spends more than the next 13 countries combined is because they hardly spend anything at all since they either can't keep up enough to matter against the US military or they are friends with the US. The US spends a lot but we have for all of recent memory so the citizens don't put up much fuss. It also helps that having the most powerful military in the world allows you to exert your will on other countries for political, economic, or security reasons.","The base of it is this: it is politically unpopular to reduce the size of the military for any reason. There is a big enough military-industrial complex that you would essentially be removing jobs from the US economy, and so nobody wants to do it. When you add to that that you're essentially firing our most patriotically-viewed demographic, it's almost political suicide. Eisenhower, a 5-star general in the military during WWII, talked on his way out of the presidency about how [dangerous it is to the US to let the military-industrial complex]( URL_1 ) get out of hand, but even an insider who was president at the time couldn't stop its growth. Clearly, a military is important, but outspending the [next 13 closest militaries]( URL_0 ) is, in my opinion, just as clearly too big.","It depends on your definition of \"need.\" For better or worse the USA is the leading world power at the moment, to maintain this status we actually do \"need\" the military we have (there is a reason China is building up their military), Europe's military spending is tiny in comparison and rely heavily on the USA for the bulk of NATO work (US missile defense systems in Turkey, US tank busters in Germany, US Navy controlling Atlantic & Mediterranean, etc.), the US controls the ocean's trading routes all over the entire planet (US Navy has the 2nd largest air force in the world after the US Air Force) which allows for trade to continue is some of the most hostile environments (see coast of Somalia), the US acts as world police as well basically being involved in some way in every conflict in the globe and spends billions giving money to foreign countries to help maintain relative peace. Domestically, u/praecipula explained it well, too much money involved in making sure things don't change. You could say this is a bad thing, but even as someone who thinks we spend far too on our military, I would prefer for the US to be doing this than any other country as there are few who can actually fund such activities, history has shown someone will always step into that power vacuum if you step away (every empire throughout history, more recently Spain then Britain, now us), and the other options (really just Russia & China) seem like they would do a lot worse of a job.","The U.S. Is in a position of power. If it was to drastically reduce its military strength it's not like the rest of the world will stay the same. The power vacuum would be filled by Russia or China. As much as many people disagree with how the United States handles its foreign policy, you can be certain a Russia or China as the sole superpower would be much, much worse.","Not a full answer, but kind of a response to the people who state that U.S. military is bigger than \"next 13 closest militaries\". The size difference is simply because a lot of the rest of the world (especially Europe) relies heavily on U.S. defense spending, therefore those governments have a lesser need to invest in defense themselves. A huge portion of NATO is funded by the US.","For the amount of money it spends the US actually has a relatively small military. But it has a very well equipped military. It also has a massive air and sea component. The US would rather use that technological edge to leverage force, meaning that they need fewer ground forces to accomplish the same goal in theory. The US is also separated by oceans from most politically or geographically important areas. meaning that the ability to get there, protect lines of communication, and keep supplied are very important, in addition to power projection. hence the need for a large air force and navy. Both of those get very expensive as they require constant upgrades and maintenance, and training.","The reason the US military is so large is so it can win on multiple fronts while still defending the homeland. Consider that perspective when you read stats about how the US military is larger than several others combined. Winning a foreign conflict doesn't help if it leaves you venerable. From URL_0 The current strategic doctrine, which Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld issued in his Quadrennial Defense Review of early 2001 (before the 9/11 attacks), is a package of U.S. military requirements known as 1-4-2-1. The first 1 refers to defending the US homeland. The 4 refers to deterring hostilities in four key regions of the world. The 2 means the US armed forces must have the strength to win swiftly in two near-simultaneous conflicts in those regions. The final 1 means that the US forces must win one of those conflicts \"decisively\".","Whether it's cars, crops, computers, financial services, fossil fuels or t-shirts, every country has its exports. The US exports its military. The difference is that while other goods are paid for with money, having a large military is paid for by having a deeper influence in foreign affairs. This helps put US friendly leaders in charge who may seek to increase trade with the US. We protect them, or economy grows. You could try to reduce the size of the military, but ultimately it's a big advantage to have a larger, more disciplined military than anyone else. You don't want to let someone take that away from you.","When we think of military size, it's worth remembering that the budget the military receives is not directly proportional to the combat effectiveness of the force. There is a terrifying amount of waste in the US military budget. Examples include the RAH-66 Comanche recon helicopter - $7 billion was spent developing, building and testing it, before the program was cancelled because the army decided they didn't want it after all; the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter - cost $910 billion before even becoming operational; the V-22 Osprey - cost $35.6 billion and 30 deaths; the F-22 Raptor - cost $67 billion for an aircraft that wasn't even needed, as the existing F-15 airframe can outfight anything the other side has; the procurement of unneeded M1 Abrams tanks, costing $181 million... It goes on. The US military is a top-heavy bureaucracy behind the scenes, and a frightening amount of its budget just goes to justify having the budget in the first place.","One *small* reason to maintain spending is a skilled work force. The USA is constantly building aircraft carriers and submarines. We have plenty now, but if they stopped for 5-10 years, than those people who know how to build them would find employment elsewhere. When the time comes to build another, those workers wouldn't be available. Same goes for some of the smaller contractors....they could go out of business and their skills would be lost. Others have given more broad and complete answers, this is just a small part.","We need a large military to invade countries that pose a threat to use. Even if it is a 1% chance."],"string":"[\n \"There are three states that the world can be in: *One superpower* *Multiple superpowers* *No super powers (every country equally as strong as another)* Lets start with the last one. By nature, countries will compete for dominance over one another for political, economic, and security reasons. Therefore this state is almost unattainable. Not all countries can afford or care to keep up with the others, so there will never be a time when no country is more powerful than others. Now for the middle state, *multiple superpowers*. This is what the cold war was. This ends up the same as we discussed above, because the countries that CAN afford to compete for power DO compete, and end up in 'cold' wars with one another. This can happen with any number of countries, for instance during the last half of the 20th century it was two (US and USSR), but it could easily happen with three, four, or more countries competing for dominance. First on this list is close to what we have now, *one superpower*. The united states 'won' the cold war because the other guy quit competing. That left it with no other country even CLOSE to being as powerful militarily or spending as much as they did. Here they had two options: stop spending because our main threat is 'gone', or keep spending to PREVENT them from being able to come back. The US chose the latter, obviously. Many people think that a system of one superpower is the most realistic 'best' option. It is unrealistic to think that countries will not compete with each other, and a cold war is dangerous for the entire planet because nuclear arms exist. The theory is this: If the US spends so much money and has such a large military presence in most of the world that they can counter any emerging threats before they get too big, that *theoretically* means that other countries would have a hard time becoming powerful enough to inflict major harm on other countries because the US *could* swoop in at any time and stop them. While the US is not a perfect country, most of the world (the west and some of Asia) thinks that the US is a good choice because *the other candidates are worse*. Russia? Most of the world doesn't want them to have the power. China? Same thing. Both have terrible human rights records and less obligation to do things fairly because they don't answer to their citizens in the same way. While the US doesn't do things fairly or always do the 'right' thing, it's pretty much the only candidate for the job that has a *chance* of doing the right thing. Ancillary reasons: With the US military being so large and powerful, many Europeans countries can spend WAY less money per capita on their military. This is good for them. Part of the reason the US spends more than the next 13 countries combined is because they hardly spend anything at all since they either can't keep up enough to matter against the US military or they are friends with the US. The US spends a lot but we have for all of recent memory so the citizens don't put up much fuss. It also helps that having the most powerful military in the world allows you to exert your will on other countries for political, economic, or security reasons.\",\n \"The base of it is this: it is politically unpopular to reduce the size of the military for any reason. There is a big enough military-industrial complex that you would essentially be removing jobs from the US economy, and so nobody wants to do it. When you add to that that you're essentially firing our most patriotically-viewed demographic, it's almost political suicide. Eisenhower, a 5-star general in the military during WWII, talked on his way out of the presidency about how [dangerous it is to the US to let the military-industrial complex]( URL_1 ) get out of hand, but even an insider who was president at the time couldn't stop its growth. Clearly, a military is important, but outspending the [next 13 closest militaries]( URL_0 ) is, in my opinion, just as clearly too big.\",\n \"It depends on your definition of \\\"need.\\\" For better or worse the USA is the leading world power at the moment, to maintain this status we actually do \\\"need\\\" the military we have (there is a reason China is building up their military), Europe's military spending is tiny in comparison and rely heavily on the USA for the bulk of NATO work (US missile defense systems in Turkey, US tank busters in Germany, US Navy controlling Atlantic & Mediterranean, etc.), the US controls the ocean's trading routes all over the entire planet (US Navy has the 2nd largest air force in the world after the US Air Force) which allows for trade to continue is some of the most hostile environments (see coast of Somalia), the US acts as world police as well basically being involved in some way in every conflict in the globe and spends billions giving money to foreign countries to help maintain relative peace. Domestically, u/praecipula explained it well, too much money involved in making sure things don't change. You could say this is a bad thing, but even as someone who thinks we spend far too on our military, I would prefer for the US to be doing this than any other country as there are few who can actually fund such activities, history has shown someone will always step into that power vacuum if you step away (every empire throughout history, more recently Spain then Britain, now us), and the other options (really just Russia & China) seem like they would do a lot worse of a job.\",\n \"The U.S. Is in a position of power. If it was to drastically reduce its military strength it's not like the rest of the world will stay the same. The power vacuum would be filled by Russia or China. As much as many people disagree with how the United States handles its foreign policy, you can be certain a Russia or China as the sole superpower would be much, much worse.\",\n \"Not a full answer, but kind of a response to the people who state that U.S. military is bigger than \\\"next 13 closest militaries\\\". The size difference is simply because a lot of the rest of the world (especially Europe) relies heavily on U.S. defense spending, therefore those governments have a lesser need to invest in defense themselves. A huge portion of NATO is funded by the US.\",\n \"For the amount of money it spends the US actually has a relatively small military. But it has a very well equipped military. It also has a massive air and sea component. The US would rather use that technological edge to leverage force, meaning that they need fewer ground forces to accomplish the same goal in theory. The US is also separated by oceans from most politically or geographically important areas. meaning that the ability to get there, protect lines of communication, and keep supplied are very important, in addition to power projection. hence the need for a large air force and navy. Both of those get very expensive as they require constant upgrades and maintenance, and training.\",\n \"The reason the US military is so large is so it can win on multiple fronts while still defending the homeland. Consider that perspective when you read stats about how the US military is larger than several others combined. Winning a foreign conflict doesn't help if it leaves you venerable. From URL_0 The current strategic doctrine, which Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld issued in his Quadrennial Defense Review of early 2001 (before the 9/11 attacks), is a package of U.S. military requirements known as 1-4-2-1. The first 1 refers to defending the US homeland. The 4 refers to deterring hostilities in four key regions of the world. The 2 means the US armed forces must have the strength to win swiftly in two near-simultaneous conflicts in those regions. The final 1 means that the US forces must win one of those conflicts \\\"decisively\\\".\",\n \"Whether it's cars, crops, computers, financial services, fossil fuels or t-shirts, every country has its exports. The US exports its military. The difference is that while other goods are paid for with money, having a large military is paid for by having a deeper influence in foreign affairs. This helps put US friendly leaders in charge who may seek to increase trade with the US. We protect them, or economy grows. You could try to reduce the size of the military, but ultimately it's a big advantage to have a larger, more disciplined military than anyone else. You don't want to let someone take that away from you.\",\n \"When we think of military size, it's worth remembering that the budget the military receives is not directly proportional to the combat effectiveness of the force. There is a terrifying amount of waste in the US military budget. Examples include the RAH-66 Comanche recon helicopter - $7 billion was spent developing, building and testing it, before the program was cancelled because the army decided they didn't want it after all; the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter - cost $910 billion before even becoming operational; the V-22 Osprey - cost $35.6 billion and 30 deaths; the F-22 Raptor - cost $67 billion for an aircraft that wasn't even needed, as the existing F-15 airframe can outfight anything the other side has; the procurement of unneeded M1 Abrams tanks, costing $181 million... It goes on. The US military is a top-heavy bureaucracy behind the scenes, and a frightening amount of its budget just goes to justify having the budget in the first place.\",\n \"One *small* reason to maintain spending is a skilled work force. The USA is constantly building aircraft carriers and submarines. We have plenty now, but if they stopped for 5-10 years, than those people who know how to build them would find employment elsewhere. When the time comes to build another, those workers wouldn't be available. Same goes for some of the smaller contractors....they could go out of business and their skills would be lost. Others have given more broad and complete answers, this is just a small part.\",\n \"We need a large military to invade countries that pose a threat to use. Even if it is a 1% chance.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["of Action on Military Spending (GDAMS), which aims to gather people and create a global movement that persuades governments to reallocate their military spending to essential human needs such as food, education, health care, social services and environmental concerns.\nAmong the countries maintaining some of the world's largest military budgets, China, France, Germany, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States are frequently recognized to be great powers.\nAccording to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, in 2014, total world military expenditure amounted to 1.8 trillion US$.\nIn 2018, the United States spent 3.2% of its GDP on its military, while Saudi","-30.888860747947547"],["States of America is incurring the highest military expenditure in the world. It is considered a superpower and a determinant of the world's military spending. \nTheir spending in the recent times has increased due to terror and Afghanistan and Iraq invasions. Even though there have been financial crises the military expenses have shown no signs of change. The expenditure on a country's armed forces remains the same.","-30.824539153802107"],["utilization...\"\nThe United States today stands out in the Western world but continually denies itself as an empire, but the media recognizes the United States as a superpower and a hegemon. The United States maintains a system of military bases throughout the globe that provides the basis for the rapid deployment of military forces, protecting the economic system, and preventing threats to security and prosperity the United States.\nKenneth Pomeranz and Harvard historian Niall Ferguson share the view: \"With US military bases in more than 120 countries, we hardly see the end of the empire. This vast archipelago of US military bases","-30.822814717626898"],["United States was a naval-based advanced military with by far the highest military expenditure in the world. The United States Navy was the world's largest navy, with the largest number of aircraft carriers, bases all over the world (particularly in an incomplete \"ring\" bordering the Warsaw Pact states to the west, south and east). The US had the largest nuclear arsenal in the world during the first half of the Cold War, one of the largest armies in the world and one of the two largest air forces in the world. Its powerful military allies in Western Europe (the North","-30.76143376741311"],["of the Defense Department budget. Overall the U.S. federal government is spending about $1 trillion annually on defense-related purposes.\nIn a 2012 story, Salon reported, \"Despite a decline in global arms sales in 2010 due to recessionary pressures, the United States increased its market share, accounting for a whopping 53 percent of the trade that year. Last year saw the United States on pace to deliver more than $46 billion in foreign arms sales.\" The defense industry also tends to contribute heavily to incumbent members of Congress.\nThe concept of a military–industrial complex has been expanded to include the entertainment and creative","-30.512762861617375"],["in early 1997 Perry believed it possible to modernize the U.S. armed forces within a balanced federal budget. Perry argued for the current force level of just under 1.5 million as the minimum needed by the United States to maintain its global role. Further reductions in the Defense budget after 1997 would require cuts in the force structure and make it impossible for the United States to remain a global power. Streamlining the military infrastructure Perry devoted much time to restructuring defense acquisition policy and procedure, pursuing measures on acquisition reform begun when he was deputy secretary. Six days after","-30.329081057550866"],["States in the United States was $18.527 trillion (106% of the GDP) in 2014. The United States has the largest external debt in the world and the 14th largest government debt as a % of GDP in the world. Military The president is the commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces and appoints its leaders, the secretary of defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The United States Department of Defense administers the armed forces, including the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force. The Coast Guard is run by the Department of Homeland Security in peacetime and by the Department of","-30.274516486897483"],["provide for the growing states as a whole. There was a hope for an army that can provide safety for all who are citizens of America and a need for strong individuals, both physically and mentally, who could provide the protection. Federalist 16 explains the states need a new national constitution to be put in motion but putting together a large and cohesive army that will stand behind our new found country and new founding government. The constitution is supposed to bring great stability in government and give the country a unified rule so that there wouldn't be multiple small","-30.234597969749302"],["to stay high as compared with other countries.\nWhen accounting for Military Expenditure by % of GDP, the United States ranks 21st. Past commentary on military budget In 2009, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates wrote that the U.S. should adjust its priorities and spending to address the changing nature of threats in the world: \"What all these potential adversaries—from terrorist cells to rogue nations to rising powers—have in common is that they have learned that it is unwise to confront the United States directly on conventional military terms. The United States cannot take its current dominance for granted and needs to invest","-30.176334405292437"],["and maintains deployments greater than 100 active duty personnel in 25 foreign countries.\nThe military budget of the United States in 2011 was more than $700 billion, 41% of global military spending and equal to the next 14 largest national military expenditures combined. At 4.7% of GDP, the rate was the second-highest among the top 15 military spenders, after Saudi Arabia. U.S. defense spending as a percentage of GDP ranked 23rd globally in 2012 according to the CIA. Defense spending plays a major role in science and technology investment, with roughly half of U.S. federal research and development funded by the","-30.009611419591238"],["take the United States (and more specifically the U.S. Army) to war without the support of the U.S. people, General Abrams intertwined the structure of the three components of the army in such a way as to make extended operations impossible, without the involvement of both the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve.\nThe 1980s was mostly a decade of reorganization. The army converted to an all-volunteer force with greater emphasis on training and technology. The Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986 created unified combatant commands bringing the army together with the other four military services under unified, geographically organized command structures.","-29.354204664447025"],["Maxwell D. Taylor, believed that the Army was receiving too small a share of the military budget.\nIts standing threatened by the New Look, the Army questioned the wisdom of reliance on \"massive retaliation\" and strategic air power to the neglect of other force elements. Wilson reportedly observed that the United States \"can't afford to fight limited wars. We can only afford to fight a big war, and if there is one, that is the kind it will be.\" However, by 1955 the Army and, later that decade, the Navy, departed from their emphasis on preparation for total war by urging","-29.349206400878757"],["the United States spent 3.2% of its GDP on its military, while Saudi Arabia spent 8.8%, Israel spent 4.3%, Pakistan spent 4.0%, Russia spent 3.9%, South Korea spent 2.6%, China spent 1.9%, United Kingdom spent 1.8%, and Germany spent 1.2% of its GDP on defense.\nThe US Military's budget has plateaued in 2009, but is still considerably larger than any other military power.\nMilitary spending is important to the Trump administration and it is unlikely that he has any reason to curb it. In addition, military spending is popular with 2017 House Speaker Paul Ryan, showing that U.S. military spending will continue","-29.171683562584803"],["spending) makes up one-third of the annual federal budget.\nIn 2015, out of its budget of 3.97 trillion, the United States spent $637 billion on military. \nIn 2016, the United States spent 3.29% of its GDP on its military (considering only basic Department of Defense budget spending), more than France's 2.26% and less than Saudi Arabia's 9.85%. This is historically low for the United States since it peaked in 1944 at 37.8% of GDP (it reached the lowest point of 3.0% in 1999–2001). Even during the peak of the Vietnam War the percentage reached a high of 9.4% in 1968.\nIn 2018,","-29.140498051958275"],["2009 was $1.531 trillion U.S. dollars. 46.5% of this total, roughly $712 billion U.S. dollars, was spent by the United States. The privatization of the production and invention of military technology also leadsto a complicated relationship with significant research and development of many technologies. \nIn 2011, the United States spent more (in absolute numbers) on its military than the next 13 nations combined.\nThe military budget of the United States for the 2009 fiscal year was $515.4 billion. Adding emergency discretionary spending and supplemental spending brings the sum to $651.2 billion. This does not include many military-related items that are outside","-28.994745888478064"],["Grow the Army Grow the Army was a transformation and restationing initiative of the United States Army announced in 2007. The initiative was designed to grow the U.S. Army's force by almost 75,000 soldiers, while realigning a large portion of the force in Europe, moving units located there to the continental United States in compliance with the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission suggestions. Soldiers The plan was announced in a United States Army press release on December 19, 2007. It calls for a total force growth of 74,200 soldiers, expanding the Active duty army force by 65,000 soldiers, the","-28.91745580839165"],["that the United States military was a prime example of how a comprehensive social safety net, universal health care, a commitment to public service, low income disparity, and structured planning could be made to work within an organization. He then suggested that the military could serve as a model for improving American society along those lines. This brought criticism from several other commentators, who argued that the military is only effective at what it does by severely limiting the freedom of its members. Jonah Goldberg argued that \"You've got to love how a system that requires total loyalty, curbs free","-28.853980248910375"],["the civilian population. Thus, the lack of actual military goals can in itself be a reason that a forever war can occur. As well, a very large defense budget may also be a factor in the transpiration of a forever war. This allows a country to fight several forever wars. As of 2018, the United States has a high military budget that is larger than their budget for World War II, allowing for inflation, which enables them to fight wars forever in Iraq and other countries. The idea of a forever war can also extend to civil wars. Simply,","-28.675153588861576"],["only is the United States so far ahead militarily in both quantitative and qualitative terms, but its security guarantees also give it the leverage to prevent allies from giving military technology to potential U.S. rivals. Because the United States dominates the high-end defense industry, it can trade access to its defense market for allies' agreement not to transfer key military technologies to its competitors.\"\nFinally, when the United States wields its security leverage, the authors argue, it shapes the overall structure of the global economy. \"Washington wins when U.S. allies favor [the] status quo, and one reason they are inclined to","-28.561616874490937"],["that sees incumbent powers competing to maintain the status quo and keep their global influence. In today’s international system, there are four great powers that fit this definition: the United States (US), Russia, China and the European Union (whereby the EU is considered to be the sum of its parts). If we distil from this description of great power attributes and capabilities a list of criteria, it is clear why these four powers dominate the international security debate. The possession of superior military and economic capabilities can be translated into measurements such as military expenditure and GDP, and nowhere are","-28.384478520943958"],["identified excess litigation, excess taxation, and excess regulation as three factors contributing to the loss of American jobs. Size of the military and defense spending Huckabee supports a larger military and a fifty percent increase in defense spending. In December 2007, he wrote:\nThe Bush administration plans to increase the size of the U.S. Army and the Marine Corps by about 92,000 troops over the next five years. We can and must do this in two to three years. I recognize the challenges of increasing our enlistments without lowering standards and of expanding training facilities and personnel, and that is one","-28.36961975189479"],["the armed forces will only be used against foreign aggression, and reduces the powers of the heads of the armed services, centralizing whole operational and acquisitions decisions under the authority of the minister of Defense through the Armed Forces Joint General Staff emphasizing Jointness Budget The 2014 military budget is US$ 10.000.000.000.","-28.23995437173653"],["(the world's most powerful military and economic power at the time), France, Russia, the Austro-Hungarian empire, Ottoman empire, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Belgium, Japan and Greece were all larger and more experienced than the United States military, in many cases significantly so.\nReform to them meant UMT or \"universal military training\". They proposed a national service program under which the 600,000 men who turned 18 every year would be required to spend six months in military training, and afterwards be assigned to reserve units. The small regular army would primarily be a training agency.\nAntimilitarists complained the plan would make America resemble","-28.23444945763913"],["planned to limit pay rises, increase fees for healthcare benefits, freeze the pay of senior officers, and reduce military housing allowances. A reduction in the number of soldiers serving in the U.S. Army would reduce the size of the force to levels not seen since prior to the start of World War II.\nIn July 2014, American Enterprise Institute scholar Michael Auslin opined in the National Review that the Air Force needs to be fully funded as a priority, due to the air superiority, global airlift, and long-range strike capabilities it provides.\nIn January 2015 Defense Department published its internal study on","-28.10335352313996"],["United States produced 2.4 million trucks, 300,000 military aircraft, 88,400 tanks, and 40 billion rounds of ammunition. The production capacity of the United States dwarfed that of other countries; for example, in 1944, the United States produced more military aircraft than the combined production of Germany, Japan, Britain, and the Soviet Union. The White House became the ultimate site for labor mediation, conciliation or arbitration. One particular battle royale occurred between Vice President Wallace, who headed the Board of Economic Warfare, and Jesse H. Jones, in charge of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation; both agencies assumed responsibility for acquisition of rubber","-27.970414637726208"],["to change the priorities of that government and its people. As one of the most powerful military nations on earth, we must start leading the world toward peace.\nWe are not trying to avoid our responsibilities to the people of this country and the world by refusing to pay our taxes. We will pay our share of money and resources to life-affirming, positive programs such as medical care, welfare, psychological care and counseling, and education, to name a few. We are called by God to affirm life and love with our resources and to resist and eliminate war and violence among","-27.95157202950213"],["the $250 billion military budget of China. The United States and its close allies are responsible for two-thirds to three-quarters of the world's military spending (of which, in turn, the U.S. is responsible for the majority). The US also maintains the largest number of military bases on foreign soil across the world. While there are no freestanding foreign bases permanently located in the United States, there are now around 800 U.S. bases in foreign countries. Military spending makes up nearly 16% of entire federal spending and approximately half of discretionary spending. In a general sense discretionary spending (defense and non-defense","-27.826961701750406"],["Military budget of the United States The military budget is the portion of the discretionary United States federal budget allocated to the Department of Defense, or more broadly, the portion of the budget that goes to any military-related expenditures. The military budget pays the salaries, training, and health care of uniformed and civilian personnel, maintains arms, equipment and facilities, funds operations, and develops and buys new items. The budget funds four branches of the U.S. military: the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force.\nFor Fiscal Year 2019 (FY2019), the Department of Defense' budget authority is approximately $693,058,000,000. Approximately $684,985,000,000 is","-27.82291476602404"],["and the United States are often referred to as great powers by academics due to \"their political and economic dominance of the global arena\". These five nations are the only states to have permanent seats with veto power on the UN Security Council. They are also the only state entities to have met the conditions to be considered \"Nuclear Weapons States\" under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, and maintain military expenditures which are among the largest in the world. However, there is no unanimous agreement among authorities as to the current status of these powers or what","-27.815048520002165"],["core military force -the army- remains somewhat underfunded in favour of naval and air-force maintenance. Government expenditures are equal to less than 10% of GDP, with military expenditures accounting for roughly 25-35% of that figure. The amount of the budget spent on schooling, healthcare and other such investments is in proximity to the military budget. The constitution guarantees that the government will have a monopoly in certain industries, although much has been done to privatise these industries, in similar fashion to the way oil drilling was privatised. The party also has a minister for women, and has in recent years","-27.804691904049832"],["fight subjective policy, ambiguous definitions, and conflicting doctrine designed to deceive the public with hidden political agendas.\nThe military has been increasingly spending billions to do so, in which Sheldon Rampton, research director for the Committee on Media and Democracy, calls a \"massive apparatus selling the military to us.\"","-27.751048687155617"],["magazine Foreign Affairs, titled Our Overstuffed Armed Forces questioning the need for and scale of US defense spending by comparing American defense spending to that of other nations. Toti reacted to this article by writing a rebuttal which was published in The Washington Times entitled What Does Brookings Know About Defense? The article advanced the idea that because of the need of American armed forces to cross two vast oceans surrounding the United States to bring the fight to the enemy, any comparison of what the United States spends relative to spending by other nations that do not have to","-27.731715250516118"],["Review Each year, Israel can choose to increase or decrease the GDP percentage of the defense budget (it starts at 35%) by 2%, and to increase the size of the Army by two units (which apparently harms the relationship with the USA). US Budget Aid Every year, the United States provides economic and military aid to Israel. This varies between nothing and four billion dollars, depending on how good Israel's relationship is with the US. (To put that into context, a large monthly defense budget, such as would be granted during an active war, is about 350 million dollars). Palestinian","-27.604049430417945"],["the research and development department where costs are underestimated, which leads to a waste of a different kind: time. Without the appropriate resources, researchers cannot do their job adequately. What this can lead to is employees not working as efficiently as possible. Comparison with other countries The United States spends more on their defense budget than China, Saudi Arabia, Russia, the United Kingdom, India, France, and Japan combined. The 2018 U.S. military budget accounts for approximately 36% of global arms spending (for comparison, U.S. GDP is only 24% of global GDP). The 2018 budget is approximately 2.5 times larger than","-27.530359183221663"],["the U.S. Military’s Center of Excellence for Stability and Peace Operations at the strategic and operational levels in order to improve military, civilian agency, international, and multinational capabilities and execution. Army Heritage Education Center U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center Strategic Studies Institute Strategic Studies Institute","-27.51385732973722"],["army's \"core values\" by incorporating game play based on mission accomplishment, teamwork, leadership, and rules of engagement. Government applications According to game historian Carrie McLeroy, America's Army has \"grown in ways its originators couldn't have imagined\". Dozens of government training and simulation applications using America's Army platform have been developed to train and educate U.S. Army soldiers.\nIn 2005, America's Army developers partnered with the Software Engineering Directorate and the Army's Aviation and Missile Research Development Engineering Center in Huntsville, Alabama, to manage the commercial game development process and use the America's Army platform to create government training and simulations. \"America's","-27.512388423355787"],["other countries see the U.S. using its power to strengthen the existing rules and institutions, US authority will be strengthened because they will become more inclined to work in collaboration with U.S. power. Secondly, the U.S. should update the key post-war security pacts, such as NATO and Washington’s East Asian alliances. When the U.S. provides security, the U.S. allies, in return, will operate within the western order. Thirdly, the U.S. should renew its support for wide-ranging multilateral institutions. Economically speaking, building on the agreements of the WTO, concluding the current Doha Round of trade talks that seek to extend market","-27.450292904259186"],["permanent end-strength change was not expected because of fears of future funding cuts, forcing the Army to pay for the additional personnel from procurement and readiness accounts. Up to 60% of the defense budget is spent on personnel and an extra 10,000 soldiers would cost US$1.4 billion annually.\nOn November 22 and 23, 2002, the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs held the \"Belfer Center Conference on Military Transformation\". It brought together present and former defense officials and military commanders for the stated purpose of assessing the Department of Defense's progress in achieving a \"transformation\" of U.S. military capabilities. The","-27.38919861492468"],["a military budget over double of its two largest military rivals, some consider the United States to be a war economy or at least a country with an economy largely backed by the Military Industrial Complex. World War I Germany has experienced economic devastation following both World Wars. While this was not a result of faulty economic planning, it is important to understand the ways that Germany approached reconstruction. In World War I, the German agricultural sector was hit hard by the demands of the war effort. Not only were many of the workers conscripted, but lots of the food","-27.370904263763805"],["bigger armies is the key to keeping a county safe from warfare. In fact, funds spent on weapons may drain resources from social, political, and economic development that may address root causes of conflict.” The amount of money spent on the defense sector equals $4.7 billion a day or $249 per person. According to the World Bank and the Office of Disarmament Affairs (ODA), only about 5% of this amount would be needed each year to achieve the Millennium Development Goals by 2015. \n\nThe negative effects of high militarization include not just the direct ones of money and resources being","-27.317809011089594"],["States remains a strong power economically and militarily, rising nations such as China, India, and Brazil as well as Russia have challenged its dominance. Foreign policy analysts such as Nina Harchigian suggest that the six emerging big powers share common concerns: free trade, economic growth, prevention of terrorism, efforts to stymie nuclear proliferation. And if they can avoid war, the coming decades can be peaceful and productive provided there are no misunderstandings or dangerous rivalries.\nIn his first formal television interview as president, Barack Obama addressed the Muslim world through an Arabic-language satellite TV network and expressed a commitment to repair","-27.29449622343418"],["to overcome the lack of capabilities the states battle within these areas. Take for example economic power where larger states can transfer money from boom regions to bust regions which most small states can’t, which makes them more vulnerable to temporary volatility and economic fluctuation. Alesina and Spolaore state that if there were only benefits from size, then the tendency should be for the entire world to be organized in a single country. They argue that the number of states in the international system is likely to increase. They name a few reasons. Firstly, it is democratization. Dictators prefer large","-27.283372500300175"],["Department of Defense released a report that stated the United States Army made $6.5 trillion in wrongful adjustments to its accounting entries in 2015. Energy use The Department of Defense was the largest single consumer of energy in the United States in 2006.\nIn FY 2006, the department used almost 30,000 gigawatt hours (GWH) of electricity, at a cost of almost $2.2 billion. The department's electricity use would supply enough electricity to power more than 2.6 million average American homes. In electricity consumption, if it were a country, the department would rank 58th in the world, using slightly less than Denmark","-27.25664776789199"],["39 percent of the workforce down to the pre-2001 level of 26 percent. In a Pentagon review of January 2011, service contractors were found to be \"increasingly unaffordable.\" Military budget and total US federal spending The U.S. Department of Defense budget accounted in fiscal year 2017 for about 14.8% of the United States federal budgeted expenditures. According to the Congressional Budget Office, defense spending grew 9% annually on average from fiscal year 2000–2009.\nBecause of constitutional limitations, military funding is appropriated in a discretionary spending account. (Such accounts permit government planners to have more flexibility to change spending each year, as","-27.226485151608358"],["most of us instinctively say, \"Well, of course, they must.\" And the military, which comes out of this same society, is predisposed to expect that there's a great technological change right around the next bend in the road and it's going to change everything. People think that militaries are incredibly reactionary, conservative, resistant-to-change institutions, and yet the American military in particular has been—almost throughout its history, certainly since World War I—the exact opposite. They're way over-predisposed to expect that everything is going to change because of the next new gadget.\nHe has stated about U.S. power and prestige,\nAt the moment, we're","-27.154769601394946"],["most important for the nation's economy, mobility and defense.","-27.125363825827662"],["force has adopted foreign ideas on the roles and needs of an armed force, leading to proposals for armour, artillery and attack helicopters. However, the army faces severe budgetary problems and has therefore had virtually no money for operations, training, and maintenance or capital equipment upgrades. In this context, proposals to develop the army into a well equipped, mobile conventional land force, are unlikely in the near to medium term. The army's role is to protect against external aggression, provide for internal security in support of the police, and to carry out civic action and relief operations when required. The","-27.102482435037018"],["United States in the current international hierarchy. ... A sequential ranking of other major powers beyond the top two would be imprecise at best. Any list, however, has to include Russia, Japan, and India, as well as the EU's informal leaders: Great Britain, Germany, and France.\nAccording to a 2014 report of the Hague Centre for Strategic Studies:\nGreat Powers... are disproportionately engaged in alliances and wars, and their diplomatic weight is often cemented by their strong role in international institutions and forums. This unequal distribution of power and prestige leads to “a set of rights and rules governing interactions among states”","-26.996035425598166"],["War economy United States The United States alone has a very complex history with wartime economies. Many notable instances came during the twentieth century in which America's main conflicts consisted of the World Wars, Korea, and Vietnam. World War I In mobilizing for World War I, the United States expanded its governmental powers by creating institutions such as the War Industries Board (WIB) to help with military production. Others, such as the Fuel Administration, introduced daylight saving time in an effort to save coal and oil while the Food Administration encouraged higher grain production and “mobilized a spirit of self-sacrifice","-26.89770054893961"],["to be the most important for the nation's economy, mobility and defense.","-26.883763812933466"],["States Army Reserve. The Army of the United States was re-established for the Korean War and Vietnam War and was demobilized upon the suspension of the Draft. Active and reserve components The United States Army is made up of three components: one active—the Regular Army; and two reserve components—the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve. Both reserve components are primarily composed of part-time soldiers who train once a month, known as Battle Assembly, Unit Training Assemblies (UTAs), or simply \"drills\", while typically conducting two to three weeks of annual training each year. Both the Regular Army and the Army","-26.852498327746616"],["the people (as expressed by their political representatives), rather than left solely to an elite group of tactical experts. The military serves as a special government agency, which is supposed to implement, rather than formulate, policies that require the use of certain types of physical force. Kohn succinctly summarizes this view when he writes that:\nThe point of civilian control is to make security subordinate to the larger purposes of a nation, rather than the other way around. The purpose of the military is to defend society, not to define it.\nA state's effective use of force is an issue of great","-26.74518547311891"],["national economy based on huge military establishments. These had come to be a recognized way of dealing with the problem of unemployment. To begin with, there were large numbers of men absorbed into the military forces. To supplement these were government arsenals with another army of workmen, with a still larger number employed in providing supplies, food, clothing, and transportation. No government living under this system could undertake drastic reduction of armaments without disrupting the whole national economy. We may as well recognize the fact that there can be no more than fragmentary and regional reductions until the nations are","-26.717408262698882"],["help other states. A national government would make alliances and create a policy that benefits all of the country. Moreover, a unified nation will have a better and stronger military, with many states contributing soldiers and money, opposed to fragmented forces of sovereign states.","-26.713653150218306"],["Department of Defense. Defense's share of the overall U.S. economy has generally declined in recent decades, from Cold War peaks of 14.2% of GDP in 1953 and 69.5% of federal outlays in 1954 to 4.7% of GDP and 18.8% of federal outlays in 2011.\nThe proposed base Department of Defense budget for 2012, $553 billion, was a 4.2% increase over 2011; an additional $118 billion was proposed for the military campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan. The last American troops serving in Iraq departed in December 2011; 4,484 service members were killed during the Iraq War. Approximately 90,000 U.S. troops were serving","-26.7028947251747"],["that the United States is likely to engage in war against Vietnam again and so needs the EFV to storm its beaches. He has also called for a shift in American defense spending towards items such as the Littoral Combat Ship and the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II that can be exported to allies. Thompson has said that \"The United States cannot continue to spend, especially on defense, the way it has been over the past decade.\" Despite being funding by defense contractors, Goure has argued that the use of these contractors is a sign of an army in decline.","-26.69953943641758"],["on military research and weapons development. Additionally the U.S. military maintains two classified, pre-positioned War Reserve Stocks in Israel valued at $493 million. Israel has the official distinction of being an American Major non-NATO ally. As a result of this, the US and Israel share the vast majority of their security and military technology.\nSince 1976, Israel had been the largest annual recipient of U.S. foreign assistance. In 2009, Israel received $2.55 billion in Foreign Military Financing (FMF) grants from the Department of Defense. All but 26% of this military aid is for the purchase of military hardware from American companies","-26.67710302687192"],["independent agency of the government. It is important to note that while the defense budget has fluctuated by billions of dollars, the U.S. Defense spending in relativity to percentage of U.S. GDP has only fluctuated within 1%-2%.\nThe NPR also aimed to improve general customer satisfaction with all dealings involving the federal government. In terms of foreign military sales, however, there is a dilemma of whether or not the federal government's main \"customer\" should be the foreign nations purchasing arms and technologies or the American taxpayer who in part pays for the service provided by the defense department. NPR and Shrinking","-26.676370032160776"],["an open world economy and give Washington leverage in economic negotiations. And they make it easier for the United States to secure cooperation for combating a wide range of global threats.\"\nIkenberry, Brooks, and Wohlforth are not convinced that the current U.S. grand strategy generates subsequent counterbalancing. Unlike the prior hegemons, the United States is geographically isolated and faces no contiguous great power rivals interested in balancing it. This means the United States is far less threatening to great powers that are situated oceans away, the authors claim. Moreover, any competitor would have a hard time matching U.S. military might. \"Not","-26.624873175867833"],["which will boost spending to $700 billion, about 91.4% of which will be spent on maintaining the armed forces and primary Pentagon costs. Military spending is increasing regularly and more money is being spent every year on employee pay, operation and maintenance, and benefits including as health benefits. Methods to counteract rapidly increasing spending include shutting down bases, but that has been banned since an Obama administration Budget Act included a section that stopped just that. Federal waste As of September 2014, the Department of Defense was estimated to have \"$857 million in excess parts and supplies\". This figure has","-26.593386111216205"],["of the reasons why we must increase our military budget. Right now, we spend about 3.9 percent of our GDP on defense, compared with about six percent in 1986, under President Ronald Reagan. We need to return to that six percent level. Tax reform The 1999 gas and fuel tax hikes were never on the ballot in Arkansas, but Huckabee has told reporters \"the fuel tax was a vote of the people—eighty percent of the people voted to improve roads\", and his 2008 presidential campaign manager, Chip Saltsman, has stated that \"more than 80% of the voters supported a four","-26.561379243335978"],["manner to be prescribed by law.\" Even though this is addressing the quartering of American Soldiers, the idea is the same. A country does in fact have the right to protect themselves against aggression from anyone. This can also be achieved through trade which increase wealth, cooperation, and of course a states well-being. Under this theory, trade is another way to promote peace because it would in theory create less conflicts since governments would not want to disrupt anything that would add to the wealth of their states.","-26.547323879031865"],["Department of Defense and Homeland Security. However, the constitutional ability to declare war is vested only in Congress.\nU.S. ranks have their roots in British military traditions, with the president possessing ultimate authority, but no rank, maintaining a civilian status. Before 1947, the president was the only common superior of the Army (under the secretary of war) and the Navy and Marine Corps (under the secretary of the navy). The National Security Act of 1947, and the 1949 amendments to the same act, created the Department of Defense and the services (Army, Navy, Marine Corps and Air Force) became subject to","-26.50497663369606"],["of 30.3% of GDP spent on defense in 1975. In 2016, Israel ranked 6th in the world by defense spending as a percentage of GDP, with 5.7%, and 15th by total military expenditure, with $18 billion. Since 1974, the United States has been a particularly notable contributor of military aid to Israel. Under a memorandum of understanding signed in 2016, the U.S. is expected to provide the country with $3.8 billion per year, or around 20% of Israel's defense budget, from 2018 to 2028. Israel ranked 5th globally for arms exports in 2017. The majority of Israel's arms exports are unreported","-26.503211363649825"],["delay the eventual overwhelming superiority of U.S. forces due to a much greater industrial base.","-26.499125383008504"],["fourth largest labor force in the world behind China, India, and the European Union.\nThe government (federal, state and local) employed 22 million in 2010. Small businesses are the nation's largest employer representing 53% of American workers. The second-largest share of employment belongs to large businesses employing 38% of the U.S. workforce.\nThe nation's private sector employs 91% of working Americans. Government accounts for 8% of all U.S. workers. Over 99% of all employing organizations in the U.S. are small businesses. The 30 million small businesses in the U.S. account for 64% of newly created jobs (those created minus those lost). Jobs","-26.462559051197786"],["is still noticeable and influences the way the states are seen as “small”. This is an important approach, since it makes it clear how aside from the geographical and population size, the country’s GDP, the ranking of a state in the international system, the political, economical and military power play an important role in putting a state somewhere on the spectrum. Small powers in international organizations Small states can under some circumstances have a disproportionately great influence. According to Diana Panke, \"Small states tend to be most likely to punch above their weight if the negotiations take place in an","-26.444516941235634"],["a focus on making other countries more reliant on the United States. This was done through applying economic diplomacy, sharp power, soft power, and other measures to increase foreign dependency on a variety of assets and systems controlled or heavily influenced by America. These include America's new generations of advanced robotic systems, American space-based solar power technologies, American food exports, American space transportation systems such as spaceplanes, and newly expanded efforts by agencies such as the Peace Corps and USAID.\nIn great secrecy, the American government continues work on advanced military technologies, dual-use technologies, and finding means to leverage the revolution","-26.357972627332856"],["different generals, he concludes that the U.S. generalship as an institution, not individual generals, has failed. He proposes that the U.S. Congress take more interest in military affairs, especially when confirming generals. Generals, in his opinion, need to be aware that future U.S. wars will not involve one large enemy army but rather smaller, difficult-to-target groups of insurgents. He states that the United States needs generals to be more creative, as well as have a better understanding of military history, international relations, and foreign cultures.\nEven before he published the influential Armed Forces Journal article, Yingling had made his dissatisfactions known","-26.356217087108234"],["great powers as useful allies, contributors to systems maintenance or as impartial arbiters. Smaller states do not seek status by seeking to match greater powers materially. Some degree of emulation can however pay off. States can be a major donor in the United Nations and give competitive status among peer groups of small states while simultaneously acknowledge great powers for system maintenance. Small states can get access to the middle power club since this is a category with loose membership criteria, but access to the great power club is not possible. Small states may opt for a collective strategy of","-26.34427837203839"],["fighting forces and to modernize weapons systems. Lynn in June 2010 said the goal is to find more savings within the defense budget without cutting the top-line number. Pentagon leaders are eying 2 to 3 percent real growth in the Pentagon's budget for the areas that need it most: force structure and modernization. Two-thirds of the $100 billion cost savings spread out over the next five years will come from trimming overhead on a department-wide basis. That money will be directly transferred into the force structure and modernization accounts, Lynn explained. The rest of the cost savings would come from","-26.31356973682159"],["oil – for military uses, and persuaded businesses to convert to military production.\" Two-thirds of the American economy had been integrated into the war effort by the end of 1943. Because of this massive cooperation between government and private entities, it could be argued that the economic measures enacted prior to and during the Second World War helped lead the Allies to victory. Present Day The United States has been involved in numerous military endeavours within the Middle East and Latin America since the 1960s. Having been in a continuous state of war since the September 11 Attacks and having","-26.288565793238377"],["U.S. service members (as of March 2008) and injuries to thousands more.\nMost of the units that carried out the ground campaign phase of the invasion of Iraq, and who bore the larger part of the conflict with the Iraqi military in 2003 were those of the Army. Since then, they have performed numerous operations against insurgents.\nThe Army has had to make several adjustments to address demands on its personnel and equipment. The US Army has utilized its stop-loss policy and has required more of its combat personnel to serve more tours of duty than before, due to the need for","-26.28572867877665"],["And this is – this is one of the drawbacks that we've had with so many troops having been put into this constant rotational basis inside one country when we have a war against international terrorism that's global.\nAsked by Wolf Blitzer if he would ever support the efforts of Dennis Kucinich to cut funding for the war, Webb said,\nI – you know, I lived through Vietnam. I lived through it as a Marine and I know that those sorts of approaches, while they seem attractive on one level are really not that realistic. What we want to do – and","-26.240374000522934"],["forces within budget allocations that Congress was willing to provide.\nThe major features of the New Look included greater reliance on nuclear weapons, using the advantage the United States had over the Soviet Union in such weapons; elevation of strategic air power, the major means to deliver nuclear weapons, to a more important position (not an expansion in the number of Air Force wings but rather development and production of better equipment); cuts in conventional ground forces, based both on reliance on strategic and tactical nuclear weapons and the expectation that US allies would provide ground troops for their own","-26.227013691255706"],["own defenses and our own military position have already been neglected too long. We must now turn every effort to building the greatest and most efficient Army, Navy and Air Force in the world. When American soldiers go to war it must be with the best equipment that modern skill can design and that modern industry can build.\nWith the formal declaration of war against Japan, the organization chose to disband. On December 11, the committee leaders met and voted for dissolution. In the statement which they released to the press was the following:\nOur principles were right. Had they been followed,","-26.211631284473697"],["off\" a part of the economic activity produced to support an ongoing military buildup to contain the Soviet Union. In his 1951 Annual Message to the Congress, President Truman stated:\nIn terms of manpower, our present defense targets will require an increase of nearly one million men and women in the armed forces within a few months, and probably not less than four million more in defense production by the end of the year. This means that an additional 8 percent of our labor force, and possibly much more, will be required by direct defense needs by the end of the","-26.201943584561377"],["vital national security interests: The U.S. military would go to war only when it must. Large troop contingents in unprecedentedly peaceful regions such as Europe would be significantly downsized, incentivizing NATO members to provide more for their own security. Under such a scenario, the United States would have more leeway in using resources to combat the most pressing threats to its security. A strategy of restraint, therefore, would help preserve the country's prosperity and security more so than a hegemonic strategy. To be sure, Posen makes clear that he is not advocating isolationism. Rather, the United States should focus on","-26.191210456654517"],["the past… [The military has] done an admirable job…but it is no replacement for the real thing - civilian involvement and expertise… Funding for non-military foreign-affairs programs…remains disproportionately small relative to what we spend on the military… Secretary Rice has asked for a budget increase for the State Department and an expansion of the Foreign Service. The need is real… What is clear to me is that there is a need for a dramatic increase in spending on the civilian instruments of national security - diplomacy, strategic communications, foreign assistance, civic action, and economic reconstruction and development… Indeed, having robust","-26.151267397028278"],["2 – Maximum wealth Great powers seek to maximize their share of the world's wealth because economic strength is the foundation of military strength. Great powers seek to prevent rival powers from dominating wealth-producing regions of the world. The United States, for example, sought to prevent the Soviet Union from dominating Western Europe and the Middle East. Had the Soviets gained control of these areas, the balance of power would have been altered significantly against the United States. Objective 3 – Nuclear superiority Mearsheimer asserts that great powers seek nuclear superiority over their rivals. Great powers exist in a world","-26.06959121293039"],["only eastern Europe), and the industrial might of the U.S. economy became a major factor in the Allies' mobilization of resources. Strategic and tactical lessons learned by the U.S., such as the importance of air superiority and the dominance of the aircraft carrier in naval actions, continue to guide U.S. military doctrine into the 21st century.\nWorld War II holds a special place in the American psyche as the country's greatest triumph, and the U.S. military personnel of World War II are frequently referred to as \"the Greatest Generation.\" Over 16 million served (about 11% of the population), and over 400,000","-26.054535305658646"],["United States remain the \"preeminent military power in the world,\" and the regional \"balances of power remain in our favor.\" [Emphasis added] The \"balance of power favoring freedom\" appeared identical with the balance of power favoring \"us.\"\nRussian President Vladimir Putin complained: \"Instead of establishing a new balance of power … they [the United States] took steps that threw the [international] system into sharp and deep imbalance.\"\nIn 1826, George Canning “called the new world into existence to redress the balance of the old.” In 1898, Theodore Roosevelt found that the United States had become \"more and more the balance of power","-26.033366685544024"],["of the wars was approximately $1.3 trillion. Other military-related expenditures This does not include many military-related items that are outside of the Defense Department budget, such as nuclear weapons research, maintenance, cleanup, and production, which are in the Atomic Energy Defense Activities section, Veterans Affairs, the Treasury Department's payments in pensions to military retirees and widows and their families, interest on debt incurred in past wars, or State Department financing of foreign arms sales and militarily-related development assistance. Neither does it include defense spending that is not military in nature, such as the Department of Homeland Security, counter-terrorism spending by","-26.03135553901666"],["World War II Compared to the end of the first World War, the United States was even more powerful in 1945 following the conclusion of the second World War. The nation possessed a preponderance of military power and close to half of the world's wealth. Once again, leaders from the United States attempted to leverage this powerful position and create a stable order that would serve to benefit their nation for decades to come. Political and economic openness was the centerpiece of this envisioned framework. It was believed that the closed economic regions which had existed before the war had","-26.022756794001907"],["there is no Minister of Defense, the Mexican military's two components are not under the command of a single commander except the President, who is Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces (Comandante Supremo De Las Fuerzas Armadas). According to the Constitution of Mexico the President is the Army's only five-star general. (This is comparable to most other countries with a presidential system of government, such as the United States.) Instead, a Secretary, who is a serving officer—an Army four-star general or a Navy admiral—heads each department and branch (The Secretariats of National Defense and the Navy). Each minister serves in","-25.989514839173353"],["force, which was the main source of revenue for the state. It was important to maintain control over the areas resources because failure to do so resulted in a loss in revenue, which weakened the states authority. People will always recognise the authority of the political unit that offers protection and security. It is widely considered that the only states to have emerged were the ones that could compete in war with other territorial states that resulted in states forming large military forces with technological and tactical advantages. Designated the military revolution, in Europe between 1500 and 1700 occurred a","-25.97127666749293"],["Navy fell apart, without sufficient personnel to man many of its ships or the money to maintain them—indeed, many of them were sold to foreign nations. This left the United States as the world's undisputed naval superpower. U.S. naval forces did undergo a decline in absolute terms but relative to the rest of the world, however, United States dwarfs other nations' naval power as evinced by its 11 aircraft supercarriers and their supporting battle groups. During the 1990s, the United States naval strategy was based on the overall military strategy of the United States which emphasized the ability of the","-25.938948393784813"],["in nature. An institutional model presents the military as an organization highly divergent from civilian society while an occupational model presents the military more convergent with civilian structures. While Moskos did not propose that the military was ever \"entirely separate or entirely coterminous with civilian society\", the use of a scale helped better to highlight the changing interface between the armed forces and society. Agency theory The Vietnam War opened deep arguments about civil-military relations that continue to exert powerful influences today. One centered on a contention within military circles that the United States lost the war because of unnecessary","-25.89372081696638"],["a significant portion of the American military's troop strength and destroy a significant portion of his war equipment in order to prevent the American forces from being able to carry out their political and military missions; on the basis, crush the American will to commit aggression and force the United States to accept defeat in South Vietnam and end all hostile actions against North Vietnam. In addition, using this as the basis, they would achieve the immediate goals of the revolution, which were independence, democracy, peace, and neutrality in South Vietnam, and then move toward achieving peace and national unification.\nThe","-25.89253147830459"],["to small towns, throughout the Midwest or the Southwest or the South, every town has tons of young people who are serving in Iraq and Afghanistan. That's not always the case in other parts of the country, in more urban centers. And I think it's important for the president to say, this is an important obligation. If we are going into war, then all of us go, not just some.\"\nObama never actually said he supported a draft or the specific bill that is currently stalled in Congress. Universal National Service Act of 2010 The Universal National Service Act of 2010","-25.884879589717457"],["United States was the world's dominant military power and Japan, sometimes seen as the largest economic rival to the U.S., was caught in a period of stagnation. China was emerging as the U.S.'s foremost trading competitor in more and more areas. Localized conflicts such as those in Haiti and the Balkans prompted President Bill Clinton to send in U.S. troops as peacekeepers, reviving the Cold-War-era controversy about whether policing the rest of the world was a proper U.S. role. Islamic radicals overseas loudly threatened assaults against the U.S. for its ongoing military presence in the Middle East, and even staged","-25.864537562736587"],["is the upholding, guarding and protecting the integrity of the United States government and its constitution. Other duties include helping ex-service personnel who need help in getting employment, caring for the sick, and needed burial services. \nThe mission and purpose of the Army and Navy Union are to bind together in fraternal comradeship all comrades, shipmates, soldiers, sailors and marines, regular and volunteers, veterans of all wars in which the United States has been or may be engaged in. Besides patriotic, other purposes for the organization are for history and genealogy records. The main goal of the organization is to","-25.8325910193671"],["nations, with its military equipment being supplied primarily by the US, France and Britain.\nThe United States sold more than $80 billion in military hardware between 1951 and 2006 to the Saudi military. On 20 October 2010, the US State Department notified Congress of its intention to make the biggest arms sale in American history—an estimated $60.5 billion purchase by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The package represents a considerable improvement in the offensive capability of the Saudi armed forces. 2013 saw Saudi military spending climb to $67bn, overtaking that of the UK, France and Japan to place fourth globally.\nThe United","-25.80828062823275"],["regions and states highlights the need to improve U.S. capabilities in the areas of intelligence gathering and analysis, public diplomacy, counterinsurgency, and post-conflict stabilization and reconstruction. The international program has long sought to support projects designed to improve the effectiveness of U.S. military forces through defense transformation. Geopolitical competition, the uncertain future of economic and political developments in key states such as Russia, and the increasingly important roles that China and India play in international politics require renewed assessments of how best to deploy U.S. resources in order to achieve strategic objectives around the globe. The Foundation","-25.80510775106177"],["to $188.5 billion US. China's military budget for 2014 according to IHS Jane's, a defence industry consulting and analysis company, will be $148 billion US, which is the second largest in the world. The United States military budget for 2014 in comparison, is $574.9 billion US., which is down from a high of $664.3 billion US in 2012. According to SIPRI, China became the world's third largest exporter of major arms in 2010–14, an increase of 143 per cent from the period 2005–2009. China supplied major arms to 35 states in 2010–14. A significant percentage (just over 68 per cent) of Chinese exports","-25.77302516704367"],["means the US armed forces must have the strength to win swiftly in two near-simultaneous conflicts in those regions. The final 1 means that the US forces must win one of those conflicts \"decisively\".\nThe general policy objectives are to (1) assure allies and friends; (2) dissuade future military competition, (3) deter threats and coercion against U.S. interests, and (4) if deterrence fails, decisively defeat any adversary. United States Department of Defense The Department of Defense publishes Joint Publications which state all-services doctrine. The current basic doctrinal publication is Joint Publication 3-0, \"Doctrine for Joint Operations. United States Air Force Headquarters,","-25.761176993528352"],["Military budget A military budget (or military expenditure), also known as a defense budget, is the amount of financial resources dedicated by a state to raising and maintaining an armed forces or other methods essential for defense purposes. Financing militaries Military budgets often reflect how strongly a country perceives the likelihood of threats against it, or the amount of aggression it wishes to conjure. It also gives an idea of how much financing should be provided for the upcoming fiscal year. The size of a budget also reflects the country's ability to fund military activities. Factors include the size of","-25.755968701520032"],["we made in Vietnam and the Russians made in Afghanistan.\"\nRepresentative John P. Murtha, also on the House Appropriations Committee and an influential voice on military affairs, stated: \"The public is worn out by war. The troops, no matter what the military says, are exhausted.\"\nSenator Russell D. Feingold, a member of both the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and Senate Intelligence Committee, stated that if Obama decides to send more troops, the House of Representatives should contest it.\nSenator Feingold, who favors a timetable for withdrawal and opposes McChrystal's troop surge, said in an interview that his constituents were weary of war and","-25.751019119827106"],["partnership with our allies.\" Instead of the previous administration's \"2½ war\" concept - readiness to fight simultaneous wars on two major fronts and one minor front - the Nixon Doctrine cut back to the \"1½ war\" level. Through military aid and credit-assisted sales of military equipment abroad, the United States would prepare its allies to take up a greater share of the defense burden, especially manpower needs, in case of war. U.S. military forces would be \"smaller, more mobile, and more efficient general purpose forces that ... [would] neither cast the United States in the role of world policeman nor","-25.745682986347674"],["major power takes on the responsibility for a minor country's security by pledging to support it in the contingency of military conflict. In return, the major power gains autonomy or influence over the minor power's foreign policy decision-making process.\nThe rationale for the spokes to entering this system can be explained as minor powers may seeking alliances in order to increase security from military aggression. While major powers may be interested in alliances with minor powers, not to defend its own territory, but to extend their sphere of military and foreign influence.\nIt is important to note that the nature of the","-25.743416367986356"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"of Action on Military Spending (GDAMS), which aims to gather people and create a global movement that persuades governments to reallocate their military spending to essential human needs such as food, education, health care, social services and environmental concerns.\\nAmong the countries maintaining some of the world's largest military budgets, China, France, Germany, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States are frequently recognized to be great powers.\\nAccording to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, in 2014, total world military expenditure amounted to 1.8 trillion US$.\\nIn 2018, the United States spent 3.2% of its GDP on its military, while Saudi\",\n \"-30.888860747947547\"\n ],\n [\n \"States of America is incurring the highest military expenditure in the world. It is considered a superpower and a determinant of the world's military spending. \\nTheir spending in the recent times has increased due to terror and Afghanistan and Iraq invasions. Even though there have been financial crises the military expenses have shown no signs of change. The expenditure on a country's armed forces remains the same.\",\n \"-30.824539153802107\"\n ],\n [\n \"utilization...\\\"\\nThe United States today stands out in the Western world but continually denies itself as an empire, but the media recognizes the United States as a superpower and a hegemon. The United States maintains a system of military bases throughout the globe that provides the basis for the rapid deployment of military forces, protecting the economic system, and preventing threats to security and prosperity the United States.\\nKenneth Pomeranz and Harvard historian Niall Ferguson share the view: \\\"With US military bases in more than 120 countries, we hardly see the end of the empire. This vast archipelago of US military bases\",\n \"-30.822814717626898\"\n ],\n [\n \"United States was a naval-based advanced military with by far the highest military expenditure in the world. The United States Navy was the world's largest navy, with the largest number of aircraft carriers, bases all over the world (particularly in an incomplete \\\"ring\\\" bordering the Warsaw Pact states to the west, south and east). The US had the largest nuclear arsenal in the world during the first half of the Cold War, one of the largest armies in the world and one of the two largest air forces in the world. Its powerful military allies in Western Europe (the North\",\n \"-30.76143376741311\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the Defense Department budget. Overall the U.S. federal government is spending about $1 trillion annually on defense-related purposes.\\nIn a 2012 story, Salon reported, \\\"Despite a decline in global arms sales in 2010 due to recessionary pressures, the United States increased its market share, accounting for a whopping 53 percent of the trade that year. Last year saw the United States on pace to deliver more than $46 billion in foreign arms sales.\\\" The defense industry also tends to contribute heavily to incumbent members of Congress.\\nThe concept of a military–industrial complex has been expanded to include the entertainment and creative\",\n \"-30.512762861617375\"\n ],\n [\n \"in early 1997 Perry believed it possible to modernize the U.S. armed forces within a balanced federal budget. Perry argued for the current force level of just under 1.5 million as the minimum needed by the United States to maintain its global role. Further reductions in the Defense budget after 1997 would require cuts in the force structure and make it impossible for the United States to remain a global power. Streamlining the military infrastructure Perry devoted much time to restructuring defense acquisition policy and procedure, pursuing measures on acquisition reform begun when he was deputy secretary. Six days after\",\n \"-30.329081057550866\"\n ],\n [\n \"States in the United States was $18.527 trillion (106% of the GDP) in 2014. The United States has the largest external debt in the world and the 14th largest government debt as a % of GDP in the world. Military The president is the commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces and appoints its leaders, the secretary of defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The United States Department of Defense administers the armed forces, including the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force. The Coast Guard is run by the Department of Homeland Security in peacetime and by the Department of\",\n \"-30.274516486897483\"\n ],\n [\n \"provide for the growing states as a whole. There was a hope for an army that can provide safety for all who are citizens of America and a need for strong individuals, both physically and mentally, who could provide the protection. Federalist 16 explains the states need a new national constitution to be put in motion but putting together a large and cohesive army that will stand behind our new found country and new founding government. The constitution is supposed to bring great stability in government and give the country a unified rule so that there wouldn't be multiple small\",\n \"-30.234597969749302\"\n ],\n [\n \"to stay high as compared with other countries.\\nWhen accounting for Military Expenditure by % of GDP, the United States ranks 21st. Past commentary on military budget In 2009, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates wrote that the U.S. should adjust its priorities and spending to address the changing nature of threats in the world: \\\"What all these potential adversaries—from terrorist cells to rogue nations to rising powers—have in common is that they have learned that it is unwise to confront the United States directly on conventional military terms. The United States cannot take its current dominance for granted and needs to invest\",\n \"-30.176334405292437\"\n ],\n [\n \"and maintains deployments greater than 100 active duty personnel in 25 foreign countries.\\nThe military budget of the United States in 2011 was more than $700 billion, 41% of global military spending and equal to the next 14 largest national military expenditures combined. At 4.7% of GDP, the rate was the second-highest among the top 15 military spenders, after Saudi Arabia. U.S. defense spending as a percentage of GDP ranked 23rd globally in 2012 according to the CIA. Defense spending plays a major role in science and technology investment, with roughly half of U.S. federal research and development funded by the\",\n \"-30.009611419591238\"\n ],\n [\n \"take the United States (and more specifically the U.S. Army) to war without the support of the U.S. people, General Abrams intertwined the structure of the three components of the army in such a way as to make extended operations impossible, without the involvement of both the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve.\\nThe 1980s was mostly a decade of reorganization. The army converted to an all-volunteer force with greater emphasis on training and technology. The Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986 created unified combatant commands bringing the army together with the other four military services under unified, geographically organized command structures.\",\n \"-29.354204664447025\"\n ],\n [\n \"Maxwell D. Taylor, believed that the Army was receiving too small a share of the military budget.\\nIts standing threatened by the New Look, the Army questioned the wisdom of reliance on \\\"massive retaliation\\\" and strategic air power to the neglect of other force elements. Wilson reportedly observed that the United States \\\"can't afford to fight limited wars. We can only afford to fight a big war, and if there is one, that is the kind it will be.\\\" However, by 1955 the Army and, later that decade, the Navy, departed from their emphasis on preparation for total war by urging\",\n \"-29.349206400878757\"\n ],\n [\n \"the United States spent 3.2% of its GDP on its military, while Saudi Arabia spent 8.8%, Israel spent 4.3%, Pakistan spent 4.0%, Russia spent 3.9%, South Korea spent 2.6%, China spent 1.9%, United Kingdom spent 1.8%, and Germany spent 1.2% of its GDP on defense.\\nThe US Military's budget has plateaued in 2009, but is still considerably larger than any other military power.\\nMilitary spending is important to the Trump administration and it is unlikely that he has any reason to curb it. In addition, military spending is popular with 2017 House Speaker Paul Ryan, showing that U.S. military spending will continue\",\n \"-29.171683562584803\"\n ],\n [\n \"spending) makes up one-third of the annual federal budget.\\nIn 2015, out of its budget of 3.97 trillion, the United States spent $637 billion on military. \\nIn 2016, the United States spent 3.29% of its GDP on its military (considering only basic Department of Defense budget spending), more than France's 2.26% and less than Saudi Arabia's 9.85%. This is historically low for the United States since it peaked in 1944 at 37.8% of GDP (it reached the lowest point of 3.0% in 1999–2001). Even during the peak of the Vietnam War the percentage reached a high of 9.4% in 1968.\\nIn 2018,\",\n \"-29.140498051958275\"\n ],\n [\n \"2009 was $1.531 trillion U.S. dollars. 46.5% of this total, roughly $712 billion U.S. dollars, was spent by the United States. The privatization of the production and invention of military technology also leadsto a complicated relationship with significant research and development of many technologies. \\nIn 2011, the United States spent more (in absolute numbers) on its military than the next 13 nations combined.\\nThe military budget of the United States for the 2009 fiscal year was $515.4 billion. Adding emergency discretionary spending and supplemental spending brings the sum to $651.2 billion. This does not include many military-related items that are outside\",\n \"-28.994745888478064\"\n ],\n [\n \"Grow the Army Grow the Army was a transformation and restationing initiative of the United States Army announced in 2007. The initiative was designed to grow the U.S. Army's force by almost 75,000 soldiers, while realigning a large portion of the force in Europe, moving units located there to the continental United States in compliance with the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission suggestions. Soldiers The plan was announced in a United States Army press release on December 19, 2007. It calls for a total force growth of 74,200 soldiers, expanding the Active duty army force by 65,000 soldiers, the\",\n \"-28.91745580839165\"\n ],\n [\n \"that the United States military was a prime example of how a comprehensive social safety net, universal health care, a commitment to public service, low income disparity, and structured planning could be made to work within an organization. He then suggested that the military could serve as a model for improving American society along those lines. This brought criticism from several other commentators, who argued that the military is only effective at what it does by severely limiting the freedom of its members. Jonah Goldberg argued that \\\"You've got to love how a system that requires total loyalty, curbs free\",\n \"-28.853980248910375\"\n ],\n [\n \"the civilian population. Thus, the lack of actual military goals can in itself be a reason that a forever war can occur. As well, a very large defense budget may also be a factor in the transpiration of a forever war. This allows a country to fight several forever wars. As of 2018, the United States has a high military budget that is larger than their budget for World War II, allowing for inflation, which enables them to fight wars forever in Iraq and other countries. The idea of a forever war can also extend to civil wars. Simply,\",\n \"-28.675153588861576\"\n ],\n [\n \"only is the United States so far ahead militarily in both quantitative and qualitative terms, but its security guarantees also give it the leverage to prevent allies from giving military technology to potential U.S. rivals. Because the United States dominates the high-end defense industry, it can trade access to its defense market for allies' agreement not to transfer key military technologies to its competitors.\\\"\\nFinally, when the United States wields its security leverage, the authors argue, it shapes the overall structure of the global economy. \\\"Washington wins when U.S. allies favor [the] status quo, and one reason they are inclined to\",\n \"-28.561616874490937\"\n ],\n [\n \"that sees incumbent powers competing to maintain the status quo and keep their global influence. In today’s international system, there are four great powers that fit this definition: the United States (US), Russia, China and the European Union (whereby the EU is considered to be the sum of its parts). If we distil from this description of great power attributes and capabilities a list of criteria, it is clear why these four powers dominate the international security debate. The possession of superior military and economic capabilities can be translated into measurements such as military expenditure and GDP, and nowhere are\",\n \"-28.384478520943958\"\n ],\n [\n \"identified excess litigation, excess taxation, and excess regulation as three factors contributing to the loss of American jobs. Size of the military and defense spending Huckabee supports a larger military and a fifty percent increase in defense spending. In December 2007, he wrote:\\nThe Bush administration plans to increase the size of the U.S. Army and the Marine Corps by about 92,000 troops over the next five years. We can and must do this in two to three years. I recognize the challenges of increasing our enlistments without lowering standards and of expanding training facilities and personnel, and that is one\",\n \"-28.36961975189479\"\n ],\n [\n \"the armed forces will only be used against foreign aggression, and reduces the powers of the heads of the armed services, centralizing whole operational and acquisitions decisions under the authority of the minister of Defense through the Armed Forces Joint General Staff emphasizing Jointness Budget The 2014 military budget is US$ 10.000.000.000.\",\n \"-28.23995437173653\"\n ],\n [\n \"(the world's most powerful military and economic power at the time), France, Russia, the Austro-Hungarian empire, Ottoman empire, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Belgium, Japan and Greece were all larger and more experienced than the United States military, in many cases significantly so.\\nReform to them meant UMT or \\\"universal military training\\\". They proposed a national service program under which the 600,000 men who turned 18 every year would be required to spend six months in military training, and afterwards be assigned to reserve units. The small regular army would primarily be a training agency.\\nAntimilitarists complained the plan would make America resemble\",\n \"-28.23444945763913\"\n ],\n [\n \"planned to limit pay rises, increase fees for healthcare benefits, freeze the pay of senior officers, and reduce military housing allowances. A reduction in the number of soldiers serving in the U.S. Army would reduce the size of the force to levels not seen since prior to the start of World War II.\\nIn July 2014, American Enterprise Institute scholar Michael Auslin opined in the National Review that the Air Force needs to be fully funded as a priority, due to the air superiority, global airlift, and long-range strike capabilities it provides.\\nIn January 2015 Defense Department published its internal study on\",\n \"-28.10335352313996\"\n ],\n [\n \"United States produced 2.4 million trucks, 300,000 military aircraft, 88,400 tanks, and 40 billion rounds of ammunition. The production capacity of the United States dwarfed that of other countries; for example, in 1944, the United States produced more military aircraft than the combined production of Germany, Japan, Britain, and the Soviet Union. The White House became the ultimate site for labor mediation, conciliation or arbitration. One particular battle royale occurred between Vice President Wallace, who headed the Board of Economic Warfare, and Jesse H. Jones, in charge of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation; both agencies assumed responsibility for acquisition of rubber\",\n \"-27.970414637726208\"\n ],\n [\n \"to change the priorities of that government and its people. As one of the most powerful military nations on earth, we must start leading the world toward peace.\\nWe are not trying to avoid our responsibilities to the people of this country and the world by refusing to pay our taxes. We will pay our share of money and resources to life-affirming, positive programs such as medical care, welfare, psychological care and counseling, and education, to name a few. We are called by God to affirm life and love with our resources and to resist and eliminate war and violence among\",\n \"-27.95157202950213\"\n ],\n [\n \"the $250 billion military budget of China. The United States and its close allies are responsible for two-thirds to three-quarters of the world's military spending (of which, in turn, the U.S. is responsible for the majority). The US also maintains the largest number of military bases on foreign soil across the world. While there are no freestanding foreign bases permanently located in the United States, there are now around 800 U.S. bases in foreign countries. Military spending makes up nearly 16% of entire federal spending and approximately half of discretionary spending. In a general sense discretionary spending (defense and non-defense\",\n \"-27.826961701750406\"\n ],\n [\n \"Military budget of the United States The military budget is the portion of the discretionary United States federal budget allocated to the Department of Defense, or more broadly, the portion of the budget that goes to any military-related expenditures. The military budget pays the salaries, training, and health care of uniformed and civilian personnel, maintains arms, equipment and facilities, funds operations, and develops and buys new items. The budget funds four branches of the U.S. military: the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force.\\nFor Fiscal Year 2019 (FY2019), the Department of Defense' budget authority is approximately $693,058,000,000. Approximately $684,985,000,000 is\",\n \"-27.82291476602404\"\n ],\n [\n \"and the United States are often referred to as great powers by academics due to \\\"their political and economic dominance of the global arena\\\". These five nations are the only states to have permanent seats with veto power on the UN Security Council. They are also the only state entities to have met the conditions to be considered \\\"Nuclear Weapons States\\\" under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, and maintain military expenditures which are among the largest in the world. However, there is no unanimous agreement among authorities as to the current status of these powers or what\",\n \"-27.815048520002165\"\n ],\n [\n \"core military force -the army- remains somewhat underfunded in favour of naval and air-force maintenance. Government expenditures are equal to less than 10% of GDP, with military expenditures accounting for roughly 25-35% of that figure. The amount of the budget spent on schooling, healthcare and other such investments is in proximity to the military budget. The constitution guarantees that the government will have a monopoly in certain industries, although much has been done to privatise these industries, in similar fashion to the way oil drilling was privatised. The party also has a minister for women, and has in recent years\",\n \"-27.804691904049832\"\n ],\n [\n \"fight subjective policy, ambiguous definitions, and conflicting doctrine designed to deceive the public with hidden political agendas.\\nThe military has been increasingly spending billions to do so, in which Sheldon Rampton, research director for the Committee on Media and Democracy, calls a \\\"massive apparatus selling the military to us.\\\"\",\n \"-27.751048687155617\"\n ],\n [\n \"magazine Foreign Affairs, titled Our Overstuffed Armed Forces questioning the need for and scale of US defense spending by comparing American defense spending to that of other nations. Toti reacted to this article by writing a rebuttal which was published in The Washington Times entitled What Does Brookings Know About Defense? The article advanced the idea that because of the need of American armed forces to cross two vast oceans surrounding the United States to bring the fight to the enemy, any comparison of what the United States spends relative to spending by other nations that do not have to\",\n \"-27.731715250516118\"\n ],\n [\n \"Review Each year, Israel can choose to increase or decrease the GDP percentage of the defense budget (it starts at 35%) by 2%, and to increase the size of the Army by two units (which apparently harms the relationship with the USA). US Budget Aid Every year, the United States provides economic and military aid to Israel. This varies between nothing and four billion dollars, depending on how good Israel's relationship is with the US. (To put that into context, a large monthly defense budget, such as would be granted during an active war, is about 350 million dollars). Palestinian\",\n \"-27.604049430417945\"\n ],\n [\n \"the research and development department where costs are underestimated, which leads to a waste of a different kind: time. Without the appropriate resources, researchers cannot do their job adequately. What this can lead to is employees not working as efficiently as possible. Comparison with other countries The United States spends more on their defense budget than China, Saudi Arabia, Russia, the United Kingdom, India, France, and Japan combined. The 2018 U.S. military budget accounts for approximately 36% of global arms spending (for comparison, U.S. GDP is only 24% of global GDP). The 2018 budget is approximately 2.5 times larger than\",\n \"-27.530359183221663\"\n ],\n [\n \"the U.S. Military’s Center of Excellence for Stability and Peace Operations at the strategic and operational levels in order to improve military, civilian agency, international, and multinational capabilities and execution. Army Heritage Education Center U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center Strategic Studies Institute Strategic Studies Institute\",\n \"-27.51385732973722\"\n ],\n [\n \"army's \\\"core values\\\" by incorporating game play based on mission accomplishment, teamwork, leadership, and rules of engagement. Government applications According to game historian Carrie McLeroy, America's Army has \\\"grown in ways its originators couldn't have imagined\\\". Dozens of government training and simulation applications using America's Army platform have been developed to train and educate U.S. Army soldiers.\\nIn 2005, America's Army developers partnered with the Software Engineering Directorate and the Army's Aviation and Missile Research Development Engineering Center in Huntsville, Alabama, to manage the commercial game development process and use the America's Army platform to create government training and simulations. \\\"America's\",\n \"-27.512388423355787\"\n ],\n [\n \"other countries see the U.S. using its power to strengthen the existing rules and institutions, US authority will be strengthened because they will become more inclined to work in collaboration with U.S. power. Secondly, the U.S. should update the key post-war security pacts, such as NATO and Washington’s East Asian alliances. When the U.S. provides security, the U.S. allies, in return, will operate within the western order. Thirdly, the U.S. should renew its support for wide-ranging multilateral institutions. Economically speaking, building on the agreements of the WTO, concluding the current Doha Round of trade talks that seek to extend market\",\n \"-27.450292904259186\"\n ],\n [\n \"permanent end-strength change was not expected because of fears of future funding cuts, forcing the Army to pay for the additional personnel from procurement and readiness accounts. Up to 60% of the defense budget is spent on personnel and an extra 10,000 soldiers would cost US$1.4 billion annually.\\nOn November 22 and 23, 2002, the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs held the \\\"Belfer Center Conference on Military Transformation\\\". It brought together present and former defense officials and military commanders for the stated purpose of assessing the Department of Defense's progress in achieving a \\\"transformation\\\" of U.S. military capabilities. The\",\n \"-27.38919861492468\"\n ],\n [\n \"a military budget over double of its two largest military rivals, some consider the United States to be a war economy or at least a country with an economy largely backed by the Military Industrial Complex. World War I Germany has experienced economic devastation following both World Wars. While this was not a result of faulty economic planning, it is important to understand the ways that Germany approached reconstruction. In World War I, the German agricultural sector was hit hard by the demands of the war effort. Not only were many of the workers conscripted, but lots of the food\",\n \"-27.370904263763805\"\n ],\n [\n \"bigger armies is the key to keeping a county safe from warfare. In fact, funds spent on weapons may drain resources from social, political, and economic development that may address root causes of conflict.” The amount of money spent on the defense sector equals $4.7 billion a day or $249 per person. According to the World Bank and the Office of Disarmament Affairs (ODA), only about 5% of this amount would be needed each year to achieve the Millennium Development Goals by 2015. \\n\\nThe negative effects of high militarization include not just the direct ones of money and resources being\",\n \"-27.317809011089594\"\n ],\n [\n \"States remains a strong power economically and militarily, rising nations such as China, India, and Brazil as well as Russia have challenged its dominance. Foreign policy analysts such as Nina Harchigian suggest that the six emerging big powers share common concerns: free trade, economic growth, prevention of terrorism, efforts to stymie nuclear proliferation. And if they can avoid war, the coming decades can be peaceful and productive provided there are no misunderstandings or dangerous rivalries.\\nIn his first formal television interview as president, Barack Obama addressed the Muslim world through an Arabic-language satellite TV network and expressed a commitment to repair\",\n \"-27.29449622343418\"\n ],\n [\n \"to overcome the lack of capabilities the states battle within these areas. Take for example economic power where larger states can transfer money from boom regions to bust regions which most small states can’t, which makes them more vulnerable to temporary volatility and economic fluctuation. Alesina and Spolaore state that if there were only benefits from size, then the tendency should be for the entire world to be organized in a single country. They argue that the number of states in the international system is likely to increase. They name a few reasons. Firstly, it is democratization. Dictators prefer large\",\n \"-27.283372500300175\"\n ],\n [\n \"Department of Defense released a report that stated the United States Army made $6.5 trillion in wrongful adjustments to its accounting entries in 2015. Energy use The Department of Defense was the largest single consumer of energy in the United States in 2006.\\nIn FY 2006, the department used almost 30,000 gigawatt hours (GWH) of electricity, at a cost of almost $2.2 billion. The department's electricity use would supply enough electricity to power more than 2.6 million average American homes. In electricity consumption, if it were a country, the department would rank 58th in the world, using slightly less than Denmark\",\n \"-27.25664776789199\"\n ],\n [\n \"39 percent of the workforce down to the pre-2001 level of 26 percent. In a Pentagon review of January 2011, service contractors were found to be \\\"increasingly unaffordable.\\\" Military budget and total US federal spending The U.S. Department of Defense budget accounted in fiscal year 2017 for about 14.8% of the United States federal budgeted expenditures. According to the Congressional Budget Office, defense spending grew 9% annually on average from fiscal year 2000–2009.\\nBecause of constitutional limitations, military funding is appropriated in a discretionary spending account. (Such accounts permit government planners to have more flexibility to change spending each year, as\",\n \"-27.226485151608358\"\n ],\n [\n \"most of us instinctively say, \\\"Well, of course, they must.\\\" And the military, which comes out of this same society, is predisposed to expect that there's a great technological change right around the next bend in the road and it's going to change everything. People think that militaries are incredibly reactionary, conservative, resistant-to-change institutions, and yet the American military in particular has been—almost throughout its history, certainly since World War I—the exact opposite. They're way over-predisposed to expect that everything is going to change because of the next new gadget.\\nHe has stated about U.S. power and prestige,\\nAt the moment, we're\",\n \"-27.154769601394946\"\n ],\n [\n \"most important for the nation's economy, mobility and defense.\",\n \"-27.125363825827662\"\n ],\n [\n \"force has adopted foreign ideas on the roles and needs of an armed force, leading to proposals for armour, artillery and attack helicopters. However, the army faces severe budgetary problems and has therefore had virtually no money for operations, training, and maintenance or capital equipment upgrades. In this context, proposals to develop the army into a well equipped, mobile conventional land force, are unlikely in the near to medium term. The army's role is to protect against external aggression, provide for internal security in support of the police, and to carry out civic action and relief operations when required. The\",\n \"-27.102482435037018\"\n ],\n [\n \"United States in the current international hierarchy. ... A sequential ranking of other major powers beyond the top two would be imprecise at best. Any list, however, has to include Russia, Japan, and India, as well as the EU's informal leaders: Great Britain, Germany, and France.\\nAccording to a 2014 report of the Hague Centre for Strategic Studies:\\nGreat Powers... are disproportionately engaged in alliances and wars, and their diplomatic weight is often cemented by their strong role in international institutions and forums. This unequal distribution of power and prestige leads to “a set of rights and rules governing interactions among states”\",\n \"-26.996035425598166\"\n ],\n [\n \"War economy United States The United States alone has a very complex history with wartime economies. Many notable instances came during the twentieth century in which America's main conflicts consisted of the World Wars, Korea, and Vietnam. World War I In mobilizing for World War I, the United States expanded its governmental powers by creating institutions such as the War Industries Board (WIB) to help with military production. Others, such as the Fuel Administration, introduced daylight saving time in an effort to save coal and oil while the Food Administration encouraged higher grain production and “mobilized a spirit of self-sacrifice\",\n \"-26.89770054893961\"\n ],\n [\n \"to be the most important for the nation's economy, mobility and defense.\",\n \"-26.883763812933466\"\n ],\n [\n \"States Army Reserve. The Army of the United States was re-established for the Korean War and Vietnam War and was demobilized upon the suspension of the Draft. Active and reserve components The United States Army is made up of three components: one active—the Regular Army; and two reserve components—the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve. Both reserve components are primarily composed of part-time soldiers who train once a month, known as Battle Assembly, Unit Training Assemblies (UTAs), or simply \\\"drills\\\", while typically conducting two to three weeks of annual training each year. Both the Regular Army and the Army\",\n \"-26.852498327746616\"\n ],\n [\n \"the people (as expressed by their political representatives), rather than left solely to an elite group of tactical experts. The military serves as a special government agency, which is supposed to implement, rather than formulate, policies that require the use of certain types of physical force. Kohn succinctly summarizes this view when he writes that:\\nThe point of civilian control is to make security subordinate to the larger purposes of a nation, rather than the other way around. The purpose of the military is to defend society, not to define it.\\nA state's effective use of force is an issue of great\",\n \"-26.74518547311891\"\n ],\n [\n \"national economy based on huge military establishments. These had come to be a recognized way of dealing with the problem of unemployment. To begin with, there were large numbers of men absorbed into the military forces. To supplement these were government arsenals with another army of workmen, with a still larger number employed in providing supplies, food, clothing, and transportation. No government living under this system could undertake drastic reduction of armaments without disrupting the whole national economy. We may as well recognize the fact that there can be no more than fragmentary and regional reductions until the nations are\",\n \"-26.717408262698882\"\n ],\n [\n \"help other states. A national government would make alliances and create a policy that benefits all of the country. Moreover, a unified nation will have a better and stronger military, with many states contributing soldiers and money, opposed to fragmented forces of sovereign states.\",\n \"-26.713653150218306\"\n ],\n [\n \"Department of Defense. Defense's share of the overall U.S. economy has generally declined in recent decades, from Cold War peaks of 14.2% of GDP in 1953 and 69.5% of federal outlays in 1954 to 4.7% of GDP and 18.8% of federal outlays in 2011.\\nThe proposed base Department of Defense budget for 2012, $553 billion, was a 4.2% increase over 2011; an additional $118 billion was proposed for the military campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan. The last American troops serving in Iraq departed in December 2011; 4,484 service members were killed during the Iraq War. Approximately 90,000 U.S. troops were serving\",\n \"-26.7028947251747\"\n ],\n [\n \"that the United States is likely to engage in war against Vietnam again and so needs the EFV to storm its beaches. He has also called for a shift in American defense spending towards items such as the Littoral Combat Ship and the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II that can be exported to allies. Thompson has said that \\\"The United States cannot continue to spend, especially on defense, the way it has been over the past decade.\\\" Despite being funding by defense contractors, Goure has argued that the use of these contractors is a sign of an army in decline.\",\n \"-26.69953943641758\"\n ],\n [\n \"on military research and weapons development. Additionally the U.S. military maintains two classified, pre-positioned War Reserve Stocks in Israel valued at $493 million. Israel has the official distinction of being an American Major non-NATO ally. As a result of this, the US and Israel share the vast majority of their security and military technology.\\nSince 1976, Israel had been the largest annual recipient of U.S. foreign assistance. In 2009, Israel received $2.55 billion in Foreign Military Financing (FMF) grants from the Department of Defense. All but 26% of this military aid is for the purchase of military hardware from American companies\",\n \"-26.67710302687192\"\n ],\n [\n \"independent agency of the government. It is important to note that while the defense budget has fluctuated by billions of dollars, the U.S. Defense spending in relativity to percentage of U.S. GDP has only fluctuated within 1%-2%.\\nThe NPR also aimed to improve general customer satisfaction with all dealings involving the federal government. In terms of foreign military sales, however, there is a dilemma of whether or not the federal government's main \\\"customer\\\" should be the foreign nations purchasing arms and technologies or the American taxpayer who in part pays for the service provided by the defense department. NPR and Shrinking\",\n \"-26.676370032160776\"\n ],\n [\n \"an open world economy and give Washington leverage in economic negotiations. And they make it easier for the United States to secure cooperation for combating a wide range of global threats.\\\"\\nIkenberry, Brooks, and Wohlforth are not convinced that the current U.S. grand strategy generates subsequent counterbalancing. Unlike the prior hegemons, the United States is geographically isolated and faces no contiguous great power rivals interested in balancing it. This means the United States is far less threatening to great powers that are situated oceans away, the authors claim. Moreover, any competitor would have a hard time matching U.S. military might. \\\"Not\",\n \"-26.624873175867833\"\n ],\n [\n \"which will boost spending to $700 billion, about 91.4% of which will be spent on maintaining the armed forces and primary Pentagon costs. Military spending is increasing regularly and more money is being spent every year on employee pay, operation and maintenance, and benefits including as health benefits. Methods to counteract rapidly increasing spending include shutting down bases, but that has been banned since an Obama administration Budget Act included a section that stopped just that. Federal waste As of September 2014, the Department of Defense was estimated to have \\\"$857 million in excess parts and supplies\\\". This figure has\",\n \"-26.593386111216205\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the reasons why we must increase our military budget. Right now, we spend about 3.9 percent of our GDP on defense, compared with about six percent in 1986, under President Ronald Reagan. We need to return to that six percent level. Tax reform The 1999 gas and fuel tax hikes were never on the ballot in Arkansas, but Huckabee has told reporters \\\"the fuel tax was a vote of the people—eighty percent of the people voted to improve roads\\\", and his 2008 presidential campaign manager, Chip Saltsman, has stated that \\\"more than 80% of the voters supported a four\",\n \"-26.561379243335978\"\n ],\n [\n \"manner to be prescribed by law.\\\" Even though this is addressing the quartering of American Soldiers, the idea is the same. A country does in fact have the right to protect themselves against aggression from anyone. This can also be achieved through trade which increase wealth, cooperation, and of course a states well-being. Under this theory, trade is another way to promote peace because it would in theory create less conflicts since governments would not want to disrupt anything that would add to the wealth of their states.\",\n \"-26.547323879031865\"\n ],\n [\n \"Department of Defense and Homeland Security. However, the constitutional ability to declare war is vested only in Congress.\\nU.S. ranks have their roots in British military traditions, with the president possessing ultimate authority, but no rank, maintaining a civilian status. Before 1947, the president was the only common superior of the Army (under the secretary of war) and the Navy and Marine Corps (under the secretary of the navy). The National Security Act of 1947, and the 1949 amendments to the same act, created the Department of Defense and the services (Army, Navy, Marine Corps and Air Force) became subject to\",\n \"-26.50497663369606\"\n ],\n [\n \"of 30.3% of GDP spent on defense in 1975. In 2016, Israel ranked 6th in the world by defense spending as a percentage of GDP, with 5.7%, and 15th by total military expenditure, with $18 billion. Since 1974, the United States has been a particularly notable contributor of military aid to Israel. Under a memorandum of understanding signed in 2016, the U.S. is expected to provide the country with $3.8 billion per year, or around 20% of Israel's defense budget, from 2018 to 2028. Israel ranked 5th globally for arms exports in 2017. The majority of Israel's arms exports are unreported\",\n \"-26.503211363649825\"\n ],\n [\n \"delay the eventual overwhelming superiority of U.S. forces due to a much greater industrial base.\",\n \"-26.499125383008504\"\n ],\n [\n \"fourth largest labor force in the world behind China, India, and the European Union.\\nThe government (federal, state and local) employed 22 million in 2010. Small businesses are the nation's largest employer representing 53% of American workers. The second-largest share of employment belongs to large businesses employing 38% of the U.S. workforce.\\nThe nation's private sector employs 91% of working Americans. Government accounts for 8% of all U.S. workers. Over 99% of all employing organizations in the U.S. are small businesses. The 30 million small businesses in the U.S. account for 64% of newly created jobs (those created minus those lost). Jobs\",\n \"-26.462559051197786\"\n ],\n [\n \"is still noticeable and influences the way the states are seen as “small”. This is an important approach, since it makes it clear how aside from the geographical and population size, the country’s GDP, the ranking of a state in the international system, the political, economical and military power play an important role in putting a state somewhere on the spectrum. Small powers in international organizations Small states can under some circumstances have a disproportionately great influence. According to Diana Panke, \\\"Small states tend to be most likely to punch above their weight if the negotiations take place in an\",\n \"-26.444516941235634\"\n ],\n [\n \"a focus on making other countries more reliant on the United States. This was done through applying economic diplomacy, sharp power, soft power, and other measures to increase foreign dependency on a variety of assets and systems controlled or heavily influenced by America. These include America's new generations of advanced robotic systems, American space-based solar power technologies, American food exports, American space transportation systems such as spaceplanes, and newly expanded efforts by agencies such as the Peace Corps and USAID.\\nIn great secrecy, the American government continues work on advanced military technologies, dual-use technologies, and finding means to leverage the revolution\",\n \"-26.357972627332856\"\n ],\n [\n \"different generals, he concludes that the U.S. generalship as an institution, not individual generals, has failed. He proposes that the U.S. Congress take more interest in military affairs, especially when confirming generals. Generals, in his opinion, need to be aware that future U.S. wars will not involve one large enemy army but rather smaller, difficult-to-target groups of insurgents. He states that the United States needs generals to be more creative, as well as have a better understanding of military history, international relations, and foreign cultures.\\nEven before he published the influential Armed Forces Journal article, Yingling had made his dissatisfactions known\",\n \"-26.356217087108234\"\n ],\n [\n \"great powers as useful allies, contributors to systems maintenance or as impartial arbiters. Smaller states do not seek status by seeking to match greater powers materially. Some degree of emulation can however pay off. States can be a major donor in the United Nations and give competitive status among peer groups of small states while simultaneously acknowledge great powers for system maintenance. Small states can get access to the middle power club since this is a category with loose membership criteria, but access to the great power club is not possible. Small states may opt for a collective strategy of\",\n \"-26.34427837203839\"\n ],\n [\n \"fighting forces and to modernize weapons systems. Lynn in June 2010 said the goal is to find more savings within the defense budget without cutting the top-line number. Pentagon leaders are eying 2 to 3 percent real growth in the Pentagon's budget for the areas that need it most: force structure and modernization. Two-thirds of the $100 billion cost savings spread out over the next five years will come from trimming overhead on a department-wide basis. That money will be directly transferred into the force structure and modernization accounts, Lynn explained. The rest of the cost savings would come from\",\n \"-26.31356973682159\"\n ],\n [\n \"oil – for military uses, and persuaded businesses to convert to military production.\\\" Two-thirds of the American economy had been integrated into the war effort by the end of 1943. Because of this massive cooperation between government and private entities, it could be argued that the economic measures enacted prior to and during the Second World War helped lead the Allies to victory. Present Day The United States has been involved in numerous military endeavours within the Middle East and Latin America since the 1960s. Having been in a continuous state of war since the September 11 Attacks and having\",\n \"-26.288565793238377\"\n ],\n [\n \"U.S. service members (as of March 2008) and injuries to thousands more.\\nMost of the units that carried out the ground campaign phase of the invasion of Iraq, and who bore the larger part of the conflict with the Iraqi military in 2003 were those of the Army. Since then, they have performed numerous operations against insurgents.\\nThe Army has had to make several adjustments to address demands on its personnel and equipment. The US Army has utilized its stop-loss policy and has required more of its combat personnel to serve more tours of duty than before, due to the need for\",\n \"-26.28572867877665\"\n ],\n [\n \"And this is – this is one of the drawbacks that we've had with so many troops having been put into this constant rotational basis inside one country when we have a war against international terrorism that's global.\\nAsked by Wolf Blitzer if he would ever support the efforts of Dennis Kucinich to cut funding for the war, Webb said,\\nI – you know, I lived through Vietnam. I lived through it as a Marine and I know that those sorts of approaches, while they seem attractive on one level are really not that realistic. What we want to do – and\",\n \"-26.240374000522934\"\n ],\n [\n \"forces within budget allocations that Congress was willing to provide.\\nThe major features of the New Look included greater reliance on nuclear weapons, using the advantage the United States had over the Soviet Union in such weapons; elevation of strategic air power, the major means to deliver nuclear weapons, to a more important position (not an expansion in the number of Air Force wings but rather development and production of better equipment); cuts in conventional ground forces, based both on reliance on strategic and tactical nuclear weapons and the expectation that US allies would provide ground troops for their own\",\n \"-26.227013691255706\"\n ],\n [\n \"own defenses and our own military position have already been neglected too long. We must now turn every effort to building the greatest and most efficient Army, Navy and Air Force in the world. When American soldiers go to war it must be with the best equipment that modern skill can design and that modern industry can build.\\nWith the formal declaration of war against Japan, the organization chose to disband. On December 11, the committee leaders met and voted for dissolution. In the statement which they released to the press was the following:\\nOur principles were right. Had they been followed,\",\n \"-26.211631284473697\"\n ],\n [\n \"off\\\" a part of the economic activity produced to support an ongoing military buildup to contain the Soviet Union. In his 1951 Annual Message to the Congress, President Truman stated:\\nIn terms of manpower, our present defense targets will require an increase of nearly one million men and women in the armed forces within a few months, and probably not less than four million more in defense production by the end of the year. This means that an additional 8 percent of our labor force, and possibly much more, will be required by direct defense needs by the end of the\",\n \"-26.201943584561377\"\n ],\n [\n \"vital national security interests: The U.S. military would go to war only when it must. Large troop contingents in unprecedentedly peaceful regions such as Europe would be significantly downsized, incentivizing NATO members to provide more for their own security. Under such a scenario, the United States would have more leeway in using resources to combat the most pressing threats to its security. A strategy of restraint, therefore, would help preserve the country's prosperity and security more so than a hegemonic strategy. To be sure, Posen makes clear that he is not advocating isolationism. Rather, the United States should focus on\",\n \"-26.191210456654517\"\n ],\n [\n \"the past… [The military has] done an admirable job…but it is no replacement for the real thing - civilian involvement and expertise… Funding for non-military foreign-affairs programs…remains disproportionately small relative to what we spend on the military… Secretary Rice has asked for a budget increase for the State Department and an expansion of the Foreign Service. The need is real… What is clear to me is that there is a need for a dramatic increase in spending on the civilian instruments of national security - diplomacy, strategic communications, foreign assistance, civic action, and economic reconstruction and development… Indeed, having robust\",\n \"-26.151267397028278\"\n ],\n [\n \"2 – Maximum wealth Great powers seek to maximize their share of the world's wealth because economic strength is the foundation of military strength. Great powers seek to prevent rival powers from dominating wealth-producing regions of the world. The United States, for example, sought to prevent the Soviet Union from dominating Western Europe and the Middle East. Had the Soviets gained control of these areas, the balance of power would have been altered significantly against the United States. Objective 3 – Nuclear superiority Mearsheimer asserts that great powers seek nuclear superiority over their rivals. Great powers exist in a world\",\n \"-26.06959121293039\"\n ],\n [\n \"only eastern Europe), and the industrial might of the U.S. economy became a major factor in the Allies' mobilization of resources. Strategic and tactical lessons learned by the U.S., such as the importance of air superiority and the dominance of the aircraft carrier in naval actions, continue to guide U.S. military doctrine into the 21st century.\\nWorld War II holds a special place in the American psyche as the country's greatest triumph, and the U.S. military personnel of World War II are frequently referred to as \\\"the Greatest Generation.\\\" Over 16 million served (about 11% of the population), and over 400,000\",\n \"-26.054535305658646\"\n ],\n [\n \"United States remain the \\\"preeminent military power in the world,\\\" and the regional \\\"balances of power remain in our favor.\\\" [Emphasis added] The \\\"balance of power favoring freedom\\\" appeared identical with the balance of power favoring \\\"us.\\\"\\nRussian President Vladimir Putin complained: \\\"Instead of establishing a new balance of power … they [the United States] took steps that threw the [international] system into sharp and deep imbalance.\\\"\\nIn 1826, George Canning “called the new world into existence to redress the balance of the old.” In 1898, Theodore Roosevelt found that the United States had become \\\"more and more the balance of power\",\n \"-26.033366685544024\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the wars was approximately $1.3 trillion. Other military-related expenditures This does not include many military-related items that are outside of the Defense Department budget, such as nuclear weapons research, maintenance, cleanup, and production, which are in the Atomic Energy Defense Activities section, Veterans Affairs, the Treasury Department's payments in pensions to military retirees and widows and their families, interest on debt incurred in past wars, or State Department financing of foreign arms sales and militarily-related development assistance. Neither does it include defense spending that is not military in nature, such as the Department of Homeland Security, counter-terrorism spending by\",\n \"-26.03135553901666\"\n ],\n [\n \"World War II Compared to the end of the first World War, the United States was even more powerful in 1945 following the conclusion of the second World War. The nation possessed a preponderance of military power and close to half of the world's wealth. Once again, leaders from the United States attempted to leverage this powerful position and create a stable order that would serve to benefit their nation for decades to come. Political and economic openness was the centerpiece of this envisioned framework. It was believed that the closed economic regions which had existed before the war had\",\n \"-26.022756794001907\"\n ],\n [\n \"there is no Minister of Defense, the Mexican military's two components are not under the command of a single commander except the President, who is Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces (Comandante Supremo De Las Fuerzas Armadas). According to the Constitution of Mexico the President is the Army's only five-star general. (This is comparable to most other countries with a presidential system of government, such as the United States.) Instead, a Secretary, who is a serving officer—an Army four-star general or a Navy admiral—heads each department and branch (The Secretariats of National Defense and the Navy). Each minister serves in\",\n \"-25.989514839173353\"\n ],\n [\n \"force, which was the main source of revenue for the state. It was important to maintain control over the areas resources because failure to do so resulted in a loss in revenue, which weakened the states authority. People will always recognise the authority of the political unit that offers protection and security. It is widely considered that the only states to have emerged were the ones that could compete in war with other territorial states that resulted in states forming large military forces with technological and tactical advantages. Designated the military revolution, in Europe between 1500 and 1700 occurred a\",\n \"-25.97127666749293\"\n ],\n [\n \"Navy fell apart, without sufficient personnel to man many of its ships or the money to maintain them—indeed, many of them were sold to foreign nations. This left the United States as the world's undisputed naval superpower. U.S. naval forces did undergo a decline in absolute terms but relative to the rest of the world, however, United States dwarfs other nations' naval power as evinced by its 11 aircraft supercarriers and their supporting battle groups. During the 1990s, the United States naval strategy was based on the overall military strategy of the United States which emphasized the ability of the\",\n \"-25.938948393784813\"\n ],\n [\n \"in nature. An institutional model presents the military as an organization highly divergent from civilian society while an occupational model presents the military more convergent with civilian structures. While Moskos did not propose that the military was ever \\\"entirely separate or entirely coterminous with civilian society\\\", the use of a scale helped better to highlight the changing interface between the armed forces and society. Agency theory The Vietnam War opened deep arguments about civil-military relations that continue to exert powerful influences today. One centered on a contention within military circles that the United States lost the war because of unnecessary\",\n \"-25.89372081696638\"\n ],\n [\n \"a significant portion of the American military's troop strength and destroy a significant portion of his war equipment in order to prevent the American forces from being able to carry out their political and military missions; on the basis, crush the American will to commit aggression and force the United States to accept defeat in South Vietnam and end all hostile actions against North Vietnam. In addition, using this as the basis, they would achieve the immediate goals of the revolution, which were independence, democracy, peace, and neutrality in South Vietnam, and then move toward achieving peace and national unification.\\nThe\",\n \"-25.89253147830459\"\n ],\n [\n \"to small towns, throughout the Midwest or the Southwest or the South, every town has tons of young people who are serving in Iraq and Afghanistan. That's not always the case in other parts of the country, in more urban centers. And I think it's important for the president to say, this is an important obligation. If we are going into war, then all of us go, not just some.\\\"\\nObama never actually said he supported a draft or the specific bill that is currently stalled in Congress. Universal National Service Act of 2010 The Universal National Service Act of 2010\",\n \"-25.884879589717457\"\n ],\n [\n \"United States was the world's dominant military power and Japan, sometimes seen as the largest economic rival to the U.S., was caught in a period of stagnation. China was emerging as the U.S.'s foremost trading competitor in more and more areas. Localized conflicts such as those in Haiti and the Balkans prompted President Bill Clinton to send in U.S. troops as peacekeepers, reviving the Cold-War-era controversy about whether policing the rest of the world was a proper U.S. role. Islamic radicals overseas loudly threatened assaults against the U.S. for its ongoing military presence in the Middle East, and even staged\",\n \"-25.864537562736587\"\n ],\n [\n \"is the upholding, guarding and protecting the integrity of the United States government and its constitution. Other duties include helping ex-service personnel who need help in getting employment, caring for the sick, and needed burial services. \\nThe mission and purpose of the Army and Navy Union are to bind together in fraternal comradeship all comrades, shipmates, soldiers, sailors and marines, regular and volunteers, veterans of all wars in which the United States has been or may be engaged in. Besides patriotic, other purposes for the organization are for history and genealogy records. The main goal of the organization is to\",\n \"-25.8325910193671\"\n ],\n [\n \"nations, with its military equipment being supplied primarily by the US, France and Britain.\\nThe United States sold more than $80 billion in military hardware between 1951 and 2006 to the Saudi military. On 20 October 2010, the US State Department notified Congress of its intention to make the biggest arms sale in American history—an estimated $60.5 billion purchase by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The package represents a considerable improvement in the offensive capability of the Saudi armed forces. 2013 saw Saudi military spending climb to $67bn, overtaking that of the UK, France and Japan to place fourth globally.\\nThe United\",\n \"-25.80828062823275\"\n ],\n [\n \"regions and states highlights the need to improve U.S. capabilities in the areas of intelligence gathering and analysis, public diplomacy, counterinsurgency, and post-conflict stabilization and reconstruction. The international program has long sought to support projects designed to improve the effectiveness of U.S. military forces through defense transformation. Geopolitical competition, the uncertain future of economic and political developments in key states such as Russia, and the increasingly important roles that China and India play in international politics require renewed assessments of how best to deploy U.S. resources in order to achieve strategic objectives around the globe. The Foundation\",\n \"-25.80510775106177\"\n ],\n [\n \"to $188.5 billion US. China's military budget for 2014 according to IHS Jane's, a defence industry consulting and analysis company, will be $148 billion US, which is the second largest in the world. The United States military budget for 2014 in comparison, is $574.9 billion US., which is down from a high of $664.3 billion US in 2012. According to SIPRI, China became the world's third largest exporter of major arms in 2010–14, an increase of 143 per cent from the period 2005–2009. China supplied major arms to 35 states in 2010–14. A significant percentage (just over 68 per cent) of Chinese exports\",\n \"-25.77302516704367\"\n ],\n [\n \"means the US armed forces must have the strength to win swiftly in two near-simultaneous conflicts in those regions. The final 1 means that the US forces must win one of those conflicts \\\"decisively\\\".\\nThe general policy objectives are to (1) assure allies and friends; (2) dissuade future military competition, (3) deter threats and coercion against U.S. interests, and (4) if deterrence fails, decisively defeat any adversary. United States Department of Defense The Department of Defense publishes Joint Publications which state all-services doctrine. The current basic doctrinal publication is Joint Publication 3-0, \\\"Doctrine for Joint Operations. United States Air Force Headquarters,\",\n \"-25.761176993528352\"\n ],\n [\n \"Military budget A military budget (or military expenditure), also known as a defense budget, is the amount of financial resources dedicated by a state to raising and maintaining an armed forces or other methods essential for defense purposes. Financing militaries Military budgets often reflect how strongly a country perceives the likelihood of threats against it, or the amount of aggression it wishes to conjure. It also gives an idea of how much financing should be provided for the upcoming fiscal year. The size of a budget also reflects the country's ability to fund military activities. Factors include the size of\",\n \"-25.755968701520032\"\n ],\n [\n \"we made in Vietnam and the Russians made in Afghanistan.\\\"\\nRepresentative John P. Murtha, also on the House Appropriations Committee and an influential voice on military affairs, stated: \\\"The public is worn out by war. The troops, no matter what the military says, are exhausted.\\\"\\nSenator Russell D. Feingold, a member of both the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and Senate Intelligence Committee, stated that if Obama decides to send more troops, the House of Representatives should contest it.\\nSenator Feingold, who favors a timetable for withdrawal and opposes McChrystal's troop surge, said in an interview that his constituents were weary of war and\",\n \"-25.751019119827106\"\n ],\n [\n \"partnership with our allies.\\\" Instead of the previous administration's \\\"2½ war\\\" concept - readiness to fight simultaneous wars on two major fronts and one minor front - the Nixon Doctrine cut back to the \\\"1½ war\\\" level. Through military aid and credit-assisted sales of military equipment abroad, the United States would prepare its allies to take up a greater share of the defense burden, especially manpower needs, in case of war. U.S. military forces would be \\\"smaller, more mobile, and more efficient general purpose forces that ... [would] neither cast the United States in the role of world policeman nor\",\n \"-25.745682986347674\"\n ],\n [\n \"major power takes on the responsibility for a minor country's security by pledging to support it in the contingency of military conflict. In return, the major power gains autonomy or influence over the minor power's foreign policy decision-making process.\\nThe rationale for the spokes to entering this system can be explained as minor powers may seeking alliances in order to increase security from military aggression. While major powers may be interested in alliances with minor powers, not to defend its own territory, but to extend their sphere of military and foreign influence.\\nIt is important to note that the nature of the\",\n \"-25.743416367986356\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":593,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"609xpd"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Can the capacity of our brains be roughly measured in bytes?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Computer storage and the human memory are not directly comparable. Computers store information as states of \"on\" or 1s and \"off\" or 0s. A single one or zero is a bit, and 8 of these put together (at least in most modern computers) is a byte. But brains don't work like that at all. We store memories as connections between nerve cells, so bytes is not a very applicable unit to measure brain capacity with. A more accurate measure of brain capacity is the number of connections in the brain.","Most computer scientists would say yes. The brain occupies a finite amount of space and since the universe is discrete, there is a finite amount of information in there. Personally, I'm not too comfortable with the number of assumptions being made with that logic, but my position on that matter is controversial. I do know that to say the brain's storage reduces to the number of neuron connections is probably not correct. It's far more complex than that. There is also a dynamic electro-chemical state between and within the synapses which has some information storage capacity--various ion and neurotransmitter concentrations, for instance. Things like \"are you happy\" probably aren't stored in a chart showing which neuron is connected to which other. You can take a pill to change that variable. Then, unlike a regular computer, the brain and the body has evolved an extremely integrated interface with its environment such that it's often difficult to tell where you draw the line between brain and not-brain. For instance, what about your body temperature? It effects cognition, and is in a feedback path with the brain. Could that be considered a form of storage? There are many examples like that. It's often forgotten that information is specific to context. A forgotten language can only be deciphered if we actually share something with the lost civilization-- feelings, biology, environment. The brain is weird because it creates its own context. Since the brain is so closely integrated with its environment, its identity can become blurred and it can become unclear *where* the brain actually is. Your brain organized your room and now your room effects your cognition. Is your room information storage? You have a romantic partner. Your brain interacts with them and changes them. Now they interact with you and change your cognition. Are they storage? The [transactive memory hypothesis] ( URL_0 ) builds on this idea and suggests there are memories that we can only have or have better when we're together with someone we've interacted with before. You could say that these external sources are just external and thus we can ignore them. But your environment, which your brain is changing, effects you whether or not you ask for it. In that way, the external is really not so external. Your environment is not like a USB flash drive. You can't unplug it. There are numerous examples of what happens when you try to unplug it. Extreme isolation for example. The brain just breaks down in these contexts. So environment is actually part of you. If the brain doesn't have well-defined limits, then measuring its capacity is going to be incredibly difficult. It could still be a number in bytes depending on which physics you subscribe to. It's commonly believed that the whole universe has a finite storage capacity. If so, then even a brain without a skull limit still has a universe limit.","Yes, our memory can hold anywhere from 1 to 100 terabytes. Combined with strong neurons (our processors) that could make our storage up to 2.5 petabytes. This of course varies per person .","i think this is a bad comparison. our brain seems to plot experiences into the neuronal network and thereby is able to see similarities to a previous experience. thus, we have no \"storage\" and \"processing\". the overall activity at one moment is the information experienced. technically, the brain is non-binary (it does not store bits and bytes), it measures time between activities (neuronal firing) which is a complex number, and quantifies this information (threshold levels for input triggering activity from the cell); it can multitask and consider various levels of analysis at the same time -- this allows it to be fuzzy and very apt at pattern matching. when you count how much a person can learn, you get bytes, but this is really not the good way to see the brain. it does not store things in this way. the more you learn from one thing, the easier is the storage for still more, and so on.","This is a hard question to answer. Of course, since we occupy finite space, our properties must be finite. But the exceedingly complex structure of the brain and other systems (such as the nervous system) makes it hard to calculate the amount of \"data\" that we can store. We don't have a way to measure resolution of life or the quality of everyday noises. Such a calculation can vary extremely on a person's perceptive ability. Most of our memories are vague recollections, barely any measurable data, linked in a series of firing neurons that connects those vague ideas into one clear thought in our RAM (Short-term memory). However, we can estimate average capacity, although it has no clear meaning in our terms of cognition. That number would be 2.5 petabytes (2,560 terabytes, or 2.814×10^15 bytes). Even so, this number varies as well from person to person. The memory space used is also selective based on a subconscious \"hierarchy of importance\". Some people remember numbers best, while some people remember images best. These have a direct impact on how much we can know. Other factors can influence it as well. TL;DR: 2.814×10^15 bytes, give or take a few trillion."],"string":"[\n \"Computer storage and the human memory are not directly comparable. Computers store information as states of \\\"on\\\" or 1s and \\\"off\\\" or 0s. A single one or zero is a bit, and 8 of these put together (at least in most modern computers) is a byte. But brains don't work like that at all. We store memories as connections between nerve cells, so bytes is not a very applicable unit to measure brain capacity with. A more accurate measure of brain capacity is the number of connections in the brain.\",\n \"Most computer scientists would say yes. The brain occupies a finite amount of space and since the universe is discrete, there is a finite amount of information in there. Personally, I'm not too comfortable with the number of assumptions being made with that logic, but my position on that matter is controversial. I do know that to say the brain's storage reduces to the number of neuron connections is probably not correct. It's far more complex than that. There is also a dynamic electro-chemical state between and within the synapses which has some information storage capacity--various ion and neurotransmitter concentrations, for instance. Things like \\\"are you happy\\\" probably aren't stored in a chart showing which neuron is connected to which other. You can take a pill to change that variable. Then, unlike a regular computer, the brain and the body has evolved an extremely integrated interface with its environment such that it's often difficult to tell where you draw the line between brain and not-brain. For instance, what about your body temperature? It effects cognition, and is in a feedback path with the brain. Could that be considered a form of storage? There are many examples like that. It's often forgotten that information is specific to context. A forgotten language can only be deciphered if we actually share something with the lost civilization-- feelings, biology, environment. The brain is weird because it creates its own context. Since the brain is so closely integrated with its environment, its identity can become blurred and it can become unclear *where* the brain actually is. Your brain organized your room and now your room effects your cognition. Is your room information storage? You have a romantic partner. Your brain interacts with them and changes them. Now they interact with you and change your cognition. Are they storage? The [transactive memory hypothesis] ( URL_0 ) builds on this idea and suggests there are memories that we can only have or have better when we're together with someone we've interacted with before. You could say that these external sources are just external and thus we can ignore them. But your environment, which your brain is changing, effects you whether or not you ask for it. In that way, the external is really not so external. Your environment is not like a USB flash drive. You can't unplug it. There are numerous examples of what happens when you try to unplug it. Extreme isolation for example. The brain just breaks down in these contexts. So environment is actually part of you. If the brain doesn't have well-defined limits, then measuring its capacity is going to be incredibly difficult. It could still be a number in bytes depending on which physics you subscribe to. It's commonly believed that the whole universe has a finite storage capacity. If so, then even a brain without a skull limit still has a universe limit.\",\n \"Yes, our memory can hold anywhere from 1 to 100 terabytes. Combined with strong neurons (our processors) that could make our storage up to 2.5 petabytes. This of course varies per person .\",\n \"i think this is a bad comparison. our brain seems to plot experiences into the neuronal network and thereby is able to see similarities to a previous experience. thus, we have no \\\"storage\\\" and \\\"processing\\\". the overall activity at one moment is the information experienced. technically, the brain is non-binary (it does not store bits and bytes), it measures time between activities (neuronal firing) which is a complex number, and quantifies this information (threshold levels for input triggering activity from the cell); it can multitask and consider various levels of analysis at the same time -- this allows it to be fuzzy and very apt at pattern matching. when you count how much a person can learn, you get bytes, but this is really not the good way to see the brain. it does not store things in this way. the more you learn from one thing, the easier is the storage for still more, and so on.\",\n \"This is a hard question to answer. Of course, since we occupy finite space, our properties must be finite. But the exceedingly complex structure of the brain and other systems (such as the nervous system) makes it hard to calculate the amount of \\\"data\\\" that we can store. We don't have a way to measure resolution of life or the quality of everyday noises. Such a calculation can vary extremely on a person's perceptive ability. Most of our memories are vague recollections, barely any measurable data, linked in a series of firing neurons that connects those vague ideas into one clear thought in our RAM (Short-term memory). However, we can estimate average capacity, although it has no clear meaning in our terms of cognition. That number would be 2.5 petabytes (2,560 terabytes, or 2.814×10^15 bytes). Even so, this number varies as well from person to person. The memory space used is also selective based on a subconscious \\\"hierarchy of importance\\\". Some people remember numbers best, while some people remember images best. These have a direct impact on how much we can know. Other factors can influence it as well. TL;DR: 2.814×10^15 bytes, give or take a few trillion.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["10^18 instructions per second. Estimates suggest that the storage capacity of an individual human brain is about 10^12 bytes. On a per capita basis, this is matched by current digital storage (5x10^21 bytes per 7.2x10^9 people)\". Relation to economics Eventually, Information and Communication Technology—computers, computerized machinery, fiber optics, communication satellites, the Internet, and other ICT tools—became a significant part of the economy. Microcomputers were developed and many businesses and industries were greatly changed by ICT.\nNicholas Negroponte captured the essence of these changes in his 1995 book, Being Digital. His book discusses similarities and differences between products made of atoms and","-31.763315992982825"],["volume of the CNS. In the human brain, the telencephalon covers most of the diencephalon and the mesencephalon. Indeed, the allometric study of brain size among different species shows a striking continuity from rats to whales, and allows us to complete the knowledge about the evolution of the CNS obtained through cranial endocasts. Mammals Mammals – which appear in the fossil record after the first fishes, amphibians, and reptiles – are the only vertebrates to possess the evolutionarily recent, outermost part of the cerebral cortex known as the neocortex.\nThe neocortex of monotremes (the duck-billed platypus and several species of spiny","-30.31800196983386"],["to range from 550 cm³ (34 cu in) to 687 cm³ (41.9 cu in), rather than from 363 cm³ (22.2 cu in) to 600 cm³ (37 cu in) as previously thought.\nA virtual reconstruction published in 2015 estimated the endocranial volume at between 729 ml (25.7 imp fl oz; 24.7 US fl oz) and 824 ml (29.0 imp fl oz; 27.9 US fl oz), larger than any previously published value.\nH. habilis' brain capacity of around 640 cm³ (39 cu in) was on average 50% larger than australopithecines, but considerably smaller than the 1,350 cm³ (82 cu in) to 1,450 cm³ (88 cu in) range of modern Homo sapiens. These hominins were smaller than modern humans, on average standing no more than 1.3 m (4 ft 3 in).\nThe body proportions for H. habilis are in accordance with craniodental evidence, suggesting","-30.02251311694272"],["memory loss of the events and mental processes immediately before the time of brain scanning.\nA full brain map has been estimated to occupy less than 2 x 10¹⁶ bytes (20,000 TB) and would store the addresses of the connected neurons, the synapse type and the synapse \"weight\" for each of the brains' 10¹⁵ synapses. However, the biological complexities of true brain function (e.g. the epigenetic states of neurons, protein components with multiple functional states, etc.) may preclude an accurate prediction of the volume of binary data required to faithfully represent a functioning human mind. Serial sectioning A possible method","-29.653654624940827"],["Brodmann area 10 Size The volume of the human BA10 is about 14 cm³ and constitutes roughly 1.2% of total brain volume. This is twice what would be expected in a hominoid with a human-sized brain. By comparison, the volume of BA10 in bonobos is about 2.8 cm³, and makes up only 0.74% of its brain volume. In each hemisphere, area 10 contains an estimated 250 million neurons. Location BA10 is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined frontal region of cerebral cortex. It occupies the most rostral portions of the superior frontal gyrus and the middle frontal gyrus. In humans, on the","-29.02713411366858"],["count was given as 100 billion for decades before Herculano-Houzel found a more reliable method of counting brain cells. Most references in Wikipedia to neuron counts, such as List of animals by number of neurons have been updated in the last few years to numbers derived from her counting innovation.\nIt could have been anticipated that EQ might be superseded because of both the number of exceptions and the growing complexity of the formulae it used. (See the rest of this article.) The simplicity of counting neurons has replaced it. The concept in EQ of comparing the brain","-28.93958052045491"],["article in the recognized Journal Trends in Ecology and Evolution reports that by now digital technology \"has vastly exceeded the cognitive capacity of any single human being and has done so a decade earlier than predicted. In terms of capacity, there are two measures of importance: the number of operations a system can perform and the amount of information that can be stored. The number of synaptic operations per second in a human brain has been estimated to lie between 10^15 and 10^17. While this number is impressive, even in 2007 humanity's general-purpose computers were capable of performing well over","-28.912716335238656"],["sulci and gyri, and size of dominant lobes or regions of the brain. While endocasts are extremely helpful in revealing superficial brain anatomy, they cannot reveal brain structure, particularly of deeper brain areas. By determining scaling metrics of cranial capacity as it relates to total number of neurons present in primates, it is also possible to estimate the number of neurons through fossil evidence.\nDespite the limitations to endocasts, they can and do provide a basis for understanding human brain evolution, which shows primarily a gradually bigger brain. The evolutionary history of the human brain shows primarily a gradually bigger brain","-28.409542442241218"],["seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited: George A. Miller (1956), when working at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showing that the store of short-term memory was 7±2 items (the title of his famous paper, \"The magical number 7±2\"). Modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memory are lower, typically of the order of 4–5 items; however, memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking. For example, in recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a person could chunk the digits into three groups: first, the area code (such as 123), then a three-digit chunk (456)","-28.306346754204696"],["Voxel-based morphometry Voxel-based morphometry is a computational approach to neuroanatomy that measures differences in local concentrations of brain tissue, through a voxel-wise comparison of multiple brain images.\nIn traditional morphometry, volume of the whole brain or its subparts is measured by drawing regions of interest (ROIs) on images from brain scanning and calculating the volume enclosed. However, this is time consuming and can only provide measures of rather large areas. Smaller differences in volume may be overlooked. The value of VBM is that it allows for comprehensive measurement of differences, not just in specific structures, but throughout the entire brain. VBM","-28.177368197968462"],["450 millilitres (15 US fl oz), which does not take into account that the brain may have occupied as little as 50% of the space of the endocast, the rest of the space being taken up by the dura mater surrounding the brain. For example, the brain of the specimen with the 374 millilitre endocast is estimated to have had a volume of 268 millilitres (9 US fl oz). The brain was an elongate structure, and as with other non-mammals, there would have been no neocortex. Like Stegosaurus, the neural canal was expanded in the hips, but not to the same degree: the endosacral space of Stegosaurus","-28.08222752531583"],["over the short-term may be, there is consensus that it severely limits the amount of new information that we can retain over brief periods of time. This limit is referred to as the finite capacity of short-term memory. The capacity of short-term memory is often called memory span, in reference to a common procedure of measuring it. In a memory span test, the experimenter presents lists of items (e.g. digits or words) of increasing length. An individual's span is determined as the longest list length that he or she can recall correctly in the given order on at least half","-28.069032376341056"],["is specified when the disk contains 100 billion bytes (93 gibibytes) of storage space.\nWhile the numerical difference between the decimal and binary interpretations is relatively small for the prefixes kilo and mega, it grows to over 20% for prefix yotta. The linear–log graph illustrates the difference versus storage size up to an exabyte. Common uses Many programming languages defined the data type byte.\nThe C and C++ programming languages define byte as an \"addressable unit of data storage large enough to hold any member of the basic character set of the execution environment\" (clause 3.6 of the C standard). The C standard requires","-28.00783959205728"],["with as the number of particles as large as possible. This example shows for computation intensive applications, memory capacity does not need to proportionally scale up with computing power. Applications/Effects of Sun-Ni's Law The memory-bounded speedup model is the first work to reveal that memory is the performance constraint for high-end computing and presents a quantitative mathematical formulation for the trade-off between memory and computing. It is based on the memory-bounded function,W=G(n), where W is the work and thus also the computation for most applications. M is the memory requirement in terms of capacity, and G is the reuse rate.","-27.982649377721827"],["neurosurgeons Jean Talairach and Gabor Szikla in their work on the Talairach Atlas in 1967, creating a standardized grid for neurosurgery. The grid was based on the idea that distances to lesions in the brain are proportional to overall brain size (i.e., the distance between two structures is larger in a larger brain). In 1988 a second edition of the Talairach Atlas came out that was coauthored by Tournoux, and it is sometimes known as the Talairach–Tournoux system. This atlas was based on single post-mortem dissection of a human brain.\nThe Talairach Atlas uses Brodmann areas as the labels for brain","-27.936605987604707"],["rough idea of lobe sizes. Significance The study of paleoneurobiology allows researchers to examine the evolutionary nature of human encephalization. Traditionally, paleoneurobiologists have focused on determining the volume of the ancient brain and the patterns that emerged among related species. By finding these measurements, researchers have been able to predict the average body weight of species. Endocasts also reveal traits of the ancient brain including relative lobe size, blood supply, and other general insight into the anatomy of evolving species. Limitations While paleoneurology is useful in the study of brain evolution, certain limitations to the information this study","-27.83030348038301"],["2013 (DNAZip and GenomeZip) have compression ratios of up to 1200-fold—allowing 6 billion basepair diploid human genomes to be stored in 2.5 megabytes (relative to a reference genome or averaged over many genomes). For a benchmark in genetics/genomics data compressors, see Outlook and currently unused potential It is estimated that the total amount of data that is stored on the world's storage devices could be further compressed with existing compression algorithms by a remaining average factor of 4.5:1. It is estimated that the combined technological capacity of the world to store information provides 1,300 exabytes of hardware digits in 2007,","-27.660591085699707"],["number of bytes, is the minimum unit of storage that is read from and written to a disk by a disk driver. The earliest disk drives had fixed block sizes (e.g. the IBM 350 disk storage unit (of the late 1950s) block size was 100 6 bit characters) but starting with the 1301 IBM marketed subsystems that featured variable block sizes: a particular track could have blocks of different sizes. The disk subsystems on the IBM System/360 expanded this concept in the form of Count Key Data (CKD) and later Extended Count Key Data (ECKD); however the use of variable","-27.57889130205149"],["observation from neuropsychological testing that the average digit span of healthy adults is about seven (Cowan and others 2005). However, it emerged that these numbers of items can only be retained if they are grouped into so-called chunks, using perceptual or conceptual associations between individual stimuli.\" Its duration is of 5–20 seconds before it is out of the subject's mind. This occurs often with names of people newly introduced to. Images or information based on meaning are stored here as well, but it decays without rehearsal or repetition of such information. \nOn the other hand, long-term memory has a potentially","-27.314266998902895"],["into a larger block of memory with contiguous addresses.\nEarly computer system documentation would specify the memory size with an exact number such as 4096, 8192, or 16384 words of storage. These are all powers of two, and furthermore are small multiples of 2¹⁰, or 1024. As storage capacities increased, several different methods were developed to abbreviate these quantities.\nThe method most commonly used today uses prefixes such as kilo, mega, giga, and corresponding symbols K, M, and G, which the computer industry originally adopted from the metric system. The prefixes kilo- and mega-, meaning 1000 and 1000000 respectively, were commonly used","-27.244327686261386"],["most complex organ system in the body, with most of the complexity residing in the brain. The human brain alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks whose intricacies have only begun to be unraveled. At least one out of three of the approximately 20,000 genes belonging to the human genome is expressed mainly in the brain.\nDue to the high degree of plasticity of the human brain, the structure of its synapses and their resulting functions change throughout life.\nMaking sense of the","-27.224446945707314"],["encode four nucleotide pairs, the individual genomes of every human on the planet could be encoded by approximately 1×10¹⁹ bytes. The digital realm stored 500 times more information than this in 2014 (see figure). The total amount of DNA contained in all of the cells on Earth is estimated to be about 5.3×10³⁷ base pairs, equivalent to 1.325×10³⁷ bytes of information.\nIf growth in digital storage continues at its current rate of 30–38% compound annual growth per year, it will rival the total information content contained in all of the DNA in all of the cells on Earth in about 110","-27.1756758649135"],["occupy three bytes. Steps which specify values or equations occupy more memory, as indicated above.\nThe amount of used and available memory can be readily checked by the user, but not by programs. The user can clear all indirect variables above a specified number, with the CLVARx function.","-27.046735288924538"],["trials immediately after presentation. Miller observed that memory span of young adults is approximately seven items. He noticed that memory span is approximately the same for stimuli with vastly different amount of information—for instance, binary digits have 1 bit each; decimal digits have 3.32 bits each; words have about 10 bits each. Miller concluded that memory span is not limited in terms of bits but rather in terms of chunks. A chunk is the largest meaningful unit in the presented material that the person recognizes—thus, what counts as a chunk depends on the knowledge of the person being tested. For","-26.977832953765756"],["order of 10¹⁰ neurons linked by 10¹⁴ synaptic connections. By comparison, the number of base-pairs in a human genome is 3×10⁹. A few of the main challenges of building a human connectome at the microscale today include: data collection would take years given current technology, machine vision tools to annotate the data remain in their infancy, and are inadequate, and neither theory nor algorithms are readily available for the analysis of the resulting brain-graphs. To address the data collection issues, several groups are building high-throughput serial electron microscopes (Kasthuri et al., 2009; Bock et al. 2011). To address the machine-vision","-26.883641855150927"],["Large scale brain networks Large scale brain networks are collections of widespread brain regions showing functional connectivity by statistical analysis of the fMRI BOLD signal, or other recording methods such as EEG, PET and MEG. An emerging paradigm in neuroscience is that cognitive tasks are performed not by individual brain regions working in isolation, but by networks consisting of several discrete brain regions that are said to be \"functionally connected\" due to tightly coupled activity. Functional connectivity may be measured as long-range synchronization of the EEG, MEG, or other dynamic brain signals. Synchronized brain regions may also be","-26.72923905827338"],["availability influences mTOR\nso that when cells are not able to grow to normal size they will not\nundergo cell division.\nThe details of the molecular mechanisms of mammalian cell size control\nare currently being investigated. The size of post-mitotic neurons\ndepends on the size of the cell body, axon and dendrites. In\nvertebrates, neuron size is often a reflection of the number of\nsynaptic contacts onto the neuron or from a neuron onto other cells.\nFor example, the size of motoneurons usually reflects the size of\nthe motor unit that is controlled by the motoneuron.\nInvertebrates often have giant neurons and axons that provide\nspecial functions such as rapid action","-26.68042623088695"],["\"Real storage capacity is available in 512K increments ranging from 512K to 2,048K bytes.\"\nMegabyte was used to describe the 22-bit addressing of DEC PDP-11/70 (1975)\nand gigabyte the 30-bit addressing DEC VAX-11/780 (1977).\nIn 1998, the International Electrotechnical Commission IEC introduced the binary prefixes kibi, mebi, gibi ... to mean 1024, 1024², 1024³ etc., so that 1048576 bytes could be referred to unambiguously as 1 mebibyte. The IEC prefixes were defined for use alongside the International System of Quantities (ISQ) in 2009. Disk drives The disk drive industry has followed a different pattern. Disk drive capacity is generally specified with unit","-26.570217709289864"],["of shapes in any number of dimensions can be handled numerically.\nIn addition, though the extraction of morphometric parameters like brain mass or liquor volume may be relatively straightforward in post mortem samples, most studies in living subjects will by necessity have to use an indirect approach: A spatial representation of the brain or its components is obtained by some appropriate neuroimaging technique, and the parameters of interest can then be analyzed on that basis. Such a structural representation of the brain is also a prerequisite for the interpretation of functional neuroimaging.\nThe design of a brain morphometric study depends on multiple","-26.237330523959827"],["and cerebellar Purkinje cells. Betz cells are the largest cells (by size of cell body) in the nervous system. The adult human brain is estimated to contain 86±8 billion neurons, with a roughly equal number (85±10 billion) of non-neuronal cells. Out of these neurons, 16 billion (19%) are located in the cerebral cortex, and 69 billion (80%) are in the cerebellum.\nTypes of glial cell are astrocytes (including Bergmann glia), oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells (including tanycytes), radial glial cells, microglia, and a subtype of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells. Astrocytes are the largest of the glial cells. They are stellate cells with many processes","-26.21670153740706"],["only has one store of immediate information processing which could only hold a total of 7 items plus or minus two items to be stored in a very short period of time, sometimes a matter of seconds. The digit-span test is a perfect example of a measurement for classically defined short-term memory. Essentially, if one is not able to encode the 7 plus or minus two items within a few minutes by finding an existing association for the information to be transferred into long-term memory, then the information is lost and never encoded.\nHowever, visuo-spatial short-term memory can retain visual","-26.172252292570192"],["bytes. The memory was composed of eight 6102 static RAMs (1024 x 1 bits) and the two 64 byte RAMs of the MCS6530s. In the 1970s memory sizes were expressed in several ways. Semiconductor manufacturers would use a precise memory size such as 2048 by 8 and sometimes state the number of bits (16384). Mini and mainframe computers had various memory widths (8 bits to over 36 bits) so manufacturers would use the term \"words\", such as 4K words. The early hobbyist computer advertisements would use both \"words\" and \"bytes\". It was common to see \"4096 words\", \"4K (4096)","-26.06498573650606"],["the original estimate), if digitized as 16 kHz 16-bit audio, although he did freely confess that \"maybe the authors [of the exabyte estimate] were thinking about text\".\nEarlier studies from the University of California, Berkeley, estimated that by the end of 1999, the sum of human-produced information (including all audio, video recordings, and text/books) was about 12 exabytes of data. The 2003 Berkeley report stated that in 2002 alone, \"telephone calls worldwide on both landlines and mobile phones contained 17.3 exabytes of new information if stored in digital form\" and that \"it would take 9.25 exabytes of storage to hold all U.S.","-26.01003592030611"],["throughout the brain. There are a couple of important methodological issues that need to be addressed. Firstly, there are many different possible brain mappings that could be used to define the brain regions for the network. The results could vary significantly depending on the brain region chosen. Secondly, what mathematical techniques are best about to characterize these brain regions?\nThe brain regions of interest are somewhat constrained by the size of the voxels. Rs-fcMRI uses voxels that are few millimeters cubed so the brain regions will have to be defined on a larger scale. Two of the statistical methods that are","-25.963111606324674"],["analysis of the neuron count allows the easy computation of the critical value, the dendrite maximum, and the Schoenen Ramification Index.\nCritical Value: The critical value is the radius r at which there is a maximum number of dendritic crossings, this value is closely related to the dendrite maximum.\nDendrite Maximum: This value is the maximum of the function N(r), as specified by the Critical Value for a given data set.\nSchoenen Ramification Index: This index is one measure of the branching of the neuronal cell being studied. It is calculated by dividing the Dendrite Maximum by the number of primary","-25.95484715650673"],["This is the same as the computational overhead, and is since K is .\nThe total memory used up by Π′ is equal to the size of T. Each triple stored in the tree has words in it and thus there are words per node of the tree. Since the total number of nodes in the tree is , the total memory size is words, which is . Hence, the memory overhead of the construction is .","-25.8587736475165"],["various sociocultural updates in linguistics, the term is deemed obsolete by modern medical culture. Therefore, because the size of the brain is most often determined by the size of one's skull, the use of classifying, \"microcephaly,\" in more modern literature, is today almost always implied when discussing cases wherein microcephaly manifests. Microlissencephaly Microlissencephaly is microcephaly combined with lissencephaly (smooth brain surface due to absent sulci and gyri). Most cases of microlissencephaly are described in consanguineous families, suggesting an autosomal recessive inheritance. Historical causes of microcephaly After the dropping of atomic bombs \"Little Boy\" on Hiroshima and \"Fat Man\" on Nagasaki,","-25.8171038403525"],["in the developing brain. General Features The most common transcript encodes a protein that is 205 amino acids long with a molecular mass of 23 kDa. It has a predicted isoelectric point of 4.72. It is predicted to have a half-life around 30 hours. C20orf196 contains 19 positive residues (9.3%), 32 negative residues (15.6%), and 46 hydrophobic residues (22.4%). Cellular Localization C20orf196 is predicted to localize in the nucleus. Domains C20orf196 contains one domain, DUF4521, which arose in Amniote. DUF4521 spans from amino acid 3 to 201. Several regions of this domain are conserved in c20orf196 orthologs found in","-25.77904455724638"],[" Larger sizes may not be of human minicolumns, for example macaque monkey V1 minicolumns are 31 µm diameter, with 142 pyramidal cells (Peters, 1994) — 1270 columns per mm². Similarly, the cat V1 has much bigger minicolumns, ~56 µm.\nThe size can also be calculated from area considerations. If cortex (both hemispheres) is 1.27×10¹¹ µm² then if there are 2×10⁸ minicolumns in the neocortex then each is 635 µm², giving a diameter of 28 µm (if the cortex area were doubled to the commonly quoted value, this would rise to 40 µm). Johansson and Lansner do a similar calculation and arrive at 36 µm","-25.7711678519845"],["capable of simultaneously measuring small and large areas at the same time, with the temporal resolution that the circuitry of the brain requires. These techniques include EEG, MEG, fMRI, optical recordings, and single-cell recordings. Future Techniques such as large scale single-cell recordings are movements in the direction of analyzing overall brain rhythms. However, these require invasive procedures, such as tetrode implantation, which does not allow a healthy brain to be studied. Also, pharmacological manipulation, cell culture imaging and computational biology all make attempts at doing this but in the end they are indirect.","-25.751008701859973"],["storage capacity is 400 million bytes or 800 million decimal digits. Up to eight 2321s can be attached to the IBM 2841 Control Unit, allowing an overall capacity of over three GB.\nIn comparison to the contemporary IBM 2311 Disk Device, the IBM 2321 Data Cell Device holds 55 times more data, while being only seven times slower (85ms and 600ms access times respectively). One fully loaded IBM 2841 Control Unit connected with eight IBM 2321 Data Cell Devices has the capacity of 441 IBM 2311 Disk Devices, which would need to be connected to 56 IBM 2841 Control Units, which","-25.73120967124123"],["available memory in a given computer system may not be a power-of-two multiple of the minimum block size, the largest block size may not span the entire memory of the system. For instance, if the system had 2000 K of physical memory and the order-0 block size was 4 K, the upper limit on the order would be 8, since an order-8 block (256 order-0 blocks, 1024 K) is the biggest block that will fit in memory. Consequently it is impossible to allocate the entire physical memory in a single chunk; the remaining 976 K of memory would have to","-25.688620892353356"],["memory in varying degrees of granularity as needed to fulfill data structure requirements and binary multiples are usually not required. Other computer capacities and rates, like storage hardware size, data transfer rates, clock speeds, operations per second, etc., do not depend on an inherent base, and are usually presented in decimal units. For example, the manufacturer of a \"300 GB\" hard drive is claiming a capacity of 300000000000bytes, not 300x1024³ (which would be 322122547200) bytes. Unicode character The \"gigabyte\" symbol is encoded by Unicode at code point U+3387 ㎇ SQUARE GB ❰ ㎇ ❱.","-25.679146564558323"],["that speed and size of memory were crucial and he proposed a high-speed memory of what would today be called 25 kilobytes, accessed at a speed of 1 MHz; he remarked that for the purposes required 'the memory needs to be very large indeed by comparison with standards which prevail in most valve and relay work, and [so] it is necessary to look for some more economical form of storage', and that memory 'appears to be the main limitation in the design of a calculator, i.e. if the storage problem can be solved all the rest is comparatively straightforward'. The","-25.653654946247116"],["Its capacity is immeasurable. For example, given a random seven-digit number, one may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in short-term memory. On the other hand, one can remember telephone numbers for many years through repetition; this information is said to be stored in long-term memory.\nWhile short-term memory encodes information acoustically, long-term memory encodes it semantically: Baddeley (1966) discovered that, after 20 minutes, test subjects had the most difficulty recalling a collection of words that had similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great, huge) long-term. Another part of long-term memory is episodic memory, \"which","-25.64664473407902"],["of large data sets which bring additional complexity such as pagination when the data sets are too large to be easily held in memory.","-25.63510166516062"],["and can be expressed through multiple modes of communication.\nCollective consciousness has a relationship with collective memory. “Collective memory is thus no longer a reference to a remembered past but a way of analyzing the present as a collection of big (meta-)data in real-time for future prediction.” In other words, the collective consciousness of the people, manifested through forms of literary and cultural media, can be quantified by big data. Big data can be a representation of collective consciousness insofar as it tries to quantify the experiences of the public on the Internet. However, there is a limit to quantifying social","-25.63340335560497"],["multiplication example which illustrates the rapid increase in parallel execution time. \nThe execution time of a N X N matrix for a uniprocessor is:. While the memory usage is: \nSuppose a 10000-by-10000 matrix takes 800 MB of memory and can be factorized in 1 hour on a uniprocessor. Now for the scaled workload suppose is possible to factorize a 320,000-by-320,000 matrix in 32 hours. The time increase is quite large, but the increase in problem size may be more valuable for someones whose premier goal is accuracy. For example, an astrophysicist may be more interested in simulating an N-body problem","-25.549319447900416"],["by the Human Connectome Project, sponsored by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), whose focus is to build a network map of the human brain in healthy, living adults. At multiple scales Brain networks can be defined at different levels of scale, corresponding to levels of spatial resolution in brain imaging (Kötter, 2007, Sporns, 2010). These scales can be roughly categorized as microscale, mesoscale and macroscale. Ultimately, it may be possible to join connectomic maps obtained at different scales into a single hierarchical map of the neural organization of a given species that ranges from single neurons to populations of","-25.517049778951332"],["be well worth having.\nBiological brains use both shallow and deep circuits as reported by brain anatomy, displaying a wide variety of invariance. Weng argued that the brain self-wires largely according to signal statistics and therefore, a serial cascade cannot catch all major statistical dependencies. Hardware Large and effective neural networks require considerable computing resources. While the brain has hardware tailored to the task of processing signals through a graph of neurons, simulating even a simplified neuron on von Neumann architecture may consume vast amounts of memory and storage. Furthermore, the designer often needs to transmit signals through many of these","-25.493348104344477"],["large enough to store every possible combination of Accounts and Time. The number of cells stored is therefore 192000 (4 × 4 × 12000), requiring under 2 gigabytes of memory (exact 1,536MB), plus the size of the index used to look up the appropriate blocks.\nBecause the database hides this implementation from front-end tools (i.e., a report that attempts to retrieve data from non-existent cells merely sees \"null\" values), the full hypercube can be navigated naturally, and it is possible to load values into any cell interactively. Aggregate storage (Enterprise Analytics) Although block storage effectively minimizes storage requirements without impacting","-25.487639854080044"],["of the business.\nBig data can be further differentiated once we analyse its three distinguishing features: variety, volume, and velocity.\nVariety means that many forms of data are collected, with formats ranging from audio and video, to client log files and Tweets. Volume represents the fact that big data must come in massive quantities, often over a petabyte. Finally, Velocity signifies that big data must be constantly collected for maximum effectiveness; even data that is a few days old is not ideal.\nIn summary, big data utilises and collects all forms of data, gathered from both traditional and digital sources, in order to","-25.47096632260218"],["term in parentheses is 40μL/20μL. The volume of the squares counted is the one shown in the table at the top, depending on the size (see figure on the right). The number of cells counted is the sum of all cells counted across squares in one chamber. The proportion of the cells counted applies if not all inner squares within a set square are counted (i.e., if only 4 out of the 20 in a corner square are counted, then this term will equal 0.2).\nFor most applications, the four large corner squares are only used. The cells that are on","-25.44217098003719"],["Another, employed by Unix System V.3, is to make malloc and free function pointers that an application can reset to custom functions. Allocation size limits The largest possible memory block malloc can allocate depends on the host system, particularly the size of physical memory and the operating system implementation. Theoretically, the largest number should be the maximum value that can be held in a size_t type, which is an implementation-dependent unsigned integer representing the size of an area of memory. In the C99 standard and later, it is available as the SIZE_MAX constant from . Although not guaranteed by ISO","-25.438309558434412"],["meant to be the smallest size data can be gathered so that people would not be able to be identified.","-25.31348142772913"],["single neuron up to a hypothetical being at the theoretical computational limit of the entire universe. On a logarithmic scale it runs from −70 up to +50.","-25.31153797544539"],["this technique is only limited to when there are both cranial and post-cranial remains associated with individual fossils, to allow for brain to body size comparisons. For example, remains of one Middle Pleistocene human fossil from Jinniushan province in northern China has allowed scientists to study the relationship between brain and body size using the Encephalization Quotient. Researchers obtained an EQ of 4.150 for the Jinniushan fossil, and then compared this value with preceding Middle Pleistocene estimates of EQ at 3.7770. The difference in EQ estimates has been associated with a rapid increase in encephalization in Middle Pleistocene hominins.\nPaleo-neurological comparisons","-25.289939317357494"],["customary to create 5 to 10 GB of data daily. \n Similarly, a single uncompressed image of breast tomosynthesis averages 450 MB of data. \n\nThese are just few of the many examples where computer-aided diagnosis uses big data. For this reason, big data has been recognized as one of the seven key challenges that computer-aided diagnosis systems need to overcome in order to reach the next level of performance. Education A McKinsey Global Institute study found a shortage of 1.5 million highly trained data professionals and managers and a number of universities including University of Tennessee and UC Berkeley,","-25.271709268854465"],["to 8,192 bytes.\" In this respect it was similar to the IBM System/360 Model 20. \nTwo memory configurations for the 70/15 were available: either 4,096 bytes or 8,192 bytes of core memory. The memory cycle time for a 70/15 was 2 microseconds per byte of information.\nThe 70/15 was often used as a satellite processor for larger systems or used as an intelligent terminal for remote job entry. Typical applications of a satellite processor would include card-to-tape conversion, card/tape-to-printer report generation, tape-to-card punching, input pre-processing and verification, or tab-shop tasks like file sorting, merge, and data selection. Software for","-25.249087689480803"],["number 7\" inspired much theorizing, rigorous and less rigorous, about the capacity limits of human cognition. The number seven constitutes a useful heuristic, reminding us that lists that are much longer than that become significantly harder to remember and process simultaneously. The \"magical number 7\" and working memory capacity Later research on short-term memory and working memory revealed that memory span is not a constant even when measured in a number of chunks. The number of chunks a human can recall immediately after presentation depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span is around seven for digits, around six","-25.18170249031391"],[" End character reading loop Portability issues Partly because Urban Müller did not write a thorough language specification, the many subsequent brainfuck interpreters and compilers have come to use slightly different dialects of brainfuck. Cell size In the classic distribution, the cells are of 8-bit size (cells are bytes), and this is still the most common size. However, to read non-textual data, a brainfuck program may need to distinguish an end-of-file condition from any possible byte value; thus 16-bit cells have also been used.","-25.17715908784885"],["based on the size of a file which that program manages:\nwhile file is still open:\n let n = size of file\n for every 100,000 kilobytes of increase in file size\n double the amount of memory reserved\nIn this instance, as the file size n increases, memory will be consumed at an exponential growth rate, which is order O(2ⁿ). This is an extremely rapid and most likely unmanageable growth rate for consumption of memory resources. Relevance Algorithm analysis is important in practice because the accidental or unintentional use of","-25.174085751343227"],["identified using spatial independent component analysis (ICA). The set of identified brain areas that are linked together in a large-scale network varies with cognitive function. When the cognitive state is not explicit (i.e., the subject is at \"rest\"), the large scale brain network is a resting state network (RSN). As a physical system with graph-like properties, a large scale brain network has both nodes and edges, and cannot be identified simply by the co-activation of brain areas. In recent decades, the analysis of brain networks was made feasible by advances in imaging techniques as well as new tools from graph","-25.171031310921535"],["Genome size Genome size is the total amount of DNA contained within one copy of a single complete genome. It is typically measured in terms of mass in picograms (trillionths (10⁻¹²) of a gram, abbreviated pg) or less frequently in daltons, or as the total number of nucleotide base pairs, usually in megabases (millions of base pairs, abbreviated Mb or Mbp). One picogram is equal to 978 megabases. In diploid organisms, genome size is often used interchangeably with the term C-value.\nAn organism's complexity is not directly proportional to its genome size; total DNA content is widely variable between biological taxa.","-25.09265718224924"],["counts as computing. In the latter case, the brain is a computing function that is distinct from systems like fluid dynamic systems and the planetary orbits in this regard. The challenge for any computational definition is to keep the two senses distinct.\nAlternatively, some theorists choose to accept a narrow or wide definition for theoretical reasons. Pancomputationalism is the position that everything can be said to compute. This view has been criticized by Piccinini on the grounds that such a definition makes computation trivial to the point where it is robbed of its explanatory value.\nThe simplest definition of computations is that","-25.033128833922092"],["self-assembly in nanotube circuits, biological systems emulating circuit assembly, computing with DNA, spintronics (computing with the spin of electrons), computing with light, and quantum computing.\nSince Kurzweil believes computational capacity will continue to grow exponentially long after Moore's Law ends it will eventually rival the raw computing power of the human brain. Kurzweil looks at several different estimates of how much computational capacity is in the brain and settles on 10¹⁶ calculations per second and 10¹³ bits of memory. He writes that $1,000 will buy computer power equal to a single brain \"by around 2020\" while by 2045, the onset of","-25.02519160276279"],["is theoretically unlimited, because the 6845 imposes no limit on the size of each memory location that it addresses.\nIt is also significant that each word addressed by the 6845 does not have to equal one pixel or one character. As an example, consider the use of the 6845 in the IBM CGA, where the word size is one byte and each word represents four or eight pixels (in the medium- or high- resolution graphics mode, respectively) or one-half character. In CGA alphanumeric (text) mode, there are two bytes per character, accessed sequentially by the 6845—the first byte is a","-24.871562952990644"],["neurons to larger systems like cortical areas. Given the methodological uncertainties involved in inferring connectivity from the primary experimental data, and given that there are likely to be large differences in the connectomes of different individuals, any unified map will likely rely on probabilistic representations of connectivity data (Sporns et al., 2005).\nMapping the connectome at the \"microscale\" (micrometer resolution) means building a complete map of the neural systems, neuron-by-neuron. The challenge of doing this becomes obvious: the number of neurons comprising the brain easily ranges into the billions in more complex organisms. The human cerebral cortex alone contains on the","-24.84404600795824"],["They are also easily the most numerous neurons in the brain: In humans, estimates of their total number average around 50 billion, which means that about 3/4 of the brain's neurons are cerebellar granule cells. Their cell bodies are packed into a thick layer at the bottom of the cerebellar cortex. A granule cell emits only four to five dendrites, each of which ends in an enlargement called a dendritic claw. These enlargements are sites of excitatory input from mossy fibers and inhibitory input from Golgi cells.\nThe thin, unmyelinated axons of granule cells rise vertically to the upper (molecular) layer","-24.74955364287598"],["cause of megalencephaly altogether. Other relations Intracranial volume also affects this pathology, since it is related with the size of the brain.","-24.74494997714646"],["to the information-theoretic minimum, which is a worst-case notion of the space needed to represent the data. In contrast, the size of a compressed data structure depends upon the particular data being represented. When the data are compressible, as is often the case in practice for natural language text, the compressed data structure can occupy space very close to the information-theoretic minimum, and significantly less space than most compression schemes.","-24.727786105944688"],["Compressed data structure The term compressed data structure arises in the computer science subfields of algorithms, data structures, and theoretical computer science. It refers to a data structure whose operations are roughly as fast as those of a conventional data structure for the problem, but whose size can be substantially smaller. The size of the compressed data structure is typically highly dependent upon the entropy of the data being represented. \nImportant examples of compressed data structures include the compressed suffix array and the FM-index, both of which can represent an arbitrary text of characters T for pattern","-24.70053493033629"],["a number of assumptions, including information made available by the environment is processed by a series of processing systems (e.g. attention, perception, short-term memory),these processing systems transform or alter the information in systematic ways, the aim of research is to specify the processes and structures that underlie cognitive performance, and information processing in humans resembles that in computers.\nThe information processing theory using \"chunking\" to put the information into short term memory. Miller said it was known that the human brain can only chunk into the brain with 7 parts, plus or minus two. Seven in the big number to remember.","-24.699273831036408"],["The episode establishes that Data has a storage capacity of 800 quadrillion bits (100 PB or 88.81784197 PiB) and a total linear computational speed of 60 trillion operations per second.\nData's family is expanded in \"The Offspring\", which introduces Lal, a robot based on Data's neural interface and whom Data refers to as his daughter. Lal “dies” shortly after activation. Later, his mother Julianna appears in the episode \"Inheritance\" and reunites with Data, though the crew discovers she was an android duplicate built by Soong after the real Julianna's death, programmed to die after a long life, and to believe she","-24.674666394777887"],["very large, making it an attractive mechanism to study. There are approximately 10⁴ synapses per neuron and 10¹¹ neurons in the human brain. Nonsynaptic plasticity is often overlooked simply because its storage capacity is not as high. Regulating the density of ion channels in the axon and soma of a neuron would change the throughput and affect all of the synapses. Therefore, its storage capacity would be significantly less than that of synaptic plasticity.\nWhile its storage capacity is too low to make it the sole mechanism for storage, nonsynaptic plasticity could contribute to synaptic storage methods. It has been shown","-24.656384926638566"],["as a subsystem in a multi-processor complex. High throughput was facilitated by the use of fast memory and multiple simultaneous input/output streams. Equipped with selector channels and a multiplexer channel, the 70/25 could concurrently operate eight low-speed devices in addition to eight high-speed devices. Like the Model 15, it implemented a (slightly larger) subset of 31 instructions of the full range architecture.\nMemory capacities for the 70/25 ranged from a minimum of 16,384 bytes to a maximum of 65,536 bytes. The memory cycle time was 1.5 microseconds to access one 8 bit byte.\nWeighed 1,200 pounds (540 kg). Model 70/35","-24.6503084746073"],["sum up to zero Capacity The Network capacity of the Hopfield network model is determined by neuron amounts and connections within a given network. Therefore, the number of memories that are able to be stored is dependent on neurons and connections. Furthermore, it was shown that the recall accuracy between vectors and nodes was 0.138 (approximately 138 vectors can be recalled from storage for every 1000 nodes) (Hertz et al., 1991). Therefore, it is evident that many mistakes will occur if one tries to store a large number of vectors. When the Hopfield model does not recall the right pattern,","-24.64205272134859"],["of 60,000 (00000–59999). Word size versus address size word size is a characteristic given to computer architecture. It denotes the number of bits that a CPU can process at one time. Modern processors, including embedded systems, usually have a word size of 8, 16, 24, 32 or 64 bits; most current general purpose computers use 32 or 64 bits. Many different sizes have been used historically, including 8, 9, 10, 12, 18, 24, 36, 39, 40, 48 and 60 bits.\nVery often, when referring to the word size of a modern computer, one is also describing the size of address space","-24.626010709092952"],["cell. Neuron allows for graphs of change at both individual points over time, and across an entire section through time. Duration of run can be set. All point processes, including those standing for cells or synapses of artificial neurons, and all graphs reflect the duration. Examples This example creates a simple cell, with a single compartment soma and a multi compartment axon. It has the dynamics of the cell membrane simulated using Hodgkin-Huxley squid axon kinetics. The simulator stimulates the cell and runs for 50 ms.\n//create two sections, the body of the neuron and a very long axoncreate soma,","-24.611020157695748"],["a 60-bit word length. Large core memory holds data ready to transfer to small core memory. It has an access time of 60 of the 27.5-ns minor cycles and a word length of 480 bits (512 bits with parity). Accesses are fully pipelined and buffered, so the two have the same sequential transfer rate of 60 bits every 27.5 ns. The two work in parallel, so the sequential transfer rate from one to the other is 60 bits per 27.5 ns minor-cycle. On an operating system call, the contents of the small core memory are swapped out and","-24.572531004901975"],["equations in two dimensions plus time will require the most memory, with three dimensions plus time being beyond what can be done using technology that was then available. He concludes that memory will be the largest subdivision of the system and he proposes 8,192 minor cycles (words) of 32-bits as a design goal, with 2,048 minor cycles still being useful. He estimates a few hundred minor cycles will suffice for storing the program.\nHe proposes two kinds of fast memory, delay line and Iconoscope tube. Each minor cycle is to be addressed as a unit (word addressing, Sec. 12.8).\nInstructions are to","-24.556787588633597"],["in rats in a behavioural screen. Gene expression in the brain The gene expression profile of the central nervous system (CNS) is unique. Eighty percent of all human genes are expressed in the brain; 5,000 of these genes are solely expressed in the CNS. The human brain has the highest amount of gene expression of all studied mammalian brains. In comparison, tissues outside of the brain will have more similar expression levels in comparison to their mammalian counterparts. One source of the increased expression levels in the human brain is from the non-protein coding region of the genome. Numerous studies","-24.539020306721795"],["and the conclusion that the Planck length is a minimum meaningful unit of distance suggests that at some level, space itself is quantized.\nMoreover, computers can manipulate and solve formulas describing real numbers using symbolic computation, thus avoiding the need to approximate real numbers by using an infinite number of digits.\nA number—in particular a real number, one with an infinite number of digits—was defined by Turing to be computable if a Turing machine will continue to spit out digits endlessly. In other words, there is no \"last digit\". But this sits uncomfortably with any proposal that the universe is the output","-24.505208879847487"],["size 10\n int ok;\n\n ok = posix_memalign((void**)&var, 64, 10*sizeof(double));\n\n if(ok != 0)\n return NULL;\n\n return var;} Hardware significance of alignment requirements Alignment concerns can affect areas much larger than a C structure when the purpose is the efficient mapping of that area through a hardware address translation mechanism (PCI remapping, operation of a MMU).\nFor instance, on a 32-bit operating system, a 4 KiB (4096 Bytes) page is not just an arbitrary 4 KiB chunk of data. Instead, it is usually a region of memory that's aligned","-24.495300319511443"],["overlap, as suggested by Tsunoda et al..\nUpdated information: it's not an scientific consensus now that \"There are about 100,000,000 cortical minicolumns in the neo-cortex with up to 110 neurons each\", as the original research is too arbitrary in many ways: the authors just chose a fixed width and length to calculate the cell numbers. They mainly use the number to propose that the neocortex is uniform, but later research pointed out that the neocortex is indeed not uniform by studying nine primate species and found that \" the number of neurons underneath 1 mm² of the cerebral cortical surface\" \"varies","-24.49353678127227"],["(mostly unrealistic) approximations of brain connectivity. However, full brain models have always been the interface between human brain imaging and theorising on brain function and dysfunction. In 2002 Jirsa and colleagues demonstrated that the approximations of brain connectivity will never be able to capture most behaviour of brain imaging data (in particular the spatiotemporal symmetries in the data) and thus proposed to use DTI data as a proxy of network connectivity in brain models. Characteristic challenges for this type of large-scale models would be 1) the detailed connection topology and 2) time delays via signal transmission, which do not play","-24.43554960837355"],["errors to be corrected). The memory depth is the total memory capacity in bits divided by the non-parity memory width. Sometimes the memory depth is indicated in units of Meg (2²⁰), as in 32×64 or 64×64, indicating 32 Mi depth and 64 Mi depth respectively. Chip This is the total memory capacity of the chip.\nExample: 128 Mib.\n(memory depth) × (memory width)\nMemory depth is the memory density divided by memory width. Example: for a memory chip with 128 Mib capacity and 8-bit wide data bus, it can be specified as: 16 Meg × 8. Sometimes the \"Mi\"","-24.37789780087769"],["computer's memory management unit and operating system memory mapping; see below. Unit of address resolution Most modern computers are byte-addressable. Each address identifies a single byte (eight bits) of storage. Data larger than a single byte may be stored in a sequence of consecutive addresses. There exist word-addressable computers, where the minimal addressable storage unit is exactly the processor's word. For example, the Data General Nova minicomputer, and the Texas Instruments TMS9900 and National Semiconductor IMP-16 microcomputers used 16 bit words, and there were many 36-bit mainframe computers (e.g., PDP-10) which used 18-bit word addressing, not byte addressing, giving","-24.336113272467628"],["of accessible memory. \"Plaintiffs allege that Defendants marketed the memory capacity of their products by assuming that one megabyte equals one million bytes and one gigabyte equals one billion bytes.\"\nThe plaintiffs wanted the defendants to use the traditional values of 1024² for megabyte and 1024³ for gigabyte.\nThe plaintiffs acknowledged that the IEC and IEEE standards define a MB as one million bytes but stated that the industry has largely ignored the IEC standards.\nThe manufacturers agreed to clarify the flash memory card capacity on the packaging and web sites. The consumers could apply for \"a discount of ten percent off a","-24.319701867207186"],["that Miller himself stated that the figure was intended as \"little more than a joke\" (Miller, 1989, page 401) and that Cowan (2001) provided evidence that a more realistic figure is 4±1 units. In contrast, long-term memory can hold the information indefinitely.\nShort-term memory should be distinguished from working memory, which refers to structures and processes used for temporarily storing and manipulating information (see details below). Existence of a separate store The idea of the division of memory into short-term and long-term dates back to the 19th century. A classical model of memory developed in the 1960s assumed that all memories","-24.30733508086996"],["that memory is not a uniform process that consists of storing information between short-term memory and long-term memory. To break away from the linearity the models possessed at the time, the levels-of-processing adopted a non-structured approach that also infused the different types of memory and associated complexities (i.e. episodic, procedural, and semantic memory). Moreover, Craik and Lockhart's final criticism proposed that there is no separate, capacity-limited, short-term memory store. They think that short-term memory is a temporary activation of the regions of the brain that are involved in long-term memory. Brain Correlates and Memory With the use of functional","-24.296259318070952"],["of gamma oscillation, each neuron has its own preferred relative firing time. As a result, an entire population of neurons generates a firing sequence that has a duration of up to about 15 ms. Population coding Population coding is a method to represent stimuli by using the joint activities of a number of neurons. In population coding, each neuron has a distribution of responses over some set of inputs, and the responses of many neurons may be combined to determine some value about the inputs. From the theoretical point of view, population coding is one of a few mathematically well-formulated","-24.276075451358338"],["computing, such as CPU clock speeds or measures of performance.\nThe IEC 80000-13 standard uses the term 'byte' to mean eight bits (1 B = 8 bit). Therefore, 1 kB = 8000 bit. One thousand kilobytes (1000 kB) is equal to one megabyte (1 MB), where 1 MB is one million bytes. Base 2 (1024 bytes) The kilobyte has traditionally been used to refer to 1024 bytes (2¹⁰ B), a usage still common. The usage of the metric prefix kilo for binary multiples arose as a convenience, because 1024 is approximately 1000.\nThe binary interpretation of metric prefixes is still prominently","-24.249612285435433"],["10^3) or 204,800 (200 x 2^10); the above calculation assumes the latter, but the former still produces a capacity of 2.01 GB (2.01 x 2^30 bytes), providing 2.00 GB of capacity in a little under 2 hours and 59 minutes. Similarly, this means an E240 4-hour tape, using the higher data rate, would be capable of storing between 4.35 and 4.46 GB (2^30 bytes), approximately equivalent to a standard single-layer DVDR.","-24.222398317717307"],["Units of information In computing and telecommunications, a unit of information is the capacity of some standard data storage system or communication channel, used to measure the capacities of other systems and channels. In information theory, units of information are also used to measure the entropy of random variables and information contained in messages.\nThe most commonly used units of data storage capacity are the bit, the capacity of a system that has only two states, and the byte (or octet), which is equivalent to eight bits. Multiples of these units can be formed from these with the SI prefixes","-24.196684268768877"],["the same amount of information as one hexadecimal digit. Crumb A pair of two bits or a quarter byte was called a crumb, often used in early 8-bit computing (see Atari 2600, ZX Spectrum). It is now largely defunct. Word, block, and page Computers usually manipulate bits in groups of a fixed size, conventionally called words. The number of bits in a word is usually defined by the size of the registers in the computer's CPU, or by the number of data bits that are fetched from its main memory in a single operation. In the IA-32 architecture more","-24.185241199462325"],["Memory module Memory size of a DRAM module The exact number of bytes in a DRAM module is always an integral power of two.\nA 512 MB (as marked on a module) SDRAM DIMM, actually contains 512 MiB (mebibytes) (512 × 2²⁰ bytes = 2⁹ × 2²⁰ bytes = 2²⁹ bytes = 536,870,912 bytes exactly), and might be made of 8 or 9 SDRAM chips: each chip containing exactly 512 Mib (mebibits) of storage, and each contributing 8 bits to the DIMM's 64- or 72-bit width.\nFor comparison, a 2 GB SDRAM module contains 2 GiB (2 × 2³⁰ bytes = 2³¹ bytes = 2,147,483,648 bytes of memory). This","-24.183193865115754"],["the cell body and projects, usually with numerous branches, to other areas, sometimes nearby, sometimes in distant parts of the brain or body. The length of an axon can be extraordinary: for example, if a pyramidal cell (an excitatory neuron) of the cerebral cortex were magnified so that its cell body became the size of a human body, its axon, equally magnified, would become a cable a few centimeters in diameter, extending more than a kilometer. These axons transmit signals in the form of electrochemical pulses called action potentials, which last less than a thousandth of a second and travel","-24.166123690782115"],["various parts of this memory have to perform functions which differ somewhat in their nature and considerably in their purpose, it is nevertheless tempting to treat the entire memory as one organ, and to have its parts even as interchangeable as possible for the various functions enumerated above.\" (Sec. 2.5)\n\"The orders which are received by CC come from M, i.e. from the same place where the numerical material is stored.\" (Sec. 14.0)\nVon Neumann estimates the amount of memory required based on several classes of mathematical problems, including ordinary and partial differential equations, sorting and probability experiments. Of these, partial differential","-24.15731509012403"],["the original files, it has become commonplace when marketing tape drives to state the capacity with the assumption of a 2:1 compression ratio; thus a tape with a capacity of 80 GB would be sold as \"80/160\". The true storage capacity is also known as the native capacity or the raw capacity. The compression ratio actually achievable depends on the data being compressed. Some data has little redundancy; large video files, for example, already use compression and cannot be compressed further. A database with repetitive entries, on the other hand, may allow compression ratios better than 10:1. Technical limitations","-24.120443282474298"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"10^18 instructions per second. Estimates suggest that the storage capacity of an individual human brain is about 10^12 bytes. On a per capita basis, this is matched by current digital storage (5x10^21 bytes per 7.2x10^9 people)\\\". Relation to economics Eventually, Information and Communication Technology—computers, computerized machinery, fiber optics, communication satellites, the Internet, and other ICT tools—became a significant part of the economy. Microcomputers were developed and many businesses and industries were greatly changed by ICT.\\nNicholas Negroponte captured the essence of these changes in his 1995 book, Being Digital. His book discusses similarities and differences between products made of atoms and\",\n \"-31.763315992982825\"\n ],\n [\n \"volume of the CNS. In the human brain, the telencephalon covers most of the diencephalon and the mesencephalon. Indeed, the allometric study of brain size among different species shows a striking continuity from rats to whales, and allows us to complete the knowledge about the evolution of the CNS obtained through cranial endocasts. Mammals Mammals – which appear in the fossil record after the first fishes, amphibians, and reptiles – are the only vertebrates to possess the evolutionarily recent, outermost part of the cerebral cortex known as the neocortex.\\nThe neocortex of monotremes (the duck-billed platypus and several species of spiny\",\n \"-30.31800196983386\"\n ],\n [\n \"to range from 550 cm³ (34 cu in) to 687 cm³ (41.9 cu in), rather than from 363 cm³ (22.2 cu in) to 600 cm³ (37 cu in) as previously thought.\\nA virtual reconstruction published in 2015 estimated the endocranial volume at between 729 ml (25.7 imp fl oz; 24.7 US fl oz) and 824 ml (29.0 imp fl oz; 27.9 US fl oz), larger than any previously published value.\\nH. habilis' brain capacity of around 640 cm³ (39 cu in) was on average 50% larger than australopithecines, but considerably smaller than the 1,350 cm³ (82 cu in) to 1,450 cm³ (88 cu in) range of modern Homo sapiens. These hominins were smaller than modern humans, on average standing no more than 1.3 m (4 ft 3 in).\\nThe body proportions for H. habilis are in accordance with craniodental evidence, suggesting\",\n \"-30.02251311694272\"\n ],\n [\n \"memory loss of the events and mental processes immediately before the time of brain scanning.\\nA full brain map has been estimated to occupy less than 2 x 10¹⁶ bytes (20,000 TB) and would store the addresses of the connected neurons, the synapse type and the synapse \\\"weight\\\" for each of the brains' 10¹⁵ synapses. However, the biological complexities of true brain function (e.g. the epigenetic states of neurons, protein components with multiple functional states, etc.) may preclude an accurate prediction of the volume of binary data required to faithfully represent a functioning human mind. Serial sectioning A possible method\",\n \"-29.653654624940827\"\n ],\n [\n \"Brodmann area 10 Size The volume of the human BA10 is about 14 cm³ and constitutes roughly 1.2% of total brain volume. This is twice what would be expected in a hominoid with a human-sized brain. By comparison, the volume of BA10 in bonobos is about 2.8 cm³, and makes up only 0.74% of its brain volume. In each hemisphere, area 10 contains an estimated 250 million neurons. Location BA10 is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined frontal region of cerebral cortex. It occupies the most rostral portions of the superior frontal gyrus and the middle frontal gyrus. In humans, on the\",\n \"-29.02713411366858\"\n ],\n [\n \"count was given as 100 billion for decades before Herculano-Houzel found a more reliable method of counting brain cells. Most references in Wikipedia to neuron counts, such as List of animals by number of neurons have been updated in the last few years to numbers derived from her counting innovation.\\nIt could have been anticipated that EQ might be superseded because of both the number of exceptions and the growing complexity of the formulae it used. (See the rest of this article.) The simplicity of counting neurons has replaced it. The concept in EQ of comparing the brain\",\n \"-28.93958052045491\"\n ],\n [\n \"article in the recognized Journal Trends in Ecology and Evolution reports that by now digital technology \\\"has vastly exceeded the cognitive capacity of any single human being and has done so a decade earlier than predicted. In terms of capacity, there are two measures of importance: the number of operations a system can perform and the amount of information that can be stored. The number of synaptic operations per second in a human brain has been estimated to lie between 10^15 and 10^17. While this number is impressive, even in 2007 humanity's general-purpose computers were capable of performing well over\",\n \"-28.912716335238656\"\n ],\n [\n \"sulci and gyri, and size of dominant lobes or regions of the brain. While endocasts are extremely helpful in revealing superficial brain anatomy, they cannot reveal brain structure, particularly of deeper brain areas. By determining scaling metrics of cranial capacity as it relates to total number of neurons present in primates, it is also possible to estimate the number of neurons through fossil evidence.\\nDespite the limitations to endocasts, they can and do provide a basis for understanding human brain evolution, which shows primarily a gradually bigger brain. The evolutionary history of the human brain shows primarily a gradually bigger brain\",\n \"-28.409542442241218\"\n ],\n [\n \"seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited: George A. Miller (1956), when working at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showing that the store of short-term memory was 7±2 items (the title of his famous paper, \\\"The magical number 7±2\\\"). Modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memory are lower, typically of the order of 4–5 items; however, memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking. For example, in recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a person could chunk the digits into three groups: first, the area code (such as 123), then a three-digit chunk (456)\",\n \"-28.306346754204696\"\n ],\n [\n \"Voxel-based morphometry Voxel-based morphometry is a computational approach to neuroanatomy that measures differences in local concentrations of brain tissue, through a voxel-wise comparison of multiple brain images.\\nIn traditional morphometry, volume of the whole brain or its subparts is measured by drawing regions of interest (ROIs) on images from brain scanning and calculating the volume enclosed. However, this is time consuming and can only provide measures of rather large areas. Smaller differences in volume may be overlooked. The value of VBM is that it allows for comprehensive measurement of differences, not just in specific structures, but throughout the entire brain. VBM\",\n \"-28.177368197968462\"\n ],\n [\n \"450 millilitres (15 US fl oz), which does not take into account that the brain may have occupied as little as 50% of the space of the endocast, the rest of the space being taken up by the dura mater surrounding the brain. For example, the brain of the specimen with the 374 millilitre endocast is estimated to have had a volume of 268 millilitres (9 US fl oz). The brain was an elongate structure, and as with other non-mammals, there would have been no neocortex. Like Stegosaurus, the neural canal was expanded in the hips, but not to the same degree: the endosacral space of Stegosaurus\",\n \"-28.08222752531583\"\n ],\n [\n \"over the short-term may be, there is consensus that it severely limits the amount of new information that we can retain over brief periods of time. This limit is referred to as the finite capacity of short-term memory. The capacity of short-term memory is often called memory span, in reference to a common procedure of measuring it. In a memory span test, the experimenter presents lists of items (e.g. digits or words) of increasing length. An individual's span is determined as the longest list length that he or she can recall correctly in the given order on at least half\",\n \"-28.069032376341056\"\n ],\n [\n \"is specified when the disk contains 100 billion bytes (93 gibibytes) of storage space.\\nWhile the numerical difference between the decimal and binary interpretations is relatively small for the prefixes kilo and mega, it grows to over 20% for prefix yotta. The linear–log graph illustrates the difference versus storage size up to an exabyte. Common uses Many programming languages defined the data type byte.\\nThe C and C++ programming languages define byte as an \\\"addressable unit of data storage large enough to hold any member of the basic character set of the execution environment\\\" (clause 3.6 of the C standard). The C standard requires\",\n \"-28.00783959205728\"\n ],\n [\n \"with as the number of particles as large as possible. This example shows for computation intensive applications, memory capacity does not need to proportionally scale up with computing power. Applications/Effects of Sun-Ni's Law The memory-bounded speedup model is the first work to reveal that memory is the performance constraint for high-end computing and presents a quantitative mathematical formulation for the trade-off between memory and computing. It is based on the memory-bounded function,W=G(n), where W is the work and thus also the computation for most applications. M is the memory requirement in terms of capacity, and G is the reuse rate.\",\n \"-27.982649377721827\"\n ],\n [\n \"neurosurgeons Jean Talairach and Gabor Szikla in their work on the Talairach Atlas in 1967, creating a standardized grid for neurosurgery. The grid was based on the idea that distances to lesions in the brain are proportional to overall brain size (i.e., the distance between two structures is larger in a larger brain). In 1988 a second edition of the Talairach Atlas came out that was coauthored by Tournoux, and it is sometimes known as the Talairach–Tournoux system. This atlas was based on single post-mortem dissection of a human brain.\\nThe Talairach Atlas uses Brodmann areas as the labels for brain\",\n \"-27.936605987604707\"\n ],\n [\n \"rough idea of lobe sizes. Significance The study of paleoneurobiology allows researchers to examine the evolutionary nature of human encephalization. Traditionally, paleoneurobiologists have focused on determining the volume of the ancient brain and the patterns that emerged among related species. By finding these measurements, researchers have been able to predict the average body weight of species. Endocasts also reveal traits of the ancient brain including relative lobe size, blood supply, and other general insight into the anatomy of evolving species. Limitations While paleoneurology is useful in the study of brain evolution, certain limitations to the information this study\",\n \"-27.83030348038301\"\n ],\n [\n \"2013 (DNAZip and GenomeZip) have compression ratios of up to 1200-fold—allowing 6 billion basepair diploid human genomes to be stored in 2.5 megabytes (relative to a reference genome or averaged over many genomes). For a benchmark in genetics/genomics data compressors, see Outlook and currently unused potential It is estimated that the total amount of data that is stored on the world's storage devices could be further compressed with existing compression algorithms by a remaining average factor of 4.5:1. It is estimated that the combined technological capacity of the world to store information provides 1,300 exabytes of hardware digits in 2007,\",\n \"-27.660591085699707\"\n ],\n [\n \"number of bytes, is the minimum unit of storage that is read from and written to a disk by a disk driver. The earliest disk drives had fixed block sizes (e.g. the IBM 350 disk storage unit (of the late 1950s) block size was 100 6 bit characters) but starting with the 1301 IBM marketed subsystems that featured variable block sizes: a particular track could have blocks of different sizes. The disk subsystems on the IBM System/360 expanded this concept in the form of Count Key Data (CKD) and later Extended Count Key Data (ECKD); however the use of variable\",\n \"-27.57889130205149\"\n ],\n [\n \"observation from neuropsychological testing that the average digit span of healthy adults is about seven (Cowan and others 2005). However, it emerged that these numbers of items can only be retained if they are grouped into so-called chunks, using perceptual or conceptual associations between individual stimuli.\\\" Its duration is of 5–20 seconds before it is out of the subject's mind. This occurs often with names of people newly introduced to. Images or information based on meaning are stored here as well, but it decays without rehearsal or repetition of such information. \\nOn the other hand, long-term memory has a potentially\",\n \"-27.314266998902895\"\n ],\n [\n \"into a larger block of memory with contiguous addresses.\\nEarly computer system documentation would specify the memory size with an exact number such as 4096, 8192, or 16384 words of storage. These are all powers of two, and furthermore are small multiples of 2¹⁰, or 1024. As storage capacities increased, several different methods were developed to abbreviate these quantities.\\nThe method most commonly used today uses prefixes such as kilo, mega, giga, and corresponding symbols K, M, and G, which the computer industry originally adopted from the metric system. The prefixes kilo- and mega-, meaning 1000 and 1000000 respectively, were commonly used\",\n \"-27.244327686261386\"\n ],\n [\n \"most complex organ system in the body, with most of the complexity residing in the brain. The human brain alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks whose intricacies have only begun to be unraveled. At least one out of three of the approximately 20,000 genes belonging to the human genome is expressed mainly in the brain.\\nDue to the high degree of plasticity of the human brain, the structure of its synapses and their resulting functions change throughout life.\\nMaking sense of the\",\n \"-27.224446945707314\"\n ],\n [\n \"encode four nucleotide pairs, the individual genomes of every human on the planet could be encoded by approximately 1×10¹⁹ bytes. The digital realm stored 500 times more information than this in 2014 (see figure). The total amount of DNA contained in all of the cells on Earth is estimated to be about 5.3×10³⁷ base pairs, equivalent to 1.325×10³⁷ bytes of information.\\nIf growth in digital storage continues at its current rate of 30–38% compound annual growth per year, it will rival the total information content contained in all of the DNA in all of the cells on Earth in about 110\",\n \"-27.1756758649135\"\n ],\n [\n \"occupy three bytes. Steps which specify values or equations occupy more memory, as indicated above.\\nThe amount of used and available memory can be readily checked by the user, but not by programs. The user can clear all indirect variables above a specified number, with the CLVARx function.\",\n \"-27.046735288924538\"\n ],\n [\n \"trials immediately after presentation. Miller observed that memory span of young adults is approximately seven items. He noticed that memory span is approximately the same for stimuli with vastly different amount of information—for instance, binary digits have 1 bit each; decimal digits have 3.32 bits each; words have about 10 bits each. Miller concluded that memory span is not limited in terms of bits but rather in terms of chunks. A chunk is the largest meaningful unit in the presented material that the person recognizes—thus, what counts as a chunk depends on the knowledge of the person being tested. For\",\n \"-26.977832953765756\"\n ],\n [\n \"order of 10¹⁰ neurons linked by 10¹⁴ synaptic connections. By comparison, the number of base-pairs in a human genome is 3×10⁹. A few of the main challenges of building a human connectome at the microscale today include: data collection would take years given current technology, machine vision tools to annotate the data remain in their infancy, and are inadequate, and neither theory nor algorithms are readily available for the analysis of the resulting brain-graphs. To address the data collection issues, several groups are building high-throughput serial electron microscopes (Kasthuri et al., 2009; Bock et al. 2011). To address the machine-vision\",\n \"-26.883641855150927\"\n ],\n [\n \"Large scale brain networks Large scale brain networks are collections of widespread brain regions showing functional connectivity by statistical analysis of the fMRI BOLD signal, or other recording methods such as EEG, PET and MEG. An emerging paradigm in neuroscience is that cognitive tasks are performed not by individual brain regions working in isolation, but by networks consisting of several discrete brain regions that are said to be \\\"functionally connected\\\" due to tightly coupled activity. Functional connectivity may be measured as long-range synchronization of the EEG, MEG, or other dynamic brain signals. Synchronized brain regions may also be\",\n \"-26.72923905827338\"\n ],\n [\n \"availability influences mTOR\\nso that when cells are not able to grow to normal size they will not\\nundergo cell division.\\nThe details of the molecular mechanisms of mammalian cell size control\\nare currently being investigated. The size of post-mitotic neurons\\ndepends on the size of the cell body, axon and dendrites. In\\nvertebrates, neuron size is often a reflection of the number of\\nsynaptic contacts onto the neuron or from a neuron onto other cells.\\nFor example, the size of motoneurons usually reflects the size of\\nthe motor unit that is controlled by the motoneuron.\\nInvertebrates often have giant neurons and axons that provide\\nspecial functions such as rapid action\",\n \"-26.68042623088695\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"Real storage capacity is available in 512K increments ranging from 512K to 2,048K bytes.\\\"\\nMegabyte was used to describe the 22-bit addressing of DEC PDP-11/70 (1975)\\nand gigabyte the 30-bit addressing DEC VAX-11/780 (1977).\\nIn 1998, the International Electrotechnical Commission IEC introduced the binary prefixes kibi, mebi, gibi ... to mean 1024, 1024², 1024³ etc., so that 1048576 bytes could be referred to unambiguously as 1 mebibyte. The IEC prefixes were defined for use alongside the International System of Quantities (ISQ) in 2009. Disk drives The disk drive industry has followed a different pattern. Disk drive capacity is generally specified with unit\",\n \"-26.570217709289864\"\n ],\n [\n \"of shapes in any number of dimensions can be handled numerically.\\nIn addition, though the extraction of morphometric parameters like brain mass or liquor volume may be relatively straightforward in post mortem samples, most studies in living subjects will by necessity have to use an indirect approach: A spatial representation of the brain or its components is obtained by some appropriate neuroimaging technique, and the parameters of interest can then be analyzed on that basis. Such a structural representation of the brain is also a prerequisite for the interpretation of functional neuroimaging.\\nThe design of a brain morphometric study depends on multiple\",\n \"-26.237330523959827\"\n ],\n [\n \"and cerebellar Purkinje cells. Betz cells are the largest cells (by size of cell body) in the nervous system. The adult human brain is estimated to contain 86±8 billion neurons, with a roughly equal number (85±10 billion) of non-neuronal cells. Out of these neurons, 16 billion (19%) are located in the cerebral cortex, and 69 billion (80%) are in the cerebellum.\\nTypes of glial cell are astrocytes (including Bergmann glia), oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells (including tanycytes), radial glial cells, microglia, and a subtype of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells. Astrocytes are the largest of the glial cells. They are stellate cells with many processes\",\n \"-26.21670153740706\"\n ],\n [\n \"only has one store of immediate information processing which could only hold a total of 7 items plus or minus two items to be stored in a very short period of time, sometimes a matter of seconds. The digit-span test is a perfect example of a measurement for classically defined short-term memory. Essentially, if one is not able to encode the 7 plus or minus two items within a few minutes by finding an existing association for the information to be transferred into long-term memory, then the information is lost and never encoded.\\nHowever, visuo-spatial short-term memory can retain visual\",\n \"-26.172252292570192\"\n ],\n [\n \"bytes. The memory was composed of eight 6102 static RAMs (1024 x 1 bits) and the two 64 byte RAMs of the MCS6530s. In the 1970s memory sizes were expressed in several ways. Semiconductor manufacturers would use a precise memory size such as 2048 by 8 and sometimes state the number of bits (16384). Mini and mainframe computers had various memory widths (8 bits to over 36 bits) so manufacturers would use the term \\\"words\\\", such as 4K words. The early hobbyist computer advertisements would use both \\\"words\\\" and \\\"bytes\\\". It was common to see \\\"4096 words\\\", \\\"4K (4096)\",\n \"-26.06498573650606\"\n ],\n [\n \"the original estimate), if digitized as 16 kHz 16-bit audio, although he did freely confess that \\\"maybe the authors [of the exabyte estimate] were thinking about text\\\".\\nEarlier studies from the University of California, Berkeley, estimated that by the end of 1999, the sum of human-produced information (including all audio, video recordings, and text/books) was about 12 exabytes of data. The 2003 Berkeley report stated that in 2002 alone, \\\"telephone calls worldwide on both landlines and mobile phones contained 17.3 exabytes of new information if stored in digital form\\\" and that \\\"it would take 9.25 exabytes of storage to hold all U.S.\",\n \"-26.01003592030611\"\n ],\n [\n \"throughout the brain. There are a couple of important methodological issues that need to be addressed. Firstly, there are many different possible brain mappings that could be used to define the brain regions for the network. The results could vary significantly depending on the brain region chosen. Secondly, what mathematical techniques are best about to characterize these brain regions?\\nThe brain regions of interest are somewhat constrained by the size of the voxels. Rs-fcMRI uses voxels that are few millimeters cubed so the brain regions will have to be defined on a larger scale. Two of the statistical methods that are\",\n \"-25.963111606324674\"\n ],\n [\n \"analysis of the neuron count allows the easy computation of the critical value, the dendrite maximum, and the Schoenen Ramification Index.\\nCritical Value: The critical value is the radius r at which there is a maximum number of dendritic crossings, this value is closely related to the dendrite maximum.\\nDendrite Maximum: This value is the maximum of the function N(r), as specified by the Critical Value for a given data set.\\nSchoenen Ramification Index: This index is one measure of the branching of the neuronal cell being studied. It is calculated by dividing the Dendrite Maximum by the number of primary\",\n \"-25.95484715650673\"\n ],\n [\n \"This is the same as the computational overhead, and is since K is .\\nThe total memory used up by Π′ is equal to the size of T. Each triple stored in the tree has words in it and thus there are words per node of the tree. Since the total number of nodes in the tree is , the total memory size is words, which is . Hence, the memory overhead of the construction is .\",\n \"-25.8587736475165\"\n ],\n [\n \"various sociocultural updates in linguistics, the term is deemed obsolete by modern medical culture. Therefore, because the size of the brain is most often determined by the size of one's skull, the use of classifying, \\\"microcephaly,\\\" in more modern literature, is today almost always implied when discussing cases wherein microcephaly manifests. Microlissencephaly Microlissencephaly is microcephaly combined with lissencephaly (smooth brain surface due to absent sulci and gyri). Most cases of microlissencephaly are described in consanguineous families, suggesting an autosomal recessive inheritance. Historical causes of microcephaly After the dropping of atomic bombs \\\"Little Boy\\\" on Hiroshima and \\\"Fat Man\\\" on Nagasaki,\",\n \"-25.8171038403525\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the developing brain. General Features The most common transcript encodes a protein that is 205 amino acids long with a molecular mass of 23 kDa. It has a predicted isoelectric point of 4.72. It is predicted to have a half-life around 30 hours. C20orf196 contains 19 positive residues (9.3%), 32 negative residues (15.6%), and 46 hydrophobic residues (22.4%). Cellular Localization C20orf196 is predicted to localize in the nucleus. Domains C20orf196 contains one domain, DUF4521, which arose in Amniote. DUF4521 spans from amino acid 3 to 201. Several regions of this domain are conserved in c20orf196 orthologs found in\",\n \"-25.77904455724638\"\n ],\n [\n \" Larger sizes may not be of human minicolumns, for example macaque monkey V1 minicolumns are 31 µm diameter, with 142 pyramidal cells (Peters, 1994) — 1270 columns per mm². Similarly, the cat V1 has much bigger minicolumns, ~56 µm.\\nThe size can also be calculated from area considerations. If cortex (both hemispheres) is 1.27×10¹¹ µm² then if there are 2×10⁸ minicolumns in the neocortex then each is 635 µm², giving a diameter of 28 µm (if the cortex area were doubled to the commonly quoted value, this would rise to 40 µm). Johansson and Lansner do a similar calculation and arrive at 36 µm\",\n \"-25.7711678519845\"\n ],\n [\n \"capable of simultaneously measuring small and large areas at the same time, with the temporal resolution that the circuitry of the brain requires. These techniques include EEG, MEG, fMRI, optical recordings, and single-cell recordings. Future Techniques such as large scale single-cell recordings are movements in the direction of analyzing overall brain rhythms. However, these require invasive procedures, such as tetrode implantation, which does not allow a healthy brain to be studied. Also, pharmacological manipulation, cell culture imaging and computational biology all make attempts at doing this but in the end they are indirect.\",\n \"-25.751008701859973\"\n ],\n [\n \"storage capacity is 400 million bytes or 800 million decimal digits. Up to eight 2321s can be attached to the IBM 2841 Control Unit, allowing an overall capacity of over three GB.\\nIn comparison to the contemporary IBM 2311 Disk Device, the IBM 2321 Data Cell Device holds 55 times more data, while being only seven times slower (85ms and 600ms access times respectively). One fully loaded IBM 2841 Control Unit connected with eight IBM 2321 Data Cell Devices has the capacity of 441 IBM 2311 Disk Devices, which would need to be connected to 56 IBM 2841 Control Units, which\",\n \"-25.73120967124123\"\n ],\n [\n \"available memory in a given computer system may not be a power-of-two multiple of the minimum block size, the largest block size may not span the entire memory of the system. For instance, if the system had 2000 K of physical memory and the order-0 block size was 4 K, the upper limit on the order would be 8, since an order-8 block (256 order-0 blocks, 1024 K) is the biggest block that will fit in memory. Consequently it is impossible to allocate the entire physical memory in a single chunk; the remaining 976 K of memory would have to\",\n \"-25.688620892353356\"\n ],\n [\n \"memory in varying degrees of granularity as needed to fulfill data structure requirements and binary multiples are usually not required. Other computer capacities and rates, like storage hardware size, data transfer rates, clock speeds, operations per second, etc., do not depend on an inherent base, and are usually presented in decimal units. For example, the manufacturer of a \\\"300 GB\\\" hard drive is claiming a capacity of 300000000000bytes, not 300x1024³ (which would be 322122547200) bytes. Unicode character The \\\"gigabyte\\\" symbol is encoded by Unicode at code point U+3387 ㎇ SQUARE GB ❰ ㎇ ❱.\",\n \"-25.679146564558323\"\n ],\n [\n \"that speed and size of memory were crucial and he proposed a high-speed memory of what would today be called 25 kilobytes, accessed at a speed of 1 MHz; he remarked that for the purposes required 'the memory needs to be very large indeed by comparison with standards which prevail in most valve and relay work, and [so] it is necessary to look for some more economical form of storage', and that memory 'appears to be the main limitation in the design of a calculator, i.e. if the storage problem can be solved all the rest is comparatively straightforward'. The\",\n \"-25.653654946247116\"\n ],\n [\n \"Its capacity is immeasurable. For example, given a random seven-digit number, one may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in short-term memory. On the other hand, one can remember telephone numbers for many years through repetition; this information is said to be stored in long-term memory.\\nWhile short-term memory encodes information acoustically, long-term memory encodes it semantically: Baddeley (1966) discovered that, after 20 minutes, test subjects had the most difficulty recalling a collection of words that had similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great, huge) long-term. Another part of long-term memory is episodic memory, \\\"which\",\n \"-25.64664473407902\"\n ],\n [\n \"of large data sets which bring additional complexity such as pagination when the data sets are too large to be easily held in memory.\",\n \"-25.63510166516062\"\n ],\n [\n \"and can be expressed through multiple modes of communication.\\nCollective consciousness has a relationship with collective memory. “Collective memory is thus no longer a reference to a remembered past but a way of analyzing the present as a collection of big (meta-)data in real-time for future prediction.” In other words, the collective consciousness of the people, manifested through forms of literary and cultural media, can be quantified by big data. Big data can be a representation of collective consciousness insofar as it tries to quantify the experiences of the public on the Internet. However, there is a limit to quantifying social\",\n \"-25.63340335560497\"\n ],\n [\n \"multiplication example which illustrates the rapid increase in parallel execution time. \\nThe execution time of a N X N matrix for a uniprocessor is:. While the memory usage is: \\nSuppose a 10000-by-10000 matrix takes 800 MB of memory and can be factorized in 1 hour on a uniprocessor. Now for the scaled workload suppose is possible to factorize a 320,000-by-320,000 matrix in 32 hours. The time increase is quite large, but the increase in problem size may be more valuable for someones whose premier goal is accuracy. For example, an astrophysicist may be more interested in simulating an N-body problem\",\n \"-25.549319447900416\"\n ],\n [\n \"by the Human Connectome Project, sponsored by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), whose focus is to build a network map of the human brain in healthy, living adults. At multiple scales Brain networks can be defined at different levels of scale, corresponding to levels of spatial resolution in brain imaging (Kötter, 2007, Sporns, 2010). These scales can be roughly categorized as microscale, mesoscale and macroscale. Ultimately, it may be possible to join connectomic maps obtained at different scales into a single hierarchical map of the neural organization of a given species that ranges from single neurons to populations of\",\n \"-25.517049778951332\"\n ],\n [\n \"be well worth having.\\nBiological brains use both shallow and deep circuits as reported by brain anatomy, displaying a wide variety of invariance. Weng argued that the brain self-wires largely according to signal statistics and therefore, a serial cascade cannot catch all major statistical dependencies. Hardware Large and effective neural networks require considerable computing resources. While the brain has hardware tailored to the task of processing signals through a graph of neurons, simulating even a simplified neuron on von Neumann architecture may consume vast amounts of memory and storage. Furthermore, the designer often needs to transmit signals through many of these\",\n \"-25.493348104344477\"\n ],\n [\n \"large enough to store every possible combination of Accounts and Time. The number of cells stored is therefore 192000 (4 × 4 × 12000), requiring under 2 gigabytes of memory (exact 1,536MB), plus the size of the index used to look up the appropriate blocks.\\nBecause the database hides this implementation from front-end tools (i.e., a report that attempts to retrieve data from non-existent cells merely sees \\\"null\\\" values), the full hypercube can be navigated naturally, and it is possible to load values into any cell interactively. Aggregate storage (Enterprise Analytics) Although block storage effectively minimizes storage requirements without impacting\",\n \"-25.487639854080044\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the business.\\nBig data can be further differentiated once we analyse its three distinguishing features: variety, volume, and velocity.\\nVariety means that many forms of data are collected, with formats ranging from audio and video, to client log files and Tweets. Volume represents the fact that big data must come in massive quantities, often over a petabyte. Finally, Velocity signifies that big data must be constantly collected for maximum effectiveness; even data that is a few days old is not ideal.\\nIn summary, big data utilises and collects all forms of data, gathered from both traditional and digital sources, in order to\",\n \"-25.47096632260218\"\n ],\n [\n \"term in parentheses is 40μL/20μL. The volume of the squares counted is the one shown in the table at the top, depending on the size (see figure on the right). The number of cells counted is the sum of all cells counted across squares in one chamber. The proportion of the cells counted applies if not all inner squares within a set square are counted (i.e., if only 4 out of the 20 in a corner square are counted, then this term will equal 0.2).\\nFor most applications, the four large corner squares are only used. The cells that are on\",\n \"-25.44217098003719\"\n ],\n [\n \"Another, employed by Unix System V.3, is to make malloc and free function pointers that an application can reset to custom functions. Allocation size limits The largest possible memory block malloc can allocate depends on the host system, particularly the size of physical memory and the operating system implementation. Theoretically, the largest number should be the maximum value that can be held in a size_t type, which is an implementation-dependent unsigned integer representing the size of an area of memory. In the C99 standard and later, it is available as the SIZE_MAX constant from . Although not guaranteed by ISO\",\n \"-25.438309558434412\"\n ],\n [\n \"meant to be the smallest size data can be gathered so that people would not be able to be identified.\",\n \"-25.31348142772913\"\n ],\n [\n \"single neuron up to a hypothetical being at the theoretical computational limit of the entire universe. On a logarithmic scale it runs from −70 up to +50.\",\n \"-25.31153797544539\"\n ],\n [\n \"this technique is only limited to when there are both cranial and post-cranial remains associated with individual fossils, to allow for brain to body size comparisons. For example, remains of one Middle Pleistocene human fossil from Jinniushan province in northern China has allowed scientists to study the relationship between brain and body size using the Encephalization Quotient. Researchers obtained an EQ of 4.150 for the Jinniushan fossil, and then compared this value with preceding Middle Pleistocene estimates of EQ at 3.7770. The difference in EQ estimates has been associated with a rapid increase in encephalization in Middle Pleistocene hominins.\\nPaleo-neurological comparisons\",\n \"-25.289939317357494\"\n ],\n [\n \"customary to create 5 to 10 GB of data daily. \\n Similarly, a single uncompressed image of breast tomosynthesis averages 450 MB of data. \\n\\nThese are just few of the many examples where computer-aided diagnosis uses big data. For this reason, big data has been recognized as one of the seven key challenges that computer-aided diagnosis systems need to overcome in order to reach the next level of performance. Education A McKinsey Global Institute study found a shortage of 1.5 million highly trained data professionals and managers and a number of universities including University of Tennessee and UC Berkeley,\",\n \"-25.271709268854465\"\n ],\n [\n \"to 8,192 bytes.\\\" In this respect it was similar to the IBM System/360 Model 20. \\nTwo memory configurations for the 70/15 were available: either 4,096 bytes or 8,192 bytes of core memory. The memory cycle time for a 70/15 was 2 microseconds per byte of information.\\nThe 70/15 was often used as a satellite processor for larger systems or used as an intelligent terminal for remote job entry. Typical applications of a satellite processor would include card-to-tape conversion, card/tape-to-printer report generation, tape-to-card punching, input pre-processing and verification, or tab-shop tasks like file sorting, merge, and data selection. Software for\",\n \"-25.249087689480803\"\n ],\n [\n \"number 7\\\" inspired much theorizing, rigorous and less rigorous, about the capacity limits of human cognition. The number seven constitutes a useful heuristic, reminding us that lists that are much longer than that become significantly harder to remember and process simultaneously. The \\\"magical number 7\\\" and working memory capacity Later research on short-term memory and working memory revealed that memory span is not a constant even when measured in a number of chunks. The number of chunks a human can recall immediately after presentation depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span is around seven for digits, around six\",\n \"-25.18170249031391\"\n ],\n [\n \" End character reading loop Portability issues Partly because Urban Müller did not write a thorough language specification, the many subsequent brainfuck interpreters and compilers have come to use slightly different dialects of brainfuck. Cell size In the classic distribution, the cells are of 8-bit size (cells are bytes), and this is still the most common size. However, to read non-textual data, a brainfuck program may need to distinguish an end-of-file condition from any possible byte value; thus 16-bit cells have also been used.\",\n \"-25.17715908784885\"\n ],\n [\n \"based on the size of a file which that program manages:\\nwhile file is still open:\\n let n = size of file\\n for every 100,000 kilobytes of increase in file size\\n double the amount of memory reserved\\nIn this instance, as the file size n increases, memory will be consumed at an exponential growth rate, which is order O(2ⁿ). This is an extremely rapid and most likely unmanageable growth rate for consumption of memory resources. Relevance Algorithm analysis is important in practice because the accidental or unintentional use of\",\n \"-25.174085751343227\"\n ],\n [\n \"identified using spatial independent component analysis (ICA). The set of identified brain areas that are linked together in a large-scale network varies with cognitive function. When the cognitive state is not explicit (i.e., the subject is at \\\"rest\\\"), the large scale brain network is a resting state network (RSN). As a physical system with graph-like properties, a large scale brain network has both nodes and edges, and cannot be identified simply by the co-activation of brain areas. In recent decades, the analysis of brain networks was made feasible by advances in imaging techniques as well as new tools from graph\",\n \"-25.171031310921535\"\n ],\n [\n \"Genome size Genome size is the total amount of DNA contained within one copy of a single complete genome. It is typically measured in terms of mass in picograms (trillionths (10⁻¹²) of a gram, abbreviated pg) or less frequently in daltons, or as the total number of nucleotide base pairs, usually in megabases (millions of base pairs, abbreviated Mb or Mbp). One picogram is equal to 978 megabases. In diploid organisms, genome size is often used interchangeably with the term C-value.\\nAn organism's complexity is not directly proportional to its genome size; total DNA content is widely variable between biological taxa.\",\n \"-25.09265718224924\"\n ],\n [\n \"counts as computing. In the latter case, the brain is a computing function that is distinct from systems like fluid dynamic systems and the planetary orbits in this regard. The challenge for any computational definition is to keep the two senses distinct.\\nAlternatively, some theorists choose to accept a narrow or wide definition for theoretical reasons. Pancomputationalism is the position that everything can be said to compute. This view has been criticized by Piccinini on the grounds that such a definition makes computation trivial to the point where it is robbed of its explanatory value.\\nThe simplest definition of computations is that\",\n \"-25.033128833922092\"\n ],\n [\n \"self-assembly in nanotube circuits, biological systems emulating circuit assembly, computing with DNA, spintronics (computing with the spin of electrons), computing with light, and quantum computing.\\nSince Kurzweil believes computational capacity will continue to grow exponentially long after Moore's Law ends it will eventually rival the raw computing power of the human brain. Kurzweil looks at several different estimates of how much computational capacity is in the brain and settles on 10¹⁶ calculations per second and 10¹³ bits of memory. He writes that $1,000 will buy computer power equal to a single brain \\\"by around 2020\\\" while by 2045, the onset of\",\n \"-25.02519160276279\"\n ],\n [\n \"is theoretically unlimited, because the 6845 imposes no limit on the size of each memory location that it addresses.\\nIt is also significant that each word addressed by the 6845 does not have to equal one pixel or one character. As an example, consider the use of the 6845 in the IBM CGA, where the word size is one byte and each word represents four or eight pixels (in the medium- or high- resolution graphics mode, respectively) or one-half character. In CGA alphanumeric (text) mode, there are two bytes per character, accessed sequentially by the 6845—the first byte is a\",\n \"-24.871562952990644\"\n ],\n [\n \"neurons to larger systems like cortical areas. Given the methodological uncertainties involved in inferring connectivity from the primary experimental data, and given that there are likely to be large differences in the connectomes of different individuals, any unified map will likely rely on probabilistic representations of connectivity data (Sporns et al., 2005).\\nMapping the connectome at the \\\"microscale\\\" (micrometer resolution) means building a complete map of the neural systems, neuron-by-neuron. The challenge of doing this becomes obvious: the number of neurons comprising the brain easily ranges into the billions in more complex organisms. The human cerebral cortex alone contains on the\",\n \"-24.84404600795824\"\n ],\n [\n \"They are also easily the most numerous neurons in the brain: In humans, estimates of their total number average around 50 billion, which means that about 3/4 of the brain's neurons are cerebellar granule cells. Their cell bodies are packed into a thick layer at the bottom of the cerebellar cortex. A granule cell emits only four to five dendrites, each of which ends in an enlargement called a dendritic claw. These enlargements are sites of excitatory input from mossy fibers and inhibitory input from Golgi cells.\\nThe thin, unmyelinated axons of granule cells rise vertically to the upper (molecular) layer\",\n \"-24.74955364287598\"\n ],\n [\n \"cause of megalencephaly altogether. Other relations Intracranial volume also affects this pathology, since it is related with the size of the brain.\",\n \"-24.74494997714646\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the information-theoretic minimum, which is a worst-case notion of the space needed to represent the data. In contrast, the size of a compressed data structure depends upon the particular data being represented. When the data are compressible, as is often the case in practice for natural language text, the compressed data structure can occupy space very close to the information-theoretic minimum, and significantly less space than most compression schemes.\",\n \"-24.727786105944688\"\n ],\n [\n \"Compressed data structure The term compressed data structure arises in the computer science subfields of algorithms, data structures, and theoretical computer science. It refers to a data structure whose operations are roughly as fast as those of a conventional data structure for the problem, but whose size can be substantially smaller. The size of the compressed data structure is typically highly dependent upon the entropy of the data being represented. \\nImportant examples of compressed data structures include the compressed suffix array and the FM-index, both of which can represent an arbitrary text of characters T for pattern\",\n \"-24.70053493033629\"\n ],\n [\n \"a number of assumptions, including information made available by the environment is processed by a series of processing systems (e.g. attention, perception, short-term memory),these processing systems transform or alter the information in systematic ways, the aim of research is to specify the processes and structures that underlie cognitive performance, and information processing in humans resembles that in computers.\\nThe information processing theory using \\\"chunking\\\" to put the information into short term memory. Miller said it was known that the human brain can only chunk into the brain with 7 parts, plus or minus two. Seven in the big number to remember.\",\n \"-24.699273831036408\"\n ],\n [\n \"The episode establishes that Data has a storage capacity of 800 quadrillion bits (100 PB or 88.81784197 PiB) and a total linear computational speed of 60 trillion operations per second.\\nData's family is expanded in \\\"The Offspring\\\", which introduces Lal, a robot based on Data's neural interface and whom Data refers to as his daughter. Lal “dies” shortly after activation. Later, his mother Julianna appears in the episode \\\"Inheritance\\\" and reunites with Data, though the crew discovers she was an android duplicate built by Soong after the real Julianna's death, programmed to die after a long life, and to believe she\",\n \"-24.674666394777887\"\n ],\n [\n \"very large, making it an attractive mechanism to study. There are approximately 10⁴ synapses per neuron and 10¹¹ neurons in the human brain. Nonsynaptic plasticity is often overlooked simply because its storage capacity is not as high. Regulating the density of ion channels in the axon and soma of a neuron would change the throughput and affect all of the synapses. Therefore, its storage capacity would be significantly less than that of synaptic plasticity.\\nWhile its storage capacity is too low to make it the sole mechanism for storage, nonsynaptic plasticity could contribute to synaptic storage methods. It has been shown\",\n \"-24.656384926638566\"\n ],\n [\n \"as a subsystem in a multi-processor complex. High throughput was facilitated by the use of fast memory and multiple simultaneous input/output streams. Equipped with selector channels and a multiplexer channel, the 70/25 could concurrently operate eight low-speed devices in addition to eight high-speed devices. Like the Model 15, it implemented a (slightly larger) subset of 31 instructions of the full range architecture.\\nMemory capacities for the 70/25 ranged from a minimum of 16,384 bytes to a maximum of 65,536 bytes. The memory cycle time was 1.5 microseconds to access one 8 bit byte.\\nWeighed 1,200 pounds (540 kg). Model 70/35\",\n \"-24.6503084746073\"\n ],\n [\n \"sum up to zero Capacity The Network capacity of the Hopfield network model is determined by neuron amounts and connections within a given network. Therefore, the number of memories that are able to be stored is dependent on neurons and connections. Furthermore, it was shown that the recall accuracy between vectors and nodes was 0.138 (approximately 138 vectors can be recalled from storage for every 1000 nodes) (Hertz et al., 1991). Therefore, it is evident that many mistakes will occur if one tries to store a large number of vectors. When the Hopfield model does not recall the right pattern,\",\n \"-24.64205272134859\"\n ],\n [\n \"of 60,000 (00000–59999). Word size versus address size word size is a characteristic given to computer architecture. It denotes the number of bits that a CPU can process at one time. Modern processors, including embedded systems, usually have a word size of 8, 16, 24, 32 or 64 bits; most current general purpose computers use 32 or 64 bits. Many different sizes have been used historically, including 8, 9, 10, 12, 18, 24, 36, 39, 40, 48 and 60 bits.\\nVery often, when referring to the word size of a modern computer, one is also describing the size of address space\",\n \"-24.626010709092952\"\n ],\n [\n \"cell. Neuron allows for graphs of change at both individual points over time, and across an entire section through time. Duration of run can be set. All point processes, including those standing for cells or synapses of artificial neurons, and all graphs reflect the duration. Examples This example creates a simple cell, with a single compartment soma and a multi compartment axon. It has the dynamics of the cell membrane simulated using Hodgkin-Huxley squid axon kinetics. The simulator stimulates the cell and runs for 50 ms.\\n//create two sections, the body of the neuron and a very long axoncreate soma,\",\n \"-24.611020157695748\"\n ],\n [\n \"a 60-bit word length. Large core memory holds data ready to transfer to small core memory. It has an access time of 60 of the 27.5-ns minor cycles and a word length of 480 bits (512 bits with parity). Accesses are fully pipelined and buffered, so the two have the same sequential transfer rate of 60 bits every 27.5 ns. The two work in parallel, so the sequential transfer rate from one to the other is 60 bits per 27.5 ns minor-cycle. On an operating system call, the contents of the small core memory are swapped out and\",\n \"-24.572531004901975\"\n ],\n [\n \"equations in two dimensions plus time will require the most memory, with three dimensions plus time being beyond what can be done using technology that was then available. He concludes that memory will be the largest subdivision of the system and he proposes 8,192 minor cycles (words) of 32-bits as a design goal, with 2,048 minor cycles still being useful. He estimates a few hundred minor cycles will suffice for storing the program.\\nHe proposes two kinds of fast memory, delay line and Iconoscope tube. Each minor cycle is to be addressed as a unit (word addressing, Sec. 12.8).\\nInstructions are to\",\n \"-24.556787588633597\"\n ],\n [\n \"in rats in a behavioural screen. Gene expression in the brain The gene expression profile of the central nervous system (CNS) is unique. Eighty percent of all human genes are expressed in the brain; 5,000 of these genes are solely expressed in the CNS. The human brain has the highest amount of gene expression of all studied mammalian brains. In comparison, tissues outside of the brain will have more similar expression levels in comparison to their mammalian counterparts. One source of the increased expression levels in the human brain is from the non-protein coding region of the genome. Numerous studies\",\n \"-24.539020306721795\"\n ],\n [\n \"and the conclusion that the Planck length is a minimum meaningful unit of distance suggests that at some level, space itself is quantized.\\nMoreover, computers can manipulate and solve formulas describing real numbers using symbolic computation, thus avoiding the need to approximate real numbers by using an infinite number of digits.\\nA number—in particular a real number, one with an infinite number of digits—was defined by Turing to be computable if a Turing machine will continue to spit out digits endlessly. In other words, there is no \\\"last digit\\\". But this sits uncomfortably with any proposal that the universe is the output\",\n \"-24.505208879847487\"\n ],\n [\n \"size 10\\n int ok;\\n\\n ok = posix_memalign((void**)&var, 64, 10*sizeof(double));\\n\\n if(ok != 0)\\n return NULL;\\n\\n return var;} Hardware significance of alignment requirements Alignment concerns can affect areas much larger than a C structure when the purpose is the efficient mapping of that area through a hardware address translation mechanism (PCI remapping, operation of a MMU).\\nFor instance, on a 32-bit operating system, a 4 KiB (4096 Bytes) page is not just an arbitrary 4 KiB chunk of data. Instead, it is usually a region of memory that's aligned\",\n \"-24.495300319511443\"\n ],\n [\n \"overlap, as suggested by Tsunoda et al..\\nUpdated information: it's not an scientific consensus now that \\\"There are about 100,000,000 cortical minicolumns in the neo-cortex with up to 110 neurons each\\\", as the original research is too arbitrary in many ways: the authors just chose a fixed width and length to calculate the cell numbers. They mainly use the number to propose that the neocortex is uniform, but later research pointed out that the neocortex is indeed not uniform by studying nine primate species and found that \\\" the number of neurons underneath 1 mm² of the cerebral cortical surface\\\" \\\"varies\",\n \"-24.49353678127227\"\n ],\n [\n \"(mostly unrealistic) approximations of brain connectivity. However, full brain models have always been the interface between human brain imaging and theorising on brain function and dysfunction. In 2002 Jirsa and colleagues demonstrated that the approximations of brain connectivity will never be able to capture most behaviour of brain imaging data (in particular the spatiotemporal symmetries in the data) and thus proposed to use DTI data as a proxy of network connectivity in brain models. Characteristic challenges for this type of large-scale models would be 1) the detailed connection topology and 2) time delays via signal transmission, which do not play\",\n \"-24.43554960837355\"\n ],\n [\n \"errors to be corrected). The memory depth is the total memory capacity in bits divided by the non-parity memory width. Sometimes the memory depth is indicated in units of Meg (2²⁰), as in 32×64 or 64×64, indicating 32 Mi depth and 64 Mi depth respectively. Chip This is the total memory capacity of the chip.\\nExample: 128 Mib.\\n(memory depth) × (memory width)\\nMemory depth is the memory density divided by memory width. Example: for a memory chip with 128 Mib capacity and 8-bit wide data bus, it can be specified as: 16 Meg × 8. Sometimes the \\\"Mi\\\"\",\n \"-24.37789780087769\"\n ],\n [\n \"computer's memory management unit and operating system memory mapping; see below. Unit of address resolution Most modern computers are byte-addressable. Each address identifies a single byte (eight bits) of storage. Data larger than a single byte may be stored in a sequence of consecutive addresses. There exist word-addressable computers, where the minimal addressable storage unit is exactly the processor's word. For example, the Data General Nova minicomputer, and the Texas Instruments TMS9900 and National Semiconductor IMP-16 microcomputers used 16 bit words, and there were many 36-bit mainframe computers (e.g., PDP-10) which used 18-bit word addressing, not byte addressing, giving\",\n \"-24.336113272467628\"\n ],\n [\n \"of accessible memory. \\\"Plaintiffs allege that Defendants marketed the memory capacity of their products by assuming that one megabyte equals one million bytes and one gigabyte equals one billion bytes.\\\"\\nThe plaintiffs wanted the defendants to use the traditional values of 1024² for megabyte and 1024³ for gigabyte.\\nThe plaintiffs acknowledged that the IEC and IEEE standards define a MB as one million bytes but stated that the industry has largely ignored the IEC standards.\\nThe manufacturers agreed to clarify the flash memory card capacity on the packaging and web sites. The consumers could apply for \\\"a discount of ten percent off a\",\n \"-24.319701867207186\"\n ],\n [\n \"that Miller himself stated that the figure was intended as \\\"little more than a joke\\\" (Miller, 1989, page 401) and that Cowan (2001) provided evidence that a more realistic figure is 4±1 units. In contrast, long-term memory can hold the information indefinitely.\\nShort-term memory should be distinguished from working memory, which refers to structures and processes used for temporarily storing and manipulating information (see details below). Existence of a separate store The idea of the division of memory into short-term and long-term dates back to the 19th century. A classical model of memory developed in the 1960s assumed that all memories\",\n \"-24.30733508086996\"\n ],\n [\n \"that memory is not a uniform process that consists of storing information between short-term memory and long-term memory. To break away from the linearity the models possessed at the time, the levels-of-processing adopted a non-structured approach that also infused the different types of memory and associated complexities (i.e. episodic, procedural, and semantic memory). Moreover, Craik and Lockhart's final criticism proposed that there is no separate, capacity-limited, short-term memory store. They think that short-term memory is a temporary activation of the regions of the brain that are involved in long-term memory. Brain Correlates and Memory With the use of functional\",\n \"-24.296259318070952\"\n ],\n [\n \"of gamma oscillation, each neuron has its own preferred relative firing time. As a result, an entire population of neurons generates a firing sequence that has a duration of up to about 15 ms. Population coding Population coding is a method to represent stimuli by using the joint activities of a number of neurons. In population coding, each neuron has a distribution of responses over some set of inputs, and the responses of many neurons may be combined to determine some value about the inputs. From the theoretical point of view, population coding is one of a few mathematically well-formulated\",\n \"-24.276075451358338\"\n ],\n [\n \"computing, such as CPU clock speeds or measures of performance.\\nThe IEC 80000-13 standard uses the term 'byte' to mean eight bits (1 B = 8 bit). Therefore, 1 kB = 8000 bit. One thousand kilobytes (1000 kB) is equal to one megabyte (1 MB), where 1 MB is one million bytes. Base 2 (1024 bytes) The kilobyte has traditionally been used to refer to 1024 bytes (2¹⁰ B), a usage still common. The usage of the metric prefix kilo for binary multiples arose as a convenience, because 1024 is approximately 1000.\\nThe binary interpretation of metric prefixes is still prominently\",\n \"-24.249612285435433\"\n ],\n [\n \"10^3) or 204,800 (200 x 2^10); the above calculation assumes the latter, but the former still produces a capacity of 2.01 GB (2.01 x 2^30 bytes), providing 2.00 GB of capacity in a little under 2 hours and 59 minutes. Similarly, this means an E240 4-hour tape, using the higher data rate, would be capable of storing between 4.35 and 4.46 GB (2^30 bytes), approximately equivalent to a standard single-layer DVDR.\",\n \"-24.222398317717307\"\n ],\n [\n \"Units of information In computing and telecommunications, a unit of information is the capacity of some standard data storage system or communication channel, used to measure the capacities of other systems and channels. In information theory, units of information are also used to measure the entropy of random variables and information contained in messages.\\nThe most commonly used units of data storage capacity are the bit, the capacity of a system that has only two states, and the byte (or octet), which is equivalent to eight bits. Multiples of these units can be formed from these with the SI prefixes\",\n \"-24.196684268768877\"\n ],\n [\n \"the same amount of information as one hexadecimal digit. Crumb A pair of two bits or a quarter byte was called a crumb, often used in early 8-bit computing (see Atari 2600, ZX Spectrum). It is now largely defunct. Word, block, and page Computers usually manipulate bits in groups of a fixed size, conventionally called words. The number of bits in a word is usually defined by the size of the registers in the computer's CPU, or by the number of data bits that are fetched from its main memory in a single operation. In the IA-32 architecture more\",\n \"-24.185241199462325\"\n ],\n [\n \"Memory module Memory size of a DRAM module The exact number of bytes in a DRAM module is always an integral power of two.\\nA 512 MB (as marked on a module) SDRAM DIMM, actually contains 512 MiB (mebibytes) (512 × 2²⁰ bytes = 2⁹ × 2²⁰ bytes = 2²⁹ bytes = 536,870,912 bytes exactly), and might be made of 8 or 9 SDRAM chips: each chip containing exactly 512 Mib (mebibits) of storage, and each contributing 8 bits to the DIMM's 64- or 72-bit width.\\nFor comparison, a 2 GB SDRAM module contains 2 GiB (2 × 2³⁰ bytes = 2³¹ bytes = 2,147,483,648 bytes of memory). This\",\n \"-24.183193865115754\"\n ],\n [\n \"the cell body and projects, usually with numerous branches, to other areas, sometimes nearby, sometimes in distant parts of the brain or body. The length of an axon can be extraordinary: for example, if a pyramidal cell (an excitatory neuron) of the cerebral cortex were magnified so that its cell body became the size of a human body, its axon, equally magnified, would become a cable a few centimeters in diameter, extending more than a kilometer. These axons transmit signals in the form of electrochemical pulses called action potentials, which last less than a thousandth of a second and travel\",\n \"-24.166123690782115\"\n ],\n [\n \"various parts of this memory have to perform functions which differ somewhat in their nature and considerably in their purpose, it is nevertheless tempting to treat the entire memory as one organ, and to have its parts even as interchangeable as possible for the various functions enumerated above.\\\" (Sec. 2.5)\\n\\\"The orders which are received by CC come from M, i.e. from the same place where the numerical material is stored.\\\" (Sec. 14.0)\\nVon Neumann estimates the amount of memory required based on several classes of mathematical problems, including ordinary and partial differential equations, sorting and probability experiments. Of these, partial differential\",\n \"-24.15731509012403\"\n ],\n [\n \"the original files, it has become commonplace when marketing tape drives to state the capacity with the assumption of a 2:1 compression ratio; thus a tape with a capacity of 80 GB would be sold as \\\"80/160\\\". The true storage capacity is also known as the native capacity or the raw capacity. The compression ratio actually achievable depends on the data being compressed. Some data has little redundancy; large video files, for example, already use compression and cannot be compressed further. A database with repetitive entries, on the other hand, may allow compression ratios better than 10:1. Technical limitations\",\n \"-24.120443282474298\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":594,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"63vzcc"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How do we not run out of Oxygen in closed rooms?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Generally, nothing is going to be airtight unless *it's specifically designed to be*. Making stuff airtight is very difficult, and very expensive. It requires special materials and precision. There are lots of places for air to get in, such as a window frame, underneath a door, vents (even if the furnace isn't running). If you were in a room sealed well enough to prevent much air from entering, an average size room has *a lot* of oxygen. It would take many days, even weeks, to use it all up and asphyxiate. Chances are you will have left by then.","Architecture school graduate here. Google \"air changes per hour\" an old house may have two air changes per hour, meaning whatever cracks exist allow the entire volume of air to be replaced twice an hour. Even a modern house will still have 1 to 1.5 air changes per hour. But yeah, in a room with a lot of people, I think a classroom wants at least 4 ACH, so we definitely pump fresh air in. Although I don't think kids would be suffocating, but the air would get stale and germs would spread even more.","In a completely airtight small room of 3 meters by 4 meters and average height, one person can live 2 or 3 days and nights without running out of oxygen. They will reach toxic levels of CO2 before then, though. Architects simply avoid making rooms truly airtight.","There are enough spots where air can flow in and out, so there's always enough ventilation. Secondly, oxygen makes up 21% of the air you inhale vs. 15% during exhalation. So we don't use *that* much oxygen. Thirdly, the body doesn't really priorotize oxygen consumption. It's far more important to keep the pH in the blood as stable as possible, and one of the ways to do that is through inhalation/exhalation of CO2. In a super small chamber without ventilation, there's a risk of suffering from hypercapnia: a condition of elevated CO2 levels in the blood. Symtoms include shorteness of breath, feeling drowsy, headache, elevated heart rate, and eventually loss of consciousness. And all of that even in the case of abundant oxygen in the room.","very few rooms are both airtight and have people in them for long enough for this to be a problem."],"string":"[\n \"Generally, nothing is going to be airtight unless *it's specifically designed to be*. Making stuff airtight is very difficult, and very expensive. It requires special materials and precision. There are lots of places for air to get in, such as a window frame, underneath a door, vents (even if the furnace isn't running). If you were in a room sealed well enough to prevent much air from entering, an average size room has *a lot* of oxygen. It would take many days, even weeks, to use it all up and asphyxiate. Chances are you will have left by then.\",\n \"Architecture school graduate here. Google \\\"air changes per hour\\\" an old house may have two air changes per hour, meaning whatever cracks exist allow the entire volume of air to be replaced twice an hour. Even a modern house will still have 1 to 1.5 air changes per hour. But yeah, in a room with a lot of people, I think a classroom wants at least 4 ACH, so we definitely pump fresh air in. Although I don't think kids would be suffocating, but the air would get stale and germs would spread even more.\",\n \"In a completely airtight small room of 3 meters by 4 meters and average height, one person can live 2 or 3 days and nights without running out of oxygen. They will reach toxic levels of CO2 before then, though. Architects simply avoid making rooms truly airtight.\",\n \"There are enough spots where air can flow in and out, so there's always enough ventilation. Secondly, oxygen makes up 21% of the air you inhale vs. 15% during exhalation. So we don't use *that* much oxygen. Thirdly, the body doesn't really priorotize oxygen consumption. It's far more important to keep the pH in the blood as stable as possible, and one of the ways to do that is through inhalation/exhalation of CO2. In a super small chamber without ventilation, there's a risk of suffering from hypercapnia: a condition of elevated CO2 levels in the blood. Symtoms include shorteness of breath, feeling drowsy, headache, elevated heart rate, and eventually loss of consciousness. And all of that even in the case of abundant oxygen in the room.\",\n \"very few rooms are both airtight and have people in them for long enough for this to be a problem.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["even at high altitudes, such as OXYFLY.\nUsually, \"demand\" or pulse-flow oxygen concentrators are not used by patients while they sleep. There have been problems with the oxygen concentrators not being able to detect when the sleeping patient is inhaling. Some larger portable oxygen concentrators are designed to operate in continuous-flow mode in addition to pulse-flow mode. Continuous-flow mode is considered safe for night use when coupled with a CPAP machine.\nCommon models retail at around $600. Leasing arrangements may be available through various medical-supply companies and/or insurance agencies. Alternate applications Repurposed medical oxygen concentrators or specialized industrial oxygen concentrators can","-26.483877903199755"],["in spaces without oxygen) cannot work as one ingredient is missing.","-26.27386027877219"],["medical lock, which serves a similar function but is much smaller. This is used to transfer medical material, food and specimens into and out of the main chamber while it is under pressure. Most deck decompression chambers are fitted with built in breathing systems (BIBS), which supply an alternative breathing gas to the occupants (usually oxygen), and discharge the exhaled gas outside the chamber, so the chamber gas is not excessively enriched by oxygen, which would cause an unacceptable fire hazard, and require frequent flushing with chamber gas (usually air).\nA deck decompression chamber is intended for surface decompression and emergency","-25.215785048319958"],["Medical gas supply Oxygen Oxygen may be used for patients requiring supplemental oxygen via mask. Usually accomplished by a large storage system of liquid oxygen at the hospital which is evaporated into a concentrated oxygen supply, pressures are usually around 345–380 kPa (50.0–55.1 psi), or in the UK and Europe, 4–5 bar (400–500 kPa; 58–73 psi). This arrangement is described as a vacuum insulated evaporator or bulk tank. In small medical centers with a low patient capacity, oxygen is usually supplied by a manifold of multiple high-pressure cylinders. In areas where a bulk system or high-pressure cylinder manifold is not suitable, oxygen may be supplied","-24.877352182404138"],["hazard if used as the chamber gas. Chamber oxygen concentration is limited due to fire hazard and the high risk of fatality or severe injury in the event of a chamber fire. US Navy specifications for oxygen content of chamber air allow a range from 19% to 25%. If the oxygen fraction rises above this limit the chamber must be ventilated with air to bring the concentration to an acceptable level. To minimize the requirement for venting, oxygen-rich treatment gases are usually provided to the patient by built in breathing system (BIBS) masks, which vent exhaled gas outside the chamber.","-24.851160186401103"],["schedule. Air breaks of 5 minutes are taken at the end of each 30 minutes of oxygen breathing. Saturation systems emergency gas supply During decompression from saturation, a pressure will be reached where raising the oxygen concentration further would cause an unacceptable fire hazard, while keeping it at an acceptable level for fire risk would be inefficient for decompression. BIBS supply of breathing gas with higher oxygen content than the chamber atmosphere can solve this problem. If the atmosphere in a saturation habitat is contaminated, the inhabitants can use the available BIBS masks during the emergency and be supplied with","-24.74214101108373"],["oxygen is only required for emergency in case of depressurization of the cabin or contamination of the cabin air. Oxygen is always available for the crew and can be made available to the passengers manually or automatically. The oxygen storage cylinder has a capacity of 38 cubic feet and is stored at 1800 psi. An oxygen rupture disc will relieve oxygen pressure if the oxygen cylinder pressure reaches 2700 to 3000 psi. A green overboard indicator on the outside surface of the dorsal fin will be ruptured or missing to indicate that the rupture disc is not intact. Fire detection","-24.504612831617123"],["Oxygen storage Methods of oxygen storage for subsequent use span many approaches, including high pressures in oxygen tanks, cryogenics, oxygen-rich compounds and reaction mixtures, and chemical compounds that reversibly release oxygen upon heating or pressure change. O₂ is the second most important industrial gas. Air Air is the most common source and reservoir of oxygen, containing 20.8% oxygen. This concentration is sufficient for many purposes, such as combustion of many fuels, corrosion of many metals, and breathing of animals. Most humans can function at rest with an oxygen level of 15% at one atmosphere pressure; a fuel such as methane","-24.441507832307252"],["circuit systems may be used to conserve the breathing gas, which may be in limited supply - in the case of mountaineering the user must carry the supplemental oxygen, and in space flight the cost of lifting mass into orbit is very high. Medical breathing gases Medical use of breathing gases other than air include oxygen therapy and anesthesia applications. Oxygen therapy Oxygen is required by people for normal cell metabolism. Air is typically 21% oxygen by volume. This is normally sufficient, but in some circumstances the oxygen supply to tissues is compromised.\nOxygen therapy, also known as supplemental oxygen, is","-24.088046393182594"],["a fire risk. Attendants may also breathe oxygen some of the time to reduce their risk of decompression sickness when they leave the chamber. The pressure inside the chamber is increased by opening valves allowing high-pressure air to enter from storage cylinders, which are filled by an air compressor. Chamber air oxygen content is kept between 19% and 23% to control fire risk (US Navy maximum 25%). If the chamber does not have a scrubber system to remove carbon dioxide from the chamber gas, the chamber must be isobarically ventilated to keep the CO₂ within acceptable limits.\nA soft chamber may","-23.882120696995116"],["Oxygen firebreak An oxygen firebreak, also known as a fire stop valve or fire safety valve, is a thermal fuse designed to extinguish a fire in the delivery tube being used by a patient on oxygen therapy and stop the flow of oxygen if the tube is accidentally ignited. Oxygen firebreaks are fitted into the oxygen delivery tubing close to the patient, typically around the patient’s sternum where the two nasal cannula tubes join and connect to the delivery tubing. Home oxygen fires Oxygen is not flammable, but when it is present in increased concentrations it will enable fires to","-23.82978813558293"],["the news were that the system depleted oxygen, whereas the manufacturer states that the system does not displace oxygen.","-23.8117595371441"],["Oxygen breathing apparatus An oxygen breathing apparatus (OBA) is a rebreather. It is used primarily in firefighting. Its oxygen is generated by chemicals contained in the green canister, which is inserted at the base of the breathing device.\n The canister uses potassium superoxide as both a CO₂ scrubber and an O₂ generator. A sodium chlorate candle in the base generates additional oxygen when first beginning use as the canister has to achieve a high internal temperature before it will start generating oxygen on its own. It is the circulation of exhaled air through the canister that starts the chemical process,","-23.785917500412324"],["oxygen cleaned before being put into such service. Surface supplied equipment may be subject to more stringent requirements, as the diver may not be able to remove the equipment in an accident. Oxygen cleaning may be required for concentrations as low as 23%\nCleaning agents used range from heavy-duty industrial solvents and detergents such as liquid freon, trichlorethylene and anhydrous trisodium phosphate, followed by rinsing in deionised water. These materials are now generally deprecated as being environmentally unsound and an unnecessary health hazard. Some strong all-purpose household detergents have been found to do the job adequately. They are diluted with water","-23.635232232045382"],["and Research, has explained that at one end of the hose is a source of oxygen, so the individual providing the hose and turning on the supply is dispensing a prescription drug. He commented that \"Although oxygen bars that dispense oxygen without a prescription violate FDA regulations, the agency applies regulatory discretion to permit the individual state boards of licensing to enforce the requirements pertaining to the dispensing of oxygen.\"\nCanadian Society of Respiratory Therapists says that \"As health professionals, we cannot ethically or morally support providing oxygen therapy to those who do not require it.\"","-23.483668475353625"],["Built-in breathing system A built-in breathing system is a source of breathing gas installed in a confined space where an alternative to the ambient gas may be required for medical treatment, emergency use, or to minimise a hazard. They are found in diving chambers, hyperbaric treatment chambers, and submarines.\nThe use in hyperbaric treatment chambers is usually to supply an oxygen rich treatment gas which if used as the chamber atmosphere, would constitute an unacceptable fire hazard. In this application the exhaust gas is vented outside of the chamber. In saturation diving chambers and surface decompression chamber the application is similar,","-23.44869946152903"],["compression and towards the end of decompression the oxygen levels will support combustion, and greater care must be taken. Built in breathing systems Built in breathing systems are installed for emergency use and for treatment of decompression sickness. They supply breathing gas appropriate to the current function, which is supplied from outside the pressurized system and also vented to the exterior, so the exhaled gases do not contaminate the chamber atmosphere. Underwater habitats Scientific saturation diving is usually conducted by researchers and technicians known as aquanauts living in an underwater habitat, a structure designed for people to live in for","-23.335637212498114"],["and to determine if there is sufficient oxygen.\nIf detected by testing, vent hazardous atmospheres to ensure that combustible and toxic gas levels are reduced to non hazardous levels, and that sufficient oxygen levels are maintained.\nEnsure a permit is issued for each instance a worker enters a bin or silo, certifying that the precautions listed above have been implemented.","-23.311523499782197"],["oxygen service. \nIn the case of diving equipment, oxygen cleaning generally involves the stripping down of the equipment into individual components which are then thoroughly cleaned of hydrocarbon and other combustible contaminants using non-flammable, non-toxic cleaners. Once dry, the equipment is reasssembled under clean conditions. Lubricants are replaced by specifically oxygen- compatible substitutes during reassembly.\nThe standard and requirements for oxygen cleaning of diving apparatus varies depending on the application and applicable legislation and codes of practice.\nFor scuba equipment, the industry standard is that breathing apparatus which will be exposed to concentrations in excess of 40% oxygen by volume should be","-23.291216915589757"],["but a further function is a supply of breathable gas in case of toxic contamination of the chamber atmosphere. This function does not require external venting, but the same equipment is typically used for supply of oxygen enriched gases, so they are generally vented to the exterior.\nIn submarines the function is to supply a breathable gas in an emergency, which may be contamination of the ambient internal atmosphere, or flooding. In this application venting to the interior is both acceptable and generally the only feasible option, as the exterior is typically at a higher pressure than the interior, and external","-23.29044487827923"],["putting them out of commission. The sudden failure of Oxygen Tank 2 compromised Oxygen Tank 1, causing its contents to leak out, possibly through a damaged line or valve, over the next 130 minutes, entirely depleting the SM's oxygen supply. With both SM oxygen tanks emptying, and with other damage to the SM, the mission had to be aborted.\nOxygen Tank 2 was manufactured by the Beech Aircraft Company of Boulder, Colorado, as subcontractor to North American Rockwell (NAR) of Downey, California, prime contractor for the CSM. It contained two thermostatic switches, originally designed for the command module's 28-volt DC","-23.184367904323153"],["compounds. For reasons of economy, oxygen is often transported in bulk as a liquid in specially insulated tankers, since one liter of liquefied oxygen is equivalent to 840 liters of gaseous oxygen at atmospheric pressure and 20 °C (68 °F). Such tankers are used to refill bulk liquid oxygen storage containers, which stand outside hospitals and other institutions that need large volumes of pure oxygen gas. Liquid oxygen is passed through heat exchangers, which convert the cryogenic liquid into gas before it enters the building. Oxygen is also stored and shipped in smaller cylinders containing the compressed gas; a form that is useful","-23.05854940385325"],["source, including oxygen concentrators, liquid oxygen dewars or gas cylinders. United Kingdom An additional legal requirement applies in the UK, where the fitting of firebreaks has been mandatory under the service specification of the home oxygen service since 2006. Germany In 2011, the German Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices recommended ‘corrective actions to prevent fires in oxygen concentrators’. It issued a notice stating that from July 1, 2012 all devices should be equipped with installations for stopping encroachment of the fire into the device, and interruption of the delivery of oxygen in the accessory as close to the","-23.00178195949411"],["in the occupied space, exhaled gas is simply dumped into the internal volume, requiring no special flow control beyond a simple non-return valve. The delivery and exhaust mechanism of a BIBS demand valve for this application is the same as for a scuba or SCBA second stage regulator, and these can be used for this purpose with little or no modification. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy The traditional type of hyperbaric chamber used for therapeutic recompression and hyperbaric oxygen therapy is a rigid shelled pressure vessel. Such chambers can be run at absolute pressures typically about 6 bars (87 psi), 600,000 Pa or more","-22.906365998322144"],["Any oxygen-clean cylinder may have any mix up to 100% oxygen inside. If by some accident an oxygen-clean cylinder is filled at a station that does not supply gas to oxygen-clean standards it is then considered contaminated and must be re-cleaned before a gas containing more than 40% oxygen may again be added. Cylinders marked as 'not oxygen clean' may only be filled with oxygen-enriched air mixtures from membrane or stick blending systems where the gas is mixed before being added to the cylinder, and to an oxygen fraction not exceeding 40% by volume. Incorrect gas mix Use of a","-22.86493007239187"],["Portable oxygen concentrator A portable oxygen concentrator (POC) is a device used to provide oxygen therapy to people that require greater oxygen concentrations than the levels of ambient air. It is similar to a home oxygen concentrator (OC), but is smaller in size and more mobile. They are small enough to carry and many are now FAA-approved for use on airplanes. Development Medical oxygen concentrators were developed in the late 1970s. Early manufacturers included Union Carbide and Bendix Corporation. They were initially conceived of as a method of providing a continuous source of home oxygen without the use of heavy","-22.849500398500822"],["diving loop at an oxygen partial pressure of about 1.2 bar and the rest of the time in storage in air at room temperature.\nFailures in cells can be life-threatening for technical divers and in particular, rebreather divers. The failure modes common to these cells are: failing with a higher than expected output due to electrolyte leaks, which is usually attributable to physical damage, contamination, or other defects in manufacture, or current limitation due to exhausted cell life and non linear output across its range.\nShelf life can be maximised by keeping the cell in the sealed bag as supplied by the","-22.841788313700818"],["labelling and permanent stamp markings, and the ownership and contents verified. Depressurisation and removal of cylinder valve Before internal inspection the valve must be removed after depressurising and verifying that the valve is open. Cylinders containing breathing gases do not need special precautions for discharge except that high oxygen fraction gases should not be released in an enclosed space because of the fire hazard. If the valve is blocked or stuck closed it may be necessary to release the pressure by removing the burst disc or drilling into the valve body below the valve seat. These operations require care","-22.771944188745692"],["cylinders, which are filled by an air compressor. Chamber air oxygen content is kept between 19% and 23% to control fire risk (US Navy maximum 25%). If the chamber does not have a scrubber system to remove carbon dioxide from the chamber gas, the chamber must be isobarically ventilated to keep the CO₂ within acceptable limits. Therapeutic recompression Hyperbaric oxygen therapy was developed as a treatment for diving disorders involving bubbles of gas in the tissues, such as decompression sickness and gas embolism, and it is still considered the definitive treatment for these conditions. The recompression treats decompression sickness and","-22.75201502162963"],["a higher partial pressure than possible from compressed air, but also can occur at lower pressures when the concentration is high. Oxygen cleaning Oxygen cleaning is preparation for oxygen service by ensuring that the surfaces that may come into contact with high partial pressures of oxygen while in use are free of contaminants that increase the risk of ignition.\nOxygen cleaning is a necessary, but not always a sufficient condition for high partial pressure or high concentration oxygen service. The materials used must also be oxygen compatible at all expected service conditions. Aluminium and titanium components are specifically not suitable for","-22.742011255351827"],["The hospital consumes around 300 oxygen cylinders every day.\nThe hospital has become the first government-run institution in the state to install a tank to store liquid oxygen. The tank, with a capacity to hold 13,000 litres of oxygen, would cater to the needs of the entire hospital when it becomes operational. The tank has been installed in the space between Tower Block 2 and the old cardiology block. The tank, costing ₹ 4 million, has been built free of cost by Inox Air Products, which supplies the gas to the hospital. A full tank will ensure that supply will last","-22.73285253333961"],["richer in oxygen than the mixture entering. When the bed reaches the end of its capacity to adsorb nitrogen, it can be regenerated by reducing the pressure, thus releasing the adsorbed nitrogen. It is then ready for another cycle of producing oxygen-enriched air.\nThis is the process used in medical oxygen concentrators used by emphysema patients and others requiring oxygen-enriched air for breathing.\nUsing two adsorbent vessels allows near-continuous production of the target gas. It also permits so-called pressure equalisation, where the gas leaving the vessel being depressurised is used to partially pressurise the second vessel. This results in significant","-22.681035239133053"],["cabins are required to fully supply food and oxygen for their crew. On missions lasting a year or longer, the cabins have to be self-sustaining, i.e. replenish their own water and oxygen. The space cabin for any long-range manned mission is expected to be reasonably spacious, with approximately 28 cubic metres allotted to each occupant. In addition, cabins have life support systems that should have the capability to meet a variety of off-nominal conditions, including cabin fires, depressurization, and component shutdown or failure. Frequently, these conditions occur so quickly that recovery can be provided only by automatic control systems. In","-22.65336280700285"],["Oxygen window in diving decompression Background Oxygen is used to decrease the time needed for safe decompression in diving, but the practical consequences and benefits need further research. Decompression is still far from being an exact science, and divers when diving deep must make many decisions based on personal experience rather than scientific knowledge.\nIn technical diving, applying the oxygen window effect by using decompression gases with high ppO₂ increases decompression efficiency and allows shorter decompression stops. Reducing decompression time can be important to reduce time spent at shallow depths in open water (avoiding dangers such as water currents and boat","-22.63689934793365"],["on the same principles as a regular diving demand valve second stage. Like any other breathing apparatus, the dead space must be limited to minimise carbon dioxide buildup in the mask.\nIn some cases the outlet suction must be limited and a back-pressure regulator may be required. This would usually be the case for use in a saturation system. Use for oxygen therapy and surface decompression on oxygen would not generally need a back-pressure regulator. When an externally vented BIBS is used at low chamber pressure, a vacuum assist may be necessary to keep the exhalation backpressure down to provide an","-22.609327181475237"],["taken between oxygen breathing to reduce the risk of oxygen toxicity. In water recompression If a chamber is not available for recompression within a reasonable period, a riskier alternative is in-water recompression at the dive site.\nIn-water recompression (IWR) is the emergency treatment of decompression sickness (DCS) by sending the diver back underwater to allow the gas bubbles in the tissues, which are causing the symptoms, to resolve. It is a risky procedure that should only be used when it is not practicable to travel to the nearest recompression chamber in time to save the victim's life.\nThe procedure is high risk","-22.52910659450572"],["and thus more oxygen than slow, backwaters. Oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis, so systems with a high abundance of aquatic algae and plants may also have high concentrations of oxygen during the day. These levels can decrease significantly during the night when primary producers switch to respiration. Oxygen can be limiting if circulation between the surface and deeper layers is poor, if the activity of lotic animals is very high, or if there is a large amount of organic decay occurring. Suspended matter Rivers can also transport suspended inorganic and organic matter. These materials can include sediment","-22.50421279136208"],["into one part of the cave floor to provide a place for the coldest air to gather, away from the occupants, and the entrance may be partially blocked with chunks of snow to deflect wind and retain heat, although it is vital to prevent drifting snow from completely plugging the rest of the entrance in order to maintain a constant air supply. Some prefer to place a ski pole or a ski up from the cave out through the roof or side wall. This can provide an emergency air hole should the main entrance become blocked.\nIt is possible to sleep","-22.474725837702863"],["O\n₂ with other gases, such as nitrogen or helium, to prevent oxygen toxicity.\nPeople who climb mountains or fly in non-pressurized fixed-wing aircraft sometimes have supplemental O\n₂ supplies. Pressurized commercial airplanes have an emergency supply of O\n₂ automatically supplied to the passengers in case of cabin depressurization. Sudden cabin pressure loss activates chemical oxygen generators above each seat, causing oxygen masks to drop. Pulling on the masks \"to start the flow of oxygen\" as cabin safety instructions dictate, forces iron filings into the sodium chlorate inside the canister. A steady stream of oxygen gas is then produced by the exothermic reaction.\nOxygen,","-22.448161302425433"],["must be removed after depressurising and verifying that the valve is open. Cylinders containing breathing gases do not need special precautions for discharge except that high oxygen fraction gases should not be released in an enclosed space because of the fire hazard. Before inspection the cylinder must be clean and free of loose coatings, corrosion products and other materials which may obscure the surface.\nThe cylinder is inspected externally for dents, cracks, gouges, cuts, bulges, laminations and excessive wear, heat damage, torch or electric arc burns, corrosion damage, illegible, incorrect or unauthorised permanent stamp markings, and unauthorised additions or modifications.","-22.435085656819865"],["organisms require it for survival. It enters the water mostly via diffusion at the water-air interface. Oxygen’s solubility in water decreases as water temperature increases. Fast, turbulent streams expose more of the water’s surface area to the air and tend to have low temperatures and thus more oxygen than slow, backwaters. Oxygen is a by-product of photosynthesis, so systems with a high abundance of aquatic algae and plants may also have high concentrations of oxygen during the day. These levels can decrease significantly during the night when primary producers switch to respiration. Oxygen can be","-22.397541075741174"],["the cryogenic material. This can introduce contaminants. If these materials freeze, for example, water vapor becoming ice, they can block the openings, leading to pressure buildup and the risk of an explosion.\nThe gas escaping from a dewar can gradually displace the oxygen from the air in the surrounding area, which presents an asphyxiation hazard. Users are trained to store dewars only in a well-ventilated area and before transporting dewars in an elevator, the excess gas pressure is vented away and the dewars are sent unaccompanied to their destination.","-22.38592565836734"],["oxygen flow supplied by a regulated cylinder, while also allowing the patient's lungs to deflate to the ambient environment (not the bag) past the one way valve. Bag and valve Bag and valve combinations can also be attached to an alternative airway adjunct, instead of to the mask. For example, it can be attached to an endotracheal tube or laryngeal mask airway. Small heat and moisture exchangers, or humidifying / bacterial filters, can be used.\nA bag-valve mask can be used without being attached to an oxygen tank to provide \"room air\" (21% oxygen) to the patient, however manual resuscitator","-22.34020142816007"],["systems.\". Design and operation Air with a reduced oxygen content is injected to the protected volumes to lower the oxygen concentration until the desired oxygen concentration is reached. Then, because of air infiltration, the oxygen concentration inside the protected volumes rises: when it exceeds a certain threshold, low-oxygen air is again injected to the protected volumes until the desired oxygen concentration is reached. Oxygen sensors are installed in the protected volumes to monitor continuously the oxygen concentration.\nThe exact oxygen level to retain in the protected volumes is determined after a careful assessment of materials, configurations and hazards. Tables","-22.324902902008034"],["as a regular diving demand valve second stage. Like any other breathing apparatus, the dead space must be limited to minimise carbon dioxide buildup in the mask.\nIn some cases the outlet suction must be limited and a back-pressure regulator may be required. This would usually be the case for use in a saturation system. Use for oxygen therapy and surface decompression on oxygen would not generally need a back-pressure regulator. When an externally vented BIBS is used at low chamber pressure, a vacuum assist may be necessary to keep the exhalation backpressure down to provide an acceptable work of breathing.\nThe","-22.286952128866687"],["hoses of surface-supplied diving equipment. Scuba has limitations of breathing gas supply, communications between diver and surface are problematic, the location of the diver may be difficult to monitor, and it is considered a higher-risk mode of diving in most circumstances. Scuba is specifically forbidden for some professional applications. Decompression is often avoided, and if necessary, is generally in-water, but may use a variety of gases. Open circuit Open-circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled, and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure connected to a primary","-22.277636722952593"],["gas to the divers' umbilicals. Chambers with BIBS will generally have an oxygen monitor. BIBS are also used as an emergency breathing gas supply if the chamber gas is contaminated.\nSanitation systems for washing and waste removal are required. Discharge is simple because of the pressure gradient, but must be controlled to avoid undesired chamber pressure loss or fluctuations. Catering is generally provided by preparing the food and drink outside and transferring it into the chamber through the stores lock, which is also used to transfer used utensils, laundry and other supplies.\nNon-portable chambers are generally constructed from steel, as it","-22.2705672972952"],["be employed in an improvised rebreather, along with self-contained oxygen candles or the more common welding Oxygen tanks, are the type of equipment necessary to safely extend the period of Shelter-in-place past the point were respiratory/capnograph CO₂ levels would normally be deemed unsafe. In the case of the latter two oxygen sources, both of which also have the added benefit of producing and maintaining a shelter positive pressure which keeps any shelter leaks, leaking out rather than leaking in, Positive pressure environments are routinely employed in the hospital setting where the biological agents found in normal outside air, and generally","-22.1869559265906"],["partial pressure of oxygen in the inspired breathing gas. The inherent unsaturation due to the oxygen window allows a relatively fast initial phase of saturation decompression in proportion to the oxygen partial pressure and then controls the rate of further decompression limited by the half-time of inert gas elimination from the slowest compartment. However, some saturation decompression schedules specifically do not allow an decompression to start with an upward excursion. Neither the excursions nor the decompression procedures currently in use (2016) have been found to cause decompression problems in isolation, but there appears to be significantly higher risk when excursions","-22.15662371896906"],["and fitting a firebreak. If the firebreak is not fitted, then the Essential Requirements for performance and safety are not met and the CE mark is no longer valid. It also means that the home oxygen service provider’s status, within the framework under which the single market for medical devices operates, changes from ‘distributor’ to ‘manufacturer’. This has significant regulatory implications.\nThe EU Medical Devices Directive also requires that economic operators adopt solutions that ‘reduce risk as far as possible’ in line with the ‘state of the art’. The fitting of firebreaks is therefore a requirement irrespective of the oxygen","-22.14738799846964"],["electrical outlet and may have an internal battery or external battery pack for operation away from home and during power outages. Portable oxygen concentrators usually can be plugged into the DC outlet of a vehicle, and most of these devices are suitable for ambulatory use.\nThe FAA has approved the use of portable oxygen concentrators on commercial airlines. However, users of these devices should check in advance as to whether a particular brand or model is permitted on a particular airline. Unlike in commercial airlines, users of aircraft without cabin pressurization need oxygen concentrators which are able to deliver enough flowrate","-22.135237142676488"],["oxygen toxicity becomes a factor at high oxygen concentrations. For this reason, most modern crewed spacecraft use conventional air (nitrogen/oxygen) atmospheres and use pure oxygen only in pressure suits during extravehicular activity where acceptable suit flexibility mandates the lowest inflation pressure possible. Water Water is consumed by crew members for drinking, cleaning activities, EVA thermal control, and emergency uses. It must be stored, used, and reclaimed (from waste water) efficiently since no on-site sources currently exist for the environments reached in the course of human space exploration. Future lunar missions may utilise water sourced from polar ices; Mars missions may","-22.062665823266116"],["atmosphere can leak into the room to replenish the burnt oxygen, the proportion of carbon monoxide rapidly increases. Since the monoxide can not escape, any person in the room will fatally succumb to the poisonous gas. Human senses only detect an excess of carbon dioxide, and death occurs before any occupants of the room sense there is something amiss. Most manufacturers recommend that a window or door be left cracked open. Kerosene heaters should not be left unattended, especially when sleeping. A kerosene heater, as any heater that uses organic fuel, can produce dangerously high amounts of soot and","-22.03940384509042"],["medical supplies into the chamber while under pressure. Monoplace chambers Outside of the diving industry, most chambers are intended for a single occupant, and not all of them are fitted with built-in breathing systems (BIBS). This limits the schedules which can be safely used in them. Some schedules have been developed specifically for hyperbaric oxygen treatment in monoplace chambers, and some hyperbaric treatment schedules nominally intended for chambers with BIBS have been shown to be acceptable for use without air breaks if the preferred facilities are not available. Treatment gases Originally therapeutic recompression was done using air as the only","-22.022980805370025"],["Vacuum insulated evaporator Mandatory safety features To avoid explosions or other dangerous events, the VIE must be kept in an open space with no overhead wires (to prevent sparks from igniting surrounding materials, which will combust easier in the prescense of liquid oxygen) and ringed by a fence of non-combustible material. Parking vehicles, open flames, smoking, and other potentially hazardous activities are normally prohibited anywhere near the VIE.","-21.985286988521693"],["oxygen, it does not cool the burning substances significantly and when the carbon dioxide disperses they are free to catch fire upon exposure to atmospheric oxygen. Their desirability in electrical fire stems from the fact that, unlike water or other chemical based methods, Carbon dioxide will not cause short circuits, leading to even more damage to equipment. Because it is a gas, it is also easy to dispense large amounts of the gas automatically in IT infrastructure rooms, where the fire itself might be hard to reach with more immediate methods because it is behind rack doors and inside of","-21.969868544430938"],[" If oxygen was consumed faster due to a high workload, a regular scrubber was needed. No electronics were needed as everything followed the setting of the nitrogen release pressure from the cooling unit, and the refrigeration by evaporation of liquid nitrogen maintained a steady temperature until the liquid nitrogen was exhausted. The loop gas flow was passed through a counterflow heat exchanger, which re-heated the gas returning to the diver by chilling the gas headed for the snow box (the cryogenic scrubber). The first prototype, the S-600G, was completed and shallow-water tested in October 1967. The S1000 was","-21.968071850482374"],["(specifically for chambers without facility for air breaks) Hart monoplace table 100% oxygen for 30 minutes at 3.0 ATA followed by 60 minutes at 2.5 ATA. Australian In-water Recompression Table The Australian IWR Tables were developed by the Royal Australian Navy in the 1960s in response to their need for treatment in remote locations far away from recompression chambers. It was the shallow portion of the table developed for recompression chamber use.\nOxygen is breathed the entire portion of the treatment without any air breaks and is followed by alternating periods (12 hours) of oxygen and air breathing on the surface.","-21.959654934238642"],["oxygen activated sludge aeration systems are sealed-tank reactor vessels with surface aerator type impellers mounted within the tanks at the oxygen carbon liquor surface interface. The amount of oxygen entrainment, or DO (Dissolved Oxygen), can be controlled by a weir adjusted level control, and a vent gas oxygen controlled oxygen feed valve. Oxygen is generated on site by cryogenic distillation of air, pressure swing adsorption, or other methods. These systems are used where wastewater plant space is at a premium and high sewage throughput is required as high energy costs are involved in purifying oxygen. Recent developments A new development","-21.957919922017027"],["returned to an oxygenated environment.","-21.956802469077957"],["on the outside, and constantly transmitting from the inside, so that the operator can better monitor the condition of the occupants. There may also be a backup communications system.\nFirefighting equipment is necessary as a chamber fire is extremely dangerous to the occupants. Either fire extinguishers specially made for hyperbaric environment with non-toxic contents, or a pressurised internal water spray system can be used. Water buckets are often provided as additional equipment.\nLife support systems for saturation systems can be fairly complex, as the occupants must remain under pressure continuously for several day to weeks. Oxygen content of the chamber gas is","-21.937255323515274"],["or breathing equipment failure. Equipment failure resulting in the loss of all gas could be caused by failure of a pressure retaining component such as an O-ring or hose in the regulator or, in cold conditions, a freezing of water in the regulator resulting in a free flow from the demand valve. Technique Buddy breathing is usually initialised by the diver with the \"out of air\" emergency signalling this to another diver by a standard hand signal \"give me air\". This signal is made by holding the fingers and thumb of one hand together, pointing them at the mouth and","-21.924289425835013"],["doors. Fire suppression system Firefighting systems include hand held fire extinguishers to automatic deluge systems. Special fire extinguishers which do not use toxic materials must be used. In the event of a fire, toxic gases may be released by burning materials, and the occupants will have to use the built-in breathing systems (BIBS) until the chamber gas has been flushed sufficiently. When a system with oxygen partial pressure 0.48 bar is pressurized below about 70 msw (231fsw), the oxygen fraction is too low to support combustion (less than 6%), and the fire risk is low. During the early stages of","-21.911187556339428"],["cryogenic air separation plant.\nAir forces have long recognized the strategic importance of liquid oxygen, both as an oxidizer and as a supply of gaseous oxygen for breathing in hospitals and high-altitude aircraft flights. In 1985 the USAF started a program of building its own oxygen-generation facilities at all major consumption bases.","-21.850983794312924"],["oxygen; moving from the frogs back to the lung, it contains water and free CO₂. A double layer of polyurethane foam lining the interior of the centrifuge prevents frog waste matter from fouling the water circulation system. Water is circulated through the liquid loop using a small pump and must pass through the filter before leaving the centrifuge. Gas loop The gas loop consists of a circuit in the lower bulkhead through which oxygen is circulated by a small pump. The pump delivers pure oxygen to the lung where some of it passes into the liquid loop, while the remainder","-21.82212830067874"],["major application for this type of BIBS is supply of breathing gas with a different composition to the chamber atmosphere to occupants of a hyperbaric chamber where the chamber atmosphere is controlled, and contamination by the BIBS gas would be a problem. This is common in therapeutic decompression, and hyperbaric oxygen therapy, where a higher partial pressure of oxygen in the chamber would constitute an unacceptable fire hazard, and would require frequent ventilation of the chamber to keep the partial pressure within acceptable limits Frequent ventilation is noisy and expensive, but can be used in an emergency. Rebreather regulators Rebreather","-21.80657376779709"],["dive. This minimizes the absorption of inert gas in the first place, and accelerates the elimination of the inert gases during ascent. Deck decompression chambers A deck decompression chamber (DDC), or double-lock chamber is a two compartment pressure vessel for human occupation which has sufficient space in the main chamber for two or more occupants, and a forechamber which can allow a person to be pressurised or decompressed while the main chamber remains under constant pressure. This allows an attendant to be locked in or out during treatment of the occupant(s) of the main chamber. There is usually also a","-21.80605559819378"],["at any time that the counterlung is emptied and the diver continues to inhale. Oxygen can also be added manually by a button which activates the demand valve.\nSome simple oxygen rebreathers had no automatic supply system, but only the manual feed valve, and the diver had to operate the valve at intervals to refill the breathing bag as the volume of oxygen decreased below a comfortable level. Semi-closed circuit rebreathers These are generally used for underwater diving, as they are bulkier and heavier than closed circuit oxygen rebreathers.\nMilitary and recreational divers use these because they provide better underwater duration","-21.79271419532597"],["when the lungs are filled with gas. Liquid breathing would not result in the saturation of body tissues with high pressure nitrogen or helium that occurs with the use of non-liquids, thus would reduce or remove the need for slow decompression.\nA significant problem, however, arises from the high viscosity of the liquid and the corresponding reduction in its ability to remove CO₂. All uses of liquid breathing for diving must involve total liquid ventilation (see above). Total liquid ventilation, however, has difficulty moving enough liquid to carry away CO₂, because no matter how great the total pressure is, the amount","-21.768880474788602"],["used to recover helium based breathing gas after use by the diver when this is more economical than losing it to the environment in open circuit systems. The recovered gas is passed through a scrubber system to remove carbon dioxide, filtered to remove odours, and pressurised into storage containers, where it may be mixed with oxygen to the required composition for re-use. Mountaineering rebreathers Mountaineering rebreathers provide oxygen at a higher concentration than available from atmospheric air in a naturally hypoxic environment. They need to be lightweight and to be reliable in severe cold including not getting choked with deposited","-21.73295747244265"],["Oxygen compatibility Oxygen compatibility is the issue of compatibility of materials for service in high concentrations of oxygen. It is a critical issue in space, aircraft, medical, underwater diving and industrial applications. \nAspects include effects of increased oxygen concentration on the ignition and burning of materials and components exposed to these concentrations in service.\nUnderstanding of fire hazards is necessary when designing, operating, and maintaining oxygen systems so that fires can be prevented. Ignition risks can be minimized by controlling heat sources and using materials that will not ignite or will not support burning in the applicable environment. Some materials are","-21.688865505391732"],["decreases the upper flammable limit or highest concentration at which the vapors can be ignited. When the total concentration of oxygen in the tank reaches about 11%, the upper and lower flammable limits converge and the flammable range disappears.\nInert gas systems deliver air with an oxygen concentration of less than 5% by volume. As a tank is pumped out, it is filled with inert gas and kept in this safe state until the next cargo is loaded. The exception is in cases when the tank must be entered. Safely gas-freeing a tank is accomplished by purging hydrocarbon vapors with inert","-21.679948464152403"],["than open circuit, have a deeper maximum operating depth than oxygen rebreathers and can be fairly simple and cheap. They do not rely on electronics for control of gas composition, but may use electronic monitoring for improved safety and more efficient decompression.\nSemi-closed circuit equipment generally supplies one breathing gas such as air, nitrox or trimix at a time. The gas is injected into the loop at a constant rate to replenish oxygen consumed from the loop by the diver. Excess gas must be constantly vented from the loop in small volumes to make space for fresh, oxygen-rich gas. As the","-21.669258399018872"],["reduce the danger of oxygen toxicity. Once the oxygen is reduced below about 18% the mix is known as a hypoxic mix as it does not contain enough oxygen to be used safely at the surface. Safety Technical diving encompasses multiple aspects of diving, that typically share lack of direct access to surface, which may be caused by physical constraints, like an overhead environment, or physiological, like decompression obligation. In case of emergency, therefore, the diver or diving team must be able to troubleshoot and solve the problem underwater. This requires planning, situational awareness, and redundancy in critical equipment, and","-21.642772399063688"],["evacuated by helicopter. Supplementary oxygen The use and non-use of supplementary oxygen was the focus of much discussion and analysis after the disaster with a guide and a sardar both being criticized by Jon Krakauer for not using supplementary oxygen while performing guide duties. Both men gave detailed written explanations as to why they preferred not to use oxygen but both carried a bottle on the summit day that could be used if it was needed in an emergency or extraordinary situation. Radios There were several issues and problems surrounding radios and their use on summit day. Scott Fischer's sardar","-21.58239549410564"],["Livewell Oxygen levels It is very important to maintain adequate oxygen levels in the livewell. It should be above 5 parts per million. Electric aeration systems are often used to do this. These often work by creating a spray that increases the surface area of the water, or by passing it through a Venturi.\nA livewell is a box used to transport live aquatic animals; shrimp, baitfish and mature fish, saltwater or freshwater species. A livewell should be made of materials that are non- toxic to aquatic animals. The shape may be square, rectangular, oval or round. The box may be","-21.53771481797594"],["Hypoxic air technology for fire prevention Hypoxic air technology for fire prevention, also known as oxygen reduction system (ORS), is an active fire protection technique based on a permanent reduction of the oxygen concentration in the protected rooms. Unlike traditional fire suppression systems that usually extinguish fire after it is detected, hypoxic air is able to prevent fire. Description In a volume protected by hypoxic air, a normobaric hypoxic atmosphere is continuously retained: hypoxic means that the partial pressure of the oxygen is lower than at the sea level, normobaric means that the barometric pressure is equal to the","-21.463759168233082"],["inflammable material within the vicinity of any oxygen apparatus. Using an electrical device inside an oxygen tent also could be hazardous.","-21.46307776134927"],["with scuba may provide a method of switching to atmospheric air when above the surface, to save breathing gas. Rebreather systems often incorporate a dive/surface valve in the mouthpiece which may provide an opening to the ambient environment when the loop is isolated. Some other full-face masks allow the demand valve to be unplugged on the surface, or provide a \"snorkel valve\" port which can be opened to allow atmospheric air to enter. The small saving on breathing gas is unimportant with surface supplied breathing apparatus. Bailout Emergency provision of an alternative breathing gas source is required in case of","-21.447637703851797"],["important gas to be kept in that way is water vapor. Without the presence of a cold-trap in the atmosphere, the water content would gradually escape into space, making life impossible. The cold trap retains one-tenth of a percent of the water in the atmosphere in the form of a vapor at high altitudes. Earth's cold-trap is also a layer which above ultraviolet intensity is strong, since higher up the amount of water vapor is negligible. Oxygen screens out ultraviolet intensity.\nSome astronomers believe that the lack of a cold trap is why the planets Venus and Mars both","-21.4361105307471"],["safety elements of the standard, including ‘a means to extinguish a tubing fire and isolate the oxygen flow’ are a requirement. Approval to market the product would then be based upon compliance to the standard.\nIn March, 2018, the US Veterans Health Administration issued a Patient Safety Alert mandating the use of thermal fuses in all its patients' home oxygen installations, unless there is a clinical reason for not doing so. The Patient Safety Alert applies to all patients, not just those deemed to be at 'high risk'. It requires two thermal fuses to be fitted per patient installation, and any","-21.426113771856762"],[" If changes or maintenance need to be performed in the interstitial space, the primary space does not need to be shut down, which is important in buildings like hospitals where the equipment in the space must operate constantly. Unlike traditionally built buildings, where the mechanical space is located in the basement or on the top floor, the interstitial space needs few vertical penetrations and therefore leaves more open space on the primary floor. The entire floor plan of these buildings can be more open because there are fewer fixed vertical penetrations through the floor and walls.\nAnother way","-21.41469592647627"],["on them, called them \"exit bags\", and included no instructions for use to circumvent Australian laws against assisting suicide. Physiological mechanism A hypoxic, carbon dioxide free metabolically inert gas is provided for inhalation by confining the gas supply and the head in an impermeable bag which prevents contamination with oxygen from the surrounding air, minimising the amount of gas required. (The same effect could be reached by flooding any enclosed space with the gas, but much more gas would be needed, and this would be hazardous to a third party entering the space, an effect which is well known as","-21.36379804133321"],["a reduced-nitrogen atmosphere to purge nitrogen from their bloodstream and avoid decompression sickness in the low-pressure (4.3 psi, 30 kPa) pure-oxygen atmosphere of the spacesuit. The previous method of preparing for spacewalks involved breathing pure oxygen for several hours prior to an EVA to purge the body of nitrogen. In April 2006, Expedition 12 Commander Bill McArthur and Expedition 13 flight engineer Jeffrey Williams tested a new method of preparing for spacewalks by \"camping out\", or spending the night, in the Quest Airlock. In the chamber, the pressure was reduced from the normal 14.7 to 10.2 psi (101 to 70 kPa). Four hours","-21.33482074542917"],["oxygen in the vented gas cannot be separated from the inert gas, semi-closed circuit is wasteful of oxygen.\nA gas mix which has a maximum operating depth that is safe for the depth of the dive being planned, and which will provide a breathable mixture at the surface must be used, or it will be necessary to change mixtures during the dive.\nAs the amount of oxygen required by the diver increases with work rate, the gas injection rate must be carefully chosen and controlled to prevent unconsciousness in the diver due to hypoxia. A higher gas addition rate reduces the likelihood","-21.33168528554961"],["come to rely on the oxygen level in the blood to maintain respiratory drive. This is illustrated in the scenario of type II respiratory failure. However, in a normal healthy person there is no subjective awareness of low oxygen levels. Surface blackout Surface blackout occurs just after the diver exhales on the surface, and may happen before, during or after inhalation of the first breath. When the diver exhales, there is usually a reduction of intrathoracic pressure, which is exacerbated by the effort of inhalation, which can further compromise the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveolar capillaries, and after","-21.32260966830654"],["the oxygen gas from the producer bed through it, in the reverse direction of flow. After a set cycle time the operation of the two beds is interchanged, thereby allowing for a continuous supply of gaseous oxygen to be pumped through a pipeline. This is known as pressure swing adsorption. Oxygen gas is increasingly obtained by these non-cryogenic technologies (see also the related vacuum swing adsorption).\nOxygen gas can also be produced through electrolysis of water into molecular oxygen and hydrogen. DC electricity must be used: if AC is used, the gases in each limb consist of hydrogen and oxygen in","-21.286871156160487"],["to environmental hazards such as cold water or currents, which will enhance diver safety. The decompression in the chamber is more controlled, in a more comfortable environment, and oxygen can be used at greater partial pressure as there is no risk of drowning and a lower risk of oxygen toxicity convulsions. A further operational advantage is that once the divers are in the chamber, new divers can be supplied from the diving panel, and the operations can continue with less delay.\nA typical surface decompression procedure is described in the US Navy Diving Manual. If there is no in-water 40 ft stop","-21.28626801932114"],["on oxygen at 12 metres (40 ft). Small closed bell systems have been designed that can be easily mobilised, and include a two-man bell, a handling frame and a chamber for decompression after transfer under pressure (TUP). Divers can breathe air or mixed gas at the bottom and are usually recovered with the chamber filled with air. They decompress on oxygen supplied through built in breathing systems (BIBS) towards the end of the decompression. Small bell systems support bounce diving down to 120 metres (390 ft) and for bottom times up to 2 hours.\nA relatively portable surface gas supply system using high","-21.270665510208346"],["had been used to flush oxygen from the compartment as a precaution against fire. They were not wearing air packs because of a last-minute change in safety procedures.\nDuring a pool party in Mexico in 2013, eight party-goers were rendered unconscious and one 21-year-old male was put into a coma after liquid nitrogen was poured into the pool.\nOccasional deaths are reported from recreational inhalation of helium, but these are very rare from direct inhalation from small balloons. The inhalation from larger helium balloons has been reportedly fatal. A fatal fall from a tree occurred after the inhalation of helium from","-21.267167690410133"],["is done in a decompression chamber instead of in the water. This reduces the time that the diver spends in the water, exposed to environmental hazards such as cold water or currents, which will enhance diver safety. The decompression in the chamber is more controlled, in a more comfortable environment, and oxygen can be used at greater partial pressure as there is no risk of drowning and a lower risk of oxygen toxicity convulsions. A further operational advantage is that once the divers are in the chamber, new divers can be supplied from the diving panel, and the operations can","-21.257903546560556"],["of these methods increases the partial pressure of oxygen by raising the FiO₂ (fraction of inspired oxygen). Other methods Increased water intake may also help in acclimatization to replace the fluids lost through heavier breathing in the thin, dry air found at altitude, although consuming excessive quantities (\"over-hydration\") has no benefits and may cause dangerous hyponatremia.","-21.252138658892363"],["state.\nA second problem is that the trapped air pockets will shrink over time if the siphon is not operating due to no inflow. The air in pockets is absorbed by the liquid, which pulls liquid up into the piping until the air pocket disappears, and can cause activation of water flow outside the normal range of operating when the storage tank is not full, leading to loss of the liquid seal in lower parts of the mechanism.\nA third problem is where the lower end of the liquid seal is simply a U-trap bend in an outflow pipe. During vigorous","-21.245247060141992"],["diver does not have the option of simply taking out the DV and switching to an independent system, and gas switching may be done during a dive, including use of pure oxygen for accelerated decompression. To reduce the risk of confusion or getting the system contaminated, surface supplied systems may be required to be oxygen clean for all services except straight air diving. Oxygen service Regulators to be used with pure oxygen and nitrox mixtures containing more than 40% oxygen by volume should use oxygen compatible components and lubricants, and be cleaned for oxygen service. Helium service Helium is","-21.197406166786095"],["end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) and ventilation at higher-than-normal pressures may be helpful in maintaining adequate oxygenation. However, such measures can also increase leakage of air through a tear, and can stress the sutures in a tear that has been surgically repaired; therefore the lowest possible airway pressures that still maintain oxygenation are typically used. Mechanical ventilation can also cause pulmonary barotrauma when high pressure is required to ventilate the lungs. Techniques such as pulmonary toilet (removal of secretions), fluid management, and treatment of pneumonia are employed to improve pulmonary compliance (the elasticity of the lungs).\nWhile TBI may be managed without surgery,","-21.113570828165393"],["which could not be adequately isolated from the liquid oxygen being pumped. All lubricants reacted with the oxygen, leading to fires and other failures. The solution was to lubricate the bearing with the oxygen. Although liquid oxygen is a poor lubricant, it was adequate, since the service life of the pump was just a few hours.\nThe operating environment and service needs are also important design considerations. Some bearing assemblies require routine addition of lubricants, while others are factory sealed, requiring no further maintenance for the life of the mechanical assembly. Although seals are appealing, they increase","-21.112936375808204"],["the surface. This restricted the movements and range of the diver and was also potentially hazardous as the supply could get cut off for a number of reasons. Early attempts at creating systems that would allow divers to carry a portable breathing gas source did not succeed, as the compression and storage technology was not advanced enough to allow compressed air to be stored in containers at sufficiently high pressures. By the end of the nineteenth century, two basic templates for scuba, (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus), had emerged; open-circuit scuba where the diver's exhaust is vented directly into the water,","-21.105893507396104"],["the cabin interior had been soaking in pure oxygen for hours. Tom Stafford, in a NASA oral history in 1997, later recalled:\nSo it turns out what we would have seen, had we had to do that, would have been two Roman candles going out, because we were 15 or 16 psi, pure oxygen, soaking in that for an hour and a half. You remember the tragic fire we had at the Cape. (...) Jesus, with that fire going off and that, it would have burned the suits. Everything was soaked in oxygen. So thank God. That was another thing: NASA","-21.10314261034364"],["closed-circuit scuba. The body consumes and metabolises only a part of the oxygen in the inhaled air at the surface, and an even smaller fraction when the breathing gas is compressed as it is in ambient pressure systems underwater. A rebreather recycles the used breathing gas, while constantly replenishing it from the supply so that the oxygen level does not get dangerously depleted. The apparatus also has to remove the exhaled carbon dioxide, as a buildup of CO₂ levels would result in respiratory distress due to hypercapnia.\nThe earliest known oxygen rebreather was patented on 17 June 1808 by Sieur Touboulic","-21.09567871573381"],["and the oxygen it contains, creating a risk of subtle anoxia (lack of oxygenation) for people working in these atmospheres. Adequate ventilation is essential to ensure that artists and technicians are surrounded by breathable air. Carbon dioxide has the added hazard of interfering with the normal breathing reflex, which is sensitive to carbon dioxide levels in the air. Nitrogen has no effect on the breathing reflex, but this creates its own hazard in that a person breathing pure nitrogen can lose consciousness from lack of oxygen without any warning signs.\nFog produced with liquid air does not present the hazards of","-21.087471545441076"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"even at high altitudes, such as OXYFLY.\\nUsually, \\\"demand\\\" or pulse-flow oxygen concentrators are not used by patients while they sleep. There have been problems with the oxygen concentrators not being able to detect when the sleeping patient is inhaling. Some larger portable oxygen concentrators are designed to operate in continuous-flow mode in addition to pulse-flow mode. Continuous-flow mode is considered safe for night use when coupled with a CPAP machine.\\nCommon models retail at around $600. Leasing arrangements may be available through various medical-supply companies and/or insurance agencies. Alternate applications Repurposed medical oxygen concentrators or specialized industrial oxygen concentrators can\",\n \"-26.483877903199755\"\n ],\n [\n \"in spaces without oxygen) cannot work as one ingredient is missing.\",\n \"-26.27386027877219\"\n ],\n [\n \"medical lock, which serves a similar function but is much smaller. This is used to transfer medical material, food and specimens into and out of the main chamber while it is under pressure. Most deck decompression chambers are fitted with built in breathing systems (BIBS), which supply an alternative breathing gas to the occupants (usually oxygen), and discharge the exhaled gas outside the chamber, so the chamber gas is not excessively enriched by oxygen, which would cause an unacceptable fire hazard, and require frequent flushing with chamber gas (usually air).\\nA deck decompression chamber is intended for surface decompression and emergency\",\n \"-25.215785048319958\"\n ],\n [\n \"Medical gas supply Oxygen Oxygen may be used for patients requiring supplemental oxygen via mask. Usually accomplished by a large storage system of liquid oxygen at the hospital which is evaporated into a concentrated oxygen supply, pressures are usually around 345–380 kPa (50.0–55.1 psi), or in the UK and Europe, 4–5 bar (400–500 kPa; 58–73 psi). This arrangement is described as a vacuum insulated evaporator or bulk tank. In small medical centers with a low patient capacity, oxygen is usually supplied by a manifold of multiple high-pressure cylinders. In areas where a bulk system or high-pressure cylinder manifold is not suitable, oxygen may be supplied\",\n \"-24.877352182404138\"\n ],\n [\n \"hazard if used as the chamber gas. Chamber oxygen concentration is limited due to fire hazard and the high risk of fatality or severe injury in the event of a chamber fire. US Navy specifications for oxygen content of chamber air allow a range from 19% to 25%. If the oxygen fraction rises above this limit the chamber must be ventilated with air to bring the concentration to an acceptable level. To minimize the requirement for venting, oxygen-rich treatment gases are usually provided to the patient by built in breathing system (BIBS) masks, which vent exhaled gas outside the chamber.\",\n \"-24.851160186401103\"\n ],\n [\n \"schedule. Air breaks of 5 minutes are taken at the end of each 30 minutes of oxygen breathing. Saturation systems emergency gas supply During decompression from saturation, a pressure will be reached where raising the oxygen concentration further would cause an unacceptable fire hazard, while keeping it at an acceptable level for fire risk would be inefficient for decompression. BIBS supply of breathing gas with higher oxygen content than the chamber atmosphere can solve this problem. If the atmosphere in a saturation habitat is contaminated, the inhabitants can use the available BIBS masks during the emergency and be supplied with\",\n \"-24.74214101108373\"\n ],\n [\n \"oxygen is only required for emergency in case of depressurization of the cabin or contamination of the cabin air. Oxygen is always available for the crew and can be made available to the passengers manually or automatically. The oxygen storage cylinder has a capacity of 38 cubic feet and is stored at 1800 psi. An oxygen rupture disc will relieve oxygen pressure if the oxygen cylinder pressure reaches 2700 to 3000 psi. A green overboard indicator on the outside surface of the dorsal fin will be ruptured or missing to indicate that the rupture disc is not intact. Fire detection\",\n \"-24.504612831617123\"\n ],\n [\n \"Oxygen storage Methods of oxygen storage for subsequent use span many approaches, including high pressures in oxygen tanks, cryogenics, oxygen-rich compounds and reaction mixtures, and chemical compounds that reversibly release oxygen upon heating or pressure change. O₂ is the second most important industrial gas. Air Air is the most common source and reservoir of oxygen, containing 20.8% oxygen. This concentration is sufficient for many purposes, such as combustion of many fuels, corrosion of many metals, and breathing of animals. Most humans can function at rest with an oxygen level of 15% at one atmosphere pressure; a fuel such as methane\",\n \"-24.441507832307252\"\n ],\n [\n \"circuit systems may be used to conserve the breathing gas, which may be in limited supply - in the case of mountaineering the user must carry the supplemental oxygen, and in space flight the cost of lifting mass into orbit is very high. Medical breathing gases Medical use of breathing gases other than air include oxygen therapy and anesthesia applications. Oxygen therapy Oxygen is required by people for normal cell metabolism. Air is typically 21% oxygen by volume. This is normally sufficient, but in some circumstances the oxygen supply to tissues is compromised.\\nOxygen therapy, also known as supplemental oxygen, is\",\n \"-24.088046393182594\"\n ],\n [\n \"a fire risk. Attendants may also breathe oxygen some of the time to reduce their risk of decompression sickness when they leave the chamber. The pressure inside the chamber is increased by opening valves allowing high-pressure air to enter from storage cylinders, which are filled by an air compressor. Chamber air oxygen content is kept between 19% and 23% to control fire risk (US Navy maximum 25%). If the chamber does not have a scrubber system to remove carbon dioxide from the chamber gas, the chamber must be isobarically ventilated to keep the CO₂ within acceptable limits.\\nA soft chamber may\",\n \"-23.882120696995116\"\n ],\n [\n \"Oxygen firebreak An oxygen firebreak, also known as a fire stop valve or fire safety valve, is a thermal fuse designed to extinguish a fire in the delivery tube being used by a patient on oxygen therapy and stop the flow of oxygen if the tube is accidentally ignited. Oxygen firebreaks are fitted into the oxygen delivery tubing close to the patient, typically around the patient’s sternum where the two nasal cannula tubes join and connect to the delivery tubing. Home oxygen fires Oxygen is not flammable, but when it is present in increased concentrations it will enable fires to\",\n \"-23.82978813558293\"\n ],\n [\n \"the news were that the system depleted oxygen, whereas the manufacturer states that the system does not displace oxygen.\",\n \"-23.8117595371441\"\n ],\n [\n \"Oxygen breathing apparatus An oxygen breathing apparatus (OBA) is a rebreather. It is used primarily in firefighting. Its oxygen is generated by chemicals contained in the green canister, which is inserted at the base of the breathing device.\\n The canister uses potassium superoxide as both a CO₂ scrubber and an O₂ generator. A sodium chlorate candle in the base generates additional oxygen when first beginning use as the canister has to achieve a high internal temperature before it will start generating oxygen on its own. It is the circulation of exhaled air through the canister that starts the chemical process,\",\n \"-23.785917500412324\"\n ],\n [\n \"oxygen cleaned before being put into such service. Surface supplied equipment may be subject to more stringent requirements, as the diver may not be able to remove the equipment in an accident. Oxygen cleaning may be required for concentrations as low as 23%\\nCleaning agents used range from heavy-duty industrial solvents and detergents such as liquid freon, trichlorethylene and anhydrous trisodium phosphate, followed by rinsing in deionised water. These materials are now generally deprecated as being environmentally unsound and an unnecessary health hazard. Some strong all-purpose household detergents have been found to do the job adequately. They are diluted with water\",\n \"-23.635232232045382\"\n ],\n [\n \"and Research, has explained that at one end of the hose is a source of oxygen, so the individual providing the hose and turning on the supply is dispensing a prescription drug. He commented that \\\"Although oxygen bars that dispense oxygen without a prescription violate FDA regulations, the agency applies regulatory discretion to permit the individual state boards of licensing to enforce the requirements pertaining to the dispensing of oxygen.\\\"\\nCanadian Society of Respiratory Therapists says that \\\"As health professionals, we cannot ethically or morally support providing oxygen therapy to those who do not require it.\\\"\",\n \"-23.483668475353625\"\n ],\n [\n \"Built-in breathing system A built-in breathing system is a source of breathing gas installed in a confined space where an alternative to the ambient gas may be required for medical treatment, emergency use, or to minimise a hazard. They are found in diving chambers, hyperbaric treatment chambers, and submarines.\\nThe use in hyperbaric treatment chambers is usually to supply an oxygen rich treatment gas which if used as the chamber atmosphere, would constitute an unacceptable fire hazard. In this application the exhaust gas is vented outside of the chamber. In saturation diving chambers and surface decompression chamber the application is similar,\",\n \"-23.44869946152903\"\n ],\n [\n \"compression and towards the end of decompression the oxygen levels will support combustion, and greater care must be taken. Built in breathing systems Built in breathing systems are installed for emergency use and for treatment of decompression sickness. They supply breathing gas appropriate to the current function, which is supplied from outside the pressurized system and also vented to the exterior, so the exhaled gases do not contaminate the chamber atmosphere. Underwater habitats Scientific saturation diving is usually conducted by researchers and technicians known as aquanauts living in an underwater habitat, a structure designed for people to live in for\",\n \"-23.335637212498114\"\n ],\n [\n \"and to determine if there is sufficient oxygen.\\nIf detected by testing, vent hazardous atmospheres to ensure that combustible and toxic gas levels are reduced to non hazardous levels, and that sufficient oxygen levels are maintained.\\nEnsure a permit is issued for each instance a worker enters a bin or silo, certifying that the precautions listed above have been implemented.\",\n \"-23.311523499782197\"\n ],\n [\n \"oxygen service. \\nIn the case of diving equipment, oxygen cleaning generally involves the stripping down of the equipment into individual components which are then thoroughly cleaned of hydrocarbon and other combustible contaminants using non-flammable, non-toxic cleaners. Once dry, the equipment is reasssembled under clean conditions. Lubricants are replaced by specifically oxygen- compatible substitutes during reassembly.\\nThe standard and requirements for oxygen cleaning of diving apparatus varies depending on the application and applicable legislation and codes of practice.\\nFor scuba equipment, the industry standard is that breathing apparatus which will be exposed to concentrations in excess of 40% oxygen by volume should be\",\n \"-23.291216915589757\"\n ],\n [\n \"but a further function is a supply of breathable gas in case of toxic contamination of the chamber atmosphere. This function does not require external venting, but the same equipment is typically used for supply of oxygen enriched gases, so they are generally vented to the exterior.\\nIn submarines the function is to supply a breathable gas in an emergency, which may be contamination of the ambient internal atmosphere, or flooding. In this application venting to the interior is both acceptable and generally the only feasible option, as the exterior is typically at a higher pressure than the interior, and external\",\n \"-23.29044487827923\"\n ],\n [\n \"putting them out of commission. The sudden failure of Oxygen Tank 2 compromised Oxygen Tank 1, causing its contents to leak out, possibly through a damaged line or valve, over the next 130 minutes, entirely depleting the SM's oxygen supply. With both SM oxygen tanks emptying, and with other damage to the SM, the mission had to be aborted.\\nOxygen Tank 2 was manufactured by the Beech Aircraft Company of Boulder, Colorado, as subcontractor to North American Rockwell (NAR) of Downey, California, prime contractor for the CSM. It contained two thermostatic switches, originally designed for the command module's 28-volt DC\",\n \"-23.184367904323153\"\n ],\n [\n \"compounds. For reasons of economy, oxygen is often transported in bulk as a liquid in specially insulated tankers, since one liter of liquefied oxygen is equivalent to 840 liters of gaseous oxygen at atmospheric pressure and 20 °C (68 °F). Such tankers are used to refill bulk liquid oxygen storage containers, which stand outside hospitals and other institutions that need large volumes of pure oxygen gas. Liquid oxygen is passed through heat exchangers, which convert the cryogenic liquid into gas before it enters the building. Oxygen is also stored and shipped in smaller cylinders containing the compressed gas; a form that is useful\",\n \"-23.05854940385325\"\n ],\n [\n \"source, including oxygen concentrators, liquid oxygen dewars or gas cylinders. United Kingdom An additional legal requirement applies in the UK, where the fitting of firebreaks has been mandatory under the service specification of the home oxygen service since 2006. Germany In 2011, the German Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices recommended ‘corrective actions to prevent fires in oxygen concentrators’. It issued a notice stating that from July 1, 2012 all devices should be equipped with installations for stopping encroachment of the fire into the device, and interruption of the delivery of oxygen in the accessory as close to the\",\n \"-23.00178195949411\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the occupied space, exhaled gas is simply dumped into the internal volume, requiring no special flow control beyond a simple non-return valve. The delivery and exhaust mechanism of a BIBS demand valve for this application is the same as for a scuba or SCBA second stage regulator, and these can be used for this purpose with little or no modification. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy The traditional type of hyperbaric chamber used for therapeutic recompression and hyperbaric oxygen therapy is a rigid shelled pressure vessel. Such chambers can be run at absolute pressures typically about 6 bars (87 psi), 600,000 Pa or more\",\n \"-22.906365998322144\"\n ],\n [\n \"Any oxygen-clean cylinder may have any mix up to 100% oxygen inside. If by some accident an oxygen-clean cylinder is filled at a station that does not supply gas to oxygen-clean standards it is then considered contaminated and must be re-cleaned before a gas containing more than 40% oxygen may again be added. Cylinders marked as 'not oxygen clean' may only be filled with oxygen-enriched air mixtures from membrane or stick blending systems where the gas is mixed before being added to the cylinder, and to an oxygen fraction not exceeding 40% by volume. Incorrect gas mix Use of a\",\n \"-22.86493007239187\"\n ],\n [\n \"Portable oxygen concentrator A portable oxygen concentrator (POC) is a device used to provide oxygen therapy to people that require greater oxygen concentrations than the levels of ambient air. It is similar to a home oxygen concentrator (OC), but is smaller in size and more mobile. They are small enough to carry and many are now FAA-approved for use on airplanes. Development Medical oxygen concentrators were developed in the late 1970s. Early manufacturers included Union Carbide and Bendix Corporation. They were initially conceived of as a method of providing a continuous source of home oxygen without the use of heavy\",\n \"-22.849500398500822\"\n ],\n [\n \"diving loop at an oxygen partial pressure of about 1.2 bar and the rest of the time in storage in air at room temperature.\\nFailures in cells can be life-threatening for technical divers and in particular, rebreather divers. The failure modes common to these cells are: failing with a higher than expected output due to electrolyte leaks, which is usually attributable to physical damage, contamination, or other defects in manufacture, or current limitation due to exhausted cell life and non linear output across its range.\\nShelf life can be maximised by keeping the cell in the sealed bag as supplied by the\",\n \"-22.841788313700818\"\n ],\n [\n \"labelling and permanent stamp markings, and the ownership and contents verified. Depressurisation and removal of cylinder valve Before internal inspection the valve must be removed after depressurising and verifying that the valve is open. Cylinders containing breathing gases do not need special precautions for discharge except that high oxygen fraction gases should not be released in an enclosed space because of the fire hazard. If the valve is blocked or stuck closed it may be necessary to release the pressure by removing the burst disc or drilling into the valve body below the valve seat. These operations require care\",\n \"-22.771944188745692\"\n ],\n [\n \"cylinders, which are filled by an air compressor. Chamber air oxygen content is kept between 19% and 23% to control fire risk (US Navy maximum 25%). If the chamber does not have a scrubber system to remove carbon dioxide from the chamber gas, the chamber must be isobarically ventilated to keep the CO₂ within acceptable limits. Therapeutic recompression Hyperbaric oxygen therapy was developed as a treatment for diving disorders involving bubbles of gas in the tissues, such as decompression sickness and gas embolism, and it is still considered the definitive treatment for these conditions. The recompression treats decompression sickness and\",\n \"-22.75201502162963\"\n ],\n [\n \"a higher partial pressure than possible from compressed air, but also can occur at lower pressures when the concentration is high. Oxygen cleaning Oxygen cleaning is preparation for oxygen service by ensuring that the surfaces that may come into contact with high partial pressures of oxygen while in use are free of contaminants that increase the risk of ignition.\\nOxygen cleaning is a necessary, but not always a sufficient condition for high partial pressure or high concentration oxygen service. The materials used must also be oxygen compatible at all expected service conditions. Aluminium and titanium components are specifically not suitable for\",\n \"-22.742011255351827\"\n ],\n [\n \"The hospital consumes around 300 oxygen cylinders every day.\\nThe hospital has become the first government-run institution in the state to install a tank to store liquid oxygen. The tank, with a capacity to hold 13,000 litres of oxygen, would cater to the needs of the entire hospital when it becomes operational. The tank has been installed in the space between Tower Block 2 and the old cardiology block. The tank, costing ₹ 4 million, has been built free of cost by Inox Air Products, which supplies the gas to the hospital. A full tank will ensure that supply will last\",\n \"-22.73285253333961\"\n ],\n [\n \"richer in oxygen than the mixture entering. When the bed reaches the end of its capacity to adsorb nitrogen, it can be regenerated by reducing the pressure, thus releasing the adsorbed nitrogen. It is then ready for another cycle of producing oxygen-enriched air.\\nThis is the process used in medical oxygen concentrators used by emphysema patients and others requiring oxygen-enriched air for breathing.\\nUsing two adsorbent vessels allows near-continuous production of the target gas. It also permits so-called pressure equalisation, where the gas leaving the vessel being depressurised is used to partially pressurise the second vessel. This results in significant\",\n \"-22.681035239133053\"\n ],\n [\n \"cabins are required to fully supply food and oxygen for their crew. On missions lasting a year or longer, the cabins have to be self-sustaining, i.e. replenish their own water and oxygen. The space cabin for any long-range manned mission is expected to be reasonably spacious, with approximately 28 cubic metres allotted to each occupant. In addition, cabins have life support systems that should have the capability to meet a variety of off-nominal conditions, including cabin fires, depressurization, and component shutdown or failure. Frequently, these conditions occur so quickly that recovery can be provided only by automatic control systems. In\",\n \"-22.65336280700285\"\n ],\n [\n \"Oxygen window in diving decompression Background Oxygen is used to decrease the time needed for safe decompression in diving, but the practical consequences and benefits need further research. Decompression is still far from being an exact science, and divers when diving deep must make many decisions based on personal experience rather than scientific knowledge.\\nIn technical diving, applying the oxygen window effect by using decompression gases with high ppO₂ increases decompression efficiency and allows shorter decompression stops. Reducing decompression time can be important to reduce time spent at shallow depths in open water (avoiding dangers such as water currents and boat\",\n \"-22.63689934793365\"\n ],\n [\n \"on the same principles as a regular diving demand valve second stage. Like any other breathing apparatus, the dead space must be limited to minimise carbon dioxide buildup in the mask.\\nIn some cases the outlet suction must be limited and a back-pressure regulator may be required. This would usually be the case for use in a saturation system. Use for oxygen therapy and surface decompression on oxygen would not generally need a back-pressure regulator. When an externally vented BIBS is used at low chamber pressure, a vacuum assist may be necessary to keep the exhalation backpressure down to provide an\",\n \"-22.609327181475237\"\n ],\n [\n \"taken between oxygen breathing to reduce the risk of oxygen toxicity. In water recompression If a chamber is not available for recompression within a reasonable period, a riskier alternative is in-water recompression at the dive site.\\nIn-water recompression (IWR) is the emergency treatment of decompression sickness (DCS) by sending the diver back underwater to allow the gas bubbles in the tissues, which are causing the symptoms, to resolve. It is a risky procedure that should only be used when it is not practicable to travel to the nearest recompression chamber in time to save the victim's life.\\nThe procedure is high risk\",\n \"-22.52910659450572\"\n ],\n [\n \"and thus more oxygen than slow, backwaters. Oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis, so systems with a high abundance of aquatic algae and plants may also have high concentrations of oxygen during the day. These levels can decrease significantly during the night when primary producers switch to respiration. Oxygen can be limiting if circulation between the surface and deeper layers is poor, if the activity of lotic animals is very high, or if there is a large amount of organic decay occurring. Suspended matter Rivers can also transport suspended inorganic and organic matter. These materials can include sediment\",\n \"-22.50421279136208\"\n ],\n [\n \"into one part of the cave floor to provide a place for the coldest air to gather, away from the occupants, and the entrance may be partially blocked with chunks of snow to deflect wind and retain heat, although it is vital to prevent drifting snow from completely plugging the rest of the entrance in order to maintain a constant air supply. Some prefer to place a ski pole or a ski up from the cave out through the roof or side wall. This can provide an emergency air hole should the main entrance become blocked.\\nIt is possible to sleep\",\n \"-22.474725837702863\"\n ],\n [\n \"O\\n₂ with other gases, such as nitrogen or helium, to prevent oxygen toxicity.\\nPeople who climb mountains or fly in non-pressurized fixed-wing aircraft sometimes have supplemental O\\n₂ supplies. Pressurized commercial airplanes have an emergency supply of O\\n₂ automatically supplied to the passengers in case of cabin depressurization. Sudden cabin pressure loss activates chemical oxygen generators above each seat, causing oxygen masks to drop. Pulling on the masks \\\"to start the flow of oxygen\\\" as cabin safety instructions dictate, forces iron filings into the sodium chlorate inside the canister. A steady stream of oxygen gas is then produced by the exothermic reaction.\\nOxygen,\",\n \"-22.448161302425433\"\n ],\n [\n \"must be removed after depressurising and verifying that the valve is open. Cylinders containing breathing gases do not need special precautions for discharge except that high oxygen fraction gases should not be released in an enclosed space because of the fire hazard. Before inspection the cylinder must be clean and free of loose coatings, corrosion products and other materials which may obscure the surface.\\nThe cylinder is inspected externally for dents, cracks, gouges, cuts, bulges, laminations and excessive wear, heat damage, torch or electric arc burns, corrosion damage, illegible, incorrect or unauthorised permanent stamp markings, and unauthorised additions or modifications.\",\n \"-22.435085656819865\"\n ],\n [\n \"organisms require it for survival. It enters the water mostly via diffusion at the water-air interface. Oxygen’s solubility in water decreases as water temperature increases. Fast, turbulent streams expose more of the water’s surface area to the air and tend to have low temperatures and thus more oxygen than slow, backwaters. Oxygen is a by-product of photosynthesis, so systems with a high abundance of aquatic algae and plants may also have high concentrations of oxygen during the day. These levels can decrease significantly during the night when primary producers switch to respiration. Oxygen can be\",\n \"-22.397541075741174\"\n ],\n [\n \"the cryogenic material. This can introduce contaminants. If these materials freeze, for example, water vapor becoming ice, they can block the openings, leading to pressure buildup and the risk of an explosion.\\nThe gas escaping from a dewar can gradually displace the oxygen from the air in the surrounding area, which presents an asphyxiation hazard. Users are trained to store dewars only in a well-ventilated area and before transporting dewars in an elevator, the excess gas pressure is vented away and the dewars are sent unaccompanied to their destination.\",\n \"-22.38592565836734\"\n ],\n [\n \"oxygen flow supplied by a regulated cylinder, while also allowing the patient's lungs to deflate to the ambient environment (not the bag) past the one way valve. Bag and valve Bag and valve combinations can also be attached to an alternative airway adjunct, instead of to the mask. For example, it can be attached to an endotracheal tube or laryngeal mask airway. Small heat and moisture exchangers, or humidifying / bacterial filters, can be used.\\nA bag-valve mask can be used without being attached to an oxygen tank to provide \\\"room air\\\" (21% oxygen) to the patient, however manual resuscitator\",\n \"-22.34020142816007\"\n ],\n [\n \"systems.\\\". Design and operation Air with a reduced oxygen content is injected to the protected volumes to lower the oxygen concentration until the desired oxygen concentration is reached. Then, because of air infiltration, the oxygen concentration inside the protected volumes rises: when it exceeds a certain threshold, low-oxygen air is again injected to the protected volumes until the desired oxygen concentration is reached. Oxygen sensors are installed in the protected volumes to monitor continuously the oxygen concentration.\\nThe exact oxygen level to retain in the protected volumes is determined after a careful assessment of materials, configurations and hazards. Tables\",\n \"-22.324902902008034\"\n ],\n [\n \"as a regular diving demand valve second stage. Like any other breathing apparatus, the dead space must be limited to minimise carbon dioxide buildup in the mask.\\nIn some cases the outlet suction must be limited and a back-pressure regulator may be required. This would usually be the case for use in a saturation system. Use for oxygen therapy and surface decompression on oxygen would not generally need a back-pressure regulator. When an externally vented BIBS is used at low chamber pressure, a vacuum assist may be necessary to keep the exhalation backpressure down to provide an acceptable work of breathing.\\nThe\",\n \"-22.286952128866687\"\n ],\n [\n \"hoses of surface-supplied diving equipment. Scuba has limitations of breathing gas supply, communications between diver and surface are problematic, the location of the diver may be difficult to monitor, and it is considered a higher-risk mode of diving in most circumstances. Scuba is specifically forbidden for some professional applications. Decompression is often avoided, and if necessary, is generally in-water, but may use a variety of gases. Open circuit Open-circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled, and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure connected to a primary\",\n \"-22.277636722952593\"\n ],\n [\n \"gas to the divers' umbilicals. Chambers with BIBS will generally have an oxygen monitor. BIBS are also used as an emergency breathing gas supply if the chamber gas is contaminated.\\nSanitation systems for washing and waste removal are required. Discharge is simple because of the pressure gradient, but must be controlled to avoid undesired chamber pressure loss or fluctuations. Catering is generally provided by preparing the food and drink outside and transferring it into the chamber through the stores lock, which is also used to transfer used utensils, laundry and other supplies.\\nNon-portable chambers are generally constructed from steel, as it\",\n \"-22.2705672972952\"\n ],\n [\n \"be employed in an improvised rebreather, along with self-contained oxygen candles or the more common welding Oxygen tanks, are the type of equipment necessary to safely extend the period of Shelter-in-place past the point were respiratory/capnograph CO₂ levels would normally be deemed unsafe. In the case of the latter two oxygen sources, both of which also have the added benefit of producing and maintaining a shelter positive pressure which keeps any shelter leaks, leaking out rather than leaking in, Positive pressure environments are routinely employed in the hospital setting where the biological agents found in normal outside air, and generally\",\n \"-22.1869559265906\"\n ],\n [\n \"partial pressure of oxygen in the inspired breathing gas. The inherent unsaturation due to the oxygen window allows a relatively fast initial phase of saturation decompression in proportion to the oxygen partial pressure and then controls the rate of further decompression limited by the half-time of inert gas elimination from the slowest compartment. However, some saturation decompression schedules specifically do not allow an decompression to start with an upward excursion. Neither the excursions nor the decompression procedures currently in use (2016) have been found to cause decompression problems in isolation, but there appears to be significantly higher risk when excursions\",\n \"-22.15662371896906\"\n ],\n [\n \"and fitting a firebreak. If the firebreak is not fitted, then the Essential Requirements for performance and safety are not met and the CE mark is no longer valid. It also means that the home oxygen service provider’s status, within the framework under which the single market for medical devices operates, changes from ‘distributor’ to ‘manufacturer’. This has significant regulatory implications.\\nThe EU Medical Devices Directive also requires that economic operators adopt solutions that ‘reduce risk as far as possible’ in line with the ‘state of the art’. The fitting of firebreaks is therefore a requirement irrespective of the oxygen\",\n \"-22.14738799846964\"\n ],\n [\n \"electrical outlet and may have an internal battery or external battery pack for operation away from home and during power outages. Portable oxygen concentrators usually can be plugged into the DC outlet of a vehicle, and most of these devices are suitable for ambulatory use.\\nThe FAA has approved the use of portable oxygen concentrators on commercial airlines. However, users of these devices should check in advance as to whether a particular brand or model is permitted on a particular airline. Unlike in commercial airlines, users of aircraft without cabin pressurization need oxygen concentrators which are able to deliver enough flowrate\",\n \"-22.135237142676488\"\n ],\n [\n \"oxygen toxicity becomes a factor at high oxygen concentrations. For this reason, most modern crewed spacecraft use conventional air (nitrogen/oxygen) atmospheres and use pure oxygen only in pressure suits during extravehicular activity where acceptable suit flexibility mandates the lowest inflation pressure possible. Water Water is consumed by crew members for drinking, cleaning activities, EVA thermal control, and emergency uses. It must be stored, used, and reclaimed (from waste water) efficiently since no on-site sources currently exist for the environments reached in the course of human space exploration. Future lunar missions may utilise water sourced from polar ices; Mars missions may\",\n \"-22.062665823266116\"\n ],\n [\n \"atmosphere can leak into the room to replenish the burnt oxygen, the proportion of carbon monoxide rapidly increases. Since the monoxide can not escape, any person in the room will fatally succumb to the poisonous gas. Human senses only detect an excess of carbon dioxide, and death occurs before any occupants of the room sense there is something amiss. Most manufacturers recommend that a window or door be left cracked open. Kerosene heaters should not be left unattended, especially when sleeping. A kerosene heater, as any heater that uses organic fuel, can produce dangerously high amounts of soot and\",\n \"-22.03940384509042\"\n ],\n [\n \"medical supplies into the chamber while under pressure. Monoplace chambers Outside of the diving industry, most chambers are intended for a single occupant, and not all of them are fitted with built-in breathing systems (BIBS). This limits the schedules which can be safely used in them. Some schedules have been developed specifically for hyperbaric oxygen treatment in monoplace chambers, and some hyperbaric treatment schedules nominally intended for chambers with BIBS have been shown to be acceptable for use without air breaks if the preferred facilities are not available. Treatment gases Originally therapeutic recompression was done using air as the only\",\n \"-22.022980805370025\"\n ],\n [\n \"Vacuum insulated evaporator Mandatory safety features To avoid explosions or other dangerous events, the VIE must be kept in an open space with no overhead wires (to prevent sparks from igniting surrounding materials, which will combust easier in the prescense of liquid oxygen) and ringed by a fence of non-combustible material. Parking vehicles, open flames, smoking, and other potentially hazardous activities are normally prohibited anywhere near the VIE.\",\n \"-21.985286988521693\"\n ],\n [\n \"oxygen, it does not cool the burning substances significantly and when the carbon dioxide disperses they are free to catch fire upon exposure to atmospheric oxygen. Their desirability in electrical fire stems from the fact that, unlike water or other chemical based methods, Carbon dioxide will not cause short circuits, leading to even more damage to equipment. Because it is a gas, it is also easy to dispense large amounts of the gas automatically in IT infrastructure rooms, where the fire itself might be hard to reach with more immediate methods because it is behind rack doors and inside of\",\n \"-21.969868544430938\"\n ],\n [\n \" If oxygen was consumed faster due to a high workload, a regular scrubber was needed. No electronics were needed as everything followed the setting of the nitrogen release pressure from the cooling unit, and the refrigeration by evaporation of liquid nitrogen maintained a steady temperature until the liquid nitrogen was exhausted. The loop gas flow was passed through a counterflow heat exchanger, which re-heated the gas returning to the diver by chilling the gas headed for the snow box (the cryogenic scrubber). The first prototype, the S-600G, was completed and shallow-water tested in October 1967. The S1000 was\",\n \"-21.968071850482374\"\n ],\n [\n \"(specifically for chambers without facility for air breaks) Hart monoplace table 100% oxygen for 30 minutes at 3.0 ATA followed by 60 minutes at 2.5 ATA. Australian In-water Recompression Table The Australian IWR Tables were developed by the Royal Australian Navy in the 1960s in response to their need for treatment in remote locations far away from recompression chambers. It was the shallow portion of the table developed for recompression chamber use.\\nOxygen is breathed the entire portion of the treatment without any air breaks and is followed by alternating periods (12 hours) of oxygen and air breathing on the surface.\",\n \"-21.959654934238642\"\n ],\n [\n \"oxygen activated sludge aeration systems are sealed-tank reactor vessels with surface aerator type impellers mounted within the tanks at the oxygen carbon liquor surface interface. The amount of oxygen entrainment, or DO (Dissolved Oxygen), can be controlled by a weir adjusted level control, and a vent gas oxygen controlled oxygen feed valve. Oxygen is generated on site by cryogenic distillation of air, pressure swing adsorption, or other methods. These systems are used where wastewater plant space is at a premium and high sewage throughput is required as high energy costs are involved in purifying oxygen. Recent developments A new development\",\n \"-21.957919922017027\"\n ],\n [\n \"returned to an oxygenated environment.\",\n \"-21.956802469077957\"\n ],\n [\n \"on the outside, and constantly transmitting from the inside, so that the operator can better monitor the condition of the occupants. There may also be a backup communications system.\\nFirefighting equipment is necessary as a chamber fire is extremely dangerous to the occupants. Either fire extinguishers specially made for hyperbaric environment with non-toxic contents, or a pressurised internal water spray system can be used. Water buckets are often provided as additional equipment.\\nLife support systems for saturation systems can be fairly complex, as the occupants must remain under pressure continuously for several day to weeks. Oxygen content of the chamber gas is\",\n \"-21.937255323515274\"\n ],\n [\n \"or breathing equipment failure. Equipment failure resulting in the loss of all gas could be caused by failure of a pressure retaining component such as an O-ring or hose in the regulator or, in cold conditions, a freezing of water in the regulator resulting in a free flow from the demand valve. Technique Buddy breathing is usually initialised by the diver with the \\\"out of air\\\" emergency signalling this to another diver by a standard hand signal \\\"give me air\\\". This signal is made by holding the fingers and thumb of one hand together, pointing them at the mouth and\",\n \"-21.924289425835013\"\n ],\n [\n \"doors. Fire suppression system Firefighting systems include hand held fire extinguishers to automatic deluge systems. Special fire extinguishers which do not use toxic materials must be used. In the event of a fire, toxic gases may be released by burning materials, and the occupants will have to use the built-in breathing systems (BIBS) until the chamber gas has been flushed sufficiently. When a system with oxygen partial pressure 0.48 bar is pressurized below about 70 msw (231fsw), the oxygen fraction is too low to support combustion (less than 6%), and the fire risk is low. During the early stages of\",\n \"-21.911187556339428\"\n ],\n [\n \"cryogenic air separation plant.\\nAir forces have long recognized the strategic importance of liquid oxygen, both as an oxidizer and as a supply of gaseous oxygen for breathing in hospitals and high-altitude aircraft flights. In 1985 the USAF started a program of building its own oxygen-generation facilities at all major consumption bases.\",\n \"-21.850983794312924\"\n ],\n [\n \"oxygen; moving from the frogs back to the lung, it contains water and free CO₂. A double layer of polyurethane foam lining the interior of the centrifuge prevents frog waste matter from fouling the water circulation system. Water is circulated through the liquid loop using a small pump and must pass through the filter before leaving the centrifuge. Gas loop The gas loop consists of a circuit in the lower bulkhead through which oxygen is circulated by a small pump. The pump delivers pure oxygen to the lung where some of it passes into the liquid loop, while the remainder\",\n \"-21.82212830067874\"\n ],\n [\n \"major application for this type of BIBS is supply of breathing gas with a different composition to the chamber atmosphere to occupants of a hyperbaric chamber where the chamber atmosphere is controlled, and contamination by the BIBS gas would be a problem. This is common in therapeutic decompression, and hyperbaric oxygen therapy, where a higher partial pressure of oxygen in the chamber would constitute an unacceptable fire hazard, and would require frequent ventilation of the chamber to keep the partial pressure within acceptable limits Frequent ventilation is noisy and expensive, but can be used in an emergency. Rebreather regulators Rebreather\",\n \"-21.80657376779709\"\n ],\n [\n \"dive. This minimizes the absorption of inert gas in the first place, and accelerates the elimination of the inert gases during ascent. Deck decompression chambers A deck decompression chamber (DDC), or double-lock chamber is a two compartment pressure vessel for human occupation which has sufficient space in the main chamber for two or more occupants, and a forechamber which can allow a person to be pressurised or decompressed while the main chamber remains under constant pressure. This allows an attendant to be locked in or out during treatment of the occupant(s) of the main chamber. There is usually also a\",\n \"-21.80605559819378\"\n ],\n [\n \"at any time that the counterlung is emptied and the diver continues to inhale. Oxygen can also be added manually by a button which activates the demand valve.\\nSome simple oxygen rebreathers had no automatic supply system, but only the manual feed valve, and the diver had to operate the valve at intervals to refill the breathing bag as the volume of oxygen decreased below a comfortable level. Semi-closed circuit rebreathers These are generally used for underwater diving, as they are bulkier and heavier than closed circuit oxygen rebreathers.\\nMilitary and recreational divers use these because they provide better underwater duration\",\n \"-21.79271419532597\"\n ],\n [\n \"when the lungs are filled with gas. Liquid breathing would not result in the saturation of body tissues with high pressure nitrogen or helium that occurs with the use of non-liquids, thus would reduce or remove the need for slow decompression.\\nA significant problem, however, arises from the high viscosity of the liquid and the corresponding reduction in its ability to remove CO₂. All uses of liquid breathing for diving must involve total liquid ventilation (see above). Total liquid ventilation, however, has difficulty moving enough liquid to carry away CO₂, because no matter how great the total pressure is, the amount\",\n \"-21.768880474788602\"\n ],\n [\n \"used to recover helium based breathing gas after use by the diver when this is more economical than losing it to the environment in open circuit systems. The recovered gas is passed through a scrubber system to remove carbon dioxide, filtered to remove odours, and pressurised into storage containers, where it may be mixed with oxygen to the required composition for re-use. Mountaineering rebreathers Mountaineering rebreathers provide oxygen at a higher concentration than available from atmospheric air in a naturally hypoxic environment. They need to be lightweight and to be reliable in severe cold including not getting choked with deposited\",\n \"-21.73295747244265\"\n ],\n [\n \"Oxygen compatibility Oxygen compatibility is the issue of compatibility of materials for service in high concentrations of oxygen. It is a critical issue in space, aircraft, medical, underwater diving and industrial applications. \\nAspects include effects of increased oxygen concentration on the ignition and burning of materials and components exposed to these concentrations in service.\\nUnderstanding of fire hazards is necessary when designing, operating, and maintaining oxygen systems so that fires can be prevented. Ignition risks can be minimized by controlling heat sources and using materials that will not ignite or will not support burning in the applicable environment. Some materials are\",\n \"-21.688865505391732\"\n ],\n [\n \"decreases the upper flammable limit or highest concentration at which the vapors can be ignited. When the total concentration of oxygen in the tank reaches about 11%, the upper and lower flammable limits converge and the flammable range disappears.\\nInert gas systems deliver air with an oxygen concentration of less than 5% by volume. As a tank is pumped out, it is filled with inert gas and kept in this safe state until the next cargo is loaded. The exception is in cases when the tank must be entered. Safely gas-freeing a tank is accomplished by purging hydrocarbon vapors with inert\",\n \"-21.679948464152403\"\n ],\n [\n \"than open circuit, have a deeper maximum operating depth than oxygen rebreathers and can be fairly simple and cheap. They do not rely on electronics for control of gas composition, but may use electronic monitoring for improved safety and more efficient decompression.\\nSemi-closed circuit equipment generally supplies one breathing gas such as air, nitrox or trimix at a time. The gas is injected into the loop at a constant rate to replenish oxygen consumed from the loop by the diver. Excess gas must be constantly vented from the loop in small volumes to make space for fresh, oxygen-rich gas. As the\",\n \"-21.669258399018872\"\n ],\n [\n \"reduce the danger of oxygen toxicity. Once the oxygen is reduced below about 18% the mix is known as a hypoxic mix as it does not contain enough oxygen to be used safely at the surface. Safety Technical diving encompasses multiple aspects of diving, that typically share lack of direct access to surface, which may be caused by physical constraints, like an overhead environment, or physiological, like decompression obligation. In case of emergency, therefore, the diver or diving team must be able to troubleshoot and solve the problem underwater. This requires planning, situational awareness, and redundancy in critical equipment, and\",\n \"-21.642772399063688\"\n ],\n [\n \"evacuated by helicopter. Supplementary oxygen The use and non-use of supplementary oxygen was the focus of much discussion and analysis after the disaster with a guide and a sardar both being criticized by Jon Krakauer for not using supplementary oxygen while performing guide duties. Both men gave detailed written explanations as to why they preferred not to use oxygen but both carried a bottle on the summit day that could be used if it was needed in an emergency or extraordinary situation. Radios There were several issues and problems surrounding radios and their use on summit day. Scott Fischer's sardar\",\n \"-21.58239549410564\"\n ],\n [\n \"Livewell Oxygen levels It is very important to maintain adequate oxygen levels in the livewell. It should be above 5 parts per million. Electric aeration systems are often used to do this. These often work by creating a spray that increases the surface area of the water, or by passing it through a Venturi.\\nA livewell is a box used to transport live aquatic animals; shrimp, baitfish and mature fish, saltwater or freshwater species. A livewell should be made of materials that are non- toxic to aquatic animals. The shape may be square, rectangular, oval or round. The box may be\",\n \"-21.53771481797594\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hypoxic air technology for fire prevention Hypoxic air technology for fire prevention, also known as oxygen reduction system (ORS), is an active fire protection technique based on a permanent reduction of the oxygen concentration in the protected rooms. Unlike traditional fire suppression systems that usually extinguish fire after it is detected, hypoxic air is able to prevent fire. Description In a volume protected by hypoxic air, a normobaric hypoxic atmosphere is continuously retained: hypoxic means that the partial pressure of the oxygen is lower than at the sea level, normobaric means that the barometric pressure is equal to the\",\n \"-21.463759168233082\"\n ],\n [\n \"inflammable material within the vicinity of any oxygen apparatus. Using an electrical device inside an oxygen tent also could be hazardous.\",\n \"-21.46307776134927\"\n ],\n [\n \"with scuba may provide a method of switching to atmospheric air when above the surface, to save breathing gas. Rebreather systems often incorporate a dive/surface valve in the mouthpiece which may provide an opening to the ambient environment when the loop is isolated. Some other full-face masks allow the demand valve to be unplugged on the surface, or provide a \\\"snorkel valve\\\" port which can be opened to allow atmospheric air to enter. The small saving on breathing gas is unimportant with surface supplied breathing apparatus. Bailout Emergency provision of an alternative breathing gas source is required in case of\",\n \"-21.447637703851797\"\n ],\n [\n \"important gas to be kept in that way is water vapor. Without the presence of a cold-trap in the atmosphere, the water content would gradually escape into space, making life impossible. The cold trap retains one-tenth of a percent of the water in the atmosphere in the form of a vapor at high altitudes. Earth's cold-trap is also a layer which above ultraviolet intensity is strong, since higher up the amount of water vapor is negligible. Oxygen screens out ultraviolet intensity.\\nSome astronomers believe that the lack of a cold trap is why the planets Venus and Mars both\",\n \"-21.4361105307471\"\n ],\n [\n \"safety elements of the standard, including ‘a means to extinguish a tubing fire and isolate the oxygen flow’ are a requirement. Approval to market the product would then be based upon compliance to the standard.\\nIn March, 2018, the US Veterans Health Administration issued a Patient Safety Alert mandating the use of thermal fuses in all its patients' home oxygen installations, unless there is a clinical reason for not doing so. The Patient Safety Alert applies to all patients, not just those deemed to be at 'high risk'. It requires two thermal fuses to be fitted per patient installation, and any\",\n \"-21.426113771856762\"\n ],\n [\n \" If changes or maintenance need to be performed in the interstitial space, the primary space does not need to be shut down, which is important in buildings like hospitals where the equipment in the space must operate constantly. Unlike traditionally built buildings, where the mechanical space is located in the basement or on the top floor, the interstitial space needs few vertical penetrations and therefore leaves more open space on the primary floor. The entire floor plan of these buildings can be more open because there are fewer fixed vertical penetrations through the floor and walls.\\nAnother way\",\n \"-21.41469592647627\"\n ],\n [\n \"on them, called them \\\"exit bags\\\", and included no instructions for use to circumvent Australian laws against assisting suicide. Physiological mechanism A hypoxic, carbon dioxide free metabolically inert gas is provided for inhalation by confining the gas supply and the head in an impermeable bag which prevents contamination with oxygen from the surrounding air, minimising the amount of gas required. (The same effect could be reached by flooding any enclosed space with the gas, but much more gas would be needed, and this would be hazardous to a third party entering the space, an effect which is well known as\",\n \"-21.36379804133321\"\n ],\n [\n \"a reduced-nitrogen atmosphere to purge nitrogen from their bloodstream and avoid decompression sickness in the low-pressure (4.3 psi, 30 kPa) pure-oxygen atmosphere of the spacesuit. The previous method of preparing for spacewalks involved breathing pure oxygen for several hours prior to an EVA to purge the body of nitrogen. In April 2006, Expedition 12 Commander Bill McArthur and Expedition 13 flight engineer Jeffrey Williams tested a new method of preparing for spacewalks by \\\"camping out\\\", or spending the night, in the Quest Airlock. In the chamber, the pressure was reduced from the normal 14.7 to 10.2 psi (101 to 70 kPa). Four hours\",\n \"-21.33482074542917\"\n ],\n [\n \"oxygen in the vented gas cannot be separated from the inert gas, semi-closed circuit is wasteful of oxygen.\\nA gas mix which has a maximum operating depth that is safe for the depth of the dive being planned, and which will provide a breathable mixture at the surface must be used, or it will be necessary to change mixtures during the dive.\\nAs the amount of oxygen required by the diver increases with work rate, the gas injection rate must be carefully chosen and controlled to prevent unconsciousness in the diver due to hypoxia. A higher gas addition rate reduces the likelihood\",\n \"-21.33168528554961\"\n ],\n [\n \"come to rely on the oxygen level in the blood to maintain respiratory drive. This is illustrated in the scenario of type II respiratory failure. However, in a normal healthy person there is no subjective awareness of low oxygen levels. Surface blackout Surface blackout occurs just after the diver exhales on the surface, and may happen before, during or after inhalation of the first breath. When the diver exhales, there is usually a reduction of intrathoracic pressure, which is exacerbated by the effort of inhalation, which can further compromise the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveolar capillaries, and after\",\n \"-21.32260966830654\"\n ],\n [\n \"the oxygen gas from the producer bed through it, in the reverse direction of flow. After a set cycle time the operation of the two beds is interchanged, thereby allowing for a continuous supply of gaseous oxygen to be pumped through a pipeline. This is known as pressure swing adsorption. Oxygen gas is increasingly obtained by these non-cryogenic technologies (see also the related vacuum swing adsorption).\\nOxygen gas can also be produced through electrolysis of water into molecular oxygen and hydrogen. DC electricity must be used: if AC is used, the gases in each limb consist of hydrogen and oxygen in\",\n \"-21.286871156160487\"\n ],\n [\n \"to environmental hazards such as cold water or currents, which will enhance diver safety. The decompression in the chamber is more controlled, in a more comfortable environment, and oxygen can be used at greater partial pressure as there is no risk of drowning and a lower risk of oxygen toxicity convulsions. A further operational advantage is that once the divers are in the chamber, new divers can be supplied from the diving panel, and the operations can continue with less delay.\\nA typical surface decompression procedure is described in the US Navy Diving Manual. If there is no in-water 40 ft stop\",\n \"-21.28626801932114\"\n ],\n [\n \"on oxygen at 12 metres (40 ft). Small closed bell systems have been designed that can be easily mobilised, and include a two-man bell, a handling frame and a chamber for decompression after transfer under pressure (TUP). Divers can breathe air or mixed gas at the bottom and are usually recovered with the chamber filled with air. They decompress on oxygen supplied through built in breathing systems (BIBS) towards the end of the decompression. Small bell systems support bounce diving down to 120 metres (390 ft) and for bottom times up to 2 hours.\\nA relatively portable surface gas supply system using high\",\n \"-21.270665510208346\"\n ],\n [\n \"had been used to flush oxygen from the compartment as a precaution against fire. They were not wearing air packs because of a last-minute change in safety procedures.\\nDuring a pool party in Mexico in 2013, eight party-goers were rendered unconscious and one 21-year-old male was put into a coma after liquid nitrogen was poured into the pool.\\nOccasional deaths are reported from recreational inhalation of helium, but these are very rare from direct inhalation from small balloons. The inhalation from larger helium balloons has been reportedly fatal. A fatal fall from a tree occurred after the inhalation of helium from\",\n \"-21.267167690410133\"\n ],\n [\n \"is done in a decompression chamber instead of in the water. This reduces the time that the diver spends in the water, exposed to environmental hazards such as cold water or currents, which will enhance diver safety. The decompression in the chamber is more controlled, in a more comfortable environment, and oxygen can be used at greater partial pressure as there is no risk of drowning and a lower risk of oxygen toxicity convulsions. A further operational advantage is that once the divers are in the chamber, new divers can be supplied from the diving panel, and the operations can\",\n \"-21.257903546560556\"\n ],\n [\n \"of these methods increases the partial pressure of oxygen by raising the FiO₂ (fraction of inspired oxygen). Other methods Increased water intake may also help in acclimatization to replace the fluids lost through heavier breathing in the thin, dry air found at altitude, although consuming excessive quantities (\\\"over-hydration\\\") has no benefits and may cause dangerous hyponatremia.\",\n \"-21.252138658892363\"\n ],\n [\n \"state.\\nA second problem is that the trapped air pockets will shrink over time if the siphon is not operating due to no inflow. The air in pockets is absorbed by the liquid, which pulls liquid up into the piping until the air pocket disappears, and can cause activation of water flow outside the normal range of operating when the storage tank is not full, leading to loss of the liquid seal in lower parts of the mechanism.\\nA third problem is where the lower end of the liquid seal is simply a U-trap bend in an outflow pipe. During vigorous\",\n \"-21.245247060141992\"\n ],\n [\n \"diver does not have the option of simply taking out the DV and switching to an independent system, and gas switching may be done during a dive, including use of pure oxygen for accelerated decompression. To reduce the risk of confusion or getting the system contaminated, surface supplied systems may be required to be oxygen clean for all services except straight air diving. Oxygen service Regulators to be used with pure oxygen and nitrox mixtures containing more than 40% oxygen by volume should use oxygen compatible components and lubricants, and be cleaned for oxygen service. Helium service Helium is\",\n \"-21.197406166786095\"\n ],\n [\n \"end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) and ventilation at higher-than-normal pressures may be helpful in maintaining adequate oxygenation. However, such measures can also increase leakage of air through a tear, and can stress the sutures in a tear that has been surgically repaired; therefore the lowest possible airway pressures that still maintain oxygenation are typically used. Mechanical ventilation can also cause pulmonary barotrauma when high pressure is required to ventilate the lungs. Techniques such as pulmonary toilet (removal of secretions), fluid management, and treatment of pneumonia are employed to improve pulmonary compliance (the elasticity of the lungs).\\nWhile TBI may be managed without surgery,\",\n \"-21.113570828165393\"\n ],\n [\n \"which could not be adequately isolated from the liquid oxygen being pumped. All lubricants reacted with the oxygen, leading to fires and other failures. The solution was to lubricate the bearing with the oxygen. Although liquid oxygen is a poor lubricant, it was adequate, since the service life of the pump was just a few hours.\\nThe operating environment and service needs are also important design considerations. Some bearing assemblies require routine addition of lubricants, while others are factory sealed, requiring no further maintenance for the life of the mechanical assembly. Although seals are appealing, they increase\",\n \"-21.112936375808204\"\n ],\n [\n \"the surface. This restricted the movements and range of the diver and was also potentially hazardous as the supply could get cut off for a number of reasons. Early attempts at creating systems that would allow divers to carry a portable breathing gas source did not succeed, as the compression and storage technology was not advanced enough to allow compressed air to be stored in containers at sufficiently high pressures. By the end of the nineteenth century, two basic templates for scuba, (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus), had emerged; open-circuit scuba where the diver's exhaust is vented directly into the water,\",\n \"-21.105893507396104\"\n ],\n [\n \"the cabin interior had been soaking in pure oxygen for hours. Tom Stafford, in a NASA oral history in 1997, later recalled:\\nSo it turns out what we would have seen, had we had to do that, would have been two Roman candles going out, because we were 15 or 16 psi, pure oxygen, soaking in that for an hour and a half. You remember the tragic fire we had at the Cape. (...) Jesus, with that fire going off and that, it would have burned the suits. Everything was soaked in oxygen. So thank God. That was another thing: NASA\",\n \"-21.10314261034364\"\n ],\n [\n \"closed-circuit scuba. The body consumes and metabolises only a part of the oxygen in the inhaled air at the surface, and an even smaller fraction when the breathing gas is compressed as it is in ambient pressure systems underwater. A rebreather recycles the used breathing gas, while constantly replenishing it from the supply so that the oxygen level does not get dangerously depleted. The apparatus also has to remove the exhaled carbon dioxide, as a buildup of CO₂ levels would result in respiratory distress due to hypercapnia.\\nThe earliest known oxygen rebreather was patented on 17 June 1808 by Sieur Touboulic\",\n \"-21.09567871573381\"\n ],\n [\n \"and the oxygen it contains, creating a risk of subtle anoxia (lack of oxygenation) for people working in these atmospheres. Adequate ventilation is essential to ensure that artists and technicians are surrounded by breathable air. Carbon dioxide has the added hazard of interfering with the normal breathing reflex, which is sensitive to carbon dioxide levels in the air. Nitrogen has no effect on the breathing reflex, but this creates its own hazard in that a person breathing pure nitrogen can lose consciousness from lack of oxygen without any warning signs.\\nFog produced with liquid air does not present the hazards of\",\n \"-21.087471545441076\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":595,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"3dvzlx"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why do cats always stretch their front legs before walking up to you?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["It's a greeting in cat body language. It's basically saying, \"I'm coming at you, but not aggressively- see I'm relaxed\" *stretch*","Domesticated cats still have a lot of biological traits in common with their wild ancestors and stretching prior to approaching actually serves the evolutionary function of letting you know they could not possibly give less of a shit and are merely humoring you.","I always assumed that they were acting disinterested in me and my pats because they didn't wanna seem submissive to me calling them to come to me. I thought this because I have met cats that wanna run right up to you and meow and rub without any stretching.","Hm, thanks for asking this. It's something I've noticed but haven't ever really thought about in any sort of details. I've had cats almost my whole life and I just disregarded this behaviour as actually stretching after a period of inactivity, like when I stretch."],"string":"[\n \"It's a greeting in cat body language. It's basically saying, \\\"I'm coming at you, but not aggressively- see I'm relaxed\\\" *stretch*\",\n \"Domesticated cats still have a lot of biological traits in common with their wild ancestors and stretching prior to approaching actually serves the evolutionary function of letting you know they could not possibly give less of a shit and are merely humoring you.\",\n \"I always assumed that they were acting disinterested in me and my pats because they didn't wanna seem submissive to me calling them to come to me. I thought this because I have met cats that wanna run right up to you and meow and rub without any stretching.\",\n \"Hm, thanks for asking this. It's something I've noticed but haven't ever really thought about in any sort of details. I've had cats almost my whole life and I just disregarded this behaviour as actually stretching after a period of inactivity, like when I stretch.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["the hairs on its tail and back. In addition, it may stand more upright and turn its body sideways to increase its apparent size as a threat. Tailless cats, such as the Manx, which possess only a small stub of a tail, move the stub around as if they have a full tail. Tactile Cats often lick other cats as allogrooming or to bond (this grooming is usually done between familiar cats). They also sometimes lick humans, which may indicate affection.\nCats sometimes repeatedly tread their front paws on humans or soft objects with a kneading action. This is","-38.023889802236226"],["cat's tail may swing from side to side. If this motion is slow and \"lazy\", it generally indicates that the cat is in a relaxed state. Cats will twitch the tip of their tail when hunting or when otherwise alert or playful. Abrupt, full-tail twitching indicates a state of indecision. A stalking domestic cat will typically hold its tail low to the ground while in a crouch, and twitch it quickly from side to side. This tail behavior is also seen when a cat has become \"irritated\" and is nearing the point of lashing out, typically by","-37.694548294181004"],["Cat righting reflex The cat righting reflex is a cat's innate ability to orient itself as it falls in order to land on its feet. The righting reflex begins to appear at 3–4 weeks of age, and is perfected at 6–7 weeks. Cats are able to do this because they have an unusually flexible backbone and no functional clavicle (collarbone). The minimum height required for this to occur in most cats (safely) would be around 30 centimetres (12 in). Cats without a tail also have this ability, since a cat mostly moves its hind legs and relies on conservation of angular","-37.38587251101853"],["walk- which is caused by the height of the hindquarters: according to the Manx Cat Club these \"cannot be too high, and the back cannot be too short, while there must be great depth of flank. The head should be round and large, but not of the snubby or Persian type.\nRose Tenent wrote: \"No cat is more fascinating than the tailless Manx, with its rabbit-like hoppity gait [...] . The hind legs are considerably longer than the front ones, thus giving the cat its peculiar hopping gait; incidentally, also the reason for the reasonable theory held in some quarters that","-37.06344587478088"],["becoming relaxed, or eating. The mechanism by which cats purr is elusive. The cat has no unique anatomical feature that is clearly responsible for the sound. Grooming Cats are known for spending considerable amounts of time licking their coats to keep them clean. The cat's tongue has backwards-facing spines about 500 μm long, which are called papillae. These contain keratin which makes them rigid so the papillae act like a hairbrush. Some cats, particularly longhaired cats, occasionally regurgitate hairballs of fur that have collected in their stomachs from grooming. These clumps of fur are usually sausage-shaped and about 2–3 cm (0.8–1.2 in) long.","-36.627437338698655"],["considered to be abnormal, and treated as a medical emergency. Righting reflex The righting reflex is the attempt of cats to land on their feet at the completion of a jump or a fall. They can do this more easily than other animals due to their flexible spine, floating collar bone, and loose skin. Cats also use vision and their vestibular apparatus to help tell which way to turn. They can then stretch themselves out and relax their muscles. The righting reflex does not always result in the cat landing on its feet\nat the completion of the fall. Freeze reflex","-36.571928823774215"],["biting or swatting with claws extended. A cat may also twitch its tail when playing.\nSometimes during play, a cat, or more commonly, a kitten, will raise the base of its tail high and stiffen all but the tip into a shape like an upside-down \"U\". This signals great excitement, to the point of hyperactivity. This may also be seen when younger cats chase each other, or when they run around by themselves. When greeting their owner, cats often hold their tails straight up with a quivering motion that indicates extreme happiness. A scared or surprised cat may erect","-36.52524743351387"],["Adult cats are able to make use of pinch-induced behavioural inhibition to induce a 'freeze reflex' in their young which enables them to be transported by the neck without resisting. This reflex can also be exhibited by adults. This is also known as 'clipnosis'. Eating patterns Cats are obligate carnivores, and do not do well on vegetarian diets. In the wild they usually hunt smaller mammals to keep themselves nourished. Many cats find and chew small quantities of long grass but this is not for its nutritional value per se. The eating of grass seems to stem from feline","-35.7835648576729"],["that reinforces a nonthreatening position. This behavior is not exclusive to domestic house cats. Since cats can be very territorial, in the wild they utilize this slow blinking with other cats to signal themselves as friendly or nonthreatening. Tail Cats often use their tails to communicate. A cat holding its tail vertically generally indicates positive emotions such as happiness or confidence; the vertical tail is often used as a friendly greeting toward human beings or other cats (usually close relatives). A half-raised tail can indicate less pleasure, and unhappiness is indicated with a tail held low. In addition, a","-35.763916803727625"],["humans into what they want and need. Body language Cats rely strongly on body language to communicate. A cat may rub against an object, lick a person, and purr. Much of a cat's body language is through its tail, ears, head position, and back posture. Cats flick their tails in an oscillating, snake-like motion, or abruptly from side to side, often just before pouncing on an object or animal in what looks like \"play\" hunting behavior. If spoken to, a cat may flutter its tail in response, which may be the only indication of the interaction, though movement","-35.69186009891564"],["standing straight up, and they mew and howl loudly as they approach one another. The steps the cats make become slower and shorter the closer they become to one another. Once they are close enough to attack, they pause slightly, and then one cat leaps and tries to bite the nape of the other cat. The other cat has no choice but to retaliate and both cats roll aggressively on the ground, and loud intense screams come from both cats. After some time the cats separate and stand face to face to begin the attack all over again. This can","-35.53505902411416"],["are able to twist and bend their bodies, and jump a fair distance from standing still. This talent can be turned into tricks involving jumping through hoops and off scratching posts. Cats are able to learn many types of commands, such as to come when called, sit, roll over, shake a paw, and jump.","-35.42401545447683"],["of bright sunlight.\nWhen cats are calm, they tend to stand relaxed with a still tail. If they become aggressive, the hind legs stiffen, the rump elevates but the back stays flat, tail hairs are erected, the nose is pushed forward and the ears are pulled back slightly. Because cats have both claws and teeth, they can easily cause injury if they become involved in a fight, so this posture is an attempt to elicit deference by a competitor without fighting. The aggressor may attempt to make challengers retreat and will pursue them if they do not flee.","-35.335145095188636"],["need for friendship, or as a signal to an owner, saying thank you for friendship given.\"\nThe mechanism of how cats purr is elusive. This is partly because cats do not have a unique anatomical feature that is clearly responsible for this vocalization. One hypothesis, supported by electromyographic studies, is that cats produce the purring noise by using the vocal folds and/or the muscles of the larynx to alternately dilate and constrict the glottis rapidly, causing air vibrations during inhalation and exhalation. Combined with the steady inhalation and exhalation as the cat breathes, a purring noise is produced with strong","-34.87083435547538"],["this could be due to anxiety or physical health issues. Meowing Cats meow for various reasons, and some are naturally more vocal than others. This becomes a problem behavior when there is excessive meowing or yowling, especially at night. Positive reinforcement training, sometimes accompanied by a clicker, is commonly used in this case. This involves ignoring the cat when it is making noise, and rewarding with treats and affection when it is being quiet. Tricks A cat may be trained to do tricks such as playing dead or ringing the doorbell. Because of the cat's flexibility and bone structure, they","-34.68062211095821"],["the journal Nature. The article's summary in Nature appeared thus:\nM. Marey thinks that it is the inertia of its own mass that the cat uses to right itself. The torsion couple which produces the action of the muscles of the vertebra acts at first on the forelegs which have a very small motion of inertia on account of the front feet being foreshortened and pressed against the neck. The hind legs, however, being stretched out and almost perpendicular to the axis of the body, possesses a moment of inertia which opposes motion in the opposite direction to that which the","-34.60384142794646"],["expensive and not very comfortable for the cat at the same time. Nylon cat leashes and harnesses are, however, more elastic, and thus more comfortable and also provide more control. Leashes for large animals Leashes are used on large animals—such as bovids, camelids, and equids—to lead them so that they will be forced to follow and come to a desired area—as well as to tether them to a specific area, such as to a fencepost or tree trunk, so that they will remain stationary and not run away. Oftentimes, leashes are used to tether such animals when they require separation,","-34.204665160155855"],["they often weigh slightly more than they might appear to. They don't shed as much as other breeds and require very little grooming. They tend to get along well with other cats, as they have an established pecking order in the household. They have a loud distinctive purr. Bombay cats are known to be vocal and they cry and meow more than other cats.","-33.99949284127797"],["cats. A raised tail indicates a friendly greeting, and flattened ears indicates hostility. Tail-raising also indicates the cat's position in the group's social hierarchy, with dominant individuals raising their tails less often than subordinate ones. By contrast, feral cats are generally silent. Nose-to-nose touching is also a common greeting and may be followed by social grooming, which is solicited by one of the cats raising and tilting its head.\nPurring may have developed as an evolutionary advantage as a signalling mechanism of reassurance between mother cats and nursing kittens. Post-nursing cats often purr as a sign of contentment: when being petted,","-33.94053301031818"],["Kneading (cats) Kneading is an activity common to all domestic cats whereby, when in a state of ease, they alternately push out and pull in their front paws, often alternating between right and left limbs. Description Multiple theories exist that explain why cats knead. Kneading may have an origin going back to cats' wild ancestors who had to tread down grass or foliage to make a temporary nest in which to rest. Alternatively, the behavior may be a remnant of a newborn's kneading of the mother's teat to stimulate milk secretion. Kneading may also be a form of communication between","-33.857203522813506"],["Feline hyperesthesia syndrome Feline hyperesthesia syndrome, also known as rolling skin disease, is a rare illness in domestic cats that causes episodes of agitation, self-mutilation, and a characteristic rippling of the skin when touched. It is often described as a seizure disorder but the cause is unknown. Symptoms During an episode cats show a number of typical signs, including skin rolling or twitching, compulsive self-grooming, self-directed pouncing, or aggressive behaviour such as biting or attacking the tail. There may also be pupil dilation, vocalisation and a general increase in activity. Cause The cause of feline hyperesthesia syndrome is unknown.","-33.81404689537885"],["may prove painful if the cat has sharp claws.\nSince most of the preferred \"domestic traits\" are neotenous or juvenile traits that persist in the adult, kneading may be a relic juvenile behavior retained in adult domestic cats. It may also stimulate the cat and make it feel good, in the same manner as a human stretching. Kneading is often a precursor to sleeping. Many cats purr while kneading. They also purr mostly when newborn, when feeding, or when trying to feed on their mother's teat. The common association between the two behaviors may corroborate the evidence in favor of the","-33.80968376912642"],["kittens. Neutering will decrease or eliminate this behavior in many cases, suggesting that the behavior is linked to sex hormones.\nWhen cats become aggressive, they try to make themselves appear larger and more threatening by raising their fur, arching their backs, turning sideways and hissing or spitting. Often, the ears are pointed down and back to avoid damage to the inner ear and potentially listen for any changes behind them while focused forward. They may also vocalize loudly and bare their teeth in an effort to further intimidate their opponent. Fights usually consist of grappling and delivering powerful slaps to the","-33.804874374556675"],["with their heads level, tilted up or tilted down. Comparing the decerebrate cats to normal cats showed similar EMG patterns during level walking and EMG patterns that reflected downhill walking with the head titled up and uphill walking with the head tilted down. This study proved that neck proprioceptors and vestibular receptors contribute sensory feedback that alters the gait of the animal. This information may be useful for treatment of gait disorders. Functions Central pattern generators can serve many functions in vertebrate animals. CPGs can play roles in movement, breathing, rhythm generation and other oscillatory functions. The sections below focus","-33.78920396612375"],["Purr Mechanism The mechanism by which cats purr is an object of speculation. There is a unique “neural oscillator” in the cat’s brain of uncertain significance. Vocal folds/laryngeal muscles One hypothesis, backed by electromyographic studies, is that cats produce the purring noise by using the vocal folds or the muscles of the larynx to alternately dilate and constrict the glottis rapidly, causing air vibrations during inhalation and exhalation. Combined with the steady inhalation and exhalation of air as the cat breathes, a purring noise is produced with strong harmonics. Degree of hyoid ossification No cat can both purr and roar.","-33.635926600167295"],["characteristics of the vocal folds and an elongated vocal tract, the latter rendered possible by an incompletely ossified hyoid. Cats may purr for a variety of reasons, including when they're hungry, happy, or anxious. Meow The most familiar vocalisation of adult cats is a \"meow\" or \"miaow\" sound (pronounced /miˈaʊ/). The meow can be assertive, plaintive, friendly, bold, welcoming, attention-soliciting, demanding, or complaining. It can even be silent, where the cat opens its mouth but does not vocalize. Just like humans who talk a lot when they're happy, cats can too. According to The Purrington Post, a chatty cat","-33.5927933442872"],["to have its stomach petted the owner should not attempt to massage this area.\nPet owners are advised to apply gentle massages to their cats and if they wish to give their pet a more deep massage they should go to therapists who are trained in this matter.\nEffleurage and friction are both good techniques in massaging cats. After the cat has shown it is relaxed, the owners may start to pet it from the head to the tail, by using their open and relaxed hand. This is the effleurage technique. While practicing this movement, owners can look for abnormalities such as","-33.52680493434309"],["backwards. For example, the main human gaits are bipedal walking and running, but they employ many other gaits occasionally, including a four-legged crawl in tight spaces.\nIn walking, and for many animals running, the motion of legs on either side of the body alternates, i.e. is out of phase. Other animals, such as a horse when galloping, or an inchworm, alternate between their front and back legs. An alternative to a gait that alternates between legs is hopping or saltation, where all legs move together. As a main means of locomotion, this is usually found in bipeds or semi-bipeds. Among the","-33.46582808898529"],["other cat. This behaviour in domestic cats involves a system of hierarchy and may have evolved as a way to channel aggression where the costs of a conflict is too high. Cats also use bunting as a way to familiarize themselves to their environment and the pheromones secreted work to ease the cat's anxieties about an unfamiliar area.\nBunting is a normal animal behavior, and should be distinguished from head pressing, which is abnormal and typically a sign of illness. Development The practice of bunting stems from the behaviour that arises when kittens are very young and seek stimulation from their","-33.455634662881494"],["after having reached terminal velocity, cats would orient their limbs horizontally such that their body hits the ground first.\nA 1987 study speculated that this is done after falling five stories to ensure the cat reaches a terminal velocity by thereafter relaxing and spreading their bodies to increase drag. Why cats fall from high places Cats have a natural fondness for heights. If a cat is distracted by potential prey, or if it falls asleep, it can fall. If this were to occur in a tree, for example, the cat would often be able to save itself by grabbing on with","-33.43626329919789"],["touches the water, and then the cat quickly pulls its tongue backing into its mouth which soon closes; this results in a column of liquid being pulled into the cat's mouth, which is then secured by its mouth closing. Ruminants and most other herbivores partially submerge the tip of the mouth in order to draw in water by means of a plunging action with the tongue held straight. Cats drink at a significantly slower pace than ruminants, who face greater natural predation hazards. Uniquely, elephants draw water into their trunks and squirt it into their mouths.\nMost birds scoop or draw","-33.40898217851645"],["generates his apparent frailty. He walks with his hips forward, allowing him to make larger strides when he walks. The hunched shape restricts his legs, which are bent and turned out at the knees. The feet have the heels together with the toes facing apart. His hands and feet move quickly, though his body is stiff, and his head is constantly moving. When he walks, his feet should be picked up more than would occur naturally. Pantalone is slow moving, and he has bouts of agility when there is high emotion, but it is followed by asthmatic breathing","-33.33807637554128"],["restrained from hunting. If you see your cat making quick chirps, and moving their mouths extremely quickly while their eyes are set and staring at one place, they are chattering, and channeling their inner urge to hunt. Big cats do this as well. Although domesticated cats are not in the wild, they still have their innate need to hunt. Grown cats also do not meow to other grown cats. Cats meow in adult form to talk to other animals, such as dogs, and more importantly humans. Meowing to humans has been researched as that they do it to manipulate","-33.3057027467803"],["because the long tail was stiffened with ossified tendons. To get the tripodal pose, the tail would literally have to be broken. Putting the animal in a horizontal posture makes many aspects of the arms and pectoral girdle more understandable. For example, the hand is relatively immobile, with the three central fingers grouped together, bearing hoof-like phalanges, and able to hyperextend. This would have allowed them to bear weight. The wrist is also relatively immobile, and the arms and shoulder bones robust. These features all suggest that the animal spent time on all fours.\nFurthermore, it appears that Iguanodon became more","-33.255488765542395"],["feet. Throughout history the dewclaws have been removed, however many would now oppose this arguably unnecessary and cruel procedure. The tail is traditionally low-set and tapering, carried over the back when in motion or excited, but relaxed otherwise. Temperament The Coton is a playful, affectionate, intelligent breed. Although generally quiet, it can become very vocal -- grunting, barking, and making other noises when having fun. Cotons are known to have a habit of jumping up and walking on their hind legs to please people. Most Cotons love meeting new people and are very curious in new situations. Cotons are easy","-33.25347484496888"],["and use it like a security blanket. This will include lots of kneading, purring and suckling of the blanket. In some cases, cats have been observed to exhibit sexual movements, not unlike a dog \"humping\" a human leg, accompanying the kneading and suckling. Kittens who are taken away from their mothers before they are fully weaned may also develop a habit of kneading a human whom they have adopted as a maternal figure, and may also attempt suckling their ear, eye, nose, toe, hair, shirt, socks or fingers. Cats mainly do so as kittens, but sometimes the behavior continues","-33.228512558096554"],["walking when animals start to run. This has been suggested to spread the forces better across the wrist bones to protect them.","-33.22797642045771"],["seeking a mate. Its vocalizations are similar to those of the domestic cat.\nIts way of moving is distinct: with belly close to the ground, it moves at a fast run punctuated with occasional leaps. It is capable of sudden bursts of speed and can sprint at speeds of 30–40 km (19–25 mi) per hour. It buries its feces, covering it with sand.\nFour radio-collared sand cats in Israel moved long distances of 5–10 km (3.1–6.2 mi) in a single night. They were generally active throughout the night, hunting and travelling an average distance of 5.4 km (3.4 mi). They retired below ground at dawn and stayed in","-33.183774010278285"],["vinyasa between Cat and Cow Poses.\nThe pose is considered in Sivananda Yoga to be suitable for use during pregnancy. Variations In variations of the pose, one leg is stretched out straight, and the knee of the stretched out leg may then be bent so the foot points straight up; the opposite hand may also be stretched out; this is called Vyaghrasana, Tiger Pose.\nCat Pose is often alternated with Bitilasana (बितिलासन), Cow Pose, where the belly and back are lowered, the hips and shoulders remaining unmoved.","-33.1777283370684"],["Catsuit A catsuit is a one-piece form-fitting garment that covers the torso and the legs, and frequently the arms. They are usually made from stretchable material, such as lycra, chiffon, spandex (after 1959), latex, or velour, but may use less elastic materials, such as leather or PVC. Catsuits frequently close by means of a zipper at the front or back.\nCatsuits are most commonly worn by women, but are also worn by men. A catsuit is regarded as outerwear, but not normally street wear. History and usage Catsuits first made an appearance around the 1940s, and were occasionally worn as a","-33.172604428371415"],["paw, opening its toes to expose its claws, then closes its claws as it lifts its paw. The process takes place with alternate paws at intervals of one to two seconds. They may do this while sitting on their owner's lap, which may prove painful if the cat is large or strong or has sharp claws (as the claws tend to dig into one's lap). Though cats will sit happily on a hard surface, they will only knead a soft or pliant surface, although some cats will reflexively \"march\" on hard surfaces instead of kneading them.\nA cat may appear irritated","-33.16218974685762"],["arc between 90 and 180 degrees. A 90 degrees is preferable, but cats will be disqualified if their ears touch the back of their skulls.\nBoth longhaired and shorthaired American Curls have soft, silky coats which lie flat against their bodies. They require little grooming and enjoy spending time with their owners.\nThe American Curl, while still an uncommon breed, is found across the world in the United States, Spain, France, Japan, Russia, and many other countries. Health Due to its large genetic pool with non-pedigree cats, the American Curl is generally a healthy breed. These cats' ears however require frequent cleaning","-33.15965579543263"],["is mounted vertically in a wide base, which allows the cat to stretch upward on its rear legs and scratch freely without tipping it over. A post that is unstable or does not allow a cat to fully extend its body might put off the cat from using it. Surfaces vary: the post may be covered in sisal rope, upholstery fabric, or the jute backing of a piece of carpet. Many pet owners say they have to experiment with different surfaces to find one that their cats will scratch reliably. Experts say that cats generally prefer sisal or corrugated cardboard","-33.15526552000665"],["to accelerate to significant speed before being stopped suddenly presenting the possibility of injury to both dog and owner.\nSome leashes are made of reflective materials and are suitable for walking the dog at night. They are convenient because they make the dog and the owner much more visible in the traffic, reducing the likelihood of accidents. Cat leashes Cat leashes are used with the purpose of preventing the cat getting lost. Unlike dogs, cats rarely attack persons on the street, so cat leashes are mainly a safety measure to protect the pet itself. Very often the collars are replaced with","-33.143380627754595"],["coat feel like cashmere or rabbit fur. The lack of an undercoat gives a sleek appearance. The coat is uncommonly water repellant, which makes bathing these cats a challenge, though the coat dries quickly.\nThe Turkish Van is one of the larger cat breeds. Ideal type should feature broad shoulders with a body that is \"top-heavy\", that is, a cat with its center of gravity forward. The cat is moderately long, and its back legs are slightly longer than its front legs, but neither the cat itself nor its legs are so long as to be disproportionate. These cats are","-33.136831542742584"],["cat reaches free fall to accomplish this, which is much lower than that of humans, and they are able to hit the ground in a relaxed body form to prevent serious injury.\nBats, however, have a unique vestibular system anatomy. Their balance system, at an orientation 180 degrees opposite to that of humans, allows them to perform powerful feats of flight while hunting in the dark. This ability couples vestibular function with sensory echolocation to hunt prey.\n However, they lack a righting reflex similar to most mammals. When exposed to zero-G, bats do not undergo the series of righting reflexes that","-33.05608843584196"],["cats are known for coughing before spitting up a hairball.\nIn other domestic animals, horses can cough because of infections, or due to poor ventilation and dust in enclosed spaces.","-32.96992274616423"],["Sphynx cat Behaviour Sphynxes are known for their extroverted behavior. They display a high level of energy, intelligence, curiosity, and affection for their owners. They are one of the more dog-like breeds of cats, frequently greeting their owners at the door and friendly when meeting strangers. Toronto The Canadian Sphynx breed was started in 1966 in Toronto when a hairless kitten named Prune was born to a black and white domestic shorthair queen (Elizabeth). The kitten was mated with its mother (something called backcrossing), which produced one more naked kitten. Together with a few naked kittens found later, the cat","-32.91482387779979"],["\"hairless\" cat gave the owner optimism to try to own a cat, eventually leading to the positive situation of their own adaptation.\nSphynx cats can also have more ear wax than most hairy domestic cats because they have little to no hair in their ears. Dirt, skin oils (sebum), and ear wax accumulates in the ears, and needs to be cleaned out on a weekly basis, usually before bath time.\nThe Sphynx breed also tends to accumulate oils and debris under their nails as well as the skin fold above the nail due to the lack of fur, so, like the ears,","-32.87095552356914"],["Tendonectomy In cats Performing a tendonectomy on a cat is an alternative to onychectomy (\"declawing\"), which amputates the end of each digit. Tendonectomy may be considered less painful for the cat than onychectomy; however, it is not recommended by the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) and is illegal in many countries.\nIn a tendonectomy, a small portion of the tendon in each of a cat's toes is surgically removed to prevent the cat from extending the claws. Thus, the cat is no longer capable of scratching.\nClaws will continue to grow following tendonectomy, and because the cat can no longer extend the","-32.82791457767598"],["feet, using an instinctive righting reflex to twist their bodies around. Nonetheless, cats can still be injured or killed by a high fall.","-32.802601211704314"],["most will bark when confronted with strange situations, and some will bay (also referred to as \"speaking\", \"giving tongue\", or \"opening\") when they catch the scent of potential quarry. They also generally get along well with cats and other dogs. They are not too demanding with regard to exercise; their inbred stamina means they do not easily tire when exercised, but they also do not need to be worked to exhaustion before they will rest. Regular exercise helps ward off the weight gain to which the breed is prone. Health The typical longevity of beagles is 12–15 years, which is","-32.76643313913155"],["2005. The standard of points describes the cat as being medium-sized and muscular, with large ears, almond shaped eyes and distinctive long, webbed toes. They require frequent grooming, in spite of their lack of coat. Over-bathing can cause the skin to become very oily.\nThe Peterbald breed was originally created by crossing Donskoy with Oriental Shorthair cats to create a hairless cat of Oriental-type. Matings between the Donskoy and the Peterbald are no longer permitted since 2000, and outcrossing is not permitted, except with the domestic shorthair, due to the effect of the Donskoy's dominant hairless mutation. Health Not all cat","-32.744812003933475"],["in hospitals to relax children who are staying there. Indoor scratching A natural behavior in cats is to hook their front claws periodically into suitable surfaces and pull backwards. Cats, like humans, keep their muscles trim and their body flexible by stretching. Additionally, such periodic scratching serves to clean and sharpen their claws. Indoor cats may benefit from being provided with a scratching post so that they are less likely to use carpet or furniture, which they can easily ruin. However, some cats may simply ignore such a device. Commercial scratching posts typically are covered in carpeting or","-32.719077473448124"],["twisting movement at the ankle.\nThe high walk of crocodilians, with the belly and most of the tail being held off the ground, is unique among living reptiles. It somewhat resembles the walk of a mammal, with the same sequence of limb movements: left fore, right hind, right fore, left hind. The low walk is similar to the high walk, but without the body being raised, and is quite different from the sprawling walk of salamanders and lizards. The animal can change from one walk to the other instantaneously, but the high walk is the usual means of locomotion on land.","-32.70496456860565"],["the Manx cat is the result of a cross-mating between a cat and a rabbit.\"\nOccasionally the flap of loose skin from the belly to the haunches is absent, enhancing the visual similarity to a rabbit.\nCats with radial hypoplasia (abnormal short forelegs) may also adopt a rabbit-like gait.","-32.702977935783565"],["prey to suffocate it. Males have slightly bigger heads with wider incisors and longer mandibles than females. The muscles between the skull and jaw are short, and thus do not allow the cheetah to open its mouth as much as other cats. Digitigrade animals, the cheetah have tough foot pads that make it convenient to run on firm ground. The hind legs are longer than the forelegs. The relatively longer metacarpals, metatarsals (of the lower leg), radius, ulna, tibia, and fibula increase the length of each jump. The straightening of the flexible vertebral column also adds to the length.\nCheetahs have","-32.54093409643974"],["unusual because there is little guard hair. \nThe curl in Devon Rex fur is caused by a different mutation and gene than that of the Cornish Rex and German Rex, and breeding of a Devon with either of those cats results in cats without rexed (curled) fur. Devons, which are medium-sized cats, are often called \"pixie cats\" or \"alien cats\" because of their unique appearance. Other characteristics Their uncommonly large, slightly rounded ears are set low on the sides of their wide heads, their eyes are large, and their noses are slightly upturned. Unlike most cats, their whiskers are very","-32.51055707060732"],["cats' scratching behavior.","-32.48718239238951"],["It walks on the toes, with the bones of the feet making up the lower part of the visible leg. Unlike most mammals, it uses a \"pacing\" gait and moves both legs on one side of the body before the legs on the other side. It registers directly by placing each hind paw close to the track of the corresponding fore paw, minimizing noise and visible tracks. This also provides sure footing for hind paws when navigating rough terrain. As it speeds up walking to trotting, its gait changes to a \"diagonal\" gait: the diagonally opposite hind and fore legs","-32.478550275671296"],["legs except for the Caribbean and the South America legs of the tour, where they then decided to use a normal stage with catwalk instead.","-32.408198598073795"],["those cats, or those of the standardized American Shorthair breed, will respond differently to others despite looking very similar, displaying doglike or otherwise unexpected tendencies. Besides breed-based generalizations, a particular cat's behavior can be assessed by its restraint in using claws during play, its tendency to follow people, and its appreciation of close and frequent human contact. Abyssinian Abyssinian cats are known for demanding attention and showing depression if left alone too often. The closeness to their owners causes some of them to respond positively to feline leash-training. Unlike most cats, Abyssinians often show interest in water rather than a","-32.368624521566744"],["momentum to set up for landing, and the tail is in fact little used for this feat. Terminal velocity In addition to the righting reflex, cats have other features that reduce damage from a fall. Their small size, light bone structure, and thick fur decrease their terminal velocity. While falling, a cat spreads out its body to increase drag. An average-sized cat with its limbs extended achieves a terminal velocity of about 60 mph (97 km/h), while an average-sized man reaches a terminal velocity of about 120 mph (190 km/h). A 2003 study of feline high-rise syndrome found that cats 'orient [their] limbs horizontally","-32.34772659355076"],["feet compact, and they move in a well-balanced, reaching motion. The tail is carried high, but not curled over the back. Their temperaments are energetic and free-spirited.","-32.32033535541268"],["and repeatedly folding the fingers down and back, thus the cat's appearance. Some maneki-neko made specifically for some Western markets will have the cat's paw facing upwards, in a beckoning gesture that is more familiar to most Westerners.\nManeki-neko can be found with either the right or left paw raised (and sometimes both). The significance of the right and left raised paw differs with time and place. A statue with the left paw raised is to get more customers, while the right paw raised is to get more money. Hence it is also said that the one with left paw is","-32.31947004543326"],["by age 3 years. The effect in the best cats is spectacular. Grizzling does have a wide range of expression, however, and some cats never have more than a few banded hairs in the ears or in one spot on the belly, occasionally not even that.\nBlack ticked tabby Chausies have black ticking, black stripes on the inside of the upper legs and to a lesser extent on the outside, black rings on the tail, a black tail tip, and black tabby markings around the eyes. They are also known as brown ticked tabbies because, although the markings are black, the","-32.30995688372059"],["move simultaneously. Claws Cats have protractable and retractable claws. In their normal, relaxed position, the claws are sheathed with the skin and fur around the paw's toe pads. This keeps the claws sharp by preventing wear from contact with the ground and allows the silent stalking of prey. The claws on the fore feet are typically sharper than those on the hind feet. Cats can voluntarily extend their claws on one or more paws. They may extend their claws in hunting or self-defense, climbing, kneading, or for extra traction on soft surfaces. Most cats have five claws on their front","-32.29750084673287"],["or a mechanical hackamore. The ground jury at the show has the right, however, based on veterinary advice, to refuse a bit or bridling scheme if it could cause harm to the horse.\nBoots and wraps are worn by almost all horses, due to the fact that they may easily injure their legs when landing or when making tight turns at speed. Open-fronted tendon boots usually are worn on the forelegs, because they provide protection for the delicate tendons that run down the back of the leg, but still allow the horse to feel a rail should it get careless and","-32.287357327877544"],["leg (only the front right leg is now lifted). Then it lifts its left rear leg (diagonal support), puts down the front right (lateral support), lifts the left front, puts down the rear left, and the pattern repeats.\nIdeally, the advancing rear hoof oversteps the spot where the previously advancing front hoof touched the ground. The more the rear hoof oversteps, the smoother and more comfortable the walk becomes. Individual horses and different breeds vary in the smoothness of their walk. However, a rider will almost always feel some degree of gentle side-to-side motion in the horse's hips as each hind","-32.245389698364306"],["first branches and smooth bark. It has been suggested they do this to avoid cats.","-32.23812282358995"],["of its ears or head toward the source of the sound may be a better indication of the cat's awareness that a sound was made in their direction. \nWhen cats greet another cat in their vicinity, they can do a slow, languid, long blink to communicate affection if they trust the person or animal they are in contact with. It is a sign of trust. A way to communicate love and trust to your cat from a human perspective is to say their name, and get their attention, and then look them in the eyes and slowly blink at them","-32.22707181965234"],["all over a longhaired cat's body, to novice eyes, they are most noticeable on the flanks when the cat is in motion.\nThe second explanation of reports of winged cats is a skin condition called feline cutaneous asthenia, which is related to Ehlers–Danlos syndrome (elastic skin) in humans. In \"winged\" cats with cutaneous asthenia, the pseudo-wings only occur on the shoulders, haunches, or back, and the cats can often actively move these growths, suggesting the presence of neuromuscular tissue within them, which is not present within clumps of matted fur alone.\nThe third explanation is a form of conjoining or extra supernumerary","-32.220862637099344"],["Munchkin cat Breed creation Short-legged cats have been documented a number of times around the world since the 1940s. A British veterinary report in 1944 noted four generations of healthy short-legged cats which were similar to normal cats except for the length of the legs. This line disappeared during the Second World War but other short-legged cats were spotted in Russia during 1956 and the United States in the 1970s.\nIn 1983, Sandra Hochenedel, a music teacher in Rayville, Louisiana, found two pregnant cats who had been chased under a truck by a dog. She kept one of the cats and","-32.22079628822394"],[" A fearful, defensive cat makes itself smaller, lowers itself toward the ground, arches its back and leans its body away from the threat rather than forward. Fighting usually occurs only when escape is impossible.\nIn cats, flattened ears generally indicate that an individual feels threatened and may attack. Having the mouth open and no teeth exposed indicates playfulness. Ears Cats can change the position of their ears very quickly, in a continuum from erect when the cat is alert and focused, slightly relaxed when the cat is calm, and flattened against the head when extremely defensive or aggressive.","-32.2068156900059"],["paws, and four on their rear paws. The dewclaw is proximal to the other claws. More proximally is a protrusion which appears to be a sixth \"finger\". This special feature of the front paws, on the inside of the wrists has no function in normal walking, but is thought to be an antiskidding device used while jumping. Some breeds of cats are prone to polydactyly. Polydactyly is a mutation of the forelimb. Polydactylous cats occur along North America' northeast coast and in Great Britain. Vision Cats have excellent night vision and can see at only one-sixth the light level required","-32.193588463036576"],["'dog like'.\" This description is not only due to their large size and stature but also because of the cats' usually pleasant mannerisms, tendency to closely follow their owners, and obey them. Maine Coon cats also are often trainable given their intelligence and affectionate nature. The felines have large and silky coats yet grooming is made easier given their desire to be frequently handled. The Cat Fanciers' Association said that the doglike Maine Coons offer \"hours of enjoyment with their antics\", though they are \"intrusive\" since \"[w]ithout question\" the cats \"want to be [a] part of everything\". Manx The Manx","-32.13263602257939"],["it can also be observed during adulthood. Studies have been done with adult cats performing a task, such as pressing a lever after a visual cue. Adult cats that see others performing a task learn to perform the same task faster than those who did not witness another cat. Socialization between cats When strange cats meet, ideally they would cautiously allow the strange cat to smell its hindquarters, but this does not happen very often. Usually when strange cats meet, one cat makes a sudden movement that puts the other cat into a defensive mode. The cat will then draw","-32.121189013931144"],["gives these cats their characteristic tailless or stumpy tail appearance. It is inherited in Manx as an autosomal dominant trait.","-32.11820857197745"],["mandible blocking their access. However, the model pulled its jaw upward as modern cats bite, while machairodonts most likely did not, instead pressing their skulls down with the aid of their neck muscles. This flaw in the procedure might nullify the results and leave the belly-shearing hypothesis untouched.","-32.077627906546695"],["required. This movement comes naturally to the Rottweiler and should appear as such; any deviation may lead to a disqualification in the show ring. While walking, the Rottweiler's legs, both front and hind, should move in a straight forward and backward manner. As with the straight movement of the legs, the path the Rottweiler moves in should also be straight. The Rottweiler's gait is all about balance and effectiveness as the breed is still used as a herder today. Coat The coat consists of an outer coat and an undercoat. The outer coat is of medium length, coarse, dense","-32.050603033276275"],["harnesses, because they avoid the dangers of collars which include escaping and running away or choking. Cats are more likely to not be willing to be walked in a harness than dogs are, and are considered to need up to months to be able to adjust to wearing a harness.\nCat leashes come in a variety of colors, designs and models and are made of different materials. There are cat leashes made of leather, nylon and rope. Whereas the leather leash is one of the best qualities because of the characteristics of the material, it is also one of the most","-32.03819076711079"],["families and crave attention, and for this reason, cats of this breed are highly suitable for children. Most Bombay cats are not independent, however many older Bombays are more independent when compared with younger cats. They seek attention from their owners and people around them often and dislike being left alone for extended periods of time. Although they like to be around people generally, Bombay cats also tend to have a certain person whom they pay special attention to in their lives. Overall, the Bombay breed is intelligent, playful, and attention-seeking. The Bombay's muscular medium-sized body can be deceiving, as","-31.947769978956785"],["attentive, alert felines that notice a lot. Considered an unusually \"talkative\" breed, they often interact vocally with people. Their soft voices are capable of nearly a whole scale of tones, leading to a folk belief that they can sing. Folklore and legend Cats feature prominently in Japanese folklore. As in many other traditions around the world, cats are frequently objects of fear and mistrust, with various supernatural abilities ascribed to them. But in some Japanese stories, the length of their tails is an important plot point, with the Japanese Bobtail seen as auspicious, while long-tailed cats may be suspected of","-31.93205107007816"],["a few cases where they walk on their hindlimbs only. Several arboreal primate species, such as gibbons and indriids, exclusively walk on two legs during the brief periods they spend on the ground. Many animals rear up on their hind legs whilst fighting or copulating. Some animals commonly stand on their hind legs, in order to reach food, to keep watch, to threaten a competitor or predator, or to pose in courtship, but do not move bipedally. Etymology The word is derived from the Latin words bi(s) 'two' and ped- 'foot', as contrasted with quadruped 'four feet'. Advantages Limited and","-31.930607424175832"],["body in an attempt to knock the other off-balance.\nHorses will also rub the bottom or sides of their jaw onto others. This self-grooming social interaction can have a calming effect for the horses involved, and dominant horses are more likely to initiate the behavior. Lions Similarly to domesticated cats, lions also use bunting as a form of greeting and territorial marking. Lions will often greet each other with this head bunting behavior when returning to a pride after a hunt. In the early stages of life, cubs procure stimulation from their mother as she cleans them by rubbing and","-31.924907780979993"],["the back of a cat is sometimes joked about, with it being debated whether the feline would still honour the popular axiom, that a cat \"always lands on its feet\", or if the butterbrot would be \"stronger\", making the cat fall on its back — alternatively, it is sometimes humorously suggested that the cat would simply levitate, as it would be unable to satisfy both criteria for landing.","-31.904467195505276"],["legs move laterally, with the inside foreleg crossing in front of the outside foreleg and the inside hind hoof tracking into or beyond the hoofprint made by the outside foreleg. Because the horse is bending away from the direction of travel, the movement requires a certain amount of collection. The shoulder-in can be performed at any forward gait, but in dressage competition it is usually ridden only at the trot. \n\nA young horse is first introduced to the movement when coming out of a corner or a circle on which the horse is already correctly bent, from nose to tail,","-31.7543698833324"],["neck. Kneading Kittens \"knead\" the breast while suckling, using the forelimbs one at a time in an alternating pattern to push against the mammary glands to stimulate lactation in the mother.\nCats carry these infantile behaviors beyond nursing and into adulthood. Some cats \"nurse\", i.e. suck, on clothing or bedding during kneading. The cat exerts firm downwards pressure with its paw, opening its toes to expose its claws, then closes its claws as it lifts its paw. The process takes place with alternate paws at intervals of one to two seconds. They may knead while sitting on their owner's lap, which","-31.75433118562796"],["They are friendly and rarely aggressive. They are very good with children, but may chase cats and other small pets.\nBorders do well in task-oriented activities and have a surprising ability to jump high and run fast given the size of their legs. The breed has excelled in agility training, but they are quicker to learn jumps and see-saws than weaving poles. They take training for tasks very well, and are extremely trainable, and capable of learning tricks quickly and competently. The border in recent years has been bred to harbor a more subtle character so are more adaptable to apartment","-31.740629089646973"],["extreme docility of some individuals has led to the myth that Ragdolls are pain resistant. Some breeders in Britain have tried to breed away from the limpness owing to concerns that extreme docility \"might not be in the best interests of the cat\".\nBreed standard marketing and publicity material describe the Ragdoll as affectionate, intelligent, relaxed in temperament, gentle, and an easy-to-handle lap cat. The animals are often known as \"puppy cats\", \"dog-like cats\", \"cat-dogs\", etc., because of their placid nature and affectionate behavior, with the cats often following owners from room to room as well as seeking physical affection akin","-31.731334012176376"],["the normal ones just like a dewclaw, usually associated with an additional pad which makes them look like an underdeveloped foot sticking out near the base of the normal toes. Rather, radial hypoplasia-related extra toes are immediately adjacent to the normal ones, giving the cat overly large, flat feet — colloquially known as \"patty feet\" or \"hamburger feet\". Though this looks less serious than true polydactyly (as the feet appear \"normal\" apart from having one or two extra toes), breeding such cats will eventually result in severely disabled offspring. History and folklore The condition seems to be most commonly found in","-31.721889460124657"],["coils its neck back something like a heron. Its gait when walking is jerky and rapid, with its head and neck moving back and forth with each step. It may hold its wings out when running for extra stability. Distribution and habitat The hamerkop occurs in Africa south of the Sahara, Madagascar, and coastal south-west Arabia. It requires shallow water in which to forage, and is found in all wetland habitats, including rivers, streams, seasonal pools, estuaries, reservoirs, marshes, mangroves, irrigated land such as rice paddies, savannahs, and forests. In Tanzania, it has also recently begun to feed on","-31.70928620675113"],["in a handstand before one learns to perform a stable handstand. Balance can also be maintained by varying the arch of the back. In non-human animals Some quadrupeds are able to walk bipedally on their forelimbs, thus performing \"hand\" walking in an anthropomorphic sense. For example, when attacked, the spotted skunk may rear up and move about on its forelimbs so that its anal glands, capable of spraying an offensive oil, are directed towards the attacker. Dogs and sealions can also be trained to walk on their forelimbs.","-31.651943824253976"],["free-roaming cats in the Greek islands and in a cat in Australia.\nFd = Scottish Fold gene (dominant with incomplete penetrance). Cats with this gene have ears that curl forward. There are different degrees of folding, and more genes may be involved in the expression of the Fd gene. This gene is associated with bone and cartilage defects such as thickened tail and swollen feet. The homozygous form (FdFd) causes severe osteochondrodysplasia. Because of this, many breeders only breed folds to non-folds to avoid homozygous folds. However, heterozygous folds may also develop osteochondrodysplasia of lesser severity.\nAustralian Curl – a curl-eared mutation","-31.63019116583746"],["is attributed to injuries on the bear's front paws. Primates Most bipedal animals move with their backs close to horizontal, using a long tail to balance the weight of their bodies. The primate version of bipedalism is unusual because the back is close to upright (completely upright in humans), and the tail may be absent entirely. Many primates can stand upright on their hind legs without any support. \nCommon chimpanzees, bonobos, gibbons and baboons exhibit forms of bipedalism. On the ground sifakas move like all indrids with bipedal sideways hopping movements of the hind legs, holding their forelimbs up for","-31.60475234974001"],["Also, keeping cats indoors is a preventative measure. Other animals Sporotrichosis can be diagnosed in domestic and wild mammals. In veterinary medicine it is most frequently seen in cats and horses. Cats have a particularly severe form of cutaneous sporotrichosis and also can serve as a source of zoonotic infection to persons who handle them and are exposed to exudate from skin lesions.","-31.569520149263553"],["Cabbit Cat mutations Manx cats and other cats with tailless or bobtailed mutations account for many alleged cabbit sightings. The mutation that causes taillessness can also cause skeletal and/or nerve abnormalities that result in the cat's using a hopping motion. This was once accepted by breeders as a feature of the Manx's look, but is now considered a serious fault in the show-ring and does not form part of the modern Manx standard of points. Modern breeders of the Manx are careful to breed only from cats that have normal locomotion. The relatively long hind legs","-31.54619475378422"],["and expressive voices that are used often. They are smart cats, with some being quite willful in getting their own way. Many Orientals take to leash training quickly if started young. They have been known to open cabinets, doors and even refrigerators. This breed group is often recommended for more experienced cat keepers.","-31.527992878545774"],["and down and give the impression of wings. These can be very uncomfortable for the cat and can harbour dirt, feces and parasites. Extensive mats must be shaved or clipped by a veterinarian. This explanation is ultimately untenable as the sole solution to the winged cat phenomenon, for several reasons. Many notable examples of winged cats feature shorthaired specimens. The occurrence of mats in longhaired cats is easily recognisable by experienced cat owners and breeders, but not recognisable to novices. Matted fur is not considered notable and rarely reported, except by those unfamiliar with the condition. Although mats can occur","-31.507647620339412"],["cats of the genus Felis could purr. However, felids of the genus Panthera (tigers, lions, jaguars and leopards) also produce sounds similar to purring, but only when exhaling. The subdivision of the Felidae into \"purring cats\" on the one hand and 'roaring cats' (i.e. non-purring) on the other, originally goes back to Owen (1834/1835) and was definitely introduced by Pocock (1916), based on a difference in hyoid anatomy. The \"roaring cats\" (lion, Panthera leo; tiger, P. tigris; jaguar, P. onca; leopard, P. pardus) have an incompletely ossified hyoid, which according to this theory, enables them to roar but not to","-31.481782917981036"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"the hairs on its tail and back. In addition, it may stand more upright and turn its body sideways to increase its apparent size as a threat. Tailless cats, such as the Manx, which possess only a small stub of a tail, move the stub around as if they have a full tail. Tactile Cats often lick other cats as allogrooming or to bond (this grooming is usually done between familiar cats). They also sometimes lick humans, which may indicate affection.\\nCats sometimes repeatedly tread their front paws on humans or soft objects with a kneading action. This is\",\n \"-38.023889802236226\"\n ],\n [\n \"cat's tail may swing from side to side. If this motion is slow and \\\"lazy\\\", it generally indicates that the cat is in a relaxed state. Cats will twitch the tip of their tail when hunting or when otherwise alert or playful. Abrupt, full-tail twitching indicates a state of indecision. A stalking domestic cat will typically hold its tail low to the ground while in a crouch, and twitch it quickly from side to side. This tail behavior is also seen when a cat has become \\\"irritated\\\" and is nearing the point of lashing out, typically by\",\n \"-37.694548294181004\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cat righting reflex The cat righting reflex is a cat's innate ability to orient itself as it falls in order to land on its feet. The righting reflex begins to appear at 3–4 weeks of age, and is perfected at 6–7 weeks. Cats are able to do this because they have an unusually flexible backbone and no functional clavicle (collarbone). The minimum height required for this to occur in most cats (safely) would be around 30 centimetres (12 in). Cats without a tail also have this ability, since a cat mostly moves its hind legs and relies on conservation of angular\",\n \"-37.38587251101853\"\n ],\n [\n \"walk- which is caused by the height of the hindquarters: according to the Manx Cat Club these \\\"cannot be too high, and the back cannot be too short, while there must be great depth of flank. The head should be round and large, but not of the snubby or Persian type.\\nRose Tenent wrote: \\\"No cat is more fascinating than the tailless Manx, with its rabbit-like hoppity gait [...] . The hind legs are considerably longer than the front ones, thus giving the cat its peculiar hopping gait; incidentally, also the reason for the reasonable theory held in some quarters that\",\n \"-37.06344587478088\"\n ],\n [\n \"becoming relaxed, or eating. The mechanism by which cats purr is elusive. The cat has no unique anatomical feature that is clearly responsible for the sound. Grooming Cats are known for spending considerable amounts of time licking their coats to keep them clean. The cat's tongue has backwards-facing spines about 500 μm long, which are called papillae. These contain keratin which makes them rigid so the papillae act like a hairbrush. Some cats, particularly longhaired cats, occasionally regurgitate hairballs of fur that have collected in their stomachs from grooming. These clumps of fur are usually sausage-shaped and about 2–3 cm (0.8–1.2 in) long.\",\n \"-36.627437338698655\"\n ],\n [\n \"considered to be abnormal, and treated as a medical emergency. Righting reflex The righting reflex is the attempt of cats to land on their feet at the completion of a jump or a fall. They can do this more easily than other animals due to their flexible spine, floating collar bone, and loose skin. Cats also use vision and their vestibular apparatus to help tell which way to turn. They can then stretch themselves out and relax their muscles. The righting reflex does not always result in the cat landing on its feet\\nat the completion of the fall. Freeze reflex\",\n \"-36.571928823774215\"\n ],\n [\n \"biting or swatting with claws extended. A cat may also twitch its tail when playing.\\nSometimes during play, a cat, or more commonly, a kitten, will raise the base of its tail high and stiffen all but the tip into a shape like an upside-down \\\"U\\\". This signals great excitement, to the point of hyperactivity. This may also be seen when younger cats chase each other, or when they run around by themselves. When greeting their owner, cats often hold their tails straight up with a quivering motion that indicates extreme happiness. A scared or surprised cat may erect\",\n \"-36.52524743351387\"\n ],\n [\n \"Adult cats are able to make use of pinch-induced behavioural inhibition to induce a 'freeze reflex' in their young which enables them to be transported by the neck without resisting. This reflex can also be exhibited by adults. This is also known as 'clipnosis'. Eating patterns Cats are obligate carnivores, and do not do well on vegetarian diets. In the wild they usually hunt smaller mammals to keep themselves nourished. Many cats find and chew small quantities of long grass but this is not for its nutritional value per se. The eating of grass seems to stem from feline\",\n \"-35.7835648576729\"\n ],\n [\n \"that reinforces a nonthreatening position. This behavior is not exclusive to domestic house cats. Since cats can be very territorial, in the wild they utilize this slow blinking with other cats to signal themselves as friendly or nonthreatening. Tail Cats often use their tails to communicate. A cat holding its tail vertically generally indicates positive emotions such as happiness or confidence; the vertical tail is often used as a friendly greeting toward human beings or other cats (usually close relatives). A half-raised tail can indicate less pleasure, and unhappiness is indicated with a tail held low. In addition, a\",\n \"-35.763916803727625\"\n ],\n [\n \"humans into what they want and need. Body language Cats rely strongly on body language to communicate. A cat may rub against an object, lick a person, and purr. Much of a cat's body language is through its tail, ears, head position, and back posture. Cats flick their tails in an oscillating, snake-like motion, or abruptly from side to side, often just before pouncing on an object or animal in what looks like \\\"play\\\" hunting behavior. If spoken to, a cat may flutter its tail in response, which may be the only indication of the interaction, though movement\",\n \"-35.69186009891564\"\n ],\n [\n \"standing straight up, and they mew and howl loudly as they approach one another. The steps the cats make become slower and shorter the closer they become to one another. Once they are close enough to attack, they pause slightly, and then one cat leaps and tries to bite the nape of the other cat. The other cat has no choice but to retaliate and both cats roll aggressively on the ground, and loud intense screams come from both cats. After some time the cats separate and stand face to face to begin the attack all over again. This can\",\n \"-35.53505902411416\"\n ],\n [\n \"are able to twist and bend their bodies, and jump a fair distance from standing still. This talent can be turned into tricks involving jumping through hoops and off scratching posts. Cats are able to learn many types of commands, such as to come when called, sit, roll over, shake a paw, and jump.\",\n \"-35.42401545447683\"\n ],\n [\n \"of bright sunlight.\\nWhen cats are calm, they tend to stand relaxed with a still tail. If they become aggressive, the hind legs stiffen, the rump elevates but the back stays flat, tail hairs are erected, the nose is pushed forward and the ears are pulled back slightly. Because cats have both claws and teeth, they can easily cause injury if they become involved in a fight, so this posture is an attempt to elicit deference by a competitor without fighting. The aggressor may attempt to make challengers retreat and will pursue them if they do not flee.\",\n \"-35.335145095188636\"\n ],\n [\n \"need for friendship, or as a signal to an owner, saying thank you for friendship given.\\\"\\nThe mechanism of how cats purr is elusive. This is partly because cats do not have a unique anatomical feature that is clearly responsible for this vocalization. One hypothesis, supported by electromyographic studies, is that cats produce the purring noise by using the vocal folds and/or the muscles of the larynx to alternately dilate and constrict the glottis rapidly, causing air vibrations during inhalation and exhalation. Combined with the steady inhalation and exhalation as the cat breathes, a purring noise is produced with strong\",\n \"-34.87083435547538\"\n ],\n [\n \"this could be due to anxiety or physical health issues. Meowing Cats meow for various reasons, and some are naturally more vocal than others. This becomes a problem behavior when there is excessive meowing or yowling, especially at night. Positive reinforcement training, sometimes accompanied by a clicker, is commonly used in this case. This involves ignoring the cat when it is making noise, and rewarding with treats and affection when it is being quiet. Tricks A cat may be trained to do tricks such as playing dead or ringing the doorbell. Because of the cat's flexibility and bone structure, they\",\n \"-34.68062211095821\"\n ],\n [\n \"the journal Nature. The article's summary in Nature appeared thus:\\nM. Marey thinks that it is the inertia of its own mass that the cat uses to right itself. The torsion couple which produces the action of the muscles of the vertebra acts at first on the forelegs which have a very small motion of inertia on account of the front feet being foreshortened and pressed against the neck. The hind legs, however, being stretched out and almost perpendicular to the axis of the body, possesses a moment of inertia which opposes motion in the opposite direction to that which the\",\n \"-34.60384142794646\"\n ],\n [\n \"expensive and not very comfortable for the cat at the same time. Nylon cat leashes and harnesses are, however, more elastic, and thus more comfortable and also provide more control. Leashes for large animals Leashes are used on large animals—such as bovids, camelids, and equids—to lead them so that they will be forced to follow and come to a desired area—as well as to tether them to a specific area, such as to a fencepost or tree trunk, so that they will remain stationary and not run away. Oftentimes, leashes are used to tether such animals when they require separation,\",\n \"-34.204665160155855\"\n ],\n [\n \"they often weigh slightly more than they might appear to. They don't shed as much as other breeds and require very little grooming. They tend to get along well with other cats, as they have an established pecking order in the household. They have a loud distinctive purr. Bombay cats are known to be vocal and they cry and meow more than other cats.\",\n \"-33.99949284127797\"\n ],\n [\n \"cats. A raised tail indicates a friendly greeting, and flattened ears indicates hostility. Tail-raising also indicates the cat's position in the group's social hierarchy, with dominant individuals raising their tails less often than subordinate ones. By contrast, feral cats are generally silent. Nose-to-nose touching is also a common greeting and may be followed by social grooming, which is solicited by one of the cats raising and tilting its head.\\nPurring may have developed as an evolutionary advantage as a signalling mechanism of reassurance between mother cats and nursing kittens. Post-nursing cats often purr as a sign of contentment: when being petted,\",\n \"-33.94053301031818\"\n ],\n [\n \"Kneading (cats) Kneading is an activity common to all domestic cats whereby, when in a state of ease, they alternately push out and pull in their front paws, often alternating between right and left limbs. Description Multiple theories exist that explain why cats knead. Kneading may have an origin going back to cats' wild ancestors who had to tread down grass or foliage to make a temporary nest in which to rest. Alternatively, the behavior may be a remnant of a newborn's kneading of the mother's teat to stimulate milk secretion. Kneading may also be a form of communication between\",\n \"-33.857203522813506\"\n ],\n [\n \"Feline hyperesthesia syndrome Feline hyperesthesia syndrome, also known as rolling skin disease, is a rare illness in domestic cats that causes episodes of agitation, self-mutilation, and a characteristic rippling of the skin when touched. It is often described as a seizure disorder but the cause is unknown. Symptoms During an episode cats show a number of typical signs, including skin rolling or twitching, compulsive self-grooming, self-directed pouncing, or aggressive behaviour such as biting or attacking the tail. There may also be pupil dilation, vocalisation and a general increase in activity. Cause The cause of feline hyperesthesia syndrome is unknown.\",\n \"-33.81404689537885\"\n ],\n [\n \"may prove painful if the cat has sharp claws.\\nSince most of the preferred \\\"domestic traits\\\" are neotenous or juvenile traits that persist in the adult, kneading may be a relic juvenile behavior retained in adult domestic cats. It may also stimulate the cat and make it feel good, in the same manner as a human stretching. Kneading is often a precursor to sleeping. Many cats purr while kneading. They also purr mostly when newborn, when feeding, or when trying to feed on their mother's teat. The common association between the two behaviors may corroborate the evidence in favor of the\",\n \"-33.80968376912642\"\n ],\n [\n \"kittens. Neutering will decrease or eliminate this behavior in many cases, suggesting that the behavior is linked to sex hormones.\\nWhen cats become aggressive, they try to make themselves appear larger and more threatening by raising their fur, arching their backs, turning sideways and hissing or spitting. Often, the ears are pointed down and back to avoid damage to the inner ear and potentially listen for any changes behind them while focused forward. They may also vocalize loudly and bare their teeth in an effort to further intimidate their opponent. Fights usually consist of grappling and delivering powerful slaps to the\",\n \"-33.804874374556675\"\n ],\n [\n \"with their heads level, tilted up or tilted down. Comparing the decerebrate cats to normal cats showed similar EMG patterns during level walking and EMG patterns that reflected downhill walking with the head titled up and uphill walking with the head tilted down. This study proved that neck proprioceptors and vestibular receptors contribute sensory feedback that alters the gait of the animal. This information may be useful for treatment of gait disorders. Functions Central pattern generators can serve many functions in vertebrate animals. CPGs can play roles in movement, breathing, rhythm generation and other oscillatory functions. The sections below focus\",\n \"-33.78920396612375\"\n ],\n [\n \"Purr Mechanism The mechanism by which cats purr is an object of speculation. There is a unique “neural oscillator” in the cat’s brain of uncertain significance. Vocal folds/laryngeal muscles One hypothesis, backed by electromyographic studies, is that cats produce the purring noise by using the vocal folds or the muscles of the larynx to alternately dilate and constrict the glottis rapidly, causing air vibrations during inhalation and exhalation. Combined with the steady inhalation and exhalation of air as the cat breathes, a purring noise is produced with strong harmonics. Degree of hyoid ossification No cat can both purr and roar.\",\n \"-33.635926600167295\"\n ],\n [\n \"characteristics of the vocal folds and an elongated vocal tract, the latter rendered possible by an incompletely ossified hyoid. Cats may purr for a variety of reasons, including when they're hungry, happy, or anxious. Meow The most familiar vocalisation of adult cats is a \\\"meow\\\" or \\\"miaow\\\" sound (pronounced /miˈaʊ/). The meow can be assertive, plaintive, friendly, bold, welcoming, attention-soliciting, demanding, or complaining. It can even be silent, where the cat opens its mouth but does not vocalize. Just like humans who talk a lot when they're happy, cats can too. According to The Purrington Post, a chatty cat\",\n \"-33.5927933442872\"\n ],\n [\n \"to have its stomach petted the owner should not attempt to massage this area.\\nPet owners are advised to apply gentle massages to their cats and if they wish to give their pet a more deep massage they should go to therapists who are trained in this matter.\\nEffleurage and friction are both good techniques in massaging cats. After the cat has shown it is relaxed, the owners may start to pet it from the head to the tail, by using their open and relaxed hand. This is the effleurage technique. While practicing this movement, owners can look for abnormalities such as\",\n \"-33.52680493434309\"\n ],\n [\n \"backwards. For example, the main human gaits are bipedal walking and running, but they employ many other gaits occasionally, including a four-legged crawl in tight spaces.\\nIn walking, and for many animals running, the motion of legs on either side of the body alternates, i.e. is out of phase. Other animals, such as a horse when galloping, or an inchworm, alternate between their front and back legs. An alternative to a gait that alternates between legs is hopping or saltation, where all legs move together. As a main means of locomotion, this is usually found in bipeds or semi-bipeds. Among the\",\n \"-33.46582808898529\"\n ],\n [\n \"other cat. This behaviour in domestic cats involves a system of hierarchy and may have evolved as a way to channel aggression where the costs of a conflict is too high. Cats also use bunting as a way to familiarize themselves to their environment and the pheromones secreted work to ease the cat's anxieties about an unfamiliar area.\\nBunting is a normal animal behavior, and should be distinguished from head pressing, which is abnormal and typically a sign of illness. Development The practice of bunting stems from the behaviour that arises when kittens are very young and seek stimulation from their\",\n \"-33.455634662881494\"\n ],\n [\n \"after having reached terminal velocity, cats would orient their limbs horizontally such that their body hits the ground first.\\nA 1987 study speculated that this is done after falling five stories to ensure the cat reaches a terminal velocity by thereafter relaxing and spreading their bodies to increase drag. Why cats fall from high places Cats have a natural fondness for heights. If a cat is distracted by potential prey, or if it falls asleep, it can fall. If this were to occur in a tree, for example, the cat would often be able to save itself by grabbing on with\",\n \"-33.43626329919789\"\n ],\n [\n \"touches the water, and then the cat quickly pulls its tongue backing into its mouth which soon closes; this results in a column of liquid being pulled into the cat's mouth, which is then secured by its mouth closing. Ruminants and most other herbivores partially submerge the tip of the mouth in order to draw in water by means of a plunging action with the tongue held straight. Cats drink at a significantly slower pace than ruminants, who face greater natural predation hazards. Uniquely, elephants draw water into their trunks and squirt it into their mouths.\\nMost birds scoop or draw\",\n \"-33.40898217851645\"\n ],\n [\n \"generates his apparent frailty. He walks with his hips forward, allowing him to make larger strides when he walks. The hunched shape restricts his legs, which are bent and turned out at the knees. The feet have the heels together with the toes facing apart. His hands and feet move quickly, though his body is stiff, and his head is constantly moving. When he walks, his feet should be picked up more than would occur naturally. Pantalone is slow moving, and he has bouts of agility when there is high emotion, but it is followed by asthmatic breathing\",\n \"-33.33807637554128\"\n ],\n [\n \"restrained from hunting. If you see your cat making quick chirps, and moving their mouths extremely quickly while their eyes are set and staring at one place, they are chattering, and channeling their inner urge to hunt. Big cats do this as well. Although domesticated cats are not in the wild, they still have their innate need to hunt. Grown cats also do not meow to other grown cats. Cats meow in adult form to talk to other animals, such as dogs, and more importantly humans. Meowing to humans has been researched as that they do it to manipulate\",\n \"-33.3057027467803\"\n ],\n [\n \"because the long tail was stiffened with ossified tendons. To get the tripodal pose, the tail would literally have to be broken. Putting the animal in a horizontal posture makes many aspects of the arms and pectoral girdle more understandable. For example, the hand is relatively immobile, with the three central fingers grouped together, bearing hoof-like phalanges, and able to hyperextend. This would have allowed them to bear weight. The wrist is also relatively immobile, and the arms and shoulder bones robust. These features all suggest that the animal spent time on all fours.\\nFurthermore, it appears that Iguanodon became more\",\n \"-33.255488765542395\"\n ],\n [\n \"feet. Throughout history the dewclaws have been removed, however many would now oppose this arguably unnecessary and cruel procedure. The tail is traditionally low-set and tapering, carried over the back when in motion or excited, but relaxed otherwise. Temperament The Coton is a playful, affectionate, intelligent breed. Although generally quiet, it can become very vocal -- grunting, barking, and making other noises when having fun. Cotons are known to have a habit of jumping up and walking on their hind legs to please people. Most Cotons love meeting new people and are very curious in new situations. Cotons are easy\",\n \"-33.25347484496888\"\n ],\n [\n \"and use it like a security blanket. This will include lots of kneading, purring and suckling of the blanket. In some cases, cats have been observed to exhibit sexual movements, not unlike a dog \\\"humping\\\" a human leg, accompanying the kneading and suckling. Kittens who are taken away from their mothers before they are fully weaned may also develop a habit of kneading a human whom they have adopted as a maternal figure, and may also attempt suckling their ear, eye, nose, toe, hair, shirt, socks or fingers. Cats mainly do so as kittens, but sometimes the behavior continues\",\n \"-33.228512558096554\"\n ],\n [\n \"walking when animals start to run. This has been suggested to spread the forces better across the wrist bones to protect them.\",\n \"-33.22797642045771\"\n ],\n [\n \"seeking a mate. Its vocalizations are similar to those of the domestic cat.\\nIts way of moving is distinct: with belly close to the ground, it moves at a fast run punctuated with occasional leaps. It is capable of sudden bursts of speed and can sprint at speeds of 30–40 km (19–25 mi) per hour. It buries its feces, covering it with sand.\\nFour radio-collared sand cats in Israel moved long distances of 5–10 km (3.1–6.2 mi) in a single night. They were generally active throughout the night, hunting and travelling an average distance of 5.4 km (3.4 mi). They retired below ground at dawn and stayed in\",\n \"-33.183774010278285\"\n ],\n [\n \"vinyasa between Cat and Cow Poses.\\nThe pose is considered in Sivananda Yoga to be suitable for use during pregnancy. Variations In variations of the pose, one leg is stretched out straight, and the knee of the stretched out leg may then be bent so the foot points straight up; the opposite hand may also be stretched out; this is called Vyaghrasana, Tiger Pose.\\nCat Pose is often alternated with Bitilasana (बितिलासन), Cow Pose, where the belly and back are lowered, the hips and shoulders remaining unmoved.\",\n \"-33.1777283370684\"\n ],\n [\n \"Catsuit A catsuit is a one-piece form-fitting garment that covers the torso and the legs, and frequently the arms. They are usually made from stretchable material, such as lycra, chiffon, spandex (after 1959), latex, or velour, but may use less elastic materials, such as leather or PVC. Catsuits frequently close by means of a zipper at the front or back.\\nCatsuits are most commonly worn by women, but are also worn by men. A catsuit is regarded as outerwear, but not normally street wear. History and usage Catsuits first made an appearance around the 1940s, and were occasionally worn as a\",\n \"-33.172604428371415\"\n ],\n [\n \"paw, opening its toes to expose its claws, then closes its claws as it lifts its paw. The process takes place with alternate paws at intervals of one to two seconds. They may do this while sitting on their owner's lap, which may prove painful if the cat is large or strong or has sharp claws (as the claws tend to dig into one's lap). Though cats will sit happily on a hard surface, they will only knead a soft or pliant surface, although some cats will reflexively \\\"march\\\" on hard surfaces instead of kneading them.\\nA cat may appear irritated\",\n \"-33.16218974685762\"\n ],\n [\n \"arc between 90 and 180 degrees. A 90 degrees is preferable, but cats will be disqualified if their ears touch the back of their skulls.\\nBoth longhaired and shorthaired American Curls have soft, silky coats which lie flat against their bodies. They require little grooming and enjoy spending time with their owners.\\nThe American Curl, while still an uncommon breed, is found across the world in the United States, Spain, France, Japan, Russia, and many other countries. Health Due to its large genetic pool with non-pedigree cats, the American Curl is generally a healthy breed. These cats' ears however require frequent cleaning\",\n \"-33.15965579543263\"\n ],\n [\n \"is mounted vertically in a wide base, which allows the cat to stretch upward on its rear legs and scratch freely without tipping it over. A post that is unstable or does not allow a cat to fully extend its body might put off the cat from using it. Surfaces vary: the post may be covered in sisal rope, upholstery fabric, or the jute backing of a piece of carpet. Many pet owners say they have to experiment with different surfaces to find one that their cats will scratch reliably. Experts say that cats generally prefer sisal or corrugated cardboard\",\n \"-33.15526552000665\"\n ],\n [\n \"to accelerate to significant speed before being stopped suddenly presenting the possibility of injury to both dog and owner.\\nSome leashes are made of reflective materials and are suitable for walking the dog at night. They are convenient because they make the dog and the owner much more visible in the traffic, reducing the likelihood of accidents. Cat leashes Cat leashes are used with the purpose of preventing the cat getting lost. Unlike dogs, cats rarely attack persons on the street, so cat leashes are mainly a safety measure to protect the pet itself. Very often the collars are replaced with\",\n \"-33.143380627754595\"\n ],\n [\n \"coat feel like cashmere or rabbit fur. The lack of an undercoat gives a sleek appearance. The coat is uncommonly water repellant, which makes bathing these cats a challenge, though the coat dries quickly.\\nThe Turkish Van is one of the larger cat breeds. Ideal type should feature broad shoulders with a body that is \\\"top-heavy\\\", that is, a cat with its center of gravity forward. The cat is moderately long, and its back legs are slightly longer than its front legs, but neither the cat itself nor its legs are so long as to be disproportionate. These cats are\",\n \"-33.136831542742584\"\n ],\n [\n \"cat reaches free fall to accomplish this, which is much lower than that of humans, and they are able to hit the ground in a relaxed body form to prevent serious injury.\\nBats, however, have a unique vestibular system anatomy. Their balance system, at an orientation 180 degrees opposite to that of humans, allows them to perform powerful feats of flight while hunting in the dark. This ability couples vestibular function with sensory echolocation to hunt prey.\\n However, they lack a righting reflex similar to most mammals. When exposed to zero-G, bats do not undergo the series of righting reflexes that\",\n \"-33.05608843584196\"\n ],\n [\n \"cats are known for coughing before spitting up a hairball.\\nIn other domestic animals, horses can cough because of infections, or due to poor ventilation and dust in enclosed spaces.\",\n \"-32.96992274616423\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sphynx cat Behaviour Sphynxes are known for their extroverted behavior. They display a high level of energy, intelligence, curiosity, and affection for their owners. They are one of the more dog-like breeds of cats, frequently greeting their owners at the door and friendly when meeting strangers. Toronto The Canadian Sphynx breed was started in 1966 in Toronto when a hairless kitten named Prune was born to a black and white domestic shorthair queen (Elizabeth). The kitten was mated with its mother (something called backcrossing), which produced one more naked kitten. Together with a few naked kittens found later, the cat\",\n \"-32.91482387779979\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"hairless\\\" cat gave the owner optimism to try to own a cat, eventually leading to the positive situation of their own adaptation.\\nSphynx cats can also have more ear wax than most hairy domestic cats because they have little to no hair in their ears. Dirt, skin oils (sebum), and ear wax accumulates in the ears, and needs to be cleaned out on a weekly basis, usually before bath time.\\nThe Sphynx breed also tends to accumulate oils and debris under their nails as well as the skin fold above the nail due to the lack of fur, so, like the ears,\",\n \"-32.87095552356914\"\n ],\n [\n \"Tendonectomy In cats Performing a tendonectomy on a cat is an alternative to onychectomy (\\\"declawing\\\"), which amputates the end of each digit. Tendonectomy may be considered less painful for the cat than onychectomy; however, it is not recommended by the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) and is illegal in many countries.\\nIn a tendonectomy, a small portion of the tendon in each of a cat's toes is surgically removed to prevent the cat from extending the claws. Thus, the cat is no longer capable of scratching.\\nClaws will continue to grow following tendonectomy, and because the cat can no longer extend the\",\n \"-32.82791457767598\"\n ],\n [\n \"feet, using an instinctive righting reflex to twist their bodies around. Nonetheless, cats can still be injured or killed by a high fall.\",\n \"-32.802601211704314\"\n ],\n [\n \"most will bark when confronted with strange situations, and some will bay (also referred to as \\\"speaking\\\", \\\"giving tongue\\\", or \\\"opening\\\") when they catch the scent of potential quarry. They also generally get along well with cats and other dogs. They are not too demanding with regard to exercise; their inbred stamina means they do not easily tire when exercised, but they also do not need to be worked to exhaustion before they will rest. Regular exercise helps ward off the weight gain to which the breed is prone. Health The typical longevity of beagles is 12–15 years, which is\",\n \"-32.76643313913155\"\n ],\n [\n \"2005. The standard of points describes the cat as being medium-sized and muscular, with large ears, almond shaped eyes and distinctive long, webbed toes. They require frequent grooming, in spite of their lack of coat. Over-bathing can cause the skin to become very oily.\\nThe Peterbald breed was originally created by crossing Donskoy with Oriental Shorthair cats to create a hairless cat of Oriental-type. Matings between the Donskoy and the Peterbald are no longer permitted since 2000, and outcrossing is not permitted, except with the domestic shorthair, due to the effect of the Donskoy's dominant hairless mutation. Health Not all cat\",\n \"-32.744812003933475\"\n ],\n [\n \"in hospitals to relax children who are staying there. Indoor scratching A natural behavior in cats is to hook their front claws periodically into suitable surfaces and pull backwards. Cats, like humans, keep their muscles trim and their body flexible by stretching. Additionally, such periodic scratching serves to clean and sharpen their claws. Indoor cats may benefit from being provided with a scratching post so that they are less likely to use carpet or furniture, which they can easily ruin. However, some cats may simply ignore such a device. Commercial scratching posts typically are covered in carpeting or\",\n \"-32.719077473448124\"\n ],\n [\n \"twisting movement at the ankle.\\nThe high walk of crocodilians, with the belly and most of the tail being held off the ground, is unique among living reptiles. It somewhat resembles the walk of a mammal, with the same sequence of limb movements: left fore, right hind, right fore, left hind. The low walk is similar to the high walk, but without the body being raised, and is quite different from the sprawling walk of salamanders and lizards. The animal can change from one walk to the other instantaneously, but the high walk is the usual means of locomotion on land.\",\n \"-32.70496456860565\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Manx cat is the result of a cross-mating between a cat and a rabbit.\\\"\\nOccasionally the flap of loose skin from the belly to the haunches is absent, enhancing the visual similarity to a rabbit.\\nCats with radial hypoplasia (abnormal short forelegs) may also adopt a rabbit-like gait.\",\n \"-32.702977935783565\"\n ],\n [\n \"prey to suffocate it. Males have slightly bigger heads with wider incisors and longer mandibles than females. The muscles between the skull and jaw are short, and thus do not allow the cheetah to open its mouth as much as other cats. Digitigrade animals, the cheetah have tough foot pads that make it convenient to run on firm ground. The hind legs are longer than the forelegs. The relatively longer metacarpals, metatarsals (of the lower leg), radius, ulna, tibia, and fibula increase the length of each jump. The straightening of the flexible vertebral column also adds to the length.\\nCheetahs have\",\n \"-32.54093409643974\"\n ],\n [\n \"unusual because there is little guard hair. \\nThe curl in Devon Rex fur is caused by a different mutation and gene than that of the Cornish Rex and German Rex, and breeding of a Devon with either of those cats results in cats without rexed (curled) fur. Devons, which are medium-sized cats, are often called \\\"pixie cats\\\" or \\\"alien cats\\\" because of their unique appearance. Other characteristics Their uncommonly large, slightly rounded ears are set low on the sides of their wide heads, their eyes are large, and their noses are slightly upturned. Unlike most cats, their whiskers are very\",\n \"-32.51055707060732\"\n ],\n [\n \"cats' scratching behavior.\",\n \"-32.48718239238951\"\n ],\n [\n \"It walks on the toes, with the bones of the feet making up the lower part of the visible leg. Unlike most mammals, it uses a \\\"pacing\\\" gait and moves both legs on one side of the body before the legs on the other side. It registers directly by placing each hind paw close to the track of the corresponding fore paw, minimizing noise and visible tracks. This also provides sure footing for hind paws when navigating rough terrain. As it speeds up walking to trotting, its gait changes to a \\\"diagonal\\\" gait: the diagonally opposite hind and fore legs\",\n \"-32.478550275671296\"\n ],\n [\n \"legs except for the Caribbean and the South America legs of the tour, where they then decided to use a normal stage with catwalk instead.\",\n \"-32.408198598073795\"\n ],\n [\n \"those cats, or those of the standardized American Shorthair breed, will respond differently to others despite looking very similar, displaying doglike or otherwise unexpected tendencies. Besides breed-based generalizations, a particular cat's behavior can be assessed by its restraint in using claws during play, its tendency to follow people, and its appreciation of close and frequent human contact. Abyssinian Abyssinian cats are known for demanding attention and showing depression if left alone too often. The closeness to their owners causes some of them to respond positively to feline leash-training. Unlike most cats, Abyssinians often show interest in water rather than a\",\n \"-32.368624521566744\"\n ],\n [\n \"momentum to set up for landing, and the tail is in fact little used for this feat. Terminal velocity In addition to the righting reflex, cats have other features that reduce damage from a fall. Their small size, light bone structure, and thick fur decrease their terminal velocity. While falling, a cat spreads out its body to increase drag. An average-sized cat with its limbs extended achieves a terminal velocity of about 60 mph (97 km/h), while an average-sized man reaches a terminal velocity of about 120 mph (190 km/h). A 2003 study of feline high-rise syndrome found that cats 'orient [their] limbs horizontally\",\n \"-32.34772659355076\"\n ],\n [\n \"feet compact, and they move in a well-balanced, reaching motion. The tail is carried high, but not curled over the back. Their temperaments are energetic and free-spirited.\",\n \"-32.32033535541268\"\n ],\n [\n \"and repeatedly folding the fingers down and back, thus the cat's appearance. Some maneki-neko made specifically for some Western markets will have the cat's paw facing upwards, in a beckoning gesture that is more familiar to most Westerners.\\nManeki-neko can be found with either the right or left paw raised (and sometimes both). The significance of the right and left raised paw differs with time and place. A statue with the left paw raised is to get more customers, while the right paw raised is to get more money. Hence it is also said that the one with left paw is\",\n \"-32.31947004543326\"\n ],\n [\n \"by age 3 years. The effect in the best cats is spectacular. Grizzling does have a wide range of expression, however, and some cats never have more than a few banded hairs in the ears or in one spot on the belly, occasionally not even that.\\nBlack ticked tabby Chausies have black ticking, black stripes on the inside of the upper legs and to a lesser extent on the outside, black rings on the tail, a black tail tip, and black tabby markings around the eyes. They are also known as brown ticked tabbies because, although the markings are black, the\",\n \"-32.30995688372059\"\n ],\n [\n \"move simultaneously. Claws Cats have protractable and retractable claws. In their normal, relaxed position, the claws are sheathed with the skin and fur around the paw's toe pads. This keeps the claws sharp by preventing wear from contact with the ground and allows the silent stalking of prey. The claws on the fore feet are typically sharper than those on the hind feet. Cats can voluntarily extend their claws on one or more paws. They may extend their claws in hunting or self-defense, climbing, kneading, or for extra traction on soft surfaces. Most cats have five claws on their front\",\n \"-32.29750084673287\"\n ],\n [\n \"or a mechanical hackamore. The ground jury at the show has the right, however, based on veterinary advice, to refuse a bit or bridling scheme if it could cause harm to the horse.\\nBoots and wraps are worn by almost all horses, due to the fact that they may easily injure their legs when landing or when making tight turns at speed. Open-fronted tendon boots usually are worn on the forelegs, because they provide protection for the delicate tendons that run down the back of the leg, but still allow the horse to feel a rail should it get careless and\",\n \"-32.287357327877544\"\n ],\n [\n \"leg (only the front right leg is now lifted). Then it lifts its left rear leg (diagonal support), puts down the front right (lateral support), lifts the left front, puts down the rear left, and the pattern repeats.\\nIdeally, the advancing rear hoof oversteps the spot where the previously advancing front hoof touched the ground. The more the rear hoof oversteps, the smoother and more comfortable the walk becomes. Individual horses and different breeds vary in the smoothness of their walk. However, a rider will almost always feel some degree of gentle side-to-side motion in the horse's hips as each hind\",\n \"-32.245389698364306\"\n ],\n [\n \"first branches and smooth bark. It has been suggested they do this to avoid cats.\",\n \"-32.23812282358995\"\n ],\n [\n \"of its ears or head toward the source of the sound may be a better indication of the cat's awareness that a sound was made in their direction. \\nWhen cats greet another cat in their vicinity, they can do a slow, languid, long blink to communicate affection if they trust the person or animal they are in contact with. It is a sign of trust. A way to communicate love and trust to your cat from a human perspective is to say their name, and get their attention, and then look them in the eyes and slowly blink at them\",\n \"-32.22707181965234\"\n ],\n [\n \"all over a longhaired cat's body, to novice eyes, they are most noticeable on the flanks when the cat is in motion.\\nThe second explanation of reports of winged cats is a skin condition called feline cutaneous asthenia, which is related to Ehlers–Danlos syndrome (elastic skin) in humans. In \\\"winged\\\" cats with cutaneous asthenia, the pseudo-wings only occur on the shoulders, haunches, or back, and the cats can often actively move these growths, suggesting the presence of neuromuscular tissue within them, which is not present within clumps of matted fur alone.\\nThe third explanation is a form of conjoining or extra supernumerary\",\n \"-32.220862637099344\"\n ],\n [\n \"Munchkin cat Breed creation Short-legged cats have been documented a number of times around the world since the 1940s. A British veterinary report in 1944 noted four generations of healthy short-legged cats which were similar to normal cats except for the length of the legs. This line disappeared during the Second World War but other short-legged cats were spotted in Russia during 1956 and the United States in the 1970s.\\nIn 1983, Sandra Hochenedel, a music teacher in Rayville, Louisiana, found two pregnant cats who had been chased under a truck by a dog. She kept one of the cats and\",\n \"-32.22079628822394\"\n ],\n [\n \" A fearful, defensive cat makes itself smaller, lowers itself toward the ground, arches its back and leans its body away from the threat rather than forward. Fighting usually occurs only when escape is impossible.\\nIn cats, flattened ears generally indicate that an individual feels threatened and may attack. Having the mouth open and no teeth exposed indicates playfulness. Ears Cats can change the position of their ears very quickly, in a continuum from erect when the cat is alert and focused, slightly relaxed when the cat is calm, and flattened against the head when extremely defensive or aggressive.\",\n \"-32.2068156900059\"\n ],\n [\n \"paws, and four on their rear paws. The dewclaw is proximal to the other claws. More proximally is a protrusion which appears to be a sixth \\\"finger\\\". This special feature of the front paws, on the inside of the wrists has no function in normal walking, but is thought to be an antiskidding device used while jumping. Some breeds of cats are prone to polydactyly. Polydactyly is a mutation of the forelimb. Polydactylous cats occur along North America' northeast coast and in Great Britain. Vision Cats have excellent night vision and can see at only one-sixth the light level required\",\n \"-32.193588463036576\"\n ],\n [\n \"'dog like'.\\\" This description is not only due to their large size and stature but also because of the cats' usually pleasant mannerisms, tendency to closely follow their owners, and obey them. Maine Coon cats also are often trainable given their intelligence and affectionate nature. The felines have large and silky coats yet grooming is made easier given their desire to be frequently handled. The Cat Fanciers' Association said that the doglike Maine Coons offer \\\"hours of enjoyment with their antics\\\", though they are \\\"intrusive\\\" since \\\"[w]ithout question\\\" the cats \\\"want to be [a] part of everything\\\". Manx The Manx\",\n \"-32.13263602257939\"\n ],\n [\n \"it can also be observed during adulthood. Studies have been done with adult cats performing a task, such as pressing a lever after a visual cue. Adult cats that see others performing a task learn to perform the same task faster than those who did not witness another cat. Socialization between cats When strange cats meet, ideally they would cautiously allow the strange cat to smell its hindquarters, but this does not happen very often. Usually when strange cats meet, one cat makes a sudden movement that puts the other cat into a defensive mode. The cat will then draw\",\n \"-32.121189013931144\"\n ],\n [\n \"gives these cats their characteristic tailless or stumpy tail appearance. It is inherited in Manx as an autosomal dominant trait.\",\n \"-32.11820857197745\"\n ],\n [\n \"mandible blocking their access. However, the model pulled its jaw upward as modern cats bite, while machairodonts most likely did not, instead pressing their skulls down with the aid of their neck muscles. This flaw in the procedure might nullify the results and leave the belly-shearing hypothesis untouched.\",\n \"-32.077627906546695\"\n ],\n [\n \"required. This movement comes naturally to the Rottweiler and should appear as such; any deviation may lead to a disqualification in the show ring. While walking, the Rottweiler's legs, both front and hind, should move in a straight forward and backward manner. As with the straight movement of the legs, the path the Rottweiler moves in should also be straight. The Rottweiler's gait is all about balance and effectiveness as the breed is still used as a herder today. Coat The coat consists of an outer coat and an undercoat. The outer coat is of medium length, coarse, dense\",\n \"-32.050603033276275\"\n ],\n [\n \"harnesses, because they avoid the dangers of collars which include escaping and running away or choking. Cats are more likely to not be willing to be walked in a harness than dogs are, and are considered to need up to months to be able to adjust to wearing a harness.\\nCat leashes come in a variety of colors, designs and models and are made of different materials. There are cat leashes made of leather, nylon and rope. Whereas the leather leash is one of the best qualities because of the characteristics of the material, it is also one of the most\",\n \"-32.03819076711079\"\n ],\n [\n \"families and crave attention, and for this reason, cats of this breed are highly suitable for children. Most Bombay cats are not independent, however many older Bombays are more independent when compared with younger cats. They seek attention from their owners and people around them often and dislike being left alone for extended periods of time. Although they like to be around people generally, Bombay cats also tend to have a certain person whom they pay special attention to in their lives. Overall, the Bombay breed is intelligent, playful, and attention-seeking. The Bombay's muscular medium-sized body can be deceiving, as\",\n \"-31.947769978956785\"\n ],\n [\n \"attentive, alert felines that notice a lot. Considered an unusually \\\"talkative\\\" breed, they often interact vocally with people. Their soft voices are capable of nearly a whole scale of tones, leading to a folk belief that they can sing. Folklore and legend Cats feature prominently in Japanese folklore. As in many other traditions around the world, cats are frequently objects of fear and mistrust, with various supernatural abilities ascribed to them. But in some Japanese stories, the length of their tails is an important plot point, with the Japanese Bobtail seen as auspicious, while long-tailed cats may be suspected of\",\n \"-31.93205107007816\"\n ],\n [\n \"a few cases where they walk on their hindlimbs only. Several arboreal primate species, such as gibbons and indriids, exclusively walk on two legs during the brief periods they spend on the ground. Many animals rear up on their hind legs whilst fighting or copulating. Some animals commonly stand on their hind legs, in order to reach food, to keep watch, to threaten a competitor or predator, or to pose in courtship, but do not move bipedally. Etymology The word is derived from the Latin words bi(s) 'two' and ped- 'foot', as contrasted with quadruped 'four feet'. Advantages Limited and\",\n \"-31.930607424175832\"\n ],\n [\n \"body in an attempt to knock the other off-balance.\\nHorses will also rub the bottom or sides of their jaw onto others. This self-grooming social interaction can have a calming effect for the horses involved, and dominant horses are more likely to initiate the behavior. Lions Similarly to domesticated cats, lions also use bunting as a form of greeting and territorial marking. Lions will often greet each other with this head bunting behavior when returning to a pride after a hunt. In the early stages of life, cubs procure stimulation from their mother as she cleans them by rubbing and\",\n \"-31.924907780979993\"\n ],\n [\n \"the back of a cat is sometimes joked about, with it being debated whether the feline would still honour the popular axiom, that a cat \\\"always lands on its feet\\\", or if the butterbrot would be \\\"stronger\\\", making the cat fall on its back — alternatively, it is sometimes humorously suggested that the cat would simply levitate, as it would be unable to satisfy both criteria for landing.\",\n \"-31.904467195505276\"\n ],\n [\n \"legs move laterally, with the inside foreleg crossing in front of the outside foreleg and the inside hind hoof tracking into or beyond the hoofprint made by the outside foreleg. Because the horse is bending away from the direction of travel, the movement requires a certain amount of collection. The shoulder-in can be performed at any forward gait, but in dressage competition it is usually ridden only at the trot. \\n\\nA young horse is first introduced to the movement when coming out of a corner or a circle on which the horse is already correctly bent, from nose to tail,\",\n \"-31.7543698833324\"\n ],\n [\n \"neck. Kneading Kittens \\\"knead\\\" the breast while suckling, using the forelimbs one at a time in an alternating pattern to push against the mammary glands to stimulate lactation in the mother.\\nCats carry these infantile behaviors beyond nursing and into adulthood. Some cats \\\"nurse\\\", i.e. suck, on clothing or bedding during kneading. The cat exerts firm downwards pressure with its paw, opening its toes to expose its claws, then closes its claws as it lifts its paw. The process takes place with alternate paws at intervals of one to two seconds. They may knead while sitting on their owner's lap, which\",\n \"-31.75433118562796\"\n ],\n [\n \"They are friendly and rarely aggressive. They are very good with children, but may chase cats and other small pets.\\nBorders do well in task-oriented activities and have a surprising ability to jump high and run fast given the size of their legs. The breed has excelled in agility training, but they are quicker to learn jumps and see-saws than weaving poles. They take training for tasks very well, and are extremely trainable, and capable of learning tricks quickly and competently. The border in recent years has been bred to harbor a more subtle character so are more adaptable to apartment\",\n \"-31.740629089646973\"\n ],\n [\n \"extreme docility of some individuals has led to the myth that Ragdolls are pain resistant. Some breeders in Britain have tried to breed away from the limpness owing to concerns that extreme docility \\\"might not be in the best interests of the cat\\\".\\nBreed standard marketing and publicity material describe the Ragdoll as affectionate, intelligent, relaxed in temperament, gentle, and an easy-to-handle lap cat. The animals are often known as \\\"puppy cats\\\", \\\"dog-like cats\\\", \\\"cat-dogs\\\", etc., because of their placid nature and affectionate behavior, with the cats often following owners from room to room as well as seeking physical affection akin\",\n \"-31.731334012176376\"\n ],\n [\n \"the normal ones just like a dewclaw, usually associated with an additional pad which makes them look like an underdeveloped foot sticking out near the base of the normal toes. Rather, radial hypoplasia-related extra toes are immediately adjacent to the normal ones, giving the cat overly large, flat feet — colloquially known as \\\"patty feet\\\" or \\\"hamburger feet\\\". Though this looks less serious than true polydactyly (as the feet appear \\\"normal\\\" apart from having one or two extra toes), breeding such cats will eventually result in severely disabled offspring. History and folklore The condition seems to be most commonly found in\",\n \"-31.721889460124657\"\n ],\n [\n \"coils its neck back something like a heron. Its gait when walking is jerky and rapid, with its head and neck moving back and forth with each step. It may hold its wings out when running for extra stability. Distribution and habitat The hamerkop occurs in Africa south of the Sahara, Madagascar, and coastal south-west Arabia. It requires shallow water in which to forage, and is found in all wetland habitats, including rivers, streams, seasonal pools, estuaries, reservoirs, marshes, mangroves, irrigated land such as rice paddies, savannahs, and forests. In Tanzania, it has also recently begun to feed on\",\n \"-31.70928620675113\"\n ],\n [\n \"in a handstand before one learns to perform a stable handstand. Balance can also be maintained by varying the arch of the back. In non-human animals Some quadrupeds are able to walk bipedally on their forelimbs, thus performing \\\"hand\\\" walking in an anthropomorphic sense. For example, when attacked, the spotted skunk may rear up and move about on its forelimbs so that its anal glands, capable of spraying an offensive oil, are directed towards the attacker. Dogs and sealions can also be trained to walk on their forelimbs.\",\n \"-31.651943824253976\"\n ],\n [\n \"free-roaming cats in the Greek islands and in a cat in Australia.\\nFd = Scottish Fold gene (dominant with incomplete penetrance). Cats with this gene have ears that curl forward. There are different degrees of folding, and more genes may be involved in the expression of the Fd gene. This gene is associated with bone and cartilage defects such as thickened tail and swollen feet. The homozygous form (FdFd) causes severe osteochondrodysplasia. Because of this, many breeders only breed folds to non-folds to avoid homozygous folds. However, heterozygous folds may also develop osteochondrodysplasia of lesser severity.\\nAustralian Curl – a curl-eared mutation\",\n \"-31.63019116583746\"\n ],\n [\n \"is attributed to injuries on the bear's front paws. Primates Most bipedal animals move with their backs close to horizontal, using a long tail to balance the weight of their bodies. The primate version of bipedalism is unusual because the back is close to upright (completely upright in humans), and the tail may be absent entirely. Many primates can stand upright on their hind legs without any support. \\nCommon chimpanzees, bonobos, gibbons and baboons exhibit forms of bipedalism. On the ground sifakas move like all indrids with bipedal sideways hopping movements of the hind legs, holding their forelimbs up for\",\n \"-31.60475234974001\"\n ],\n [\n \"Also, keeping cats indoors is a preventative measure. Other animals Sporotrichosis can be diagnosed in domestic and wild mammals. In veterinary medicine it is most frequently seen in cats and horses. Cats have a particularly severe form of cutaneous sporotrichosis and also can serve as a source of zoonotic infection to persons who handle them and are exposed to exudate from skin lesions.\",\n \"-31.569520149263553\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cabbit Cat mutations Manx cats and other cats with tailless or bobtailed mutations account for many alleged cabbit sightings. The mutation that causes taillessness can also cause skeletal and/or nerve abnormalities that result in the cat's using a hopping motion. This was once accepted by breeders as a feature of the Manx's look, but is now considered a serious fault in the show-ring and does not form part of the modern Manx standard of points. Modern breeders of the Manx are careful to breed only from cats that have normal locomotion. The relatively long hind legs\",\n \"-31.54619475378422\"\n ],\n [\n \"and expressive voices that are used often. They are smart cats, with some being quite willful in getting their own way. Many Orientals take to leash training quickly if started young. They have been known to open cabinets, doors and even refrigerators. This breed group is often recommended for more experienced cat keepers.\",\n \"-31.527992878545774\"\n ],\n [\n \"and down and give the impression of wings. These can be very uncomfortable for the cat and can harbour dirt, feces and parasites. Extensive mats must be shaved or clipped by a veterinarian. This explanation is ultimately untenable as the sole solution to the winged cat phenomenon, for several reasons. Many notable examples of winged cats feature shorthaired specimens. The occurrence of mats in longhaired cats is easily recognisable by experienced cat owners and breeders, but not recognisable to novices. Matted fur is not considered notable and rarely reported, except by those unfamiliar with the condition. Although mats can occur\",\n \"-31.507647620339412\"\n ],\n [\n \"cats of the genus Felis could purr. However, felids of the genus Panthera (tigers, lions, jaguars and leopards) also produce sounds similar to purring, but only when exhaling. The subdivision of the Felidae into \\\"purring cats\\\" on the one hand and 'roaring cats' (i.e. non-purring) on the other, originally goes back to Owen (1834/1835) and was definitely introduced by Pocock (1916), based on a difference in hyoid anatomy. The \\\"roaring cats\\\" (lion, Panthera leo; tiger, P. tigris; jaguar, P. onca; leopard, P. pardus) have an incompletely ossified hyoid, which according to this theory, enables them to roar but not to\",\n \"-31.481782917981036\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":596,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"52u9ci"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"On 9/11, Why weren't the 2 planes headed for the twin towers shot down for being in restricted airspace? Or not shot down at all?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Keep in mind that much of the security on aircraft is a result of 9/11. It would be common for passengers (typically small children) to get to go and look around the cockpit during a flight; there were no heavy locking doors. Security was significantly more relaxed, so bringing small weapons less difficult than with the modern TSA (which itself does a fairly poor job at screening, but that's another rant). On top of that you have the precedent set by previous hijackings where the hijackers wanted the plane as a means of transportation or wanted the passengers as hostages. 9/11 was so jarring to the world because the hijackers wanted the planes themselves to be used as weapons. On 9/11 the U.S. was at peace. We didn't have armed planes sitting all over the place to quickly intercept any plane that gets out of line. However, when the reality of 9/11 became clear we *did* scramble fighters. [This]( URL_0 ) article is about an F-16 pilot who was ordered into the air to intercept Flight 93 which was ultimately downed in Pennsylvania. The aircraft had no weapons loaded on board; it was a suicide mission to physically strike the Boeing 757 with her plane to knock it out of the sky. The article is a good read. It sheds some light onto the pre-9/11 atmosphere in the United States.","In the history of hijacking , the hijackers always held the passengers at bay for some ransom. Freed prisoner, public statement, etc. Then fly to some agreed safe airport and they'd release the passengers. the goal before 9/11 was to protect the passengers onboard. No one thought they didn't care about the passengers but were wanting the plane itself. Besides. Manhattan isn't restricted nofly space. You can take helicopter rides of Manhattan. The corridor along manhannttan is vfr airspace","Here's a link to the [airspace]( URL_0 ) around NYC. Take a moment to look at it. The region inside the blue lines is the NYC controlled airspace (technically, we call it \"Class B\"). It's not \"restricted\" in the sense that you're not allowed to fly there. They only serve as a regulatory zone — that is, you need permission from Air Traffic Control to enter the zone. And in fact, you can fly above or below it without permission all you want. You don't even have to have your radio on or be on a flight plan. There are three major airports in the zone and a fair number of minor ones. It just wouldn't be practical to ban airplanes from that area. And even if you knew there was a rogue airplane coming in to do mischief, there aren't any military bases nearby to get fighters in the air, and if there are any anti-aircraft batteries in the area, I've never heard about it. And finally, as other posters have pointed out, nothing like 9/11 had ever happened before and we were at peace, so there was no reason to think that incoming planes needed to be stopped. Now look at [Washington, DC]( URL_1 ) by contrast. The heavy dashed circle around the area is an Air Defense Identification Zone. You need a clearance to enter this and you have to obtain it in advance. There's a very good chance that you *will* be intercepted by fighters if you come in without permission. It used to be that the only ADIZs were out over the ocean to guard against aircraft coming in from overseas without permission, but since 9/11 we've had one over Washington as well. For good measure, the red circles are Temporary Flight Restrictions, which are thrown up for special occasions such as airshows or VIP visits. However, the big one over Washington isn't so temporary. Even now, this stuff isn't enforced *that* heavily. Some years ago, I saw a guy who flew through the TFR over G.W.Bush's home in Texas while he was in residence. He was intercepted by fighters and ordered to land, and then the police came and took him out of his plane and took him to the station to be questioned. He wasn't shot down, and in fact after he convinced the police that it was an accident, they just let him go. Edit: heh. Looking at the NYC airspace today (15 Sep 2016) I see the whole thing is a TFR (scheduled to start in 3 days). Wasn't there when I made this post. Will probably be gone a week from now.","The amount of time the planes were actually flying over Manhattan was maybe 30 seconds for the first plane and zero seconds for the second (the towers are right on the water and the second plane came from New York Harbor). Not enough time to shoot them down. Plus civilian airliners had never been weaponized before, so shooting down a civilian airliner that could simply have drifted into restricted airspace would be an unlikely response. There were quite a few notable incidents during the Cold War where a civilian plane was shot down for accidentally violating airspace.","The communication on 9/11 was not great. By the time the military was notified of a hijacking it was way to late. At the speed an airplane travels, it entered restricted airspace less than 30 seconds before it hit the towers. Also as others have mentioned, the history of airline hijackings had entirely been for ransom or political purposes. To my knowledge no hijacker had ever handled the controls of an airplane, let alone used it as a missile. The government was preparing itself for a hostage situation, not a missile attack on a skyscraper.","Even if you could reliably shoot down two passenger jets in time, you're basically condemning all the passengers aboard to death. That they were doomed anyway was unknown at the time: nobody had ever hijacked planes to use as flying bombs before. Everyone expected that the planes would be flown to, say, Havana, demands made, possibly a few hostages shot, but eventually most of the passengers would be set free one way or another and have a thrilling story to tell the grandkids. In any case, shooting down a passenger airliner (or anything, really) over Manhattan is hardly a good idea: you'd end up killing an awful lot of people on the ground as well. Perhaps not as many as were, in the event, actually killed, but right up until the first plane hit, nobody had the faintest idea what the hijackers were up to. Air traffic control couldn't do anything. Well, they can refuse the pilots permission to fly into a certain area, but we're talking terrorists on a suicide mission: they're hardly going to break off their attack just because somebody is shouting at them over the radio. The hijackers were able to enter the flight deck (btw, you shouldn't refer to it as the \"cockpit\": only fighter planes have cockpits, passenger airliners have flight decks) because before 9/11, the flight deck doors were not normally locked. It was 9/11 that actually changed that: so the hijackers didn't have to \"break in\", they just had to barge in with their box cutters -- in the days when security screening wasn't nearly as rigorous as it is now (again, it was 9/11 that changed things). In short, the reason the US was unprepared for such an attack was quite simply that nobody had ever attempted to carry out such an attack before, and nobody had ever seriously thought for one moment that terrorists might actually hijack a plane and deliberately fly it into a building.","Your thoughts on our security are pretty much wrong. It isnt an immediate response to send fighter jets to a commercial airliner. What happened on 9/11 had never happened before and we just werent prepared for it. I mean these people did it with box cutters and shit. We don't have defensive AA batteries sitting around in cities waiting to protect us from incoming missiles and run away planes. In all honesty if our land bases were ever struck we would be pretty much sitting ducks.","As others have mentioned, people never thought this would have happened. Here's a few things of note as well: *How were air traffic controllers not able to detect/prevent this?* Air traffic controllers were able to quickly determine the planes were hijacked. The planes stopped following the direction of ATC, and started going maverick. Initially, Boston Center controllers notified surrounding centers, including New York. But, the hijackers stopped the transponder code for the planes, so controllers were looking at just a blip with no information on their screen. They notified the military, but, military controllers were looking at literally hundreds of blips on their screens, so it was tough to sort out what was the hijacked planes. Also, by the time the military was advised of the hijackings, the most warning time they had was six minutes. *Wouldn't there by military planes ready to deploy?* Yes, there were. Northeast Air Defense Sector (NEADS) had two bases to deploy air defense jets (Otis in Massachusetts and Langley in Virginia). As soon as the report of the two planes from Boston being hijacked came in, they put the jets on \"battle stations\" (which is putting the pilots in the cockpits) and then \"scrambled\" (getting them in the air) within minutes. However, they had no idea the targets of the planes, so it took a little bit for the military to plot a course for the pilots. After the two planes hit the towers, the Major in charge of NEADS put the jets over Manhattan. As far as Washington DC, a military C-130 actually watched the hijacked plane crash into the Pentagon. But, the military only had two minutes warning to scramble the jets from Virginia, which takes 15 minutes flight time. The military also wasn't notified about Flight 93 until much later, and they had scrambled jets that were out on a training mission, and unarmed, to fly into the area, and if necessary, to ram the plane. Another note of interest is that even IF they had planes in the area, they weren't authorized to shoot down hijacked planes until ordered to do so. The order eventually came down from the Vice President, but there was a delay due to the Secretary of Defense helping evacuate victims from the Pentagon. In fact, it was noted he was unreachable for 25 minutes. (If you have time to kill: URL_0 )","[From Popular Mechanics:]( URL_0 ) > On 9/11 there were only 14 fighter jets on alert in the contiguous 48 states. No computer network or alarm automatically alerted the North American Air Defense Command (NORAD) of missing planes. \"They [civilian Air Traffic Control, or ATC] had to pick up the phone and literally dial us,\" says Maj. Douglas Martin, public affairs officer for NORAD. Boston Center, one of 22 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regional ATC facilities, called NORAD's Northeast Air Defense Sector (NEADS) three times: at 8:37 am EST to inform NEADS that Flight 11 was hijacked; at 9:21 am to inform the agency, mistakenly, that Flight 11 was headed for Washington (the plane had hit the North Tower 35 minutes earlier); and at 9:41 am to (erroneously) identify Delta Air Lines Flight 1989 from Boston as a possible hijacking. The New York ATC called NEADS at 9:03 am to report that United Flight 175 had been hijacked—the same time the plane slammed into the South Tower. Within minutes of that first call from Boston Center, NEADS scrambled two F-15s from Otis Air Force Base in Falmouth, Mass., and three F-16s from Langley Air National Guard Base in Hampton, Va. None of the fighters got anywhere near the pirated planes.","Easy to second guess the decisions with hindsight. At the time a terrorist attack on this scale was not on anyone's mind. At the time the assumption was mechanical or pilot error. By the time they realized there was a problem it was too late to shoot it down.","Shoot them down with what exactly? There are no ADA units deployed around the city. There is no CAP flying around. No MANPADS soldiers stationed on rooftops."," > Is there a reason that it was so easy for Al Qaeda to break into the cockpit, hijack 4 airplanes, and fly them for just under an hour going completely undetected? They did not go completely undetected. It was known that those planes had been hijacked. Stewardesses were in touch with ground control and told them what was going on on the planes. In the case of Flight 93, the last plane to be hijacked (because it took off later than scheduled, unlike the other flights), passengers were calling their loved ones to say goodbye, so in that case, it wasn't just ground control that knew what was going on."],"string":"[\n \"Keep in mind that much of the security on aircraft is a result of 9/11. It would be common for passengers (typically small children) to get to go and look around the cockpit during a flight; there were no heavy locking doors. Security was significantly more relaxed, so bringing small weapons less difficult than with the modern TSA (which itself does a fairly poor job at screening, but that's another rant). On top of that you have the precedent set by previous hijackings where the hijackers wanted the plane as a means of transportation or wanted the passengers as hostages. 9/11 was so jarring to the world because the hijackers wanted the planes themselves to be used as weapons. On 9/11 the U.S. was at peace. We didn't have armed planes sitting all over the place to quickly intercept any plane that gets out of line. However, when the reality of 9/11 became clear we *did* scramble fighters. [This]( URL_0 ) article is about an F-16 pilot who was ordered into the air to intercept Flight 93 which was ultimately downed in Pennsylvania. The aircraft had no weapons loaded on board; it was a suicide mission to physically strike the Boeing 757 with her plane to knock it out of the sky. The article is a good read. It sheds some light onto the pre-9/11 atmosphere in the United States.\",\n \"In the history of hijacking , the hijackers always held the passengers at bay for some ransom. Freed prisoner, public statement, etc. Then fly to some agreed safe airport and they'd release the passengers. the goal before 9/11 was to protect the passengers onboard. No one thought they didn't care about the passengers but were wanting the plane itself. Besides. Manhattan isn't restricted nofly space. You can take helicopter rides of Manhattan. The corridor along manhannttan is vfr airspace\",\n \"Here's a link to the [airspace]( URL_0 ) around NYC. Take a moment to look at it. The region inside the blue lines is the NYC controlled airspace (technically, we call it \\\"Class B\\\"). It's not \\\"restricted\\\" in the sense that you're not allowed to fly there. They only serve as a regulatory zone — that is, you need permission from Air Traffic Control to enter the zone. And in fact, you can fly above or below it without permission all you want. You don't even have to have your radio on or be on a flight plan. There are three major airports in the zone and a fair number of minor ones. It just wouldn't be practical to ban airplanes from that area. And even if you knew there was a rogue airplane coming in to do mischief, there aren't any military bases nearby to get fighters in the air, and if there are any anti-aircraft batteries in the area, I've never heard about it. And finally, as other posters have pointed out, nothing like 9/11 had ever happened before and we were at peace, so there was no reason to think that incoming planes needed to be stopped. Now look at [Washington, DC]( URL_1 ) by contrast. The heavy dashed circle around the area is an Air Defense Identification Zone. You need a clearance to enter this and you have to obtain it in advance. There's a very good chance that you *will* be intercepted by fighters if you come in without permission. It used to be that the only ADIZs were out over the ocean to guard against aircraft coming in from overseas without permission, but since 9/11 we've had one over Washington as well. For good measure, the red circles are Temporary Flight Restrictions, which are thrown up for special occasions such as airshows or VIP visits. However, the big one over Washington isn't so temporary. Even now, this stuff isn't enforced *that* heavily. Some years ago, I saw a guy who flew through the TFR over G.W.Bush's home in Texas while he was in residence. He was intercepted by fighters and ordered to land, and then the police came and took him out of his plane and took him to the station to be questioned. He wasn't shot down, and in fact after he convinced the police that it was an accident, they just let him go. Edit: heh. Looking at the NYC airspace today (15 Sep 2016) I see the whole thing is a TFR (scheduled to start in 3 days). Wasn't there when I made this post. Will probably be gone a week from now.\",\n \"The amount of time the planes were actually flying over Manhattan was maybe 30 seconds for the first plane and zero seconds for the second (the towers are right on the water and the second plane came from New York Harbor). Not enough time to shoot them down. Plus civilian airliners had never been weaponized before, so shooting down a civilian airliner that could simply have drifted into restricted airspace would be an unlikely response. There were quite a few notable incidents during the Cold War where a civilian plane was shot down for accidentally violating airspace.\",\n \"The communication on 9/11 was not great. By the time the military was notified of a hijacking it was way to late. At the speed an airplane travels, it entered restricted airspace less than 30 seconds before it hit the towers. Also as others have mentioned, the history of airline hijackings had entirely been for ransom or political purposes. To my knowledge no hijacker had ever handled the controls of an airplane, let alone used it as a missile. The government was preparing itself for a hostage situation, not a missile attack on a skyscraper.\",\n \"Even if you could reliably shoot down two passenger jets in time, you're basically condemning all the passengers aboard to death. That they were doomed anyway was unknown at the time: nobody had ever hijacked planes to use as flying bombs before. Everyone expected that the planes would be flown to, say, Havana, demands made, possibly a few hostages shot, but eventually most of the passengers would be set free one way or another and have a thrilling story to tell the grandkids. In any case, shooting down a passenger airliner (or anything, really) over Manhattan is hardly a good idea: you'd end up killing an awful lot of people on the ground as well. Perhaps not as many as were, in the event, actually killed, but right up until the first plane hit, nobody had the faintest idea what the hijackers were up to. Air traffic control couldn't do anything. Well, they can refuse the pilots permission to fly into a certain area, but we're talking terrorists on a suicide mission: they're hardly going to break off their attack just because somebody is shouting at them over the radio. The hijackers were able to enter the flight deck (btw, you shouldn't refer to it as the \\\"cockpit\\\": only fighter planes have cockpits, passenger airliners have flight decks) because before 9/11, the flight deck doors were not normally locked. It was 9/11 that actually changed that: so the hijackers didn't have to \\\"break in\\\", they just had to barge in with their box cutters -- in the days when security screening wasn't nearly as rigorous as it is now (again, it was 9/11 that changed things). In short, the reason the US was unprepared for such an attack was quite simply that nobody had ever attempted to carry out such an attack before, and nobody had ever seriously thought for one moment that terrorists might actually hijack a plane and deliberately fly it into a building.\",\n \"Your thoughts on our security are pretty much wrong. It isnt an immediate response to send fighter jets to a commercial airliner. What happened on 9/11 had never happened before and we just werent prepared for it. I mean these people did it with box cutters and shit. We don't have defensive AA batteries sitting around in cities waiting to protect us from incoming missiles and run away planes. In all honesty if our land bases were ever struck we would be pretty much sitting ducks.\",\n \"As others have mentioned, people never thought this would have happened. Here's a few things of note as well: *How were air traffic controllers not able to detect/prevent this?* Air traffic controllers were able to quickly determine the planes were hijacked. The planes stopped following the direction of ATC, and started going maverick. Initially, Boston Center controllers notified surrounding centers, including New York. But, the hijackers stopped the transponder code for the planes, so controllers were looking at just a blip with no information on their screen. They notified the military, but, military controllers were looking at literally hundreds of blips on their screens, so it was tough to sort out what was the hijacked planes. Also, by the time the military was advised of the hijackings, the most warning time they had was six minutes. *Wouldn't there by military planes ready to deploy?* Yes, there were. Northeast Air Defense Sector (NEADS) had two bases to deploy air defense jets (Otis in Massachusetts and Langley in Virginia). As soon as the report of the two planes from Boston being hijacked came in, they put the jets on \\\"battle stations\\\" (which is putting the pilots in the cockpits) and then \\\"scrambled\\\" (getting them in the air) within minutes. However, they had no idea the targets of the planes, so it took a little bit for the military to plot a course for the pilots. After the two planes hit the towers, the Major in charge of NEADS put the jets over Manhattan. As far as Washington DC, a military C-130 actually watched the hijacked plane crash into the Pentagon. But, the military only had two minutes warning to scramble the jets from Virginia, which takes 15 minutes flight time. The military also wasn't notified about Flight 93 until much later, and they had scrambled jets that were out on a training mission, and unarmed, to fly into the area, and if necessary, to ram the plane. Another note of interest is that even IF they had planes in the area, they weren't authorized to shoot down hijacked planes until ordered to do so. The order eventually came down from the Vice President, but there was a delay due to the Secretary of Defense helping evacuate victims from the Pentagon. In fact, it was noted he was unreachable for 25 minutes. (If you have time to kill: URL_0 )\",\n \"[From Popular Mechanics:]( URL_0 ) > On 9/11 there were only 14 fighter jets on alert in the contiguous 48 states. No computer network or alarm automatically alerted the North American Air Defense Command (NORAD) of missing planes. \\\"They [civilian Air Traffic Control, or ATC] had to pick up the phone and literally dial us,\\\" says Maj. Douglas Martin, public affairs officer for NORAD. Boston Center, one of 22 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regional ATC facilities, called NORAD's Northeast Air Defense Sector (NEADS) three times: at 8:37 am EST to inform NEADS that Flight 11 was hijacked; at 9:21 am to inform the agency, mistakenly, that Flight 11 was headed for Washington (the plane had hit the North Tower 35 minutes earlier); and at 9:41 am to (erroneously) identify Delta Air Lines Flight 1989 from Boston as a possible hijacking. The New York ATC called NEADS at 9:03 am to report that United Flight 175 had been hijacked—the same time the plane slammed into the South Tower. Within minutes of that first call from Boston Center, NEADS scrambled two F-15s from Otis Air Force Base in Falmouth, Mass., and three F-16s from Langley Air National Guard Base in Hampton, Va. None of the fighters got anywhere near the pirated planes.\",\n \"Easy to second guess the decisions with hindsight. At the time a terrorist attack on this scale was not on anyone's mind. At the time the assumption was mechanical or pilot error. By the time they realized there was a problem it was too late to shoot it down.\",\n \"Shoot them down with what exactly? There are no ADA units deployed around the city. There is no CAP flying around. No MANPADS soldiers stationed on rooftops.\",\n \" > Is there a reason that it was so easy for Al Qaeda to break into the cockpit, hijack 4 airplanes, and fly them for just under an hour going completely undetected? They did not go completely undetected. It was known that those planes had been hijacked. Stewardesses were in touch with ground control and told them what was going on on the planes. In the case of Flight 93, the last plane to be hijacked (because it took off later than scheduled, unlike the other flights), passengers were calling their loved ones to say goodbye, so in that case, it wasn't just ground control that knew what was going on.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["any of the other flights before they crashed. After both of the Twin Towers had already been hit, more fighters were scrambled from Langley Air Force Base in Virginia at 9:30 a.m. At 10:20 a.m. Vice President Dick Cheney issued orders to shoot down any commercial aircraft that could be positively identified as being hijacked. These instructions were not relayed in time for the fighters to take action. Some fighters took to the air without live ammunition, knowing that to prevent the hijackers from striking their intended targets, the pilots might have to intercept and crash their fighters into the hijacked planes,","-33.7453415148193"],["Chicago, reporting that the flight had been hijacked, both pilots had been killed, a flight attendant had been stabbed, and the hijackers were probably flying the plane.\n8:52: The F-15s at Otis Air National Guard Base are airborne. Still lacking an intercept vector to Flight 11 (and not aware that it has already crashed), they are sent to military controlled airspace off Long Island and ordered to remain in a holding pattern until between 9:09 and 9:13.\n8:52: Anchor Chris Jansing makes the first announcement on MSNBC of a plane crash into the World Trade Center.\n8:52: CBS interrupts The Early Show to","-32.17578434715597"],["instances of airport security failures. The attacks left 20 people dead when gunmen threw grenades and opened fire on travelers at El Al airline ticket counters.\nThe September 11 attacks are the most widely recognized terrorist attacks in recent times involving air travel. On the morning of September 11, 2001, 19 members of the Islamic terrorist group Al-Qaeda took control of four airplanes on the east coast of the United States and deliberately crashed two into both World Trade Center towers in New York City and the third into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. A fourth plane crashed into a","-31.740464417351177"],["2001, the CIA resumed reconnaissance flights, the drones now being weapons-capable. September 11 attacks and its aftermath On September 11, 2001, 19 Al-Qaeda members hijacked four passenger jets within the Northeastern United States in a series of coordinated terrorist attacks. Two planes crashed into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, the third into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, and the fourth inadvertently into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania. The attacks cost the lives of 2,996 people (including the 19 hijackers), caused the destruction of the Twin Towers, and damaged the western side of","-31.06039639050141"],["of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in which American Airlines lost two planes. Arpey made the decision to ground all American Airlines flights in Northeast US and then across the US before the FAA.","-31.001117969863117"],["the Air Force to cancel the contract and begin plans to re-open the bidding process.\nPlanning for terrorist use of hijacked airplanes as missiles had been considered for some military exercises prior to 9/11, though all but one of those exercises considered only aircraft originating from other countries.\nThe US and Canadian militaries, particularly NORAD and the US Air National Guard, have been tasked with interception duties concerning hijacked aircraft. Their primary duty was assistance to law enforcement. Quoting Maj.Gen. Larry Arnold: \"We always viewed an attack from within our borders as a law enforcement issue, ...\". Military aircraft were to be","-30.91804805159336"],["hijacked planes were flown into the Twin Towers of the original World Trade Center, and the towers collapsed. The 7 World Trade Center was not struck by a plane but collapsed because of heavy debris falling from the impacts of planes and the collapse of the North Tower. The other buildings of the World Trade Center complex were damaged beyond repair and soon after demolished. The collapse of the Twin Towers caused extensive damage to surrounding buildings and skyscrapers in Lower Manhattan, and resulted in the deaths of 2,606 people, in addition to those on the planes. Many rescue workers","-30.841680239289417"],["immediately controversial because it was part of the World Trade Center complex (although not in one of the Twin Towers), which had already been the location of a truck bomb attack in 1993. City officials, though, including Mr. Hauer, have long defended their decision, even after the command center had to be evacuated during the 2001 terror attack. The Emergency Operation Center was widely hailed as the finest such facility in the nation, receiving visitors from around the world and serving as a model for others. A memo revealed by Chris Wallace on Fox news showed that Hauer","-30.80159497167915"],["off or disable each of the four aircraft's on board transponders. Without these transponder signals to identify the airplane's tail number, altitude, and speed, the hijacked airplanes would have been only blips among 4,500 other blips on NORAD's radar screens, making them very difficult to track.\nOn 9/11, only 14 fighter jets were on alert in the contiguous 48 states. There was no automated method for the civilian air traffic controllers to alert NORAD. A passenger airline had not been hijacked in the U.S. since 1979. \"They had to pick up the phone and literally dial us,\" says Maj. Douglas Martin,","-30.78156198641227"],["The fly-over of the lower Manhattan financial district created a panic. Many feared it was another terrorist attack like the one that destroyed the twin towers of the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, or an aborted attack attempt, because of the F-16 following the presidential plane. This led scores of people to leave their desks and large office buildings to be evacuated in a speedy but impromptu fashion.\nNew York City police stated that \"federal authorities\" told them not to disclose information about the fly-over to the public in advance. President Obama was also not informed beforehand. Like New","-30.748137808364845"],["Otis Air National Guard Base in Falmouth, Massachusetts were ordered to battle stations (seated in their aircraft, engines not yet started). At 08:46, just as Flight 11 struck the North Tower of the World Trade Center, the two F-15s were ordered to scramble (an order that begins with engine start-up, a process that takes about five minutes), and radar confirmed they were airborne by 08:53. By that time, however, the World Trade Center's North Tower had already been hit.\nAt that time, NEADS personnel were still trying to pinpoint the location of Flight 11, but since the plane had already struck","-30.663278225401882"],["jet airliners, they told the passengers that they had a bomb on board and would spare the lives of passengers and crew once their demands were met – no passenger and crew actually suspected that they would use the jet airliners as suicide weapons since it had never happened before in history, and many previous hijacking attempts had been resolved with the passengers and crew escaping unharmed after obeying the hijackers. The hijackers – members of al-Qaeda's Hamburg cell – intentionally crashed two jet airliners into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. Both buildings","-30.559125604646397"],["was thought that if another U-2 were shot down, an Air Force aircraft arguably being used for a legitimate military purpose would be easier to explain than a CIA flight.\nWhen the reconnaissance missions were reauthorized on October 9, poor weather kept the planes from flying. The US first obtained U-2 photographic evidence of the missiles on October 14, when a U-2 flight piloted by Major Richard Heyser took 928 pictures on a path selected by DIA analysts, capturing images of what turned out to be an SS-4 construction site at San Cristóbal, Pinar del Río Province (now in Artemisa Province),","-30.530824007724732"],["also reported extensively on civil aviation issues and crash investigations. O'Brien reported the airliner crashes of US Airways Flight 427, ValuJet 592, TWA 800, EgyptAir 990, American Airlines 587, Comair 5191, John F. Kennedy Jr., Payne Stewart, Paul Wellstone, the C-150 incursion into the Washington DC Air Defense Identification Zone, and the Cory Lidle crash in Manhattan. In the wake of the September 11 attacks, O'Brien provided viewers radar tracks of the hijacked flights while the twin towers were still standing. During the Afghanistan and Iraq invasions, he, along with various retired generals, reported on military aviation techniques and strategy.\nHis","-30.47611213219352"],["Airlines Flight 93, believed to be heading to Washington. However, there was no time for the combat jets to be armed with missiles. The pilots were informed that they would be ramming the aircraft. The plane crashed due to an internal struggle by the time the jets arrived.","-30.47480376990461"],["the airliners into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, killing everyone on board and many others working in the buildings. Both buildings collapsed within two hours, destroying nearby buildings and damaging others. The hijackers crashed a third airliner into the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside Washington, D.C. The fourth plane crashed into a field near Shanksville in rural Pennsylvania after some of its passengers and flight crew attempted to retake control of the plane, which the hijackers had redirected toward Washington, D.C. in an attempted attack on the United States Capitol Building. There","-30.43394700982026"],["their F-15s were airborne within six minutes and as directed, headed for New York City, 153 miles away. Unknown to the pilots, American Airlines Flight 11 had crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City just as Colonel Marr was delivering his order. Meanwhile, at 8:43 am, the FAA reported another possible hijacking to the Northeast Air Defense Sector. That was Boston to Los Angeles United Airlines Flight 175. At 9:02 am, with the F-15s still 71 miles away, that plane crashed into the World Trade Center's South Tower.\nAt 9:09 am the pilots of the North Dakota","-30.39847088244278"],["the tower, making it difficult to see small planes at the intersection where the SkyWest plane was positioned. Just before the accident, she confused the Skywest plane with another commuter airliner that was on a taxiway near the end of the runway. Making matters more difficult, the ground radar at LAX was not working on the day of the accident.\nThe NTSB's investigation of the crash revealed that the cockpit crew of the landing USAir jet could not see the commuter plane, which blended in with other airport lights. The NTSB cited LAX's procedures which placed much of the responsibility","-30.363127516640816"],["York City's Lower Manhattan, and into the Pentagon in Virginia's Arlington County.\nDuring the attack, two of the hijacked airplanes crashed into the upper portions of the twin towers of New York City's World Trade Center and one into the Pentagon. United Airlines Flight 93, which was also taken over by hijackers, failed to crash into its intended target in Washington, D.C. when passengers on the flight received information about the ongoing attacks and revolted against the terrorists, causing the plane to crash in an open field in the rural Pennsylvanian countryside. \"Axis of evil\" An \"axis of evil\" was a","-30.355667673633434"],["Airlines flight dispatcher Ed Ballinger begins sending warning text messages to his flights: \"Beware any cockpit intrusion—Two a/c [aircraft] hit World Trade Center.\" Because he was sending this warning to his 16 transcontinental flights, this takes several minutes.\n9:21: All bridges and tunnels into Manhattan closed.\n9:23: Ballinger's warning message is sent to Flight 93, and is received in the cockpit a minute later.\n9:24: The FAA notifies NORAD's Northeast Air Defense Sector about the suspected hijacking of Flight 77. The FAA and NORAD establish an open line to discuss Flight 77, and shortly thereafter Flight 93.\n9:25: The Otis-based F-15s establish an air","-30.35293890495086"],["not confirm that they had lost all contact with Flight 11 until some time after 10:00. The NORAD timeline showed that the fighters scrambled from Langley at 09:24 were in response to a 09:21 FAA report of the hijacking of Flight 77; NORAD never mentioned the phantom Flight 11.\nThe problem, Scoggins told me later, was that American Airlines refused to confirm for several hours that its plane had hit the tower. This lack of confirmation caused uncertainty that would be compounded in a very big way as the attack continued. (Though airlines have their own means of monitoring the location","-30.308096377128095"],["were killed in the accident.\nThe investigation found that the visibility was so poor that the pilot could not have been able to see the airport at the point, known as the decision height, at which he was required to abandon the approach if he could not see the airport. Why then did he attempt to land anyway, given the known hazards and prohibitions against such attempts? Well, further investigation found a corporate culture in place at that airline that not only did not enhance safety but actively discouraged it. The owner of the airline, who as president directed its day","-30.273293372476473"],["of September 11, 2001, Islamic terrorists affiliated with Al-Qaeda hijacked American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, both which were en route to Los Angeles, and intentionally crashed them into the two main towers of the World Trade Center. The towers collapsed within two hours of the collisions. 2,606 people, including 2,192 civilians, 343 firefighters, and 71 law enforcement officers who were in the towers and in the surrounding area died in the attacks, as well as 147 civilians and the 10 hijackers aboard the two airliners. After the collapse of the World Trade Center, hospital workers and","-30.12901995133143"],["727 and DC-9 had collided due to the poor visibility at the airport, as well as inadequate signs and markings, which led to the DC-9 entering the runway without clearance as the Boeing 727 was taking off.","-30.081547325709835"],["Diverted Plot On September 11, 2001, as information seeps out about the 9/11 attacks on America, the FAA begins directing all remaining aircraft in the air to nearby airports, completely clearing the skies. A total of 38 transatlantic flights at or near their \"point of no return\" (also known as the \"point of safe return\") are diverted to the nearest airport in Canada, Gander, Newfoundland. The anxious passengers leaving on business and vacation trips have no idea why their flights are being sent to a remote town in Canada. With wild rumours spreading, one British airliner's crew tells the passengers","-30.048197238647845"],["to San Francisco onto the airport's north runway. Officials at the airport reported that it was purely a communication problem. Reaction Prior to landing, most pilots did not inform passengers of the situation or the attacks in order to avoid fear and panic. On some planes, even pilots were unaware of what had happened. Global quoted one pilot telling reporters: \"When we were in the air, we really didn't know what was going on. All we heard was security measures and we were diverted. That was all we knew…\"\nOnly after landing did pilots tell passengers what had happened, sometimes addressing","-29.96839945926331"],["scheduled passenger flight to Dubai using established air lanes. The Italian navy and another U.S. warship, the frigate Sides, confirmed that the plane was climbing—not diving to attack—at the time of the missile strike. The U.S. radio warnings were only broadcast on 121.5 MHz, not air traffic control frequencies and mistakenly identified the altitude and position of the plane, so the Airbus crew, if they were monitoring \"guard,\" could have misinterpreted the warnings as referring to another aircraft. Captain David Carlson of Sides later said that the destruction of the airliner \"marked the horrifying climax to Rogers' aggressiveness\". 1990s In February","-29.923597851360682"],["U.S. airspace, David Collenette, the Canadian Transport Minister, gave orders that Canadian airports be open only for outgoing police, military, and humanitarian flights, and incoming U.S. bound international flights. This was the first time Canada had shut down its airspace.\nAbout 500 flights were en route to the U.S. at the time of the attacks. Transport Canada instructed Nav Canada to give permission for transoceanic flights that were at least halfway towards their destination (i.e. had already passed the point of no return across the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean) to land at the nearest Canadian airport, depending on their point of","-29.900263567105867"],["aircraft, but was prevented by supervisors he said were friendly with the airline. This was validated by a report by the Department of Transportation which found FAA managers had allowed Southwest Airlines to fly 46 airplanes in 2006 and 2007 that were overdue for safety inspections, ignoring concerns raised by inspectors. Audits of other airlines resulted in two airlines grounding hundreds of planes, causing thousands of flight cancellations. The House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee held hearings in April 2008. Jim Oberstar, former chairman of the committee, said its investigation uncovered a pattern of regulatory abuse and widespread regulatory lapses, allowing","-29.876497109897173"],["New Jersey in the 21st century September 11, 2001 In the morning of September 11, 2001, hijackers took control of four domestic U.S. commercial airliners. All of the planes crashed, none of them in New Jersey; however, two of them crashed into the two tallest towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, which collapsed within two hours (and was seen from the Gold Coast in New Jersey), and Todd Beamer, of New Jersey, is thought to have played a role in bringing down Flight 93 short of the terrorists' intended target. The destruction of the twin towers","-29.863477512866666"],["dangerous as the aircraft, like most airliners of its era, was not equipped with a Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS).\nBased on Air Traffic Control recordings, the Basel Air Controller stated that Flight 435 was not homing to the selected beacon during its last approach, while the crew of the flight stated that they were on the beacon. This could indicate a faulty signal or faulty navigational equipment. If the fault was in the navigation system, this could explain why the plane went astray from its selected path. However, Swiss accident investigators considered it was more likely that the flight crew","-29.846710199359222"],["U.S. military response during the September 11 attacks On the morning of September 11, 2001, four commercial airliners were hijacked and deliberately crashed by the radical Islamic terrorist group Al Qaeda. American Airlines Flight 11, departing from Boston, was flown into the North Tower of World Trade Center at 08:46. United Airlines Flight 175, also departing from Boston, was flown into the South Tower 17 minutes later at 09:03. American Airlines Flight 77, departing from Washington Dulles International Airport, was flown into the Pentagon at 09:37. United Airlines Flight 93, departing from Newark Liberty International Airport, was crashed near Shanksville,","-29.811782433534972"],["small twin-engine plane has crashed into the World Trade Center. Before entering the classroom, the President speaks to National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice, who is at the White House. She first tells him it was a twin-engine aircraft—and then a commercial aircraft—that had struck the World Trade Center, adding \"that's all we know right now, Mr. President.\"\n8:56: Ten minutes after the North Tower of the World Trade Center was hit by Flight 11, the transponder on Flight 77 is turned off and even primary radar contact with the aircraft is lost. During radar blackout Flight 77 turns east, unnoticed by","-29.734010613814462"],["in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville, Pennsylvania after crew and passengers attempted to overpower the hijackers. Authorities believe that the intended target was the U.S. Capitol. In total, 2,996 people perished and more than 6,000 were injured in the attacks, making the hijackings the most deadly in modern history.\nFollowing the attacks, the U.S formed the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) to handle airport screening at U.S airports. Government agencies around the world tightened their airport security, procedures and intelligence gathering. Until the September 11 attacks, there had never been an incident whereby an aircraft was used as a weapon of mass destruction.","-29.669791611187975"],["time for escort aircraft to reach the hijacked flights. Notification of the hijacking of Flight 11 prompted the scrambling of two fighter jets from Otis Air National Guard Base, but they were not in the air until after Flight 11 had hit the North Tower. An erroneous FAA report of a hijacked plane heading towards Washington (\"phantom Flight 11\") prompted the scrambling of three more fighters from the 1st Fighter Wing at Langley Air Force Base, which due to \"poor communications\", ended up flying eastward, out to sea, instead of heading toward Washington, significantly delaying their arrival on the scene.","-29.614736176561564"],["to land aircraft even with visibility at 1600m. The Airport Authority said it was a mandatory requirement that the pilot be able to see the runway from 500 feet and that if the pilot had not seen the runway, he should have never descended below 500 feet, and if the runway was visible, he should have been able to land. The fact that the aircraft crashed 2.6 km from the airport showed that he had not sighted the runway.\nThe Airport Authority also stated that the VOR had to have been operational at the time, because the pilot was able to make","-29.560104811374913"],["website later denied the member's linking with the bombing, and indicated it was working with the Metropolitan Police to establish whether its former member was the bomber. The website stated that it provides information about airlines and free add-on software for Microsoft Flight Simulator and does not provide flight instruction to its members.\nThe 9/11 Commission in the US concluded in 2004 that those responsible for flying the planes into World Trade Center and The Pentagon had used PC-based flight simulators for training. Despite the initial concerns of the involvement of virtual airlines in these terrorist activities, largely little has come","-29.559148244094104"],["approach to runway 06 and that airlines in the meantime not rely solely on radio beacons during approach to 06. The report also looked at the work-flow at the air traffic control. The airport had a radar system installed, but this was used solely for monitoring traffic and was not seen as a navigational aid. The commission commented that air traffic control could have prevented the accident had it recognized that the aircraft was on the wrong path and alerted the pilots. Sufficient equipment was installed, but there were no instructions for such activity. Aftermath Flight 239 is the deadliest","-29.460789377073525"],["to Los Angeles, California, also appeared to be the victim of hijackers. At 9:24 am Colonel Marr ordered three F-16s (two alert aircraft and a spare) scrambled from Langley AFB to check out an unidentified intermittent aircraft track heading toward Washington DC. In six minutes, the Langley F-16s were airborne.\nIn accordance with established NORAD procedures, the F-16s were initially directed to head northeast to avoid some of the most heavily traveled commercial airline routes rather than to fly directly to the Washington, DC, area. Major Dean Eckmann and Major Brad Derrig, plus Captain Craig Borgstrom of the 119th Fighter Wing","-29.444380811881274"],["Among bomb threats related to transportation, threats and false information knowingly provided about bombs on airplanes have the most severe response. Private Institutions/Businesses Private institutions and businesses, including as banks, department stores, malls, casinos, restaurants, manufacturing plants, and truck stops, have been the recipients of bomb threats for various reasons. Some bomb threats are made because of ideological differences or opposition to the mission or perceived mission of the institution, such as those made against Planned Parenthood and abortion clinics, news organizations such as CNN, or nuclear facilities. From 1983 to 1992, the World Trade Center experienced roughly 350 bomb","-29.428227463096846"],["airspace after a series of terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. After the FAA closed down U.S. airspace, Collenette acted swiftly and shut down Canadian airspace in order to take in diverted U.S.-bound international flights, launching Transport Canada's Operation Yellow Ribbon. Ultimately, 255 flights carrying 44,519 passengers were diverted to 15 Canadian airports. In the time that has followed, Collenette has applauded the way Canadians responded to the crisis. He, Chrétien, U.S. Ambassador to Canada Paul Cellucci, and other provincial and local officials presided over Canada's memorial service to mark the first anniversary of 9/11 at","-29.41729395085713"],["aircraft were shot down when it was believed they were about to attack the U.S. fighters that were in the area. In this instance, the Flogger pilots were reportedly lost when they were fired on and successfully shot down after a series of missile launches, although they were seen to eject and parachute into the sea.","-29.379103528423002"],["International Airport attack, a Jeep Cherokee loaded with propane tanks crashed into the entrance of the Glasgow International Airport. The attackers appear to have been Muslims unaffiliated with any organization who were disgruntled about the War on Terror taking place in the Middle East. 2010–present The 2010 Times Square car bombing attempt was an attempted terrorist attack using propane tanks in an improvised car bomb. The perpetrator Faisal Shahzad admitted that he had trained at a Pakistani terrorist training camp prior to the attack, and said he wanted revenge against the United States for drone strikes in Pakistan.\nThe 2012 Brindisi","-29.3133610021614"],["Captain Jason M. Dahl on United Airlines Flight 93 from Newark, New Jersey, to San Francisco. The plane was hijacked by four al-Qaeda terrorists as part of the September 11 attacks. Homer and Dahl struggled with the hijackers, which was transmitted to Air Traffic Control.\nAfter learning of the earlier crashes at the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, the crew and passengers attempted to foil the hijacking and reclaim the aircraft. Given the uprising of crew and passengers, and knowing they would not make it to their intended target, which was the US Capitol, they instead chose to crash the","-29.293699654081138"],["patrol over Manhattan.\n9:25: A video teleconference begins to be set up in the White House Situation Room, led by Richard A. Clarke, a special assistant to the president, that eventually includes the CIA, the FBI, the departments of State, Justice, and Defense, and the FAA.\n9:25: The Associated Press informs CNN that the two plane crashes in the World Trade Center appeared to be an \"act of terrorism\".\n9:26: The FAA bans takeoffs of all civilian aircraft regardless of destination—a national groundstop.\n9:26: Transport Canada, Canada's transportation agency, activates its Situation Centre (SitCen) in Ottawa.\n9:26: White House counterterrorism chief Richard Clarke indicates he","-29.27104246831732"],["believed that it could have been an explosion on the aircraft, by either a fuel tank or a bomb and the satellite imagery also ruled out a missile attack. US Director of National Intelligence James Clapper said that there was not yet any \"direct evidence of terrorist involvement\". Some UK news outlets reported that an ISIL bomb was the most likely explanation for the crash.\nWithin a week of the crash, serious considerations were given to the notion that the plane had been intentionally brought down. The UK government said that in the light of further British intelligence, the crash \"may","-29.25151703588199"],["received the legal right to operate the complex and site for 99 years. At the time, the World Trade Center only had a few notable tenants, and Silverstein wanted to improve the complex to make it more attractive to potential tenants.\nThese plans for improvement were never realized. On the morning of September 11, 2001, Al-Qaeda-affiliated hijackers flew two Boeing 767 jets into the Twin Towers in a coordinated act of terrorism. At 8:46 a.m. Eastern Time (ET), a team of five hijackers intentionally crashed American Airlines Flight 11 into the northern facade of the North Tower. At 9:03 a.m. ET, a second","-29.230625032214448"],["people on large airliners increases the potentially high death rate with attacks on aircraft, and the ability to use a hijacked airplane as a lethal weapon may provide an alluring target for terrorism (such as during the September 11 attacks).\nAirport security attempts to prevent any threats or potentially dangerous situations from arising or entering the country. If airport security does succeed then the chances of any dangerous situation, illegal items or threats entering into an aircraft, country or airport are greatly reduced. As such, airport security serves several purposes: To protect the airport and country from any threatening events, to","-29.21217216498917"],["Washington, D.C.\nThe FAA was aware at this point that there was an emergency on board the airplane. By this time, Flight 11 had already crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center and Flight 175 was known to have been hijacked and was within minutes of striking the South Tower. After learning of this second hijacking involving an American Airlines aircraft and the hijacking involving United Airlines, American Airlines' executive vice president Gerard Arpey ordered a nationwide ground stop for the airline. The Indianapolis Air Traffic Control Center, as well as American Airlines dispatchers, made several failed attempts","-29.201265137293376"],["for some time until they were diverted. According to Flightradar24, most of the Istanbul-bound flights diverted to either Izmir or Ankara. Following the attack the FAA suspended all Turkish flights into and out of the United States for about five hours, allowing only the 10 flights that were already in the air during the attack to land in the U.S. All the flights suspended were Turkish Airlines flights. It is believed that between 8 and 14 aircraft from numerous airlines were at the terminal during the attack, none of the aircraft were ever in danger nor were any of them","-29.189661111100577"],["of the two pilots, Lieutenant Colonel Timothy Duffy, would later state he had already heard about the suspected hijacking (attributed to a phone call from the FAA's Boston Center) as he was supervising training exercises at Otis ANG base. Claiming to have a \"bad feeling about the suspected hijacking\", he and his wingman, Major Daniel Nash, decided to use their F-15s' afterburners.\nFlying supersonically, the F-15s were just south of Long Island when United Airlines Flight 175 smashed into the World Trade Center's south tower. NEADS wanted to direct the fighters over Manhattan, but FAA air controllers, fearing collisions with civilian","-29.187787708360702"],["releasing the bombs, the jets returned into Indian airspace unharmed and the Indian media claimed that whilst Pakistan scrambled its F-16 jets, they could not engage the Indian planes. The target There has been ambiguity among the sources as to what the exact target was, and about whether the madrassa -- Taleem ul-Quran run by Masood Azhar's brother-in-law, Muhammad Yusuf Azhar, was an active JeM camp or not.\nAccording to WikiLeaks, a 2004 United States Department of Defence interrogation report stated that Balakot had \"a training camp that offers both basic and advanced terrorist training on explosives and artillery.\" In contrast,","-29.164999223547056"],["Airlines Flight 93 is crashed by its hijackers at 583 mph (926 km/h, 272 m/s, or 509 knots), due to fighting in the cockpit 80 miles (129 km) southeast of Pittsburgh in Somerset County, Pennsylvania. Later reports indicate that passengers had learned about the World Trade Center and Pentagon crashes on cell phones and at least three were planning on resisting the hijackers; the resistance was confirmed by Flight 93's cockpit voice recording, on which the hijackers are heard making their decision to down the plane before the passengers succeed in breaching the cockpit door. The 9/11 Commission believed that Flight 93's target was","-29.16183272091439"],["the B-52 and B-1 are not equipped with data links and cannot interoperate with either F-15s and F/A-18s. Furthermore, half the USAF A-10 and F-16 fighter force in the Air National Guard (ANG) are equipped with Situational Awareness Data Link (SADL) gear that cannot interoperate with Link 16 unless there is a \"gateway\" which has radios for both data links, and a computer system that can interconnect them and translate the data. While the deployment of data links to fighter aircraft has aided flights of aircraft to coordinate their attacks locally, these systems are constrained by line of sight and","-29.149634615518153"],["the towers. Regarding the purpose of the 9/11 attacks, Hart stated that: “My guess is that at an early point they said to the bad guys in the CIA – hey this operation's running what do we do, and the zionists and the neo-cons said let's use it.\"\nIn another interview, Hart stated that \"In my analysis there's enough evidence – visual, technical and scientific, and from eye-witnesses including fire fighters – to invite the conclusion that the Twin Towers, like Building Seven, were pre-wired for controlled demolition with nanothermite, the highest-tech military explosive.\" Books Hart is the author of several","-29.103247602869487"],["some B-17s that were repaired and put back on the line at Clark to join in the attack. The B-17s took off with the 17th providing top cover during the attack. P-35s from the 34th failed to reach the objective due to their low speed, and only at the end of the attack did the 34th proceed to attack the convoy. Two P-35s were lost, one when the plane flew into a large explosion on a ship the aircraft attacked as the pilot was passing over it. After the attack, both squadrons returned for re-fueling","-29.08914878719952"],["use by terror suspects, and to prosecute suspected terrorists without time restrictions. The FAA ordered that airplane cockpits be reinforced to prevent terrorists gaining control of planes, and assigned sky marshals to flights. Further, the Aviation and Transportation Security Act made the federal government, rather than airports, responsible for airport security. The law created the Transportation Security Administration to inspect passengers and luggage, causing long delays and concern over passenger privacy. After suspected abuses of the USA Patriot Act were brought to light in June 2013 with articles about collection of American call records by the NSA and the PRISM","-29.087252410885412"],["the Department of Justice, and tried unsuccessfully to contact Attorney General John Ashcroft. About five minutes later, Barbara Olson called again, told her husband that the \"pilot\" (possibly Hanjour on the cabin intercom) had announced the flight was hijacked, and asked, \"What do I tell the pilot to do?\" Ted Olson asked her location and she reported the plane was flying low over a residential area. He told her of the attacks on the World Trade Center. Soon afterward, the call cut off again.\nAn airplane was detected again by Dulles controllers on radar screens as it approached Washington, turning and","-29.08296361914836"],["airport hubs that prevention of incidents was problematic.\nLos Angeles International Airport was recently found to be the most vulnerable to infiltration in the US when it comes to smuggling weapons. Knives, guns, and explosives carried by federal undercover inspectors were missed by LA International airport screeners at checkpoints 41% of the time in an airport security test. The test, which checked security at America's 32 biggest airports, was carried out in June by the Transportation Security Administration (TSA), which assumed responsibility for airport security. Criticism A 2009 study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences asserted that,","-29.082240382791497"],["Gatwick Airport had to close temporarily due to an unconfirmed sighting of a drone. This was the first sighting since the incidents of December 2018. 3 flights had to divert to London Stansted Airport, and returned to Gatwick Airport around 90 minutes later.","-29.07950671116123"],["according to the airport's fire chief, that the island did not have enough fire equipment to put out a fire if a Dash 8 crashed. The revelation about the fire equipment prompted a debate at Toronto City Council about possibly closing the airport over safety concerns. Council had been assured that the airport was safe a year earlier, when the agreement to allow the Dash 8 was made with the city. The Government of Canada admitted that the island airport did not have enough fire equipment and fire-retardant foam. It only carried 650 litres of foam, when 5,500 litres was","-29.075674080086173"],["normally until 08:54, when the aircraft deviated from its assigned course by initiating a turn to the south. Two minutes later, at 08:56, the plane's transponder was switched off, and its primary radar track was lost. Later, after hearing about the hijacked planes hitting the World Trade Center, Indianapolis Center suspected that Flight 77 may also have been hijacked, and shared this information with FAA Command Center at Herndon, where staff contacted FAA Headquarters in Washington at 09:25.\nNEADS learned that the flight was lost at 9:34 during a phone call with the FAA Headquarters.\nWashington Center: Now let me tell you","-29.065447304514237"],["of one F-16 belonging to Pakistan Air Force. Pakistani officials stated that in this \"day and age it is impossible to hide downing of a aircraft\". Initially, Pakistani officials also claimed to have captured two Indian Air Force pilots but later corrected their statement and stated that only one IAF pilot was in their custody. Pakistani officials stated that it was the fog of war which led them to believe that there were two IAF pilots in their custody. Pakistan also denied the use of F-16s in the operation, stating that JF-17s were used instead. The Indian Air Force presented","-29.05198516312521"],["traffic control (ATC), as neither crew was in direct contact with ATC after departure. ATC denied the request; the two airliners would soon be reentering controlled airspace (the Red 15 airway running southeast from Las Vegas) and ATC had no way to provide the horizontal separation required between two aircraft at the same altitude.\nCaptain Gandy requested \"1,000 on top\" clearance (flying 1,000 feet above the clouds), which is still IFR, not VFR (visual flight rules), which was approved by ATC. The provision to operate 1000'-on-top exists so that separation restrictions normally applied by ATC can be temporarily suspended. An aircraft","-29.05181348437327"],["and the other four bombers tried to get away from the fighters. Two of those bombers were hit, but the MiGs did not continue to pursue them due to fuel shortages. After analysis of post-flight data, the mission was credited with taking out three B-29s, of which one was credited to Naumenko.\nOn 9 December he flew in a mission to seek out enemy aircraft, during which his group of jets was attacked by F-80s. However, they managed to dodge the initial attack by climbing sharply. After returning to engage the F-80s, lieutenant Serafim Volodkin lagged behind the rest of the","-29.029885055613704"],["went out. There was no time to arm them with missiles, so each fighter went out carrying only 500 training bullets—just enough for a five-second burst. At the time, they believed that there may be more hostile aircraft. Each committed to doing whatever necessary to stop any hostile aircraft they encountered, up to and including ramming the airliner. By this point, fighters from Langley Air Force Base and the fighters from the D.C. National Guard were put in contact with each other. Flight 93 was no longer a threat, but the two units worked together to escort aircraft out of","-29.02552592336724"],["World Trade Center (film) Plot On September 11, 2001, Port Authority Police Officers John McLoughlin and Will Jimeno are patrolling the Port Authority Bus Terminal in Midtown Manhattan when they see a plane fly dangerously low overhead. As all of the Police return to the station, they see on TV that the North Tower of the World Trade Center has been hit by the plane. Sergeant McLoughlin assigns many of the officers to assist in a precautionary evacuation attempt of the North Tower and they board a Metropolitan Transit Authority bus. On the bus, they hear reports that the South","-29.00462036090903"],["attacks, two aircraft approaching the United States from Asia were diverted to Whitehorse as part of Operation Yellow Ribbon. One of these flights, a Boeing 747 operating as Korean Air Flight 85, was feared to be hijacked; this was not the case as the jumbo jet was low on fuel. Many of the buildings in the downtown area near the airport were evacuated as a precaution. Those who witnessed the landing by the Korean Air 747 observed the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) order the flight crew out at gunpoint.\nThe airport's parking lot is graced by an old Canadian","-28.977567764930427"],["following a procedure that required it to fly toward the airport until making visual contact. It was then to have flown around the airport to the east and north, keeping within a distance of 5 nmi (9.3 km; 5.8 mi), until lining up with runway 12, which faces toward the southeast. The aircraft crashed in the mountains outside the 5 nmi (9.3 km; 5.8 mi) radius, approximately 8 nmi (15 km; 9.2 mi) north of the airport, facing almost due west, before it could line up with runway 12 for final approach.\nWhile the BBC reported that officials stated that \"there was nothing in conversations between the pilot and the","-28.972733960399637"],["aircraft are required to approach the airport at very low speeds, making the aircraft extremely vulnerable to sudden downdrafts and strong winds that are known to occur in the mountains. Contributing factors might include poor visibility on final approach and the inexperience and lack of technology available to air traffic control.\nIn December 2017, an investigation committee of the Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal submitted its final report on the accident and concluded that \"Very low visibility\" was the cause of the accident. As the aircraft was flying through dense fog for several minutes before the approach, it missed the runway","-28.94498810832738"],["some Americans, because it was less than a mile from the site where the World Trade Center towers had been brought down, with great loss of life, by hijacked airliners piloted by Muslim extremists.\nOn August 16, 2010, Gwen Ifill of the PBS Newshour tried to moderate a discussion between Hameeduddin and Rick Lazio a former member of the US Congress and candidate for Governor of New York, over the \"Ground Zero Mosque\".\nThe discussion grew acrimonious, very acrimonious by PBS standards, and Ifill felt she should write about how the acrimonious discussion escaped her control to moderate the next day.\nAustralian scholars,","-28.937269497080706"],["was not a failure in the system. Our airports are not safer now than before 9/11. The main difference between then and now is that life is now more miserable for passengers.\nThe report has been accused of not giving the whole story about the warnings the U.S. received prior to the attacks. While the report did describe that \"the system was blinking red\" and that an al Qaeda attack was imminent, it did not include the testimony of former CIA director George Tenet to the commission in January 2004, in which he claimed to have given a specific warning to","-28.924185388343176"],["proposition\" and deter criminals in later decades. Until September 2001, the FAA set and enforced a \"layered\" system of defense: hijacking intelligence, passenger pre-screening, checkpoint screening and on-board security. The idea was that if one layer were later to fail, another would be able stop a hijacker from boarding a plane. However, the 9/11 Commission found that this layered approach was flawed and unsuitable to prevent the September 11 attacks. The U.S Transportation Security Administration has since strengthened this approach, with a greater emphasis on intelligence sharing. On-board security In the history of hijackings, most incidents involved planes being forced","-28.91847448372573"],["that the Boeing planes of Flights 11 and 175 could have penetrated the steel frames of the Towers, and that digital compositing was used to depict the plane crashes in both news reports and subsequent amateur video. \"There were no planes, there were no hijackers\", Reynolds insists. \"I know, I know, I'm out of the mainstream, but that's the way it is\". According to David Shayler, \"the only explanation is that they were missiles surrounded by holograms made to look like planes\", he says, which would be well beyond the capabilities of contemporaneous hologram technology. \"Watch footage frame by frame","-28.915688764071092"],["field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, not reaching Washington, D.C., for its intended target, either the U.S. Capitol or the White House. The attacks resulted in the deaths of 2,996 people, including the 245 civilians, a law enforcement officer, and the 19 hijackers on board the four airplanes.\nOn July 5, 2002, a gunman opened fire at Los Angeles International Airport (Israel's El Al Ticket Counter). The shooter killed two people and injured four.\nOn August 10, 2006, security at airports in the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States was raised significantly due to the uncovering by British authorities of a terror plot","-28.91422352711379"],["of these groups – have been victims of threats, vandalism, arson, and murder in the United States. Safety concerns Due to Americans having the fear of flying, auto usage increased after the attacks. This resulted in an estimated 1,595 additional highway deaths in the ensuing year. Censorship Films and television programs produced before 2001 that feature the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center or events similar to 9/11 have been edited in re-airings on television. One such example is an episode of The Simpsons, \"The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson,\" the main setting of which is the","-28.904275059932843"],["lie about small details: the plane was supposedly flying without running lights or strobe light, that tracer bullets were fired, or that I had radio contact with them on the emergency frequency of 121.5 megahertz. Post-attack flight At the time of the attack, the plane had been cruising at an altitude of about 35,000 feet (11,000 m). Tapes recovered from the airliner's cockpit voice recorder indicate that the crew were unaware that they were off course and violating Soviet airspace. Immediately after missile detonation, the airliner began a 113-second arc upward because of a damaged crossover cable between the left inboard","-28.894866827584337"],["airliner, American Airlines Flight 11, struck the North Tower of the World Trade Center at 8:46 A.M. (EST) in New York City; with a second, United Airlines Flight 175, striking the South Tower less than twenty minutes later at 9:03 A.M. (EST), resulting in the collapse of both 110 story skyscrapers, and the destruction of the World Trade Center. The third hijacked plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon (the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense) in Arlington County, Virginia, demolishing a section of the outer southwest facing wall. After discovering that their plane, United","-28.89468219038099"],["the jets had been purposely kept from flying immediately to New York City. The questions arising from the response time of the jets come from the practice of Cold War era policies which prohibited the immediate response to an emergency like a hijacking. First responder and pilot Daniel Nash said that he could not recall being told that the North Tower was hit but he did remember seeing the smoke over 70-mile (110 km) away. It is also claimed by conspiracists that the calculations of North American Aerospace Defense Command were incorrect because according to their own calculations, the planes were","-28.877358080120757"],["Airlines Flight 93, was going to be used as a missile, passengers attempted to regain control of the plane which had been redirected towards Washington, D.C. However, after regaining control from the hijackers, the plane crashed near a rural community near Shanksville, Pennsylvania. In total, the attacks killed 2,996 people—2,507 civilians, 343 firefighters, 72 law enforcement officers, 55 military personnel, and the 19 terrorists. The 9/11 attack was the single deadliest international terrorist incident and the most devastating foreign attack on American soil since the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. It refocused American attention to","-28.86321231839247"],["carried by F-16 fighters. This has prompted the US to initiate an inquiry into whether any F-16 jet was used by Pakistan while attacking Indian territory, since F-16s were sold to Pakistan on condition that they will not be used for attacking any nation and are to be used only for anti-terrorism activities. Foreign Policy, quoting unnamed US officials, reported that a recent audit didn't find any Pakistani F-16s missing, but a statement from Pentagon said that it was unaware of such an audit. Stations Within each operational command are anywhere from nine to sixteen bases or stations, each commanded","-28.86084203253995"],["Ville-Marie Expressway and implementing a tram system in the city. Controversy Bergeron, in his 2005 book, Les Québécois au volant, c'est mortel, wrote a paragraph which raised questions about the actual events surrounding the September 11 attacks.\nDirect quote:\nNo one knows what really happened on Sept. 11, 2001. We have been sated with pictures of two airliners striking the twin towers of the World Trade Centre. This is the only event of which we can be sure. The reasons for this act remain unknown. As for the two other planes that would have crashed — one on the Pentagon, in Washington, and","-28.85222170666748"],["757 aircraft into the World Trade Center. I thought the suicide mission [would involve] a Cessna light aircraft loaded with several kilos of explosives, like a Japanese Kamikaze World War II pilot diving into a target.\nThe targets ultimately chosen were the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and the United States Capitol. Flight 93 was apparently meant to crash into the Capitol. The White House was considered as a target; initially dismissed as being too difficult to locate from the air, it was later included in the plans. In the communications that developed as the scheme took form, the Pentagon's code","-28.843046620255336"],["officials thought it was part of the landing gear but Boeing confirmed it was the trailing edge flap actuation support structure of an airplane flap from a Boeing 767, the type of jet which hit both towers. A photograph of the piece initially showed a rope around it. Police said the rope was used by an officer who lassoed it to see the identification number. Boeing could not say which specific plane it was from. 2001–2009 The 45–47 Park Place building, located about two blocks (600 feet or 180 meters) north of the World Trade Center site, was owned by","-28.831461371213663"],["that United Airlines Flight 93 was shot down, that no airplanes hit the Pentagon or the World Trade Center. Canada In September 2006, an Ipsos-Reid poll found that 22 percent of Canadians believe \"the attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, had nothing to do with Osama bin Laden and were actually a plot by influential Americans.\"\nA September 2008 Angus Reid poll showed that 39 percent of respondents either disagree or are unsure that al-Qaeda carried out the attacks. About a third of those surveyed believed the U.S. government allowed the attacks to happen and 16 percent believe","-28.82958325179061"],["Northeast headquarters and other evidence showed clearly that the military never had any of the hijacked airliners in its sights and at one point chased a phantom aircraft—American Airlines Flight 11—long after it had crashed into the World Trade Center. For example, Maj. Gen. Larry Arnold and Col. Alan Scott told the commission that NORAD had begun tracking United 93 at 9:16 a.m., but the commission determined that the airliner was not even hijacked until 12 minutes later. According to later testimony, the military was not aware of the flight until after it had crashed in Pennsylvania.\nThe Commission was forced","-28.82592267805012"],["World with tenants as part of his recent acquisition of the Twin Towers from the Port Authority, and was scheduled to be in the restaurant on the morning of the attacks. However, his wife insisted he go to a dermatologist's appointment that morning, whereby he avoided death. Everyone present in the restaurant when American Airlines Flight 11 penetrated the North Tower perished that day, as all means of escape and evacuation (including the stairwells and elevators leading to below the impact zone) were instantly cut off. Victims trapped in Windows on the World died either from smoke inhalation from","-28.815599976922385"],["could fly. Any weather, smoke screens or even the problems of viewing the target at long range made the attack difficult.\nPlacing a television camera in the nose of the bomb appeared to offer tremendous advantages. For one, the aircraft was free to fly any escape course it pleased, as the bomb aimer could watch the entire approach on an in-cockpit television and no longer had to look outside the aircraft. It also allowed the bomb aimer to be located anywhere in the aircraft. Additionally, it could be launched through clouds or smoke screens and pick up the target when it","-28.78714365081396"],["after the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) banned these operators from flying into the United States due to safety concerns. Two former C-121Cs fly today with the Historical Aircraft Restoration Society of Australia and the Super Constellation Flyers Association of Switzerland.","-28.716937887555105"],["plane for not having an authorized flight plan, but the pilot did not hear it because he was on a different frequency. As the Dragonfly prepared to open fire, a CIA officer can be heard saying that the plane \"doesn't fit the profile\", and another CIA official says, \"Ok, I understand this is not our call, but this guy is at 4,500 feet and he is not taking any evasive action. I recommend we follow him. I do not recommend phase 3 [shooting the plane down] at this time.\"\nLater, a Peruvian official asks if \"phase 3\" is authorized, and the","-28.712456993816886"],["aircraft is currently flying. Ground proximity detection equipment was also mandated for the airlines.\nDuring the NTSB investigation, it was discovered that a United Airlines flight had very narrowly escaped the same fate during the same approach and at the same location only six weeks prior.\nThe flight is also of note in that the accident drew undesired attention to the Mount Weather facility, which was the linchpin of plans implemented by the federal government to ensure continuity in the event of a nuclear war. The crash did not damage the facility, since most of its features were underground. Only its","-28.684553451967076"],["terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center, by the Civil Aviation Authority. The spires were also removed and replaced by two cones placed on the rear of the tower on top of the stairwells. The overhang at the front was added. The proposed office space was also removed and the planning application was withdrawn.\nThe new design was submitted, however, was withdrawn by the Beetham Corporation after talks over the purchase of the adjacent multi-storey car park with National Car Parks broke down without a deal. This was a surprise to the developers as they had expected to be able to","-28.684101305720105"],["and a U.S. Navy EA-6B jammed all of the airliner's communications except to the F-14s and E-2C. With the implied threat of a shoot-down, the 737's pilot chose to land at the NATO base in Sigonella, Sicily, where the airliner was quickly surrounded by U.S. and Italian security personnel. Intervention in the \"Tanker War\" (1987–1988) From July 1987 to September 1988, F-14s performed combat air patrols and escort missions in support of Operation Earnest Will during the \"Tanker War\". On 8 August 1987, the first shots by the U.S. at Iranian forces took place when two VF-21 F-14As from the","-28.682083939609583"],["was caused by an accidental fuel tank explosion, that the Stratfor analysis was wrong and that there were no indications of an ISIS attack on the airport.\nOn 8 July 2016, a Syrian Mi-25 (a Russian Mi-35, according to other unofficial military sources) was destroyed on the ground from a United States-made BGM-71 TOW east of Palmyra, with two Russian pilots confirmed dead. A few days after, Russia announced it had employed strategic Tu-22M3 bombers, for the first time since the partial ceasefire came into force, to deliver airstrikes on terrorist targets east of the towns of Palmyra and Al-Sukhnah, and","-28.674159960617544"],["FBI Director Robert Mueller, and prepares brief remarks.\n9:15: NBC News reports unconfirmed statements from employees at United Airlines that an American Airlines aircraft had been hijacked prior to its destruction.\n9:17: The FAA closes down all New York City-area airports. The city had initially asked the FAA to close down the airports.\n9:17:02: CBS News correspondent Jim Stewart in Washington mentions that in the intelligence community, Osama bin Laden is a probable suspect.\n9:18: CNN makes reference to foul play for the first time, stating the FBI was investigating a report of plane hijacking. CNN headline: \"AP: Plane was hijacked before crashes\".\n9:19: United","-28.664722515561152"],["(13,125 feet/4,000 meters) was closed for many hours after the accident (with passenger flight cancellations or delays), leaving the shorter 16L/34R as the only available active runway. As a result, many flights operated by larger aircraft had to be canceled or diverted to other airports such as nearby Tokyo Haneda Airport, as 16L/34R is too short (7,150 feet/2,180 meters) for some types to operate safely, and some large aircraft types such as Boeing 777-300ER and Airbus A340-600 are restricted from using taxiway \"B\" (Bravo) which services that runway because of inadequate horizontal clearances. Aircraft history The aircraft was built in","-28.658345255847962"],["Flight 93 National Memorial United Airlines Flight 93 Of the four aircraft hijacked on September 11, Flight 93 is the only one that did not reach its intended target, presumed to be the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Several passengers and crew members made cellular telephone calls aboard the flight and learned about the attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. As a result, the passengers and crew members decided to mount an assault against the hijackers and wrest control of the aircraft. The plane crashed in a field","-28.65426076640142"],["at around six thousand feet to avoid light anti-aircraft fire, dropping to five hundred feet or so to avoid night fighters once inland and to make it possible to verify location, assuring that checkpoints on the ground corresponded exactly to the area being looked at in the cockpit and nose of the aircraft. Limited visibility at higher altitude would make this more difficult if not impossible. Since drops were made at 400–500 feet (120–150 m) at the pilot's discretion, being already at such a height made the drops more efficient.\nWhen only a few miles from the target area all available eyes","-28.6447406411462"],["they hit a thing; they were all being shot down and I think one or two got past the fleet. Our planes were after them too. And way out there on the horizon, we saw the last one go down -- all of them were shot down -- we could see the fire and the smoke. These were big two motor bombers: Japanese bombers burn real good.\"","-28.643673033395316"],["not been informed in advance, and some thought it could be the makings of a terrorist attack similar to the September 11 attacks. Some people ran out of buildings and panicked in the streets. Some buildings ordered evacuations. Incident The flyby was approved by Louis Caldera, director of the White House Military Office, to update the previous image of the aircraft flying over Mount Rushmore. Fran Townsend, Homeland Security Advisor to George W. Bush, said the flyby was \"crass insensitivity.\" She also said, \"I'd call this felony stupidity. This is probably not the right job for Mr. Caldera to be","-28.62563970006886"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"any of the other flights before they crashed. After both of the Twin Towers had already been hit, more fighters were scrambled from Langley Air Force Base in Virginia at 9:30 a.m. At 10:20 a.m. Vice President Dick Cheney issued orders to shoot down any commercial aircraft that could be positively identified as being hijacked. These instructions were not relayed in time for the fighters to take action. Some fighters took to the air without live ammunition, knowing that to prevent the hijackers from striking their intended targets, the pilots might have to intercept and crash their fighters into the hijacked planes,\",\n \"-33.7453415148193\"\n ],\n [\n \"Chicago, reporting that the flight had been hijacked, both pilots had been killed, a flight attendant had been stabbed, and the hijackers were probably flying the plane.\\n8:52: The F-15s at Otis Air National Guard Base are airborne. Still lacking an intercept vector to Flight 11 (and not aware that it has already crashed), they are sent to military controlled airspace off Long Island and ordered to remain in a holding pattern until between 9:09 and 9:13.\\n8:52: Anchor Chris Jansing makes the first announcement on MSNBC of a plane crash into the World Trade Center.\\n8:52: CBS interrupts The Early Show to\",\n \"-32.17578434715597\"\n ],\n [\n \"instances of airport security failures. The attacks left 20 people dead when gunmen threw grenades and opened fire on travelers at El Al airline ticket counters.\\nThe September 11 attacks are the most widely recognized terrorist attacks in recent times involving air travel. On the morning of September 11, 2001, 19 members of the Islamic terrorist group Al-Qaeda took control of four airplanes on the east coast of the United States and deliberately crashed two into both World Trade Center towers in New York City and the third into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. A fourth plane crashed into a\",\n \"-31.740464417351177\"\n ],\n [\n \"2001, the CIA resumed reconnaissance flights, the drones now being weapons-capable. September 11 attacks and its aftermath On September 11, 2001, 19 Al-Qaeda members hijacked four passenger jets within the Northeastern United States in a series of coordinated terrorist attacks. Two planes crashed into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, the third into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, and the fourth inadvertently into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania. The attacks cost the lives of 2,996 people (including the 19 hijackers), caused the destruction of the Twin Towers, and damaged the western side of\",\n \"-31.06039639050141\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in which American Airlines lost two planes. Arpey made the decision to ground all American Airlines flights in Northeast US and then across the US before the FAA.\",\n \"-31.001117969863117\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Air Force to cancel the contract and begin plans to re-open the bidding process.\\nPlanning for terrorist use of hijacked airplanes as missiles had been considered for some military exercises prior to 9/11, though all but one of those exercises considered only aircraft originating from other countries.\\nThe US and Canadian militaries, particularly NORAD and the US Air National Guard, have been tasked with interception duties concerning hijacked aircraft. Their primary duty was assistance to law enforcement. Quoting Maj.Gen. Larry Arnold: \\\"We always viewed an attack from within our borders as a law enforcement issue, ...\\\". Military aircraft were to be\",\n \"-30.91804805159336\"\n ],\n [\n \"hijacked planes were flown into the Twin Towers of the original World Trade Center, and the towers collapsed. The 7 World Trade Center was not struck by a plane but collapsed because of heavy debris falling from the impacts of planes and the collapse of the North Tower. The other buildings of the World Trade Center complex were damaged beyond repair and soon after demolished. The collapse of the Twin Towers caused extensive damage to surrounding buildings and skyscrapers in Lower Manhattan, and resulted in the deaths of 2,606 people, in addition to those on the planes. Many rescue workers\",\n \"-30.841680239289417\"\n ],\n [\n \"immediately controversial because it was part of the World Trade Center complex (although not in one of the Twin Towers), which had already been the location of a truck bomb attack in 1993. City officials, though, including Mr. Hauer, have long defended their decision, even after the command center had to be evacuated during the 2001 terror attack. The Emergency Operation Center was widely hailed as the finest such facility in the nation, receiving visitors from around the world and serving as a model for others. A memo revealed by Chris Wallace on Fox news showed that Hauer\",\n \"-30.80159497167915\"\n ],\n [\n \"off or disable each of the four aircraft's on board transponders. Without these transponder signals to identify the airplane's tail number, altitude, and speed, the hijacked airplanes would have been only blips among 4,500 other blips on NORAD's radar screens, making them very difficult to track.\\nOn 9/11, only 14 fighter jets were on alert in the contiguous 48 states. There was no automated method for the civilian air traffic controllers to alert NORAD. A passenger airline had not been hijacked in the U.S. since 1979. \\\"They had to pick up the phone and literally dial us,\\\" says Maj. Douglas Martin,\",\n \"-30.78156198641227\"\n ],\n [\n \"The fly-over of the lower Manhattan financial district created a panic. Many feared it was another terrorist attack like the one that destroyed the twin towers of the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, or an aborted attack attempt, because of the F-16 following the presidential plane. This led scores of people to leave their desks and large office buildings to be evacuated in a speedy but impromptu fashion.\\nNew York City police stated that \\\"federal authorities\\\" told them not to disclose information about the fly-over to the public in advance. President Obama was also not informed beforehand. Like New\",\n \"-30.748137808364845\"\n ],\n [\n \"Otis Air National Guard Base in Falmouth, Massachusetts were ordered to battle stations (seated in their aircraft, engines not yet started). At 08:46, just as Flight 11 struck the North Tower of the World Trade Center, the two F-15s were ordered to scramble (an order that begins with engine start-up, a process that takes about five minutes), and radar confirmed they were airborne by 08:53. By that time, however, the World Trade Center's North Tower had already been hit.\\nAt that time, NEADS personnel were still trying to pinpoint the location of Flight 11, but since the plane had already struck\",\n \"-30.663278225401882\"\n ],\n [\n \"jet airliners, they told the passengers that they had a bomb on board and would spare the lives of passengers and crew once their demands were met – no passenger and crew actually suspected that they would use the jet airliners as suicide weapons since it had never happened before in history, and many previous hijacking attempts had been resolved with the passengers and crew escaping unharmed after obeying the hijackers. The hijackers – members of al-Qaeda's Hamburg cell – intentionally crashed two jet airliners into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. Both buildings\",\n \"-30.559125604646397\"\n ],\n [\n \"was thought that if another U-2 were shot down, an Air Force aircraft arguably being used for a legitimate military purpose would be easier to explain than a CIA flight.\\nWhen the reconnaissance missions were reauthorized on October 9, poor weather kept the planes from flying. The US first obtained U-2 photographic evidence of the missiles on October 14, when a U-2 flight piloted by Major Richard Heyser took 928 pictures on a path selected by DIA analysts, capturing images of what turned out to be an SS-4 construction site at San Cristóbal, Pinar del Río Province (now in Artemisa Province),\",\n \"-30.530824007724732\"\n ],\n [\n \"also reported extensively on civil aviation issues and crash investigations. O'Brien reported the airliner crashes of US Airways Flight 427, ValuJet 592, TWA 800, EgyptAir 990, American Airlines 587, Comair 5191, John F. Kennedy Jr., Payne Stewart, Paul Wellstone, the C-150 incursion into the Washington DC Air Defense Identification Zone, and the Cory Lidle crash in Manhattan. In the wake of the September 11 attacks, O'Brien provided viewers radar tracks of the hijacked flights while the twin towers were still standing. During the Afghanistan and Iraq invasions, he, along with various retired generals, reported on military aviation techniques and strategy.\\nHis\",\n \"-30.47611213219352\"\n ],\n [\n \"Airlines Flight 93, believed to be heading to Washington. However, there was no time for the combat jets to be armed with missiles. The pilots were informed that they would be ramming the aircraft. The plane crashed due to an internal struggle by the time the jets arrived.\",\n \"-30.47480376990461\"\n ],\n [\n \"the airliners into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, killing everyone on board and many others working in the buildings. Both buildings collapsed within two hours, destroying nearby buildings and damaging others. The hijackers crashed a third airliner into the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside Washington, D.C. The fourth plane crashed into a field near Shanksville in rural Pennsylvania after some of its passengers and flight crew attempted to retake control of the plane, which the hijackers had redirected toward Washington, D.C. in an attempted attack on the United States Capitol Building. There\",\n \"-30.43394700982026\"\n ],\n [\n \"their F-15s were airborne within six minutes and as directed, headed for New York City, 153 miles away. Unknown to the pilots, American Airlines Flight 11 had crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City just as Colonel Marr was delivering his order. Meanwhile, at 8:43 am, the FAA reported another possible hijacking to the Northeast Air Defense Sector. That was Boston to Los Angeles United Airlines Flight 175. At 9:02 am, with the F-15s still 71 miles away, that plane crashed into the World Trade Center's South Tower.\\nAt 9:09 am the pilots of the North Dakota\",\n \"-30.39847088244278\"\n ],\n [\n \"the tower, making it difficult to see small planes at the intersection where the SkyWest plane was positioned. Just before the accident, she confused the Skywest plane with another commuter airliner that was on a taxiway near the end of the runway. Making matters more difficult, the ground radar at LAX was not working on the day of the accident.\\nThe NTSB's investigation of the crash revealed that the cockpit crew of the landing USAir jet could not see the commuter plane, which blended in with other airport lights. The NTSB cited LAX's procedures which placed much of the responsibility\",\n \"-30.363127516640816\"\n ],\n [\n \"York City's Lower Manhattan, and into the Pentagon in Virginia's Arlington County.\\nDuring the attack, two of the hijacked airplanes crashed into the upper portions of the twin towers of New York City's World Trade Center and one into the Pentagon. United Airlines Flight 93, which was also taken over by hijackers, failed to crash into its intended target in Washington, D.C. when passengers on the flight received information about the ongoing attacks and revolted against the terrorists, causing the plane to crash in an open field in the rural Pennsylvanian countryside. \\\"Axis of evil\\\" An \\\"axis of evil\\\" was a\",\n \"-30.355667673633434\"\n ],\n [\n \"Airlines flight dispatcher Ed Ballinger begins sending warning text messages to his flights: \\\"Beware any cockpit intrusion—Two a/c [aircraft] hit World Trade Center.\\\" Because he was sending this warning to his 16 transcontinental flights, this takes several minutes.\\n9:21: All bridges and tunnels into Manhattan closed.\\n9:23: Ballinger's warning message is sent to Flight 93, and is received in the cockpit a minute later.\\n9:24: The FAA notifies NORAD's Northeast Air Defense Sector about the suspected hijacking of Flight 77. The FAA and NORAD establish an open line to discuss Flight 77, and shortly thereafter Flight 93.\\n9:25: The Otis-based F-15s establish an air\",\n \"-30.35293890495086\"\n ],\n [\n \"not confirm that they had lost all contact with Flight 11 until some time after 10:00. The NORAD timeline showed that the fighters scrambled from Langley at 09:24 were in response to a 09:21 FAA report of the hijacking of Flight 77; NORAD never mentioned the phantom Flight 11.\\nThe problem, Scoggins told me later, was that American Airlines refused to confirm for several hours that its plane had hit the tower. This lack of confirmation caused uncertainty that would be compounded in a very big way as the attack continued. (Though airlines have their own means of monitoring the location\",\n \"-30.308096377128095\"\n ],\n [\n \"were killed in the accident.\\nThe investigation found that the visibility was so poor that the pilot could not have been able to see the airport at the point, known as the decision height, at which he was required to abandon the approach if he could not see the airport. Why then did he attempt to land anyway, given the known hazards and prohibitions against such attempts? Well, further investigation found a corporate culture in place at that airline that not only did not enhance safety but actively discouraged it. The owner of the airline, who as president directed its day\",\n \"-30.273293372476473\"\n ],\n [\n \"of September 11, 2001, Islamic terrorists affiliated with Al-Qaeda hijacked American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, both which were en route to Los Angeles, and intentionally crashed them into the two main towers of the World Trade Center. The towers collapsed within two hours of the collisions. 2,606 people, including 2,192 civilians, 343 firefighters, and 71 law enforcement officers who were in the towers and in the surrounding area died in the attacks, as well as 147 civilians and the 10 hijackers aboard the two airliners. After the collapse of the World Trade Center, hospital workers and\",\n \"-30.12901995133143\"\n ],\n [\n \"727 and DC-9 had collided due to the poor visibility at the airport, as well as inadequate signs and markings, which led to the DC-9 entering the runway without clearance as the Boeing 727 was taking off.\",\n \"-30.081547325709835\"\n ],\n [\n \"Diverted Plot On September 11, 2001, as information seeps out about the 9/11 attacks on America, the FAA begins directing all remaining aircraft in the air to nearby airports, completely clearing the skies. A total of 38 transatlantic flights at or near their \\\"point of no return\\\" (also known as the \\\"point of safe return\\\") are diverted to the nearest airport in Canada, Gander, Newfoundland. The anxious passengers leaving on business and vacation trips have no idea why their flights are being sent to a remote town in Canada. With wild rumours spreading, one British airliner's crew tells the passengers\",\n \"-30.048197238647845\"\n ],\n [\n \"to San Francisco onto the airport's north runway. Officials at the airport reported that it was purely a communication problem. Reaction Prior to landing, most pilots did not inform passengers of the situation or the attacks in order to avoid fear and panic. On some planes, even pilots were unaware of what had happened. Global quoted one pilot telling reporters: \\\"When we were in the air, we really didn't know what was going on. All we heard was security measures and we were diverted. That was all we knew…\\\"\\nOnly after landing did pilots tell passengers what had happened, sometimes addressing\",\n \"-29.96839945926331\"\n ],\n [\n \"scheduled passenger flight to Dubai using established air lanes. The Italian navy and another U.S. warship, the frigate Sides, confirmed that the plane was climbing—not diving to attack—at the time of the missile strike. The U.S. radio warnings were only broadcast on 121.5 MHz, not air traffic control frequencies and mistakenly identified the altitude and position of the plane, so the Airbus crew, if they were monitoring \\\"guard,\\\" could have misinterpreted the warnings as referring to another aircraft. Captain David Carlson of Sides later said that the destruction of the airliner \\\"marked the horrifying climax to Rogers' aggressiveness\\\". 1990s In February\",\n \"-29.923597851360682\"\n ],\n [\n \"U.S. airspace, David Collenette, the Canadian Transport Minister, gave orders that Canadian airports be open only for outgoing police, military, and humanitarian flights, and incoming U.S. bound international flights. This was the first time Canada had shut down its airspace.\\nAbout 500 flights were en route to the U.S. at the time of the attacks. Transport Canada instructed Nav Canada to give permission for transoceanic flights that were at least halfway towards their destination (i.e. had already passed the point of no return across the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean) to land at the nearest Canadian airport, depending on their point of\",\n \"-29.900263567105867\"\n ],\n [\n \"aircraft, but was prevented by supervisors he said were friendly with the airline. This was validated by a report by the Department of Transportation which found FAA managers had allowed Southwest Airlines to fly 46 airplanes in 2006 and 2007 that were overdue for safety inspections, ignoring concerns raised by inspectors. Audits of other airlines resulted in two airlines grounding hundreds of planes, causing thousands of flight cancellations. The House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee held hearings in April 2008. Jim Oberstar, former chairman of the committee, said its investigation uncovered a pattern of regulatory abuse and widespread regulatory lapses, allowing\",\n \"-29.876497109897173\"\n ],\n [\n \"New Jersey in the 21st century September 11, 2001 In the morning of September 11, 2001, hijackers took control of four domestic U.S. commercial airliners. All of the planes crashed, none of them in New Jersey; however, two of them crashed into the two tallest towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, which collapsed within two hours (and was seen from the Gold Coast in New Jersey), and Todd Beamer, of New Jersey, is thought to have played a role in bringing down Flight 93 short of the terrorists' intended target. The destruction of the twin towers\",\n \"-29.863477512866666\"\n ],\n [\n \"dangerous as the aircraft, like most airliners of its era, was not equipped with a Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS).\\nBased on Air Traffic Control recordings, the Basel Air Controller stated that Flight 435 was not homing to the selected beacon during its last approach, while the crew of the flight stated that they were on the beacon. This could indicate a faulty signal or faulty navigational equipment. If the fault was in the navigation system, this could explain why the plane went astray from its selected path. However, Swiss accident investigators considered it was more likely that the flight crew\",\n \"-29.846710199359222\"\n ],\n [\n \"U.S. military response during the September 11 attacks On the morning of September 11, 2001, four commercial airliners were hijacked and deliberately crashed by the radical Islamic terrorist group Al Qaeda. American Airlines Flight 11, departing from Boston, was flown into the North Tower of World Trade Center at 08:46. United Airlines Flight 175, also departing from Boston, was flown into the South Tower 17 minutes later at 09:03. American Airlines Flight 77, departing from Washington Dulles International Airport, was flown into the Pentagon at 09:37. United Airlines Flight 93, departing from Newark Liberty International Airport, was crashed near Shanksville,\",\n \"-29.811782433534972\"\n ],\n [\n \"small twin-engine plane has crashed into the World Trade Center. Before entering the classroom, the President speaks to National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice, who is at the White House. She first tells him it was a twin-engine aircraft—and then a commercial aircraft—that had struck the World Trade Center, adding \\\"that's all we know right now, Mr. President.\\\"\\n8:56: Ten minutes after the North Tower of the World Trade Center was hit by Flight 11, the transponder on Flight 77 is turned off and even primary radar contact with the aircraft is lost. During radar blackout Flight 77 turns east, unnoticed by\",\n \"-29.734010613814462\"\n ],\n [\n \"in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville, Pennsylvania after crew and passengers attempted to overpower the hijackers. Authorities believe that the intended target was the U.S. Capitol. In total, 2,996 people perished and more than 6,000 were injured in the attacks, making the hijackings the most deadly in modern history.\\nFollowing the attacks, the U.S formed the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) to handle airport screening at U.S airports. Government agencies around the world tightened their airport security, procedures and intelligence gathering. Until the September 11 attacks, there had never been an incident whereby an aircraft was used as a weapon of mass destruction.\",\n \"-29.669791611187975\"\n ],\n [\n \"time for escort aircraft to reach the hijacked flights. Notification of the hijacking of Flight 11 prompted the scrambling of two fighter jets from Otis Air National Guard Base, but they were not in the air until after Flight 11 had hit the North Tower. An erroneous FAA report of a hijacked plane heading towards Washington (\\\"phantom Flight 11\\\") prompted the scrambling of three more fighters from the 1st Fighter Wing at Langley Air Force Base, which due to \\\"poor communications\\\", ended up flying eastward, out to sea, instead of heading toward Washington, significantly delaying their arrival on the scene.\",\n \"-29.614736176561564\"\n ],\n [\n \"to land aircraft even with visibility at 1600m. The Airport Authority said it was a mandatory requirement that the pilot be able to see the runway from 500 feet and that if the pilot had not seen the runway, he should have never descended below 500 feet, and if the runway was visible, he should have been able to land. The fact that the aircraft crashed 2.6 km from the airport showed that he had not sighted the runway.\\nThe Airport Authority also stated that the VOR had to have been operational at the time, because the pilot was able to make\",\n \"-29.560104811374913\"\n ],\n [\n \"website later denied the member's linking with the bombing, and indicated it was working with the Metropolitan Police to establish whether its former member was the bomber. The website stated that it provides information about airlines and free add-on software for Microsoft Flight Simulator and does not provide flight instruction to its members.\\nThe 9/11 Commission in the US concluded in 2004 that those responsible for flying the planes into World Trade Center and The Pentagon had used PC-based flight simulators for training. Despite the initial concerns of the involvement of virtual airlines in these terrorist activities, largely little has come\",\n \"-29.559148244094104\"\n ],\n [\n \"approach to runway 06 and that airlines in the meantime not rely solely on radio beacons during approach to 06. The report also looked at the work-flow at the air traffic control. The airport had a radar system installed, but this was used solely for monitoring traffic and was not seen as a navigational aid. The commission commented that air traffic control could have prevented the accident had it recognized that the aircraft was on the wrong path and alerted the pilots. Sufficient equipment was installed, but there were no instructions for such activity. Aftermath Flight 239 is the deadliest\",\n \"-29.460789377073525\"\n ],\n [\n \"to Los Angeles, California, also appeared to be the victim of hijackers. At 9:24 am Colonel Marr ordered three F-16s (two alert aircraft and a spare) scrambled from Langley AFB to check out an unidentified intermittent aircraft track heading toward Washington DC. In six minutes, the Langley F-16s were airborne.\\nIn accordance with established NORAD procedures, the F-16s were initially directed to head northeast to avoid some of the most heavily traveled commercial airline routes rather than to fly directly to the Washington, DC, area. Major Dean Eckmann and Major Brad Derrig, plus Captain Craig Borgstrom of the 119th Fighter Wing\",\n \"-29.444380811881274\"\n ],\n [\n \"Among bomb threats related to transportation, threats and false information knowingly provided about bombs on airplanes have the most severe response. Private Institutions/Businesses Private institutions and businesses, including as banks, department stores, malls, casinos, restaurants, manufacturing plants, and truck stops, have been the recipients of bomb threats for various reasons. Some bomb threats are made because of ideological differences or opposition to the mission or perceived mission of the institution, such as those made against Planned Parenthood and abortion clinics, news organizations such as CNN, or nuclear facilities. From 1983 to 1992, the World Trade Center experienced roughly 350 bomb\",\n \"-29.428227463096846\"\n ],\n [\n \"airspace after a series of terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. After the FAA closed down U.S. airspace, Collenette acted swiftly and shut down Canadian airspace in order to take in diverted U.S.-bound international flights, launching Transport Canada's Operation Yellow Ribbon. Ultimately, 255 flights carrying 44,519 passengers were diverted to 15 Canadian airports. In the time that has followed, Collenette has applauded the way Canadians responded to the crisis. He, Chrétien, U.S. Ambassador to Canada Paul Cellucci, and other provincial and local officials presided over Canada's memorial service to mark the first anniversary of 9/11 at\",\n \"-29.41729395085713\"\n ],\n [\n \"aircraft were shot down when it was believed they were about to attack the U.S. fighters that were in the area. In this instance, the Flogger pilots were reportedly lost when they were fired on and successfully shot down after a series of missile launches, although they were seen to eject and parachute into the sea.\",\n \"-29.379103528423002\"\n ],\n [\n \"International Airport attack, a Jeep Cherokee loaded with propane tanks crashed into the entrance of the Glasgow International Airport. The attackers appear to have been Muslims unaffiliated with any organization who were disgruntled about the War on Terror taking place in the Middle East. 2010–present The 2010 Times Square car bombing attempt was an attempted terrorist attack using propane tanks in an improvised car bomb. The perpetrator Faisal Shahzad admitted that he had trained at a Pakistani terrorist training camp prior to the attack, and said he wanted revenge against the United States for drone strikes in Pakistan.\\nThe 2012 Brindisi\",\n \"-29.3133610021614\"\n ],\n [\n \"Captain Jason M. Dahl on United Airlines Flight 93 from Newark, New Jersey, to San Francisco. The plane was hijacked by four al-Qaeda terrorists as part of the September 11 attacks. Homer and Dahl struggled with the hijackers, which was transmitted to Air Traffic Control.\\nAfter learning of the earlier crashes at the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, the crew and passengers attempted to foil the hijacking and reclaim the aircraft. Given the uprising of crew and passengers, and knowing they would not make it to their intended target, which was the US Capitol, they instead chose to crash the\",\n \"-29.293699654081138\"\n ],\n [\n \"patrol over Manhattan.\\n9:25: A video teleconference begins to be set up in the White House Situation Room, led by Richard A. Clarke, a special assistant to the president, that eventually includes the CIA, the FBI, the departments of State, Justice, and Defense, and the FAA.\\n9:25: The Associated Press informs CNN that the two plane crashes in the World Trade Center appeared to be an \\\"act of terrorism\\\".\\n9:26: The FAA bans takeoffs of all civilian aircraft regardless of destination—a national groundstop.\\n9:26: Transport Canada, Canada's transportation agency, activates its Situation Centre (SitCen) in Ottawa.\\n9:26: White House counterterrorism chief Richard Clarke indicates he\",\n \"-29.27104246831732\"\n ],\n [\n \"believed that it could have been an explosion on the aircraft, by either a fuel tank or a bomb and the satellite imagery also ruled out a missile attack. US Director of National Intelligence James Clapper said that there was not yet any \\\"direct evidence of terrorist involvement\\\". Some UK news outlets reported that an ISIL bomb was the most likely explanation for the crash.\\nWithin a week of the crash, serious considerations were given to the notion that the plane had been intentionally brought down. The UK government said that in the light of further British intelligence, the crash \\\"may\",\n \"-29.25151703588199\"\n ],\n [\n \"received the legal right to operate the complex and site for 99 years. At the time, the World Trade Center only had a few notable tenants, and Silverstein wanted to improve the complex to make it more attractive to potential tenants.\\nThese plans for improvement were never realized. On the morning of September 11, 2001, Al-Qaeda-affiliated hijackers flew two Boeing 767 jets into the Twin Towers in a coordinated act of terrorism. At 8:46 a.m. Eastern Time (ET), a team of five hijackers intentionally crashed American Airlines Flight 11 into the northern facade of the North Tower. At 9:03 a.m. ET, a second\",\n \"-29.230625032214448\"\n ],\n [\n \"people on large airliners increases the potentially high death rate with attacks on aircraft, and the ability to use a hijacked airplane as a lethal weapon may provide an alluring target for terrorism (such as during the September 11 attacks).\\nAirport security attempts to prevent any threats or potentially dangerous situations from arising or entering the country. If airport security does succeed then the chances of any dangerous situation, illegal items or threats entering into an aircraft, country or airport are greatly reduced. As such, airport security serves several purposes: To protect the airport and country from any threatening events, to\",\n \"-29.21217216498917\"\n ],\n [\n \"Washington, D.C.\\nThe FAA was aware at this point that there was an emergency on board the airplane. By this time, Flight 11 had already crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center and Flight 175 was known to have been hijacked and was within minutes of striking the South Tower. After learning of this second hijacking involving an American Airlines aircraft and the hijacking involving United Airlines, American Airlines' executive vice president Gerard Arpey ordered a nationwide ground stop for the airline. The Indianapolis Air Traffic Control Center, as well as American Airlines dispatchers, made several failed attempts\",\n \"-29.201265137293376\"\n ],\n [\n \"for some time until they were diverted. According to Flightradar24, most of the Istanbul-bound flights diverted to either Izmir or Ankara. Following the attack the FAA suspended all Turkish flights into and out of the United States for about five hours, allowing only the 10 flights that were already in the air during the attack to land in the U.S. All the flights suspended were Turkish Airlines flights. It is believed that between 8 and 14 aircraft from numerous airlines were at the terminal during the attack, none of the aircraft were ever in danger nor were any of them\",\n \"-29.189661111100577\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the two pilots, Lieutenant Colonel Timothy Duffy, would later state he had already heard about the suspected hijacking (attributed to a phone call from the FAA's Boston Center) as he was supervising training exercises at Otis ANG base. Claiming to have a \\\"bad feeling about the suspected hijacking\\\", he and his wingman, Major Daniel Nash, decided to use their F-15s' afterburners.\\nFlying supersonically, the F-15s were just south of Long Island when United Airlines Flight 175 smashed into the World Trade Center's south tower. NEADS wanted to direct the fighters over Manhattan, but FAA air controllers, fearing collisions with civilian\",\n \"-29.187787708360702\"\n ],\n [\n \"releasing the bombs, the jets returned into Indian airspace unharmed and the Indian media claimed that whilst Pakistan scrambled its F-16 jets, they could not engage the Indian planes. The target There has been ambiguity among the sources as to what the exact target was, and about whether the madrassa -- Taleem ul-Quran run by Masood Azhar's brother-in-law, Muhammad Yusuf Azhar, was an active JeM camp or not.\\nAccording to WikiLeaks, a 2004 United States Department of Defence interrogation report stated that Balakot had \\\"a training camp that offers both basic and advanced terrorist training on explosives and artillery.\\\" In contrast,\",\n \"-29.164999223547056\"\n ],\n [\n \"Airlines Flight 93 is crashed by its hijackers at 583 mph (926 km/h, 272 m/s, or 509 knots), due to fighting in the cockpit 80 miles (129 km) southeast of Pittsburgh in Somerset County, Pennsylvania. Later reports indicate that passengers had learned about the World Trade Center and Pentagon crashes on cell phones and at least three were planning on resisting the hijackers; the resistance was confirmed by Flight 93's cockpit voice recording, on which the hijackers are heard making their decision to down the plane before the passengers succeed in breaching the cockpit door. The 9/11 Commission believed that Flight 93's target was\",\n \"-29.16183272091439\"\n ],\n [\n \"the B-52 and B-1 are not equipped with data links and cannot interoperate with either F-15s and F/A-18s. Furthermore, half the USAF A-10 and F-16 fighter force in the Air National Guard (ANG) are equipped with Situational Awareness Data Link (SADL) gear that cannot interoperate with Link 16 unless there is a \\\"gateway\\\" which has radios for both data links, and a computer system that can interconnect them and translate the data. While the deployment of data links to fighter aircraft has aided flights of aircraft to coordinate their attacks locally, these systems are constrained by line of sight and\",\n \"-29.149634615518153\"\n ],\n [\n \"the towers. Regarding the purpose of the 9/11 attacks, Hart stated that: “My guess is that at an early point they said to the bad guys in the CIA – hey this operation's running what do we do, and the zionists and the neo-cons said let's use it.\\\"\\nIn another interview, Hart stated that \\\"In my analysis there's enough evidence – visual, technical and scientific, and from eye-witnesses including fire fighters – to invite the conclusion that the Twin Towers, like Building Seven, were pre-wired for controlled demolition with nanothermite, the highest-tech military explosive.\\\" Books Hart is the author of several\",\n \"-29.103247602869487\"\n ],\n [\n \"some B-17s that were repaired and put back on the line at Clark to join in the attack. The B-17s took off with the 17th providing top cover during the attack. P-35s from the 34th failed to reach the objective due to their low speed, and only at the end of the attack did the 34th proceed to attack the convoy. Two P-35s were lost, one when the plane flew into a large explosion on a ship the aircraft attacked as the pilot was passing over it. After the attack, both squadrons returned for re-fueling\",\n \"-29.08914878719952\"\n ],\n [\n \"use by terror suspects, and to prosecute suspected terrorists without time restrictions. The FAA ordered that airplane cockpits be reinforced to prevent terrorists gaining control of planes, and assigned sky marshals to flights. Further, the Aviation and Transportation Security Act made the federal government, rather than airports, responsible for airport security. The law created the Transportation Security Administration to inspect passengers and luggage, causing long delays and concern over passenger privacy. After suspected abuses of the USA Patriot Act were brought to light in June 2013 with articles about collection of American call records by the NSA and the PRISM\",\n \"-29.087252410885412\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Department of Justice, and tried unsuccessfully to contact Attorney General John Ashcroft. About five minutes later, Barbara Olson called again, told her husband that the \\\"pilot\\\" (possibly Hanjour on the cabin intercom) had announced the flight was hijacked, and asked, \\\"What do I tell the pilot to do?\\\" Ted Olson asked her location and she reported the plane was flying low over a residential area. He told her of the attacks on the World Trade Center. Soon afterward, the call cut off again.\\nAn airplane was detected again by Dulles controllers on radar screens as it approached Washington, turning and\",\n \"-29.08296361914836\"\n ],\n [\n \"airport hubs that prevention of incidents was problematic.\\nLos Angeles International Airport was recently found to be the most vulnerable to infiltration in the US when it comes to smuggling weapons. Knives, guns, and explosives carried by federal undercover inspectors were missed by LA International airport screeners at checkpoints 41% of the time in an airport security test. The test, which checked security at America's 32 biggest airports, was carried out in June by the Transportation Security Administration (TSA), which assumed responsibility for airport security. Criticism A 2009 study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences asserted that,\",\n \"-29.082240382791497\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gatwick Airport had to close temporarily due to an unconfirmed sighting of a drone. This was the first sighting since the incidents of December 2018. 3 flights had to divert to London Stansted Airport, and returned to Gatwick Airport around 90 minutes later.\",\n \"-29.07950671116123\"\n ],\n [\n \"according to the airport's fire chief, that the island did not have enough fire equipment to put out a fire if a Dash 8 crashed. The revelation about the fire equipment prompted a debate at Toronto City Council about possibly closing the airport over safety concerns. Council had been assured that the airport was safe a year earlier, when the agreement to allow the Dash 8 was made with the city. The Government of Canada admitted that the island airport did not have enough fire equipment and fire-retardant foam. It only carried 650 litres of foam, when 5,500 litres was\",\n \"-29.075674080086173\"\n ],\n [\n \"normally until 08:54, when the aircraft deviated from its assigned course by initiating a turn to the south. Two minutes later, at 08:56, the plane's transponder was switched off, and its primary radar track was lost. Later, after hearing about the hijacked planes hitting the World Trade Center, Indianapolis Center suspected that Flight 77 may also have been hijacked, and shared this information with FAA Command Center at Herndon, where staff contacted FAA Headquarters in Washington at 09:25.\\nNEADS learned that the flight was lost at 9:34 during a phone call with the FAA Headquarters.\\nWashington Center: Now let me tell you\",\n \"-29.065447304514237\"\n ],\n [\n \"of one F-16 belonging to Pakistan Air Force. Pakistani officials stated that in this \\\"day and age it is impossible to hide downing of a aircraft\\\". Initially, Pakistani officials also claimed to have captured two Indian Air Force pilots but later corrected their statement and stated that only one IAF pilot was in their custody. Pakistani officials stated that it was the fog of war which led them to believe that there were two IAF pilots in their custody. Pakistan also denied the use of F-16s in the operation, stating that JF-17s were used instead. The Indian Air Force presented\",\n \"-29.05198516312521\"\n ],\n [\n \"traffic control (ATC), as neither crew was in direct contact with ATC after departure. ATC denied the request; the two airliners would soon be reentering controlled airspace (the Red 15 airway running southeast from Las Vegas) and ATC had no way to provide the horizontal separation required between two aircraft at the same altitude.\\nCaptain Gandy requested \\\"1,000 on top\\\" clearance (flying 1,000 feet above the clouds), which is still IFR, not VFR (visual flight rules), which was approved by ATC. The provision to operate 1000'-on-top exists so that separation restrictions normally applied by ATC can be temporarily suspended. An aircraft\",\n \"-29.05181348437327\"\n ],\n [\n \"and the other four bombers tried to get away from the fighters. Two of those bombers were hit, but the MiGs did not continue to pursue them due to fuel shortages. After analysis of post-flight data, the mission was credited with taking out three B-29s, of which one was credited to Naumenko.\\nOn 9 December he flew in a mission to seek out enemy aircraft, during which his group of jets was attacked by F-80s. However, they managed to dodge the initial attack by climbing sharply. After returning to engage the F-80s, lieutenant Serafim Volodkin lagged behind the rest of the\",\n \"-29.029885055613704\"\n ],\n [\n \"went out. There was no time to arm them with missiles, so each fighter went out carrying only 500 training bullets—just enough for a five-second burst. At the time, they believed that there may be more hostile aircraft. Each committed to doing whatever necessary to stop any hostile aircraft they encountered, up to and including ramming the airliner. By this point, fighters from Langley Air Force Base and the fighters from the D.C. National Guard were put in contact with each other. Flight 93 was no longer a threat, but the two units worked together to escort aircraft out of\",\n \"-29.02552592336724\"\n ],\n [\n \"World Trade Center (film) Plot On September 11, 2001, Port Authority Police Officers John McLoughlin and Will Jimeno are patrolling the Port Authority Bus Terminal in Midtown Manhattan when they see a plane fly dangerously low overhead. As all of the Police return to the station, they see on TV that the North Tower of the World Trade Center has been hit by the plane. Sergeant McLoughlin assigns many of the officers to assist in a precautionary evacuation attempt of the North Tower and they board a Metropolitan Transit Authority bus. On the bus, they hear reports that the South\",\n \"-29.00462036090903\"\n ],\n [\n \"attacks, two aircraft approaching the United States from Asia were diverted to Whitehorse as part of Operation Yellow Ribbon. One of these flights, a Boeing 747 operating as Korean Air Flight 85, was feared to be hijacked; this was not the case as the jumbo jet was low on fuel. Many of the buildings in the downtown area near the airport were evacuated as a precaution. Those who witnessed the landing by the Korean Air 747 observed the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) order the flight crew out at gunpoint.\\nThe airport's parking lot is graced by an old Canadian\",\n \"-28.977567764930427\"\n ],\n [\n \"following a procedure that required it to fly toward the airport until making visual contact. It was then to have flown around the airport to the east and north, keeping within a distance of 5 nmi (9.3 km; 5.8 mi), until lining up with runway 12, which faces toward the southeast. The aircraft crashed in the mountains outside the 5 nmi (9.3 km; 5.8 mi) radius, approximately 8 nmi (15 km; 9.2 mi) north of the airport, facing almost due west, before it could line up with runway 12 for final approach.\\nWhile the BBC reported that officials stated that \\\"there was nothing in conversations between the pilot and the\",\n \"-28.972733960399637\"\n ],\n [\n \"aircraft are required to approach the airport at very low speeds, making the aircraft extremely vulnerable to sudden downdrafts and strong winds that are known to occur in the mountains. Contributing factors might include poor visibility on final approach and the inexperience and lack of technology available to air traffic control.\\nIn December 2017, an investigation committee of the Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal submitted its final report on the accident and concluded that \\\"Very low visibility\\\" was the cause of the accident. As the aircraft was flying through dense fog for several minutes before the approach, it missed the runway\",\n \"-28.94498810832738\"\n ],\n [\n \"some Americans, because it was less than a mile from the site where the World Trade Center towers had been brought down, with great loss of life, by hijacked airliners piloted by Muslim extremists.\\nOn August 16, 2010, Gwen Ifill of the PBS Newshour tried to moderate a discussion between Hameeduddin and Rick Lazio a former member of the US Congress and candidate for Governor of New York, over the \\\"Ground Zero Mosque\\\".\\nThe discussion grew acrimonious, very acrimonious by PBS standards, and Ifill felt she should write about how the acrimonious discussion escaped her control to moderate the next day.\\nAustralian scholars,\",\n \"-28.937269497080706\"\n ],\n [\n \"was not a failure in the system. Our airports are not safer now than before 9/11. The main difference between then and now is that life is now more miserable for passengers.\\nThe report has been accused of not giving the whole story about the warnings the U.S. received prior to the attacks. While the report did describe that \\\"the system was blinking red\\\" and that an al Qaeda attack was imminent, it did not include the testimony of former CIA director George Tenet to the commission in January 2004, in which he claimed to have given a specific warning to\",\n \"-28.924185388343176\"\n ],\n [\n \"proposition\\\" and deter criminals in later decades. Until September 2001, the FAA set and enforced a \\\"layered\\\" system of defense: hijacking intelligence, passenger pre-screening, checkpoint screening and on-board security. The idea was that if one layer were later to fail, another would be able stop a hijacker from boarding a plane. However, the 9/11 Commission found that this layered approach was flawed and unsuitable to prevent the September 11 attacks. The U.S Transportation Security Administration has since strengthened this approach, with a greater emphasis on intelligence sharing. On-board security In the history of hijackings, most incidents involved planes being forced\",\n \"-28.91847448372573\"\n ],\n [\n \"that the Boeing planes of Flights 11 and 175 could have penetrated the steel frames of the Towers, and that digital compositing was used to depict the plane crashes in both news reports and subsequent amateur video. \\\"There were no planes, there were no hijackers\\\", Reynolds insists. \\\"I know, I know, I'm out of the mainstream, but that's the way it is\\\". According to David Shayler, \\\"the only explanation is that they were missiles surrounded by holograms made to look like planes\\\", he says, which would be well beyond the capabilities of contemporaneous hologram technology. \\\"Watch footage frame by frame\",\n \"-28.915688764071092\"\n ],\n [\n \"field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, not reaching Washington, D.C., for its intended target, either the U.S. Capitol or the White House. The attacks resulted in the deaths of 2,996 people, including the 245 civilians, a law enforcement officer, and the 19 hijackers on board the four airplanes.\\nOn July 5, 2002, a gunman opened fire at Los Angeles International Airport (Israel's El Al Ticket Counter). The shooter killed two people and injured four.\\nOn August 10, 2006, security at airports in the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States was raised significantly due to the uncovering by British authorities of a terror plot\",\n \"-28.91422352711379\"\n ],\n [\n \"of these groups – have been victims of threats, vandalism, arson, and murder in the United States. Safety concerns Due to Americans having the fear of flying, auto usage increased after the attacks. This resulted in an estimated 1,595 additional highway deaths in the ensuing year. Censorship Films and television programs produced before 2001 that feature the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center or events similar to 9/11 have been edited in re-airings on television. One such example is an episode of The Simpsons, \\\"The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson,\\\" the main setting of which is the\",\n \"-28.904275059932843\"\n ],\n [\n \"lie about small details: the plane was supposedly flying without running lights or strobe light, that tracer bullets were fired, or that I had radio contact with them on the emergency frequency of 121.5 megahertz. Post-attack flight At the time of the attack, the plane had been cruising at an altitude of about 35,000 feet (11,000 m). Tapes recovered from the airliner's cockpit voice recorder indicate that the crew were unaware that they were off course and violating Soviet airspace. Immediately after missile detonation, the airliner began a 113-second arc upward because of a damaged crossover cable between the left inboard\",\n \"-28.894866827584337\"\n ],\n [\n \"airliner, American Airlines Flight 11, struck the North Tower of the World Trade Center at 8:46 A.M. (EST) in New York City; with a second, United Airlines Flight 175, striking the South Tower less than twenty minutes later at 9:03 A.M. (EST), resulting in the collapse of both 110 story skyscrapers, and the destruction of the World Trade Center. The third hijacked plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon (the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense) in Arlington County, Virginia, demolishing a section of the outer southwest facing wall. After discovering that their plane, United\",\n \"-28.89468219038099\"\n ],\n [\n \"the jets had been purposely kept from flying immediately to New York City. The questions arising from the response time of the jets come from the practice of Cold War era policies which prohibited the immediate response to an emergency like a hijacking. First responder and pilot Daniel Nash said that he could not recall being told that the North Tower was hit but he did remember seeing the smoke over 70-mile (110 km) away. It is also claimed by conspiracists that the calculations of North American Aerospace Defense Command were incorrect because according to their own calculations, the planes were\",\n \"-28.877358080120757\"\n ],\n [\n \"Airlines Flight 93, was going to be used as a missile, passengers attempted to regain control of the plane which had been redirected towards Washington, D.C. However, after regaining control from the hijackers, the plane crashed near a rural community near Shanksville, Pennsylvania. In total, the attacks killed 2,996 people—2,507 civilians, 343 firefighters, 72 law enforcement officers, 55 military personnel, and the 19 terrorists. The 9/11 attack was the single deadliest international terrorist incident and the most devastating foreign attack on American soil since the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. It refocused American attention to\",\n \"-28.86321231839247\"\n ],\n [\n \"carried by F-16 fighters. This has prompted the US to initiate an inquiry into whether any F-16 jet was used by Pakistan while attacking Indian territory, since F-16s were sold to Pakistan on condition that they will not be used for attacking any nation and are to be used only for anti-terrorism activities. Foreign Policy, quoting unnamed US officials, reported that a recent audit didn't find any Pakistani F-16s missing, but a statement from Pentagon said that it was unaware of such an audit. Stations Within each operational command are anywhere from nine to sixteen bases or stations, each commanded\",\n \"-28.86084203253995\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ville-Marie Expressway and implementing a tram system in the city. Controversy Bergeron, in his 2005 book, Les Québécois au volant, c'est mortel, wrote a paragraph which raised questions about the actual events surrounding the September 11 attacks.\\nDirect quote:\\nNo one knows what really happened on Sept. 11, 2001. We have been sated with pictures of two airliners striking the twin towers of the World Trade Centre. This is the only event of which we can be sure. The reasons for this act remain unknown. As for the two other planes that would have crashed — one on the Pentagon, in Washington, and\",\n \"-28.85222170666748\"\n ],\n [\n \"757 aircraft into the World Trade Center. I thought the suicide mission [would involve] a Cessna light aircraft loaded with several kilos of explosives, like a Japanese Kamikaze World War II pilot diving into a target.\\nThe targets ultimately chosen were the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and the United States Capitol. Flight 93 was apparently meant to crash into the Capitol. The White House was considered as a target; initially dismissed as being too difficult to locate from the air, it was later included in the plans. In the communications that developed as the scheme took form, the Pentagon's code\",\n \"-28.843046620255336\"\n ],\n [\n \"officials thought it was part of the landing gear but Boeing confirmed it was the trailing edge flap actuation support structure of an airplane flap from a Boeing 767, the type of jet which hit both towers. A photograph of the piece initially showed a rope around it. Police said the rope was used by an officer who lassoed it to see the identification number. Boeing could not say which specific plane it was from. 2001–2009 The 45–47 Park Place building, located about two blocks (600 feet or 180 meters) north of the World Trade Center site, was owned by\",\n \"-28.831461371213663\"\n ],\n [\n \"that United Airlines Flight 93 was shot down, that no airplanes hit the Pentagon or the World Trade Center. Canada In September 2006, an Ipsos-Reid poll found that 22 percent of Canadians believe \\\"the attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, had nothing to do with Osama bin Laden and were actually a plot by influential Americans.\\\"\\nA September 2008 Angus Reid poll showed that 39 percent of respondents either disagree or are unsure that al-Qaeda carried out the attacks. About a third of those surveyed believed the U.S. government allowed the attacks to happen and 16 percent believe\",\n \"-28.82958325179061\"\n ],\n [\n \"Northeast headquarters and other evidence showed clearly that the military never had any of the hijacked airliners in its sights and at one point chased a phantom aircraft—American Airlines Flight 11—long after it had crashed into the World Trade Center. For example, Maj. Gen. Larry Arnold and Col. Alan Scott told the commission that NORAD had begun tracking United 93 at 9:16 a.m., but the commission determined that the airliner was not even hijacked until 12 minutes later. According to later testimony, the military was not aware of the flight until after it had crashed in Pennsylvania.\\nThe Commission was forced\",\n \"-28.82592267805012\"\n ],\n [\n \"World with tenants as part of his recent acquisition of the Twin Towers from the Port Authority, and was scheduled to be in the restaurant on the morning of the attacks. However, his wife insisted he go to a dermatologist's appointment that morning, whereby he avoided death. Everyone present in the restaurant when American Airlines Flight 11 penetrated the North Tower perished that day, as all means of escape and evacuation (including the stairwells and elevators leading to below the impact zone) were instantly cut off. Victims trapped in Windows on the World died either from smoke inhalation from\",\n \"-28.815599976922385\"\n ],\n [\n \"could fly. Any weather, smoke screens or even the problems of viewing the target at long range made the attack difficult.\\nPlacing a television camera in the nose of the bomb appeared to offer tremendous advantages. For one, the aircraft was free to fly any escape course it pleased, as the bomb aimer could watch the entire approach on an in-cockpit television and no longer had to look outside the aircraft. It also allowed the bomb aimer to be located anywhere in the aircraft. Additionally, it could be launched through clouds or smoke screens and pick up the target when it\",\n \"-28.78714365081396\"\n ],\n [\n \"after the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) banned these operators from flying into the United States due to safety concerns. Two former C-121Cs fly today with the Historical Aircraft Restoration Society of Australia and the Super Constellation Flyers Association of Switzerland.\",\n \"-28.716937887555105\"\n ],\n [\n \"plane for not having an authorized flight plan, but the pilot did not hear it because he was on a different frequency. As the Dragonfly prepared to open fire, a CIA officer can be heard saying that the plane \\\"doesn't fit the profile\\\", and another CIA official says, \\\"Ok, I understand this is not our call, but this guy is at 4,500 feet and he is not taking any evasive action. I recommend we follow him. I do not recommend phase 3 [shooting the plane down] at this time.\\\"\\nLater, a Peruvian official asks if \\\"phase 3\\\" is authorized, and the\",\n \"-28.712456993816886\"\n ],\n [\n \"aircraft is currently flying. Ground proximity detection equipment was also mandated for the airlines.\\nDuring the NTSB investigation, it was discovered that a United Airlines flight had very narrowly escaped the same fate during the same approach and at the same location only six weeks prior.\\nThe flight is also of note in that the accident drew undesired attention to the Mount Weather facility, which was the linchpin of plans implemented by the federal government to ensure continuity in the event of a nuclear war. The crash did not damage the facility, since most of its features were underground. Only its\",\n \"-28.684553451967076\"\n ],\n [\n \"terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center, by the Civil Aviation Authority. The spires were also removed and replaced by two cones placed on the rear of the tower on top of the stairwells. The overhang at the front was added. The proposed office space was also removed and the planning application was withdrawn.\\nThe new design was submitted, however, was withdrawn by the Beetham Corporation after talks over the purchase of the adjacent multi-storey car park with National Car Parks broke down without a deal. This was a surprise to the developers as they had expected to be able to\",\n \"-28.684101305720105\"\n ],\n [\n \"and a U.S. Navy EA-6B jammed all of the airliner's communications except to the F-14s and E-2C. With the implied threat of a shoot-down, the 737's pilot chose to land at the NATO base in Sigonella, Sicily, where the airliner was quickly surrounded by U.S. and Italian security personnel. Intervention in the \\\"Tanker War\\\" (1987–1988) From July 1987 to September 1988, F-14s performed combat air patrols and escort missions in support of Operation Earnest Will during the \\\"Tanker War\\\". On 8 August 1987, the first shots by the U.S. at Iranian forces took place when two VF-21 F-14As from the\",\n \"-28.682083939609583\"\n ],\n [\n \"was caused by an accidental fuel tank explosion, that the Stratfor analysis was wrong and that there were no indications of an ISIS attack on the airport.\\nOn 8 July 2016, a Syrian Mi-25 (a Russian Mi-35, according to other unofficial military sources) was destroyed on the ground from a United States-made BGM-71 TOW east of Palmyra, with two Russian pilots confirmed dead. A few days after, Russia announced it had employed strategic Tu-22M3 bombers, for the first time since the partial ceasefire came into force, to deliver airstrikes on terrorist targets east of the towns of Palmyra and Al-Sukhnah, and\",\n \"-28.674159960617544\"\n ],\n [\n \"FBI Director Robert Mueller, and prepares brief remarks.\\n9:15: NBC News reports unconfirmed statements from employees at United Airlines that an American Airlines aircraft had been hijacked prior to its destruction.\\n9:17: The FAA closes down all New York City-area airports. The city had initially asked the FAA to close down the airports.\\n9:17:02: CBS News correspondent Jim Stewart in Washington mentions that in the intelligence community, Osama bin Laden is a probable suspect.\\n9:18: CNN makes reference to foul play for the first time, stating the FBI was investigating a report of plane hijacking. CNN headline: \\\"AP: Plane was hijacked before crashes\\\".\\n9:19: United\",\n \"-28.664722515561152\"\n ],\n [\n \"(13,125 feet/4,000 meters) was closed for many hours after the accident (with passenger flight cancellations or delays), leaving the shorter 16L/34R as the only available active runway. As a result, many flights operated by larger aircraft had to be canceled or diverted to other airports such as nearby Tokyo Haneda Airport, as 16L/34R is too short (7,150 feet/2,180 meters) for some types to operate safely, and some large aircraft types such as Boeing 777-300ER and Airbus A340-600 are restricted from using taxiway \\\"B\\\" (Bravo) which services that runway because of inadequate horizontal clearances. Aircraft history The aircraft was built in\",\n \"-28.658345255847962\"\n ],\n [\n \"Flight 93 National Memorial United Airlines Flight 93 Of the four aircraft hijacked on September 11, Flight 93 is the only one that did not reach its intended target, presumed to be the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Several passengers and crew members made cellular telephone calls aboard the flight and learned about the attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. As a result, the passengers and crew members decided to mount an assault against the hijackers and wrest control of the aircraft. The plane crashed in a field\",\n \"-28.65426076640142\"\n ],\n [\n \"at around six thousand feet to avoid light anti-aircraft fire, dropping to five hundred feet or so to avoid night fighters once inland and to make it possible to verify location, assuring that checkpoints on the ground corresponded exactly to the area being looked at in the cockpit and nose of the aircraft. Limited visibility at higher altitude would make this more difficult if not impossible. Since drops were made at 400–500 feet (120–150 m) at the pilot's discretion, being already at such a height made the drops more efficient.\\nWhen only a few miles from the target area all available eyes\",\n \"-28.6447406411462\"\n ],\n [\n \"they hit a thing; they were all being shot down and I think one or two got past the fleet. Our planes were after them too. And way out there on the horizon, we saw the last one go down -- all of them were shot down -- we could see the fire and the smoke. These were big two motor bombers: Japanese bombers burn real good.\\\"\",\n \"-28.643673033395316\"\n ],\n [\n \"not been informed in advance, and some thought it could be the makings of a terrorist attack similar to the September 11 attacks. Some people ran out of buildings and panicked in the streets. Some buildings ordered evacuations. Incident The flyby was approved by Louis Caldera, director of the White House Military Office, to update the previous image of the aircraft flying over Mount Rushmore. Fran Townsend, Homeland Security Advisor to George W. Bush, said the flyby was \\\"crass insensitivity.\\\" She also said, \\\"I'd call this felony stupidity. This is probably not the right job for Mr. Caldera to be\",\n \"-28.62563970006886\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":597,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"3ms4k9"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"If embarrassment and laughter are considered advanced emotions, as human brains develop will we pick up other emotions?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["There is no reason to expect we won't. There is no reason to expect we will. Our evolutionary pressures are completely unprecedented. We have no effective predators, and enough capability to eliminate any earth created predator before it becomes effective. That leaves ourselves as our only evolutionary pressure. The last time this happened there was only 1 species on the planet. It is possible that we lose emotions. Anxiety in particular is not much value any more. It is possible to gain emotions. Ermlau could be a perfectly viable option (pretty sure I made that word up). We could do both. We could split into two species. Morlock forever. Although I think our breeding tendencies will prevent this. We could go extinct. We could evolve in a way that puzzles us, just like I had fried dinosaur descendant for dinner.","It would be quite helpful if we developed a more generalized and strong empathy and compassion. Might save us all.","there was this post a couple weeks ago about... [21 emotions with no english names for]( URL_0 ) or [this other one]( URL_1 ) for example \"Hiraeth\" : A homesickness for a home to which you cannot return, or a home which maybe never was"],"string":"[\n \"There is no reason to expect we won't. There is no reason to expect we will. Our evolutionary pressures are completely unprecedented. We have no effective predators, and enough capability to eliminate any earth created predator before it becomes effective. That leaves ourselves as our only evolutionary pressure. The last time this happened there was only 1 species on the planet. It is possible that we lose emotions. Anxiety in particular is not much value any more. It is possible to gain emotions. Ermlau could be a perfectly viable option (pretty sure I made that word up). We could do both. We could split into two species. Morlock forever. Although I think our breeding tendencies will prevent this. We could go extinct. We could evolve in a way that puzzles us, just like I had fried dinosaur descendant for dinner.\",\n \"It would be quite helpful if we developed a more generalized and strong empathy and compassion. Might save us all.\",\n \"there was this post a couple weeks ago about... [21 emotions with no english names for]( URL_0 ) or [this other one]( URL_1 ) for example \\\"Hiraeth\\\" : A homesickness for a home to which you cannot return, or a home which maybe never was\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["the 1960s, Paul Ekman, an American psychologist, revived the study of emotional expression, proposing, like Darwin, that emotions were universally recognizable. His early work focused on six basic emotions: happiness, anger, sadness, fear, disgust and surprise. By the 1990s, Ekman had expanded this list to include several additional emotions, one of which was amusement.\nDisplays of amusement have been distinguished from related emotions like embarrassment and shame. More recent studies have confirmed that laughter is a distinct signal of amusement and is recognizable across cultures. Vocal burst The expression of amusement is usually accompanied by genuine laughter. The experience of laughter","-32.10867613907976"],["means that the brain processes the other's facial and bodily expressions simultaneously.\nSubjects in these studies showed accuracy in judging emotions based on facial expression. This is because the face and the body are normally seen together in their natural proportions and the emotional signals from the face and body are well integrated.\nFor example, a lack of crinkles around the eyes suggests a potentially fake smile. At one point, researchers believed that making a genuine smile was nearly impossible to do on command. When you're smiling joyfully, they crinkle. When you're faking it, they don't. If someone's trying to look happy","-31.79531829073676"],["object and shock or emotional seizure on the part of the subject. It has also been held that the feeling of superiority is an essential factor: thus Thomas Hobbes speaks of laughter as a \"sudden glory\". Modern investigators have paid much attention to the origin both of laughter and of smiling, as well as the development of the \"play instinct\" and its emotional expression.\nGeorge Meredith said that \"One excellent test of the civilization of a country ... I take to be the flourishing of the Comic idea and Comedy, and the test of true Comedy is that it shall awaken","-31.45281045405136"],["brain also releases endorphins that can relieve some physical pain. Laughter also boosts the number of antibody-producing cells and enhances the effectiveness of T-cells, leading to a stronger immune system. A 2000 study found that people with heart disease were 40 percent less likely to laugh and be able to recognize humor in a variety of situations, compared to people of the same age without heart disease. In interaction A number of studies using methods of conversation analysis and discourse analysis have documented the systematic workings of laughter in a variety of interactions, from casual conversations to interviews, meetings, and","-31.34695567921335"],["instinctive resort to humour became a sort of escapism from responsibility and action. Ludovici considered laughter to be an evolutionary trait and he offered many examples of different triggers for laughter with their own distinct explanations.","-31.09206971110143"],["Emotions can likely be mediated by pheromones (see fear).\nFor example, the emotion of love is proposed to be the expression of paleocircuits of the mammalian brain (specifically, modules of the cingulate gyrus) which facilitate the care, feeding, and grooming of offspring. Paleocircuits are neural platforms for bodily expression configured before the advent of cortical circuits for speech. They consist of pre-configured pathways or networks of nerve cells in the forebrain, brain stem and spinal cord.\nThe motor centers of reptiles react to sensory cues of vision, sound, touch, chemical, gravity, and motion with pre-set body movements and programmed postures. With the","-30.769804765404842"],["emotion, which leads to the disinhibition, or release, of laughing/crying centers in the brainstem. Other theories implicate the prefrontal cortex. Secondary condition PBA is a condition that occurs secondary to neurological disease or brain injury, and is thought to result from disruptions of neural networks that control the generation and regulation of motor output of emotions. PBA is most commonly observed in people with neurologic injuries such as traumatic brain injury (TBI) and stroke, and neurologic diseases such as dementias including Alzheimer's disease, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), multiple sclerosis (MS), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), PANDAS in children and adults, and","-30.47161195938679"],["experience resembles other amusement experiences they have had. Emotional expression of amusement The origin of the study of emotional expression is often attributed to Charles Darwin. In 1872, Darwin published his book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, in which he extensively describes his observations of how people and animals display emotions on their faces and through sound. Darwin comments on amusement as an emotion of great joy during which a person is likely to laugh. He also notes that across all peoples humans can laugh until they are panting and tears roll down their cheeks. In","-30.417065083105626"],["Affective neuroscience Brain areas related to emotion Emotions are thought to be related to activity in brain areas that direct our attention, motivate our behavior, and determine the significance of what is going on around us. Pioneering work by Paul Broca (1878), James Papez (1937), and Paul D. MacLean (1952) suggested that emotion is related to a group of structures in the center of the brain called the limbic system, which includes the hypothalamus, cingulate cortex, hippocampi, and other structures. Research has shown that limbic structures are directly related to emotion, but non-limbic structures have been found to be of","-30.394691986744874"],["coinciding with the beginning of modern humans. Speech, language, and social organization are all part of the basis for emotions. Neurobiological explanation Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures and postures.","-30.042240728173056"],["body is broken, although there are rare, exceptional individuals who are able to rise above their physical predicament. However, for the vast majority having a good knowledge and an effective protocol for personal health is critical to happiness not just to oneself but also to one's family and friends. Laughter Laughter is synonymous with happiness. A proposal is made here that when a line of thought (e.g. joke) or sensation (e.g. tickling) is not expected by one's psychological or physiological order respectively, it triggers a certain chaos and temporary breakdown of that order. The innate Contentment intrinsic","-30.009569405365255"],["emotions in schools and intelligent tutoring systems. Emotion It has long been recognized that emotional episodes are partly constituted by physiological responses. Early work done linking emotions to psychophysiology started with research on mapping consistent autonomic nervous system (ANS) responses to discrete emotional states. For example, anger might be constituted by a certain set of physiological responses, such as increased cardiac output and high diastolic blood pressure, which would allow us to better understand patterns and predict emotional responses. Some studies were able to detect consistent patterns of ANS responses that corresponded to specific emotions under certain contexts, like an","-29.98607407726604"],["of the punch line\".\nExcessive elation is a common symptom associated with manic-depressive psychoses and mania/hypomania. Those who suffer from schizophrenic psychoses seem to suffer the opposite—they do not understand humor or get any joy out of it. A fit describes an abnormal time when one cannot control the laughter or one's body, sometimes leading to seizures or a brief period of unconsciousness. Some believe that fits of laughter represent a form of epilepsy. Laughter therapy Laughter has been used as a therapeutic tool for many years because it is a natural form of medicine. Laughter is available","-29.978863331918546"],["The specific anatomical location is still unclear, but it was shown that the right frontal operculum was most relevant in emotional gesturing. This, combined with the dissociation between cognitive and affective stimuli can explain why patients show no reaction to humor. Personality and drawing on past experiences have been shown to influence humor processing and appreciation. A person may remember past experiences in their own life in order to fully understand a joke in the current context. This remembering of personally experienced events is considered episodic memory, which is processed within the frontal lobes. Additionally, this inability to remember past","-29.933702137335786"],["Croatian, and Persian. Contents The book surveys scientific understanding of emotions and particularly intimacy and love, from Freud through modern neuroscience, with a focus on the emerging understanding of the limbic brain and the development of personality. The authors put forward the idea that our nervous systems are not separate or self-contained; beginning in earliest childhood, the areas of our brain identified as the limbic system (hippocampus, amygdala, anterior thalamic nuclei, and limbic cortex) is affected by those closest to us (limbic resonance) and synchronizes with them (limbic regulation) in a way that has profound implications for","-29.765359472687123"],["Causes Common causes for laughter are sensations of joy and humor; however, other situations may cause laughter as well.\nA general theory that explains laughter is called the relief theory. Sigmund Freud summarized it in his theory that laughter releases tension and \"psychic energy\". This theory is one of the justifications of the beliefs that laughter is beneficial for one's health. This theory explains why laughter can be used as a coping mechanism when one is upset, angry or sad.\nPhilosopher John Morreall theorizes that human laughter may have its biological origins as a kind of shared expression of relief at","-29.73174316506629"],["and is known to be an indicator of mental health. Physiological processes are also influenced within the exercise of humor. For example, laughing may reduce muscle tension, increase the flow of oxygen to the blood, exercise the cardiovascular region, and produce endorphins in the body. Using humor in coping while processing through feelings can vary depending on life circumstance and individual humor styles. In regards to grief and loss in life occurrences, it has been found that genuine laughs/smiles when speaking about the loss predicted later adjustment and evoked more positive responses from other people. A person of the deceased","-29.66018404913484"],["therapy sessions. Working with recorded interactions, researchers have created detailed transcripts that indicate not only the presence of laughter but also features of its production and placement.\nThese studies challenge several widely held assumptions about the nature of laughter. Contrary to notions that it is spontaneous and involuntary, research documents that laughter is sequentially organized and precisely placed relative to surrounding talk. Far more than merely a response to humor, laughter often works to manage delicate and serious moments. More than simply an external behavior “caused” by an inner state, laughter is highly communicative and helps accomplish actions and regulate relationships.","-29.539762183957464"],["corresponding to emotions, but instead found circuitry involved in general emotional processes. The amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, mid and anterior insula cortex and lateral prefrontal cortex, appeared to be involved in generating the emotions, while weaker evidence was found for the ventral tegmental area, ventral pallidum and nucleus accumbens in incentive salience. Others, however, have found evidence of activation of specific regions, such as the basal ganglia in happiness, the subcallosal cingulate cortex in sadness, and amygdala in fear. Cognition The brain is responsible for cognition, which functions through numerous processes and executive functions. Executive functions include the ability to filter","-29.478058166409028"],["patients show no emotional reaction to humor, whether produced by themselves or others. This lack of responsiveness is due to dissociation between their cognitive and affective responses to humorous stimuli. That is, even when a patient understands that a joke is funny (based on quantitative brain activity), they do not respond with laughter, or even a smile. While they have grasped the cognitive basis of humor, they do not affectively respond. This also considered a cognitive component of empathy, affecting ability to take the perspective of others; hence why patients often do not respond to humor produced by other people.","-29.477623214756022"],["humors from the brain. William James thought of emotions as reflexes prior to rational thought, believing that the physiological response, as if to stress or irritation, is a precondition to cognitively becoming aware of emotions such as fear or anger.\nWilliam H. Frey II, a biochemist at the University of Minnesota, proposed that people feel \"better\" after crying due to the elimination of hormones associated with stress, specifically adrenocorticotropic hormone. This, paired with increased mucosal secretion during crying, could lead to a theory that crying is a mechanism developed in humans to dispose of this stress hormone when levels grow too","-29.398795359462383"],["a similar disorder resulting in childish euphoria and cheerful excitement.\nWitzelsucht is considered a disorder of mirth or humor, which is distinct from disorders of laughter. Patients with witzelsucht are essentially insensitive to humor, but are capable of producing it while other patients excessively laugh, often at things that are not funny. The most common disorders of laughter are associated with pseudobulbar palsy, which can be caused by severe brain trauma, most commonly in the right hemisphere. Pathological laughter in this can be triggered by trivial stimuli, which could be disconnected from the underlying mood, and be combined with crying. Pathological","-29.396229623693216"],["a lower appreciation for humor as indicated by sense of humor questionnaires. This relationship is seen across multiple presentation styles including video, audio, and cartoon. Primarily, the affective part of humor, otherwise known as humor appreciation, is the main victim of PD-related brain changes. This could be linked to consequential neurological changes in the amygdala, mesolimbic dopaminergic reward system, and basal ganglia. Parkinson's patients demonstrate an inhibited ability to identify emotions of other people from both speech prosody and facial expressions. The neural circuitry during the humor appreciation phase also involves the amygdala and are thought to be used","-29.28135114000179"],["cortex, the medial temporal lobe, and the lateral occipital cortex, and the sixth “Medial Posterior” group included posterior cingulate cortex and area V1 of the primary visual cortex. The authors suggest that these regions play a joint role in visual processing and attention to emotional stimuli. Vytal et al. 2010 Vytal, et al. 2010 examined 83 neuroimaging studies published between 1993-2008 to examine whether neuroimaging evidence supports the idea of biologically discrete, basic emotions (i.e. fear, anger, disgust, happiness, and sadness). Consistency analyses identified brain regions that were associated with a given emotion. Discriminability analyses identified brain regions that were","-29.258934777521063"],["cognitive centers of the brain to the GI tract and vice versa. Emotions have been shown to stimulate colon motor function and result in decreased colonic transit time, increased contractile activity, the induction of defecation, and symptoms of diarrhea.","-29.20966304380272"],["the fact that laughter causes the dilatation of the inner lining of blood vessels, the endothelium, and increases blood flow. Drs. Michael Miller (University of Maryland) and William Fry (Stanford), theorize that beta-endorphin like compounds released by the hypothalamus activate receptors on the endothelial surface to release nitric oxide, thereby resulting in dilation of vessels. Other cardioprotective properties of nitric oxide include reduction of inflammation and decreased platelet aggregation.\nLaughter has proven beneficial effects on various other aspects of biochemistry. It has been shown to lead to reductions in stress hormones such as cortisol and epinephrine. When laughing the","-29.18730422052431"],["are able to appeal to neurological evidence. Neurobiological theories Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures, and postures. This hypothesis that synaptic plasticity is an important part of the neural mechanisms","-29.18494202715374"],["derived. Some theorists, including Darwin, even argued that \"Emotion ... is neuromuscular activity of the face\". Many researchers since have criticized this belief and instead argue that emotions are much more complex than initially thought.\nIn addition to pioneering research in psychology, ethnographic accounts of cultural differences in emotion began to emerge. Margaret Mead, a cultural anthropologist writes about unique emotional phenomena she experienced while living among a small village of 600 Samoans on the island of Ta'u in her book Coming of Age in Samoa. Gregory Bateson, an English anthropologist, social scientist, linguist, and visual anthropologist used","-29.13287440012209"],["of the NHS project at the University of Warwick has collected more such memories on its website, and invites contributions for more.\nResearchers and clinicians hope that humour and laughter may be able to be used to improve human health. The term 'gelotology', to denote the study of laughter, was created in 1964 by Edith Trager and W. F. Fry. One experiment from 2011, led by researchers at the University of Oxford, suggested that watching comedy videos may raise people's pain thresholds, when watched in a group. This effect did not hold when videos were watched alone, or if","-29.10941296270903"],["activation of interoceptors and involving ancient, lower brain regions such as the medulla, midbrain and hypothalamus, and \"classic\" emotions, such as anger, fear and love, driven by distance receptors (vision, hearing, olfaction) and mediated by higher, more recently evolved brain regions.","-29.044867550430354"],["of the brain suggests that cognitive and affective-expressive forms of communication and self-reflection have distinct neural bases. Clinical findings have long suggested that verbalizations are often very incoherent when the individual is trying to put into words something deeply emotional. Identification of words naming emotions (happy, neutral, sad) was found to be faster than identification of corresponding facial expressions. Recognition of face expressions was more difficult to suppress in favor of the recognition of words than vice versa, the two conditions presenting different patterns of brain activation. These experimental results suggest that reading and recognition of face expressions are stimulus-dependent","-29.031289748090785"],["Laughter Nature Laughter might be thought of as an audible expression or appearance of excitement, an inward feeling of joy and happiness. It may ensue from jokes, tickling, and other stimuli completely unrelated to psychological state, such as nitrous oxide. One group of researchers speculated that noises from infants as early as 16 days old may be vocal laughing sounds or laughter, however the weight of the evidence supports its appearance at 15 weeks to four months of age.\nLaughter researcher Robert Provine said: \"Laughter is a mechanism everyone has; laughter is part of universal human vocabulary. There are","-29.026278944435035"],["revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media. Another classic study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions (for example, disgust), they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions. His research findings led him to classify six emotions as basic: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise. Later in his career, Ekman theorized that other universal emotions may exist beyond these six. In light of this, recent cross-cultural studies led","-28.991509665516787"],["such discrete categories of experience. Instead, the empirical evidence suggests that what exists in the brain and body is affect, and emotions are constructed by multiple brain networks working in tandem.\nDespite this evidence, most other theories of emotion assume that emotions are genetically endowed, not learned, and are produced by dedicated circuits in the brain: an anger circuit, a fear circuit, and so on. This point of view is very much in line with common-sense conceptions of emotion. The theory of constructed emotion calls this assumption into question. It suggests that these emotions (often called \"basic emotions\") are not biologically","-28.964788935161778"],["very little to absolutely no show of emotions. Restricted and blunted are, respectively, less severe. Disorders involving these reduced affect displays most commonly include schizophrenia, post traumatic stress disorder, depression, autism and persons with traumatic brain injuries. One study has shown that people with schizophrenia that experience flat affect, can also experience difficulty perceiving the emotions of a healthy individual. Facial paralysis and surgery People who suffer from deformities and facial paralysis are also physically incapable of displaying emotions. This is beginning to be corrected though, through \"Facial Reanimation Surgery\" which is proving not only to successfully improve a patient's","-28.93679878918192"],["with brain regions that implicated in emotion process, the amygdala. Furthermore, viewers mimic the size of their own pupils to those of sad faces they watched. Considering that pupil size is beyond voluntary control, the change of pupil size upon emotion judgment is a good indication that understanding emotions is automatic process. However, the study could not find other emotional faces such as happiness and anger influence pupil size as sadness did. Epistemological role of empathy Understanding other's actions and emotions is believed to facilitate efficient human communication. Based on findings from neuroimaging studies, de Vignemont and Singer proposed","-28.925353494065348"],["years has been researching human emotions, starting with micro-movements of facial muscles and more recently the relationship between powerlessness and health outcomes. Having also written books and co-created one of the most popular MOOCs (massive open online courses) in the country. Keltner started to study psychology around the time that the belief that the methodology of psychological analysis changed dramatically from having implications that the human brain functioned primarily rationalizing and pure facts to toward more of an emotional revolution. Keltner dealt with anxiety throughout his life while growing up and thus set him on his goal to finding what","-28.9057898718238"],["be expanded and when the change is directed to suppressing such displays; the space will be reduced. Physiology Neuroscience has shown that emotions are generated by multiple structures in the brain. The rapid, minimal, and evaluative processing of the emotional significance of the sensory data is done when the data passes through the amygdala in its travel from the sensory organs along certain neural pathways towards the limbic forebrain. Emotion caused by discrimination of stimulus features, thoughts, or memories however occurs when its information is relayed from the thalamus to the neocortex. Based on some statistical analysis, some scholars have","-28.85604388875072"],["emotions such as happiness or fear. This premise also has biological backing. Frontotemporal lobar degeneration Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) is a neurodegenerative disease that attacks the brain selectively in the frontal lobe, temporal lobe and amygdala. Patients suffering from FTLD offer information on the biological complexity involved in generating self-conscious emotions. With the use of a startle experiment (where patients and control participants are exposed to an unexpected and loud sound) it has been shown that sufferers of FTLD show and experience the basic negative emotions expected to be attached to the startling sounds. However they show significantly less signs","-28.821727030110196"],["conclusion corresponds to the known fact that monkeys (as pointed out by Charles Darwin) and even rats (as found recently) possess a sense of humor.\nA practical realization of this algorithm needs extensive databases, whose creation in the automatic regime was suggested recently. Ontic-Epistemic Theory of Humor The Ontic-Epistemic Theory of Humor (OETC) proposed by P. Marteinson (2006) asserts that laughter is a reaction to a cognitive impasse, a momentary epistemological difficulty, in which the subject perceives that Social Being itself suddenly appears no longer to be real in any factual or normative sense. When this occurs material reality, which is","-28.74484599508287"],["laughter at the brain Institute of UCLA at that time, unsuccessfully attempting to measure the electric counterpart in the brain of the moment that initiates laughter. He was the first to discover, in studying voice recognition in 1975 that a speaker's identity, though unimpeded by changes in speed (tempo), was masked by transposition of as little as a semitone in pitch. This seemed to indicate that perfect pitch was involved far more universally than thought possible. He began work on a book on laughter, which, however, was only two thirds completed.\nIn 1977 Rex Hobcroft, director of Sydney's New South","-28.711930085511995"],["Peers continue this process as children develop and mature in effect constraining how, where, why, and with whom certain emotions are expressed\". One study suggests that people tend to exhibit more intense negative facial expressions in solitary conditions, and smile more when others are present. In this experiment, men and women did not differ in their anger expression in non-social conditions. However, women were more likely to express their anger in the solitary condition as opposed to the social condition. Men, on the other hand, seemed to be less concerned with appearing positive to others; they showed no","-28.687931674794527"],["together (coaction condition). Furthermore, levels of laughter were higher when one child listened to funny material in the presence of another child (audience condition) than when one child listened to the funny material alone (alone condition). These results indicate that laughter is also socially facilitated. Prejudice Prejudice is often considered as easily learned and performed response. Therefore, following the logic of Zajonc's drive theory of social facilitation, prejudice then, is also likely to be socially facilitated. That is, individuals may be more likely to express prejudicial views in presence of others than in private. Gender In 1994, De Castro demonstrated","-28.684608448804283"],["brain pathways associated with facial expression; the first is voluntary expression. Voluntary expression travels from the primary motor cortex through the pyramidal tract, specifically the corticobulbar projections. The cortex is associated with display rules in emotion, which are social precepts that influence and modify expressions. Cortically related expressions are made consciously.\nThe second type of expression is emotional. These expressions originate from the extrapyramidal motor system, which involves subcortical nuclei. For this reason, genuine emotions are not associated with the cortex and are often displayed unconsciously. This is demonstrated in infants before the age of two; they display distress, disgust, interest,","-28.631255068612518"],["emotions as such. According to Lucerne's theory emotion is believed to help humans express their feelings. Therefore, emotions are a part of human nature to help us communicate. In addition to Chris Lucerne’s theory, when humans experience a situation good or bad an emotion is triggered. As a result of emotion an action is followed. For example, here are a few emotions listed in Lucerne’s article in which people experience daily. The first is the emotion of happiness, which can ignite the sensation to dance. A second emotion is anger, in which the person begins to feel hot causing him","-28.623635287960496"],["psychological operations interact (not just those involved in valence and arousal), producing distributed patterns of activation across the brain. Because emotions emerge from more basic components, there is heterogeneity within each emotion category; for example, a person can experience many different kinds of fear, which feel differently, and which correspond to different neural patterns in the brain. Thus, this view presents a different approach to understanding the neural bases of emotion than locationist approaches. Phan et al. 2002 In the first neuroimaging meta-analysis of emotion, Phan et al. (2002) analyzed the results of 55 studies published in peer reviewed journal","-28.61911065268214"],["the passing of danger. Friedrich Nietzsche, by contrast, suggested laughter to be a reaction to the sense of existential loneliness and mortality that only humans feel.\nFor example: a joke creates an inconsistency and the audience automatically tries to understand what the inconsistency means; if they are successful in solving this 'cognitive riddle' and they realize that the surprise was not dangerous, they laugh with relief. Otherwise, if the inconsistency is not resolved, there is no laugh, as Mack Sennett pointed out: \"when the audience is confused, it doesn't laugh.\" This is one of the basic laws of a comedian, referred","-28.611315726820976"],["determined that eyes moisten during laughter as a reflex from the tear glands. Negative aspects Laughter is not always a pleasant experience and is associated with several negative phenomena. Excessive laughter can lead to cataplexy, and unpleasant laughter spells, excessive elation, and fits of laughter can all be considered negative aspects of laughter. Unpleasant laughter spells, or \"sham mirth,\" usually occur in people who have a neurological condition, including patients with pseudobulbar palsy, multiple sclerosis and Parkinson's disease. These patients appear to be laughing out of amusement but report that they are feeling undesirable sensations \"at the time","-28.58158926057513"],["experiences could also cause a person to forget what is socially appropriate; which could explain why witzelsucht patients sometimes say hypersexual comments in public. Hypersexuality in the brain The amygdala plays a significant role in processing emotional stimuli and producing affective responses, which in turn is utilized in social interactions. The amygdala regulates the attachment of emotional significance to corresponding sensory stimuli. Lesions in the amygdala do not disrupt a specific sexual mechanism. Instead, they disturb the emotional processing of stimuli, which causes random and/or inappropriate responses. The amygdala has a positive effect on sexual behavior by allowing the appropriate","-28.54939531700802"],["research participants watched videos such as scenes of nature. In 2003, the artist Nicola Green and film-maker Lara Agnew created a 'laughter booth' at the Royal Brompton Hospital. In this booth, patients and staff could watch videos of people laughing. The idea of laughter as healing has also influenced language, through the phrase 'laughter is the best medicine'.","-28.525804067772697"],["emotions based on introspection of those feelings. This is part of Goleman's emotional intelligence. In E.I, attunement is an unconscious synchrony that guides empathy. Attunement relies heavily on nonverbal communication. Looping is where facial expressions can elicit involuntary behavior, In the research motor mimicry there shows neurons that pick up on facial expressions and communicate with motor neurons responsible for muscles in the face to display the same facial expression. Thus displaying a smile may elicit a micro expression of a smile on someone who is trying to remain neutral in their expression.\nThrough fMRI we can see the area","-28.51125928879219"],["between verbal communication and facial expression of emotions in communication, conflicts and misunderstandings can arise.\nUsing the example of smiling, Rainer Krause shows in a (German) presentation the difference between a natural-looking and a phony smile, in which not the same muscles are involved. Significant in this regard is the fact that the muscles of the so-called “lower face” can be consciously controlled much easier than the muscles of the so-called “upper face”. And with a smile that seems spurious, certain muscles of the upper face are not involved. As the “most common emotions that you get to see”, Krause is","-28.453016529936576"],["the Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning (SEAL) project in the UK [DfES, 2005, 2007]).\nThe neural basis of emotional recognition in typically developing children has been investigated, although there is little neuroimaging work on atypically developing children who process emotions differently. Males are commonly over-represented in these atypically developing populations and a female advantage is commonly reported both on EI measures and on most areas of emotion processing. In processing facial expressions the female advantage appears best explained by an integrated account considering both brain maturation and social interaction.\nPrefrontal brain damage in children affects social behavior, causing insensitivity to social","-28.439726869240985"],["anger, contempt, surprise, and fear. Infants' displays of these emotions indicate that they are not cortically related. Similarly, blind children also display emotions, proving that they are subconscious rather than learned. Other subcortical facial expressions include the \"knit brow\" during concentration, raised eyebrows when listening attentively, and short \"punctuation\" expressions to add emphasis during speech. People can be unaware that they are producing these expressions. Neural mechanisms in face perception The amygdala plays an important role in facial recognition. Functional imaging studies have found that when shown pictures of faces, there is a large increase in the activity of the","-28.36425047850571"],["by Daniel Cordaro and Dacher Keltner, both former students of Ekman, extended the list of universal emotions. In addition to the original six, these studies provided evidence for amusement, awe, contentment, desire, embarrassment, pain, relief, and sympathy in both facial and vocal expressions. They also found evidence for boredom, confusion, interest, pride, and shame facial expressions, as well as contempt, interest, relief, and triumph vocal expressions.\nRobert Plutchik agreed with Ekman's biologically driven perspective but developed the \"wheel of emotions\", suggesting eight primary emotions grouped on a positive or negative basis: joy versus sadness; anger versus fear; trust versus disgust; and","-28.36237695996533"],["that the mind and body operate independently in the experience of emotions such that differing brain regions (cortex versus subcortex) process information from an emotion-producing stimulus independently and simultaneously resulting in both an emotional and a physical response. This is best illustrated by imagining an encounter with a grizzly bear; you would simultaneously experience fear, begin to sweat, experience an elevated heart rate, and attempt to run. All of these things would happen at the same time. Two-factor theory Stanley Schachter and his doctoral student Jerome Singer formulated their theory of emotion based on evidence that without an actual emotion-producing","-28.36043851411432"],["cortex occurred either when a person's self-concept was threatened or when the person suffered embarrassment (social pain) caused by salient, upward social-comparison, by social-class snobbery. That social emotions, such as embarrassment, guilt, envy, and Schadenfreude (joy at the misfortune of another person) are correlated to reduced activity in the insular lobe, and with increased activity in the striate nucleus; those neural activities are associated with a reduced sense of empathy (social responsibility) and an increased propensity towards antisocial behavior (delinquency).","-28.33294902124726"],["health care to humans. Psychology examines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as mental processes and behavior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes. In neuroscience sub-fields such as social neuroscience and affective neuroscience, scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. In linguistics, the expression of emotion may change to the meaning of sounds. In education, the role of emotions in relation to learning is examined.\nSocial sciences often examine emotion for the role that it plays in human culture and social interactions. In sociology,","-28.313771614120924"],["temporal gyrus. For the first time, happiness was discriminated from the other emotional categories, with the largest clusters of activity specific to happiness (vs. the other emotion categories) located in right superior temporal gyrus and left rostral anterior cingulate cortex. Sadness was consistently associated with 35 clusters (the largest activation cluster located in the left medial frontal gyrus) and was discriminated from the other emotion categories by significantly greater activity in left medial frontal gyrus, right middle temporal gyrus, and right inferior frontal gyrus. Anger was consistently associated with activity in 13 clusters (the largest of which was located in","-28.294663426446277"],["parts of the brain. Important neurological advances were derived from these perspectives in the 1990s by Joseph E. LeDoux and António Damásio.\nResearch on social emotion also focuses on the physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and humans (see affect display). For example, spite seems to work against the individual but it can establish an individual's reputation as someone to be feared. Shame and pride can motivate behaviors that help one maintain one's standing in a community, and self-esteem is one's estimate of one's status. Somatic theories Somatic theories of emotion claim that bodily responses, rather than cognitive","-28.289617183763767"],["suggest that understanding other's feelings and emotions is driven not by cognitive deduction of what the stimuli means but by automatic activation of somatosensory neurons. A recent study on pupil size directly demonstrated emotion perception was automatic process modulated by mirror systems. When people saw sad faces, pupil sizes influenced viewers in perceiving and judging emotional states without explicit awareness of differences of pupil size. When pupil size was 180% of original size, people perceived a sad face as less negative and less intense than when pupil was smaller than or equal to original pupil size. This mechanism was correlated","-28.255250678324956"],["stimulus, people are unable to attribute specific emotions to their bodily states. They believed that there must be a cognitive component to emotion perception beyond that of just physical changes and subjective feelings. Schachter and Singer suggested that when someone encounters such an emotion-producing stimulus, they would immediately recognize their bodily symptoms (sweating and elevated heart rate in the case of the grizzly bear) as the emotion fear. Their theory was devised as a result of a study in which participants were injected with either a stimulant (adrenaline) that causes elevated heart rate, sweaty palms and shaking, or a placebo.","-28.243672376629547"],["aloud by the participant. As a result, the participants experienced increased neural activity in the anterior cingulate cortex when the experimental exercises provoked psychological dissonance.\nThe study Cognitive Neuroscience of Social Emotions and Implications for Psychopathology: Examining Embarrassment, Guilt, Envy, and Schadenfreude (Jankowski, Takahashi,2014) identified neural correlations to specific social emotions (e.g. envy and embarrassment) as a measure of cognitive dissonance. The neural activity for the emotion of Envy (the feeling of displeasure at the good fortune of another person) was found to draw neural activity from the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex. That such increased activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate","-28.24343443538237"],["with the limbic system, the part of the brain that is thought to be most involved with emotion. This link is important, because if an individual associates positive affect (elicited by pheromones), with a potential mate, their liking for, and attraction to, that potential mate will be increased. Although not a typically evolutionary hypothesis, this hypothesis is one that acknowledges how humans have adapted their mating strategies to modern-day societal norms. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and body odor preferences Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a genotype found in vertebrates, including humans. MHC is thought to contribute to mate choice in","-28.171396877718507"],["faces, reflecting the expressions on their own faces, which seems to help people better understand the other person's emotion. In addition, researchers have also suggested that the neural mechanisms that are activated when personally experiencing emotions are also activated when viewing another person experiencing the same emotions (mirror neurons). Pain seems to specifically activate a region known as the cingulate cortex, in addition to activation that is mentioned earlier. The temporal parietal junction, orbitofrontal cortex, and ventral striatum are also thought to play a role in the production of emotion.\nGenerally, empathic emotions (including sympathy), require the activation of top-down","-28.146867426054087"],["witnessing others' pain. For instance, in Stanley Milgram's obedience experiment, subjects (\"teachers\") were told to shock \"learners\" every time the learners answered a question incorrectly. Although the \"learners\" were not actually shocked, the subjects believed they were. As they were going through the study, many of the \"subjects showed signs of extreme tension and conflict\". Milgram observed some subjects laughing nervously when they heard the \"learners'\" false screams of pain. In A Brief Tour of Human Consciousness, neuroscientist V.S. Ramachandran suggests that laughter is used as a defense mechanism used to guard against overwhelming anxiety. Laughter often diminishes the","-28.128357224005413"],["another situation could arise that is similar, and the recovery of that association and inner response can show up spontaneously as jealousy again. It is why a lot of people say to themselves, \"where does this feeling come from\" or, \"Why did I do that?\" A lot of human reactions are from spontaneous recovery of past associations, not always specifically learned physical behaviours. Neurochemistry For the learning and recall associated with spontaneous recovery to happen, there are specific gyri and neurotransmitters that play a role. Firstly, the cerebellum is needed to acquire certain motor skills and develop an automatic state","-28.111918209076975"],["in his 1996 book, The Emotional Brain, LeDoux developed an interest in the topic of emotion through his doctoral work with Michael Gazzaniga on split-brain patients in the mid-1970s. Because techniques for studying the human brain were limited at the time, he turned to studies of rodents where the brain could be studied in detail. He chose to focus on a simple behavioral model, Pavlovian fear conditioning. This procedure allowed him to follow the flow of information about a stimulus through the brain as it comes to control behavioral responses by way of sensory pathways to the amygdala, and","-28.072955567840836"],["responses due to evolution. It would not be expected to observe the same physiological responses for emotions not specifically linked to survival, such as happiness or sadness.\nEkman's theories were early challenged by James A. Russell, and have since been tested by a variety of researchers, with ambiguous results. This would seem to reflect methodological problems relating to both display rules and to the Components of emotion. Current thinking favors a mix of underlying universality combined with significant cultural differences in the articulation and expression of emotion. The fact that emotions serve different functions in different cultures must also be","-28.038271498924587"],["distinguishes primary and secondary emotions. Both involve changes in bodily states, but the secondary emotions are evoked by thoughts. Recent empirical studies support non-cognitive theories of nature of emotions. It was proven that we can easily evoke our emotions by something as simple as changing facial expression (e.g., smile brings on a feeling of happiness). Sense of touch in affective haptics Human emotions can be easily evoked by different cues, and the sense of touch is one of the most emotionally charged channels. Affective haptic devices produce different senses of touch including kinesthetic and coetaneous channels. Kinesthetic stimulations, which are","-28.004696585645434"],["can influence increased experience of emotions. Another study published in 1943 that studied the fistulated man Tom discovered that if \"Tom was fearful or depressed his gastic activity decreased but when he was angry or hostile his gastric activity increased\". This finding is contrasted by an EGG study by Ercolani et al. who had subjects perform either difficult or easy mental arithmetic or puzzles. They found that new tasks slowed down the myoelectrical activity of the stomach, suggesting that stress tends to impede gastric activity and that this can be picked up on an EGG. While there is still","-27.98172314441763"],["Facial feedback hypothesis The facial feedback hypothesis states that facial movement can influence emotional experience. For example, an individual who is forced to smile during a social event will actually come to find the event unlikely enjoyable. Background Charles Darwin was among the first to suggest that physiological changes caused by an emotion had a direct impact on, rather than being just the consequence of that emotion. He wrote:\nThe free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the other hand, the repression, as far as this is possible, of all outward signs softens our emotions... Even the","-27.97837524182978"],["but emotions and the amygdala are known to play a role in memory encoding, which is typically associated with the hippocampus. Research has found that later memories in childhood have more propositional and emotional content than earlier memories and are rated as more meaningful and vivid. It has been suggested that differences in the emotions experienced by infants and adults may be a cause of childhood amnesia. Whether highly emotional events can stimulate and improve reliable recall (flashbulb memories) is still highly debated.\nSome studies have discovered that emotional experiences are connected with faster retrieval times, leading to the belief that","-27.960872698298772"],["to a body system response to a trigger. Purpose and value One view is that emotions facilitate adaptive responses to environmental challenges. Emotions have been described as a result of evolution because they provided good solutions to ancient and recurring problems that faced our ancestors. Emotions can function as a way to communicate what's important to us, such as values and ethics. However some emotions, such as some forms of anxiety, are sometimes regarded as part of a mental illness and thus possibly of negative value. Classification A distinction can be made between emotional episodes and emotional dispositions. Emotional","-27.956911060144193"],["an audience. Plato discusses the danger of emotions in oratory. He argues that emotional appeal in rhetoric should be used as the means to an end and not the point of the discussion. Contemporary pathos George Campbell, a contributor to the Scottish Enlightenment, was one of the first rhetoricians to incorporate scientific evidence into his theory of emotional appeal. Campbell relied heavily on a book written by physician David Hartley, entitled Observations on Man. The book synthesized emotions and neurology and introduced the concept that action is a result of impression. Hartley determined that emotions drive people to react to","-27.92546121484338"],["causal role in regulating emotional experience and behaviour\", developed almost a century after Darwin. Methodological issues Originally, the facial feedback hypothesis studied the enhancing or suppressing effect of facial efference on emotion in the context of spontaneous, \"real\" emotions, using stimuli. This resulted in \"the inability of research using spontaneous efference to separate correlation from causality\". Laird (1974) used a cover story (measuring muscular facial activity with electrodes) to induce particular facial muscles contraction in his participants without mentioning any emotional state. However, the higher funniness ratings of the cartoons obtained by those participants \"tricked\" into smiling may have been","-27.916160841617966"],["to human life, collective imagination and art, to have a better knowledge of society. One of the theories of the essay is that laughter, as a collective activity, has a social and moral role, in forcing people to eliminate their vices. It is a factor of uniformity of behaviours, as it condemns ludicrous and eccentric behaviours. Ludovici Anthony Ludovici developed the thoughts of Hobbes and Darwin even further in The Secret of Laughter. His conviction is that there's something sinister in laughter, and that the modern omnipresence of humour and the idolatry of it are signs of societal weakness, as","-27.894243664261012"],["Emotionality Emotionality is the observable behavioral and physiological component of emotion. It is a measure of a person's emotional reactivity to a stimulus. Most of these responses can be observed by other people, while some emotional responses can only be observed by the person experiencing them. Observable responses to emotion (i.e., smiling) do not have a single meaning. A smile can be used to express happiness or anxiety, a frown can communicate sadness or anger, and so on. Emotionality is often used by psychology researchers to operationalize emotion in research studies. Early theories of emotion By the late 1800s, many","-27.889668004958367"],["Social emotions Social emotions are emotions that depend upon the thoughts, feelings or actions of other people, \"as experienced, recalled, anticipated or imagined at first hand\". Examples are embarrassment, guilt, shame, jealousy, envy, elevation, empathy, and pride. In contrast, basic emotions such as happiness and sadness only require the awareness of one's own physical state. Therefore, the development of social emotions is tightly linked with the development of social cognition, the ability to imagine other people's mental states, which generally develops in adolescence. Studies have found that children as young as 2 to 3 years of age can express emotions","-27.857496099015407"],["the eventual determination of the neural underpinnings of emotion.\nContemporary\nMore contemporary views along the evolutionary psychology spectrum posit that both basic emotions and social emotions evolved to motivate (social) behaviors that were adaptive in the ancestral environment. Emotion is an essential part of any human decision-making and planning, and the famous distinction made between reason and emotion is not as clear as it seems. Paul D. MacLean claims that emotion competes with even more instinctive responses, on one hand, and the more abstract reasoning, on the other hand. The increased potential in neuroimaging has also allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient","-27.83784935222502"],["such as anger, sadness, or fear, is \"triggered\" by the brain's appraisal of a stimulus or event with respect to the perceiver's goals or survival. In particular, the function, expression, and meaning of different emotions are hypothesized to be biologically distinct from one another. A theme common to many basic emotions theories is that there should be functional signatures that distinguish different emotions: we should be able to tell what emotion a person is feeling by looking at his or her brain activity and/or physiology. Furthermore, knowledge of what the person is seeing or the larger context of the eliciting","-27.825527624245296"],["to dealing with their emotions, children show the ability to learn best by seeing direct examples of instances that led to certain levels of anger. By seeing the reasons why they got angry, they can in the future try to avoid those actions or be prepared for the feeling they experience if they do find themselves doing something that typically results in them being angry.\nThere is not sufficient evidence of this needing to be implemented in elementary schools, but this activity is a common tool used in therapies, so it could lead to children writing down their negative feelings and","-27.80856534680788"],["by the texts they read.\nLaughing: A Psychology of Humor (1982) surveyed theories of laughter. But the book extended the reader-response argument to show, based on a case study of one woman, how what one finds funny, that is, one's sense of humor, expresses one's personal identity. The Delphi Seminar During the 1970s, Holland and his colleague at the State University of New York at Buffalo, Murray Schwartz, developed a style of reader-response teaching that they named the \"Delphi Seminar.\" The original seminar included students and instructors practicing free association responses to poems and stories and subsequent readings of other participants’","-27.791728628159035"],["as being linked to negative emotions, which may help explain why males tend to respond to emotionally stressful stimuli physically. The left amygdala allows for the recall of details, but it also results in more thought rather than action in response to emotionally stressful stimuli, which may explain the absence of physical response in women. Connections The amygdala sends projections to the hypothalamus, the dorsomedial thalamus, the thalamic reticular nucleus, the nuclei of the trigeminal nerve and the facial nerve, the ventral tegmental area, the locus coeruleus, and the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus. The basolateral amygdala projects to the nucleus","-27.789684750641754"],["situation was pleasant and/or non-threatening, and to help prevent it escalating into something like a real fight. This, according to psychologists, is the reason why laughter exists in the first place, suggesting these noises were the dolphin equivalent of a human laugh.","-27.787708536343416"],["when passing a group of people. Blushing is commonly exhibited by individuals suffering from social phobia. These visible symptoms further reinforce the anxiety in the presence of others. A 2006 study found that the area of the brain called the amygdala, part of the limbic system, is hyperactive when patients are shown threatening faces or confronted with frightening situations.\nThey found that patients with more severe social phobia showed a correlation with the increased response in the amygdala. Comorbidity SAD shows a high degree of co-occurrence with other psychiatric disorders. In fact, a population-based study found that 66% of those with","-27.741976487537613"],["suffering associated with a traumatic event.\nIf the individual is shy or bashful and appears nervous when talking, they are likely to exhibit nervous laughter. Individuals who are shy and introverted who find themselves the center of conversational attention often become \"giddy\" with nervous laughter; this is a subconscious response caused by the brain over-thinking due to social anxiety or inexperience.","-27.722878761142056"],["to better assess and interpret the emotions of others. Prosocial behaviours have been observed in children 1–2 years old. Through self-report methods it is difficult to measure emotional responses as they are not as able to report these responses as well as adult. This is representative of an increased efficiency of and ability to engage in internal moral reasoning. Theory of mind The development of theory of mind, or the ability to view the world from perspectives of other people, is strongly associated with the development of sympathy and other complex emotions. These emotions are complex because they involve more","-27.719249290850712"],["is completely isolated.\nVicarious embarrassment, like other vicarious emotions, presents symptoms that reflect the original emotion. However, unlike shared emotions, the experience of embarrassment for the observer is dependent on how they normally experience embarrassment. Individuals who experience social anxiety in their own life may experience the familiar symptoms of blushing, excess sweating, trembling, palpitations, and nausea. Other, less severe symptoms may include cringing, looking away, or general discomfort. Empathy Vicarious embarrassment, also known as empathetic embarrassment, is intrinsically linked to empathy. Empathy is the ability to understand the feelings of another and is considered a highly reinforcing emotion to promote","-27.654823627206497"],["simulation of an emotion tends to arouse it in our minds.\nFollowing on this idea, William James proposed that, contrary to common belief, awareness of bodily changes activated by a stimulus \"is the emotion\". If no bodily changes are felt, there is only an intellectual thought, devoid of emotional warmth. In The Principles of Psychology, James wrote: \"Refuse to express a passion, and it dies\".\nThis proved difficult to test, and little evidence was available, apart from some animal research and studies of people with severely impaired emotional functioning. The facial feedback hypothesis, \"that skeletal muscle feedback from facial expressions plays a","-27.65443487369339"],["emotion, because when a mix of structural cues is used, a number of emotions may be conveyed. Development Studies indicate that the ability to understand emotional messages in music starts early, and improves throughout child development. Studies investigating music and emotion in children primarily play a musical excerpt for children and have them look at pictorial expressions of faces. These facial expressions display different emotions and children are asked to select the face that best matches the music's emotional tone. Studies have shown that children are able to assign specific emotions to pieces of music; however, there is debate regarding","-27.637899262379506"],["to everyone and it provides benefits to a person's physical, emotional, and social well being. Some of the benefits of using laughter therapy are that it can relieve stress and relax the whole body. It can also boost the immune system and release endorphins to relieve pain. Additionally, laughter can help prevent heart disease by increasing blood flow and improving the function of blood vessels. Some of the emotional benefits include diminishing anxiety or fear, improving overall mood, and adding joy to one's life. Laughter is also known to reduce allergic reactions in a preliminary study","-27.596484867659456"],["emotion (the medial Prefrontal cortex, the posterior Cingulate cortex/Precuneus, the posterior Superior temporal sulcus/Inferior parietal lobule and the Amygdala), while when they responded to impersonal dilemmas, they displayed increased activity in regions of the brain associated with working memory (the Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the Parietal lobe). In recent work, Greene has stated that the Amygdala is primarily responsible for the emotional response, whilst the Ventromedial prefrontal cortex is responsible for weighing up the consequentialist response against the emotional response. Thus, three brain regions are primarily implicated in the making of moral judgements. This gives way to","-27.585930336877936"],["as contractions in the upper cheek muscles. Further affects that seem to be missing for Tomkins's taxonomy include relief, resignation, and confusion, among many others.\nThe affect joy is observed through the display of smiling. These affects can be identified through immediate facial reactions that people have to a stimulus, typically well before they could process any real response to the stimulus.\nThe findings from a study on negative affect arousal and white noise by Stanley S. Seidner \"support the existence of a negative affect arousal mechanism through observations regarding the devaluation of speakers from other Spanish ethnic origins\". Criticism Many scholars,","-27.57723961235024"],["Ramachandran also speculated, object recognition and the search for meaning can evoke a pleasant emotional response. The motor cortex was also shown to be involved in aesthetic perception. However, it displayed opposite trends of activation from the OFC. It may be a common correlate for the perception of emotionally charged stimuli despite its previously known roles. Several other areas of the brain were shown to be slightly activated during certain studies such as the anterior cingulate cortex, previously known for its involvement in the feeling of romance, and the left parietal cortex, whose purpose may be to direct spatial attention.\nDifferent","-27.540639560917043"],["that people attach their egos to their sense of humor before anything else. After I read it, I saw that trait in many people…a sense of humor is important to understanding what kind of person someone is. Studying metaphysics was also crucial, but Koestler's book really was the big one for me.\" As a consequence, the Smile songs are replete with word play, puns, colloquialisms, vernacular, double entendres, slang, and miscellaneous dialect. At one stage, Wilson apparently toyed with the idea of devoting Smile as a comedy album and a number of scrapped recordings were made in this vein. David","-27.519018781822524"],["thesis of the work is that laughter is a corrective evolved to make social life possible for human beings. We laugh at people who fail to adapt to the demands of society if it seems their failure is akin to an inflexible mechanism. Comic authors have exploited this human tendency to laugh in various ways, and what is common to them is the idea that the comic consists in there being \"something mechanical encrusted on the living\".\nIn 1901 the Académie des sciences morales et politiques elected Bergson as a member, and he became a member of the Institute. In 1903","-27.485137347481214"],["a connection between specific emotions and a corresponding pattern of physiological responses, although it is said that these attempts have rendered unsuccessful conclusions. Theories of emotional response The significant theories of emotion can be divided into three primary categories: physiological, neurological, and cognitive. Physiological theories imply that activity within the body can be accountable for emotions. Neurological theories suggest that activity within the brain leads to emotional responses. Lastly, cognitive theories reason that thoughts and other mental activity have a vital role in the stimulation of emotions. Common-sense suggests that people first become consciously aware of their emotions and that","-27.445329106762074"],["affect Pseudobulbar affect (PBA) is a condition that is characterized by episodes of uncontrollable laughter or crying. It mostly occurs in people suffering from certain neurological injuries that affect the way their brain controls emotions. Scientists believe PBA may be a result of damage to the prefrontal cortex, which is the area of the brain that controls emotions. Because PBA often involves crying, the condition may be mistaken for depression. However, PBA is a neurological condition, while depression is psychological. People suffering from PBA do not experience some of the typical depression symptoms such as sleep disturbances or loss","-27.42480791580556"],["scientists and philosophers who were working in the beginning stages of the field of psychology.\nIn medical research, speechlessness was described as an incorrect prognosis, and there was no assumption that underlying language complications existed. Broca and his colleagues were some of the first to write about aphasia, but Wernicke was the first credited to have written extensively about aphasia being a disorder that contained comprehension difficulties. Despite claims of who reported on aphasia first, it was F.J. Gall that gave the first full description of aphasia after studying wounds to the brain, as well as his observation of speech","-27.31843963553547"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"the 1960s, Paul Ekman, an American psychologist, revived the study of emotional expression, proposing, like Darwin, that emotions were universally recognizable. His early work focused on six basic emotions: happiness, anger, sadness, fear, disgust and surprise. By the 1990s, Ekman had expanded this list to include several additional emotions, one of which was amusement.\\nDisplays of amusement have been distinguished from related emotions like embarrassment and shame. More recent studies have confirmed that laughter is a distinct signal of amusement and is recognizable across cultures. Vocal burst The expression of amusement is usually accompanied by genuine laughter. The experience of laughter\",\n \"-32.10867613907976\"\n ],\n [\n \"means that the brain processes the other's facial and bodily expressions simultaneously.\\nSubjects in these studies showed accuracy in judging emotions based on facial expression. This is because the face and the body are normally seen together in their natural proportions and the emotional signals from the face and body are well integrated.\\nFor example, a lack of crinkles around the eyes suggests a potentially fake smile. At one point, researchers believed that making a genuine smile was nearly impossible to do on command. When you're smiling joyfully, they crinkle. When you're faking it, they don't. If someone's trying to look happy\",\n \"-31.79531829073676\"\n ],\n [\n \"object and shock or emotional seizure on the part of the subject. It has also been held that the feeling of superiority is an essential factor: thus Thomas Hobbes speaks of laughter as a \\\"sudden glory\\\". Modern investigators have paid much attention to the origin both of laughter and of smiling, as well as the development of the \\\"play instinct\\\" and its emotional expression.\\nGeorge Meredith said that \\\"One excellent test of the civilization of a country ... I take to be the flourishing of the Comic idea and Comedy, and the test of true Comedy is that it shall awaken\",\n \"-31.45281045405136\"\n ],\n [\n \"brain also releases endorphins that can relieve some physical pain. Laughter also boosts the number of antibody-producing cells and enhances the effectiveness of T-cells, leading to a stronger immune system. A 2000 study found that people with heart disease were 40 percent less likely to laugh and be able to recognize humor in a variety of situations, compared to people of the same age without heart disease. In interaction A number of studies using methods of conversation analysis and discourse analysis have documented the systematic workings of laughter in a variety of interactions, from casual conversations to interviews, meetings, and\",\n \"-31.34695567921335\"\n ],\n [\n \"instinctive resort to humour became a sort of escapism from responsibility and action. Ludovici considered laughter to be an evolutionary trait and he offered many examples of different triggers for laughter with their own distinct explanations.\",\n \"-31.09206971110143\"\n ],\n [\n \"Emotions can likely be mediated by pheromones (see fear).\\nFor example, the emotion of love is proposed to be the expression of paleocircuits of the mammalian brain (specifically, modules of the cingulate gyrus) which facilitate the care, feeding, and grooming of offspring. Paleocircuits are neural platforms for bodily expression configured before the advent of cortical circuits for speech. They consist of pre-configured pathways or networks of nerve cells in the forebrain, brain stem and spinal cord.\\nThe motor centers of reptiles react to sensory cues of vision, sound, touch, chemical, gravity, and motion with pre-set body movements and programmed postures. With the\",\n \"-30.769804765404842\"\n ],\n [\n \"emotion, which leads to the disinhibition, or release, of laughing/crying centers in the brainstem. Other theories implicate the prefrontal cortex. Secondary condition PBA is a condition that occurs secondary to neurological disease or brain injury, and is thought to result from disruptions of neural networks that control the generation and regulation of motor output of emotions. PBA is most commonly observed in people with neurologic injuries such as traumatic brain injury (TBI) and stroke, and neurologic diseases such as dementias including Alzheimer's disease, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), multiple sclerosis (MS), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), PANDAS in children and adults, and\",\n \"-30.47161195938679\"\n ],\n [\n \"experience resembles other amusement experiences they have had. Emotional expression of amusement The origin of the study of emotional expression is often attributed to Charles Darwin. In 1872, Darwin published his book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, in which he extensively describes his observations of how people and animals display emotions on their faces and through sound. Darwin comments on amusement as an emotion of great joy during which a person is likely to laugh. He also notes that across all peoples humans can laugh until they are panting and tears roll down their cheeks. In\",\n \"-30.417065083105626\"\n ],\n [\n \"Affective neuroscience Brain areas related to emotion Emotions are thought to be related to activity in brain areas that direct our attention, motivate our behavior, and determine the significance of what is going on around us. Pioneering work by Paul Broca (1878), James Papez (1937), and Paul D. MacLean (1952) suggested that emotion is related to a group of structures in the center of the brain called the limbic system, which includes the hypothalamus, cingulate cortex, hippocampi, and other structures. Research has shown that limbic structures are directly related to emotion, but non-limbic structures have been found to be of\",\n \"-30.394691986744874\"\n ],\n [\n \"coinciding with the beginning of modern humans. Speech, language, and social organization are all part of the basis for emotions. Neurobiological explanation Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures and postures.\",\n \"-30.042240728173056\"\n ],\n [\n \"body is broken, although there are rare, exceptional individuals who are able to rise above their physical predicament. However, for the vast majority having a good knowledge and an effective protocol for personal health is critical to happiness not just to oneself but also to one's family and friends. Laughter Laughter is synonymous with happiness. A proposal is made here that when a line of thought (e.g. joke) or sensation (e.g. tickling) is not expected by one's psychological or physiological order respectively, it triggers a certain chaos and temporary breakdown of that order. The innate Contentment intrinsic\",\n \"-30.009569405365255\"\n ],\n [\n \"emotions in schools and intelligent tutoring systems. Emotion It has long been recognized that emotional episodes are partly constituted by physiological responses. Early work done linking emotions to psychophysiology started with research on mapping consistent autonomic nervous system (ANS) responses to discrete emotional states. For example, anger might be constituted by a certain set of physiological responses, such as increased cardiac output and high diastolic blood pressure, which would allow us to better understand patterns and predict emotional responses. Some studies were able to detect consistent patterns of ANS responses that corresponded to specific emotions under certain contexts, like an\",\n \"-29.98607407726604\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the punch line\\\".\\nExcessive elation is a common symptom associated with manic-depressive psychoses and mania/hypomania. Those who suffer from schizophrenic psychoses seem to suffer the opposite—they do not understand humor or get any joy out of it. A fit describes an abnormal time when one cannot control the laughter or one's body, sometimes leading to seizures or a brief period of unconsciousness. Some believe that fits of laughter represent a form of epilepsy. Laughter therapy Laughter has been used as a therapeutic tool for many years because it is a natural form of medicine. Laughter is available\",\n \"-29.978863331918546\"\n ],\n [\n \"The specific anatomical location is still unclear, but it was shown that the right frontal operculum was most relevant in emotional gesturing. This, combined with the dissociation between cognitive and affective stimuli can explain why patients show no reaction to humor. Personality and drawing on past experiences have been shown to influence humor processing and appreciation. A person may remember past experiences in their own life in order to fully understand a joke in the current context. This remembering of personally experienced events is considered episodic memory, which is processed within the frontal lobes. Additionally, this inability to remember past\",\n \"-29.933702137335786\"\n ],\n [\n \"Croatian, and Persian. Contents The book surveys scientific understanding of emotions and particularly intimacy and love, from Freud through modern neuroscience, with a focus on the emerging understanding of the limbic brain and the development of personality. The authors put forward the idea that our nervous systems are not separate or self-contained; beginning in earliest childhood, the areas of our brain identified as the limbic system (hippocampus, amygdala, anterior thalamic nuclei, and limbic cortex) is affected by those closest to us (limbic resonance) and synchronizes with them (limbic regulation) in a way that has profound implications for\",\n \"-29.765359472687123\"\n ],\n [\n \"Causes Common causes for laughter are sensations of joy and humor; however, other situations may cause laughter as well.\\nA general theory that explains laughter is called the relief theory. Sigmund Freud summarized it in his theory that laughter releases tension and \\\"psychic energy\\\". This theory is one of the justifications of the beliefs that laughter is beneficial for one's health. This theory explains why laughter can be used as a coping mechanism when one is upset, angry or sad.\\nPhilosopher John Morreall theorizes that human laughter may have its biological origins as a kind of shared expression of relief at\",\n \"-29.73174316506629\"\n ],\n [\n \"and is known to be an indicator of mental health. Physiological processes are also influenced within the exercise of humor. For example, laughing may reduce muscle tension, increase the flow of oxygen to the blood, exercise the cardiovascular region, and produce endorphins in the body. Using humor in coping while processing through feelings can vary depending on life circumstance and individual humor styles. In regards to grief and loss in life occurrences, it has been found that genuine laughs/smiles when speaking about the loss predicted later adjustment and evoked more positive responses from other people. A person of the deceased\",\n \"-29.66018404913484\"\n ],\n [\n \"therapy sessions. Working with recorded interactions, researchers have created detailed transcripts that indicate not only the presence of laughter but also features of its production and placement.\\nThese studies challenge several widely held assumptions about the nature of laughter. Contrary to notions that it is spontaneous and involuntary, research documents that laughter is sequentially organized and precisely placed relative to surrounding talk. Far more than merely a response to humor, laughter often works to manage delicate and serious moments. More than simply an external behavior “caused” by an inner state, laughter is highly communicative and helps accomplish actions and regulate relationships.\",\n \"-29.539762183957464\"\n ],\n [\n \"corresponding to emotions, but instead found circuitry involved in general emotional processes. The amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, mid and anterior insula cortex and lateral prefrontal cortex, appeared to be involved in generating the emotions, while weaker evidence was found for the ventral tegmental area, ventral pallidum and nucleus accumbens in incentive salience. Others, however, have found evidence of activation of specific regions, such as the basal ganglia in happiness, the subcallosal cingulate cortex in sadness, and amygdala in fear. Cognition The brain is responsible for cognition, which functions through numerous processes and executive functions. Executive functions include the ability to filter\",\n \"-29.478058166409028\"\n ],\n [\n \"patients show no emotional reaction to humor, whether produced by themselves or others. This lack of responsiveness is due to dissociation between their cognitive and affective responses to humorous stimuli. That is, even when a patient understands that a joke is funny (based on quantitative brain activity), they do not respond with laughter, or even a smile. While they have grasped the cognitive basis of humor, they do not affectively respond. This also considered a cognitive component of empathy, affecting ability to take the perspective of others; hence why patients often do not respond to humor produced by other people.\",\n \"-29.477623214756022\"\n ],\n [\n \"humors from the brain. William James thought of emotions as reflexes prior to rational thought, believing that the physiological response, as if to stress or irritation, is a precondition to cognitively becoming aware of emotions such as fear or anger.\\nWilliam H. Frey II, a biochemist at the University of Minnesota, proposed that people feel \\\"better\\\" after crying due to the elimination of hormones associated with stress, specifically adrenocorticotropic hormone. This, paired with increased mucosal secretion during crying, could lead to a theory that crying is a mechanism developed in humans to dispose of this stress hormone when levels grow too\",\n \"-29.398795359462383\"\n ],\n [\n \"a similar disorder resulting in childish euphoria and cheerful excitement.\\nWitzelsucht is considered a disorder of mirth or humor, which is distinct from disorders of laughter. Patients with witzelsucht are essentially insensitive to humor, but are capable of producing it while other patients excessively laugh, often at things that are not funny. The most common disorders of laughter are associated with pseudobulbar palsy, which can be caused by severe brain trauma, most commonly in the right hemisphere. Pathological laughter in this can be triggered by trivial stimuli, which could be disconnected from the underlying mood, and be combined with crying. Pathological\",\n \"-29.396229623693216\"\n ],\n [\n \"a lower appreciation for humor as indicated by sense of humor questionnaires. This relationship is seen across multiple presentation styles including video, audio, and cartoon. Primarily, the affective part of humor, otherwise known as humor appreciation, is the main victim of PD-related brain changes. This could be linked to consequential neurological changes in the amygdala, mesolimbic dopaminergic reward system, and basal ganglia. Parkinson's patients demonstrate an inhibited ability to identify emotions of other people from both speech prosody and facial expressions. The neural circuitry during the humor appreciation phase also involves the amygdala and are thought to be used\",\n \"-29.28135114000179\"\n ],\n [\n \"cortex, the medial temporal lobe, and the lateral occipital cortex, and the sixth “Medial Posterior” group included posterior cingulate cortex and area V1 of the primary visual cortex. The authors suggest that these regions play a joint role in visual processing and attention to emotional stimuli. Vytal et al. 2010 Vytal, et al. 2010 examined 83 neuroimaging studies published between 1993-2008 to examine whether neuroimaging evidence supports the idea of biologically discrete, basic emotions (i.e. fear, anger, disgust, happiness, and sadness). Consistency analyses identified brain regions that were associated with a given emotion. Discriminability analyses identified brain regions that were\",\n \"-29.258934777521063\"\n ],\n [\n \"cognitive centers of the brain to the GI tract and vice versa. Emotions have been shown to stimulate colon motor function and result in decreased colonic transit time, increased contractile activity, the induction of defecation, and symptoms of diarrhea.\",\n \"-29.20966304380272\"\n ],\n [\n \"the fact that laughter causes the dilatation of the inner lining of blood vessels, the endothelium, and increases blood flow. Drs. Michael Miller (University of Maryland) and William Fry (Stanford), theorize that beta-endorphin like compounds released by the hypothalamus activate receptors on the endothelial surface to release nitric oxide, thereby resulting in dilation of vessels. Other cardioprotective properties of nitric oxide include reduction of inflammation and decreased platelet aggregation.\\nLaughter has proven beneficial effects on various other aspects of biochemistry. It has been shown to lead to reductions in stress hormones such as cortisol and epinephrine. When laughing the\",\n \"-29.18730422052431\"\n ],\n [\n \"are able to appeal to neurological evidence. Neurobiological theories Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures, and postures. This hypothesis that synaptic plasticity is an important part of the neural mechanisms\",\n \"-29.18494202715374\"\n ],\n [\n \"derived. Some theorists, including Darwin, even argued that \\\"Emotion ... is neuromuscular activity of the face\\\". Many researchers since have criticized this belief and instead argue that emotions are much more complex than initially thought.\\nIn addition to pioneering research in psychology, ethnographic accounts of cultural differences in emotion began to emerge. Margaret Mead, a cultural anthropologist writes about unique emotional phenomena she experienced while living among a small village of 600 Samoans on the island of Ta'u in her book Coming of Age in Samoa. Gregory Bateson, an English anthropologist, social scientist, linguist, and visual anthropologist used\",\n \"-29.13287440012209\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the NHS project at the University of Warwick has collected more such memories on its website, and invites contributions for more.\\nResearchers and clinicians hope that humour and laughter may be able to be used to improve human health. The term 'gelotology', to denote the study of laughter, was created in 1964 by Edith Trager and W. F. Fry. One experiment from 2011, led by researchers at the University of Oxford, suggested that watching comedy videos may raise people's pain thresholds, when watched in a group. This effect did not hold when videos were watched alone, or if\",\n \"-29.10941296270903\"\n ],\n [\n \"activation of interoceptors and involving ancient, lower brain regions such as the medulla, midbrain and hypothalamus, and \\\"classic\\\" emotions, such as anger, fear and love, driven by distance receptors (vision, hearing, olfaction) and mediated by higher, more recently evolved brain regions.\",\n \"-29.044867550430354\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the brain suggests that cognitive and affective-expressive forms of communication and self-reflection have distinct neural bases. Clinical findings have long suggested that verbalizations are often very incoherent when the individual is trying to put into words something deeply emotional. Identification of words naming emotions (happy, neutral, sad) was found to be faster than identification of corresponding facial expressions. Recognition of face expressions was more difficult to suppress in favor of the recognition of words than vice versa, the two conditions presenting different patterns of brain activation. These experimental results suggest that reading and recognition of face expressions are stimulus-dependent\",\n \"-29.031289748090785\"\n ],\n [\n \"Laughter Nature Laughter might be thought of as an audible expression or appearance of excitement, an inward feeling of joy and happiness. It may ensue from jokes, tickling, and other stimuli completely unrelated to psychological state, such as nitrous oxide. One group of researchers speculated that noises from infants as early as 16 days old may be vocal laughing sounds or laughter, however the weight of the evidence supports its appearance at 15 weeks to four months of age.\\nLaughter researcher Robert Provine said: \\\"Laughter is a mechanism everyone has; laughter is part of universal human vocabulary. There are\",\n \"-29.026278944435035\"\n ],\n [\n \"revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media. Another classic study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions (for example, disgust), they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions. His research findings led him to classify six emotions as basic: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise. Later in his career, Ekman theorized that other universal emotions may exist beyond these six. In light of this, recent cross-cultural studies led\",\n \"-28.991509665516787\"\n ],\n [\n \"such discrete categories of experience. Instead, the empirical evidence suggests that what exists in the brain and body is affect, and emotions are constructed by multiple brain networks working in tandem.\\nDespite this evidence, most other theories of emotion assume that emotions are genetically endowed, not learned, and are produced by dedicated circuits in the brain: an anger circuit, a fear circuit, and so on. This point of view is very much in line with common-sense conceptions of emotion. The theory of constructed emotion calls this assumption into question. It suggests that these emotions (often called \\\"basic emotions\\\") are not biologically\",\n \"-28.964788935161778\"\n ],\n [\n \"very little to absolutely no show of emotions. Restricted and blunted are, respectively, less severe. Disorders involving these reduced affect displays most commonly include schizophrenia, post traumatic stress disorder, depression, autism and persons with traumatic brain injuries. One study has shown that people with schizophrenia that experience flat affect, can also experience difficulty perceiving the emotions of a healthy individual. Facial paralysis and surgery People who suffer from deformities and facial paralysis are also physically incapable of displaying emotions. This is beginning to be corrected though, through \\\"Facial Reanimation Surgery\\\" which is proving not only to successfully improve a patient's\",\n \"-28.93679878918192\"\n ],\n [\n \"with brain regions that implicated in emotion process, the amygdala. Furthermore, viewers mimic the size of their own pupils to those of sad faces they watched. Considering that pupil size is beyond voluntary control, the change of pupil size upon emotion judgment is a good indication that understanding emotions is automatic process. However, the study could not find other emotional faces such as happiness and anger influence pupil size as sadness did. Epistemological role of empathy Understanding other's actions and emotions is believed to facilitate efficient human communication. Based on findings from neuroimaging studies, de Vignemont and Singer proposed\",\n \"-28.925353494065348\"\n ],\n [\n \"years has been researching human emotions, starting with micro-movements of facial muscles and more recently the relationship between powerlessness and health outcomes. Having also written books and co-created one of the most popular MOOCs (massive open online courses) in the country. Keltner started to study psychology around the time that the belief that the methodology of psychological analysis changed dramatically from having implications that the human brain functioned primarily rationalizing and pure facts to toward more of an emotional revolution. Keltner dealt with anxiety throughout his life while growing up and thus set him on his goal to finding what\",\n \"-28.9057898718238\"\n ],\n [\n \"be expanded and when the change is directed to suppressing such displays; the space will be reduced. Physiology Neuroscience has shown that emotions are generated by multiple structures in the brain. The rapid, minimal, and evaluative processing of the emotional significance of the sensory data is done when the data passes through the amygdala in its travel from the sensory organs along certain neural pathways towards the limbic forebrain. Emotion caused by discrimination of stimulus features, thoughts, or memories however occurs when its information is relayed from the thalamus to the neocortex. Based on some statistical analysis, some scholars have\",\n \"-28.85604388875072\"\n ],\n [\n \"emotions such as happiness or fear. This premise also has biological backing. Frontotemporal lobar degeneration Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) is a neurodegenerative disease that attacks the brain selectively in the frontal lobe, temporal lobe and amygdala. Patients suffering from FTLD offer information on the biological complexity involved in generating self-conscious emotions. With the use of a startle experiment (where patients and control participants are exposed to an unexpected and loud sound) it has been shown that sufferers of FTLD show and experience the basic negative emotions expected to be attached to the startling sounds. However they show significantly less signs\",\n \"-28.821727030110196\"\n ],\n [\n \"conclusion corresponds to the known fact that monkeys (as pointed out by Charles Darwin) and even rats (as found recently) possess a sense of humor.\\nA practical realization of this algorithm needs extensive databases, whose creation in the automatic regime was suggested recently. Ontic-Epistemic Theory of Humor The Ontic-Epistemic Theory of Humor (OETC) proposed by P. Marteinson (2006) asserts that laughter is a reaction to a cognitive impasse, a momentary epistemological difficulty, in which the subject perceives that Social Being itself suddenly appears no longer to be real in any factual or normative sense. When this occurs material reality, which is\",\n \"-28.74484599508287\"\n ],\n [\n \"laughter at the brain Institute of UCLA at that time, unsuccessfully attempting to measure the electric counterpart in the brain of the moment that initiates laughter. He was the first to discover, in studying voice recognition in 1975 that a speaker's identity, though unimpeded by changes in speed (tempo), was masked by transposition of as little as a semitone in pitch. This seemed to indicate that perfect pitch was involved far more universally than thought possible. He began work on a book on laughter, which, however, was only two thirds completed.\\nIn 1977 Rex Hobcroft, director of Sydney's New South\",\n \"-28.711930085511995\"\n ],\n [\n \"Peers continue this process as children develop and mature in effect constraining how, where, why, and with whom certain emotions are expressed\\\". One study suggests that people tend to exhibit more intense negative facial expressions in solitary conditions, and smile more when others are present. In this experiment, men and women did not differ in their anger expression in non-social conditions. However, women were more likely to express their anger in the solitary condition as opposed to the social condition. Men, on the other hand, seemed to be less concerned with appearing positive to others; they showed no\",\n \"-28.687931674794527\"\n ],\n [\n \"together (coaction condition). Furthermore, levels of laughter were higher when one child listened to funny material in the presence of another child (audience condition) than when one child listened to the funny material alone (alone condition). These results indicate that laughter is also socially facilitated. Prejudice Prejudice is often considered as easily learned and performed response. Therefore, following the logic of Zajonc's drive theory of social facilitation, prejudice then, is also likely to be socially facilitated. That is, individuals may be more likely to express prejudicial views in presence of others than in private. Gender In 1994, De Castro demonstrated\",\n \"-28.684608448804283\"\n ],\n [\n \"brain pathways associated with facial expression; the first is voluntary expression. Voluntary expression travels from the primary motor cortex through the pyramidal tract, specifically the corticobulbar projections. The cortex is associated with display rules in emotion, which are social precepts that influence and modify expressions. Cortically related expressions are made consciously.\\nThe second type of expression is emotional. These expressions originate from the extrapyramidal motor system, which involves subcortical nuclei. For this reason, genuine emotions are not associated with the cortex and are often displayed unconsciously. This is demonstrated in infants before the age of two; they display distress, disgust, interest,\",\n \"-28.631255068612518\"\n ],\n [\n \"emotions as such. According to Lucerne's theory emotion is believed to help humans express their feelings. Therefore, emotions are a part of human nature to help us communicate. In addition to Chris Lucerne’s theory, when humans experience a situation good or bad an emotion is triggered. As a result of emotion an action is followed. For example, here are a few emotions listed in Lucerne’s article in which people experience daily. The first is the emotion of happiness, which can ignite the sensation to dance. A second emotion is anger, in which the person begins to feel hot causing him\",\n \"-28.623635287960496\"\n ],\n [\n \"psychological operations interact (not just those involved in valence and arousal), producing distributed patterns of activation across the brain. Because emotions emerge from more basic components, there is heterogeneity within each emotion category; for example, a person can experience many different kinds of fear, which feel differently, and which correspond to different neural patterns in the brain. Thus, this view presents a different approach to understanding the neural bases of emotion than locationist approaches. Phan et al. 2002 In the first neuroimaging meta-analysis of emotion, Phan et al. (2002) analyzed the results of 55 studies published in peer reviewed journal\",\n \"-28.61911065268214\"\n ],\n [\n \"the passing of danger. Friedrich Nietzsche, by contrast, suggested laughter to be a reaction to the sense of existential loneliness and mortality that only humans feel.\\nFor example: a joke creates an inconsistency and the audience automatically tries to understand what the inconsistency means; if they are successful in solving this 'cognitive riddle' and they realize that the surprise was not dangerous, they laugh with relief. Otherwise, if the inconsistency is not resolved, there is no laugh, as Mack Sennett pointed out: \\\"when the audience is confused, it doesn't laugh.\\\" This is one of the basic laws of a comedian, referred\",\n \"-28.611315726820976\"\n ],\n [\n \"determined that eyes moisten during laughter as a reflex from the tear glands. Negative aspects Laughter is not always a pleasant experience and is associated with several negative phenomena. Excessive laughter can lead to cataplexy, and unpleasant laughter spells, excessive elation, and fits of laughter can all be considered negative aspects of laughter. Unpleasant laughter spells, or \\\"sham mirth,\\\" usually occur in people who have a neurological condition, including patients with pseudobulbar palsy, multiple sclerosis and Parkinson's disease. These patients appear to be laughing out of amusement but report that they are feeling undesirable sensations \\\"at the time\",\n \"-28.58158926057513\"\n ],\n [\n \"experiences could also cause a person to forget what is socially appropriate; which could explain why witzelsucht patients sometimes say hypersexual comments in public. Hypersexuality in the brain The amygdala plays a significant role in processing emotional stimuli and producing affective responses, which in turn is utilized in social interactions. The amygdala regulates the attachment of emotional significance to corresponding sensory stimuli. Lesions in the amygdala do not disrupt a specific sexual mechanism. Instead, they disturb the emotional processing of stimuli, which causes random and/or inappropriate responses. The amygdala has a positive effect on sexual behavior by allowing the appropriate\",\n \"-28.54939531700802\"\n ],\n [\n \"research participants watched videos such as scenes of nature. In 2003, the artist Nicola Green and film-maker Lara Agnew created a 'laughter booth' at the Royal Brompton Hospital. In this booth, patients and staff could watch videos of people laughing. The idea of laughter as healing has also influenced language, through the phrase 'laughter is the best medicine'.\",\n \"-28.525804067772697\"\n ],\n [\n \"emotions based on introspection of those feelings. This is part of Goleman's emotional intelligence. In E.I, attunement is an unconscious synchrony that guides empathy. Attunement relies heavily on nonverbal communication. Looping is where facial expressions can elicit involuntary behavior, In the research motor mimicry there shows neurons that pick up on facial expressions and communicate with motor neurons responsible for muscles in the face to display the same facial expression. Thus displaying a smile may elicit a micro expression of a smile on someone who is trying to remain neutral in their expression.\\nThrough fMRI we can see the area\",\n \"-28.51125928879219\"\n ],\n [\n \"between verbal communication and facial expression of emotions in communication, conflicts and misunderstandings can arise.\\nUsing the example of smiling, Rainer Krause shows in a (German) presentation the difference between a natural-looking and a phony smile, in which not the same muscles are involved. Significant in this regard is the fact that the muscles of the so-called “lower face” can be consciously controlled much easier than the muscles of the so-called “upper face”. And with a smile that seems spurious, certain muscles of the upper face are not involved. As the “most common emotions that you get to see”, Krause is\",\n \"-28.453016529936576\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning (SEAL) project in the UK [DfES, 2005, 2007]).\\nThe neural basis of emotional recognition in typically developing children has been investigated, although there is little neuroimaging work on atypically developing children who process emotions differently. Males are commonly over-represented in these atypically developing populations and a female advantage is commonly reported both on EI measures and on most areas of emotion processing. In processing facial expressions the female advantage appears best explained by an integrated account considering both brain maturation and social interaction.\\nPrefrontal brain damage in children affects social behavior, causing insensitivity to social\",\n \"-28.439726869240985\"\n ],\n [\n \"anger, contempt, surprise, and fear. Infants' displays of these emotions indicate that they are not cortically related. Similarly, blind children also display emotions, proving that they are subconscious rather than learned. Other subcortical facial expressions include the \\\"knit brow\\\" during concentration, raised eyebrows when listening attentively, and short \\\"punctuation\\\" expressions to add emphasis during speech. People can be unaware that they are producing these expressions. Neural mechanisms in face perception The amygdala plays an important role in facial recognition. Functional imaging studies have found that when shown pictures of faces, there is a large increase in the activity of the\",\n \"-28.36425047850571\"\n ],\n [\n \"by Daniel Cordaro and Dacher Keltner, both former students of Ekman, extended the list of universal emotions. In addition to the original six, these studies provided evidence for amusement, awe, contentment, desire, embarrassment, pain, relief, and sympathy in both facial and vocal expressions. They also found evidence for boredom, confusion, interest, pride, and shame facial expressions, as well as contempt, interest, relief, and triumph vocal expressions.\\nRobert Plutchik agreed with Ekman's biologically driven perspective but developed the \\\"wheel of emotions\\\", suggesting eight primary emotions grouped on a positive or negative basis: joy versus sadness; anger versus fear; trust versus disgust; and\",\n \"-28.36237695996533\"\n ],\n [\n \"that the mind and body operate independently in the experience of emotions such that differing brain regions (cortex versus subcortex) process information from an emotion-producing stimulus independently and simultaneously resulting in both an emotional and a physical response. This is best illustrated by imagining an encounter with a grizzly bear; you would simultaneously experience fear, begin to sweat, experience an elevated heart rate, and attempt to run. All of these things would happen at the same time. Two-factor theory Stanley Schachter and his doctoral student Jerome Singer formulated their theory of emotion based on evidence that without an actual emotion-producing\",\n \"-28.36043851411432\"\n ],\n [\n \"cortex occurred either when a person's self-concept was threatened or when the person suffered embarrassment (social pain) caused by salient, upward social-comparison, by social-class snobbery. That social emotions, such as embarrassment, guilt, envy, and Schadenfreude (joy at the misfortune of another person) are correlated to reduced activity in the insular lobe, and with increased activity in the striate nucleus; those neural activities are associated with a reduced sense of empathy (social responsibility) and an increased propensity towards antisocial behavior (delinquency).\",\n \"-28.33294902124726\"\n ],\n [\n \"health care to humans. Psychology examines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as mental processes and behavior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes. In neuroscience sub-fields such as social neuroscience and affective neuroscience, scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. In linguistics, the expression of emotion may change to the meaning of sounds. In education, the role of emotions in relation to learning is examined.\\nSocial sciences often examine emotion for the role that it plays in human culture and social interactions. In sociology,\",\n \"-28.313771614120924\"\n ],\n [\n \"temporal gyrus. For the first time, happiness was discriminated from the other emotional categories, with the largest clusters of activity specific to happiness (vs. the other emotion categories) located in right superior temporal gyrus and left rostral anterior cingulate cortex. Sadness was consistently associated with 35 clusters (the largest activation cluster located in the left medial frontal gyrus) and was discriminated from the other emotion categories by significantly greater activity in left medial frontal gyrus, right middle temporal gyrus, and right inferior frontal gyrus. Anger was consistently associated with activity in 13 clusters (the largest of which was located in\",\n \"-28.294663426446277\"\n ],\n [\n \"parts of the brain. Important neurological advances were derived from these perspectives in the 1990s by Joseph E. LeDoux and António Damásio.\\nResearch on social emotion also focuses on the physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and humans (see affect display). For example, spite seems to work against the individual but it can establish an individual's reputation as someone to be feared. Shame and pride can motivate behaviors that help one maintain one's standing in a community, and self-esteem is one's estimate of one's status. Somatic theories Somatic theories of emotion claim that bodily responses, rather than cognitive\",\n \"-28.289617183763767\"\n ],\n [\n \"suggest that understanding other's feelings and emotions is driven not by cognitive deduction of what the stimuli means but by automatic activation of somatosensory neurons. A recent study on pupil size directly demonstrated emotion perception was automatic process modulated by mirror systems. When people saw sad faces, pupil sizes influenced viewers in perceiving and judging emotional states without explicit awareness of differences of pupil size. When pupil size was 180% of original size, people perceived a sad face as less negative and less intense than when pupil was smaller than or equal to original pupil size. This mechanism was correlated\",\n \"-28.255250678324956\"\n ],\n [\n \"stimulus, people are unable to attribute specific emotions to their bodily states. They believed that there must be a cognitive component to emotion perception beyond that of just physical changes and subjective feelings. Schachter and Singer suggested that when someone encounters such an emotion-producing stimulus, they would immediately recognize their bodily symptoms (sweating and elevated heart rate in the case of the grizzly bear) as the emotion fear. Their theory was devised as a result of a study in which participants were injected with either a stimulant (adrenaline) that causes elevated heart rate, sweaty palms and shaking, or a placebo.\",\n \"-28.243672376629547\"\n ],\n [\n \"aloud by the participant. As a result, the participants experienced increased neural activity in the anterior cingulate cortex when the experimental exercises provoked psychological dissonance.\\nThe study Cognitive Neuroscience of Social Emotions and Implications for Psychopathology: Examining Embarrassment, Guilt, Envy, and Schadenfreude (Jankowski, Takahashi,2014) identified neural correlations to specific social emotions (e.g. envy and embarrassment) as a measure of cognitive dissonance. The neural activity for the emotion of Envy (the feeling of displeasure at the good fortune of another person) was found to draw neural activity from the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex. That such increased activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate\",\n \"-28.24343443538237\"\n ],\n [\n \"with the limbic system, the part of the brain that is thought to be most involved with emotion. This link is important, because if an individual associates positive affect (elicited by pheromones), with a potential mate, their liking for, and attraction to, that potential mate will be increased. Although not a typically evolutionary hypothesis, this hypothesis is one that acknowledges how humans have adapted their mating strategies to modern-day societal norms. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and body odor preferences Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a genotype found in vertebrates, including humans. MHC is thought to contribute to mate choice in\",\n \"-28.171396877718507\"\n ],\n [\n \"faces, reflecting the expressions on their own faces, which seems to help people better understand the other person's emotion. In addition, researchers have also suggested that the neural mechanisms that are activated when personally experiencing emotions are also activated when viewing another person experiencing the same emotions (mirror neurons). Pain seems to specifically activate a region known as the cingulate cortex, in addition to activation that is mentioned earlier. The temporal parietal junction, orbitofrontal cortex, and ventral striatum are also thought to play a role in the production of emotion.\\nGenerally, empathic emotions (including sympathy), require the activation of top-down\",\n \"-28.146867426054087\"\n ],\n [\n \"witnessing others' pain. For instance, in Stanley Milgram's obedience experiment, subjects (\\\"teachers\\\") were told to shock \\\"learners\\\" every time the learners answered a question incorrectly. Although the \\\"learners\\\" were not actually shocked, the subjects believed they were. As they were going through the study, many of the \\\"subjects showed signs of extreme tension and conflict\\\". Milgram observed some subjects laughing nervously when they heard the \\\"learners'\\\" false screams of pain. In A Brief Tour of Human Consciousness, neuroscientist V.S. Ramachandran suggests that laughter is used as a defense mechanism used to guard against overwhelming anxiety. Laughter often diminishes the\",\n \"-28.128357224005413\"\n ],\n [\n \"another situation could arise that is similar, and the recovery of that association and inner response can show up spontaneously as jealousy again. It is why a lot of people say to themselves, \\\"where does this feeling come from\\\" or, \\\"Why did I do that?\\\" A lot of human reactions are from spontaneous recovery of past associations, not always specifically learned physical behaviours. Neurochemistry For the learning and recall associated with spontaneous recovery to happen, there are specific gyri and neurotransmitters that play a role. Firstly, the cerebellum is needed to acquire certain motor skills and develop an automatic state\",\n \"-28.111918209076975\"\n ],\n [\n \"in his 1996 book, The Emotional Brain, LeDoux developed an interest in the topic of emotion through his doctoral work with Michael Gazzaniga on split-brain patients in the mid-1970s. Because techniques for studying the human brain were limited at the time, he turned to studies of rodents where the brain could be studied in detail. He chose to focus on a simple behavioral model, Pavlovian fear conditioning. This procedure allowed him to follow the flow of information about a stimulus through the brain as it comes to control behavioral responses by way of sensory pathways to the amygdala, and\",\n \"-28.072955567840836\"\n ],\n [\n \"responses due to evolution. It would not be expected to observe the same physiological responses for emotions not specifically linked to survival, such as happiness or sadness.\\nEkman's theories were early challenged by James A. Russell, and have since been tested by a variety of researchers, with ambiguous results. This would seem to reflect methodological problems relating to both display rules and to the Components of emotion. Current thinking favors a mix of underlying universality combined with significant cultural differences in the articulation and expression of emotion. The fact that emotions serve different functions in different cultures must also be\",\n \"-28.038271498924587\"\n ],\n [\n \"distinguishes primary and secondary emotions. Both involve changes in bodily states, but the secondary emotions are evoked by thoughts. Recent empirical studies support non-cognitive theories of nature of emotions. It was proven that we can easily evoke our emotions by something as simple as changing facial expression (e.g., smile brings on a feeling of happiness). Sense of touch in affective haptics Human emotions can be easily evoked by different cues, and the sense of touch is one of the most emotionally charged channels. Affective haptic devices produce different senses of touch including kinesthetic and coetaneous channels. Kinesthetic stimulations, which are\",\n \"-28.004696585645434\"\n ],\n [\n \"can influence increased experience of emotions. Another study published in 1943 that studied the fistulated man Tom discovered that if \\\"Tom was fearful or depressed his gastic activity decreased but when he was angry or hostile his gastric activity increased\\\". This finding is contrasted by an EGG study by Ercolani et al. who had subjects perform either difficult or easy mental arithmetic or puzzles. They found that new tasks slowed down the myoelectrical activity of the stomach, suggesting that stress tends to impede gastric activity and that this can be picked up on an EGG. While there is still\",\n \"-27.98172314441763\"\n ],\n [\n \"Facial feedback hypothesis The facial feedback hypothesis states that facial movement can influence emotional experience. For example, an individual who is forced to smile during a social event will actually come to find the event unlikely enjoyable. Background Charles Darwin was among the first to suggest that physiological changes caused by an emotion had a direct impact on, rather than being just the consequence of that emotion. He wrote:\\nThe free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the other hand, the repression, as far as this is possible, of all outward signs softens our emotions... Even the\",\n \"-27.97837524182978\"\n ],\n [\n \"but emotions and the amygdala are known to play a role in memory encoding, which is typically associated with the hippocampus. Research has found that later memories in childhood have more propositional and emotional content than earlier memories and are rated as more meaningful and vivid. It has been suggested that differences in the emotions experienced by infants and adults may be a cause of childhood amnesia. Whether highly emotional events can stimulate and improve reliable recall (flashbulb memories) is still highly debated.\\nSome studies have discovered that emotional experiences are connected with faster retrieval times, leading to the belief that\",\n \"-27.960872698298772\"\n ],\n [\n \"to a body system response to a trigger. Purpose and value One view is that emotions facilitate adaptive responses to environmental challenges. Emotions have been described as a result of evolution because they provided good solutions to ancient and recurring problems that faced our ancestors. Emotions can function as a way to communicate what's important to us, such as values and ethics. However some emotions, such as some forms of anxiety, are sometimes regarded as part of a mental illness and thus possibly of negative value. Classification A distinction can be made between emotional episodes and emotional dispositions. Emotional\",\n \"-27.956911060144193\"\n ],\n [\n \"an audience. Plato discusses the danger of emotions in oratory. He argues that emotional appeal in rhetoric should be used as the means to an end and not the point of the discussion. Contemporary pathos George Campbell, a contributor to the Scottish Enlightenment, was one of the first rhetoricians to incorporate scientific evidence into his theory of emotional appeal. Campbell relied heavily on a book written by physician David Hartley, entitled Observations on Man. The book synthesized emotions and neurology and introduced the concept that action is a result of impression. Hartley determined that emotions drive people to react to\",\n \"-27.92546121484338\"\n ],\n [\n \"causal role in regulating emotional experience and behaviour\\\", developed almost a century after Darwin. Methodological issues Originally, the facial feedback hypothesis studied the enhancing or suppressing effect of facial efference on emotion in the context of spontaneous, \\\"real\\\" emotions, using stimuli. This resulted in \\\"the inability of research using spontaneous efference to separate correlation from causality\\\". Laird (1974) used a cover story (measuring muscular facial activity with electrodes) to induce particular facial muscles contraction in his participants without mentioning any emotional state. However, the higher funniness ratings of the cartoons obtained by those participants \\\"tricked\\\" into smiling may have been\",\n \"-27.916160841617966\"\n ],\n [\n \"to human life, collective imagination and art, to have a better knowledge of society. One of the theories of the essay is that laughter, as a collective activity, has a social and moral role, in forcing people to eliminate their vices. It is a factor of uniformity of behaviours, as it condemns ludicrous and eccentric behaviours. Ludovici Anthony Ludovici developed the thoughts of Hobbes and Darwin even further in The Secret of Laughter. His conviction is that there's something sinister in laughter, and that the modern omnipresence of humour and the idolatry of it are signs of societal weakness, as\",\n \"-27.894243664261012\"\n ],\n [\n \"Emotionality Emotionality is the observable behavioral and physiological component of emotion. It is a measure of a person's emotional reactivity to a stimulus. Most of these responses can be observed by other people, while some emotional responses can only be observed by the person experiencing them. Observable responses to emotion (i.e., smiling) do not have a single meaning. A smile can be used to express happiness or anxiety, a frown can communicate sadness or anger, and so on. Emotionality is often used by psychology researchers to operationalize emotion in research studies. Early theories of emotion By the late 1800s, many\",\n \"-27.889668004958367\"\n ],\n [\n \"Social emotions Social emotions are emotions that depend upon the thoughts, feelings or actions of other people, \\\"as experienced, recalled, anticipated or imagined at first hand\\\". Examples are embarrassment, guilt, shame, jealousy, envy, elevation, empathy, and pride. In contrast, basic emotions such as happiness and sadness only require the awareness of one's own physical state. Therefore, the development of social emotions is tightly linked with the development of social cognition, the ability to imagine other people's mental states, which generally develops in adolescence. Studies have found that children as young as 2 to 3 years of age can express emotions\",\n \"-27.857496099015407\"\n ],\n [\n \"the eventual determination of the neural underpinnings of emotion.\\nContemporary\\nMore contemporary views along the evolutionary psychology spectrum posit that both basic emotions and social emotions evolved to motivate (social) behaviors that were adaptive in the ancestral environment. Emotion is an essential part of any human decision-making and planning, and the famous distinction made between reason and emotion is not as clear as it seems. Paul D. MacLean claims that emotion competes with even more instinctive responses, on one hand, and the more abstract reasoning, on the other hand. The increased potential in neuroimaging has also allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient\",\n \"-27.83784935222502\"\n ],\n [\n \"such as anger, sadness, or fear, is \\\"triggered\\\" by the brain's appraisal of a stimulus or event with respect to the perceiver's goals or survival. In particular, the function, expression, and meaning of different emotions are hypothesized to be biologically distinct from one another. A theme common to many basic emotions theories is that there should be functional signatures that distinguish different emotions: we should be able to tell what emotion a person is feeling by looking at his or her brain activity and/or physiology. Furthermore, knowledge of what the person is seeing or the larger context of the eliciting\",\n \"-27.825527624245296\"\n ],\n [\n \"to dealing with their emotions, children show the ability to learn best by seeing direct examples of instances that led to certain levels of anger. By seeing the reasons why they got angry, they can in the future try to avoid those actions or be prepared for the feeling they experience if they do find themselves doing something that typically results in them being angry.\\nThere is not sufficient evidence of this needing to be implemented in elementary schools, but this activity is a common tool used in therapies, so it could lead to children writing down their negative feelings and\",\n \"-27.80856534680788\"\n ],\n [\n \"by the texts they read.\\nLaughing: A Psychology of Humor (1982) surveyed theories of laughter. But the book extended the reader-response argument to show, based on a case study of one woman, how what one finds funny, that is, one's sense of humor, expresses one's personal identity. The Delphi Seminar During the 1970s, Holland and his colleague at the State University of New York at Buffalo, Murray Schwartz, developed a style of reader-response teaching that they named the \\\"Delphi Seminar.\\\" The original seminar included students and instructors practicing free association responses to poems and stories and subsequent readings of other participants’\",\n \"-27.791728628159035\"\n ],\n [\n \"as being linked to negative emotions, which may help explain why males tend to respond to emotionally stressful stimuli physically. The left amygdala allows for the recall of details, but it also results in more thought rather than action in response to emotionally stressful stimuli, which may explain the absence of physical response in women. Connections The amygdala sends projections to the hypothalamus, the dorsomedial thalamus, the thalamic reticular nucleus, the nuclei of the trigeminal nerve and the facial nerve, the ventral tegmental area, the locus coeruleus, and the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus. The basolateral amygdala projects to the nucleus\",\n \"-27.789684750641754\"\n ],\n [\n \"situation was pleasant and/or non-threatening, and to help prevent it escalating into something like a real fight. This, according to psychologists, is the reason why laughter exists in the first place, suggesting these noises were the dolphin equivalent of a human laugh.\",\n \"-27.787708536343416\"\n ],\n [\n \"when passing a group of people. Blushing is commonly exhibited by individuals suffering from social phobia. These visible symptoms further reinforce the anxiety in the presence of others. A 2006 study found that the area of the brain called the amygdala, part of the limbic system, is hyperactive when patients are shown threatening faces or confronted with frightening situations.\\nThey found that patients with more severe social phobia showed a correlation with the increased response in the amygdala. Comorbidity SAD shows a high degree of co-occurrence with other psychiatric disorders. In fact, a population-based study found that 66% of those with\",\n \"-27.741976487537613\"\n ],\n [\n \"suffering associated with a traumatic event.\\nIf the individual is shy or bashful and appears nervous when talking, they are likely to exhibit nervous laughter. Individuals who are shy and introverted who find themselves the center of conversational attention often become \\\"giddy\\\" with nervous laughter; this is a subconscious response caused by the brain over-thinking due to social anxiety or inexperience.\",\n \"-27.722878761142056\"\n ],\n [\n \"to better assess and interpret the emotions of others. Prosocial behaviours have been observed in children 1–2 years old. Through self-report methods it is difficult to measure emotional responses as they are not as able to report these responses as well as adult. This is representative of an increased efficiency of and ability to engage in internal moral reasoning. Theory of mind The development of theory of mind, or the ability to view the world from perspectives of other people, is strongly associated with the development of sympathy and other complex emotions. These emotions are complex because they involve more\",\n \"-27.719249290850712\"\n ],\n [\n \"is completely isolated.\\nVicarious embarrassment, like other vicarious emotions, presents symptoms that reflect the original emotion. However, unlike shared emotions, the experience of embarrassment for the observer is dependent on how they normally experience embarrassment. Individuals who experience social anxiety in their own life may experience the familiar symptoms of blushing, excess sweating, trembling, palpitations, and nausea. Other, less severe symptoms may include cringing, looking away, or general discomfort. Empathy Vicarious embarrassment, also known as empathetic embarrassment, is intrinsically linked to empathy. Empathy is the ability to understand the feelings of another and is considered a highly reinforcing emotion to promote\",\n \"-27.654823627206497\"\n ],\n [\n \"simulation of an emotion tends to arouse it in our minds.\\nFollowing on this idea, William James proposed that, contrary to common belief, awareness of bodily changes activated by a stimulus \\\"is the emotion\\\". If no bodily changes are felt, there is only an intellectual thought, devoid of emotional warmth. In The Principles of Psychology, James wrote: \\\"Refuse to express a passion, and it dies\\\".\\nThis proved difficult to test, and little evidence was available, apart from some animal research and studies of people with severely impaired emotional functioning. The facial feedback hypothesis, \\\"that skeletal muscle feedback from facial expressions plays a\",\n \"-27.65443487369339\"\n ],\n [\n \"emotion, because when a mix of structural cues is used, a number of emotions may be conveyed. Development Studies indicate that the ability to understand emotional messages in music starts early, and improves throughout child development. Studies investigating music and emotion in children primarily play a musical excerpt for children and have them look at pictorial expressions of faces. These facial expressions display different emotions and children are asked to select the face that best matches the music's emotional tone. Studies have shown that children are able to assign specific emotions to pieces of music; however, there is debate regarding\",\n \"-27.637899262379506\"\n ],\n [\n \"to everyone and it provides benefits to a person's physical, emotional, and social well being. Some of the benefits of using laughter therapy are that it can relieve stress and relax the whole body. It can also boost the immune system and release endorphins to relieve pain. Additionally, laughter can help prevent heart disease by increasing blood flow and improving the function of blood vessels. Some of the emotional benefits include diminishing anxiety or fear, improving overall mood, and adding joy to one's life. Laughter is also known to reduce allergic reactions in a preliminary study\",\n \"-27.596484867659456\"\n ],\n [\n \"emotion (the medial Prefrontal cortex, the posterior Cingulate cortex/Precuneus, the posterior Superior temporal sulcus/Inferior parietal lobule and the Amygdala), while when they responded to impersonal dilemmas, they displayed increased activity in regions of the brain associated with working memory (the Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the Parietal lobe). In recent work, Greene has stated that the Amygdala is primarily responsible for the emotional response, whilst the Ventromedial prefrontal cortex is responsible for weighing up the consequentialist response against the emotional response. Thus, three brain regions are primarily implicated in the making of moral judgements. This gives way to\",\n \"-27.585930336877936\"\n ],\n [\n \"as contractions in the upper cheek muscles. Further affects that seem to be missing for Tomkins's taxonomy include relief, resignation, and confusion, among many others.\\nThe affect joy is observed through the display of smiling. These affects can be identified through immediate facial reactions that people have to a stimulus, typically well before they could process any real response to the stimulus.\\nThe findings from a study on negative affect arousal and white noise by Stanley S. Seidner \\\"support the existence of a negative affect arousal mechanism through observations regarding the devaluation of speakers from other Spanish ethnic origins\\\". Criticism Many scholars,\",\n \"-27.57723961235024\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ramachandran also speculated, object recognition and the search for meaning can evoke a pleasant emotional response. The motor cortex was also shown to be involved in aesthetic perception. However, it displayed opposite trends of activation from the OFC. It may be a common correlate for the perception of emotionally charged stimuli despite its previously known roles. Several other areas of the brain were shown to be slightly activated during certain studies such as the anterior cingulate cortex, previously known for its involvement in the feeling of romance, and the left parietal cortex, whose purpose may be to direct spatial attention.\\nDifferent\",\n \"-27.540639560917043\"\n ],\n [\n \"that people attach their egos to their sense of humor before anything else. After I read it, I saw that trait in many people…a sense of humor is important to understanding what kind of person someone is. Studying metaphysics was also crucial, but Koestler's book really was the big one for me.\\\" As a consequence, the Smile songs are replete with word play, puns, colloquialisms, vernacular, double entendres, slang, and miscellaneous dialect. At one stage, Wilson apparently toyed with the idea of devoting Smile as a comedy album and a number of scrapped recordings were made in this vein. David\",\n \"-27.519018781822524\"\n ],\n [\n \"thesis of the work is that laughter is a corrective evolved to make social life possible for human beings. We laugh at people who fail to adapt to the demands of society if it seems their failure is akin to an inflexible mechanism. Comic authors have exploited this human tendency to laugh in various ways, and what is common to them is the idea that the comic consists in there being \\\"something mechanical encrusted on the living\\\".\\nIn 1901 the Académie des sciences morales et politiques elected Bergson as a member, and he became a member of the Institute. In 1903\",\n \"-27.485137347481214\"\n ],\n [\n \"a connection between specific emotions and a corresponding pattern of physiological responses, although it is said that these attempts have rendered unsuccessful conclusions. Theories of emotional response The significant theories of emotion can be divided into three primary categories: physiological, neurological, and cognitive. Physiological theories imply that activity within the body can be accountable for emotions. Neurological theories suggest that activity within the brain leads to emotional responses. Lastly, cognitive theories reason that thoughts and other mental activity have a vital role in the stimulation of emotions. Common-sense suggests that people first become consciously aware of their emotions and that\",\n \"-27.445329106762074\"\n ],\n [\n \"affect Pseudobulbar affect (PBA) is a condition that is characterized by episodes of uncontrollable laughter or crying. It mostly occurs in people suffering from certain neurological injuries that affect the way their brain controls emotions. Scientists believe PBA may be a result of damage to the prefrontal cortex, which is the area of the brain that controls emotions. Because PBA often involves crying, the condition may be mistaken for depression. However, PBA is a neurological condition, while depression is psychological. People suffering from PBA do not experience some of the typical depression symptoms such as sleep disturbances or loss\",\n \"-27.42480791580556\"\n ],\n [\n \"scientists and philosophers who were working in the beginning stages of the field of psychology.\\nIn medical research, speechlessness was described as an incorrect prognosis, and there was no assumption that underlying language complications existed. Broca and his colleagues were some of the first to write about aphasia, but Wernicke was the first credited to have written extensively about aphasia being a disorder that contained comprehension difficulties. Despite claims of who reported on aphasia first, it was F.J. Gall that gave the first full description of aphasia after studying wounds to the brain, as well as his observation of speech\",\n \"-27.31843963553547\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":598,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2ok0m8"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Whats the reasoning for Nordic Countries such as Denmark and Sweden actively accepting so many refugees?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["it's called humanity. Scandinavian people are more concerned with who they are and what they will become then they are concerned with who others are and what they could do to them. They see the oppertunity that people bring, not the dangers that they could create, and strive to increase the opperunity rather then obstruct it, resulting in less trouble from migrants and more positive results.","Because its the right thing to do, they wouldn't be some of the worlds happiest countries if they didn't care about peoples well being.","Too many people think they can save the world by accepting immigrants and asylum seekers. They refuse to admit that a huge bunch of them are luck seekers and are only after our benefits. Granted there are many successful immigrants, there are far too many that contribute little or negatively to our society and make it an unsafe place to live. They often gather in the large cities and in malmø and soon oslo there are ghetto areas that white people avoid. A large number of people are very disgruntled with this policy, but the leftists put a racist stigma on anyone who air this opinion. Fact is, with the huge amount of resources these immigrants cost our society in the long run we could actually help them in their own country to a much better effect. We take in one family that are quite likely to be failures in our society and with the resources they cost we could help ten families where they are instead. TL:DR, it is a terrible policy but the political climate does not allow sensible opinions without racist stigma.","extreme liberal guilt for being hard-working and productive. Many think they 'owe' others something. But the backlash and buyer's remorse has already started..multiculturalism is a failure."],"string":"[\n \"it's called humanity. Scandinavian people are more concerned with who they are and what they will become then they are concerned with who others are and what they could do to them. They see the oppertunity that people bring, not the dangers that they could create, and strive to increase the opperunity rather then obstruct it, resulting in less trouble from migrants and more positive results.\",\n \"Because its the right thing to do, they wouldn't be some of the worlds happiest countries if they didn't care about peoples well being.\",\n \"Too many people think they can save the world by accepting immigrants and asylum seekers. They refuse to admit that a huge bunch of them are luck seekers and are only after our benefits. Granted there are many successful immigrants, there are far too many that contribute little or negatively to our society and make it an unsafe place to live. They often gather in the large cities and in malmø and soon oslo there are ghetto areas that white people avoid. A large number of people are very disgruntled with this policy, but the leftists put a racist stigma on anyone who air this opinion. Fact is, with the huge amount of resources these immigrants cost our society in the long run we could actually help them in their own country to a much better effect. We take in one family that are quite likely to be failures in our society and with the resources they cost we could help ten families where they are instead. TL:DR, it is a terrible policy but the political climate does not allow sensible opinions without racist stigma.\",\n \"extreme liberal guilt for being hard-working and productive. Many think they 'owe' others something. But the backlash and buyer's remorse has already started..multiculturalism is a failure.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["other countries facing the strongest influx of refugees without quotas.\n Denmark – Denmark temporarily closed rail links with Germany in September to stop migrants from illegally entering the country, and the E45 Motorway due to migrants on the road. Denmark used the second highest amount on asylum seekers among European nations in 2015, compared to GDP (0.47 percent of GDP, after Sweden at 0.5 percent, followed by Germany and Italy at 0.2 percent, with remaining lower). This is expected to rise in 2016.\nIn December 2015, the Danish Government announced that it would introduce new laws that will allow confiscation of cash","-32.311982705505216"],["3,500 of these applied for asylum in Denmark and the remaining continued to other Nordic countries.\nAfter Sweden introduced ID checks on the Danish border to prevent undocumented migrants from coming to Sweden, Denmark also reintroduced border controls on the Danish-German border in January 2016, wanting to avoid predicted accumulation of illegal migrants on their way to Sweden as one of the reasons for this decision. As of September 2019, the border control remains.\nIn October 2016 Danish immigration minister Inger Støjberg authorities reported 50 cases of suspected radicalised asylum seekers at asylum centres. The reports encompassed everything from adult Islamic State","-31.970758332274272"],["such as Iran and Sri Lanka. In the 1990s, war refugees from the Balkans were the predominant immigrant group accepted into Norway; a large number of which have since returned home to Kosovo. Since the end of the 1990s, new groups of asylum seekers from countries such as Iraq, Somalia, and Afghanistan arrived.\nThe Dublin Regulation in 2001 states that non-European refugees applying for asylum in a Dublin country, will only get their application processed once, in the country where they first apply for asylum.\nDuring the European migrant crisis in 2015, a total of 31,145 asylum seekers crossed the Norwegian border","-31.953164091915824"],["resettle asylum seekers who have been determined to be genuine refugees.\nIndividual countries have at times re-introduced border controls within the Schengen Area and rifts have emerged between countries willing to allow entry of asylum seekers for processing of refugee claims and other countries trying to discourage their entry.\nAccording to Eurostat, EU member states received over 1.2 million first-time asylum applications in 2015, more than double that of the previous year. Four states (Germany, Hungary, Sweden and Austria) received around two-thirds of the EU's asylum applications in 2015, with Hungary, Sweden and Austria being the top recipients of asylum applications per","-31.710108854982536"],["to 25% and the tests were widended to migrants from other regions.\nBy september 2019, 15 foreign residents who had travelled from Norway to Syria or Iraq to join the Islamic State had their residence permits revoked. Refugees in Norway One cause of immigration in the 20th and 21st century is the need for protection in a new country, due to wars or riots in the migrants' home countries. In the 1950s, refugees came from Hungary to Norway, and in the 1970s from Chile and Vietnam. In the mid-1980s, there was an increase in the number of asylum seekers from countries","-31.37286653238698"],["border, and the Norwegian government vowed to send all migrants with Russian residence visa back to Russia even if they were from countries experiencing conflicts such as Afghanistan. In 2016, 5,500 asylum-seekers illegally entered Norway from Russia. Norway began sending migrants back to conflict-torn countries of origin, such as Afghanistan, defying Amnesty International. The number of migrants returned from Europe to Afghanistan between 2015–16 nearly tripled from 3290 to 9460. Because it is illegal to drive from Russia to Norway without proper legal permission, and crossing on foot is prohibited, the migrants make the crossing on bicycles. It was in","-31.17810181278037"],["in 2015. The number had not been as high since the Balkan wars in 1990s. Most of the asylum seekers came from Afghanistan and Syria. In 2016, the number was dramatically reduced by almost 90%. In 2016, 3460 asylum seekers came to Norway. This was partly due to the stricter border control in Europe. The EU-Turkey agreement, implemented 20 March 2016, was made in order strengthen organized channels of immigration to Europe, and prevent irregular migration from Turkey to the EU.\nAs part of the UN, Norway receives UN quota refugees. In 2015, the Norwegian government announced that they would receive","-31.162390738598333"],["border checks on the Øresund Bridge between Denmark and Sweden and public transport operators were instructed to only let people wih residence in Sweden board trains or buses. The measures reduced the number of asylum seekers from 163 000 in 2015 to 29 000 in 2016.\nIn 2018, a poll by Pew Research found that a small majority (52%) wanted fewer immigrants to be allowed into the country, 33% wanted to keep the current level and 14% wanted to increase immigration.\nAccording to a 2018 Yougov poll, 60% of Swedes opposed accepting more migrants into the country. Switzerland Switzerland has a history","-31.161855664569885"],["Sweden voluntarily prefer to emigrate back to their country of origin. As more state funds are made free from funding mass immigration, SD believes that Sweden will be better able to help refugees in their own nearby locations.\nSD has referred to the recommendations from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) which state that the return of refugees should be the solution to refugee problems. Torbjörn Kastell (former party secretary from 2003 to 2004) said in 2002 that the party wanted \"a multicultural world, not a multicultural society\". In a 2008 survey, a significant minority of 39% of all","-31.125151481197463"],["in Denmark as a \"vehicle of progressive change.\" Refugees and asylum seekers Denmark is argued by some to have some of Europe's \"most aggressive anti-immigrant policies.\" The people of Denmark are largely divided in their opinions on immigration - some accepting of it and others who are concerned and thus want restrictive policies in place.\nIn 2016, the Danish annulled its agreement with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) that stated that it would receive 500 refugees on a annual basis for resettlement.\nIn 2018, Denmark announced that it would no longer resettle refugees under the United Nation's quota system,","-30.774064160075795"],["According to the European Council on Refugees and Exiles, a network of European refugee-assisting non-governmental organizations (NGOs), huge differences exist between national asylum systems in Europe, making the asylum system a 'lottery' for refugees. For example, Iraqis who flee their home country and end up in Germany have an 85% chance of being recognised as a refugee and those who apply for asylum in Slovenia do not get a protection status at all. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom the Asylum Support Partnership was created to enable all the agencies working to support and assist asylum seekers in making asylum","-30.555190123210195"],["Swedes thought that there were \"too many foreigners in the country\", and in 2007 a survey showed that 49% of all Swedes wanted to restrict the number of asylum-seekers. In recent years SD has tried to approach the immigration policy of the Danish People's Party, which from 2001 to 2011 provided parliamentary support for the former Danish liberal/conservative government in return for a tightening of Danish immigration policies and stricter naturalization laws.\nAccording to Aftonbladet, 14% of SD members are of immigrant origin, which matches the share of foreign-born inhabitants of Sweden. For the 2010 election in the municipality of Södertälje (Stockholm County),","-29.916249427071307"],["local authorities had estimated the flow of 300 asylum seekers per day entering via the northern land border from Sweden into Tornio, which is the main route of migration flow into Finland. The total number of asylum seekers for the year was reported to be over 2.6 times the total amount for the whole of the previous year. During October 2015, 7,058 new asylum seekers arrived in Finland. In mid-October the number of asylum seekers entering Finland during 2015 reached 27,000, which is, in relation to the country's size, the fourth-largest in Europe. In late November, the number passed 30,000,","-29.664272914006688"],["number of asylum applications lodged by Syrian refugees in Europe steadily increased between 2011 and 2015, totaling 813,599 in 37 European countries (including both EU members and non-members) as of November 2015; 57 percent of them applied for asylum in Germany or Serbia. The largest single recipient of new asylum seekers worldwide in 2014 was the Russian Federation, with 274,700 asylum requests. Migration to Greece and Bulgaria 2007–2015 Between 2007 and 2011, large numbers of migrants from the Middle East and Africa crossed between Turkey and Greece, leading Greece and the European Border Protection agency Frontex to upgrade border controls.","-29.650011373727466"],["in large part because the languages are mutually intelligible especially in the border regions.\nEven in modern times, there have been serious talks of a Nordic Union, either within or in competition with the European Union, and a Nordic Passport Union has been in existence since 1952, allowing all citizens of the Nordic countries to travel freely without documents.","-29.637832699343562"],["in 1954 and implemented on 1 May 1958, allows citizens of the Nordic countries: Denmark (Faroe Islands included since 1 January 1966, Greenland not included), Sweden, Norway (Svalbard, Bouvet Island and Queen Maud Land not included), Finland and Iceland (since 24 September 1965) to cross approved border districts without carrying and having their passport checked. Other citizens can also travel between the Nordic countries' borders without having their passport checked, but still have to carry some sort of approved travel identification documents. As of November 2015, there are temporary border controls set up between Denmark and Sweden. These border controls","-29.50662434105834"],["Soviet Union annexed these parts again from Finland, the population there had to be evacuated yet again. These evacuees were housed and settled to the remainder of Finland by the state. Modern day The most common reasons to immigrate to Finland were family reasons (32%), work (30%) and studying (21%).\nIn 2017, hundreds of Muslim asylum seekers from Iraq and Afghanistan converted to Christianity after having had their first asylum application rejected by the Finnish Immigration Service (Migri), in order to re-apply for asylum on the grounds of religious persecution. Employment Around 20,000 immigrants in Finland are searching for jobs.\nAround 70%","-29.46640900793136"],["inadequate protection capacity, resettlement remains the most viable option for UN mandated refugees. It is estimated that there are thousands of UN mandated refugees in Russia who have been in the Russian asylum system for five years or more. For these individuals especially, resettlement to Western Europeans countries and to North America is very desirable – where they can actually settle. The UNHCR works with the migration offices of these countries and attempts to find these mandated refugees a home. Present Day Conditions for Asylum Seekers in Russia The conditions for asylum seekers in Russia are generally","-29.411529361634166"],["were set up to tackle the issue with immigrants coming to Sweden in relation to the ongoing European migrant crisis\nSince 1996, these countries have been part of the larger EU directive Schengen Agreement area, comprising 30 countries in Europe. Border checkpoints have been removed within the Schengen zone and only a national ID card is required. Within the Nordic area any means of proving one's identity, e.g. a driving licence, is valid for Nordic citizens because of the Nordic Passport Union.\nSince 25 March 2001, the Schengen acquis has fully applied to the five countries of the Nordic Passport Union (except","-29.35071460110339"],["be deported from Norway. \"Asylum children\" case By late 2014 Anundsen became the subject of a controversy surrounding the deportation of so-called \"long-term asylum children\", children of asylum seekers who have had their application rejected, only to continue living in Norway illegally for several years. While the government's expressed policy has introduced measures to deport record numbers of illegal immigrants, it was revealed by Bergens Tidende that twice as many families had been sent out of Norway in 2014 than in 2013, despite that as part of the new government platform the Liberal and Christian Democratic parties had secured support","-29.073825032261084"],["Law. Since then, in Germany's neighbouring countries, more specifically known as \"safe third countries\", the expected number of asylum seekers sank steadily, from roughly 320,000 in 1993 to 28,018 in 2008. It was decided that asylum seekers would only have the chance of a favourable decision if they arrive by air. As a part of the \"Asylum Compromise\", transient asylum seekers, who have landed in Germany and are still within the transit area, will be subject to accelerated asylum procedures. According to the rules, the decision on their application must be made within 2 days; the objection period is only","-29.028685428616882"],["smaller boats over the Baltic Sea. Many refugees who survived the risky sea voyage to Sweden or Germany later moved from there to Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States or Australia. Some of these refugees and their descendants returned to Estonia after the nation regained its independence in 1991.\nOver the years of independence, increasing numbers of Estonians have chosen to work abroad, primarily in Finland, but also in other European countries (mostly in the UK, Benelux, Sweden, and Germany), making Estonia the country with the highest emigration rate in Europe. This is at least partly due to the easy","-28.965095546504017"],["was mostly caused by significantly fewer violations off the alien law, because far fewer asylum seekers entered the country in this year.\nThe first comprehensive study of the social effects of the one million refugees going to Germany found that it caused \"very small increases in crime in particular with respect to drug offenses and fare-dodging.\" A report released by the German Federal Office of Criminal Investigation in November 2015 found that over the period January–September 2015, the crime rate of refugees was the same as that of native Germans. According to Deutsche Welle, the report \"concluded that the majority of","-28.88215806122753"],["with the 2015 Syrian refugee crisis Sweden adopted new border controls and cut benefits that refugees had previously had. Sweden introduced an amendment to their asylum seeker policies which prevented entitlement to \"accommodation, subsistence allowance and special aid\" for adult asylum seekers with no children and who have had their applications rejected. These emergency measures breached asylum-seekers fundamental rights such as the right to family reunification.","-28.848217785503948"],["complete stop to all immigration from non-Western countries, a continuation of a proposal the month before to toughen the 24-year rule. They do, however, make the distinction between immigrants, those who intend to stay in Denmark permanently, and refugees, those that will only be in Denmark for the duration of the conflict, but ultimately intend to return home. The party has stated that it is more than happy to help those in need, but have a moral responsibility to the people of Denmark to keep Denmark Danish.\nCooperation with the Conservative-Liberal coalition government resulted in the implementation of some of their","-28.70905331557151"],["Nordic Passport Union Establishment The Nordic Passport Union was established in three stages. In 1952, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland agreed to abolish passports for travel between them and to readmit citizens of other countries who had entered illegally into one of the four countries from another. On 1 July 1954, the agreement was extended to allow citizens to reside and work in any of the four countries without a residence or work permit. Iceland implemented the agreement on 1 January 1966. Passport checks for citizens of non-member countries at the borders between member countries were removed by a treaty","-28.59452571166912"],["to grant asylum to political refugees throughout the war, and in 1942 groups persecuted for other reasons were also admitted by Swedish officials. The escape from Norway usually involved transport by train or side roads to areas near the border, and then clandestine passage on foot, skis and occasionally boat to the Swedish border. Swedish border officials (landfiskaler) accepted the refugees and sent them to transit centers.\nAfter Öreryd in Småland proved inadequate, on June 15, 1942, Kjesäter was designated as the main assembly and transit point for refugees who had fled the Nazi German occupation of Norway by crossing the","-28.584068433614448"],["only 744 of which were extended asylum status in the country by July 2017. In 2016 the Pew Research Center found that from July 2015 to May 2016 there was an increase in percentage point of the refugee population in many European countries, however Spain was one of the few that experienced a decrease. The difficulty with refugees successfully immigrating to Spain has led to some researchers such as Kitty Calavita to suggest that the country's marginalization and social and economic exclusion are primarily produced by law, rather than culture. Hungary In 1956–57 following the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 nearly","-28.54030148583479"],["more difficulty when attempting to bring family into the country. Non-Europeans must find jobs for their family members before they would be allowed to enter the country, and since preference is given to members of the European Union, finding jobs becomes more problematic. Passports and visas Nordic Country members do not require any form of travel document or work permit to enter the country and are also provided the right to remain in Iceland for more than six months by providing a Nordic change of residence certificate.\nCitizens of countries from the EU also do not require a visa and are","-28.482137103637797"],["country of origin\" or a \"safe third country\" can no longer claim political asylum on account of feeling in danger. In 1993, the law to give benefits for asylum seekers was introduced. It stated, amongst other things, that foreigners who from the start have been dependent on government aid, were to receive a lower amount than Germans and any others of equal status. The amount fell by almost 40%, to a smaller amount than the unemployment benefit (Arbeitslosengeld II LINK). In 1997 the Dublin convention was concluded, through which the German refugee policy was secured according to the European Community","-28.461970246135024"],["Nordic Passport Union and the Schengen Area, which now is under EU law, as a non-voting participant. Iceland's participation in the Schengen Area allows free movement of people between Iceland and the rest of the Schengen Area. Several thousand Icelanders travel to and study or work in the EU. A large majority of foreigners in Iceland come from the EU. Iceland is also associated with the Dublin Convention on justice and home affairs cooperation. Iceland also has links to several EU member states through its membership of the Nordic Council. Use of the euro During the 2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis,","-28.435288048465736"],["EU members and non-members).\nAs of 2017, 55 percent of refugees worldwide came from three nations: South Sudan, Afghanistan, and Syria. Of all displaced peoples, 17 percent of them are being hosted in Europe. As of April 2018, 15,481 refugees have successfully arrived to the shores of Europe via sea within the first few months of the year alone. There was an estimated 500 that have died in this year alone. In 2015, there was a total of 1.02 million arrivals by sea. Since then, the influx has steadily decreased but is ongoing nonetheless. Syria The greatest number of refugees fleeing","-28.156200509227347"],["LEA in Karlsruhe, which had a capacity of 1000, took in 3500 people.\n \nIt proved to be difficult to register newcomers quickly, and furthermore to quickly separate the refugees who had to be sheltered because of the Geneva Convention on Refugees, from those migrants who are not legally entitled to stay in Germany. Locating the illegal entrants as well as the fast deportation of those who did not have the right of residence also proved to be difficult. Above all, this situation led to a controversial, nationwide debate over the German refugee policy. \nOn February 17, 2016, shortly before the","-28.15351502376143"],["Aliens with residence permits are allowed to stay up to three months in other Nordic countries, except for seeking employment or conducting business.\nAliens who are denied entry into one Nordic country should also be denied entry into the other Nordic countries. The Nordic countries are also obliged to readmit aliens that should have been denied entry at the first point of entry.","-28.139713744749315"],["enforced inside Nordic countries, at least not before 2015. Abolition of passport for Nordic citizens The protocol concerning the abolition of passports for travel between Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Norway was signed on 14 July 1952, in Stockholm.\nThis protocol was implemented by the individual but concurrent decisions of the four governments. It abolished the need for citizens of the four countries to carry a passport when travelling in the three other countries provided that the trip was for such a short time that a residence permit was not necessary.\nThe agreement could be revoked in case of war, danger of war,","-28.114896389015485"],["asylum and subscribed to a \"safe country of transit\" policy, which required asylum seekers who transited a country determined to be \"safe\" to return to that country to seek refugee status. With the expansion of the European Union (EU) this concept has lost some of its importance because upon their accession, neighboring Slovenia, the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, and Hungary became subject to the EU provisions that establish criteria and mechanisms for determining the EU member state responsible for examining an asylum application. In 2005 new legislation introduced stricter detention and removal policies as part of a stronger enforcement","-28.099312820559135"],["other's missions abroad. The Memorandum made it easier for the Nordic and Baltic countries to maintain a diplomatic presence around the world by enabling flexible and cost-effective solutions. This reinforced diplomatic cooperation coincided with the twentieth anniversary of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania regaining their freedom and re-establishing diplomatic relations with other countries. The memorandum regulates the diplomatic and practical aspects of posting diplomats to the mission abroad of another Nordic or Baltic country. NB6 - cooperation among Nordic and Baltic EU Member States Since 1 May 2004, six Nordic and Baltic countries (Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) are","-27.98885130850249"],["the free movement of people, labour, goods, and capital across national borders. Nordic countries Since the end of the Second World War, the following organisations have been established in the Nordic region:\nThe Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers is a co-operation forum for the parliaments and governments of the Nordic countries created in February 1953. It includes the states of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, and their autonomous territories (Greenland, Faroe Islands and Åland).\nThe Nordic Passport Union, created in 1954 but implemented on 1 May 1958, establishes free movement across borders without passports for the countries' citizens.","-27.977701104187872"],["to slow down first.\nOn 22 September 2015, European Union interior ministers meeting in the Justice and Home Affairs Council approved a plan to relocate 120,000 asylum seekers over two years from the frontline states Italy, Greece and Hungary to all other EU countries (except Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom which have opt-outs). The relocation plan applies to asylum seekers \"in clear need of international protection\" (those with a recognition rate higher than 75 percent, i.e. Syrians, Eritreans and Iraqis) – 15,600 from Italy, 50,400 from Greece and 54,000 from Hungary – who will be distributed among EU states on","-27.89509843631822"],["plan was rejected because only a few refugees could be accommodated up elsewhere during the year 1990 and it was likely to accommodate new refugees from the Soviet Union in January 1991.\nIn 1993, the refugee camp was renamed the Asylum Office of the Federal Ministry of the Interior (\"Bundesbetreuungsstelle für Asylwerber\").\nIn 2015, as a result of the European migrant crisis, the Asylum Office in Traiskirchen had to admit a rising number of illegal immigrants. Due to heavy criticism by the press and civilians alike, Amnesty International inspected the facility on August 6, 2015.\nMore than 4500 people were accommodated by the","-27.87915889598662"],["refugees.\nIn 2016, 85.8 percent of refugees in Switzerland received welfare payments. Turkey The vast majority of migrants and refugees entering Europe by sea in 2015, nearly half million by September, arrived from Turkey, according to the United Nations. Turkish officials attempting to deter migration facilitated by smugglers have detained 57,000 travellers and over 100 human traffickers in 2015 through September. Deaths and incidents Several serious accidents and deaths have occurred in Europe as a result of migrant smuggling, both in the Mediterranean Sea, due to the capsizing of crowded and unseaworthy migrant smuggling vessels, and on European soil, due to","-27.852209143631626"],["million unemployed immigrants in Sweden are a ticking bomb.\nIn December 2017 Minister for Finance Magdalena Andersson stated in an interview with Dagens Nyheter that integration of immigrants had not worked well in Sweden since before 2015 and that the situation had become very strained since. Andersson added that the possibilities were greater in other European countries to receive housing and education where the asylum process is quicker. She also expressed that the Swedish Social Democratic Party should be self-critical about that Sweden cannot receive more migrants than society has the capacity to assimilate.","-27.807185312150978"],["Russian forces – I can't find any other reason for them other than to cause refugees to be on the move and make them someone else's problem.\" He also claimed that criminals, extremists and fighters were hiding in the flow of migrants.\nRussian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev said: \"It's quite simply stupid to open Europe's doors wide and invite in everyone who wants to come to your country. European migration policy is a total failure, all that is absolutely frightening.\"\nIn June 2016, exiled Cuban journalist Carlos Alberto Montaner suggested that France could establish a refugee state in French Guiana.\nOn 18 June","-27.754502586554736"],["Russians in Finland History The first migratory wave of Russians began in the early 18th century, when Finland was part of the Swedish Empire. About 40,000 Russian soldiers, civilian workers, and about 600 businessmen moved to the Grand Duchy of Finland, which became part of the Russian Empire in 1809. When Finland became independent in 1917, many soldiers returned to Russia. Many businessmen stayed, including the Sinebrychoff family. During the Russian Revolution many aristocrats and officers fled to Finland as refugees. The biggest refugee wave was in 1922 when about 33,500 people came to Finland. Many of them had Nansen","-27.72303849864693"],["less than one week), as opposed to the exit visa normally required of all individuals leaving Russia (which could take several months). Local Integration According to the Law on Refugees, Government recognized refugees can apply for citizenship. Nevertheless, there are significant legal obstacles for their acquisition of citizenship due to the restrictive registration system, which required proof of adequate income. Local integration, though typically desirable, is an unrealistic goal for most asylum seekers as the Russian government does not recognize the UN mandated refugees. Resettlement The most common solution for UN recognized refugees is resettlement. Due to","-27.715294583758805"],["immediately fled to Germany. Czech Prime Minister Bohuslav Sobotka stated that this signals that quota system will not work either.\nOn 7 September 2015, France announced that it would accept 24,000 asylum-seekers over two years; Britain announced that it would take in up to 20,000 refugees, primarily vulnerable children and orphans from camps in Jordan, Lebanon and Turkey; and Germany pledged US$6.7 billion to deal with the migrant crisis. However, also on 7 September 2015, both Austria and Germany warned that they would not be able to keep up with the current pace of the influx and that it would need","-27.70209348573917"],["the Nordic countries can reside without residence permit in any other Nordic country.\nPolice authorities in the Nordic countries shall make all necessary information available to ascertain a person's identity and citizenship in a Nordic country. Removal of passport checks at the internal Nordic borders The agreement between Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden to remove passport control at the internal Nordic borders, was signed on 12 July 1957 in Copenhagen and came into force on 1 May 1958.\nThis agreement removed all passport checks at the internal Nordic borders, and required the Nordic countries to uphold passport control at the external borders.","-27.701471154025057"],["of Nordic countries the right to freely travel to and reside in other Nordic countries without a passport or residence permit. Gulf Cooperation Council Citizens of member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) have freedom of movement throughout the GCC, including the right to reside and work in other GCC states with almost no restrictions. Common Travel Area The Common Travel Area (CTA) consists of the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, and the UK's surrounding island territories. British and Irish citizens can move freely throughout the CTA without a passport and only minimal identity documents, and are subject to","-27.67964950753958"],["consider themselves Nordic rather than Baltic, in particular because of close ethnic and linguistic affinities with the Finns.\nAfter the Treaty of Tartu (1920) recognised Estonia's 1918 independence from Russia, ethnic Estonians residing in Russia gained the option of opting for Estonian citizenship (those who opted were called optandid - 'optants') and returning to their fatherland. An estimated 40,000 Estonians lived in Russia in 1920. In sum, 37,578 people moved from Soviet Russia to Estonia (1920–1923). Emigration During World War II, when Estonia was invaded by the Soviet Army in 1944, large numbers of Estonians fled their homeland on ships or","-27.641850379062817"],["national public-broadcasting company, reported that a Russian border guard had admitted that the Federal Security Service was enabling migrants to enter Finland.\nIn 2017, hundreds Muslim asylum seekers from Iraq and Afghanistan converted to Christianity after having had their first asylum application rejected by the Finnish Immigration Service (Migri), in order to re-apply for asylum on the grounds of religious persecution. Greece Migrants arrive from the Middle East making the 6-kilometre (4 mi) water crossing to the Greek islands of Chios, Kos, Lesbos, Leros, Kastellorizo, Agathonisi, Farmakonisi, Rhodes, Samos, Symi and other islands which are close to Turkey and are thus a","-27.635254462482408"],["The main countries of origin of asylum seekers, accounting for almost half of the total, were Syria (20 percent), Afghanistan (7 percent), Kosovo (6 percent), Eritrea (6 percent) and Albania\nIn 2014, decisions on asylum applications in the EU made at the first instance resulted in more than 160,000 asylum seekers being granted protection status, while a further 23,000 received protection status on appeal. The rate of recognition of asylum applicants was 45 percent at the first instance and 18 percent on appeal. The main beneficiaries of protection status, accounting for more than half of the total, were Syrians (68,300 or","-27.629393084382173"],["border into Sweden. These refugees included political activists, members of the resistance, and Jews fleeing deportation to extermination camps. It is estimated that about 50,000 individuals made it across the border to Sweden during the war. Refugees would typically be intercepted by Swedish border patrols soon after they had entered into Swedish territory, interviewed, and be given an \"emergency visa\" with 2-week duration with directions and fare (if needed) to Kjesäter. The processing there would take 3–4 days and typically involved medical examination, in-depth interrogations, etc. Norwegian nationals would be given a Norwegian passport; stateless individuals would be given a","-27.614753765781643"],["a non-EU member country but full participant in the Schengen Agreement, the Swiss Confederation was directly affected by the migrant crisis with most of the refugees arriving from Italy at border crossings in the Southern cantons of Ticino and Valais. In the crisis year 2015, almost 40,000 asylum seekers were applying for refugee status. In 2016, this number dropped by 31 percent, and in the first quarter of 2017 by another 57 percent, compared to the same time period in 2016. Most of the asylum seekers arriving in Switzerland originate from Eritrea (49 percent), followed by Afghanistan (30 percent) and","-27.56166172848316"],["asylum was no small matter as the country was poor and had difficulty feeding and caring for such a large group of refugees. Eventually, Argentina agreed to permanently resettle the asylum seekers. In contrast, the British repatriated the Russians who fought on the side of Germany to the USSR, where they were summarily treated as traitors and most of them executed, including their families. The Post-War era In dire financial straits following the war, the Liechtenstein dynasty often resorted to selling family artistic treasures, including for instance the portrait \"Ginevra de' Benci\" by Leonardo da Vinci, which was purchased by","-27.527671771938913"],["Australia in particular, receives hundreds of refugees every month.\nAbout 69,000 Sri Lankan Tamil refugees live in 112 camps in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Jammu and Kashmir According to the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), about 300,000 Hindu Kashmiri Pandits have been forced to leave the state of Jammu and Kashmir due to Islamic militancy and religious discrimination from the Muslim majority, making them refugees in their own country. Some have found refuge in Jammu and its adjoining areas, while others in camps in Delhi and others in other states of India and other countries too. Kashmiri groups","-27.51953884365139"],["– did allow the extradition of their nationals to each other and to other Nordic countries, they refused the extradition of both their nationals and the nationals of other Nordic countries elsewhere. In addition seven of the 12 member states which joined between 2004 and 2007 – namely Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Slovenia – employed a similar prohibition prior to their accession.\nUnder the Framework Decision, member states are precluded from refusing the surrender of their own nationals wanted for the purposes of prosecution, but they may condition the surrender of a requested person on his","-27.50752591789933"],["Federal Republic of Germany had only two mechanisms for immigration by non-Germans from countries outside the European Union, due to the recruitment of migrant workers in 1973 and the lack of an immigration law: family reunification and the assertion of the basic right to asylum. The \"bottleneck\" of asylum was very early \"pried forcefully from the outside and tightened again and again from the inside in a public defensive struggle, which created the bogeyman of the so-called 'refugee'\".\nDuring the Cold War hundreds of thousands of people fled from the countries of Central and Eastern Europe through the \"Iron curtain\" to","-27.504856712766923"],["been cancelled (such as those who have been charged or convicted of crimes), or because they have over-stayed the term of their visa. Detainees also include non-citizens who have arrived without a valid visa, such as asylum seekers, including some children, who are detained while their refugee status is determined and they are either admitted to Australia or deported. In many cases people have been in immigration detention for several years. This, as well as poor conditions, neglect, harsh treatment, and deaths in some of the centres, has been the source of controversy and criticism in Australia and internationally. While","-27.501736737860483"],["with the decision to accept refugees being made by the government and not the parliament.\nIn addition, in late 2018 the Danish government announced that the 2019 budget would include funding for a scheme that would see foreign criminals who had completed jail sentences, but could not be deported, to be moved to Lindholm Island. Lindholm Island is located two miles out from the southeast of Denmark, and had previously been a laboratory for animals with highly contagious diseases. The policy has been labelled as being \"barbaric\" and \"deeply repulsive.\" Violence against women The Istanbul Convention (the Council of Europe Convention","-27.406062134105014"],["previous hundreds to some dozens. Within hours of Swedish border control becoming effective, Denmark in turn created a border control between Denmark and Germany. The migration pattern also changed with the majority of those arriving by ferry from Germany to Trelleborg instead of by train to Hyllie station, bypassing the border control between Denmark and Germany. Migrants then started taking taxis in greater numbers over the Öresund Bridge in order to evade identification. Three days later, a Danish cab driver was arrested for human trafficking near the Øresund Bridge. In January 2016 newspaper Sydsvenskan reported that the migration flow had","-27.37490733481536"],["into New Zealand is limited. Asylum seekers (convention refugees) New Zealand receives relatively few asylum seekers (the vast majority by air), whose claim is then either approved or declined by the Refugee Status Branch of the Immigration New Zealand, or by the Refugee Status Appeals Authority. There has been a considerable drop in the number of the asylum claims each year beginning in the late 1990s. In 2016, only 387 refugee status applications were received, with 32% found to be genuine. New Zealand is one of a handful of countries that takes the majority of their refugees through a quota","-27.3704010392903"],["side of the Denmark–Sweden border, while still keeping the border controls on the Swedish side. This carrier requirement has been more successful than the formal border controls, and diminished the stream of refugees to Sweden. At the same time this has disrupted train traffic and causing longer travel time for work commuters.\nAs a reaction to the Swedish control, Denmark also strengthened its border controls at the German border.\nIn October 2019 it was reported that Denmark plans to impose temporary border controls due to serious crimes including bombing perpetrated by Swedish residents.","-27.36952121811919"],["the Danish economy. In 1972 and 1973, Denmark's immigration policy only allowed for migration of workers from within the Nordic region. After 1973 this policy was expanded to also permit labor migration from Europe. Despite these limitations on immigration, the 1972 policy granted guest workers residing in Denmark the option of applying for family reunification which then became the primary method of immigration from non-European countries to Denmark.\nFor decades, Danish immigration and integration policy was built upon the assumption that with the right kind of help, immigrants and their descendands will eventually tend to the same levels of education and","-27.367794672427408"],["37 percent), Eritreans (14,600 or 8 percent) and Afghans (14,100 or 8 percent).\nFour states – Germany, Sweden, Italy and France – received around two-thirds of the EU's asylum applications and granted almost two-thirds of protection status in 2014. Sweden, Hungary and Austria were among the top recipients of EU asylum applications per capita, when adjusted for their own populations, with 8.4 asylum seekers per 1,000 inhabitants in Sweden, 4.3 in Hungary and 3.2 in Austria. 2015 In 2015, EU member states received 1,255,640 first time asylum applications, a number more than double that of the previous year. The highest number","-27.365148152865004"],["of Western Europe and the Western Hemisphere. The law did not greatly increase the number of immigrants who would be allowed into the country each year (approximately 300,000), but it did provide for a family reunification provision that allowed for some immigrants to enter the country regardless of the overall number of immigrants. Largely because of the family reunification provision, the overall level of immigration increased far above what had been expected. Those who wrote the law expected that it would lead to more immigration from Southern Europe and Eastern Europe, as well as relatively minor upticks in immigration from","-27.36468730540946"],["\"tyranny of goodness\" haunting the Norwegian immigration debate, and that it would be more Christian and reasonable to help as many people as possible through foreign aid to refugees abroad rather than aiding fewer and more costly asylum seekers in Norway. She later vowed that her proposed asylum regulations would make Norway's asylum policies \"one of the strictest in Europe\".\nThe first four months of 2016 saw asylum applications in Norway drop to its lowest levels since 1993, with only about 250 new applications each month. The reduction resulted in at least kr 800 million (US$100 million) being saved in","-27.353513798167114"],["somewhat (migrants could still apply for asylum). On 26 November 2015, Prime Minister Stefan Löfven said the system for welcoming migrants was about to collapse and that the cabinet would propose major new restrictions and measures to reduce the inflow of migrants. He called on other European countries to take more responsibility. The government in December decided to introduce \"carrier's responsibility\" for trains and buses on the Öresund bridge which would introduce Swedish de facto border controls on the Danish side.\nIn 2016, there were reports that multiple sexual harassment incidents had been reported at the We Are Sthlm festival over","-27.338959790922672"],["Minister Chris Bowen said they were close to signing a bilateral agreement which would result in 800 asylum seekers who arrive in Australia by boat being taken to Malaysia instead. Australia would take 4,000 people from Malaysia who have previously been assessed as being refugees. However, on 31 August, the High Court ruled that the agreement to transfer refugees from Australia to Malaysia was invalid, and ordered that it not proceed. Australia would still accept 4,000 people who have been assessed as refugees in Malaysia.\nThe asylum seeker debate returned during August 2012 following the report of the Expert Panel on","-27.30816798973683"],["in need. It was only after World War II that Finnish social policy acquired the characteristics that in the next decades made it similar to other Nordic systems of social welfare.\nAccording to Finnish sociologist Erik Allardt, the hallmark of the Nordic welfare system was its comprehensiveness. Unlike the welfare systems of the United States or most West European countries, those of the Nordic countries cover the entire population, and they are not limited to those groups unable to care for themselves. Examples of this universality of coverage are national flat-rate pensions available to all once they reached a certain age,","-27.295467921474483"],["positive decisions; 88.6% recognition rate).\nOf about 200.000 people who were legally bound to leave in 2015, after their applications for asylum had been rejected, only 20,914 were deported. A major obstacle for deportation was the lack of cooperation from the home countries. In February 2016 the German government did send complaints to 17 nations who do not fulfill their international obligations and insufficiently cooperate, either by not helping to identify their own citizens, by not issuing ID cards for those whose asylum applications have been rejected, or by taking only those people back who voluntarily leave. Those nations are, in","-27.275186740617755"],["national scandal, and ministers resigned in protest. After protests by Lutheran ministers, the Archbishop, and the Social Democratic Party, no more foreign Jewish refugees were deported from Finland. \nApproximately 500 Jewish refugees arrived in Finland during World War II, although about 350 moved on to other countries, including about 160 who were transferred to neutral Sweden to save their lives on the direct orders of Marshal Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, the commander of the Finnish Army. About 40 of the remaining Jewish refugees were sent to do compulsory labor service in Salla in Lapland in March 1942. The refugees were","-27.270710151497042"],["criteria of the Regulation. On 2 September 2015, the Czech Republic also decided to offer Syrian refugees who had already applied for asylum in other EU countries and who had reached the country to either have their application processed in the Czech Republic (i. e. get asylum there) or to continue their journey elsewhere. \nStates such as Hungary, Slovakia and Poland also officially stated their opposition to any possible revision or enlargement of the Dublin Regulation, specifically referring to the eventual introduction of new mandatory or permanent quotas for solidarity measures.\nIn April 2018 at a public meeting of the Interior-Committee","-27.26726117747603"],["direct asylum reception costs alone in the revised annual state budget, amid budget strains due to the low oil price. Listhaug has since called for further immigration and asylum restrictions to be implemented, particularly in family reunifications which reached all-time highs of about 20,000 in 2017. Among her proposals is that family reunifications should rather be achieved in the native countries of immigrants instead of in Norway.\nOpinion polls consistently showed Listhaug to have the highest approval rating of all government ministers from her party, and several others. In September 2016, a poll showed that 59% of Norway's population approved of","-27.255037921800977"],["it seeks to help the few refugees who can afford the journey to Norway, when there are millions of people suffering worldwide without such possibilities. The Democrats seeks to change the refugee-policy to instead helping people outside the Norwegian border. They claim that in that way the Norwegian state can afford to help much more refugees for the same amount of money that it requires to help considerably fewer people in Norway. Foreign policy The Democrats are opposed to Norwegian membership in the European Union, and wants Norway to withdraw from the European Economic Area and the Schengen Agreement. The","-27.243789045576705"],["keep Germany and Europe open, to welcome legitimate asylum seekers in common humanity, while doing her very best to stop abuse and keep the movement to manageable proportions. Which demands a European-wide response (…)\".\nAnalyst Naina Bajekal for the United States' magazine Time in September 2015 suggested that the German decision, late August 2015, to allow Syrian refugees to apply for asylum in Germany even if they had reached Germany through other EU member states, has led to increased numbers of refugees from Syria and other regions – Afghanistan, Somalia, Iraq, Ukraine, Congo, South Sudan etc. – endeavouring to reach (Western)","-27.230980414751684"],["to migrate to. In response, in 1997, Russia amended and replaced the 1993 Law on Refugees to better address those individuals who have traveled to Russia in need of international protection. Russia’s current law on refugees The 1997 Law on Refugees, though slightly amended in 1998 and 2000, represents the Russian Federation’s current legislation on refugees. General process of attaining asylum in Russia According to Article 4.1(3), an asylum seeker who enters the Russian Federation illegally must file an application with the regional Ministry of Interior (\"MOI\") within 24 hours. According to a 2002 World Refugee Survey, the","-27.22240522399079"],["the asylum seeker meets the legislative definition of a \"refugee\" and should be granted asylum.\nAs of year end 2006, 1,020 people have been granted temporary asylum status and 405 people have been granted full refugee status by the Russian government. It is estimated, however, that there may be as many as one million \"undocumented foreigners\" on Russian soil awaiting initial access to the procedure of refugee status determination. The Russian authorities are notorious for denying refugee status to asylum seekers – with the approval rate for refugee status at only 2-5% of applicants.\nAccording to an April 2007 report,","-27.198607013444416"],["the Coastal Party.\nAccording to a 2018 Yougov poll, 52% of Norwegians opposed accepting more migrants into the country. Poland A 2015 opinion poll conducted by the Centre for Public Opinion Research (CBOS) found that 14% thought that Poland should let asylum-seekers enter and settle in Poland, 58% thought Poland should let asylum-seekers stay in Poland until they can return to their home country, and 21% thought Poland should not accept asylum-seekers at all. Furthermore, 53% thought Poland should not accept asylum-seekers from the Middle East and North Africa, with only 33% thinking Poland should accept them.\nAnother opinion poll conducted by","-27.197488616599003"],["if refugees were settled in conventional housing and given work permits, with international financial support both for refugees and local government infrastructure and educational services. Unofficial refugee settlements Within countries experiencing large refugee in-migrations, citizen volunteers, non-governmental organizations, and refugees themselves have developed short- and long-term alternatives to official refugee camps established by governments or the UNHCR. Informal camps provide physical shelter and direct service provision but also function as a form of political activism. Alternative forms of migrant settlement include squats, occupations and unofficial camps.\nAsylum seekers who have been rejected and refugees without access to state services in Amsterdam","-27.184010228258558"],["the United Nations, Dag Hammarskjöld, was a Swedish citizen. Thus the people of the Scandinavian Peninsula had a strong influence in international affairs during the 20th century.\nIn 1949, Norway, Denmark and Iceland became founding members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation for their defence against East Germany, the Soviet Union and all other potential invaders, and these three countries remain members as of 2011.\nSweden and Finland joined the European Union in 1995. Norway, however, remains outside the Union.","-27.161589497351088"],["Airport for travellers between Copenhagen and Sweden, and with a reduction in service frequency. Sweden introduced border control from Denmark earlier (15 November 2015), but that could not stop the migrant flow, since they have the right to apply for asylum once on Swedish ground. First when the transport companies had to stop foreigners on the Danish side, asylum seekers were efficiently stopped. This caused considerable disruption to the train traffic since the railway station did not have capacity for such checks. These checks lasted until 4 May 2017, after the EU commission declared such checks not acceptable.\nOn 30 May","-27.150076910300413"],["the reception and accommodation of asylum seekers and the processing of their asylum applications, in places near the borders of the EU or in countries outside the EU, from which asylum seekers originate or through which they pass. After an attempted relocation of asylum procedures in centres on the boundaries of the EU, in 2003 these policies have resulted in a proliferation of exile camps in and around the European Union, a pressure on neighbouring countries to develop systems that consider applications for asylum in their territories, and a radicalisation of antimigratory policies in neighbouring countries and within the border","-27.13855472340947"],["the risk of a financial crisis spreading cross-border, and to enhance possibilities to reach an efficient crisis management. By signing the agreement, the public authorities in the Nordic and Baltic countries increase their preparedness to handle problems in cross-border banks. The NB8 countries are jointly represented in the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. The Baltic states are members of the Nordic Investment Bank.\nThe Baltic states—Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia—have achieved an exceptional level of a trilateral co-operation, which, by its depth and intensity, can be compared to the Nordic co-operation. Three Baltic states have established the Baltic Council of Ministers","-27.122798010648694"],["has significantly peaked in numbers since the abolition of the policy, despite worldwide asylum claim numbers remaining low by historical standards. These arrivals have also corresponded with increasing numbers of new refugee arrivals in Indonesia after the abandonment of the policy: 385 in 2008, 3,230 in 2009, 3,905 in 2010, 4,052 in 2011, 7,218 in 2012 and 8,332 in 2013. A probable link between restrictive refugee policies and lower attempts at seeking asylum in Australia by boat have been confirmed by the UNHCR: in April 2014, UNHCR Indonesia representative Manual Jordao stated: \"Word that the prospects of reaching Australia by","-27.118644994305214"],["countries of citizenship of asylum seekers, accounting for more than half of the total, were Syria (21 percent), Afghanistan (13 percent), Albania (8 percent), Iraq (6 percent) and Kosovo (5 percent). In the third quarter of 2015 (July–September), EU countries received 413,800 first time asylum applications, almost double the number registered in the previous quarter. Germany and Hungary were the top recipients, with 26 percent each of total applicants. One third of asylum seekers were Syrians (33 percent), followed by Afghans (14 percent) and Iraqis (11 percent). In the fourth quarter of 2015, there were 426,000 first time applicants, mainly","-27.108102685539052"],["Immigration to Finland Immigration to Finland is the process by which people migrate to Finland to reside in the country. Some, but not all, become Finnish citizens. Immigration has been a major source of population growth and cultural change throughout much of the history of Finland. The economic, social, and political aspects of immigration have caused controversy regarding ethnicity, economic benefits, jobs for non-immigrants, settlement patterns, impact on upward social mobility, crime, and voting behavior.\nAs of 2018, there are 402,600 foreigners people residing in Finland, which corresponds to 7.3% of the population. Numerous polls in 2010 indicated that the","-27.093335427722195"],["noted that, from 1982 to December 2002, 301 persons were accepted as refugees. The Government considered that most persons seeking asylum in the country did so for economic reasons. In 2003, there were approximately 7,900 refugees and asylum seekers in the country, of whom an estimated 7,700 were Vietnamese and Cambodian refugees. Out of 336 refugee claims submitted in 2003, the Government granted asylum to 10 persons from Burma, Burundi, and Iran and issued long-term residence permits based on humanitarian considerations to 16. As part of its ongoing family-reunification program for close relatives of Indochinese refugees resettled in earlier years,","-27.069330105237896"],["Norway–Sweden relations International border Crossing the border between Sweden and Norway is relatively simple. No passport is required due to the Nordic Passport Union and there are no physical border obstructions. However, since Norway is not part of the European Union customs controls can be made if travelling by car to prohibit smuggling. Foreign citizens requiring visa to either state are not allowed to cross the border legally without applying for visa again. There are no restrictions on non-felon Swedish and Norwegian people's rights to live in the neighboring country.","-27.01937300359714"],["for the Faroe Islands). There are some areas in the Nordic Passport Union that give extra rights for Nordic citizens, not covered by Schengen, such as less paperwork if moving to a different Nordic country and fewer requirements for naturalisation. Current leaders All the Nordic countries are long-established parliamentary democracies. Denmark, Norway and Sweden have a political system of constitutional monarchy, in which a nonpolitical monarch acts as head of state and the de facto executive power is exercised by a cabinet led by a prime minister. Margrethe II has reigned in Denmark as Queen Regnant and head of state","-27.01477000466548"],["include the many who were born inside Iran during the last 35 years. The number of Afghan refugees is decreasing significantly every year due to voluntary repatriation. For instance, in 2017 alone, over half a million of them returned to Afghanistan from Pakistan and Iran.\nThe 2011 industrialized country asylum data notes a 30% increase in applications from Afghans from 2010 to 2011, primarily towards Germany and Turkey. Pakistan Since the beginning US military intervention against the Taliban in Pakistan over 1.2 million people have been displaced in across the country, joined by a further 555,000 Pakistanis uprooted by fighting since","-27.010590448398943"],["all, between 2003 and 2012, one fifth of the permanent migrants into Sweden were considered humanitarian migrants. This is a higher percentage than all other OECD countries and likely plays a role in the employment gaps as humanitarian migrants typically find it more difficult to integrate into OECD countries. Second of all, less than 5% of jobs in Sweden require only a high school degree. With migrants from Syria and Iraq almost certainly having never studied Swedish back home, it is inevitably difficult for them to find work. Considering they are among the top three countries of immigrant origin alongside","-27.00264195224736"],["controversy. Sweden After World War II, immigration into Sweden occurred in three phases. The first was a direct result of the war, with refugees from concentration camps and surrounding countries in Scandinavia and Northern Europe. The second, prior to 1970, involved immigrant workers, mainly from Finland, Italy, Greece, and Yugoslavia. In the most recent phase, from the 1970s onwards, refugees immigrated from the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America, joined later by their relatives.\nA study which mapped patterns of segregation and congregation of incoming population groups found that, if a majority group is reluctant to accept a minority influx, they","-26.981030953931622"],["to over 80,000 in two months and with terror group Islamic state rampage in the Middle East and the following attacks in Paris in November 2015, the Löfven cabinet significantly reverted Sweden's migration policy. On 23 October 2015, a bipartisan migration agreement was signed between the cabinet parties and the oppositional Moderate Party, the Centre Party, the Liberals and the Christian Democrats which included, among many other changes, temporary residency permits, total financial support requirements for family reunification and by law forcing municipalities to help with sheltering refugees in order to better distribute the burden across the country.\nOn 12 November","-26.96062739365152"],["in the EU peaked in 1992 (672,000), 2001 (424,000) and 2013 (431,000). In 2014 it reached 626,000. According to the UNHCR, the EU countries with the biggest numbers of recognised refugees at the end of 2014 were France (252,264), Germany (216,973), Sweden (142,207) and the United Kingdom (117,161). No European state was among the top ten refugee-hosting countries in the world.\nPrior to 2014, the number of illegal border crossings detected by Frontex at the external borders of the EU peaked in 2011, with 141,051 total (sea and land combined). Global refugee crisis According to the UNHCR, the number of forcibly","-26.960033871990163"],["open their borders, introducing visa-free regimes with the Baltic countries.\nWhen Baltic countries regained their independence and during their integration into the European and transatlantic structures, they were strongly supported by their Nordic neighbors. The Nordic-Baltic co-operation took place in various levels: networking and cooperation were established among politicians, civil servants and civil societies. The Nordic countries actively assisted the Baltic countries in their preparations for integration into the European Union and NATO.\nNamed as 5+3 in the beginning of cooperation (five Nordic countries plus three Baltic States), the format changed its name and scope of cooperation. During the meeting of the","-26.918834916723426"],["refugee status does not mean that they were already given all the documents they need for starting their new lives. Refusal of asylum It often happens that the country neither recognizes the refugee status of the asylum seekers nor sees them as legitimate migrants and thus treats them as illegal aliens. If an asylum claim has been rejected, the asylum seeker is said to be refused asylum, and called a failed asylum seeker. Some failed asylum seekers are allowed to remain temporarily, some return home voluntarily and some are forcibly returned. The latter are most often placed in immigration detention","-26.909734424494673"],["refugees were treated differently to refugees from other religions with regards to the financial support they received. The Swiss government persuaded Germany to stamp \"J\" on the passport of Jews in order to make it easier to refuse admission to Jewish refugees. When thousands of Jews tried to flee Austria after the Anschluss in March 1938, and again in 1942-1943 when Jews tried to escape deportation from France, the Netherlands, and Belgium, a large part of them were denied access to the country. During the Second World War 25,000 Jews were granted refugee status in Switzerland, but around 30,000","-26.90869205047784"],["labour from other countries in Eastern Europe and visa controls were applied in 1992. 1990–1997: The growth in asylum The number of asylum seekers before 1979 is difficult to determine as no separate statistics were collated before this point. A Parliamentary answer indicated that in 1973, 34 people had been granted refugee status. The application of the 1951 Convention dealing with the treatment of refugees was still being applied, to a large extent, to those people fleeing persecution from behind the Iron Curtain.\nThe total number of asylum applications in 1979 was 1563 and by 1988 had risen, fairly steadily","-26.897006990620866"],["suspended all rail and ferry links with Germany (reopened the following day). On the same day parts of the E45 motorway was closed for vehicles to avoid accidents as hundreds of migrants were walking along it in southern Jutland towards Sweden. It was reopened a few hours later when the walking migrants exited the motorway. After initial uncertainty surrounding the rules, it was decided that migrants wishing to continue to other Nordic countries and refusing to seek asylum in Denmark would be allowed to pass. In the five weeks following 6 September alone, approximately 28,800 migrants passed the Danish borders.","-26.86425974254962"],["Norway, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein) that later caused the refugee crisis. However, Poland, Hungary, and Czechs has refused to accept the refugee quotas and rarely admit any asylum-seekers. Jaroslaw Kaczyński, the leader of the ruling Law and Justice party, had explained to the public that a part of asylum seekers may cause destruction to the safety and culture of the country. Trump, during his presidency, shares the same political views with the party, which Trump himself further endorsed the approach by encouraging the member states of the NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) to demonstrate the belief in the future of the","-26.848393602860597"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"other countries facing the strongest influx of refugees without quotas.\\n Denmark – Denmark temporarily closed rail links with Germany in September to stop migrants from illegally entering the country, and the E45 Motorway due to migrants on the road. Denmark used the second highest amount on asylum seekers among European nations in 2015, compared to GDP (0.47 percent of GDP, after Sweden at 0.5 percent, followed by Germany and Italy at 0.2 percent, with remaining lower). This is expected to rise in 2016.\\nIn December 2015, the Danish Government announced that it would introduce new laws that will allow confiscation of cash\",\n \"-32.311982705505216\"\n ],\n [\n \"3,500 of these applied for asylum in Denmark and the remaining continued to other Nordic countries.\\nAfter Sweden introduced ID checks on the Danish border to prevent undocumented migrants from coming to Sweden, Denmark also reintroduced border controls on the Danish-German border in January 2016, wanting to avoid predicted accumulation of illegal migrants on their way to Sweden as one of the reasons for this decision. As of September 2019, the border control remains.\\nIn October 2016 Danish immigration minister Inger Støjberg authorities reported 50 cases of suspected radicalised asylum seekers at asylum centres. The reports encompassed everything from adult Islamic State\",\n \"-31.970758332274272\"\n ],\n [\n \"such as Iran and Sri Lanka. In the 1990s, war refugees from the Balkans were the predominant immigrant group accepted into Norway; a large number of which have since returned home to Kosovo. Since the end of the 1990s, new groups of asylum seekers from countries such as Iraq, Somalia, and Afghanistan arrived.\\nThe Dublin Regulation in 2001 states that non-European refugees applying for asylum in a Dublin country, will only get their application processed once, in the country where they first apply for asylum.\\nDuring the European migrant crisis in 2015, a total of 31,145 asylum seekers crossed the Norwegian border\",\n \"-31.953164091915824\"\n ],\n [\n \"resettle asylum seekers who have been determined to be genuine refugees.\\nIndividual countries have at times re-introduced border controls within the Schengen Area and rifts have emerged between countries willing to allow entry of asylum seekers for processing of refugee claims and other countries trying to discourage their entry.\\nAccording to Eurostat, EU member states received over 1.2 million first-time asylum applications in 2015, more than double that of the previous year. Four states (Germany, Hungary, Sweden and Austria) received around two-thirds of the EU's asylum applications in 2015, with Hungary, Sweden and Austria being the top recipients of asylum applications per\",\n \"-31.710108854982536\"\n ],\n [\n \"to 25% and the tests were widended to migrants from other regions.\\nBy september 2019, 15 foreign residents who had travelled from Norway to Syria or Iraq to join the Islamic State had their residence permits revoked. Refugees in Norway One cause of immigration in the 20th and 21st century is the need for protection in a new country, due to wars or riots in the migrants' home countries. In the 1950s, refugees came from Hungary to Norway, and in the 1970s from Chile and Vietnam. In the mid-1980s, there was an increase in the number of asylum seekers from countries\",\n \"-31.37286653238698\"\n ],\n [\n \"border, and the Norwegian government vowed to send all migrants with Russian residence visa back to Russia even if they were from countries experiencing conflicts such as Afghanistan. In 2016, 5,500 asylum-seekers illegally entered Norway from Russia. Norway began sending migrants back to conflict-torn countries of origin, such as Afghanistan, defying Amnesty International. The number of migrants returned from Europe to Afghanistan between 2015–16 nearly tripled from 3290 to 9460. Because it is illegal to drive from Russia to Norway without proper legal permission, and crossing on foot is prohibited, the migrants make the crossing on bicycles. It was in\",\n \"-31.17810181278037\"\n ],\n [\n \"in 2015. The number had not been as high since the Balkan wars in 1990s. Most of the asylum seekers came from Afghanistan and Syria. In 2016, the number was dramatically reduced by almost 90%. In 2016, 3460 asylum seekers came to Norway. This was partly due to the stricter border control in Europe. The EU-Turkey agreement, implemented 20 March 2016, was made in order strengthen organized channels of immigration to Europe, and prevent irregular migration from Turkey to the EU.\\nAs part of the UN, Norway receives UN quota refugees. In 2015, the Norwegian government announced that they would receive\",\n \"-31.162390738598333\"\n ],\n [\n \"border checks on the Øresund Bridge between Denmark and Sweden and public transport operators were instructed to only let people wih residence in Sweden board trains or buses. The measures reduced the number of asylum seekers from 163 000 in 2015 to 29 000 in 2016.\\nIn 2018, a poll by Pew Research found that a small majority (52%) wanted fewer immigrants to be allowed into the country, 33% wanted to keep the current level and 14% wanted to increase immigration.\\nAccording to a 2018 Yougov poll, 60% of Swedes opposed accepting more migrants into the country. Switzerland Switzerland has a history\",\n \"-31.161855664569885\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sweden voluntarily prefer to emigrate back to their country of origin. As more state funds are made free from funding mass immigration, SD believes that Sweden will be better able to help refugees in their own nearby locations.\\nSD has referred to the recommendations from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) which state that the return of refugees should be the solution to refugee problems. Torbjörn Kastell (former party secretary from 2003 to 2004) said in 2002 that the party wanted \\\"a multicultural world, not a multicultural society\\\". In a 2008 survey, a significant minority of 39% of all\",\n \"-31.125151481197463\"\n ],\n [\n \"in Denmark as a \\\"vehicle of progressive change.\\\" Refugees and asylum seekers Denmark is argued by some to have some of Europe's \\\"most aggressive anti-immigrant policies.\\\" The people of Denmark are largely divided in their opinions on immigration - some accepting of it and others who are concerned and thus want restrictive policies in place.\\nIn 2016, the Danish annulled its agreement with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) that stated that it would receive 500 refugees on a annual basis for resettlement.\\nIn 2018, Denmark announced that it would no longer resettle refugees under the United Nation's quota system,\",\n \"-30.774064160075795\"\n ],\n [\n \"According to the European Council on Refugees and Exiles, a network of European refugee-assisting non-governmental organizations (NGOs), huge differences exist between national asylum systems in Europe, making the asylum system a 'lottery' for refugees. For example, Iraqis who flee their home country and end up in Germany have an 85% chance of being recognised as a refugee and those who apply for asylum in Slovenia do not get a protection status at all. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom the Asylum Support Partnership was created to enable all the agencies working to support and assist asylum seekers in making asylum\",\n \"-30.555190123210195\"\n ],\n [\n \"Swedes thought that there were \\\"too many foreigners in the country\\\", and in 2007 a survey showed that 49% of all Swedes wanted to restrict the number of asylum-seekers. In recent years SD has tried to approach the immigration policy of the Danish People's Party, which from 2001 to 2011 provided parliamentary support for the former Danish liberal/conservative government in return for a tightening of Danish immigration policies and stricter naturalization laws.\\nAccording to Aftonbladet, 14% of SD members are of immigrant origin, which matches the share of foreign-born inhabitants of Sweden. For the 2010 election in the municipality of Södertälje (Stockholm County),\",\n \"-29.916249427071307\"\n ],\n [\n \"local authorities had estimated the flow of 300 asylum seekers per day entering via the northern land border from Sweden into Tornio, which is the main route of migration flow into Finland. The total number of asylum seekers for the year was reported to be over 2.6 times the total amount for the whole of the previous year. During October 2015, 7,058 new asylum seekers arrived in Finland. In mid-October the number of asylum seekers entering Finland during 2015 reached 27,000, which is, in relation to the country's size, the fourth-largest in Europe. In late November, the number passed 30,000,\",\n \"-29.664272914006688\"\n ],\n [\n \"number of asylum applications lodged by Syrian refugees in Europe steadily increased between 2011 and 2015, totaling 813,599 in 37 European countries (including both EU members and non-members) as of November 2015; 57 percent of them applied for asylum in Germany or Serbia. The largest single recipient of new asylum seekers worldwide in 2014 was the Russian Federation, with 274,700 asylum requests. Migration to Greece and Bulgaria 2007–2015 Between 2007 and 2011, large numbers of migrants from the Middle East and Africa crossed between Turkey and Greece, leading Greece and the European Border Protection agency Frontex to upgrade border controls.\",\n \"-29.650011373727466\"\n ],\n [\n \"in large part because the languages are mutually intelligible especially in the border regions.\\nEven in modern times, there have been serious talks of a Nordic Union, either within or in competition with the European Union, and a Nordic Passport Union has been in existence since 1952, allowing all citizens of the Nordic countries to travel freely without documents.\",\n \"-29.637832699343562\"\n ],\n [\n \"in 1954 and implemented on 1 May 1958, allows citizens of the Nordic countries: Denmark (Faroe Islands included since 1 January 1966, Greenland not included), Sweden, Norway (Svalbard, Bouvet Island and Queen Maud Land not included), Finland and Iceland (since 24 September 1965) to cross approved border districts without carrying and having their passport checked. Other citizens can also travel between the Nordic countries' borders without having their passport checked, but still have to carry some sort of approved travel identification documents. As of November 2015, there are temporary border controls set up between Denmark and Sweden. These border controls\",\n \"-29.50662434105834\"\n ],\n [\n \"Soviet Union annexed these parts again from Finland, the population there had to be evacuated yet again. These evacuees were housed and settled to the remainder of Finland by the state. Modern day The most common reasons to immigrate to Finland were family reasons (32%), work (30%) and studying (21%).\\nIn 2017, hundreds of Muslim asylum seekers from Iraq and Afghanistan converted to Christianity after having had their first asylum application rejected by the Finnish Immigration Service (Migri), in order to re-apply for asylum on the grounds of religious persecution. Employment Around 20,000 immigrants in Finland are searching for jobs.\\nAround 70%\",\n \"-29.46640900793136\"\n ],\n [\n \"inadequate protection capacity, resettlement remains the most viable option for UN mandated refugees. It is estimated that there are thousands of UN mandated refugees in Russia who have been in the Russian asylum system for five years or more. For these individuals especially, resettlement to Western Europeans countries and to North America is very desirable – where they can actually settle. The UNHCR works with the migration offices of these countries and attempts to find these mandated refugees a home. Present Day Conditions for Asylum Seekers in Russia The conditions for asylum seekers in Russia are generally\",\n \"-29.411529361634166\"\n ],\n [\n \"were set up to tackle the issue with immigrants coming to Sweden in relation to the ongoing European migrant crisis\\nSince 1996, these countries have been part of the larger EU directive Schengen Agreement area, comprising 30 countries in Europe. Border checkpoints have been removed within the Schengen zone and only a national ID card is required. Within the Nordic area any means of proving one's identity, e.g. a driving licence, is valid for Nordic citizens because of the Nordic Passport Union.\\nSince 25 March 2001, the Schengen acquis has fully applied to the five countries of the Nordic Passport Union (except\",\n \"-29.35071460110339\"\n ],\n [\n \"be deported from Norway. \\\"Asylum children\\\" case By late 2014 Anundsen became the subject of a controversy surrounding the deportation of so-called \\\"long-term asylum children\\\", children of asylum seekers who have had their application rejected, only to continue living in Norway illegally for several years. While the government's expressed policy has introduced measures to deport record numbers of illegal immigrants, it was revealed by Bergens Tidende that twice as many families had been sent out of Norway in 2014 than in 2013, despite that as part of the new government platform the Liberal and Christian Democratic parties had secured support\",\n \"-29.073825032261084\"\n ],\n [\n \"Law. Since then, in Germany's neighbouring countries, more specifically known as \\\"safe third countries\\\", the expected number of asylum seekers sank steadily, from roughly 320,000 in 1993 to 28,018 in 2008. It was decided that asylum seekers would only have the chance of a favourable decision if they arrive by air. As a part of the \\\"Asylum Compromise\\\", transient asylum seekers, who have landed in Germany and are still within the transit area, will be subject to accelerated asylum procedures. According to the rules, the decision on their application must be made within 2 days; the objection period is only\",\n \"-29.028685428616882\"\n ],\n [\n \"smaller boats over the Baltic Sea. Many refugees who survived the risky sea voyage to Sweden or Germany later moved from there to Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States or Australia. Some of these refugees and their descendants returned to Estonia after the nation regained its independence in 1991.\\nOver the years of independence, increasing numbers of Estonians have chosen to work abroad, primarily in Finland, but also in other European countries (mostly in the UK, Benelux, Sweden, and Germany), making Estonia the country with the highest emigration rate in Europe. This is at least partly due to the easy\",\n \"-28.965095546504017\"\n ],\n [\n \"was mostly caused by significantly fewer violations off the alien law, because far fewer asylum seekers entered the country in this year.\\nThe first comprehensive study of the social effects of the one million refugees going to Germany found that it caused \\\"very small increases in crime in particular with respect to drug offenses and fare-dodging.\\\" A report released by the German Federal Office of Criminal Investigation in November 2015 found that over the period January–September 2015, the crime rate of refugees was the same as that of native Germans. According to Deutsche Welle, the report \\\"concluded that the majority of\",\n \"-28.88215806122753\"\n ],\n [\n \"with the 2015 Syrian refugee crisis Sweden adopted new border controls and cut benefits that refugees had previously had. Sweden introduced an amendment to their asylum seeker policies which prevented entitlement to \\\"accommodation, subsistence allowance and special aid\\\" for adult asylum seekers with no children and who have had their applications rejected. These emergency measures breached asylum-seekers fundamental rights such as the right to family reunification.\",\n \"-28.848217785503948\"\n ],\n [\n \"complete stop to all immigration from non-Western countries, a continuation of a proposal the month before to toughen the 24-year rule. They do, however, make the distinction between immigrants, those who intend to stay in Denmark permanently, and refugees, those that will only be in Denmark for the duration of the conflict, but ultimately intend to return home. The party has stated that it is more than happy to help those in need, but have a moral responsibility to the people of Denmark to keep Denmark Danish.\\nCooperation with the Conservative-Liberal coalition government resulted in the implementation of some of their\",\n \"-28.70905331557151\"\n ],\n [\n \"Nordic Passport Union Establishment The Nordic Passport Union was established in three stages. In 1952, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland agreed to abolish passports for travel between them and to readmit citizens of other countries who had entered illegally into one of the four countries from another. On 1 July 1954, the agreement was extended to allow citizens to reside and work in any of the four countries without a residence or work permit. Iceland implemented the agreement on 1 January 1966. Passport checks for citizens of non-member countries at the borders between member countries were removed by a treaty\",\n \"-28.59452571166912\"\n ],\n [\n \"to grant asylum to political refugees throughout the war, and in 1942 groups persecuted for other reasons were also admitted by Swedish officials. The escape from Norway usually involved transport by train or side roads to areas near the border, and then clandestine passage on foot, skis and occasionally boat to the Swedish border. Swedish border officials (landfiskaler) accepted the refugees and sent them to transit centers.\\nAfter Öreryd in Småland proved inadequate, on June 15, 1942, Kjesäter was designated as the main assembly and transit point for refugees who had fled the Nazi German occupation of Norway by crossing the\",\n \"-28.584068433614448\"\n ],\n [\n \"only 744 of which were extended asylum status in the country by July 2017. In 2016 the Pew Research Center found that from July 2015 to May 2016 there was an increase in percentage point of the refugee population in many European countries, however Spain was one of the few that experienced a decrease. The difficulty with refugees successfully immigrating to Spain has led to some researchers such as Kitty Calavita to suggest that the country's marginalization and social and economic exclusion are primarily produced by law, rather than culture. Hungary In 1956–57 following the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 nearly\",\n \"-28.54030148583479\"\n ],\n [\n \"more difficulty when attempting to bring family into the country. Non-Europeans must find jobs for their family members before they would be allowed to enter the country, and since preference is given to members of the European Union, finding jobs becomes more problematic. Passports and visas Nordic Country members do not require any form of travel document or work permit to enter the country and are also provided the right to remain in Iceland for more than six months by providing a Nordic change of residence certificate.\\nCitizens of countries from the EU also do not require a visa and are\",\n \"-28.482137103637797\"\n ],\n [\n \"country of origin\\\" or a \\\"safe third country\\\" can no longer claim political asylum on account of feeling in danger. In 1993, the law to give benefits for asylum seekers was introduced. It stated, amongst other things, that foreigners who from the start have been dependent on government aid, were to receive a lower amount than Germans and any others of equal status. The amount fell by almost 40%, to a smaller amount than the unemployment benefit (Arbeitslosengeld II LINK). In 1997 the Dublin convention was concluded, through which the German refugee policy was secured according to the European Community\",\n \"-28.461970246135024\"\n ],\n [\n \"Nordic Passport Union and the Schengen Area, which now is under EU law, as a non-voting participant. Iceland's participation in the Schengen Area allows free movement of people between Iceland and the rest of the Schengen Area. Several thousand Icelanders travel to and study or work in the EU. A large majority of foreigners in Iceland come from the EU. Iceland is also associated with the Dublin Convention on justice and home affairs cooperation. Iceland also has links to several EU member states through its membership of the Nordic Council. Use of the euro During the 2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis,\",\n \"-28.435288048465736\"\n ],\n [\n \"EU members and non-members).\\nAs of 2017, 55 percent of refugees worldwide came from three nations: South Sudan, Afghanistan, and Syria. Of all displaced peoples, 17 percent of them are being hosted in Europe. As of April 2018, 15,481 refugees have successfully arrived to the shores of Europe via sea within the first few months of the year alone. There was an estimated 500 that have died in this year alone. In 2015, there was a total of 1.02 million arrivals by sea. Since then, the influx has steadily decreased but is ongoing nonetheless. Syria The greatest number of refugees fleeing\",\n \"-28.156200509227347\"\n ],\n [\n \"LEA in Karlsruhe, which had a capacity of 1000, took in 3500 people.\\n \\nIt proved to be difficult to register newcomers quickly, and furthermore to quickly separate the refugees who had to be sheltered because of the Geneva Convention on Refugees, from those migrants who are not legally entitled to stay in Germany. Locating the illegal entrants as well as the fast deportation of those who did not have the right of residence also proved to be difficult. Above all, this situation led to a controversial, nationwide debate over the German refugee policy. \\nOn February 17, 2016, shortly before the\",\n \"-28.15351502376143\"\n ],\n [\n \"Aliens with residence permits are allowed to stay up to three months in other Nordic countries, except for seeking employment or conducting business.\\nAliens who are denied entry into one Nordic country should also be denied entry into the other Nordic countries. The Nordic countries are also obliged to readmit aliens that should have been denied entry at the first point of entry.\",\n \"-28.139713744749315\"\n ],\n [\n \"enforced inside Nordic countries, at least not before 2015. Abolition of passport for Nordic citizens The protocol concerning the abolition of passports for travel between Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Norway was signed on 14 July 1952, in Stockholm.\\nThis protocol was implemented by the individual but concurrent decisions of the four governments. It abolished the need for citizens of the four countries to carry a passport when travelling in the three other countries provided that the trip was for such a short time that a residence permit was not necessary.\\nThe agreement could be revoked in case of war, danger of war,\",\n \"-28.114896389015485\"\n ],\n [\n \"asylum and subscribed to a \\\"safe country of transit\\\" policy, which required asylum seekers who transited a country determined to be \\\"safe\\\" to return to that country to seek refugee status. With the expansion of the European Union (EU) this concept has lost some of its importance because upon their accession, neighboring Slovenia, the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, and Hungary became subject to the EU provisions that establish criteria and mechanisms for determining the EU member state responsible for examining an asylum application. In 2005 new legislation introduced stricter detention and removal policies as part of a stronger enforcement\",\n \"-28.099312820559135\"\n ],\n [\n \"other's missions abroad. The Memorandum made it easier for the Nordic and Baltic countries to maintain a diplomatic presence around the world by enabling flexible and cost-effective solutions. This reinforced diplomatic cooperation coincided with the twentieth anniversary of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania regaining their freedom and re-establishing diplomatic relations with other countries. The memorandum regulates the diplomatic and practical aspects of posting diplomats to the mission abroad of another Nordic or Baltic country. NB6 - cooperation among Nordic and Baltic EU Member States Since 1 May 2004, six Nordic and Baltic countries (Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) are\",\n \"-27.98885130850249\"\n ],\n [\n \"the free movement of people, labour, goods, and capital across national borders. Nordic countries Since the end of the Second World War, the following organisations have been established in the Nordic region:\\nThe Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers is a co-operation forum for the parliaments and governments of the Nordic countries created in February 1953. It includes the states of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, and their autonomous territories (Greenland, Faroe Islands and Åland).\\nThe Nordic Passport Union, created in 1954 but implemented on 1 May 1958, establishes free movement across borders without passports for the countries' citizens.\",\n \"-27.977701104187872\"\n ],\n [\n \"to slow down first.\\nOn 22 September 2015, European Union interior ministers meeting in the Justice and Home Affairs Council approved a plan to relocate 120,000 asylum seekers over two years from the frontline states Italy, Greece and Hungary to all other EU countries (except Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom which have opt-outs). The relocation plan applies to asylum seekers \\\"in clear need of international protection\\\" (those with a recognition rate higher than 75 percent, i.e. Syrians, Eritreans and Iraqis) – 15,600 from Italy, 50,400 from Greece and 54,000 from Hungary – who will be distributed among EU states on\",\n \"-27.89509843631822\"\n ],\n [\n \"plan was rejected because only a few refugees could be accommodated up elsewhere during the year 1990 and it was likely to accommodate new refugees from the Soviet Union in January 1991.\\nIn 1993, the refugee camp was renamed the Asylum Office of the Federal Ministry of the Interior (\\\"Bundesbetreuungsstelle für Asylwerber\\\").\\nIn 2015, as a result of the European migrant crisis, the Asylum Office in Traiskirchen had to admit a rising number of illegal immigrants. Due to heavy criticism by the press and civilians alike, Amnesty International inspected the facility on August 6, 2015.\\nMore than 4500 people were accommodated by the\",\n \"-27.87915889598662\"\n ],\n [\n \"refugees.\\nIn 2016, 85.8 percent of refugees in Switzerland received welfare payments. Turkey The vast majority of migrants and refugees entering Europe by sea in 2015, nearly half million by September, arrived from Turkey, according to the United Nations. Turkish officials attempting to deter migration facilitated by smugglers have detained 57,000 travellers and over 100 human traffickers in 2015 through September. Deaths and incidents Several serious accidents and deaths have occurred in Europe as a result of migrant smuggling, both in the Mediterranean Sea, due to the capsizing of crowded and unseaworthy migrant smuggling vessels, and on European soil, due to\",\n \"-27.852209143631626\"\n ],\n [\n \"million unemployed immigrants in Sweden are a ticking bomb.\\nIn December 2017 Minister for Finance Magdalena Andersson stated in an interview with Dagens Nyheter that integration of immigrants had not worked well in Sweden since before 2015 and that the situation had become very strained since. Andersson added that the possibilities were greater in other European countries to receive housing and education where the asylum process is quicker. She also expressed that the Swedish Social Democratic Party should be self-critical about that Sweden cannot receive more migrants than society has the capacity to assimilate.\",\n \"-27.807185312150978\"\n ],\n [\n \"Russian forces – I can't find any other reason for them other than to cause refugees to be on the move and make them someone else's problem.\\\" He also claimed that criminals, extremists and fighters were hiding in the flow of migrants.\\nRussian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev said: \\\"It's quite simply stupid to open Europe's doors wide and invite in everyone who wants to come to your country. European migration policy is a total failure, all that is absolutely frightening.\\\"\\nIn June 2016, exiled Cuban journalist Carlos Alberto Montaner suggested that France could establish a refugee state in French Guiana.\\nOn 18 June\",\n \"-27.754502586554736\"\n ],\n [\n \"Russians in Finland History The first migratory wave of Russians began in the early 18th century, when Finland was part of the Swedish Empire. About 40,000 Russian soldiers, civilian workers, and about 600 businessmen moved to the Grand Duchy of Finland, which became part of the Russian Empire in 1809. When Finland became independent in 1917, many soldiers returned to Russia. Many businessmen stayed, including the Sinebrychoff family. During the Russian Revolution many aristocrats and officers fled to Finland as refugees. The biggest refugee wave was in 1922 when about 33,500 people came to Finland. Many of them had Nansen\",\n \"-27.72303849864693\"\n ],\n [\n \"less than one week), as opposed to the exit visa normally required of all individuals leaving Russia (which could take several months). Local Integration According to the Law on Refugees, Government recognized refugees can apply for citizenship. Nevertheless, there are significant legal obstacles for their acquisition of citizenship due to the restrictive registration system, which required proof of adequate income. Local integration, though typically desirable, is an unrealistic goal for most asylum seekers as the Russian government does not recognize the UN mandated refugees. Resettlement The most common solution for UN recognized refugees is resettlement. Due to\",\n \"-27.715294583758805\"\n ],\n [\n \"immediately fled to Germany. Czech Prime Minister Bohuslav Sobotka stated that this signals that quota system will not work either.\\nOn 7 September 2015, France announced that it would accept 24,000 asylum-seekers over two years; Britain announced that it would take in up to 20,000 refugees, primarily vulnerable children and orphans from camps in Jordan, Lebanon and Turkey; and Germany pledged US$6.7 billion to deal with the migrant crisis. However, also on 7 September 2015, both Austria and Germany warned that they would not be able to keep up with the current pace of the influx and that it would need\",\n \"-27.70209348573917\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Nordic countries can reside without residence permit in any other Nordic country.\\nPolice authorities in the Nordic countries shall make all necessary information available to ascertain a person's identity and citizenship in a Nordic country. Removal of passport checks at the internal Nordic borders The agreement between Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden to remove passport control at the internal Nordic borders, was signed on 12 July 1957 in Copenhagen and came into force on 1 May 1958.\\nThis agreement removed all passport checks at the internal Nordic borders, and required the Nordic countries to uphold passport control at the external borders.\",\n \"-27.701471154025057\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Nordic countries the right to freely travel to and reside in other Nordic countries without a passport or residence permit. Gulf Cooperation Council Citizens of member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) have freedom of movement throughout the GCC, including the right to reside and work in other GCC states with almost no restrictions. Common Travel Area The Common Travel Area (CTA) consists of the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, and the UK's surrounding island territories. British and Irish citizens can move freely throughout the CTA without a passport and only minimal identity documents, and are subject to\",\n \"-27.67964950753958\"\n ],\n [\n \"consider themselves Nordic rather than Baltic, in particular because of close ethnic and linguistic affinities with the Finns.\\nAfter the Treaty of Tartu (1920) recognised Estonia's 1918 independence from Russia, ethnic Estonians residing in Russia gained the option of opting for Estonian citizenship (those who opted were called optandid - 'optants') and returning to their fatherland. An estimated 40,000 Estonians lived in Russia in 1920. In sum, 37,578 people moved from Soviet Russia to Estonia (1920–1923). Emigration During World War II, when Estonia was invaded by the Soviet Army in 1944, large numbers of Estonians fled their homeland on ships or\",\n \"-27.641850379062817\"\n ],\n [\n \"national public-broadcasting company, reported that a Russian border guard had admitted that the Federal Security Service was enabling migrants to enter Finland.\\nIn 2017, hundreds Muslim asylum seekers from Iraq and Afghanistan converted to Christianity after having had their first asylum application rejected by the Finnish Immigration Service (Migri), in order to re-apply for asylum on the grounds of religious persecution. Greece Migrants arrive from the Middle East making the 6-kilometre (4 mi) water crossing to the Greek islands of Chios, Kos, Lesbos, Leros, Kastellorizo, Agathonisi, Farmakonisi, Rhodes, Samos, Symi and other islands which are close to Turkey and are thus a\",\n \"-27.635254462482408\"\n ],\n [\n \"The main countries of origin of asylum seekers, accounting for almost half of the total, were Syria (20 percent), Afghanistan (7 percent), Kosovo (6 percent), Eritrea (6 percent) and Albania\\nIn 2014, decisions on asylum applications in the EU made at the first instance resulted in more than 160,000 asylum seekers being granted protection status, while a further 23,000 received protection status on appeal. The rate of recognition of asylum applicants was 45 percent at the first instance and 18 percent on appeal. The main beneficiaries of protection status, accounting for more than half of the total, were Syrians (68,300 or\",\n \"-27.629393084382173\"\n ],\n [\n \"border into Sweden. These refugees included political activists, members of the resistance, and Jews fleeing deportation to extermination camps. It is estimated that about 50,000 individuals made it across the border to Sweden during the war. Refugees would typically be intercepted by Swedish border patrols soon after they had entered into Swedish territory, interviewed, and be given an \\\"emergency visa\\\" with 2-week duration with directions and fare (if needed) to Kjesäter. The processing there would take 3–4 days and typically involved medical examination, in-depth interrogations, etc. Norwegian nationals would be given a Norwegian passport; stateless individuals would be given a\",\n \"-27.614753765781643\"\n ],\n [\n \"a non-EU member country but full participant in the Schengen Agreement, the Swiss Confederation was directly affected by the migrant crisis with most of the refugees arriving from Italy at border crossings in the Southern cantons of Ticino and Valais. In the crisis year 2015, almost 40,000 asylum seekers were applying for refugee status. In 2016, this number dropped by 31 percent, and in the first quarter of 2017 by another 57 percent, compared to the same time period in 2016. Most of the asylum seekers arriving in Switzerland originate from Eritrea (49 percent), followed by Afghanistan (30 percent) and\",\n \"-27.56166172848316\"\n ],\n [\n \"asylum was no small matter as the country was poor and had difficulty feeding and caring for such a large group of refugees. Eventually, Argentina agreed to permanently resettle the asylum seekers. In contrast, the British repatriated the Russians who fought on the side of Germany to the USSR, where they were summarily treated as traitors and most of them executed, including their families. The Post-War era In dire financial straits following the war, the Liechtenstein dynasty often resorted to selling family artistic treasures, including for instance the portrait \\\"Ginevra de' Benci\\\" by Leonardo da Vinci, which was purchased by\",\n \"-27.527671771938913\"\n ],\n [\n \"Australia in particular, receives hundreds of refugees every month.\\nAbout 69,000 Sri Lankan Tamil refugees live in 112 camps in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Jammu and Kashmir According to the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), about 300,000 Hindu Kashmiri Pandits have been forced to leave the state of Jammu and Kashmir due to Islamic militancy and religious discrimination from the Muslim majority, making them refugees in their own country. Some have found refuge in Jammu and its adjoining areas, while others in camps in Delhi and others in other states of India and other countries too. Kashmiri groups\",\n \"-27.51953884365139\"\n ],\n [\n \"– did allow the extradition of their nationals to each other and to other Nordic countries, they refused the extradition of both their nationals and the nationals of other Nordic countries elsewhere. In addition seven of the 12 member states which joined between 2004 and 2007 – namely Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Slovenia – employed a similar prohibition prior to their accession.\\nUnder the Framework Decision, member states are precluded from refusing the surrender of their own nationals wanted for the purposes of prosecution, but they may condition the surrender of a requested person on his\",\n \"-27.50752591789933\"\n ],\n [\n \"Federal Republic of Germany had only two mechanisms for immigration by non-Germans from countries outside the European Union, due to the recruitment of migrant workers in 1973 and the lack of an immigration law: family reunification and the assertion of the basic right to asylum. The \\\"bottleneck\\\" of asylum was very early \\\"pried forcefully from the outside and tightened again and again from the inside in a public defensive struggle, which created the bogeyman of the so-called 'refugee'\\\".\\nDuring the Cold War hundreds of thousands of people fled from the countries of Central and Eastern Europe through the \\\"Iron curtain\\\" to\",\n \"-27.504856712766923\"\n ],\n [\n \"been cancelled (such as those who have been charged or convicted of crimes), or because they have over-stayed the term of their visa. Detainees also include non-citizens who have arrived without a valid visa, such as asylum seekers, including some children, who are detained while their refugee status is determined and they are either admitted to Australia or deported. In many cases people have been in immigration detention for several years. This, as well as poor conditions, neglect, harsh treatment, and deaths in some of the centres, has been the source of controversy and criticism in Australia and internationally. While\",\n \"-27.501736737860483\"\n ],\n [\n \"with the decision to accept refugees being made by the government and not the parliament.\\nIn addition, in late 2018 the Danish government announced that the 2019 budget would include funding for a scheme that would see foreign criminals who had completed jail sentences, but could not be deported, to be moved to Lindholm Island. Lindholm Island is located two miles out from the southeast of Denmark, and had previously been a laboratory for animals with highly contagious diseases. The policy has been labelled as being \\\"barbaric\\\" and \\\"deeply repulsive.\\\" Violence against women The Istanbul Convention (the Council of Europe Convention\",\n \"-27.406062134105014\"\n ],\n [\n \"previous hundreds to some dozens. Within hours of Swedish border control becoming effective, Denmark in turn created a border control between Denmark and Germany. The migration pattern also changed with the majority of those arriving by ferry from Germany to Trelleborg instead of by train to Hyllie station, bypassing the border control between Denmark and Germany. Migrants then started taking taxis in greater numbers over the Öresund Bridge in order to evade identification. Three days later, a Danish cab driver was arrested for human trafficking near the Øresund Bridge. In January 2016 newspaper Sydsvenskan reported that the migration flow had\",\n \"-27.37490733481536\"\n ],\n [\n \"into New Zealand is limited. Asylum seekers (convention refugees) New Zealand receives relatively few asylum seekers (the vast majority by air), whose claim is then either approved or declined by the Refugee Status Branch of the Immigration New Zealand, or by the Refugee Status Appeals Authority. There has been a considerable drop in the number of the asylum claims each year beginning in the late 1990s. In 2016, only 387 refugee status applications were received, with 32% found to be genuine. New Zealand is one of a handful of countries that takes the majority of their refugees through a quota\",\n \"-27.3704010392903\"\n ],\n [\n \"side of the Denmark–Sweden border, while still keeping the border controls on the Swedish side. This carrier requirement has been more successful than the formal border controls, and diminished the stream of refugees to Sweden. At the same time this has disrupted train traffic and causing longer travel time for work commuters.\\nAs a reaction to the Swedish control, Denmark also strengthened its border controls at the German border.\\nIn October 2019 it was reported that Denmark plans to impose temporary border controls due to serious crimes including bombing perpetrated by Swedish residents.\",\n \"-27.36952121811919\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Danish economy. In 1972 and 1973, Denmark's immigration policy only allowed for migration of workers from within the Nordic region. After 1973 this policy was expanded to also permit labor migration from Europe. Despite these limitations on immigration, the 1972 policy granted guest workers residing in Denmark the option of applying for family reunification which then became the primary method of immigration from non-European countries to Denmark.\\nFor decades, Danish immigration and integration policy was built upon the assumption that with the right kind of help, immigrants and their descendands will eventually tend to the same levels of education and\",\n \"-27.367794672427408\"\n ],\n [\n \"37 percent), Eritreans (14,600 or 8 percent) and Afghans (14,100 or 8 percent).\\nFour states – Germany, Sweden, Italy and France – received around two-thirds of the EU's asylum applications and granted almost two-thirds of protection status in 2014. Sweden, Hungary and Austria were among the top recipients of EU asylum applications per capita, when adjusted for their own populations, with 8.4 asylum seekers per 1,000 inhabitants in Sweden, 4.3 in Hungary and 3.2 in Austria. 2015 In 2015, EU member states received 1,255,640 first time asylum applications, a number more than double that of the previous year. The highest number\",\n \"-27.365148152865004\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Western Europe and the Western Hemisphere. The law did not greatly increase the number of immigrants who would be allowed into the country each year (approximately 300,000), but it did provide for a family reunification provision that allowed for some immigrants to enter the country regardless of the overall number of immigrants. Largely because of the family reunification provision, the overall level of immigration increased far above what had been expected. Those who wrote the law expected that it would lead to more immigration from Southern Europe and Eastern Europe, as well as relatively minor upticks in immigration from\",\n \"-27.36468730540946\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"tyranny of goodness\\\" haunting the Norwegian immigration debate, and that it would be more Christian and reasonable to help as many people as possible through foreign aid to refugees abroad rather than aiding fewer and more costly asylum seekers in Norway. She later vowed that her proposed asylum regulations would make Norway's asylum policies \\\"one of the strictest in Europe\\\".\\nThe first four months of 2016 saw asylum applications in Norway drop to its lowest levels since 1993, with only about 250 new applications each month. The reduction resulted in at least kr 800 million (US$100 million) being saved in\",\n \"-27.353513798167114\"\n ],\n [\n \"somewhat (migrants could still apply for asylum). On 26 November 2015, Prime Minister Stefan Löfven said the system for welcoming migrants was about to collapse and that the cabinet would propose major new restrictions and measures to reduce the inflow of migrants. He called on other European countries to take more responsibility. The government in December decided to introduce \\\"carrier's responsibility\\\" for trains and buses on the Öresund bridge which would introduce Swedish de facto border controls on the Danish side.\\nIn 2016, there were reports that multiple sexual harassment incidents had been reported at the We Are Sthlm festival over\",\n \"-27.338959790922672\"\n ],\n [\n \"Minister Chris Bowen said they were close to signing a bilateral agreement which would result in 800 asylum seekers who arrive in Australia by boat being taken to Malaysia instead. Australia would take 4,000 people from Malaysia who have previously been assessed as being refugees. However, on 31 August, the High Court ruled that the agreement to transfer refugees from Australia to Malaysia was invalid, and ordered that it not proceed. Australia would still accept 4,000 people who have been assessed as refugees in Malaysia.\\nThe asylum seeker debate returned during August 2012 following the report of the Expert Panel on\",\n \"-27.30816798973683\"\n ],\n [\n \"in need. It was only after World War II that Finnish social policy acquired the characteristics that in the next decades made it similar to other Nordic systems of social welfare.\\nAccording to Finnish sociologist Erik Allardt, the hallmark of the Nordic welfare system was its comprehensiveness. Unlike the welfare systems of the United States or most West European countries, those of the Nordic countries cover the entire population, and they are not limited to those groups unable to care for themselves. Examples of this universality of coverage are national flat-rate pensions available to all once they reached a certain age,\",\n \"-27.295467921474483\"\n ],\n [\n \"positive decisions; 88.6% recognition rate).\\nOf about 200.000 people who were legally bound to leave in 2015, after their applications for asylum had been rejected, only 20,914 were deported. A major obstacle for deportation was the lack of cooperation from the home countries. In February 2016 the German government did send complaints to 17 nations who do not fulfill their international obligations and insufficiently cooperate, either by not helping to identify their own citizens, by not issuing ID cards for those whose asylum applications have been rejected, or by taking only those people back who voluntarily leave. Those nations are, in\",\n \"-27.275186740617755\"\n ],\n [\n \"national scandal, and ministers resigned in protest. After protests by Lutheran ministers, the Archbishop, and the Social Democratic Party, no more foreign Jewish refugees were deported from Finland. \\nApproximately 500 Jewish refugees arrived in Finland during World War II, although about 350 moved on to other countries, including about 160 who were transferred to neutral Sweden to save their lives on the direct orders of Marshal Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, the commander of the Finnish Army. About 40 of the remaining Jewish refugees were sent to do compulsory labor service in Salla in Lapland in March 1942. The refugees were\",\n \"-27.270710151497042\"\n ],\n [\n \"criteria of the Regulation. On 2 September 2015, the Czech Republic also decided to offer Syrian refugees who had already applied for asylum in other EU countries and who had reached the country to either have their application processed in the Czech Republic (i. e. get asylum there) or to continue their journey elsewhere. \\nStates such as Hungary, Slovakia and Poland also officially stated their opposition to any possible revision or enlargement of the Dublin Regulation, specifically referring to the eventual introduction of new mandatory or permanent quotas for solidarity measures.\\nIn April 2018 at a public meeting of the Interior-Committee\",\n \"-27.26726117747603\"\n ],\n [\n \"direct asylum reception costs alone in the revised annual state budget, amid budget strains due to the low oil price. Listhaug has since called for further immigration and asylum restrictions to be implemented, particularly in family reunifications which reached all-time highs of about 20,000 in 2017. Among her proposals is that family reunifications should rather be achieved in the native countries of immigrants instead of in Norway.\\nOpinion polls consistently showed Listhaug to have the highest approval rating of all government ministers from her party, and several others. In September 2016, a poll showed that 59% of Norway's population approved of\",\n \"-27.255037921800977\"\n ],\n [\n \"it seeks to help the few refugees who can afford the journey to Norway, when there are millions of people suffering worldwide without such possibilities. The Democrats seeks to change the refugee-policy to instead helping people outside the Norwegian border. They claim that in that way the Norwegian state can afford to help much more refugees for the same amount of money that it requires to help considerably fewer people in Norway. Foreign policy The Democrats are opposed to Norwegian membership in the European Union, and wants Norway to withdraw from the European Economic Area and the Schengen Agreement. The\",\n \"-27.243789045576705\"\n ],\n [\n \"keep Germany and Europe open, to welcome legitimate asylum seekers in common humanity, while doing her very best to stop abuse and keep the movement to manageable proportions. Which demands a European-wide response (…)\\\".\\nAnalyst Naina Bajekal for the United States' magazine Time in September 2015 suggested that the German decision, late August 2015, to allow Syrian refugees to apply for asylum in Germany even if they had reached Germany through other EU member states, has led to increased numbers of refugees from Syria and other regions – Afghanistan, Somalia, Iraq, Ukraine, Congo, South Sudan etc. – endeavouring to reach (Western)\",\n \"-27.230980414751684\"\n ],\n [\n \"to migrate to. In response, in 1997, Russia amended and replaced the 1993 Law on Refugees to better address those individuals who have traveled to Russia in need of international protection. Russia’s current law on refugees The 1997 Law on Refugees, though slightly amended in 1998 and 2000, represents the Russian Federation’s current legislation on refugees. General process of attaining asylum in Russia According to Article 4.1(3), an asylum seeker who enters the Russian Federation illegally must file an application with the regional Ministry of Interior (\\\"MOI\\\") within 24 hours. According to a 2002 World Refugee Survey, the\",\n \"-27.22240522399079\"\n ],\n [\n \"the asylum seeker meets the legislative definition of a \\\"refugee\\\" and should be granted asylum.\\nAs of year end 2006, 1,020 people have been granted temporary asylum status and 405 people have been granted full refugee status by the Russian government. It is estimated, however, that there may be as many as one million \\\"undocumented foreigners\\\" on Russian soil awaiting initial access to the procedure of refugee status determination. The Russian authorities are notorious for denying refugee status to asylum seekers – with the approval rate for refugee status at only 2-5% of applicants.\\nAccording to an April 2007 report,\",\n \"-27.198607013444416\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Coastal Party.\\nAccording to a 2018 Yougov poll, 52% of Norwegians opposed accepting more migrants into the country. Poland A 2015 opinion poll conducted by the Centre for Public Opinion Research (CBOS) found that 14% thought that Poland should let asylum-seekers enter and settle in Poland, 58% thought Poland should let asylum-seekers stay in Poland until they can return to their home country, and 21% thought Poland should not accept asylum-seekers at all. Furthermore, 53% thought Poland should not accept asylum-seekers from the Middle East and North Africa, with only 33% thinking Poland should accept them.\\nAnother opinion poll conducted by\",\n \"-27.197488616599003\"\n ],\n [\n \"if refugees were settled in conventional housing and given work permits, with international financial support both for refugees and local government infrastructure and educational services. Unofficial refugee settlements Within countries experiencing large refugee in-migrations, citizen volunteers, non-governmental organizations, and refugees themselves have developed short- and long-term alternatives to official refugee camps established by governments or the UNHCR. Informal camps provide physical shelter and direct service provision but also function as a form of political activism. Alternative forms of migrant settlement include squats, occupations and unofficial camps.\\nAsylum seekers who have been rejected and refugees without access to state services in Amsterdam\",\n \"-27.184010228258558\"\n ],\n [\n \"the United Nations, Dag Hammarskjöld, was a Swedish citizen. Thus the people of the Scandinavian Peninsula had a strong influence in international affairs during the 20th century.\\nIn 1949, Norway, Denmark and Iceland became founding members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation for their defence against East Germany, the Soviet Union and all other potential invaders, and these three countries remain members as of 2011.\\nSweden and Finland joined the European Union in 1995. Norway, however, remains outside the Union.\",\n \"-27.161589497351088\"\n ],\n [\n \"Airport for travellers between Copenhagen and Sweden, and with a reduction in service frequency. Sweden introduced border control from Denmark earlier (15 November 2015), but that could not stop the migrant flow, since they have the right to apply for asylum once on Swedish ground. First when the transport companies had to stop foreigners on the Danish side, asylum seekers were efficiently stopped. This caused considerable disruption to the train traffic since the railway station did not have capacity for such checks. These checks lasted until 4 May 2017, after the EU commission declared such checks not acceptable.\\nOn 30 May\",\n \"-27.150076910300413\"\n ],\n [\n \"the reception and accommodation of asylum seekers and the processing of their asylum applications, in places near the borders of the EU or in countries outside the EU, from which asylum seekers originate or through which they pass. After an attempted relocation of asylum procedures in centres on the boundaries of the EU, in 2003 these policies have resulted in a proliferation of exile camps in and around the European Union, a pressure on neighbouring countries to develop systems that consider applications for asylum in their territories, and a radicalisation of antimigratory policies in neighbouring countries and within the border\",\n \"-27.13855472340947\"\n ],\n [\n \"the risk of a financial crisis spreading cross-border, and to enhance possibilities to reach an efficient crisis management. By signing the agreement, the public authorities in the Nordic and Baltic countries increase their preparedness to handle problems in cross-border banks. The NB8 countries are jointly represented in the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. The Baltic states are members of the Nordic Investment Bank.\\nThe Baltic states—Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia—have achieved an exceptional level of a trilateral co-operation, which, by its depth and intensity, can be compared to the Nordic co-operation. Three Baltic states have established the Baltic Council of Ministers\",\n \"-27.122798010648694\"\n ],\n [\n \"has significantly peaked in numbers since the abolition of the policy, despite worldwide asylum claim numbers remaining low by historical standards. These arrivals have also corresponded with increasing numbers of new refugee arrivals in Indonesia after the abandonment of the policy: 385 in 2008, 3,230 in 2009, 3,905 in 2010, 4,052 in 2011, 7,218 in 2012 and 8,332 in 2013. A probable link between restrictive refugee policies and lower attempts at seeking asylum in Australia by boat have been confirmed by the UNHCR: in April 2014, UNHCR Indonesia representative Manual Jordao stated: \\\"Word that the prospects of reaching Australia by\",\n \"-27.118644994305214\"\n ],\n [\n \"countries of citizenship of asylum seekers, accounting for more than half of the total, were Syria (21 percent), Afghanistan (13 percent), Albania (8 percent), Iraq (6 percent) and Kosovo (5 percent). In the third quarter of 2015 (July–September), EU countries received 413,800 first time asylum applications, almost double the number registered in the previous quarter. Germany and Hungary were the top recipients, with 26 percent each of total applicants. One third of asylum seekers were Syrians (33 percent), followed by Afghans (14 percent) and Iraqis (11 percent). In the fourth quarter of 2015, there were 426,000 first time applicants, mainly\",\n \"-27.108102685539052\"\n ],\n [\n \"Immigration to Finland Immigration to Finland is the process by which people migrate to Finland to reside in the country. Some, but not all, become Finnish citizens. Immigration has been a major source of population growth and cultural change throughout much of the history of Finland. The economic, social, and political aspects of immigration have caused controversy regarding ethnicity, economic benefits, jobs for non-immigrants, settlement patterns, impact on upward social mobility, crime, and voting behavior.\\nAs of 2018, there are 402,600 foreigners people residing in Finland, which corresponds to 7.3% of the population. Numerous polls in 2010 indicated that the\",\n \"-27.093335427722195\"\n ],\n [\n \"noted that, from 1982 to December 2002, 301 persons were accepted as refugees. The Government considered that most persons seeking asylum in the country did so for economic reasons. In 2003, there were approximately 7,900 refugees and asylum seekers in the country, of whom an estimated 7,700 were Vietnamese and Cambodian refugees. Out of 336 refugee claims submitted in 2003, the Government granted asylum to 10 persons from Burma, Burundi, and Iran and issued long-term residence permits based on humanitarian considerations to 16. As part of its ongoing family-reunification program for close relatives of Indochinese refugees resettled in earlier years,\",\n \"-27.069330105237896\"\n ],\n [\n \"Norway–Sweden relations International border Crossing the border between Sweden and Norway is relatively simple. No passport is required due to the Nordic Passport Union and there are no physical border obstructions. However, since Norway is not part of the European Union customs controls can be made if travelling by car to prohibit smuggling. Foreign citizens requiring visa to either state are not allowed to cross the border legally without applying for visa again. There are no restrictions on non-felon Swedish and Norwegian people's rights to live in the neighboring country.\",\n \"-27.01937300359714\"\n ],\n [\n \"for the Faroe Islands). There are some areas in the Nordic Passport Union that give extra rights for Nordic citizens, not covered by Schengen, such as less paperwork if moving to a different Nordic country and fewer requirements for naturalisation. Current leaders All the Nordic countries are long-established parliamentary democracies. Denmark, Norway and Sweden have a political system of constitutional monarchy, in which a nonpolitical monarch acts as head of state and the de facto executive power is exercised by a cabinet led by a prime minister. Margrethe II has reigned in Denmark as Queen Regnant and head of state\",\n \"-27.01477000466548\"\n ],\n [\n \"include the many who were born inside Iran during the last 35 years. The number of Afghan refugees is decreasing significantly every year due to voluntary repatriation. For instance, in 2017 alone, over half a million of them returned to Afghanistan from Pakistan and Iran.\\nThe 2011 industrialized country asylum data notes a 30% increase in applications from Afghans from 2010 to 2011, primarily towards Germany and Turkey. Pakistan Since the beginning US military intervention against the Taliban in Pakistan over 1.2 million people have been displaced in across the country, joined by a further 555,000 Pakistanis uprooted by fighting since\",\n \"-27.010590448398943\"\n ],\n [\n \"all, between 2003 and 2012, one fifth of the permanent migrants into Sweden were considered humanitarian migrants. This is a higher percentage than all other OECD countries and likely plays a role in the employment gaps as humanitarian migrants typically find it more difficult to integrate into OECD countries. Second of all, less than 5% of jobs in Sweden require only a high school degree. With migrants from Syria and Iraq almost certainly having never studied Swedish back home, it is inevitably difficult for them to find work. Considering they are among the top three countries of immigrant origin alongside\",\n \"-27.00264195224736\"\n ],\n [\n \"controversy. Sweden After World War II, immigration into Sweden occurred in three phases. The first was a direct result of the war, with refugees from concentration camps and surrounding countries in Scandinavia and Northern Europe. The second, prior to 1970, involved immigrant workers, mainly from Finland, Italy, Greece, and Yugoslavia. In the most recent phase, from the 1970s onwards, refugees immigrated from the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America, joined later by their relatives.\\nA study which mapped patterns of segregation and congregation of incoming population groups found that, if a majority group is reluctant to accept a minority influx, they\",\n \"-26.981030953931622\"\n ],\n [\n \"to over 80,000 in two months and with terror group Islamic state rampage in the Middle East and the following attacks in Paris in November 2015, the Löfven cabinet significantly reverted Sweden's migration policy. On 23 October 2015, a bipartisan migration agreement was signed between the cabinet parties and the oppositional Moderate Party, the Centre Party, the Liberals and the Christian Democrats which included, among many other changes, temporary residency permits, total financial support requirements for family reunification and by law forcing municipalities to help with sheltering refugees in order to better distribute the burden across the country.\\nOn 12 November\",\n \"-26.96062739365152\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the EU peaked in 1992 (672,000), 2001 (424,000) and 2013 (431,000). In 2014 it reached 626,000. According to the UNHCR, the EU countries with the biggest numbers of recognised refugees at the end of 2014 were France (252,264), Germany (216,973), Sweden (142,207) and the United Kingdom (117,161). No European state was among the top ten refugee-hosting countries in the world.\\nPrior to 2014, the number of illegal border crossings detected by Frontex at the external borders of the EU peaked in 2011, with 141,051 total (sea and land combined). Global refugee crisis According to the UNHCR, the number of forcibly\",\n \"-26.960033871990163\"\n ],\n [\n \"open their borders, introducing visa-free regimes with the Baltic countries.\\nWhen Baltic countries regained their independence and during their integration into the European and transatlantic structures, they were strongly supported by their Nordic neighbors. The Nordic-Baltic co-operation took place in various levels: networking and cooperation were established among politicians, civil servants and civil societies. The Nordic countries actively assisted the Baltic countries in their preparations for integration into the European Union and NATO.\\nNamed as 5+3 in the beginning of cooperation (five Nordic countries plus three Baltic States), the format changed its name and scope of cooperation. During the meeting of the\",\n \"-26.918834916723426\"\n ],\n [\n \"refugee status does not mean that they were already given all the documents they need for starting their new lives. Refusal of asylum It often happens that the country neither recognizes the refugee status of the asylum seekers nor sees them as legitimate migrants and thus treats them as illegal aliens. If an asylum claim has been rejected, the asylum seeker is said to be refused asylum, and called a failed asylum seeker. Some failed asylum seekers are allowed to remain temporarily, some return home voluntarily and some are forcibly returned. The latter are most often placed in immigration detention\",\n \"-26.909734424494673\"\n ],\n [\n \"refugees were treated differently to refugees from other religions with regards to the financial support they received. The Swiss government persuaded Germany to stamp \\\"J\\\" on the passport of Jews in order to make it easier to refuse admission to Jewish refugees. When thousands of Jews tried to flee Austria after the Anschluss in March 1938, and again in 1942-1943 when Jews tried to escape deportation from France, the Netherlands, and Belgium, a large part of them were denied access to the country. During the Second World War 25,000 Jews were granted refugee status in Switzerland, but around 30,000\",\n \"-26.90869205047784\"\n ],\n [\n \"labour from other countries in Eastern Europe and visa controls were applied in 1992. 1990–1997: The growth in asylum The number of asylum seekers before 1979 is difficult to determine as no separate statistics were collated before this point. A Parliamentary answer indicated that in 1973, 34 people had been granted refugee status. The application of the 1951 Convention dealing with the treatment of refugees was still being applied, to a large extent, to those people fleeing persecution from behind the Iron Curtain.\\nThe total number of asylum applications in 1979 was 1563 and by 1988 had risen, fairly steadily\",\n \"-26.897006990620866\"\n ],\n [\n \"suspended all rail and ferry links with Germany (reopened the following day). On the same day parts of the E45 motorway was closed for vehicles to avoid accidents as hundreds of migrants were walking along it in southern Jutland towards Sweden. It was reopened a few hours later when the walking migrants exited the motorway. After initial uncertainty surrounding the rules, it was decided that migrants wishing to continue to other Nordic countries and refusing to seek asylum in Denmark would be allowed to pass. In the five weeks following 6 September alone, approximately 28,800 migrants passed the Danish borders.\",\n \"-26.86425974254962\"\n ],\n [\n \"Norway, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein) that later caused the refugee crisis. However, Poland, Hungary, and Czechs has refused to accept the refugee quotas and rarely admit any asylum-seekers. Jaroslaw Kaczyński, the leader of the ruling Law and Justice party, had explained to the public that a part of asylum seekers may cause destruction to the safety and culture of the country. Trump, during his presidency, shares the same political views with the party, which Trump himself further endorsed the approach by encouraging the member states of the NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) to demonstrate the belief in the future of the\",\n \"-26.848393602860597\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":599,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2v6cu4"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How are buffets profitable? How much money is usually made (on average) per customer at all you can eat buffets? Do customers often eat more than the costs it took to serve them?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Buffets are profitable because: * the food is usually lower quality * they can get by with fewer staff * it is cheaper to prepare the food in bulk, instead of cooking plating it per order EDIT: By lower quality, I don't mean crappy. I mean vegetables vs. meat, chicken vs. beef, store bought vs. homemade.","One word: Volume. Food is pretty cheap to make in bulk. Plus not everyone eats like it's their last meal. Those that do are usually balanced out by people that are reasonable. There's a few exceptions like casino buffets. They're (usually) subsidized by the casino so they don't have to worry about making a profit. They can give away the house because they know you'll hit the casino floor later to make it up 10 fold. The one place that confuses me is Golden Corral because they're an independent business. $10 doesn't buy you much in terms of food and they have some \"good\" stuff like steak. Even though it's sirloin at $2-3/lb, that gets eaten up quite quickly. Their margins must be pretty thin. But overall, the food is cheap and cooked in volume so there's lots of room to move around.","I used to work at a fine dining restaurant that served a fancy brunch buffet every Sunday. One day a very thin lady started to show up every Sunday right when we opened. She always came in alone and made a bee line for the bowl of peel and eat shrimp. She would load her plate up with nothing else then go back to her seat and eat all of them. Then she would wait until we refilled it and then she would go back again. She would do this until we were out. The waitstaff wondered how she was able to eat 6+ pounds of shrimp in a few hours. I thought she was putting it into her purse. On her third visit, one of the female staff discreetly monitored her every move. She quickly found out that our guest would make quick trips to the bathroom where she would vomit up everything she ate and then go back and load up on more shrimp. She got the incorrect nickname \"Anna\" short for Anorexic (It should have been Bulimia but we weren't clever enough to come up with an innocent female name we could refer to her as in front of other guests). \"Anna\" would also rarely speak to us. She would smile when appropriate, and either nod or shake her head when asked a question. Once our boss (who never came in on Sundays) found out he did some quick calculations and figured she was losing us too much money. Rather than ban her, he simply had us change our peel and eat strategy. We broke up the peel and eat shrimp from one big bowl into several smaller bowls scattered throughout the buffet line. We were told NOT to refill them until she left. The next Sunday, \"Anna\" showed up and at first frowned at the change in her routine. She had to go through the entire buffet line to get all of the shrimp. She also had to empty each of the bowls as she came across them. Her usual attempts at discretion were no longer working and the guests in line with her started to make comments like \"Wow- are you on a shrimp only diet?\" and \"Hey, leave some for the rest of us!\" \"Anna\" hurried back to her seat, resumed her usual ritual of binging and purging and then sat quietly waiting for us to refill the bowls. I only refilled the one at the end of the buffet so other guests could get some before she got to it. I left the rest of them empty. If any other guest asked for them, I would tell them we were out then quietly take a small bowl out to their table (out of sight of \"Anna\" of course). After about an hour of sitting with a plate of shrimp peelings, \"Anna\" was forced to actually interact with us and ask about the shrimp. When she was told we were out she became visibly upset and stormed out. We never saw her again after that."," > How are buffets profitable? Sometimes they're not: Years ago in my younger, stupider, days I was doing a construction job out in the country with a crew of hillbillies. We got talking one Friday about a local place that makes delicious food. Well, they also had a really good buffet, and after a little day-dreamin' and droolin' we all decided to stop by there after work for dinner. You gotta understand that even with our boots off and our stomachs empty weren't none of us small guys: I don't think there was anyone on that job less than 220 pounds. And because of the prospect of delicious \"All You Can Eat\" some of the guys were even going light on snacks and lunch in order to keep extra room for dinner. So after a 10 hour day, we shove off and make our way over to the buffet and we just start *digging in*. We're eating like we invented it. They'd bring out a steam tray of pasta? That's our steam tray of pasta. Another of dumplings? Wasn't even likely to reach the buffet table before it ends up on our plates. Well, after a time, when we'd accumulated a stack of plates that could've stocked a Crate-N-Barrel, this grizzled guy comes sauntering over to our table. He identifies himself as the owner: *\"Is the food good?\"* We said it was. *\"Y'all enjoying yourselves? Getting enough to eat?\"* We said we were. *\"That's fine. I just wanted to make sure y'all enjoyed it, because once you're done here, I don't ever want to see a single one of you guys back in here again.\"* He hit us all with a near fatal dose of the Evil Eye and then turned his back and sauntered back to the kitchen. And that's how I learned that sometimes it's not really All You Can Eat.","Not everyone takes \"All you can eat\" as a personal challenge. Also there's some psychology involved. It's no accident the salad bar and pastas are in front, and the meat carving station is way in the back.","Hello, I worked in a restaurant. - The price for a buffet meal is fairly high. $25 to $30 during dinner. - Most people can only eat a certain amount, particularly children. - Extra money is made on expensive drinks. - The buffet is organized in such a way that there are a lot of cheap foods (like rice) that brings down cost per customer. Normally, people don't just eat meat. They'll put some rice, or salad on the side. - Food is bought in larger quantities, so they get better wholesale prices. - Less staff. No one has to go around actively serving customers. But keep in mind the profits are still pretty thin. Opening a buffet doesn't mean instant success.","I think some one touched on it... but the buffet is not the only income. Think drinks. Fountain drinks cost a few cents per fill but restaurants often charge $2+ making a huge profit. Alcoholic beverages if served at the establishment are often another huge source of profit.","I think some places have a few tricks to curb your appetite. The best one I can think of off the top of my head is at a brewery here called granite city. They have a Sunday breakfast buffet with prime rib, thick bacon and so on. But they also bring to your table, for each person, something I deemed the \"stomach plug\". These stomach plugs are giant cinnamon rolls. Each one equals about 2-3 average sized cinnamon rolls.","OK. I work at a pizza place that does buffets. It costs $8 with a drink to get the buffet. $8 is about the price of a medium (12inch) pizza here. Most people won't / can't eat any more than how much is on a medium pizza so we'll usually only have about 1 pizza per person out and the bread sticks and cinnamon sticks are distributed to everyone almost evenly. Even though we make less than someone buying a pizza straight up, it's still profitable. Oh and when it comes to pizza buffets, don't believe that the pizza you get is lower quality. It isn't. After a bit of being on a metal pan (like an hr) the crust will get soggy from grease and will taste pretty bad but when you put it in the cardboard box for take out or delivery, the box absorbs the grease that goes to the bottom and the pizza's crust is not soggy. Tl;Dr - if you're at a pizza buffet, ask for some fresh custom pizzas. We don't mind unless the buffet is nearly full already. Edit: For all you wondering, I work at Mr Jim's which is a pizza chain mainly regional to the Dallas fort worth area. Not cici's","I could be wrong but isn't one of the big costs in restaurants unused food; ingredients that people don't order. Buffets don't have this issue I assume. Obviously not the full answer but probably a contributing factor.","It's an *entirely* different business model than running a restaurant. You have to do a lot of observation and make sure that items are put up that are constantly popular since leftovers will cut into your profits. There are many cost saving measures that make a buffet quite profitable. The biggest consideration that it takes less staff to actually run a buffet than it takes to run a service in a restaurant. Labor is a really large percentage of your operating cost and a buffet can schedule employees in a pretty stable and regular manner because when they are not running to the line, they can be preparing in bulk. It takes fewer employees to refill items than it does to individually plate items and run them to the table. Since no one is waiting for food, higher table turnover. So, more volume. * Portion control - Expensive proteins are usually not self serve. * The salad bar - Getting people to fill up on salad lessens the amount o things that they eat, overall. This is why the salad bar is the beginning of the buffet. And produce is cheap. * The dessert bar - Overall, desserts are super cheap to make. And if someone sees a sea of desserts, they might slow down so that they can gorge on desserts. * Item placement - There is an entire psychology behind where things are being placed. Starches are cheap, and you will find them easily accessible placed to the front of the proteins. * Smaller serving utensils - Sounds stupid, but it's true. A smaller serving utensil encourages portion control. * The plates are smaller -Requires more trips to the food line. * There is never a horrible rush - You don't need to drop everything and deal with a huge pile of orders that are up. This frees your back of house staff to create a steady flow of prepared items. Gives a lot of breathing space to the prep and cooking staff. * Making everything from scratch - It may not taste so great because it sits around for a while, but they do try and make everything from scratch. This is because making it from scratch is far cheaper with regards to food costs. A bag of prepared french fries costs $6 for a 5 lb bag while a 50 lb sack of potatoes costs $12. * Budgeting - You can figure out what the per person food costs are and average it out with a reasonable margin.","Buffets are make-to-inventory, while restaurants are make-to-order. Make-to-inventory is always cheaper, since the cooks can cook for the busy times during the slow times. If you make to order, then you have to wait for the order before cooking it. As an extra bonus, cooking two servings of a dish takes less time than cooking one serving twice.","I was at a chinese food buffet once when a group of football players came in (it was across the street from a university.) The staff came out with bowls of celery and started adding it to every dish. There's nothing like cellulose to fill the gut and slow them down a bit.","I own and operate a \"by-the-pound\" buffet and being able to buy in bulk saves a ton of money. I buy 200 pounds of chicken on Monday because Tuesday is soul food day. It's easier and cheaper than buying 50 pounds of chicken that you have to prepare individually for a table that is served by a waiter. My profit margins are great because it's by the pound. People come in, they put food on their tray, they pay, and leave.","I'm not an expert on how buffets operate, but I can give you some information relating to how/why buffets *should be* profitable based on my past high-end catering experience. Let's say the price for an adult is $19.95 for an all-you-can-eat buffet. From my experience (regardless of the price), the less expensive and \"gut-busting\" food items are displayed first (i.e. bread, crackers, vegetable and fruit displays, salads, soups, and the almighty pasta courses) with the more expensive items at the very end (carved meats, seafood, ribs, fish, etc.). I call the former \"gut-busters\" because most of these items are filled with carbohydrates (bread, pasta, hearty soups, etc.) and fill a person's stomach at a greater rate opposed to eating lighter foods or proteins, especially when said carbs come in contact with liquids (water, tea, soda,beer, alcohol). Buffet restaurants know this and use it to their advantage as they assume most people will simply load up their first plate with the \"gut-busting\" items and when they get to the more expensive items, they don't have enough room on their plate and figure that they'll just come back for seconds. They're anticipating that by the end of your first plate, you're too full to even think about going back for seconds. So let's say you ate tiny portions of a few salads, pastas, had some raw veggies, a couple pieces of fruit, and maybe a bowl of soup. All told, what you just ate might amount to $3 at-cost to the restaurant. And that $19.95 you just shelled out to eat that food? The standard food cost percentage in restaurants is 35%, give or take a percentage point; buffets are looking for anywhere between 20-28% food cost. Remember that $3 you just ate although you paid $19.95 for the privilege? That comes out to 15.04% food cost to the restaurant: In layman's terms, BOOM! PROFIT!. Let's say you ate all of the food mentioned above and are still hungry so you grab a few slices of prime rib and a few shrimp. The cost of your plates now jumped from $3 to maybe $5. You feel like you got your money's worth because not only did you eat salad, veggies, fruit, pasta, soup, prime rib, and shrimp, but you're leaving full and satisfied. You surely dented the restaurant's profits because you ate so much right? Wrong. By you eating that extra protein you increased their food-cost from 15.04% to 25.1%; still within their targeted food-cost percentage to make a profit. Couple this with low labor costs and overhead (I'm reaching here, based on how efficient each individual buffet is managed), they can be highly profitable enterprises when done correctly and constantly monitored. All told, if you choose to eat at these establishments, eat what you want however much you want but please keep in mind they're also trying to run and operate a successful business. Going straight to the higher-end items and eating only these items is bad form in my opinion. But do as you wish.","You rang? :) It's all been covered. For every one big eater there are four who are not. We are $30 plus, and adults still eat the kids mashed potatoes. Meat is expensive. We use the cheaper cuts of quality product if that makes sense. Chicken that is cooked but never exposed to guests and not used today is in tomorrow's chicken based soup.","I used to manage a buffet, so I actually know this topic! Buffets make money by enticing you with high price items, then once you are in the building, convincing you to fill your plates with low cost items. In the same way that grocery stores design their layouts to make you spend more, profitable buffets will offer breads, vegetables, and low quality meats (cheap stuff) at the beginning of the line, allowing you to fill your plate, while reserving expensive items (steak, shrimp, and the like) for the end of the line. A good manager knows to locate his expensive items at strategic locations and to offer them in small portion sizes, while making cheaper items look as appetizing as possible. That is why Golden Corral will usually cut your steaks for you, as well as why the rolls are freaking delicious and right at the beginning of the line!","A few major reasons buffets yield profit (although they typically don't yield as much as you would think). * Most people don't put back as much food as you think. On average, most customers put back about two plates, which really isn't all that much. Occasionally you have someone who can put away half the spread on their own, but they are typically the oddity. The money you paid for the buffet probably covers about three plates worth of food, so if you only eat two, each person is paying for food they don't eat, effectively making up for that one fat-ass whose on his 9th plate. * Buffets are normally *loaded* with rice and/or pasta. Those are dirt cheap. Rice, before cooking, only costs ~$1/Lb, and on average will expand to double it's size when cooked (although that varies on what type of rice you are using), so if you're paying $8 for a buffet, and eating mostly rice, let's say you manage to put back 1.5lbs of it (which is an obscene amount), the restaurant just made ~$5.50 in profit off you. (That figure accounts for the veggies and/or sauce that were in the rice, as well). Similar prices apply to most pastas. * Labor. A buffet can be almost entirely prepped, set up, and run, by 2 people. During actual service, depending on how busy the place is, sometimes just 1 person. Labor makes up for a good portion of what you are paying for when you go out to eat, so cutting that cost down is a substantial reason why buffets can be so cheap. * Volume. Restaurants make money by volume. Even if you don't make a significant amount of money with each plate you sell, if you sell lots of them, you make lots of money. Buffets operate on a similar principal. Sell lots of people food without a huge profit margin, and you will still make a large profit (the margin itself won't be that high, but positive cash flow will be). There are other \"tricks\", too. Put the cheap/filling stuff at the beginning of the buffet, and anything that is more expensive towards the end. Make sure everything is heavy on the starches (rice, potatoes, pasta) as they tend to be cheap and very filling. Throw a few high-end proteins (steak, crab legs, etc.) on the buffet towards the end. The name will attract customers, but it's very likely not many people will eat it, so you only have to prep a little bit of it. Think of it like an advertising budget. The list of nuances for making a buffet profitable could go on for a while, but those are the big points. Source: Been a chef for close on 15 years, set up more buffets than you've had hot meals.","Everything is way cheaper than you think. This is how all business make money. They have a merchant account. They buy from distributors at almost cost. That is extremely cheaper than what you as a customer can get. When I was younger I worked for various retail and restaurant chains. Even things marked down or on sale are often still marked up 100 percent for what the business payed. Look at sodas and fries for example. Large fries or a soda cost 2 bucks or more. You can go to club stores and get a whole bag of fries for 3 or a box of soda syrup that will pour out hundreds of drinks for 50.","When I go to a buffet, I typically get three plates. One for a main course, one for everything I missed, and one for desserts.","My friend took a Chinese buffet to the cleaners once. He sat and ate so much, they told him he either had to leave or pay for dinner too. It *started* as lunch.","Chef here. Buffets are priced differently than a typical restaurant. In a restaurant each dish is price in such a way that the food costs somewhere between 18-35% of the total price, on average (depends on the dish and the type of restaurant). At a buffet you obviously can't do that because everyone pays the same regardless of what they eat, or how much. Instead pricing is typically done based on projected seating. If we turn 6 tables of 4 every hour, and we're open 12 hours a day, that equates to a grand total of 288 customers on an average day (minimum). Pricing is done relative to that number such that everything stays afloat and produces a profit. For example a 10% profit (pretty typical for a restaurant) on $20,000/week operating costs would be $22,000 so divide that by your average number of weekly customers found using the above calculation (288*7, or however many days a week you're open) and you'll get your final recommended price. $11/person in this particular example. Note: numbers were pulled out of my ass and don't reflect any specific restaurant or industry standard TL;DR: Buffets are priced based on knowing on average how many people you'll serve and making sure that you account for all your operating costs.","Even the fattest of fat people cannot eat more than it costs the buffet in materials and labour to feed them. Bulk cooking is much cheaper than what you do at home. Cooking 400 gallons of marinara is much cheaper than cooking a half gallon 800 times. You can order tomatoes and meat in bulk direct from the supplier. Buffets charge about $20-$50 depending on how classy a buffet it is. Cheap beef (one of the more expensive ingredients involved) grosses retail at around $2 per pound. So that's 10 pounds of the most expensive ingredient - something you could never eat in a sitting.","I worked at a buffet place years ago. Things may have changed, but all I had to do was clear used plates off the table and refill drinks. (I also had to do other normal server duties; restock plates, glasses, roll silverware, etc) The shitty part was that I got paid minimum wage **for a server** I made less than $2.00/hr and bc I wasn't actually a *real* server (and bc it was a buffet place) so people **never** tipped. So I would walk out on a Friday night with a few quarters from the people who did leave tips. I quit after 2 nights. Oh, and In those 2 nights I witnessed 3 people vomit in the parking lot when leaving from stuffing themselves. Worst job ever.","I've spent time managing in a buffet on the LV Strip. I can tell you a few quick things: It didn't matter if someone wanted a refund. It didn't matter if someone came in with their kids, didn't pay for themselves cause they weren't eating, and then when their kid didn't like the food asked if they could eat instead of the kid. The point of restaurants in a casino, including the buffet, is to keep the customer happy so they'll stay in the building and go back and gamble. You're in the hospitality industry less than you are in food and beverage. It's all about keeping the customer in the building and spending money. It doesn't matter if I gave you a twenty-two dollar steak, because ten minutes after you left you dropped fifty bucks playing blackjack and went to the ATM. Sometimes, often times, it's the other end of it too. People have ALREADY lost money, and they decided to get up to come eat, and you're the closest person they can be angry with. I used to tell my staff, \"The angrier the customer, the more likely it is they probably just lost a TON of money.\" And thinking that usually helped you not empathize, but just straight laugh at their misfortune...which you need to do if you ever work Food and Bev. All the books are somewhat separate in casinos though, you know? Like numbers are tracked per department, per restaurant, the same as they're tracked in singular retail outlets for like GAP and stuff. So the buffet has X amount of covers they want to be doing an hour to stay profitable in comparison with last year, etc etc. But for the most part, it didn't fucking matter what happened, it didn't matter what we gave away. Just keep them happy, and keep them gambling."," URL_0 I guarantee that I could not eat $50 worth (cost/labor/overhead) of food from here. Why? They had a million customers *before their first anniversary*. Volume purchasing and assembly line labor translates to the exact same item from a regular \"service\" restaurant would cost much more simply because of the economies of scale. They likely make more of one item in a day than a normal restaurant would make in a month or a year.","I misread title as \"How are bullets profitable? How much money is usually made (on average) per customer at all you can eat bullets?\" until I realized I should renew my glasses.","I asked the manager at CiCis (a pizza buffet) and he says it takes them $0.25 to make a pizza, so your have to eat 20 entire pizzas for them to lose money","You never have to wait long for a soda refill at a buffett because it is cheap and fill you up","Your enjoyment rates also decrease every time you return. The business entices you, while knowing that each additional plate of food provides less utility than the one before, meaning all customers will stop returning when their \"limit\" is reached, that is, when they are too full and their enjoyment drops. Considering other factors such as the number of people they can entertain at a given time, the \"limit\" would basically be their basis on how much or what food would be served in a day. In economics this is the [law of diminishing marginal utility]( URL_0 ).","Usually the buffet buys in bulk like a lot of food to make a profit, also drinks (besides water) help with getting a profit Like Chinese buffets large ones order so much to get a price break , good luck trying to make em lose a profit unless all you eat is prime rib, crab legs or chicken wings My buddy and his friend actually did eating contests at buffets subsequently he and his friends ended up getting kciked out as they ate too much. He and his friends aren't fat either.","It's a little known fact that buffets are actually partially underwritten by Warren Buffet. It is a good way for him to get his name out there all over the country at minimal cost.","Essentially unless you pack your guy so full of meat you won't shit for a month buffets are profitable. People fill up on cheap starches and don't eat much.","In the case of a casino, the buffet might actually lose money, but attracts more customers who will gamble, increasing overall profits.","Not sure about the high end ones but the buffet I worked at did it like this. The largest pod and area was salads, this is also the cheapest to purchase. It was also closest to the front door. Busy day your waiting in line and looking at that. A lot of folks go for it first because of this. Entrees were the medium area. The smallest pod and most expensive was meats and the carving station. Usually a line for carving so it would mostly block the expensive stuff. The pod closest to the dining area was full of the cheaper side dishes. People tending to hit that first when going for warm food. The other main dish pod was different daily. So it could be Mexican on Monday and Italian the next. Usually not pricy over all it was not a large pod and off to the side. Last is desserts the smallest area and pod usually second in price behind the meats. Cook time was factored in to this. It was off to the other side of the restaurant total. Most things were pre-portioned as well. It was also arranged odd so again if we were busy it looked like a lot more people were in it. Layout was determined by corporate and we couldn't change it. This was mainly to control the flow of people. Aim them at the cheap stuff and let them fill up on that. The drinks were in the middle of the dining area and we advertised them as free so people would drink a bunch of coke or sprite. This was dirt cheap for us. The layout of the dining area was set to keep you from getting too comfy. Tables a little on the small side, booths pushed in just a little too close. No one hung out after eating so we could have a faster turn on the tables. Sure you'd have people game the system so to speak. Show up right at change over pay lunch price and eat dinner. Or the guy that brought a book. Folks that would pile meats on their plate and not eat it all. My favorite were the fools that would bring in plastic bags and load it up full then try and walk out with a bag full of fried chicken. Usually the wait staff got them. You could tell even on a busy day if some one was loading up to take it home.","The way buffets are priced is you add up the cost of all the food that was eaten. Divide it by the number of people served. That is your food cost per plate. Add in all of your fixed and variable costs plus whatever you set for your profit(believe it or not most restaurants are lucky to see 8% profit margin). You do this calculation on a regular basis to get the average cost throughout the year so be sure you have the right price set. Labor cost are one of the largest factors that go into the price of a food item and when they are produced in quantity you really see economies of scale pretty quickly. When you don't gorge yourself you are making up for those who do Buffets in a casino are different since they typically don't care to make a profit off of them and just want to get people in the door to gamble.","My parents owned a small diner that they put a buffet into. Every day featured a different home cooked option like meatloaf, catfish, hamburger steaks, and one night was ribs. Eventually they had to shut the buffet down because it was causing the diner to bleed money. The problem, as others have said, was that my parents did not use lower quality food and kept the same amount of staff (because the menu was still an option). The rib night was the real culprit and final nail in the coffin. The diner was in a small town and when rib night rolled around, every farmer and farm hand in the area came out of the woodwork to eat mountainous plate after plate of ribs. Often times they wouldn't touch a single other item on the buffet.","So from what I've read, by not buying a drink and avoiding the cheap foods that fill you up quickly and heading straight for the more expensive foods like meats, you will give the least profit to a buffet because you'll be eating more expensive stuff that fills you up less, and drinks are a high source of income for buffets. With that being said, even if you get more from your money for it, I don't think trying to purposely make a buffet lose profit is a good thing, especially if you enjoy the restaurant. It seems like making them lose profit is something that's hard to do without serious intent.","The profit is made on people like me who pay $20 for all I can eat and I can't eat more than one plate. For me it ends up being over-priced cafeteria food, which is why I don't go to them. *Except* the buffet at the Bellagio in Las Vegas. It's something like $45 a person and worth every penny. The key for me there is to take small portions so I can try lots of different stuff.","As a kid buffets are like all your dreams have come true. I went to a buffet just the other night, I'm now older and a qualified chef, and i was amazed at how much of the produce was brought it. People don't seem to give it a thought or even care that it's all pre-made and just heated or put on a plate, and of course they all think they're getting a great deal.","Food is not most of a restaurant's cost -- think salaries, rent, equipment, advertising, etc. Those are fixed costs no matter how much or little a customer eats, or whether the customer comes in at all. But from the customer's viewpoint, the food is the most important part. So restauranteurs know that feeding them as much as they want is well worth it.","most buffets make money by buying the cheapest food possible in the biggest quantity possible, and then charge $2 bucks per glass of pop. also, i like how nearly every post in this thread has been hit by what i presume to by the Downvote Brigade, /r/ELI5 Battalion, NA(for North America) Company, American Platoon. lol EDIT: Fixed my unit reference.","Former pizza buffet worker here. We charged 7.95 for adult with soda for the buffet. Me and an owner calculated that in order to get their moneys worth, a customer would have to eat 7 1/2 pizzas in one sitting edit: theres a big difference between 795 and 7.95","My uncle is a chef and recently started at Golden Corral (a chain buffet in the US). He says the profit is $0.15 after accounting for all costs. So, profit margin is low but volume is high.","And as for one common type of buffet, casino buffets don't need to make money as far as I can tell. They are basically loss leaders.","My average cost per guest is 1.90, the base entry is 10$ and sodas are 2.5$ of pure profit (soda is in that cost)","Usually they charge pretty steep for drinks and put ridiculous amounts of salt in the food","The food is generally lower quality, it is prepared in bulk, and they don't have to plate it for you or anything. Thus they have fewer wait staff, and can serve more customers faster as they skip the ordering process. A party of five might spend 30 minutes eating at a buffet but an hour or more eating at a restaurant. Also, while some customers like myself are a bottomless pit, the vast majority eat 1-2 plates. Cheaper buffets like old country buffet or something where you're paying like $8 a head, the food is terrible and sits out all day. Fancier buffets like those found in casinos are considerably more expensive, though you can usually get them comped if you are playing games. The buffet is very profitable for the casino as people eat very quickly In 30 minutes and then can go back to playing games. At a Fancier casino restaurant, where they can charge $40 a person or something like that, the casino might actually lose money as the customers would spend an hour or more away from the games which make them the real money. Lpt: if you want to stuff your face, play table games for like 5 minutes at the casino and get your buffet comped. I do it all the time as its the only place my grandparents will go. I'll eat lobster buffet for free after spending like $10 at the blackjack table and that's only if I'm not winning.","To simply the matter, think it this way. In restaurant business cost break down like this. Raw material (ingredient) is about 25%, labour is another 25%, rent is another 25% and utility/distribution/marketing is another 25%. People may eat more and increase cost in raw material but you could make equal or more saving in other area. Instead of making a chow mein pork noodle for one person, you get to make the same thing for 20 persons in one go. Instead of serving the customer individually, you just get to dump the food in one location and the customer serve it for themselves. Also, buffet tables are squeezed so rent per table is maximised. Also, because the cust gauge themselves and don't talk that much, turnover of table is high. So while raw material cost more, you make more saving in the area of staf, rent and utility. The profit come from the drinks the customer order. If you want to cause maximum damage to the establishment, just order big bottle of mineral water to share, go easy on main, enjoy deserts, especially fruits and take your time. ;)","I worked at golden corral for 2 years at the time i was a waiter and got to learn from the kitchen to the office and here is how it works: 1. Drinks, a soda costs a penny to the restaurant if one person drank their fill but cost 2.00 at the front. 2. Bustling atmosphere, the atmosphere at a golden corral is supposed to seem energetic. Servers are always cleaning and clearing, people are always moving to get more food, tables are moving around, etc. This makes people finish their meals quicker because it sets the tempo of an atmosphere, more in and out means more money. 3. Bulk Cooking Methods, the buffets cook the food at rather miraculous efficiency of storage and distributions, in fact the one i worked at used to give rolls to people, whom the theory goes would fill up on those and leave the more expensive food. Turned out the rolls and the man hours to make them and serve them cost more than the advantage.","After having moved from TN to CA (bay area) I was surprised to see very few chinese/multi-asian cuisine buffets. The margins are too small and everything's too expensive here (except for the actual cost of buying food/groceries!, produce, most meats, fish, poultry cost the same though, goat is overpriced here). You might think that people are more health conscious, they are, but Asian people can fucking eat, that's probably the biggest reason why. Most buffet places would go out of business just because of all the hungry asians, esp. if you try to serve any kind of seafood. There are one or two buffet places, but where it would be $8.50 or $10 in TN it's $20 here. At that price I think I'll just go a la carte or just cook at home.","I have no idea. I've been to pizza and chinese buffets. The amount of food I can eat is worth far more than it would cost to buy it as an individual item. At a pizza buffet in college I could eat 2 14\" pizzas by myself, which would cost me about 4x what it cost at the buffet. Maybe they make money because of all the kids who go there and don't eat much. At a chinese buffet, there is one nearby for about $6 that has nuggets that taste almost like Mcdonalds. I can easily eat 20, that alone would cost me about the price of the buffet if I got them at McDs. That doesn't even add in all the chicken I would eat.","Rest owner here of a fast food biz, a few points 1. generally speaking, most restaurants have a profit margin somewhere between 8-10 Percent range. i don't know about full service dining restaurants but QSR's definitely do. ( Quality service restauarat which usually refers for a fast food type of place) given these margins, most restaurants are experts at cost management especially given the fact that mature restaurants have sales that wont often change dramatically from year to year unless something dramatic happens. buffets slash the labor part of the equation, feature less popular dishes to clear inventory and sprinkle a few popular items to keep customers coming back.","Something I wanted to add: I've never seen a buffet that wasn't kid-friendly. Sure, the child price is cheaper, but not enough that they are unlikely to profit from a kid. Kid's won't eat as much as adults usually. Plus, you have plenty of picky kids who get drug there with their parents and refuse to eat 90% of the food. When I was younger I was so picky that when we went to one I ate sunflower seeds, pepperoni, grapes, and dinner rolls pretty much exclusively. My \"meal\" definitely wasn't worth what my parents paid.","Look at the cost of the food to the restaurant: veggies are pennies per pound, and meat tops out at about $4 per pound wholesale, that's for beef/lamb, pork, chicken and seafood are less. The only people who could possibly eat enough to make buffets lose money is the sport eating crowd, the world hot dog eating champ and such. And I would wager that this crowd loves small really tasty platefuls when going out for a meal. Even frat boys can't make a buffet lose money.","the buffet at my work is in a casino, it's entirely free. but it keeps the punters from leaving, so they gamble more, and the casino gets money back from the buffet and then some. i have to top it up every hour and it's sad to see people so hugely messed up taking heaps and heaps of the free food because they think they 'can't afford to eat'... then ten minutes later putting $200 into a gaming machine and gambling for 20hrs straight (no exaggeration).","Old people! Or, rather, people getting older. I've noticed now I'm well into my 30s that I can't eat how I used to. In my 20s I could shovel food endlessly into my face. Now I eat more than a typical portion and feel sick. This means at most buffets I'm getting ripped off big time but the convenience and variety can be worth it. Most truly old people I know barely eat child portions at mealtimes either.","Average food cost in a restaurant is 33% Labour costs are less because of less wait staff, and possibly fewer cooks since they are making one big thing at a time. Space costs would be similar. Buffets tend to be more square footage, probably to make the reductions in labour pay. Some restaurants do \"lunch buffet\" to get the best of both worlds, and possibly turn over inventory faster.","It would be nearly impossible for a customer to consume more than he is paying. If he did then it would most likely imply that the prices are incorrectly set at the buffet. The biggest threat to a buffet is customers not showing up, not customers eating too much. Most of the food is prepared in advance anyway and if it isn't eaten it is thrown away.","It seems like the food is lower quality than ordering off the menu. Also a lot of people suck at the art of knocking back four or five plates of food and will pay $15+ for the buffet and get one plate of food, when in reality they could have had the $5 appetizer and been full.","What fountain soda costs 5 gallon bag in box coke ($85) 128 ounces per gallon 5:1 mix ratio Total 3200 ounces (assuming no waste) 3200 ounces / 10 ounce soda = 320 sodas $85/320 = $.27 per serving Or roughly $.03 per ounce *edit* checked coke invoice $85/5gal.","Each plate of food cost approximately four to five bucks and you're paying between twenty to thirty bucks to get in. Most people are not eating over three plates of food. Plus when you're buying food at whole sale you're not spending that much in overhead.","I know that around here a truck comes and delivers already cooked cheap Chinese food to most of the Chinese buffets around here. So they probably save a lot of money by not even cooking some dishes in house.","Just eat all meat. I laugh inside when I see buffet rookies filling up on rice or potato based dishes at a buffet. I can eat maybe 4-5 plates of meat and vegetable at a Chinese buffet","I don't know about the USA but we have a lot of Chinese buffets here in the UK and the food is very salty meaning more drinks are bought. Profit margins on syrup soft drinks are massive.","I always imagined that buffets are one of the best places to use to launder money because there's no correlation between how much money you made and how much you spent on inventory.","I wonder this with all-you-can-order Japanese places. One time I ate appetizers, ice cream and 14 rolls of sushi. I was with 10 other people who ate similarly.","Being from a Samoan family, the owners would always get mad when we were there for three hours and all fifty of us had at least five plates","-Inexpensive, low quality food bought in extreme bulk amounts. -Reduced staff with no need to have waiters for every table","In places i have worked alot of the profit comes for alcohol not included in the price of the buffet","You guys should see the free employee buffet in the Bellagio called \"manga\" it's unreal! Best E.D.R. on the strip!","I read that as 'bullets' at first and thought this would be a very different discussion","Initially read as bullets. Was seriously concerned when people were being served and eating bullets.","i wish my kitchen had an all you can eat buffet","99.99% of customers wont eat enough to make them lose money.","Most likely due to buffet food being lower quality (usually).","Because buffets are all you can eat school lunches."],"string":"[\n \"Buffets are profitable because: * the food is usually lower quality * they can get by with fewer staff * it is cheaper to prepare the food in bulk, instead of cooking plating it per order EDIT: By lower quality, I don't mean crappy. I mean vegetables vs. meat, chicken vs. beef, store bought vs. homemade.\",\n \"One word: Volume. Food is pretty cheap to make in bulk. Plus not everyone eats like it's their last meal. Those that do are usually balanced out by people that are reasonable. There's a few exceptions like casino buffets. They're (usually) subsidized by the casino so they don't have to worry about making a profit. They can give away the house because they know you'll hit the casino floor later to make it up 10 fold. The one place that confuses me is Golden Corral because they're an independent business. $10 doesn't buy you much in terms of food and they have some \\\"good\\\" stuff like steak. Even though it's sirloin at $2-3/lb, that gets eaten up quite quickly. Their margins must be pretty thin. But overall, the food is cheap and cooked in volume so there's lots of room to move around.\",\n \"I used to work at a fine dining restaurant that served a fancy brunch buffet every Sunday. One day a very thin lady started to show up every Sunday right when we opened. She always came in alone and made a bee line for the bowl of peel and eat shrimp. She would load her plate up with nothing else then go back to her seat and eat all of them. Then she would wait until we refilled it and then she would go back again. She would do this until we were out. The waitstaff wondered how she was able to eat 6+ pounds of shrimp in a few hours. I thought she was putting it into her purse. On her third visit, one of the female staff discreetly monitored her every move. She quickly found out that our guest would make quick trips to the bathroom where she would vomit up everything she ate and then go back and load up on more shrimp. She got the incorrect nickname \\\"Anna\\\" short for Anorexic (It should have been Bulimia but we weren't clever enough to come up with an innocent female name we could refer to her as in front of other guests). \\\"Anna\\\" would also rarely speak to us. She would smile when appropriate, and either nod or shake her head when asked a question. Once our boss (who never came in on Sundays) found out he did some quick calculations and figured she was losing us too much money. Rather than ban her, he simply had us change our peel and eat strategy. We broke up the peel and eat shrimp from one big bowl into several smaller bowls scattered throughout the buffet line. We were told NOT to refill them until she left. The next Sunday, \\\"Anna\\\" showed up and at first frowned at the change in her routine. She had to go through the entire buffet line to get all of the shrimp. She also had to empty each of the bowls as she came across them. Her usual attempts at discretion were no longer working and the guests in line with her started to make comments like \\\"Wow- are you on a shrimp only diet?\\\" and \\\"Hey, leave some for the rest of us!\\\" \\\"Anna\\\" hurried back to her seat, resumed her usual ritual of binging and purging and then sat quietly waiting for us to refill the bowls. I only refilled the one at the end of the buffet so other guests could get some before she got to it. I left the rest of them empty. If any other guest asked for them, I would tell them we were out then quietly take a small bowl out to their table (out of sight of \\\"Anna\\\" of course). After about an hour of sitting with a plate of shrimp peelings, \\\"Anna\\\" was forced to actually interact with us and ask about the shrimp. When she was told we were out she became visibly upset and stormed out. We never saw her again after that.\",\n \" > How are buffets profitable? Sometimes they're not: Years ago in my younger, stupider, days I was doing a construction job out in the country with a crew of hillbillies. We got talking one Friday about a local place that makes delicious food. Well, they also had a really good buffet, and after a little day-dreamin' and droolin' we all decided to stop by there after work for dinner. You gotta understand that even with our boots off and our stomachs empty weren't none of us small guys: I don't think there was anyone on that job less than 220 pounds. And because of the prospect of delicious \\\"All You Can Eat\\\" some of the guys were even going light on snacks and lunch in order to keep extra room for dinner. So after a 10 hour day, we shove off and make our way over to the buffet and we just start *digging in*. We're eating like we invented it. They'd bring out a steam tray of pasta? That's our steam tray of pasta. Another of dumplings? Wasn't even likely to reach the buffet table before it ends up on our plates. Well, after a time, when we'd accumulated a stack of plates that could've stocked a Crate-N-Barrel, this grizzled guy comes sauntering over to our table. He identifies himself as the owner: *\\\"Is the food good?\\\"* We said it was. *\\\"Y'all enjoying yourselves? Getting enough to eat?\\\"* We said we were. *\\\"That's fine. I just wanted to make sure y'all enjoyed it, because once you're done here, I don't ever want to see a single one of you guys back in here again.\\\"* He hit us all with a near fatal dose of the Evil Eye and then turned his back and sauntered back to the kitchen. And that's how I learned that sometimes it's not really All You Can Eat.\",\n \"Not everyone takes \\\"All you can eat\\\" as a personal challenge. Also there's some psychology involved. It's no accident the salad bar and pastas are in front, and the meat carving station is way in the back.\",\n \"Hello, I worked in a restaurant. - The price for a buffet meal is fairly high. $25 to $30 during dinner. - Most people can only eat a certain amount, particularly children. - Extra money is made on expensive drinks. - The buffet is organized in such a way that there are a lot of cheap foods (like rice) that brings down cost per customer. Normally, people don't just eat meat. They'll put some rice, or salad on the side. - Food is bought in larger quantities, so they get better wholesale prices. - Less staff. No one has to go around actively serving customers. But keep in mind the profits are still pretty thin. Opening a buffet doesn't mean instant success.\",\n \"I think some one touched on it... but the buffet is not the only income. Think drinks. Fountain drinks cost a few cents per fill but restaurants often charge $2+ making a huge profit. Alcoholic beverages if served at the establishment are often another huge source of profit.\",\n \"I think some places have a few tricks to curb your appetite. The best one I can think of off the top of my head is at a brewery here called granite city. They have a Sunday breakfast buffet with prime rib, thick bacon and so on. But they also bring to your table, for each person, something I deemed the \\\"stomach plug\\\". These stomach plugs are giant cinnamon rolls. Each one equals about 2-3 average sized cinnamon rolls.\",\n \"OK. I work at a pizza place that does buffets. It costs $8 with a drink to get the buffet. $8 is about the price of a medium (12inch) pizza here. Most people won't / can't eat any more than how much is on a medium pizza so we'll usually only have about 1 pizza per person out and the bread sticks and cinnamon sticks are distributed to everyone almost evenly. Even though we make less than someone buying a pizza straight up, it's still profitable. Oh and when it comes to pizza buffets, don't believe that the pizza you get is lower quality. It isn't. After a bit of being on a metal pan (like an hr) the crust will get soggy from grease and will taste pretty bad but when you put it in the cardboard box for take out or delivery, the box absorbs the grease that goes to the bottom and the pizza's crust is not soggy. Tl;Dr - if you're at a pizza buffet, ask for some fresh custom pizzas. We don't mind unless the buffet is nearly full already. Edit: For all you wondering, I work at Mr Jim's which is a pizza chain mainly regional to the Dallas fort worth area. Not cici's\",\n \"I could be wrong but isn't one of the big costs in restaurants unused food; ingredients that people don't order. Buffets don't have this issue I assume. Obviously not the full answer but probably a contributing factor.\",\n \"It's an *entirely* different business model than running a restaurant. You have to do a lot of observation and make sure that items are put up that are constantly popular since leftovers will cut into your profits. There are many cost saving measures that make a buffet quite profitable. The biggest consideration that it takes less staff to actually run a buffet than it takes to run a service in a restaurant. Labor is a really large percentage of your operating cost and a buffet can schedule employees in a pretty stable and regular manner because when they are not running to the line, they can be preparing in bulk. It takes fewer employees to refill items than it does to individually plate items and run them to the table. Since no one is waiting for food, higher table turnover. So, more volume. * Portion control - Expensive proteins are usually not self serve. * The salad bar - Getting people to fill up on salad lessens the amount o things that they eat, overall. This is why the salad bar is the beginning of the buffet. And produce is cheap. * The dessert bar - Overall, desserts are super cheap to make. And if someone sees a sea of desserts, they might slow down so that they can gorge on desserts. * Item placement - There is an entire psychology behind where things are being placed. Starches are cheap, and you will find them easily accessible placed to the front of the proteins. * Smaller serving utensils - Sounds stupid, but it's true. A smaller serving utensil encourages portion control. * The plates are smaller -Requires more trips to the food line. * There is never a horrible rush - You don't need to drop everything and deal with a huge pile of orders that are up. This frees your back of house staff to create a steady flow of prepared items. Gives a lot of breathing space to the prep and cooking staff. * Making everything from scratch - It may not taste so great because it sits around for a while, but they do try and make everything from scratch. This is because making it from scratch is far cheaper with regards to food costs. A bag of prepared french fries costs $6 for a 5 lb bag while a 50 lb sack of potatoes costs $12. * Budgeting - You can figure out what the per person food costs are and average it out with a reasonable margin.\",\n \"Buffets are make-to-inventory, while restaurants are make-to-order. Make-to-inventory is always cheaper, since the cooks can cook for the busy times during the slow times. If you make to order, then you have to wait for the order before cooking it. As an extra bonus, cooking two servings of a dish takes less time than cooking one serving twice.\",\n \"I was at a chinese food buffet once when a group of football players came in (it was across the street from a university.) The staff came out with bowls of celery and started adding it to every dish. There's nothing like cellulose to fill the gut and slow them down a bit.\",\n \"I own and operate a \\\"by-the-pound\\\" buffet and being able to buy in bulk saves a ton of money. I buy 200 pounds of chicken on Monday because Tuesday is soul food day. It's easier and cheaper than buying 50 pounds of chicken that you have to prepare individually for a table that is served by a waiter. My profit margins are great because it's by the pound. People come in, they put food on their tray, they pay, and leave.\",\n \"I'm not an expert on how buffets operate, but I can give you some information relating to how/why buffets *should be* profitable based on my past high-end catering experience. Let's say the price for an adult is $19.95 for an all-you-can-eat buffet. From my experience (regardless of the price), the less expensive and \\\"gut-busting\\\" food items are displayed first (i.e. bread, crackers, vegetable and fruit displays, salads, soups, and the almighty pasta courses) with the more expensive items at the very end (carved meats, seafood, ribs, fish, etc.). I call the former \\\"gut-busters\\\" because most of these items are filled with carbohydrates (bread, pasta, hearty soups, etc.) and fill a person's stomach at a greater rate opposed to eating lighter foods or proteins, especially when said carbs come in contact with liquids (water, tea, soda,beer, alcohol). Buffet restaurants know this and use it to their advantage as they assume most people will simply load up their first plate with the \\\"gut-busting\\\" items and when they get to the more expensive items, they don't have enough room on their plate and figure that they'll just come back for seconds. They're anticipating that by the end of your first plate, you're too full to even think about going back for seconds. So let's say you ate tiny portions of a few salads, pastas, had some raw veggies, a couple pieces of fruit, and maybe a bowl of soup. All told, what you just ate might amount to $3 at-cost to the restaurant. And that $19.95 you just shelled out to eat that food? The standard food cost percentage in restaurants is 35%, give or take a percentage point; buffets are looking for anywhere between 20-28% food cost. Remember that $3 you just ate although you paid $19.95 for the privilege? That comes out to 15.04% food cost to the restaurant: In layman's terms, BOOM! PROFIT!. Let's say you ate all of the food mentioned above and are still hungry so you grab a few slices of prime rib and a few shrimp. The cost of your plates now jumped from $3 to maybe $5. You feel like you got your money's worth because not only did you eat salad, veggies, fruit, pasta, soup, prime rib, and shrimp, but you're leaving full and satisfied. You surely dented the restaurant's profits because you ate so much right? Wrong. By you eating that extra protein you increased their food-cost from 15.04% to 25.1%; still within their targeted food-cost percentage to make a profit. Couple this with low labor costs and overhead (I'm reaching here, based on how efficient each individual buffet is managed), they can be highly profitable enterprises when done correctly and constantly monitored. All told, if you choose to eat at these establishments, eat what you want however much you want but please keep in mind they're also trying to run and operate a successful business. Going straight to the higher-end items and eating only these items is bad form in my opinion. But do as you wish.\",\n \"You rang? :) It's all been covered. For every one big eater there are four who are not. We are $30 plus, and adults still eat the kids mashed potatoes. Meat is expensive. We use the cheaper cuts of quality product if that makes sense. Chicken that is cooked but never exposed to guests and not used today is in tomorrow's chicken based soup.\",\n \"I used to manage a buffet, so I actually know this topic! Buffets make money by enticing you with high price items, then once you are in the building, convincing you to fill your plates with low cost items. In the same way that grocery stores design their layouts to make you spend more, profitable buffets will offer breads, vegetables, and low quality meats (cheap stuff) at the beginning of the line, allowing you to fill your plate, while reserving expensive items (steak, shrimp, and the like) for the end of the line. A good manager knows to locate his expensive items at strategic locations and to offer them in small portion sizes, while making cheaper items look as appetizing as possible. That is why Golden Corral will usually cut your steaks for you, as well as why the rolls are freaking delicious and right at the beginning of the line!\",\n \"A few major reasons buffets yield profit (although they typically don't yield as much as you would think). * Most people don't put back as much food as you think. On average, most customers put back about two plates, which really isn't all that much. Occasionally you have someone who can put away half the spread on their own, but they are typically the oddity. The money you paid for the buffet probably covers about three plates worth of food, so if you only eat two, each person is paying for food they don't eat, effectively making up for that one fat-ass whose on his 9th plate. * Buffets are normally *loaded* with rice and/or pasta. Those are dirt cheap. Rice, before cooking, only costs ~$1/Lb, and on average will expand to double it's size when cooked (although that varies on what type of rice you are using), so if you're paying $8 for a buffet, and eating mostly rice, let's say you manage to put back 1.5lbs of it (which is an obscene amount), the restaurant just made ~$5.50 in profit off you. (That figure accounts for the veggies and/or sauce that were in the rice, as well). Similar prices apply to most pastas. * Labor. A buffet can be almost entirely prepped, set up, and run, by 2 people. During actual service, depending on how busy the place is, sometimes just 1 person. Labor makes up for a good portion of what you are paying for when you go out to eat, so cutting that cost down is a substantial reason why buffets can be so cheap. * Volume. Restaurants make money by volume. Even if you don't make a significant amount of money with each plate you sell, if you sell lots of them, you make lots of money. Buffets operate on a similar principal. Sell lots of people food without a huge profit margin, and you will still make a large profit (the margin itself won't be that high, but positive cash flow will be). There are other \\\"tricks\\\", too. Put the cheap/filling stuff at the beginning of the buffet, and anything that is more expensive towards the end. Make sure everything is heavy on the starches (rice, potatoes, pasta) as they tend to be cheap and very filling. Throw a few high-end proteins (steak, crab legs, etc.) on the buffet towards the end. The name will attract customers, but it's very likely not many people will eat it, so you only have to prep a little bit of it. Think of it like an advertising budget. The list of nuances for making a buffet profitable could go on for a while, but those are the big points. Source: Been a chef for close on 15 years, set up more buffets than you've had hot meals.\",\n \"Everything is way cheaper than you think. This is how all business make money. They have a merchant account. They buy from distributors at almost cost. That is extremely cheaper than what you as a customer can get. When I was younger I worked for various retail and restaurant chains. Even things marked down or on sale are often still marked up 100 percent for what the business payed. Look at sodas and fries for example. Large fries or a soda cost 2 bucks or more. You can go to club stores and get a whole bag of fries for 3 or a box of soda syrup that will pour out hundreds of drinks for 50.\",\n \"When I go to a buffet, I typically get three plates. One for a main course, one for everything I missed, and one for desserts.\",\n \"My friend took a Chinese buffet to the cleaners once. He sat and ate so much, they told him he either had to leave or pay for dinner too. It *started* as lunch.\",\n \"Chef here. Buffets are priced differently than a typical restaurant. In a restaurant each dish is price in such a way that the food costs somewhere between 18-35% of the total price, on average (depends on the dish and the type of restaurant). At a buffet you obviously can't do that because everyone pays the same regardless of what they eat, or how much. Instead pricing is typically done based on projected seating. If we turn 6 tables of 4 every hour, and we're open 12 hours a day, that equates to a grand total of 288 customers on an average day (minimum). Pricing is done relative to that number such that everything stays afloat and produces a profit. For example a 10% profit (pretty typical for a restaurant) on $20,000/week operating costs would be $22,000 so divide that by your average number of weekly customers found using the above calculation (288*7, or however many days a week you're open) and you'll get your final recommended price. $11/person in this particular example. Note: numbers were pulled out of my ass and don't reflect any specific restaurant or industry standard TL;DR: Buffets are priced based on knowing on average how many people you'll serve and making sure that you account for all your operating costs.\",\n \"Even the fattest of fat people cannot eat more than it costs the buffet in materials and labour to feed them. Bulk cooking is much cheaper than what you do at home. Cooking 400 gallons of marinara is much cheaper than cooking a half gallon 800 times. You can order tomatoes and meat in bulk direct from the supplier. Buffets charge about $20-$50 depending on how classy a buffet it is. Cheap beef (one of the more expensive ingredients involved) grosses retail at around $2 per pound. So that's 10 pounds of the most expensive ingredient - something you could never eat in a sitting.\",\n \"I worked at a buffet place years ago. Things may have changed, but all I had to do was clear used plates off the table and refill drinks. (I also had to do other normal server duties; restock plates, glasses, roll silverware, etc) The shitty part was that I got paid minimum wage **for a server** I made less than $2.00/hr and bc I wasn't actually a *real* server (and bc it was a buffet place) so people **never** tipped. So I would walk out on a Friday night with a few quarters from the people who did leave tips. I quit after 2 nights. Oh, and In those 2 nights I witnessed 3 people vomit in the parking lot when leaving from stuffing themselves. Worst job ever.\",\n \"I've spent time managing in a buffet on the LV Strip. I can tell you a few quick things: It didn't matter if someone wanted a refund. It didn't matter if someone came in with their kids, didn't pay for themselves cause they weren't eating, and then when their kid didn't like the food asked if they could eat instead of the kid. The point of restaurants in a casino, including the buffet, is to keep the customer happy so they'll stay in the building and go back and gamble. You're in the hospitality industry less than you are in food and beverage. It's all about keeping the customer in the building and spending money. It doesn't matter if I gave you a twenty-two dollar steak, because ten minutes after you left you dropped fifty bucks playing blackjack and went to the ATM. Sometimes, often times, it's the other end of it too. People have ALREADY lost money, and they decided to get up to come eat, and you're the closest person they can be angry with. I used to tell my staff, \\\"The angrier the customer, the more likely it is they probably just lost a TON of money.\\\" And thinking that usually helped you not empathize, but just straight laugh at their misfortune...which you need to do if you ever work Food and Bev. All the books are somewhat separate in casinos though, you know? Like numbers are tracked per department, per restaurant, the same as they're tracked in singular retail outlets for like GAP and stuff. So the buffet has X amount of covers they want to be doing an hour to stay profitable in comparison with last year, etc etc. But for the most part, it didn't fucking matter what happened, it didn't matter what we gave away. Just keep them happy, and keep them gambling.\",\n \" URL_0 I guarantee that I could not eat $50 worth (cost/labor/overhead) of food from here. Why? They had a million customers *before their first anniversary*. Volume purchasing and assembly line labor translates to the exact same item from a regular \\\"service\\\" restaurant would cost much more simply because of the economies of scale. They likely make more of one item in a day than a normal restaurant would make in a month or a year.\",\n \"I misread title as \\\"How are bullets profitable? How much money is usually made (on average) per customer at all you can eat bullets?\\\" until I realized I should renew my glasses.\",\n \"I asked the manager at CiCis (a pizza buffet) and he says it takes them $0.25 to make a pizza, so your have to eat 20 entire pizzas for them to lose money\",\n \"You never have to wait long for a soda refill at a buffett because it is cheap and fill you up\",\n \"Your enjoyment rates also decrease every time you return. The business entices you, while knowing that each additional plate of food provides less utility than the one before, meaning all customers will stop returning when their \\\"limit\\\" is reached, that is, when they are too full and their enjoyment drops. Considering other factors such as the number of people they can entertain at a given time, the \\\"limit\\\" would basically be their basis on how much or what food would be served in a day. In economics this is the [law of diminishing marginal utility]( URL_0 ).\",\n \"Usually the buffet buys in bulk like a lot of food to make a profit, also drinks (besides water) help with getting a profit Like Chinese buffets large ones order so much to get a price break , good luck trying to make em lose a profit unless all you eat is prime rib, crab legs or chicken wings My buddy and his friend actually did eating contests at buffets subsequently he and his friends ended up getting kciked out as they ate too much. He and his friends aren't fat either.\",\n \"It's a little known fact that buffets are actually partially underwritten by Warren Buffet. It is a good way for him to get his name out there all over the country at minimal cost.\",\n \"Essentially unless you pack your guy so full of meat you won't shit for a month buffets are profitable. People fill up on cheap starches and don't eat much.\",\n \"In the case of a casino, the buffet might actually lose money, but attracts more customers who will gamble, increasing overall profits.\",\n \"Not sure about the high end ones but the buffet I worked at did it like this. The largest pod and area was salads, this is also the cheapest to purchase. It was also closest to the front door. Busy day your waiting in line and looking at that. A lot of folks go for it first because of this. Entrees were the medium area. The smallest pod and most expensive was meats and the carving station. Usually a line for carving so it would mostly block the expensive stuff. The pod closest to the dining area was full of the cheaper side dishes. People tending to hit that first when going for warm food. The other main dish pod was different daily. So it could be Mexican on Monday and Italian the next. Usually not pricy over all it was not a large pod and off to the side. Last is desserts the smallest area and pod usually second in price behind the meats. Cook time was factored in to this. It was off to the other side of the restaurant total. Most things were pre-portioned as well. It was also arranged odd so again if we were busy it looked like a lot more people were in it. Layout was determined by corporate and we couldn't change it. This was mainly to control the flow of people. Aim them at the cheap stuff and let them fill up on that. The drinks were in the middle of the dining area and we advertised them as free so people would drink a bunch of coke or sprite. This was dirt cheap for us. The layout of the dining area was set to keep you from getting too comfy. Tables a little on the small side, booths pushed in just a little too close. No one hung out after eating so we could have a faster turn on the tables. Sure you'd have people game the system so to speak. Show up right at change over pay lunch price and eat dinner. Or the guy that brought a book. Folks that would pile meats on their plate and not eat it all. My favorite were the fools that would bring in plastic bags and load it up full then try and walk out with a bag full of fried chicken. Usually the wait staff got them. You could tell even on a busy day if some one was loading up to take it home.\",\n \"The way buffets are priced is you add up the cost of all the food that was eaten. Divide it by the number of people served. That is your food cost per plate. Add in all of your fixed and variable costs plus whatever you set for your profit(believe it or not most restaurants are lucky to see 8% profit margin). You do this calculation on a regular basis to get the average cost throughout the year so be sure you have the right price set. Labor cost are one of the largest factors that go into the price of a food item and when they are produced in quantity you really see economies of scale pretty quickly. When you don't gorge yourself you are making up for those who do Buffets in a casino are different since they typically don't care to make a profit off of them and just want to get people in the door to gamble.\",\n \"My parents owned a small diner that they put a buffet into. Every day featured a different home cooked option like meatloaf, catfish, hamburger steaks, and one night was ribs. Eventually they had to shut the buffet down because it was causing the diner to bleed money. The problem, as others have said, was that my parents did not use lower quality food and kept the same amount of staff (because the menu was still an option). The rib night was the real culprit and final nail in the coffin. The diner was in a small town and when rib night rolled around, every farmer and farm hand in the area came out of the woodwork to eat mountainous plate after plate of ribs. Often times they wouldn't touch a single other item on the buffet.\",\n \"So from what I've read, by not buying a drink and avoiding the cheap foods that fill you up quickly and heading straight for the more expensive foods like meats, you will give the least profit to a buffet because you'll be eating more expensive stuff that fills you up less, and drinks are a high source of income for buffets. With that being said, even if you get more from your money for it, I don't think trying to purposely make a buffet lose profit is a good thing, especially if you enjoy the restaurant. It seems like making them lose profit is something that's hard to do without serious intent.\",\n \"The profit is made on people like me who pay $20 for all I can eat and I can't eat more than one plate. For me it ends up being over-priced cafeteria food, which is why I don't go to them. *Except* the buffet at the Bellagio in Las Vegas. It's something like $45 a person and worth every penny. The key for me there is to take small portions so I can try lots of different stuff.\",\n \"As a kid buffets are like all your dreams have come true. I went to a buffet just the other night, I'm now older and a qualified chef, and i was amazed at how much of the produce was brought it. People don't seem to give it a thought or even care that it's all pre-made and just heated or put on a plate, and of course they all think they're getting a great deal.\",\n \"Food is not most of a restaurant's cost -- think salaries, rent, equipment, advertising, etc. Those are fixed costs no matter how much or little a customer eats, or whether the customer comes in at all. But from the customer's viewpoint, the food is the most important part. So restauranteurs know that feeding them as much as they want is well worth it.\",\n \"most buffets make money by buying the cheapest food possible in the biggest quantity possible, and then charge $2 bucks per glass of pop. also, i like how nearly every post in this thread has been hit by what i presume to by the Downvote Brigade, /r/ELI5 Battalion, NA(for North America) Company, American Platoon. lol EDIT: Fixed my unit reference.\",\n \"Former pizza buffet worker here. We charged 7.95 for adult with soda for the buffet. Me and an owner calculated that in order to get their moneys worth, a customer would have to eat 7 1/2 pizzas in one sitting edit: theres a big difference between 795 and 7.95\",\n \"My uncle is a chef and recently started at Golden Corral (a chain buffet in the US). He says the profit is $0.15 after accounting for all costs. So, profit margin is low but volume is high.\",\n \"And as for one common type of buffet, casino buffets don't need to make money as far as I can tell. They are basically loss leaders.\",\n \"My average cost per guest is 1.90, the base entry is 10$ and sodas are 2.5$ of pure profit (soda is in that cost)\",\n \"Usually they charge pretty steep for drinks and put ridiculous amounts of salt in the food\",\n \"The food is generally lower quality, it is prepared in bulk, and they don't have to plate it for you or anything. Thus they have fewer wait staff, and can serve more customers faster as they skip the ordering process. A party of five might spend 30 minutes eating at a buffet but an hour or more eating at a restaurant. Also, while some customers like myself are a bottomless pit, the vast majority eat 1-2 plates. Cheaper buffets like old country buffet or something where you're paying like $8 a head, the food is terrible and sits out all day. Fancier buffets like those found in casinos are considerably more expensive, though you can usually get them comped if you are playing games. The buffet is very profitable for the casino as people eat very quickly In 30 minutes and then can go back to playing games. At a Fancier casino restaurant, where they can charge $40 a person or something like that, the casino might actually lose money as the customers would spend an hour or more away from the games which make them the real money. Lpt: if you want to stuff your face, play table games for like 5 minutes at the casino and get your buffet comped. I do it all the time as its the only place my grandparents will go. I'll eat lobster buffet for free after spending like $10 at the blackjack table and that's only if I'm not winning.\",\n \"To simply the matter, think it this way. In restaurant business cost break down like this. Raw material (ingredient) is about 25%, labour is another 25%, rent is another 25% and utility/distribution/marketing is another 25%. People may eat more and increase cost in raw material but you could make equal or more saving in other area. Instead of making a chow mein pork noodle for one person, you get to make the same thing for 20 persons in one go. Instead of serving the customer individually, you just get to dump the food in one location and the customer serve it for themselves. Also, buffet tables are squeezed so rent per table is maximised. Also, because the cust gauge themselves and don't talk that much, turnover of table is high. So while raw material cost more, you make more saving in the area of staf, rent and utility. The profit come from the drinks the customer order. If you want to cause maximum damage to the establishment, just order big bottle of mineral water to share, go easy on main, enjoy deserts, especially fruits and take your time. ;)\",\n \"I worked at golden corral for 2 years at the time i was a waiter and got to learn from the kitchen to the office and here is how it works: 1. Drinks, a soda costs a penny to the restaurant if one person drank their fill but cost 2.00 at the front. 2. Bustling atmosphere, the atmosphere at a golden corral is supposed to seem energetic. Servers are always cleaning and clearing, people are always moving to get more food, tables are moving around, etc. This makes people finish their meals quicker because it sets the tempo of an atmosphere, more in and out means more money. 3. Bulk Cooking Methods, the buffets cook the food at rather miraculous efficiency of storage and distributions, in fact the one i worked at used to give rolls to people, whom the theory goes would fill up on those and leave the more expensive food. Turned out the rolls and the man hours to make them and serve them cost more than the advantage.\",\n \"After having moved from TN to CA (bay area) I was surprised to see very few chinese/multi-asian cuisine buffets. The margins are too small and everything's too expensive here (except for the actual cost of buying food/groceries!, produce, most meats, fish, poultry cost the same though, goat is overpriced here). You might think that people are more health conscious, they are, but Asian people can fucking eat, that's probably the biggest reason why. Most buffet places would go out of business just because of all the hungry asians, esp. if you try to serve any kind of seafood. There are one or two buffet places, but where it would be $8.50 or $10 in TN it's $20 here. At that price I think I'll just go a la carte or just cook at home.\",\n \"I have no idea. I've been to pizza and chinese buffets. The amount of food I can eat is worth far more than it would cost to buy it as an individual item. At a pizza buffet in college I could eat 2 14\\\" pizzas by myself, which would cost me about 4x what it cost at the buffet. Maybe they make money because of all the kids who go there and don't eat much. At a chinese buffet, there is one nearby for about $6 that has nuggets that taste almost like Mcdonalds. I can easily eat 20, that alone would cost me about the price of the buffet if I got them at McDs. That doesn't even add in all the chicken I would eat.\",\n \"Rest owner here of a fast food biz, a few points 1. generally speaking, most restaurants have a profit margin somewhere between 8-10 Percent range. i don't know about full service dining restaurants but QSR's definitely do. ( Quality service restauarat which usually refers for a fast food type of place) given these margins, most restaurants are experts at cost management especially given the fact that mature restaurants have sales that wont often change dramatically from year to year unless something dramatic happens. buffets slash the labor part of the equation, feature less popular dishes to clear inventory and sprinkle a few popular items to keep customers coming back.\",\n \"Something I wanted to add: I've never seen a buffet that wasn't kid-friendly. Sure, the child price is cheaper, but not enough that they are unlikely to profit from a kid. Kid's won't eat as much as adults usually. Plus, you have plenty of picky kids who get drug there with their parents and refuse to eat 90% of the food. When I was younger I was so picky that when we went to one I ate sunflower seeds, pepperoni, grapes, and dinner rolls pretty much exclusively. My \\\"meal\\\" definitely wasn't worth what my parents paid.\",\n \"Look at the cost of the food to the restaurant: veggies are pennies per pound, and meat tops out at about $4 per pound wholesale, that's for beef/lamb, pork, chicken and seafood are less. The only people who could possibly eat enough to make buffets lose money is the sport eating crowd, the world hot dog eating champ and such. And I would wager that this crowd loves small really tasty platefuls when going out for a meal. Even frat boys can't make a buffet lose money.\",\n \"the buffet at my work is in a casino, it's entirely free. but it keeps the punters from leaving, so they gamble more, and the casino gets money back from the buffet and then some. i have to top it up every hour and it's sad to see people so hugely messed up taking heaps and heaps of the free food because they think they 'can't afford to eat'... then ten minutes later putting $200 into a gaming machine and gambling for 20hrs straight (no exaggeration).\",\n \"Old people! Or, rather, people getting older. I've noticed now I'm well into my 30s that I can't eat how I used to. In my 20s I could shovel food endlessly into my face. Now I eat more than a typical portion and feel sick. This means at most buffets I'm getting ripped off big time but the convenience and variety can be worth it. Most truly old people I know barely eat child portions at mealtimes either.\",\n \"Average food cost in a restaurant is 33% Labour costs are less because of less wait staff, and possibly fewer cooks since they are making one big thing at a time. Space costs would be similar. Buffets tend to be more square footage, probably to make the reductions in labour pay. Some restaurants do \\\"lunch buffet\\\" to get the best of both worlds, and possibly turn over inventory faster.\",\n \"It would be nearly impossible for a customer to consume more than he is paying. If he did then it would most likely imply that the prices are incorrectly set at the buffet. The biggest threat to a buffet is customers not showing up, not customers eating too much. Most of the food is prepared in advance anyway and if it isn't eaten it is thrown away.\",\n \"It seems like the food is lower quality than ordering off the menu. Also a lot of people suck at the art of knocking back four or five plates of food and will pay $15+ for the buffet and get one plate of food, when in reality they could have had the $5 appetizer and been full.\",\n \"What fountain soda costs 5 gallon bag in box coke ($85) 128 ounces per gallon 5:1 mix ratio Total 3200 ounces (assuming no waste) 3200 ounces / 10 ounce soda = 320 sodas $85/320 = $.27 per serving Or roughly $.03 per ounce *edit* checked coke invoice $85/5gal.\",\n \"Each plate of food cost approximately four to five bucks and you're paying between twenty to thirty bucks to get in. Most people are not eating over three plates of food. Plus when you're buying food at whole sale you're not spending that much in overhead.\",\n \"I know that around here a truck comes and delivers already cooked cheap Chinese food to most of the Chinese buffets around here. So they probably save a lot of money by not even cooking some dishes in house.\",\n \"Just eat all meat. I laugh inside when I see buffet rookies filling up on rice or potato based dishes at a buffet. I can eat maybe 4-5 plates of meat and vegetable at a Chinese buffet\",\n \"I don't know about the USA but we have a lot of Chinese buffets here in the UK and the food is very salty meaning more drinks are bought. Profit margins on syrup soft drinks are massive.\",\n \"I always imagined that buffets are one of the best places to use to launder money because there's no correlation between how much money you made and how much you spent on inventory.\",\n \"I wonder this with all-you-can-order Japanese places. One time I ate appetizers, ice cream and 14 rolls of sushi. I was with 10 other people who ate similarly.\",\n \"Being from a Samoan family, the owners would always get mad when we were there for three hours and all fifty of us had at least five plates\",\n \"-Inexpensive, low quality food bought in extreme bulk amounts. -Reduced staff with no need to have waiters for every table\",\n \"In places i have worked alot of the profit comes for alcohol not included in the price of the buffet\",\n \"You guys should see the free employee buffet in the Bellagio called \\\"manga\\\" it's unreal! Best E.D.R. on the strip!\",\n \"I read that as 'bullets' at first and thought this would be a very different discussion\",\n \"Initially read as bullets. Was seriously concerned when people were being served and eating bullets.\",\n \"i wish my kitchen had an all you can eat buffet\",\n \"99.99% of customers wont eat enough to make them lose money.\",\n \"Most likely due to buffet food being lower quality (usually).\",\n \"Because buffets are all you can eat school lunches.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["increases, total costs must increase enough to lower the overall fixed cost percentage or the bottom line will not improve. This is not a recommended strategy for neighborhood restaurant with average checks under $15.\nThose who believe that a low food cost percentage is more important than gross profit will promote the items with the lowest food cost percentage. Unfortunately, these items are typically the lowest priced items on the menu, e.g., chicken, pasta, soups. Promoting only low food cost items will likely result in lowering your average check and unless the restaurant attracts more customers, overall sales will not be","-27.57163594267331"],["or $8 for their pizza buffet. For those paid $4, both the tastes of the last and the peak slices significantly predict the general evaluation for overall food taste. In contrast, for those paid $8, the first slice is more important in predicting the overall enjoyment. Therefore, in order to maximize customer satisfaction, higher-priced restaurants should put their best food in front of the consumer first. In a buffet setting, they could provide some signage to make more popular items salient or place the most popular foods first in the line. In lower-priced restaurants, serving tasty desserts at the end","-27.471255429758457"],["profit, items like steaks and seafood, as the items to promote.\nThe downside of this exclusive approach is that items that are high in gross profit are typically the highest priced items on the menu and they typically are on the high end of the food cost percentage scale. This approach works fine in price inelastic markets like country clubs and fine dining white table cloth restaurants. However, in highly competitive markets, which most restaurants reside, think Applebee's, Chili's, Olive Garden, price points are particularly critical in building customer counts. In addition, food cost cannot be ignored completely. If food cost","-27.266711302479962"],["Statistics It is estimated by food industry research firm Technomics that approximately 225 million meals are eaten away from home each day in the U.S. This includes both restaurant and non-commercial eating places. The International Foodservice Distributors Association estimates that food service distributors in the U.S., as a daily average, deliver approximately 27 million cases of food and other products.\nFood service distribution companies can range in size from a one-truck operation to larger corporations. There are many independent broadline food service distribution companies that service chain and multi-unit restaurants based on master distribution agreements with national food service groups.","-26.05575368719201"],["did so after three years. (Not all changes in ownership are indicative of financial failure.) The three-year failure rate for franchises was nearly the same.\nRestaurants employed 912,100 cooks in 2013, earning an average $9.83 per hour. The waiting staff numbered 4,438,100 in 2012, earning an average $8.84 per hour.\nJiaxi Lu of the Washington Post reports in 2014 that, \"Americans are spending $683.4 billion a year dining out, and they are also demanding better food quality and greater variety from restaurants to make sure their money is well spent.\"\nDining in restaurants has become increasingly popular, with the proportion of meals consumed","-25.81354596375604"],["to over £1,750 million in 2005. The total UK chilled prepared food market was an estimated £7,187 million in 2004 and £13,126 million in 2018, and continues to evolve, reflecting consumers’ changing needs and lifestyles.\nIn 2004, over 80% of UK households bought a chilled prepared meal with over 40% buying one within any given month.","-25.683863306002422"],["Foodservice Statistics The food system, including food service and food retailing supplied $1.24 trillion worth of food in 2010 in the US, $594 billion of which was supplied by food service facilities, defined by the USDA as any place which prepares food for immediate consumption on site, including locations that are not primarily engaged in dispensing meals such as recreational facilities and retail stores. Full-service and Fast-food restaurants account for 77% of all foodservice sales, with full-service restaurants accounting for just slightly more than fast food in 2010. The shifts in the market shares between fast food and full-service restaurants","-25.63659028289112"],["family meals are served. The buffet style is essentially a variation of the French service in which all of the food is available, at the correct temperature, in a serving space other than the dining table, and guests commute there to be served or sometimes to serve themselves, and then carry their plate back to the table. Buffets vary from the very informal (a gathering of friends in a home, or the serving of brunch at a hotel) to the rather formal setting of a wedding reception, for example. The buffet format is preferred in occasions where a","-25.56310502958513"],["the customer is the ability to sample new food at low prices outside the traditional restaurant experience. For the host, benefits are making some money and experimenting with cooking without having to invest in a restaurant proper. As one host told the San Francisco Chronicle, \"It's literally like playing restaurant... You can create the event, and then it's over.\"","-25.304461131134303"],["fast food outlets, high street bakeries, and chain coffee shops offering hot drinks with sugar levels over three times the daily recommended limit have nonetheless continued to rapidly expand. A 2015 University of Cambridge study reported that the total number of takeaway restaurants including fried chicken, fish and chips, pizza, kebab, Indian and Chinese takeaway shops has risen by 45% over the preceding 18 years. Government data reports that expenditure on takeaway food in the United Kingdom rose by 7.0% between 2011 and 2014. Similarly, popcorn, although a healthy snack by itself, becomes a high calorie snack once topped with","-25.16605542603702"],["independent shops to survive. Menu Just like other tea restaurants, Cha Chaan Teng Buffet provides food and drinks such as\nFrench toast, sandwiches, various Fried rice and Chinese noodles. For drinks, it offers Hong Kong style milk tea, coffee, ‘Yuanyang’, lemon tea and so on. The price of the buffet ranges from $40 to $80. In one of the restaurants, consumers can choose to have either a $40 or $80 buffet. Consumers who choose to have $40 can have breakfast, lunch or tea buffet. Those who pay $80 can have the dinner buffet. Both these two sets of buffet provide one","-25.16457018919664"],["the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill. They were set up by the Ministry of Food and run by local government or voluntary agencies on a non-profit basis. Meals were sold for a set maximum price of 9d (equivalent to just under 4p, about US$2 or £1 GBP in purchasing power 2008) or less. No-one could be served with a meal of more than one serving of meat, game, poultry, fish, eggs, or cheese. In one in ten restaurants the meals were prepared at central depots. Schools were often used because they had cafeterias and kitchens. In London, mobile canteens","-25.075161298525927"],["and derive at least 70% of their revenue from food (including non-alcoholic beverages).","-25.056294890935533"],["tend to be more moderate. If a menu item is a \"specialty\" and unique to a particular restaurant, and demand is high, prices can be higher than average because technically the restaurant has a \"monopoly\" on that item and until competitors copy them and put it on their menus, higher prices can be charged. However, no restaurant can sustain a competitive uniqueness or price advantage over their competition in the long run. Eventually competitors will try to match them.\nUsing menu engineering in restaurants or menu items where price inelasticity is present is recommended and cost-margin in casual neighborhood restaurants and","-24.960242120669136"],["food, the manufacturer must keep in mind that the retailer adds approximately 50 percent to the price of a wholesale product. For example, a frozen food sold in a retail store for $4.50 generates an income of $3.00 for the manufacturer. This money has to pay for the cost of producing, packaging, shipping, storing, and selling the product.\nPrice encompasses the amount of money paid by the consumer in order to purchase the food product. When pricing the food products, the manufacturer must bear in mind that the retailer will add a particular percentage to the price on the wholesale product.","-24.95848395844223"],["optimized.\nLow food cost and high gross profit are not mutually exclusive attributes of a menu item. A second approach called cost-margin analysis identifies items that are both low in food cost and return a higher than average gross profit. These items referred to as primes. This analysis works well for restaurants in highly competitive markets where customers are price-sensitive.\nThere is really no single method of analysis that can be used across the board on all menu items. If a menu item is a \"commodity\" like hamburgers, chicken tenders, fajitas, and other items found on the majority of restaurant menus, prices","-24.949356756329507"],["in business is that the \"cream\" – high value or low-cost customers, who are more profitable to serve – would be captured by some suppliers (typically by charging less than the previous higher prices, but still making a profit), leaving the more expensive or harder to service customers without the desired product or service at all or \"dumping\" them on some default provider, who is left with less of the higher value customers who, in some cases, would have provided extra revenue to subsidize or reduce the cost to service the higher-cost customers, and the loss of the higher value","-24.942085543656503"],["meal—or combo depending on the chain. Value meals at fast food restaurants are common as a merchandising tactic to facilitate bundling, up-selling, and price discrimination. Most of the time they can be upgraded to a larger side and drink for a small fee. The perceived creation of a \"discount\" on individual menu items in exchange for the purchase of a \"meal\" is also consistent with the loyalty marketing school of thought. Technology To make quick service possible and to ensure accuracy and security, many fast food restaurants have incorporated hospitality point of sale systems. This makes it possible for","-24.861355667311727"],["All-you-can-eat restaurant An all-you-can-eat restaurant (AYCE) is a type of restaurant in which a fixed price is charged for entry, after which diners may consume as much food as they wish. All-you-can-eat establishments are frequently buffets. Buffets The all-you-can-eat buffet has been ascribed to Herbert \"Herb\" Cobb McDonald, a Las Vegas publicity and entertainment manager who introduced the idea in 1946. In his 1965 novel The Muses of Ruin, William Pearson wrote, of the buffet:\nAt midnight every self-respecting casino premières its buffet— the eighth wonder of the world, the one true art form this androgynous harlot of cities has delivered","-24.76818603828724"],["for international food commodities measured in US dollars is due to the dollar being devalued. Protectionism is also an important contributor to price increases. 36% of world grain goes as fodder to feed animals, rather than people.\nOver long time periods population growth and climate change could cause food prices to go up. However, these factors have been around for many years and food prices have jumped up in the last 3 years, so their contribution to the current problem is minimal. Government regulations of food and fuel markets France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States governments have","-24.76678298598563"],["supply and demand, and in the summer of 1985 the state store prices of all food items except grain also were allowed to float in response to market conditions. Prices of most goods produced by private and collectively owned enterprises in both rural and urban areas generally were free to float, as were the prices of many items that state-owned enterprises produced outside the plan. Prices of most major goods produced by state-owned enterprises, however, along with the grain purchased from farmers by state commercial departments for retail sales in the cities, still were set or restricted by government agencies","-24.689335698611103"],["high cholesterol, and depression. Many fast foods tend to be high in saturated fat, sugar, salt and calories.\nThe traditional family dinner is increasingly being replaced by the consumption of takeaway fast food. As a result, the time invested on food preparation is getting lower, with an average couple in the United States spending 47 minutes and 19 seconds per day on food preparation in 2013. History The concept of ready-cooked food for sale is closely connected with urban developments. Homes in emerging cities often lacked adequate space or proper food preparation accouterments. Additionally, procuring cooking fuel could cost as much","-24.52661561014247"],["food include the general public, sometimes in the form of \"food drives\", and government programs that buy and distribute excess farm products mostly to help support higher commodity prices. Food banks can also buy food either at market prices or from wholesalers and retailers at discounted prices, often at cost. Sometimes farmers will allow food banks to send gleaners to salvage leftover crops for free once their primary harvest is complete. A few food banks have even taken over their own farms, though such initiatives have not always been successful.\nMany food banks don't accept fresh produce, preferring canned or packaged","-24.509614960132694"],["Only incremental costs and efforts should be included in the item cost.\nThe two criteria for determining which menu items should be featured on a menu have been food cost percentage and gross profit. Food cost percentage is calculated by dividing the cost of the menu item ingredients, including surrounding dish items, e.g., salad, bread and butter, condiments, etc. by the menu price. Gross profit is calculated by subtracting the menu cost as previously defined, from the menu price. Advocates of menu engineering believe that gross profit trumps food cost so they tend to identify menu items with the highest gross","-24.50715651904102"],["growth of higher income households. At the same time, less expensive establishments such as fast food establishments can be quite inexpensive, making restaurant eating accessible to many. Employment The restaurant industry in the United States is large and quickly growing, with 10 million workers. 1 in every 12 U.S. residents work in the business, and during the 2008 recession, the industry was an anomaly in that it continued to grow. Restaurants are known for having low wages, which they claim are due to thin profit margins of 4-5%. For comparison, however, Walmart has a 1% profit margin.\nAs a result of","-24.50363283437764"],["actual amount of food consumed increases with the price charged for the buffet. Other restaurants The all-you-can-eat business model is also prevalent in Korean barbecue, Brazilian churrasco, and Chinese hot pot. Beverages When applied to beverages, particularly alcoholic beverages, the unlimited model is known as \"all-you-can-drink\" or \"bottomless\" (as in \"bottomless brunch\").","-24.437684535223525"],["it is better to provide subsidy from general taxation rather than have passengers in more densely populated areas provide subsidy by directing profits from reinvestment in these services. This results in higher fares, lower staff wages, lower frequencies and older vehicles on popular services, reduce the attractiveness of services and spreading financial risks of unprofitable services to profitable services and can result in cuts to profitable services to cover expected and unexpected losses. Cross-subsidy puts the financial burden for unprofitable services on passengers who often have the least ability to pay. He also notes that in sparsely populated","-24.41346791949036"],["the \"duff note of the night\". Zoe Williams of The Telegraph said that \"The food ranges from extremely good to totally brilliant\", but criticised the pricing, saying \"This is one of the most expensive meals I've had in a year, and not, hands down, the classiest, or most effortful, or most luxurious in terms of ingredients\", and gave an overall score of 7.5 out of 10.","-24.39288244232921"],["cheapest omelette on the menu at the restaurant is €18 per 100 gram (the minimal portion is 250 gram, thus €45 for the dish). However, in June 2012 the price had already risen to €25 per 100 gram and the minimal portion was 300 gram, resulting in a €75 \"basic\" omelette (served with half grilled lobster and truffled potatoes).","-24.38192142614571"],["is one of the largest buffet restaurants in the world. Festival Village shopping street Festival Village is a shopping street. There are also a game town, an a la carte restaurant, a fast food eatery and bars.","-24.35807742702309"],["inadequate food stamp benefits, unemployment, underemployment, and rent or mortgage costs were factors reported as forcing an average of 15–20 percent more people. Compounding this issue, USDA bonus foods have declined by $200 million and local food donations were down nationally about 9 percent over the same period. According to the California Association of Food Banks, which is an umbrella organization of nearly all food banks in the state, food banks are at the \"beginning of a crisis\". Effects on farmers If global price movements are transmitted to local markets, farmers in the developing world could benefit from the rising price","-24.34718190147123"],["the cruise price.\nTraditionally, the ships' restaurants organize two dinner services per day, early dining and late dining, and passengers are allocated a set dining time for the entire cruise; a recent trend is to allow diners to dine whenever they want. Having two dinner times allows the ship to have enough time and space to accommodate all of their guests. Having two different dinner services can cause some conflicts with some of the ship's events (such as shows and performances) for the late diners, but this problem is usually fixed by having a shorter version of the event take place","-24.306116371466487"],["costs and possibly bankrupt other restaurants. There was also a petition to not run the promo as well, claiming the offers don't seem to work and \"traffic, units, sales, and restaurant profitability continue to slide\". Effect on the competition Several competitors ended up following Subway's success with the $5 footlongs, including Pizza Hut, Arby's, and KFC, which introduced similar round price points. Many consumer goods outside of the restaurant industry have also adopted round price points as well.\nWhile Subway allowed the \"$5 footlongs\" to remain franchise-optional, Burger King took the opposite route, requiring all locations in 2009, both franchised and","-24.263321273811016"],["an opportunity for restaurants to make money during a typically otherwise slow time of the year. In Winterlicious 2009, 180,000 meals were served over 2 weeks, resulting in $12 million in economic impact for the City of Toronto.","-24.245953541758354"],["prices in low- and middle-income countries, and outlines the (food) policy implications of food price fluctuations. Grocery Foods Economics In the long term, prices are expected to stabilize. Farmers will grow more grain for both fuel and food and eventually bring prices down. This has already occurred with wheat, with more crops planted in the United States, Canada, and Europe in 2009. However, the Food and Agriculture Organization projects that consumers still have to deal with more expensive food until at least 2018.\nIt is rare for the spikes to hit all major foods in most countries at once. Food prices","-24.243386560527142"],["and beverage, like dessert, vegetarian food as well as wine. Visitors can purchase luxurious food and seafood such as oysters, lobsters and abalones at a low price. In order to enhance the people's’ incentive of purchasing, exhibitors offer discounts and special activities. For instance, at the 12th Hong Kong Food Festival, special activities like free bubble-like fusion ice cream for the first 100 visitors, and using extremely low price ($1) to buy a brown crab were arranged. In addition, the organizer invites celebrities such as renowned chefs and artists as the special guests of the Star Kitchen. They share culinary","-24.186515137262177"],["Restaurant Patrick Guilbaud Reviews In February 2004, Restaurant Patrick Guilbaud was mentioned in The New York Times, where it was reported that lunch cost $36 and dinner was available for $124. Guilbaud's food was described as \"seriously good\" and was served in \"seriously elegant surroundings\", with \"reservations advised\" by the newspaper. Food on offer included roast quail coated with hazelnuts.","-24.160087642355393"],["imports with domestic production.\nMost recently, global food prices have been more stable and relatively low, after a sizable increase in late 2017, they are back under 75% of the nominal value seen during the all-time high in the 2011 food crisis. As investment Institutions such as hedge funds, pension funds and investment banks like Barclays Capital, Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley have been instrumental in pushing up prices in the last five years, with investment in food commodities rising from $65bn to $126bn (£41bn to £79bn) between 2007 and 2012, contributing to 30-year highs. This has caused price fluctuations which","-24.15819038466725"],["go late into the afternoon. Montreal-style bagels may be served alongside egg dishes, waffles or crepes, smoked meat or fish, fruit, salads, cheese, and dessert.\nMany restaurants offer brunch service as well, and is where the idea of Buffets took on mass appeal. In the mid 1980s, with the price of food going down, some restaurants within Toronto started serving all you can eat buffet-style Brunch. Original restaurants in the south west area of Scarborough within Toronto alone included Town and Country Restaurant, Boy on a Dolphin, and Mother Tuckers, which much later on became a small franchise, and later on","-24.15644544485258"],["at mid- to high-priced restaurants, customers sit at tables, their orders are taken by a waiter, who brings the food when it is ready. After eating, the customers then pay the bill. In some restaurants, such as workplace cafeterias, there are no waiters; the customers use trays, on which they place cold items that they select from a refrigerated container and hot items which they request from cooks, and then they pay a cashier before they sit down. Another restaurant approach which uses few waiters is the buffet restaurant. Customers serve food onto their own plates and then pay at","-24.107722123968415"],["households into tens and hundreds for the purposes of law, order and mutual surety (see Tithing). In some texts this 'dizeyne' may be rendered as 'dozen'. Baker's dozen A baker's dozen, devil's dozen, long dozen, or long measure is 13, one more than a standard dozen. The broadest use of baker's dozen today is simply a group of thirteen objects (often baked goods). The term has meant different things over the last few centuries.\nIn the United Kingdom when selling certain goods, bakers were obliged to sell goods by the dozen at a specific weight or quality (or a specific average","-23.98916423987248"],["While some are opposing the raising of price, they think that the original intention of the buffet may be changed.","-23.96164779466926"],["total $162 billion over the decade. An alternative study released that same month by the Citizens for Tax Justice, a liberal think tank which favors the change, stated that the change would add $50 billion per year in tax revenue ($500 billion over the decade). The United States Congress Joint Committee on Taxation released a letter in March 2012 estimating that the Buffett Rule would raise $46.7 billion over the next decade. The divergent estimates come about because of different assumptions about the details of the Buffett Rule. For example, the Joint Committee on Taxation assumes that many high-income taxpayers","-23.92650938985753"],["per year of wasted food (purchased and edible food which is discarded) amounts to a cost of £10.2 billion each year. This represents costs of £250 to £400 a year per household. United States Estimates of food waste in the United States range from 35 million tons to 103 million tons. In a study done by National Geographic in 2014, Elizabeth Royte indicated more than 30 percent of food in the United States, valued at $162 billion annually, isn't eaten. The University of Arizona conducted a study in 2004, which indicated that 14 to 15% of United States edible food is untouched","-23.899936072237324"],["Fast food has been losing market share to fast casual dining restaurants, which offer more robust and expensive cuisines. Due to this competition, fast food giants have seen dramatic drops in their sales. While overall fast food sales have fallen, the number of Americans who eat in these restaurants \"once a month or 'a few times a year'\" has risen.\nIn contrast to the rest of the world, American citizens spend a much smaller amount of their income on food — largely due to various government subsidies that make fast food cheap and easily accessible. Calorie for calorie, foods sold in","-23.88921327936987"],["provides recipes and all required ingredients. Regular sessions provide all seventeen meals from that month's menu, while first time customers have a reduced number of choices. The firm's official website suggests a cost of \"approximately $240, or under $6.75 per serving\" for 12 regular or 6 large meals.\nSome meals are 'complete' (include side dishes), while others are not (need a salad or other vegetable side - for an additional fee). The more servings a customer orders in a single session, the lower the per-serving cost. Individual franchise locations may offer additional promotions or further discounts. ","-23.879744022648083"],["pastry, or bagel. Coffee and tea are offered as well, and sometimes hot chocolate. Cost Food on board a flight is usually free on full-service Asian airlines and on almost all long-distance flights, while they might cost extra on low-cost airlines or European full-service airline flights. Quality may also fluctuate due to shifts in the economics of the airline industry.\nOn long-haul international flights in first class and business class, most Asian and European airlines serve gourmet meals, while legacy carriers based in the US tend to serve multicourse meals including a cocktail snack, appetizer, soup, salad, entrée (chicken, beef, fish,","-23.81913660711143"],["receive one free meal a day—two in the poorest areas—and so less of their family's limited income is needed to pay for food. In a survey of Bolsa Familia recipients, 82.4% reported eating better; additionally, it was reported to increase the incomes of the poorer families by about 25%. Criticism In 2003, David de Ferranti, the World Bank IBRD representative for Latin America and the Caribbean, criticized the program, due to its lack of clear focus, saying the program did not combat the country's poverty and income inequality. He also criticised the mechanisms for money donation and food gathering","-23.81378687430697"],["to pay. All patrons were asked to give fairly in exchange for their meal, but ultimately relied on a gift economy. Fare The cafe served an organic, natural, and local cuisine that includes vegan, vegetarian and meat dishes. There was no standard menu, the fare changes daily based on the availability of local food (often donations from patrons) and the Chef's inspiration. Although there was no menu, One World Everybody Eats specialized in \"home-style\" dishes from around the world featuring staples such as bread, soup, salad, entree, organic coffees and teas, dessert, grains, quiche, and dal and rice. The","-23.802203785354777"],["a greatly reduced price than it would cost to purchase each service separately, as an inducement for subscribers to remain with their service provider or for others to induce subscribers into using their service. Similarly, many television providers offer general interest or movie-based premium channels at no additional charge for a trial period (loften one to three months, though there have been rare instances of free trials for pay services that last up to one year for newer subscribers to that provider's television service. Distribution Pay television has become popular with cable and satellite television. Pay television services often, at","-23.794581454712898"],["potatoes cost $9.99 (or $10) while medium-sized ones $7.99 (or $8). Craig said he would buy the potatoes from the local neighborhood Walmart. Reportedly, profits per month ranged between $10,000 and $13,000. Potato Parcel has proved popular on websites like Twitter.\nNeither Mail A Spud nor the company endorses eating the potato due to health concerns. In an email interview with MarketWatch's Kathleen Burke, Craig said \"I wanted to create a brand new way of sending a message outside of apps and technology by allowing anyone to send an anonymous message…on a potato.\" In August 27, 2015, the company was sold","-23.779882144692237"],["the aid of food banks. Dave Krepcho, director of the Second Harvest Food Bank in Orlando, has said that college-educated professional couples have begun to turn to food pantries.\nBy mid-2012, US food banks had expressed concerns on the expected difficulty in feeding the hungry over the coming months. Rapidly rising demand has been coinciding with higher food prices and with a decrease in donations, partly as the food industry is becoming more efficient and so has less mislabelled and other slightly defective food to give away. Also there has been less surplus federal food on offer. Additionally, there have been","-23.76947061663668"],["because it does not sell in time.\nWhile the locations selling fresh and frozen fish dominate the market, there are a number of other businesses in the facility as well. The market also has a large number of prepared food stands selling tamales, tacos, cocktails, fillets and other seafood dishes. There are also business selling knives, copper cookware, other kitchen utensils, groceries, banks and government offices. Challenges One major challenge to the market is the decline in sales of domestically produced seafood. These have fallen as much as forty percent by some estimates. Vendors at the market claim that some is","-23.765591802633935"],["model and employed \"secret shoppers\" to determine prices of other retailers. The Fedco price on many items ended in 87 cents to claim the lowest price, even if it was only pennies below the customary 99 cent prices of competitors.\nFor most of its lifetime, Fedco was closed on Wednesdays, though some employees would work, re-stocking or taking inventory. During the Christmas season, Fedco was open 7 days a week to accommodate the customer surge. Fedco would sometimes require employees to work up to 10 hours a day. Working 6 days a week was possible during the summer surge and","-23.751361638861454"],["$21.25. The price the consumer buys the good for equals $5.75 but the seller only receives $4.75. Subsidy impact Marginal subsidies on production will shift the supply curve to the right until the vertical distance between the two supply curves is equal to the per unit subsidy; when other things remain equal, this will decrease price paid by the consumers (which is equal to the new market price) and increase the price received by the producers. Similarly, a marginal subsidy on consumption will shift the demand curve to the right; when other things remain equal, this will decrease the","-23.73086074166349"],["are shopping on a budget. Small-scale farmers do not receive government subsidies and are not able to support their business on prices comparable to those of industrial-scale food production, so they must sell at higher prices to make a living. Therefore, in order for the appeal of the local agriculture movement to overcome the economic cost, people must be willing to invest in it, which is unlikely when apparently similar products are available in grocery stores for a lower cost. Despite this, distribution costs of expansive food trade must also be factored in; with increasing gas prices, it becomes more","-23.71600939014752"],["dinner order — and of course, pie. Most dinners cost $2.85.\nPatrons eating just dessert paid 35 cents for a piece of cake or a slice of pie, another nickel would buy you the house specialty. Although it sounds like steal by today's standards, the Lodge was not considered cheap eats at the time. It was a special occasion to eat out and many families made a ritual of going to the Lodge for Sunday lunch after church. Due to the remote location, many food items required a freight charge. As many ingredients as possible were locally sourced. The rich cream","-23.710169514284644"],["ask first. Dinner is often also served, but not included in the price. However, if it becomes clear that one plans to generally eat out, the price may go up because this is an important second source of income. The owners will usually offer extra services like laundry service, breakfast & meals or even cigars.","-23.708395796769764"],["such as The Best Thing I Ever Ate, Chopped, Food Network Challenge, and The Best Thing I Ever Made. Her recipes and budgeting tips have also been featured on the Today Show, CNN, People, Food Network Magazine and iVillage.com. Tips and strategies On her show and in her cookbook, d'Arabian tries to offer easy meal ideas that not only taste great, but are budget-friendly. She says, \"10 Dollar Dinners is really a celebration of food and managing our household budget; it's so much more than cooking cheap food. The recipes don't scream budget cooking, and there really are clever ways","-23.688514665660477"],["revenue in 2018 was 12.46 billion baht, up 5.5 percent over 2017. Net profit rose 9.4 percent to 2.5 billion baht. Instant noodles The food company's main products are flavoured instant noodles mainly sold under the MAMA brand and other brands such as \"Mamy\", \"Pama\", \"Papa\", \"Sai Keo\" and \"Honghow\" which are distributed worldwide. In 2014, the company had an estimated daily capacity of six million packages.","-23.62654273418957"],["of marine life making certain fish species rarer to find.\nThe life fish food trade is a lucrative business. According to University of Washington Professor Patrick Christie, live fish caught for food export earns approximately $6000 a ton. To help support themselves and their families, fishermen in Oceania and Southeast Asia sometimes use illegal fishing methods. Although many feel the fish are worth the cost, a typical dinner can cost up to one hundred dollars per kilogram. The wholesale value on these fish is anywhere from eleven US dollars to sixty-three US dollars per kilogram, meaning there’s a large markup and","-23.62485366152032"],["prices, contrary to a local Bakers’ Association agreement that set a standard price for bread of 12 cents a loaf. As Weston parted company with his fellow bakers he lowered his prices for both his route and wholesale customers, as the competition attempted to fill the store shelves of Toronto with their bread:\n Bakers have fallen out with one another since Mr. Geo Weston has left their ASSOCIATION and the outcome will be the bakers' loss and the citizens' gain. Mr. Geo. Weston has lowered his bread to 10 cents retail, CASH, and he promises to continue such prices","-23.61400849026313"],["Buffett Rule The Buffett Rule is part of a tax plan proposed by President Barack Obama in 2011. The tax plan would apply a minimum tax rate of 30 percent on individuals making more than one million dollars a year. According to a White House official, the new tax rate would directly affect 0.3 percent of taxpayers. History The Buffett Rule is named after American investor Warren Buffett, who publicly stated in early 2011 that he believed it was wrong that rich people, like himself, could pay less in federal taxes, as a portion of income, than the middle class,","-23.595775015535764"],["all through the winter, no matter what the other BAKERS do. His aim is to satisfy the public that his drop in price is genuine, and not a BLUFF on the public which is being introduced by many of the leading bakers in the city, charging their private customers 11 and 12 cents and selling to the stores at 6 cents per loaf. Mr. Weston does not intend to be governed by any ring or association in the future, but will attend strictly to his own business. which has made Mr. G. WESTON'S name a household word with the citizens","-23.586316185777832"],["spend as much or as little money as they chose. Price-less Menus for private functions, pre-paid meals and the like do not have prices. In normal restaurants there are two types of menus without prices that were mostly used until the 1970s and 1980s: the \"blind menu\" and the \"women's menu\". These menus contained all of the same items as the regular menu, except that the prices were not listed. The \"blind menu\" was distributed to guests at business meals where the hosts did not want the diners to see the prices, or to any type of dinner where","-23.54442404099791"],["for leftovers as well as minimizing waste food or ingredients. A few restaurants use both approaches to serving, making use of push-trolleys during peak hours and switching to on-demand ordering in less busier periods.\nThe cost of a meal was traditionally calculated by the number, size and type of dishes left on the patron's table at the end. In modern yum cha restaurants, dim sum servers sometimes mark orders by stamping a card on the table. Servers in some restaurants use different stamps so that sales statistics for each server can be recorded. Customs and etiquette It is customary to pour","-23.464145070618542"],["a year pays a minimum effective tax rate of at least 30 percent ... implemented in a way that is equitable, including not disadvantaging individuals who make large charitable contributions.\" The White House also stated that \"no household making more than $1 million each year should pay a smaller share of their income in taxes than a middle-class family pays.\"\nThe Buffett Rule was not in the President's 2012 budget proposal and the White House initially stressed it as a guideline rather than a legislative initiative. The rule, however, was later submitted for deliberation as US Senate Bill S. 2059, Paying","-23.404089909105096"],["pay because, while the cost of living has gone down, it is still one of the highest in the country.\nThe introduction of big-box stores in Anchorage, Fairbanks (Wal-Mart in March 2004), and Juneau also did much to lower prices. However, rural Alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods, compared to the rest of the country due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure. Many rural residents come into these cities and purchase food and goods in bulk from warehouse clubs like Costco and Sam's Club. Some have embraced the free shipping offers of some online retailers to","-23.400007546893903"],["inclined to give a customer an extra large glass of wine or a second scoop of ice cream. While these larger servings make the customer happy and increase the likelihood of the server getting a good tip, they cut into the profit margin of the restaurant. In addition, a server may dote on generous tippers while ignoring other customers, and in rare cases harangue bad tippers. Non-financial compensation Part of this variation in incentive structures and supervisory mechanisms may be attributable to variation in the level of intrinsic psychological satisfaction to be had from different types of work. Sociologists and","-23.39905952734989"],["below market prices. Such food banks will sometimes also act as centres to provide small holders and subsistence farmers with various forms of support. Soup kitchen A soup kitchen, meal center, or food kitchen is a place where food is offered to the hungry for free or at a below market price. Frequently located in lower-income neighborhoods, they are often staffed by volunteer organizations, such as church or community groups. Soup kitchens sometimes obtain food from a food bank for free or at a low price, because they are considered a charity, which makes it easier for them to feed","-23.394299905921798"],["were candies, condiments, cereals, and beverages-all foods high in added high fructose corn syrup. Over the past thirty years, U.S. consumption of high fructose corn syrup increased over 1,000 percent.\nUnhealthy foods tend to be inexpensive when compared to their healthy counterparts. Because fruits and vegetables are not subsidized, the real cost of such crops have risen nearly 40 percent. On the other hand, the prices for soda, sweets, and fats and oils have declined due to the subsidy that the government provides for commodity crops. \"Currently the least expensive food available is also the most caloric and the least nutritious:","-23.387033866681577"],["offerings, which currently make up 35% of its 3,500 lines. Food products have been a strong performer for the retailer, accounting for 40% of total sales in April 2008, which itself was an increase of 5% from the start of 2008. The retailer provides its own line of grocery products, branded 'Deli Fresh', which was launched at the start of 2007. As of 2006, the retailer was making a profit margin of 40% on the produce it sold, which included its most popular food lines at that time such as potatoes, onions and eggs. Some products have sold for less than","-23.376126153783844"],["offer a fried fish sandwich for some of its customers who desire fish instead of beef or chicken.\nIn 1988, Wendy's was the first fast-food chain to create a single price-point value menu where all items listed on that menu were priced exclusively at 99¢. The menu was restructured in 2007 due to rising costs as the Super Value Menu with prices ranging from 99¢ to $2.00 USD. Breakfast In mid-2007, Wendy's began a national debut of its new breakfast menu in its U.S. and Canadian locations. The chain experimented with serving breakfast for a short time in 1985, but the","-23.374426283477078"],["have grown so rapidly over the past few decades. These companies are making processed and fast foods much cheaper and more widely available through the growth of transnational supermarkets and chain restaurants. Food is not only easier to obtain in urban areas; it is also cheaper and less time-consuming to acquire which creates an imbalance between energy intake and output. Their advertising and promotional strategies have a strong effect on consumer choices and desire. Foreign direct investment is also stimulating processed food sales in these supermarkets by lowering prices and creating incentives for advertising and promotion. A large proportion of","-23.358093947710586"],["usually €10–15 cheaper than when ordered separately. Also in many cases if a menu is chosen it will be accompanied by amuses (little side dishes between the courses). Wine and other beverages are almost always excluded.\nIn Sweden almost all restaurants—from the simplest diner to the finest luxury restaurant—serve Dagens rätt (\"the daily dish\") during lunch hours (on weekdays) at a much lower price than the same dish would cost at other times. Most commonly there is a choice of two or three dishes: a meat/fish/poultry dish, a vegetarian alternative, and a pasta. Salad buffet, bread and butter and beverage are","-23.349182258127257"],["in gift cards—and this doled out at just $216 per year. While obviously the most humane solution, giving contestants just over $4 to spend on Taco Bell per week is hardly the 'lifetime' of eating Taco Bell you might have imagined. It is as though Taco Bell has promised you a delicious, fulfilling prize, only to totally cheap out on what’s inside.\" Commercial Crowdsourced content service Seeking Alpha stated that the new menu \"could improve same store sales and once again increase the overall value of owning a Taco Bell chain.\" Canadian Internet news service Digital Journal considered the new","-23.341287679249945"],["a very profitable approach as it can break off potential customers who are driven only by price and also attract new customers from competitors. For example, Starbucks raised prices to maximize profits from price insensitive customers who depend on their gourmet coffee while losing customers who wanted cheaper prices to McDonald's. Comparison with cost-based pricing Several factors affect customer willingness to pay certain prices; for example, the difference of needs between countries, individual customers needs and wants, and the usual customer facing different occasions (actual and present needs) - hence a plan to suit all time value-based pricing is impossible.","-23.324532219443427"],["price is advertised on paper cards and orally. The lowest possible prices can be found after the midday (particularly by 13-14h00), often less than half the original starting price.\nAfter 13h30 or on 14h00 the sellers can make significant discounts where large quantities of fresh fruit or unsold fish can be sold en-masse for extremely low prices. Sometimes parts of the produce can be given for free if the buyer has cultivated a personal relation with a particular farmer or other seller. Consumer demographics The demographics of the consumers visiting the people's markets are varied. According to the","-23.320701774267945"],["restaurant shares a core lunch and dinner menu created collectively by the company's chefs, plus signature dishes and specials at the discretion of each individual chef. Fresh pasta is made in-house daily and all sauces, soups and dressings are made from scratch. Many locations featured wood-fired rotisseries and grills. The restaurants also offer gluten-free menus and an array of vegetarian and vegan offerings. Housemade desserts complete many meals \nOverall, the company caters mostly to repeat guests at its 21 locations. Regular customers averaged 12.7 return visits per year (later reported to be 17), considered very high in the industry.","-23.316531641154143"],["these payments are generally restricted to certain mountain farming zones and other equally disadvantaged areas. Subsidies are mainly paid by the federal government but may in some instances be paid by provincial governments.\nBecause of the complex system of price supports and market access limitations, the exact share of subsidy costs to the government and to consumers is virtually impossible to calculate. Experts estimate that the total cost to the federal and other governments for agricultural and forestry support during the late 1980s was approximately S16 billion a year, a level that would have been roughly at the same level as","-23.31601532129571"],["strong influence over consumers. Nevertheless, less than 10% of consumer spending on food goes to farmers, with larger percentages going to advertising, transportation, and intermediate corporations. Prices It is rare for price spikes to hit all major foods in most countries at once, but food prices suffered all-time peaks in 2008 and 2011, posting a 15% and 12% deflated increase year-over-year, representing prices higher than any data collected.\nIn December 2007, 37 countries faced food crises, and 20 had imposed some sort of food-price controls. In China, the price of pork jumped 58% in 2007. In the 1980s and 1990s, farm","-23.310274533760094"],["a relatively small portion of overall energy consumption in food production, and locally produced food may be much more energy intensive than food produced in a better area. Additionally the emphasis on \"inefficient\" local producers over more efficient ones further away may be damaging. Processing, packaging and waste Highly processed foods such as granola bars come in individual packaging, demanding high energy inputs and resulting in packaging waste. These products contribute up to a third of total energy inputs for food consumption, as their ingredients are shipped from all over, processed, packaged, trucked to storage, then transported to retail outlets.","-23.2988256632525"],["the benefits provided to the customer. Cost-plus pricing Cost-plus pricing is an approach which takes the total cost of producing the product or service and adding some amount to allow the business to make a profit. For example, in a retail store, if a merchant buys something for $5, and they sell it for $10 to a customer, this is called cost-based pricing. However, the willingness for the customer to pay is limited by the benefits they can receive: \"Benefits are net benefits, where any cost that the customer firm incurs in obtaining the sought benefits, apart from purchase price,","-23.2853432334814"],["Meal voucher A meal voucher or luncheon voucher is a voucher for a meal given to employees as an employee benefit, allowing them to eat at outside restaurants, typically for lunch. In many countries, meal vouchers have had favorable tax treatment. Vouchers are typically in the form of paper tickets but are gradually being replaced by electronic vouchers in the form of a special payment card. United Kingdom A luncheon voucher (LV) is a paper ticket (voucher) used by some employees in the United Kingdom to pay for meals in private restaurants. It allows companies to subsidise midday","-23.27837034476397"],["prices artificially low, whilst still making large profits on the food themselves, with some products selling at over 400% the price paid to, whilst farmers may only make 50p profit on each animal produced domestically. This buying power also allows supermarkets to transcend national boundaries in sourcing food. For example, in the UK, where the food market is highly dominated by supermarkets, only 25% of apples sold in supermarkets are produced domestically, with out-of-season Cox apples being flown 14,000 miles from New Zealand, despite the UK being a natural producer of apples. Furthermore, due to the national nature of the","-23.236556682023547"],["earned a daily salary between 3.25 and 6 francs; 22% earned less than three francs. Only 5% had a salary between 6.5 francs to 20 francs. Food cost a minimum of one franc a day, and the minimum necessary for lodging was 75 centimes a day. In most industries, except those connected with food, there was a long morte-saison (\"dead season\"), when the enterprises closed down and their workers were unpaid. To support a family properly, either the wife and children had to work, or the husband had to work on Sundays or longer hours than normal.","-23.235184006505733"],["funding Three times free food is given daily, compared to 81,897 food portions in 2007. In addition, there were 25,477 overnight stays in 2007 and 1,165 were cared for by social workers, with the proportion of women around 15%.\nHalf of the funding is provided by the Social Welfare Fund - around 500,000 euros in 2008 - and half by donations. In 2012, 97,285 meals were spent - more than ever before - and there were 19,453 overnight stays, slightly more than in 2011. Expansion and Zweite Gruft In 2009, Charity opened Zweite Gruft (\"the second crypt\") in Vienna's 18th","-23.230453255308475"],["or twice a week, while some get a daily food distribution.","-23.210106588929193"],["were able to purchase food at a reasonable rate, the Maximum was mostly a failure. Some merchants having found themselves forced into a position to sell their goods for a price lower than what it cost to create it (i.e. cost of baking bread, growing vegetables, etc.,) chose to hide their expensive goods from the market, either for personal use or for sale on the black market. However, the General Maximum was very successful in deflecting a volatile political issue away from the Committee of Public Safety and Robespierre, enabling them to focus on larger political issues","-23.188761735509615"],["to lower the price to $1.10 if demand has waned. The business would choose this approach because the incremental profit of 10 cents from the transaction is better than no sale at all. Cost plus pricing Cost plus pricing is a cost-based method for setting the prices of goods and services. Under this approach, the direct material cost, direct labor cost, and overhead costs for a product are added up and added to a markup percentage (to create a profit margin) in order to derive the price of the product. Odd pricing In this type of pricing, the seller tends","-23.18496846267226"],["charges are generally dropped.\nSome cruise lines charge their patrons $10/day in mandatory tipping; this does not include extra gratuities for alcoholic beverages.\nJudith Martin in her 2005 manners book opines that fast food restaurants will never charge mandatory tipping for their customers, despite the presence of tip jars, and considers tipping for non-table services to be inappropriate.\nIan Ayres, Fredrick E. Vars & Nasser Zakariya published a paper suggesting that tipping contributed to racial prejudice, since ethnic minorities would often be less able to pay a large tip. Another paper by Yoram Margalioth of Tel Aviv University argued that there was a","-23.17128974807565"],["are massively influenced by the power of discount stores and constitute only a small part of the entire cost of living. In particular, Western pattern diet constituents like those that are processed by fast food chains are comparatively cheap in the Western hemisphere. Profits rely primarily on quantity (see mass production), less than high-price quality. For some product classes like dairy or meat, overproduction has twisted the price relations in a way utterly unknown in underdeveloped countries (\"butter mountain\"). The situation for poor societies is worsened by certain free trade agreements that allow easier export of food in the \"southern\"","-23.151655443605705"],["with a larger diameter at the top than American and British bakers. Shops In the early 21st century, a trend for cupcake shops, which are specialized bakeries that sell little or nothing except cupcakes, developed in the United States, playing off of the sense of nostalgia evoked by the cakes. In New York City, cupcake shops like Magnolia Bakery gained publicity in their appearances on popular television shows like HBO's Sex and the City.\nCrumbs Bake Shop, a publicly traded business running the largest cupcake shop chain in the U.S., reached its peak stock price in 2011. Declining sales, due","-23.142245840106625"],["system, or pay up to around C$450/year per household and $600/year for households with children. This has been criticized as a regressive tax on the poor (around 37 cents per litre), for whom food is a large portion of their budget, and who are in effect subsidizing well-off farmers.\nIn addition, a study pointed out that supply management was costing Canadian consumers $2.6 billion per year (compare to supply management dairy product bringing in $970 Million into the economy). The study stated that supply management impacts the poorest households five times (2.4% of income or almost 25% of income on food)","-23.14096490729753"],["weight). During this time, bakers who sold a dozen units that failed to meet this requirement could be penalized with a fine. Therefore to avoid risking this penalty, some bakers included an extra unit to be sure the minimum weight was met, bringing the total to 13 units or what is now commonly known as a baker's dozen.\nIn the late 16th century a baker's dozen referred to a batch made in which the customer was given a dozen and the last one constituted the baker's profit.\nAccording to the 1811 Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, by Francis Grose, \"a Baker's","-23.11442602983152"],["by 5 percent. According to a Center on Budget and Policy Priorities report, the maximum monthly benefit for a family of four dropped from $668 to $632, while the maximum monthly benefit for an individual dropped from $200 to $189. Corporate influence and support In June 2014, Mother Jones reported that \"Overall, 18 percent of all food benefits money is spent at Walmart,\" and that Walmart had submitted a statement to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission stating,\nOur business operations are subject to numerous risks, factors, and uncertainties, domestically and internationally, which are outside our control. These factors include... changes","-23.11409829567856"],["trip to the restaurant in 2008, and afterwards criticised those who thought that spending £323.13 on a meal for two at lunchtime was too much.\nIn 2005 the restaurant was ranked 1st on the list of The World's 50 Best Restaurants. After spending 11 years on the list, it has dropped down to 73rd in the top 100. It has been ranked second best on numerous occasions, first behind The French Laundry and then behind El Bulli. In 2012, it was ranked in thirteenth place. In 2010, it was named the Best UK Restaurant in the Quintessentially Awards, a scheme run","-23.110269179640454"],["receive. They argue that because restaurants have very thin margins, an increase in the minimum wage could lead to higher prices for consumers and fewer jobs available for potential employees. A 2011 study suggested that 2011’s WAGE Act, which would have raised the minimum wage for all tipped employees in The United States, would have led to a cumulative decrease in 11 million hours worked by tipped employees. The same research found that each 10% increase in the cash wage paid to tipped employees tends to decrease hours worked by the affected employees by 5%. A 2012 study","-23.0993573398664"],["having \"the best food on campus for the best price.\"","-23.08756251172599"],["below the carry value. Buffett says \"I would think they might insist on the directors of the institutions that participate in this program waiving all director's fees for a couple of years. They should, maybe, eliminate bonuses.\" Buffett says \"...if someone wants to sell a hundred billion of these instruments to the Treasury, let them sell two or three billion in the market and then have the Treasury match that, ... . You don't want the Treasury to be a patsy.\" Mr. Buffett's company owns financial companies which will benefit directly or indirectly.\nInvestor George Soros opposed the original Paulson plan:","-23.06545030765119"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"increases, total costs must increase enough to lower the overall fixed cost percentage or the bottom line will not improve. This is not a recommended strategy for neighborhood restaurant with average checks under $15.\\nThose who believe that a low food cost percentage is more important than gross profit will promote the items with the lowest food cost percentage. Unfortunately, these items are typically the lowest priced items on the menu, e.g., chicken, pasta, soups. Promoting only low food cost items will likely result in lowering your average check and unless the restaurant attracts more customers, overall sales will not be\",\n \"-27.57163594267331\"\n ],\n [\n \"or $8 for their pizza buffet. For those paid $4, both the tastes of the last and the peak slices significantly predict the general evaluation for overall food taste. In contrast, for those paid $8, the first slice is more important in predicting the overall enjoyment. Therefore, in order to maximize customer satisfaction, higher-priced restaurants should put their best food in front of the consumer first. In a buffet setting, they could provide some signage to make more popular items salient or place the most popular foods first in the line. In lower-priced restaurants, serving tasty desserts at the end\",\n \"-27.471255429758457\"\n ],\n [\n \"profit, items like steaks and seafood, as the items to promote.\\nThe downside of this exclusive approach is that items that are high in gross profit are typically the highest priced items on the menu and they typically are on the high end of the food cost percentage scale. This approach works fine in price inelastic markets like country clubs and fine dining white table cloth restaurants. However, in highly competitive markets, which most restaurants reside, think Applebee's, Chili's, Olive Garden, price points are particularly critical in building customer counts. In addition, food cost cannot be ignored completely. If food cost\",\n \"-27.266711302479962\"\n ],\n [\n \"Statistics It is estimated by food industry research firm Technomics that approximately 225 million meals are eaten away from home each day in the U.S. This includes both restaurant and non-commercial eating places. The International Foodservice Distributors Association estimates that food service distributors in the U.S., as a daily average, deliver approximately 27 million cases of food and other products.\\nFood service distribution companies can range in size from a one-truck operation to larger corporations. There are many independent broadline food service distribution companies that service chain and multi-unit restaurants based on master distribution agreements with national food service groups.\",\n \"-26.05575368719201\"\n ],\n [\n \"did so after three years. (Not all changes in ownership are indicative of financial failure.) The three-year failure rate for franchises was nearly the same.\\nRestaurants employed 912,100 cooks in 2013, earning an average $9.83 per hour. The waiting staff numbered 4,438,100 in 2012, earning an average $8.84 per hour.\\nJiaxi Lu of the Washington Post reports in 2014 that, \\\"Americans are spending $683.4 billion a year dining out, and they are also demanding better food quality and greater variety from restaurants to make sure their money is well spent.\\\"\\nDining in restaurants has become increasingly popular, with the proportion of meals consumed\",\n \"-25.81354596375604\"\n ],\n [\n \"to over £1,750 million in 2005. The total UK chilled prepared food market was an estimated £7,187 million in 2004 and £13,126 million in 2018, and continues to evolve, reflecting consumers’ changing needs and lifestyles.\\nIn 2004, over 80% of UK households bought a chilled prepared meal with over 40% buying one within any given month.\",\n \"-25.683863306002422\"\n ],\n [\n \"Foodservice Statistics The food system, including food service and food retailing supplied $1.24 trillion worth of food in 2010 in the US, $594 billion of which was supplied by food service facilities, defined by the USDA as any place which prepares food for immediate consumption on site, including locations that are not primarily engaged in dispensing meals such as recreational facilities and retail stores. Full-service and Fast-food restaurants account for 77% of all foodservice sales, with full-service restaurants accounting for just slightly more than fast food in 2010. The shifts in the market shares between fast food and full-service restaurants\",\n \"-25.63659028289112\"\n ],\n [\n \"family meals are served. The buffet style is essentially a variation of the French service in which all of the food is available, at the correct temperature, in a serving space other than the dining table, and guests commute there to be served or sometimes to serve themselves, and then carry their plate back to the table. Buffets vary from the very informal (a gathering of friends in a home, or the serving of brunch at a hotel) to the rather formal setting of a wedding reception, for example. The buffet format is preferred in occasions where a\",\n \"-25.56310502958513\"\n ],\n [\n \"the customer is the ability to sample new food at low prices outside the traditional restaurant experience. For the host, benefits are making some money and experimenting with cooking without having to invest in a restaurant proper. As one host told the San Francisco Chronicle, \\\"It's literally like playing restaurant... You can create the event, and then it's over.\\\"\",\n \"-25.304461131134303\"\n ],\n [\n \"fast food outlets, high street bakeries, and chain coffee shops offering hot drinks with sugar levels over three times the daily recommended limit have nonetheless continued to rapidly expand. A 2015 University of Cambridge study reported that the total number of takeaway restaurants including fried chicken, fish and chips, pizza, kebab, Indian and Chinese takeaway shops has risen by 45% over the preceding 18 years. Government data reports that expenditure on takeaway food in the United Kingdom rose by 7.0% between 2011 and 2014. Similarly, popcorn, although a healthy snack by itself, becomes a high calorie snack once topped with\",\n \"-25.16605542603702\"\n ],\n [\n \"independent shops to survive. Menu Just like other tea restaurants, Cha Chaan Teng Buffet provides food and drinks such as\\nFrench toast, sandwiches, various Fried rice and Chinese noodles. For drinks, it offers Hong Kong style milk tea, coffee, ‘Yuanyang’, lemon tea and so on. The price of the buffet ranges from $40 to $80. In one of the restaurants, consumers can choose to have either a $40 or $80 buffet. Consumers who choose to have $40 can have breakfast, lunch or tea buffet. Those who pay $80 can have the dinner buffet. Both these two sets of buffet provide one\",\n \"-25.16457018919664\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill. They were set up by the Ministry of Food and run by local government or voluntary agencies on a non-profit basis. Meals were sold for a set maximum price of 9d (equivalent to just under 4p, about US$2 or £1 GBP in purchasing power 2008) or less. No-one could be served with a meal of more than one serving of meat, game, poultry, fish, eggs, or cheese. In one in ten restaurants the meals were prepared at central depots. Schools were often used because they had cafeterias and kitchens. In London, mobile canteens\",\n \"-25.075161298525927\"\n ],\n [\n \"and derive at least 70% of their revenue from food (including non-alcoholic beverages).\",\n \"-25.056294890935533\"\n ],\n [\n \"tend to be more moderate. If a menu item is a \\\"specialty\\\" and unique to a particular restaurant, and demand is high, prices can be higher than average because technically the restaurant has a \\\"monopoly\\\" on that item and until competitors copy them and put it on their menus, higher prices can be charged. However, no restaurant can sustain a competitive uniqueness or price advantage over their competition in the long run. Eventually competitors will try to match them.\\nUsing menu engineering in restaurants or menu items where price inelasticity is present is recommended and cost-margin in casual neighborhood restaurants and\",\n \"-24.960242120669136\"\n ],\n [\n \"food, the manufacturer must keep in mind that the retailer adds approximately 50 percent to the price of a wholesale product. For example, a frozen food sold in a retail store for $4.50 generates an income of $3.00 for the manufacturer. This money has to pay for the cost of producing, packaging, shipping, storing, and selling the product.\\nPrice encompasses the amount of money paid by the consumer in order to purchase the food product. When pricing the food products, the manufacturer must bear in mind that the retailer will add a particular percentage to the price on the wholesale product.\",\n \"-24.95848395844223\"\n ],\n [\n \"optimized.\\nLow food cost and high gross profit are not mutually exclusive attributes of a menu item. A second approach called cost-margin analysis identifies items that are both low in food cost and return a higher than average gross profit. These items referred to as primes. This analysis works well for restaurants in highly competitive markets where customers are price-sensitive.\\nThere is really no single method of analysis that can be used across the board on all menu items. If a menu item is a \\\"commodity\\\" like hamburgers, chicken tenders, fajitas, and other items found on the majority of restaurant menus, prices\",\n \"-24.949356756329507\"\n ],\n [\n \"in business is that the \\\"cream\\\" – high value or low-cost customers, who are more profitable to serve – would be captured by some suppliers (typically by charging less than the previous higher prices, but still making a profit), leaving the more expensive or harder to service customers without the desired product or service at all or \\\"dumping\\\" them on some default provider, who is left with less of the higher value customers who, in some cases, would have provided extra revenue to subsidize or reduce the cost to service the higher-cost customers, and the loss of the higher value\",\n \"-24.942085543656503\"\n ],\n [\n \"meal—or combo depending on the chain. Value meals at fast food restaurants are common as a merchandising tactic to facilitate bundling, up-selling, and price discrimination. Most of the time they can be upgraded to a larger side and drink for a small fee. The perceived creation of a \\\"discount\\\" on individual menu items in exchange for the purchase of a \\\"meal\\\" is also consistent with the loyalty marketing school of thought. Technology To make quick service possible and to ensure accuracy and security, many fast food restaurants have incorporated hospitality point of sale systems. This makes it possible for\",\n \"-24.861355667311727\"\n ],\n [\n \"All-you-can-eat restaurant An all-you-can-eat restaurant (AYCE) is a type of restaurant in which a fixed price is charged for entry, after which diners may consume as much food as they wish. All-you-can-eat establishments are frequently buffets. Buffets The all-you-can-eat buffet has been ascribed to Herbert \\\"Herb\\\" Cobb McDonald, a Las Vegas publicity and entertainment manager who introduced the idea in 1946. In his 1965 novel The Muses of Ruin, William Pearson wrote, of the buffet:\\nAt midnight every self-respecting casino premières its buffet— the eighth wonder of the world, the one true art form this androgynous harlot of cities has delivered\",\n \"-24.76818603828724\"\n ],\n [\n \"for international food commodities measured in US dollars is due to the dollar being devalued. Protectionism is also an important contributor to price increases. 36% of world grain goes as fodder to feed animals, rather than people.\\nOver long time periods population growth and climate change could cause food prices to go up. However, these factors have been around for many years and food prices have jumped up in the last 3 years, so their contribution to the current problem is minimal. Government regulations of food and fuel markets France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States governments have\",\n \"-24.76678298598563\"\n ],\n [\n \"supply and demand, and in the summer of 1985 the state store prices of all food items except grain also were allowed to float in response to market conditions. Prices of most goods produced by private and collectively owned enterprises in both rural and urban areas generally were free to float, as were the prices of many items that state-owned enterprises produced outside the plan. Prices of most major goods produced by state-owned enterprises, however, along with the grain purchased from farmers by state commercial departments for retail sales in the cities, still were set or restricted by government agencies\",\n \"-24.689335698611103\"\n ],\n [\n \"high cholesterol, and depression. Many fast foods tend to be high in saturated fat, sugar, salt and calories.\\nThe traditional family dinner is increasingly being replaced by the consumption of takeaway fast food. As a result, the time invested on food preparation is getting lower, with an average couple in the United States spending 47 minutes and 19 seconds per day on food preparation in 2013. History The concept of ready-cooked food for sale is closely connected with urban developments. Homes in emerging cities often lacked adequate space or proper food preparation accouterments. Additionally, procuring cooking fuel could cost as much\",\n \"-24.52661561014247\"\n ],\n [\n \"food include the general public, sometimes in the form of \\\"food drives\\\", and government programs that buy and distribute excess farm products mostly to help support higher commodity prices. Food banks can also buy food either at market prices or from wholesalers and retailers at discounted prices, often at cost. Sometimes farmers will allow food banks to send gleaners to salvage leftover crops for free once their primary harvest is complete. A few food banks have even taken over their own farms, though such initiatives have not always been successful.\\nMany food banks don't accept fresh produce, preferring canned or packaged\",\n \"-24.509614960132694\"\n ],\n [\n \"Only incremental costs and efforts should be included in the item cost.\\nThe two criteria for determining which menu items should be featured on a menu have been food cost percentage and gross profit. Food cost percentage is calculated by dividing the cost of the menu item ingredients, including surrounding dish items, e.g., salad, bread and butter, condiments, etc. by the menu price. Gross profit is calculated by subtracting the menu cost as previously defined, from the menu price. Advocates of menu engineering believe that gross profit trumps food cost so they tend to identify menu items with the highest gross\",\n \"-24.50715651904102\"\n ],\n [\n \"growth of higher income households. At the same time, less expensive establishments such as fast food establishments can be quite inexpensive, making restaurant eating accessible to many. Employment The restaurant industry in the United States is large and quickly growing, with 10 million workers. 1 in every 12 U.S. residents work in the business, and during the 2008 recession, the industry was an anomaly in that it continued to grow. Restaurants are known for having low wages, which they claim are due to thin profit margins of 4-5%. For comparison, however, Walmart has a 1% profit margin.\\nAs a result of\",\n \"-24.50363283437764\"\n ],\n [\n \"actual amount of food consumed increases with the price charged for the buffet. Other restaurants The all-you-can-eat business model is also prevalent in Korean barbecue, Brazilian churrasco, and Chinese hot pot. Beverages When applied to beverages, particularly alcoholic beverages, the unlimited model is known as \\\"all-you-can-drink\\\" or \\\"bottomless\\\" (as in \\\"bottomless brunch\\\").\",\n \"-24.437684535223525\"\n ],\n [\n \"it is better to provide subsidy from general taxation rather than have passengers in more densely populated areas provide subsidy by directing profits from reinvestment in these services. This results in higher fares, lower staff wages, lower frequencies and older vehicles on popular services, reduce the attractiveness of services and spreading financial risks of unprofitable services to profitable services and can result in cuts to profitable services to cover expected and unexpected losses. Cross-subsidy puts the financial burden for unprofitable services on passengers who often have the least ability to pay. He also notes that in sparsely populated\",\n \"-24.41346791949036\"\n ],\n [\n \"the \\\"duff note of the night\\\". Zoe Williams of The Telegraph said that \\\"The food ranges from extremely good to totally brilliant\\\", but criticised the pricing, saying \\\"This is one of the most expensive meals I've had in a year, and not, hands down, the classiest, or most effortful, or most luxurious in terms of ingredients\\\", and gave an overall score of 7.5 out of 10.\",\n \"-24.39288244232921\"\n ],\n [\n \"cheapest omelette on the menu at the restaurant is €18 per 100 gram (the minimal portion is 250 gram, thus €45 for the dish). However, in June 2012 the price had already risen to €25 per 100 gram and the minimal portion was 300 gram, resulting in a €75 \\\"basic\\\" omelette (served with half grilled lobster and truffled potatoes).\",\n \"-24.38192142614571\"\n ],\n [\n \"is one of the largest buffet restaurants in the world. Festival Village shopping street Festival Village is a shopping street. There are also a game town, an a la carte restaurant, a fast food eatery and bars.\",\n \"-24.35807742702309\"\n ],\n [\n \"inadequate food stamp benefits, unemployment, underemployment, and rent or mortgage costs were factors reported as forcing an average of 15–20 percent more people. Compounding this issue, USDA bonus foods have declined by $200 million and local food donations were down nationally about 9 percent over the same period. According to the California Association of Food Banks, which is an umbrella organization of nearly all food banks in the state, food banks are at the \\\"beginning of a crisis\\\". Effects on farmers If global price movements are transmitted to local markets, farmers in the developing world could benefit from the rising price\",\n \"-24.34718190147123\"\n ],\n [\n \"the cruise price.\\nTraditionally, the ships' restaurants organize two dinner services per day, early dining and late dining, and passengers are allocated a set dining time for the entire cruise; a recent trend is to allow diners to dine whenever they want. Having two dinner times allows the ship to have enough time and space to accommodate all of their guests. Having two different dinner services can cause some conflicts with some of the ship's events (such as shows and performances) for the late diners, but this problem is usually fixed by having a shorter version of the event take place\",\n \"-24.306116371466487\"\n ],\n [\n \"costs and possibly bankrupt other restaurants. There was also a petition to not run the promo as well, claiming the offers don't seem to work and \\\"traffic, units, sales, and restaurant profitability continue to slide\\\". Effect on the competition Several competitors ended up following Subway's success with the $5 footlongs, including Pizza Hut, Arby's, and KFC, which introduced similar round price points. Many consumer goods outside of the restaurant industry have also adopted round price points as well.\\nWhile Subway allowed the \\\"$5 footlongs\\\" to remain franchise-optional, Burger King took the opposite route, requiring all locations in 2009, both franchised and\",\n \"-24.263321273811016\"\n ],\n [\n \"an opportunity for restaurants to make money during a typically otherwise slow time of the year. In Winterlicious 2009, 180,000 meals were served over 2 weeks, resulting in $12 million in economic impact for the City of Toronto.\",\n \"-24.245953541758354\"\n ],\n [\n \"prices in low- and middle-income countries, and outlines the (food) policy implications of food price fluctuations. Grocery Foods Economics In the long term, prices are expected to stabilize. Farmers will grow more grain for both fuel and food and eventually bring prices down. This has already occurred with wheat, with more crops planted in the United States, Canada, and Europe in 2009. However, the Food and Agriculture Organization projects that consumers still have to deal with more expensive food until at least 2018.\\nIt is rare for the spikes to hit all major foods in most countries at once. Food prices\",\n \"-24.243386560527142\"\n ],\n [\n \"and beverage, like dessert, vegetarian food as well as wine. Visitors can purchase luxurious food and seafood such as oysters, lobsters and abalones at a low price. In order to enhance the people's’ incentive of purchasing, exhibitors offer discounts and special activities. For instance, at the 12th Hong Kong Food Festival, special activities like free bubble-like fusion ice cream for the first 100 visitors, and using extremely low price ($1) to buy a brown crab were arranged. In addition, the organizer invites celebrities such as renowned chefs and artists as the special guests of the Star Kitchen. They share culinary\",\n \"-24.186515137262177\"\n ],\n [\n \"Restaurant Patrick Guilbaud Reviews In February 2004, Restaurant Patrick Guilbaud was mentioned in The New York Times, where it was reported that lunch cost $36 and dinner was available for $124. Guilbaud's food was described as \\\"seriously good\\\" and was served in \\\"seriously elegant surroundings\\\", with \\\"reservations advised\\\" by the newspaper. Food on offer included roast quail coated with hazelnuts.\",\n \"-24.160087642355393\"\n ],\n [\n \"imports with domestic production.\\nMost recently, global food prices have been more stable and relatively low, after a sizable increase in late 2017, they are back under 75% of the nominal value seen during the all-time high in the 2011 food crisis. As investment Institutions such as hedge funds, pension funds and investment banks like Barclays Capital, Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley have been instrumental in pushing up prices in the last five years, with investment in food commodities rising from $65bn to $126bn (£41bn to £79bn) between 2007 and 2012, contributing to 30-year highs. This has caused price fluctuations which\",\n \"-24.15819038466725\"\n ],\n [\n \"go late into the afternoon. Montreal-style bagels may be served alongside egg dishes, waffles or crepes, smoked meat or fish, fruit, salads, cheese, and dessert.\\nMany restaurants offer brunch service as well, and is where the idea of Buffets took on mass appeal. In the mid 1980s, with the price of food going down, some restaurants within Toronto started serving all you can eat buffet-style Brunch. Original restaurants in the south west area of Scarborough within Toronto alone included Town and Country Restaurant, Boy on a Dolphin, and Mother Tuckers, which much later on became a small franchise, and later on\",\n \"-24.15644544485258\"\n ],\n [\n \"at mid- to high-priced restaurants, customers sit at tables, their orders are taken by a waiter, who brings the food when it is ready. After eating, the customers then pay the bill. In some restaurants, such as workplace cafeterias, there are no waiters; the customers use trays, on which they place cold items that they select from a refrigerated container and hot items which they request from cooks, and then they pay a cashier before they sit down. Another restaurant approach which uses few waiters is the buffet restaurant. Customers serve food onto their own plates and then pay at\",\n \"-24.107722123968415\"\n ],\n [\n \"households into tens and hundreds for the purposes of law, order and mutual surety (see Tithing). In some texts this 'dizeyne' may be rendered as 'dozen'. Baker's dozen A baker's dozen, devil's dozen, long dozen, or long measure is 13, one more than a standard dozen. The broadest use of baker's dozen today is simply a group of thirteen objects (often baked goods). The term has meant different things over the last few centuries.\\nIn the United Kingdom when selling certain goods, bakers were obliged to sell goods by the dozen at a specific weight or quality (or a specific average\",\n \"-23.98916423987248\"\n ],\n [\n \"While some are opposing the raising of price, they think that the original intention of the buffet may be changed.\",\n \"-23.96164779466926\"\n ],\n [\n \"total $162 billion over the decade. An alternative study released that same month by the Citizens for Tax Justice, a liberal think tank which favors the change, stated that the change would add $50 billion per year in tax revenue ($500 billion over the decade). The United States Congress Joint Committee on Taxation released a letter in March 2012 estimating that the Buffett Rule would raise $46.7 billion over the next decade. The divergent estimates come about because of different assumptions about the details of the Buffett Rule. For example, the Joint Committee on Taxation assumes that many high-income taxpayers\",\n \"-23.92650938985753\"\n ],\n [\n \"per year of wasted food (purchased and edible food which is discarded) amounts to a cost of £10.2 billion each year. This represents costs of £250 to £400 a year per household. United States Estimates of food waste in the United States range from 35 million tons to 103 million tons. In a study done by National Geographic in 2014, Elizabeth Royte indicated more than 30 percent of food in the United States, valued at $162 billion annually, isn't eaten. The University of Arizona conducted a study in 2004, which indicated that 14 to 15% of United States edible food is untouched\",\n \"-23.899936072237324\"\n ],\n [\n \"Fast food has been losing market share to fast casual dining restaurants, which offer more robust and expensive cuisines. Due to this competition, fast food giants have seen dramatic drops in their sales. While overall fast food sales have fallen, the number of Americans who eat in these restaurants \\\"once a month or 'a few times a year'\\\" has risen.\\nIn contrast to the rest of the world, American citizens spend a much smaller amount of their income on food — largely due to various government subsidies that make fast food cheap and easily accessible. Calorie for calorie, foods sold in\",\n \"-23.88921327936987\"\n ],\n [\n \"provides recipes and all required ingredients. Regular sessions provide all seventeen meals from that month's menu, while first time customers have a reduced number of choices. The firm's official website suggests a cost of \\\"approximately $240, or under $6.75 per serving\\\" for 12 regular or 6 large meals.\\nSome meals are 'complete' (include side dishes), while others are not (need a salad or other vegetable side - for an additional fee). The more servings a customer orders in a single session, the lower the per-serving cost. Individual franchise locations may offer additional promotions or further discounts. \",\n \"-23.879744022648083\"\n ],\n [\n \"pastry, or bagel. Coffee and tea are offered as well, and sometimes hot chocolate. Cost Food on board a flight is usually free on full-service Asian airlines and on almost all long-distance flights, while they might cost extra on low-cost airlines or European full-service airline flights. Quality may also fluctuate due to shifts in the economics of the airline industry.\\nOn long-haul international flights in first class and business class, most Asian and European airlines serve gourmet meals, while legacy carriers based in the US tend to serve multicourse meals including a cocktail snack, appetizer, soup, salad, entrée (chicken, beef, fish,\",\n \"-23.81913660711143\"\n ],\n [\n \"receive one free meal a day—two in the poorest areas—and so less of their family's limited income is needed to pay for food. In a survey of Bolsa Familia recipients, 82.4% reported eating better; additionally, it was reported to increase the incomes of the poorer families by about 25%. Criticism In 2003, David de Ferranti, the World Bank IBRD representative for Latin America and the Caribbean, criticized the program, due to its lack of clear focus, saying the program did not combat the country's poverty and income inequality. He also criticised the mechanisms for money donation and food gathering\",\n \"-23.81378687430697\"\n ],\n [\n \"to pay. All patrons were asked to give fairly in exchange for their meal, but ultimately relied on a gift economy. Fare The cafe served an organic, natural, and local cuisine that includes vegan, vegetarian and meat dishes. There was no standard menu, the fare changes daily based on the availability of local food (often donations from patrons) and the Chef's inspiration. Although there was no menu, One World Everybody Eats specialized in \\\"home-style\\\" dishes from around the world featuring staples such as bread, soup, salad, entree, organic coffees and teas, dessert, grains, quiche, and dal and rice. The\",\n \"-23.802203785354777\"\n ],\n [\n \"a greatly reduced price than it would cost to purchase each service separately, as an inducement for subscribers to remain with their service provider or for others to induce subscribers into using their service. Similarly, many television providers offer general interest or movie-based premium channels at no additional charge for a trial period (loften one to three months, though there have been rare instances of free trials for pay services that last up to one year for newer subscribers to that provider's television service. Distribution Pay television has become popular with cable and satellite television. Pay television services often, at\",\n \"-23.794581454712898\"\n ],\n [\n \"potatoes cost $9.99 (or $10) while medium-sized ones $7.99 (or $8). Craig said he would buy the potatoes from the local neighborhood Walmart. Reportedly, profits per month ranged between $10,000 and $13,000. Potato Parcel has proved popular on websites like Twitter.\\nNeither Mail A Spud nor the company endorses eating the potato due to health concerns. In an email interview with MarketWatch's Kathleen Burke, Craig said \\\"I wanted to create a brand new way of sending a message outside of apps and technology by allowing anyone to send an anonymous message…on a potato.\\\" In August 27, 2015, the company was sold\",\n \"-23.779882144692237\"\n ],\n [\n \"the aid of food banks. Dave Krepcho, director of the Second Harvest Food Bank in Orlando, has said that college-educated professional couples have begun to turn to food pantries.\\nBy mid-2012, US food banks had expressed concerns on the expected difficulty in feeding the hungry over the coming months. Rapidly rising demand has been coinciding with higher food prices and with a decrease in donations, partly as the food industry is becoming more efficient and so has less mislabelled and other slightly defective food to give away. Also there has been less surplus federal food on offer. Additionally, there have been\",\n \"-23.76947061663668\"\n ],\n [\n \"because it does not sell in time.\\nWhile the locations selling fresh and frozen fish dominate the market, there are a number of other businesses in the facility as well. The market also has a large number of prepared food stands selling tamales, tacos, cocktails, fillets and other seafood dishes. There are also business selling knives, copper cookware, other kitchen utensils, groceries, banks and government offices. Challenges One major challenge to the market is the decline in sales of domestically produced seafood. These have fallen as much as forty percent by some estimates. Vendors at the market claim that some is\",\n \"-23.765591802633935\"\n ],\n [\n \"model and employed \\\"secret shoppers\\\" to determine prices of other retailers. The Fedco price on many items ended in 87 cents to claim the lowest price, even if it was only pennies below the customary 99 cent prices of competitors.\\nFor most of its lifetime, Fedco was closed on Wednesdays, though some employees would work, re-stocking or taking inventory. During the Christmas season, Fedco was open 7 days a week to accommodate the customer surge. Fedco would sometimes require employees to work up to 10 hours a day. Working 6 days a week was possible during the summer surge and\",\n \"-23.751361638861454\"\n ],\n [\n \"$21.25. The price the consumer buys the good for equals $5.75 but the seller only receives $4.75. Subsidy impact Marginal subsidies on production will shift the supply curve to the right until the vertical distance between the two supply curves is equal to the per unit subsidy; when other things remain equal, this will decrease price paid by the consumers (which is equal to the new market price) and increase the price received by the producers. Similarly, a marginal subsidy on consumption will shift the demand curve to the right; when other things remain equal, this will decrease the\",\n \"-23.73086074166349\"\n ],\n [\n \"are shopping on a budget. Small-scale farmers do not receive government subsidies and are not able to support their business on prices comparable to those of industrial-scale food production, so they must sell at higher prices to make a living. Therefore, in order for the appeal of the local agriculture movement to overcome the economic cost, people must be willing to invest in it, which is unlikely when apparently similar products are available in grocery stores for a lower cost. Despite this, distribution costs of expansive food trade must also be factored in; with increasing gas prices, it becomes more\",\n \"-23.71600939014752\"\n ],\n [\n \"dinner order — and of course, pie. Most dinners cost $2.85.\\nPatrons eating just dessert paid 35 cents for a piece of cake or a slice of pie, another nickel would buy you the house specialty. Although it sounds like steal by today's standards, the Lodge was not considered cheap eats at the time. It was a special occasion to eat out and many families made a ritual of going to the Lodge for Sunday lunch after church. Due to the remote location, many food items required a freight charge. As many ingredients as possible were locally sourced. The rich cream\",\n \"-23.710169514284644\"\n ],\n [\n \"ask first. Dinner is often also served, but not included in the price. However, if it becomes clear that one plans to generally eat out, the price may go up because this is an important second source of income. The owners will usually offer extra services like laundry service, breakfast & meals or even cigars.\",\n \"-23.708395796769764\"\n ],\n [\n \"such as The Best Thing I Ever Ate, Chopped, Food Network Challenge, and The Best Thing I Ever Made. Her recipes and budgeting tips have also been featured on the Today Show, CNN, People, Food Network Magazine and iVillage.com. Tips and strategies On her show and in her cookbook, d'Arabian tries to offer easy meal ideas that not only taste great, but are budget-friendly. She says, \\\"10 Dollar Dinners is really a celebration of food and managing our household budget; it's so much more than cooking cheap food. The recipes don't scream budget cooking, and there really are clever ways\",\n \"-23.688514665660477\"\n ],\n [\n \"revenue in 2018 was 12.46 billion baht, up 5.5 percent over 2017. Net profit rose 9.4 percent to 2.5 billion baht. Instant noodles The food company's main products are flavoured instant noodles mainly sold under the MAMA brand and other brands such as \\\"Mamy\\\", \\\"Pama\\\", \\\"Papa\\\", \\\"Sai Keo\\\" and \\\"Honghow\\\" which are distributed worldwide. In 2014, the company had an estimated daily capacity of six million packages.\",\n \"-23.62654273418957\"\n ],\n [\n \"of marine life making certain fish species rarer to find.\\nThe life fish food trade is a lucrative business. According to University of Washington Professor Patrick Christie, live fish caught for food export earns approximately $6000 a ton. To help support themselves and their families, fishermen in Oceania and Southeast Asia sometimes use illegal fishing methods. Although many feel the fish are worth the cost, a typical dinner can cost up to one hundred dollars per kilogram. The wholesale value on these fish is anywhere from eleven US dollars to sixty-three US dollars per kilogram, meaning there’s a large markup and\",\n \"-23.62485366152032\"\n ],\n [\n \"prices, contrary to a local Bakers’ Association agreement that set a standard price for bread of 12 cents a loaf. As Weston parted company with his fellow bakers he lowered his prices for both his route and wholesale customers, as the competition attempted to fill the store shelves of Toronto with their bread:\\n Bakers have fallen out with one another since Mr. Geo Weston has left their ASSOCIATION and the outcome will be the bakers' loss and the citizens' gain. Mr. Geo. Weston has lowered his bread to 10 cents retail, CASH, and he promises to continue such prices\",\n \"-23.61400849026313\"\n ],\n [\n \"Buffett Rule The Buffett Rule is part of a tax plan proposed by President Barack Obama in 2011. The tax plan would apply a minimum tax rate of 30 percent on individuals making more than one million dollars a year. According to a White House official, the new tax rate would directly affect 0.3 percent of taxpayers. History The Buffett Rule is named after American investor Warren Buffett, who publicly stated in early 2011 that he believed it was wrong that rich people, like himself, could pay less in federal taxes, as a portion of income, than the middle class,\",\n \"-23.595775015535764\"\n ],\n [\n \"all through the winter, no matter what the other BAKERS do. His aim is to satisfy the public that his drop in price is genuine, and not a BLUFF on the public which is being introduced by many of the leading bakers in the city, charging their private customers 11 and 12 cents and selling to the stores at 6 cents per loaf. Mr. Weston does not intend to be governed by any ring or association in the future, but will attend strictly to his own business. which has made Mr. G. WESTON'S name a household word with the citizens\",\n \"-23.586316185777832\"\n ],\n [\n \"spend as much or as little money as they chose. Price-less Menus for private functions, pre-paid meals and the like do not have prices. In normal restaurants there are two types of menus without prices that were mostly used until the 1970s and 1980s: the \\\"blind menu\\\" and the \\\"women's menu\\\". These menus contained all of the same items as the regular menu, except that the prices were not listed. The \\\"blind menu\\\" was distributed to guests at business meals where the hosts did not want the diners to see the prices, or to any type of dinner where\",\n \"-23.54442404099791\"\n ],\n [\n \"for leftovers as well as minimizing waste food or ingredients. A few restaurants use both approaches to serving, making use of push-trolleys during peak hours and switching to on-demand ordering in less busier periods.\\nThe cost of a meal was traditionally calculated by the number, size and type of dishes left on the patron's table at the end. In modern yum cha restaurants, dim sum servers sometimes mark orders by stamping a card on the table. Servers in some restaurants use different stamps so that sales statistics for each server can be recorded. Customs and etiquette It is customary to pour\",\n \"-23.464145070618542\"\n ],\n [\n \"a year pays a minimum effective tax rate of at least 30 percent ... implemented in a way that is equitable, including not disadvantaging individuals who make large charitable contributions.\\\" The White House also stated that \\\"no household making more than $1 million each year should pay a smaller share of their income in taxes than a middle-class family pays.\\\"\\nThe Buffett Rule was not in the President's 2012 budget proposal and the White House initially stressed it as a guideline rather than a legislative initiative. The rule, however, was later submitted for deliberation as US Senate Bill S. 2059, Paying\",\n \"-23.404089909105096\"\n ],\n [\n \"pay because, while the cost of living has gone down, it is still one of the highest in the country.\\nThe introduction of big-box stores in Anchorage, Fairbanks (Wal-Mart in March 2004), and Juneau also did much to lower prices. However, rural Alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods, compared to the rest of the country due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure. Many rural residents come into these cities and purchase food and goods in bulk from warehouse clubs like Costco and Sam's Club. Some have embraced the free shipping offers of some online retailers to\",\n \"-23.400007546893903\"\n ],\n [\n \"inclined to give a customer an extra large glass of wine or a second scoop of ice cream. While these larger servings make the customer happy and increase the likelihood of the server getting a good tip, they cut into the profit margin of the restaurant. In addition, a server may dote on generous tippers while ignoring other customers, and in rare cases harangue bad tippers. Non-financial compensation Part of this variation in incentive structures and supervisory mechanisms may be attributable to variation in the level of intrinsic psychological satisfaction to be had from different types of work. Sociologists and\",\n \"-23.39905952734989\"\n ],\n [\n \"below market prices. Such food banks will sometimes also act as centres to provide small holders and subsistence farmers with various forms of support. Soup kitchen A soup kitchen, meal center, or food kitchen is a place where food is offered to the hungry for free or at a below market price. Frequently located in lower-income neighborhoods, they are often staffed by volunteer organizations, such as church or community groups. Soup kitchens sometimes obtain food from a food bank for free or at a low price, because they are considered a charity, which makes it easier for them to feed\",\n \"-23.394299905921798\"\n ],\n [\n \"were candies, condiments, cereals, and beverages-all foods high in added high fructose corn syrup. Over the past thirty years, U.S. consumption of high fructose corn syrup increased over 1,000 percent.\\nUnhealthy foods tend to be inexpensive when compared to their healthy counterparts. Because fruits and vegetables are not subsidized, the real cost of such crops have risen nearly 40 percent. On the other hand, the prices for soda, sweets, and fats and oils have declined due to the subsidy that the government provides for commodity crops. \\\"Currently the least expensive food available is also the most caloric and the least nutritious:\",\n \"-23.387033866681577\"\n ],\n [\n \"offerings, which currently make up 35% of its 3,500 lines. Food products have been a strong performer for the retailer, accounting for 40% of total sales in April 2008, which itself was an increase of 5% from the start of 2008. The retailer provides its own line of grocery products, branded 'Deli Fresh', which was launched at the start of 2007. As of 2006, the retailer was making a profit margin of 40% on the produce it sold, which included its most popular food lines at that time such as potatoes, onions and eggs. Some products have sold for less than\",\n \"-23.376126153783844\"\n ],\n [\n \"offer a fried fish sandwich for some of its customers who desire fish instead of beef or chicken.\\nIn 1988, Wendy's was the first fast-food chain to create a single price-point value menu where all items listed on that menu were priced exclusively at 99¢. The menu was restructured in 2007 due to rising costs as the Super Value Menu with prices ranging from 99¢ to $2.00 USD. Breakfast In mid-2007, Wendy's began a national debut of its new breakfast menu in its U.S. and Canadian locations. The chain experimented with serving breakfast for a short time in 1985, but the\",\n \"-23.374426283477078\"\n ],\n [\n \"have grown so rapidly over the past few decades. These companies are making processed and fast foods much cheaper and more widely available through the growth of transnational supermarkets and chain restaurants. Food is not only easier to obtain in urban areas; it is also cheaper and less time-consuming to acquire which creates an imbalance between energy intake and output. Their advertising and promotional strategies have a strong effect on consumer choices and desire. Foreign direct investment is also stimulating processed food sales in these supermarkets by lowering prices and creating incentives for advertising and promotion. A large proportion of\",\n \"-23.358093947710586\"\n ],\n [\n \"usually €10–15 cheaper than when ordered separately. Also in many cases if a menu is chosen it will be accompanied by amuses (little side dishes between the courses). Wine and other beverages are almost always excluded.\\nIn Sweden almost all restaurants—from the simplest diner to the finest luxury restaurant—serve Dagens rätt (\\\"the daily dish\\\") during lunch hours (on weekdays) at a much lower price than the same dish would cost at other times. Most commonly there is a choice of two or three dishes: a meat/fish/poultry dish, a vegetarian alternative, and a pasta. Salad buffet, bread and butter and beverage are\",\n \"-23.349182258127257\"\n ],\n [\n \"in gift cards—and this doled out at just $216 per year. While obviously the most humane solution, giving contestants just over $4 to spend on Taco Bell per week is hardly the 'lifetime' of eating Taco Bell you might have imagined. It is as though Taco Bell has promised you a delicious, fulfilling prize, only to totally cheap out on what’s inside.\\\" Commercial Crowdsourced content service Seeking Alpha stated that the new menu \\\"could improve same store sales and once again increase the overall value of owning a Taco Bell chain.\\\" Canadian Internet news service Digital Journal considered the new\",\n \"-23.341287679249945\"\n ],\n [\n \"a very profitable approach as it can break off potential customers who are driven only by price and also attract new customers from competitors. For example, Starbucks raised prices to maximize profits from price insensitive customers who depend on their gourmet coffee while losing customers who wanted cheaper prices to McDonald's. Comparison with cost-based pricing Several factors affect customer willingness to pay certain prices; for example, the difference of needs between countries, individual customers needs and wants, and the usual customer facing different occasions (actual and present needs) - hence a plan to suit all time value-based pricing is impossible.\",\n \"-23.324532219443427\"\n ],\n [\n \"price is advertised on paper cards and orally. The lowest possible prices can be found after the midday (particularly by 13-14h00), often less than half the original starting price.\\nAfter 13h30 or on 14h00 the sellers can make significant discounts where large quantities of fresh fruit or unsold fish can be sold en-masse for extremely low prices. Sometimes parts of the produce can be given for free if the buyer has cultivated a personal relation with a particular farmer or other seller. Consumer demographics The demographics of the consumers visiting the people's markets are varied. According to the\",\n \"-23.320701774267945\"\n ],\n [\n \"restaurant shares a core lunch and dinner menu created collectively by the company's chefs, plus signature dishes and specials at the discretion of each individual chef. Fresh pasta is made in-house daily and all sauces, soups and dressings are made from scratch. Many locations featured wood-fired rotisseries and grills. The restaurants also offer gluten-free menus and an array of vegetarian and vegan offerings. Housemade desserts complete many meals \\nOverall, the company caters mostly to repeat guests at its 21 locations. Regular customers averaged 12.7 return visits per year (later reported to be 17), considered very high in the industry.\",\n \"-23.316531641154143\"\n ],\n [\n \"these payments are generally restricted to certain mountain farming zones and other equally disadvantaged areas. Subsidies are mainly paid by the federal government but may in some instances be paid by provincial governments.\\nBecause of the complex system of price supports and market access limitations, the exact share of subsidy costs to the government and to consumers is virtually impossible to calculate. Experts estimate that the total cost to the federal and other governments for agricultural and forestry support during the late 1980s was approximately S16 billion a year, a level that would have been roughly at the same level as\",\n \"-23.31601532129571\"\n ],\n [\n \"strong influence over consumers. Nevertheless, less than 10% of consumer spending on food goes to farmers, with larger percentages going to advertising, transportation, and intermediate corporations. Prices It is rare for price spikes to hit all major foods in most countries at once, but food prices suffered all-time peaks in 2008 and 2011, posting a 15% and 12% deflated increase year-over-year, representing prices higher than any data collected.\\nIn December 2007, 37 countries faced food crises, and 20 had imposed some sort of food-price controls. In China, the price of pork jumped 58% in 2007. In the 1980s and 1990s, farm\",\n \"-23.310274533760094\"\n ],\n [\n \"a relatively small portion of overall energy consumption in food production, and locally produced food may be much more energy intensive than food produced in a better area. Additionally the emphasis on \\\"inefficient\\\" local producers over more efficient ones further away may be damaging. Processing, packaging and waste Highly processed foods such as granola bars come in individual packaging, demanding high energy inputs and resulting in packaging waste. These products contribute up to a third of total energy inputs for food consumption, as their ingredients are shipped from all over, processed, packaged, trucked to storage, then transported to retail outlets.\",\n \"-23.2988256632525\"\n ],\n [\n \"the benefits provided to the customer. Cost-plus pricing Cost-plus pricing is an approach which takes the total cost of producing the product or service and adding some amount to allow the business to make a profit. For example, in a retail store, if a merchant buys something for $5, and they sell it for $10 to a customer, this is called cost-based pricing. However, the willingness for the customer to pay is limited by the benefits they can receive: \\\"Benefits are net benefits, where any cost that the customer firm incurs in obtaining the sought benefits, apart from purchase price,\",\n \"-23.2853432334814\"\n ],\n [\n \"Meal voucher A meal voucher or luncheon voucher is a voucher for a meal given to employees as an employee benefit, allowing them to eat at outside restaurants, typically for lunch. In many countries, meal vouchers have had favorable tax treatment. Vouchers are typically in the form of paper tickets but are gradually being replaced by electronic vouchers in the form of a special payment card. United Kingdom A luncheon voucher (LV) is a paper ticket (voucher) used by some employees in the United Kingdom to pay for meals in private restaurants. It allows companies to subsidise midday\",\n \"-23.27837034476397\"\n ],\n [\n \"prices artificially low, whilst still making large profits on the food themselves, with some products selling at over 400% the price paid to, whilst farmers may only make 50p profit on each animal produced domestically. This buying power also allows supermarkets to transcend national boundaries in sourcing food. For example, in the UK, where the food market is highly dominated by supermarkets, only 25% of apples sold in supermarkets are produced domestically, with out-of-season Cox apples being flown 14,000 miles from New Zealand, despite the UK being a natural producer of apples. Furthermore, due to the national nature of the\",\n \"-23.236556682023547\"\n ],\n [\n \"earned a daily salary between 3.25 and 6 francs; 22% earned less than three francs. Only 5% had a salary between 6.5 francs to 20 francs. Food cost a minimum of one franc a day, and the minimum necessary for lodging was 75 centimes a day. In most industries, except those connected with food, there was a long morte-saison (\\\"dead season\\\"), when the enterprises closed down and their workers were unpaid. To support a family properly, either the wife and children had to work, or the husband had to work on Sundays or longer hours than normal.\",\n \"-23.235184006505733\"\n ],\n [\n \"funding Three times free food is given daily, compared to 81,897 food portions in 2007. In addition, there were 25,477 overnight stays in 2007 and 1,165 were cared for by social workers, with the proportion of women around 15%.\\nHalf of the funding is provided by the Social Welfare Fund - around 500,000 euros in 2008 - and half by donations. In 2012, 97,285 meals were spent - more than ever before - and there were 19,453 overnight stays, slightly more than in 2011. Expansion and Zweite Gruft In 2009, Charity opened Zweite Gruft (\\\"the second crypt\\\") in Vienna's 18th\",\n \"-23.230453255308475\"\n ],\n [\n \"or twice a week, while some get a daily food distribution.\",\n \"-23.210106588929193\"\n ],\n [\n \"were able to purchase food at a reasonable rate, the Maximum was mostly a failure. Some merchants having found themselves forced into a position to sell their goods for a price lower than what it cost to create it (i.e. cost of baking bread, growing vegetables, etc.,) chose to hide their expensive goods from the market, either for personal use or for sale on the black market. However, the General Maximum was very successful in deflecting a volatile political issue away from the Committee of Public Safety and Robespierre, enabling them to focus on larger political issues\",\n \"-23.188761735509615\"\n ],\n [\n \"to lower the price to $1.10 if demand has waned. The business would choose this approach because the incremental profit of 10 cents from the transaction is better than no sale at all. Cost plus pricing Cost plus pricing is a cost-based method for setting the prices of goods and services. Under this approach, the direct material cost, direct labor cost, and overhead costs for a product are added up and added to a markup percentage (to create a profit margin) in order to derive the price of the product. Odd pricing In this type of pricing, the seller tends\",\n \"-23.18496846267226\"\n ],\n [\n \"charges are generally dropped.\\nSome cruise lines charge their patrons $10/day in mandatory tipping; this does not include extra gratuities for alcoholic beverages.\\nJudith Martin in her 2005 manners book opines that fast food restaurants will never charge mandatory tipping for their customers, despite the presence of tip jars, and considers tipping for non-table services to be inappropriate.\\nIan Ayres, Fredrick E. Vars & Nasser Zakariya published a paper suggesting that tipping contributed to racial prejudice, since ethnic minorities would often be less able to pay a large tip. Another paper by Yoram Margalioth of Tel Aviv University argued that there was a\",\n \"-23.17128974807565\"\n ],\n [\n \"are massively influenced by the power of discount stores and constitute only a small part of the entire cost of living. In particular, Western pattern diet constituents like those that are processed by fast food chains are comparatively cheap in the Western hemisphere. Profits rely primarily on quantity (see mass production), less than high-price quality. For some product classes like dairy or meat, overproduction has twisted the price relations in a way utterly unknown in underdeveloped countries (\\\"butter mountain\\\"). The situation for poor societies is worsened by certain free trade agreements that allow easier export of food in the \\\"southern\\\"\",\n \"-23.151655443605705\"\n ],\n [\n \"with a larger diameter at the top than American and British bakers. Shops In the early 21st century, a trend for cupcake shops, which are specialized bakeries that sell little or nothing except cupcakes, developed in the United States, playing off of the sense of nostalgia evoked by the cakes. In New York City, cupcake shops like Magnolia Bakery gained publicity in their appearances on popular television shows like HBO's Sex and the City.\\nCrumbs Bake Shop, a publicly traded business running the largest cupcake shop chain in the U.S., reached its peak stock price in 2011. Declining sales, due\",\n \"-23.142245840106625\"\n ],\n [\n \"system, or pay up to around C$450/year per household and $600/year for households with children. This has been criticized as a regressive tax on the poor (around 37 cents per litre), for whom food is a large portion of their budget, and who are in effect subsidizing well-off farmers.\\nIn addition, a study pointed out that supply management was costing Canadian consumers $2.6 billion per year (compare to supply management dairy product bringing in $970 Million into the economy). The study stated that supply management impacts the poorest households five times (2.4% of income or almost 25% of income on food)\",\n \"-23.14096490729753\"\n ],\n [\n \"weight). During this time, bakers who sold a dozen units that failed to meet this requirement could be penalized with a fine. Therefore to avoid risking this penalty, some bakers included an extra unit to be sure the minimum weight was met, bringing the total to 13 units or what is now commonly known as a baker's dozen.\\nIn the late 16th century a baker's dozen referred to a batch made in which the customer was given a dozen and the last one constituted the baker's profit.\\nAccording to the 1811 Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, by Francis Grose, \\\"a Baker's\",\n \"-23.11442602983152\"\n ],\n [\n \"by 5 percent. According to a Center on Budget and Policy Priorities report, the maximum monthly benefit for a family of four dropped from $668 to $632, while the maximum monthly benefit for an individual dropped from $200 to $189. Corporate influence and support In June 2014, Mother Jones reported that \\\"Overall, 18 percent of all food benefits money is spent at Walmart,\\\" and that Walmart had submitted a statement to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission stating,\\nOur business operations are subject to numerous risks, factors, and uncertainties, domestically and internationally, which are outside our control. These factors include... changes\",\n \"-23.11409829567856\"\n ],\n [\n \"trip to the restaurant in 2008, and afterwards criticised those who thought that spending £323.13 on a meal for two at lunchtime was too much.\\nIn 2005 the restaurant was ranked 1st on the list of The World's 50 Best Restaurants. After spending 11 years on the list, it has dropped down to 73rd in the top 100. It has been ranked second best on numerous occasions, first behind The French Laundry and then behind El Bulli. In 2012, it was ranked in thirteenth place. In 2010, it was named the Best UK Restaurant in the Quintessentially Awards, a scheme run\",\n \"-23.110269179640454\"\n ],\n [\n \"receive. They argue that because restaurants have very thin margins, an increase in the minimum wage could lead to higher prices for consumers and fewer jobs available for potential employees. A 2011 study suggested that 2011’s WAGE Act, which would have raised the minimum wage for all tipped employees in The United States, would have led to a cumulative decrease in 11 million hours worked by tipped employees. The same research found that each 10% increase in the cash wage paid to tipped employees tends to decrease hours worked by the affected employees by 5%. A 2012 study\",\n \"-23.0993573398664\"\n ],\n [\n \"having \\\"the best food on campus for the best price.\\\"\",\n \"-23.08756251172599\"\n ],\n [\n \"below the carry value. Buffett says \\\"I would think they might insist on the directors of the institutions that participate in this program waiving all director's fees for a couple of years. They should, maybe, eliminate bonuses.\\\" Buffett says \\\"...if someone wants to sell a hundred billion of these instruments to the Treasury, let them sell two or three billion in the market and then have the Treasury match that, ... . You don't want the Treasury to be a patsy.\\\" Mr. Buffett's company owns financial companies which will benefit directly or indirectly.\\nInvestor George Soros opposed the original Paulson plan:\",\n \"-23.06545030765119\"\n ]\n]"}}}],"truncated":false,"partial":false},"paginationData":{"pageIndex":5,"numItemsPerPage":100,"numTotalItems":1507,"offset":500,"length":100}},"jwt":"eyJhbGciOiJFZERTQSJ9.eyJyZWFkIjp0cnVlLCJwZXJtaXNzaW9ucyI6eyJyZXBvLmNvbnRlbnQucmVhZCI6dHJ1ZX0sImlhdCI6MTcyNzIwMzk3Miwic3ViIjoiL2RhdGFzZXRzL3ByZXNlbmNlc3cvdGFzazEiLCJleHAiOjE3MjcyMDc1NzIsImlzcyI6Imh0dHBzOi8vaHVnZ2luZ2ZhY2UuY28ifQ.seIeojJJPm9cdLAb-FxU4TkcJqkGIzQuAuZE8XjqepkJPVlpsDdScylHtz6ingLbnZkWJCee4e_fj7eZpuFGDg","displayUrls":true},"discussionsStats":{"closed":0,"open":0,"total":0},"fullWidth":true,"hasGatedAccess":true,"hasFullAccess":true,"isEmbedded":false}">
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43f0mn | Why do we use rubber belts for cars, driers, treadmills, vacuum cleaners etc. when used with motors instead of using chains like those on bikes and motorcycles. Wouldn't they last longer? | [
"Chains only last longer than belts when they are inside an enclosure where they can be kept clean and lubricated. In an exposed application a belt will usually last longer and needs less maintenance. In all of the products mentioned a chain could be used, but would significantly increase the manufacturing costs. Belts work well enough.",
"I think it's probably because belts are not as noisy, and the don't need any lubrication. A lot of cars use a toothed belt rather than a chain for the valvetrain. The chain itself may last longer than a belt would, but the wear on a toothed sprocket or gear would be much greater than a belt would cause. You might get twice as much life using a chain, but then the gears & stuff would need replacing as well, leading to a less cost-effective solution over the life of the machine.",
"in certain instances, lawnmowers being the best example, a chain puts the engine at risk. for example, drawing power from the engine to the self-propel gearbox or the mowing deck, which are vulnerable to impact that will stop or slow their movement. if that obstruction stops the mower blade, which then stops the chain, which then stops the engine's crankshaft, there is a flywheel in there which is the weakest part of the 'driveline', which will snap to protect the impact from reaching all the way to the internal engine. would you rather have a belt slip, which over time will require adjustment to keep it tight, and occasional replacement? Or would you rather be disconnectng everything to access the engine to replace a flywheel everytime you hit a rock? You're trading off some loss of power to the functional components in order to save yourself time and money on maintenance and repairs in the event of an accident, which with a lot of these types of small engine machines are common",
"Chains are more expensive, noisier, can cause critical damage if they fail, and probably most importantly of all they require regular lubrication. It's one thing asking a motorcycle owner to spray chain lube on the final drive chain every 1,000 miles or so, but expecting a car owner or vacuum cleaner owner to do the same is highly improbable.",
"There are some cars that use timing chains instead of timing belts (which is the norm). Those do last about 3 times longer than a basic timing belt in a car before needing to be replaced.",
"For timing in cars, well designed (meaning well LUBRICATED) timing chains are still better than belts in my opinion. They last the life of the car, need no maintenance, and are not noticeably noisier than a belt. Belts break, and often cause internal engine damage. On the flip side, there are motorcycles that are belt driven as well. Smaller appliances use belts because they are low power and the rubber will hold up. Also belts require no lube, therefore no mess.",
"Just a guess, so correct me if I am wrong. It has to do with torsion and general movement of the individual parts. Using chains would require a much more rigid design and also require much higher tolerances of production of all the components. Tldr: it's just easier and more cost efficient to use belts.",
"Some old cars actually do use chains instead of belts. I've replaced a few integra timing belts and some of them seemed like they broke because oil from the engine leaked and got on them. If I could convert my honda engines to timing chains instead of belts, I would."
] | [
[
"of a vehicle. The main advantage over rubber or other elastic belts is that they last much longer under poorly controlled operating conditions. The distance between the pulleys is also less critical. Their main disadvantage is that slippage is more likely due to the lower coefficient of friction. The ends of a spring belt can be joined either by bending the last turn of the helix at each end by 90 degrees to form hooks, or by reducing the diameter of the last few turns at one end so that it \"screws\" into the other end. V belts V belts",
"-30.615834682888817"
],
[
"the crank, leading to excessive noise and wear. Fibre or nylon covered gears, with more resilience, are often used instead of steel gears where direct drive is used. Commercial engines and aircraft engines use steel gears only, as a fibre or nylon coated gear can fail suddenly and without warning.\nA belt or chain allows much more flexibility in the relative locations of the crankshaft and camshafts.\nWhile chains and gears may be more durable, rubber composite belts are quieter in their operation (in most modern engines the noise difference is negligible), are less expensive and more efficient, by dint of being",
"-28.166131494333968"
],
[
"wide belts and large pulleys. But these wide-belt-large-pulley drives are bulky, consuming lots of space while requiring high tension, leading to high loads, and are poorly suited to close-centers applications, so V-belts have mainly replaced flat belts for short-distance power transmission; and longer-distance power transmission is typically no longer done with belts at all. For example, factory machines now tend to have individual electric motors.\nBecause flat belts tend to climb towards the higher side of the pulley, pulleys were made with a slightly convex or \"crowned\" surface (rather than flat) to allow the belt to self-center as it runs. Flat",
"-27.857473801006563"
],
[
"them cleaner and quieter than motorcycles, as well as having more built-in storage space. Automatic clutches and continuously variable transmissions (CVT) make them easier to learn on and to ride. Scooters usually have smaller wheels than motorcycles. Scooters usually have the engine as part of the swingarm, so that their engines travel up and down with the suspension.\nUnderbones are small-displacement motorcycles with a step-through frame, descendants of the original Honda Super Cub. They are differentiated from scooters by their larger wheels and their use of footpegs instead of a floorboard. They often have a gear shifter with an automatic clutch.\nThe",
"-27.574923371197656"
],
[
"that PTOs would provide. Flat belts generally lent themselves only to applications where the engine was stationary, such as factory steam engines, portable stationary engines, or traction engines parked in front of the work. For moving vehicles such as a traction engine or early tractor towing a farm implement, the implement could receive rotary power by taking it from one of its own wheels (whose turning was imparted by the towing) and distributing it via roller chains (to a sickle bar's crank, for example), but such a transmission ceases if the vehicle stops traveling; and the workload's resistance tends to",
"-27.496586266701343"
],
[
"and no need for lubrication. Timing belt systems are also simpler and more versatile than other drive systems; while it is possible to power engine components such as water pumps or alternators with bevel shaft or gear drive systems, it is simpler to do so with belts.\nA disadvantage of timing belts is the need for regular replacement of the belt. Recommended belt life varies between designs; belts made from neoprene for older vehicles might have a recommended life of around 20,000 miles (32,000 km) while newer designs with lower torque loading and made from hydrogenated nitrile butadiene rubber (HNBR) may have",
"-27.441812979930546"
],
[
"of applications; the technology has improved to enable them to take much heavier loads, beyond weights that a human could transport alone without assistance. Motorized wheelbarrows are generally either diesel powered or electric battery powered. Often used in small scale construction applications where access for larger plant machinery might be restricted.",
"-27.24591474776389"
],
[
"the rubber o-rings prevent dirt and other contaminants from entering the chain linkages, where such particles would otherwise cause significant wear. Applications O-ring chains are most notably used in motorcycles, one of the most demanding applications for a metal chain. High rpm and heavy loads require bulky chains, but such engineering increases the effect of friction compared to lighter chains. So lubrication plays a vital role here, but the high rpm also makes it very difficult to keep lubrication inside and on the chain. Additionally, motorcycle chains are exposed to a large volume of contaminants and particles and must be",
"-26.979307550936937"
],
[
"belts also tend to slip on the pulley face when heavy loads are applied, and many proprietary belt dressings were available that could be applied to the belts to increase friction, and so power transmission.\nFlat belts were traditionally made of leather or fabric. Today most are made of rubber or synthetic polymers. Grip of leather belts is often better if they are assembled with the hair side (outer side) of the leather against the pulley, although some belts are instead given a half-twist before joining the ends (forming a Möbius strip), so that wear can be evenly distributed on both",
"-26.95895412331447"
],
[
"tube sealant, smart tubes, smart-spares, air tools, pressure gauges, inflators, patches, and liners. Slime tube sealant can be installed in a bicycle inner tube to prevent a flat tire.\nMany compact cars now come without a spare tire, but instead come a mini compressor and a sealant to close small holes and reinflate damaged tires. Motorcycles also do not have room for spare tires, in which compact kits can make long trips a little safer. Automakers and consumer groups stress inflators are designed to seal minor punctures, not repair a large cut or a damaged sidewall.",
"-26.95504809601698"
],
[
"applications: compressors, fitness bikes, agricultural machinery, food mixers, washing machines, lawn mowers, etc. Film belts Though often grouped with flat belts, they are actually a different kind. They consist of a very thin belt (0.5–15 millimeters or 100–4000 micrometres) strip of plastic and occasionally rubber. They are generally intended for low-power (less than 10 watts), high-speed uses, allowing high efficiency (up to 98%) and long life. These are seen in business machines, printers, tape recorders, and other light-duty operations. Timing belts Timing belts (also known as toothed, notch, cog, or synchronous belts) are a positive transfer belt",
"-26.932691394002177"
],
[
"in drag racing, which requires the best acceleration possible, and is notorious for the abuse the clutch is subjected to. Thus, they can be found in motorcycles, in automatic transmissions and in some diesel locomotives with mechanical transmissions. It is also used in some electronically controlled all-wheel drive systems as well as in some transfer cases. They can also be found in some heavy machinery such as tanks and AFVs (T-54) and earthmoving equipment (front-end loaders, bulldozers), as well as components in certain types of limited slip differentials. The benefit in the case of motorsports is that you can achieve",
"-26.71963296912145"
],
[
"used variable belt drives as early as the 1950s, as well. Many small tractors and self-propelled mowers for home and garden also use simple rubber belt CVT. Hydrostatic systems are more common on the larger units—the walk-behind self-propelled mowers are of the slipping belt variety.\nRatcheting CVT converting rotary motion to oscillating motion and back to rotary motion using roller clutches are well adapted to reciprocating engines when the oscillating movement is synchronized with that of the pistons. This solution could have a bright future because such ratcheting CVT are also IVT (providing the clutch function), and have a very high",
"-26.495828021899797"
],
[
"with tubes are the standard design and the easiest to use and maintain. Tubeless tires often have better performance because you can run them at a lower tire pressure which results in better traction and increasing rolling resistance. Tubeless-ready tires are tires that can use tubes or go tubeless. A liquid sealant is used without the tube to secure the seal to the rim. Popular tire manufacturers include Wilderness Trail Bikes, Schwalbe, Maxxis, Nokian, Michelin, Continental, Tioga, Kenda, Hutchinson Specialized and Panaracer. Tandems Mountain bikes are available in tandem configurations. For example, Cannondale and Santana Cycles",
"-26.35225021452061"
],
[
"and can track relative movement. These belts have teeth that fit into a matching toothed pulley. When correctly tensioned, they have no slippage, run at constant speed, and are often used to transfer direct motion for indexing or timing purposes (hence their name). They are often used instead of chains or gears, so there is less noise and a lubrication bath is not necessary. Camshafts of automobiles, miniature timing systems, and stepper motors often utilize these belts. Timing belts need the least tension of all belts and are among the most efficient. They can bear up to 200 hp",
"-26.343239007772354"
],
[
"devices can be made from a variety of materials, including asphalt, concrete, recycled plastic, metal, or vulcanized rubber. Several trade-offs must be made when selecting the material for a new speed cushion. Traditionally most vertical deflection devices have been constructed of asphalt or concrete. Due to the rigidity and durability of these materials, they have more permanence and are more effective at slowing traffic. However, they can be difficult to shape and form into consistent forms and precise dimensions.\nRubber products are pre-shaped to standard sizes to meet industry standards. Preformed rubber products are typically bolted down, making them easier to",
"-26.247317538771313"
],
[
"clutch to allow the engine to idle independently.\nBelt reduction drives use the combination of wide flat \"cog\" belts and pulleys to transfer power to the rear wheel. Like chain drives, belt drives include a centrifugal clutch. Belt drives are more susceptible to breakage in off-road conditions. Suspension The suspension systems of stand-up scooters range from simplistic spring based fork systems to the complicated, dampened cam-link and C.I.D.L.I suspension mechanisms or a hybrid combination of wooden deck, coil spring, and dampers (e.g. ZUKBOARD CITY). Brakes Brake systems of kick scooters can range from Disc Brake system, magnetic brake (used for energy",
"-26.235090718080755"
],
[
"in the driven pulley. The V-belt needs to be very stiff in the pulley's axial direction in order to make only short radial movements while sliding in and out of the pulleys. The Chinese gy6-type scooter uses this type of CVT drive system.\nSteel reinforced v-belts are sufficient for low-mass low-torque applications like utility vehicles and snowmobiles but higher mass and torque applications such as automobiles require a chain. Each element of the chain must have conical sides that fit the pulley when the belt is running on the outermost radius. As the chain moves into the pulleys the contact area",
"-26.227080162381753"
],
[
"for mechanized earthmoving, then as now, were an independent power source and off-road mobility, neither of which could be provided by the technology of that time.\"\nContainer cranes were used from the 1950s and onwards, and made containerization possible.\nNowadays such is the importance of this machinery, some transport companies have developed specific equipment to transport heavy construction equipment to and from sites. Traction: Off-the-road tires and Tracks Heavy equipment requires specialized tires for various construction applications. While many types of equipment have continuous tracks applicable to more severe service requirements, tires are used where greater speed or mobility is required. An",
"-26.193254180951044"
],
[
"Continuously variable transmission Motorized vehicles Simple rubber belt (non-stretching fixed circumference manufactured using various highly durable and flexible materials) CVTs are commonly used in small motorized vehicles, where their mechanical simplicity and ease of use outweigh their comparative inefficiency. Nearly all snowmobiles, utility vehicles, golf carts and motor scooters use CVTs, typically the rubber belt or variable pulley variety.\nCVTs, along with several other electronic systems and driver aids were prohibited from Formula 1 in 1994 due to concerns over escalating research and development costs, and maintaining a specific level of driver involvement with the vehicles.\nMore recently,, CVT systems have been",
"-26.191032255766913"
],
[
"Because manual transmissions are mechanically simpler, are more easily manufactured, and have fewer moving parts than automatic transmissions, they require less maintenance and are easier as well as cheaper to repair. Due to their mechanical simplicity, they often last longer than automatic transmissions when used by a skilled driver. Typically, there are no electrical components, pumps and cooling mechanisms in a manual transmission, other than an internal switch to activate reversing lighting. These attributes become extremely vital with a vehicle stuck in mud, snow, etc. The back and forth rocking motion of the vehicle drivers use to dislodge a stuck",
"-26.16723571624607"
],
[
"available, for the most part, shaft-driven bicycles disappeared from view for most of the 20th century. There is, however, still a niche market for chainless bikes, especially for commuters, and there is a number of manufacturers who offer them either as part of a larger range or as a primary specialization. A notable example is Biomega in Denmark. Comparison of shaft vs chain Shaft drives operate at a very consistent rate of efficiency and performance, without adjustments or maintenance, though their efficiency has been lower than that of a properly adjusted and lubricated chain, possibly because of insufficiently precise machining",
"-26.08242234395584"
],
[
"are easier to engage. Third, a constant-mesh transmission can easily use helical gears which are smoother, quieter, and can carry more torque for a given size of gear. Fourth, a constant-mesh transmission can use synchromesh for easier shifting; while many heavy vehicle transmissions do not use it, most medium- and light-duty automotive transmissions do. Maintenance Because clutches use changes in friction to modulate the transfer of torque between engine and transmission, they are subject to wear in everyday use. A very good clutch, when used by an expert driver, can last hundreds of thousands of kilometres (or miles). Weak clutches,",
"-25.977762585156597"
],
[
"and allowing the tread to better conform to the terrain. Such a design may allow for use on a wider range of surfaces, but tubeless tires running under rated pressure run the risk of breaking their bead. A beadlock can be used to prevent this. Use on bicycles, motorcycles, and quads Off-road cycle tires, colloquially called knobbies, may be found on motocross and enduro motorcycles, ATVs, and mountain bikes. Tires for single-track vehicles and ATVs have a curved profile such that some tread only contacts the ground during turning.\nDepending on the model of tire, an off-road capable tire may or",
"-25.9405369762826"
],
[
"technologies due to the rubber wheel system’s greater rolling resistance.",
"-25.893393765669316"
],
[
"environment dedicated tools optimised for their particular function are more often used. Corded Corded electric torque screwdrivers are commonly made in three different designs: pistol grip, angle and inline. This type is the one mostly used for industrial assembly applications such as electronic assembly and small parts assembly. Brushed electric motors and more efficient brushless motors are used. The torque ranges typically from 0.18 in lb (0.02Nm) to at least 27Nm, with speeds of up to 2000 RPM. Cordless Cordless torque screwdriver are powered by batteries, usually rechargeable batteries with voltages from 3.6 to 18 volts. Dedicated screwdrivers for",
"-25.89294220204465"
],
[
"a multiple-V-belt drive (or sometimes a \"classical V-belt drive\").\nV-belts may be homogeneously rubber or polymer throughout, or there may be fibers embedded in the rubber or polymer for strength and reinforcement. The fibers may be of textile materials such as cotton, polyamide (such as Nylon) or polyester or, for greatest strength, of steel or aramid (such as Technora, Twaron or Kevlar).\nWhen an endless belt does not fit the need, jointed and link V-belts may be employed. Most models offer the same power and speed ratings as equivalently-sized endless belts and do not require special pulleys to operate. A link v-belt",
"-25.850099244969897"
],
[
"guide bar.\nRubber tyres have higher rolling resistance than traditional steel railway wheels. There are some advantages and disadvantages to increased rolling resistance, causing them to not be used in certain countries. Similar technologies Automated driverless systems are not exclusively rubber-tyred; many have since been built using conventional rail technology, such as London's Docklands Light Railway, the Copenhagen metro and Vancouver's SkyTrain, the Disneyland Resort Line, which uses converted rolling stocks from non-driverless trains, as well as AirTrain JFK, which links JFK Airport in New York City with local subway and commuter trains. Most monorail manufacturers prefer rubber tyres.",
"-25.845781388881733"
],
[
"has traditionally been powered with wheel hub mounted hydraulic motors driven by continuously variable pumps. This design tends to be more expensive than alternatives.\nSome heavy equipment may also be propelled by a hydrostatic transmission; e.g. agricultural machinery including foragers, combines, and some tractors. A variety of heavy earth-moving equipment, e.g. compact and small wheel loaders, track type loaders and crawler tractors, skid-steered loaders and road rollers use hydrostatic transmission. Hydrostatic CVTs are usually not used for extended duration high torque applications because of the heat that is generated by the flowing oil, which may require a substantial oil cooler.\nThe Honda",
"-25.828716970514506"
],
[
"because it will create excessive internal forces at other positions and the mechanism will wear very rapidly. This design is still in use in trucks and other large vehicles, where rapidity of steering and direct feel are less important than robustness, maintainability, and mechanical advantage.\nThe worm and sector was an older design, used for example in Willys and Chrysler vehicles, and the Ford Falcon (1960s). To reduce friction the sector is replaced by a roller or rotating pins on the rocker shaft arm.\nGenerally, older vehicles use the recirculating ball mechanism, and only newer vehicles use rack-and-pinion steering. This division",
"-25.783703415858326"
],
[
"is a number of polyurethane/polyester composite links held together, either by themselves, such as Fenner Drives' PowerTwist, or Nu-T-Link (with metal studs). These provide easy installation and superior environmental resistance compared to rubber belts and are length-adjustable by disassembling and removing links when needed. V-belt history Trade journal coverage of V-belts in automobiles from 1916 mentioned leather as the belt material, and mentioned that the V angle was not yet well standardized. The endless rubber V-belt was developed in 1917 by John Gates of the Gates Rubber Company. Multiple-V-belt drive was first arranged a few years later by Walter Geist",
"-25.68023595714476"
],
[
"be driven, such as for modern cars with power steering and air conditioning, multiple belts are required. As the polygroove belt can be bent into concave paths by external idlers, it can wrap any number of driven pulleys, limited only by the power capacity of the belt.\nThis ability to bend the belt at the designer's whim allows it to take a complex or \"serpentine\" path. This can assist the design of a compact engine layout, where the accessories are mounted more closely to the engine block and without the need to provide movable tensioning adjustments. The entire belt may be",
"-25.676876061130315"
],
[
"Belt-driven bicycle A belt-driven bicycle is a chainless bicycle that uses a toothed synchronous belt to transmit power from the pedals to the wheel. The belts are typically made by the same manufacturing companies that produce timing belts for automobiles, machinery, and other synchronous belt-drive applications.\nThe application of belt drives to bicycles is growing, especially in the commuter bicycle market, due to the low maintenance and lubrication-free benefits. Belt drives are also available for stationary and fitness bicycles. Tensioning Tensioning can be implemented in all the same ways that single-speed chain drives can be tensioned. The fork ends for the",
"-25.644208853133023"
],
[
"rubber pads) and exposed roller bearing ends, along with damper shocks between the trucks and locomotive carbody to reduce sway. Similar looking trucks can be found under modern MPI MPXpress locomotives.\nThe \"rubber pads\" seen in the trucks in place of leaf springs are actually springs themselves. They're constructed of laminated layers of rubber cushioning material and steel plates and they do provide suspension and cushioning effect.",
"-25.612772124179173"
],
[
"which stabilizer belts are bonded directly beneath the tread. This construction provides smoother ride that is similar to the bias tire, while lessening rolling resistance because the belts increase tread stiffness. The design was introduced by Armstrong, while Goodyear made it popular with the \"Polyglas\" trademark tire featuring a polyester carcass with belts of fiberglass. The \"belted\" tire starts two main plies of polyester, rayon, or nylon annealed as in conventional tires, and then placed on top are circumferential belts at different angles that improve performance compared to non-belted bias tires. The belts may be fiberglass or steel. Other Tubeless",
"-25.60052226856351"
],
[
"special uses in mind.\nManufacturers who have one in production include Rokon and Christini. Manufacturers who are working or have worked on a prototype include ZID, Suzuki, Yamaha, KTM, and Honda. Two-wheeled drive with sidecars For three-wheeled vehicles such as motorcycles with sidecars, the term is used to describe vehicles which can power the sidecar as well as the back wheel. Sidecar-drive vehicles are typically mechanically driven via a shaft and may or may not have a differential. This scheme greatly improves offroad performance, but is more complicated and requires more power to operate, thus most 2WD machines are vehicles created",
"-25.567708823364228"
],
[
"have rubber tires as standard equipment, and the first tractor tested on rubber in the Nebraska tractor tests. The pneumatic-rubber-tire-on-steel-wheel combination was more expensive to make than a steel wheel with cleats. To make rubber tires standard equipment while also keeping the cost of the tractor low, the WC's designers, C.E. Frudden and Walter Strehlow, gave the WC drop gearing at the rear (bull-gear-with-pinion final drives), which allowed row-crop ground clearance while having smaller-diameter drive wheels. Drop gearing had appeared many times before on earlier tractors, but never yet for this new reason—to minimize the amount of rubber needed for",
"-25.551271404139698"
],
[
"for weavers' shuttles. The belt drive is an essential component to the invention of the spinning wheel. The belt drive was not only used in textile technologies, it was also applied to hydraulic-powered bellows dated from the 1st century AD. Pros and cons Belt drives are simple, inexpensive, and do not require axially aligned shafts. They help protect machinery from overload and jam, and damp and isolate noise and vibration. Load fluctuations are shock-absorbed (cushioned). They need no lubrication and minimal maintenance. They have high efficiency (90–98%, usually 95%), high tolerance for misalignment, and are of",
"-25.53146923299937"
],
[
"Tire iron A tire iron (also tire lever or tire spoon) is a specialized metal tool used in working with tires. Tire irons have not been in common use for automobile tires since the shift to the use of tubeless tires in the late 1950s.\nBicycle tire irons are still in use for those tires which have a separate inner tube, and can have a hooked C-shape cut into one end of the iron so that it may be hooked on a bicycle spoke to hold it in place. Description and use Tire irons, which usually come in pairs or threes,",
"-25.511907868552953"
],
[
"employed for cordless tools where the battery, the most expensive component, is shared between various compatible devices. Cordless A cordless drill is an electric drill which uses rechargeable batteries. These drills are available with similar features to an AC mains-powered drill. These are the most common type of drill. They are available in the hammer drill configuration and most have a clutch, which aids in driving screws into various substrates while not damaging them. Also available are right angle drills, which allow a worker to drive screws in a tight space. While 21st century battery innovations allow significantly more drilling,",
"-25.474865798838437"
],
[
"materials were scarce and it was then when the company introduced the concept of using old car tyres as a soling for boots.\nGradually since then the methods of manufacturing footwear have changed as petroleum based products such as glues, rubbers and plastics have replaced the traditional ones of leather, nails and threads. More modern machinery has been introduced than can directly mould soles to the bottom of boots and can easily pull leather over a last.\nAt the end of 1987 the company moved from Unley to Hilton. The move allowed production to be carried out in a more modern, fit-for-purpose",
"-25.421714535565116"
],
[
"the fixed lengths, which do not allow length adjustment (unlike link V-belts or chains). Specialty belts Belts normally transmit power on the tension side of the loop. However, designs for continuously variable transmissions exist that use belts that are a series of solid metal blocks, linked together as in a chain, transmitting power on the compression side of the loop. Rolling roads Belts used for rolling roads for wind tunnels can be capable of 250 km/h (160 mph). Standards for use The open belt drive has parallel shafts rotating in the same direction, whereas the cross-belt drive also bears parallel shafts",
"-25.385622541769408"
],
[
"of the other issues addressed by the shaft drive, such as protection for clothing and from ingress of dirt, can be met through the use of chain guards. The reduced need for adjustment in shaft-drive bikes also applies to a similar extent to chain or belt-driven hub-geared bikes. Not all hub gear systems are shaft compatible.",
"-25.354764527990483"
],
[
"tend to be smaller and, as a result, run down much faster than other forms of automotive batteries. Also, it is usually not possible to push start a moped or scooter with automatic transmission.\nLarger motorcycles featured a manual compression release mechanism that made starting easier while modern units did this automatically through a cable attached to the kick start lever.\nToday, dedicated off-road motorcycles and many ATVs use kick start systems, due to the increased weight of electric starters. The majority of the inexpensive two-wheelers and sometimes three-wheelers in developing countries, also use kick start levers.\nThe first kick start motorcycle",
"-25.34312860405771"
],
[
"give wheels more traction, provide a smoother ride and reduce damage to public roads. This practice caused considerable debate within the community, which was resolved in 1999 with a compromise that allows limited use of rubber in the structure of steel wheels. Hard rubber or pneumatic tires are allowed on bicycles and machinery not requiring a driver, such as walk-behind equipment and wagons. Use of steel wheels ensures tractors are not used as a substitute for automobiles to run errands or to make more extensive trips than are convenient with horse-drawn carriages. The steel wheel rule prevents large agricultural operations,",
"-25.28316465279204"
],
[
"Wheels and tires There are two general categories of tires on which stand-up scooters travel—hard tires and air tires. Hard tires are generally 6 inches (150 mm) in diameter and constructed of a hard-plastic insert surrounded by a solid rubber tire. Air tires are most often 10 inches (250 mm) in diameter. They are constructed of a steel or aluminum split rim, an inner tube and rubber tire. Other, less common wheel and tire types include 8 inches (200 mm) and 13 inches (330 mm) air tires. Transmissions The most simplistic drive mechanism of stand-up scooters is the \"spindle\" drive. This drive mechanism puts",
"-25.24690979765728"
],
[
"in a number of mechanisms throughout the automotive powertrain and steering systems, as well as the car interior and exterior. Their torque limiting and overload capabilities allow them to be used as simple clutch devices in several applications, such as the automatic tailgate motor and the collapsible steering column. They are also used by automotive manufacturers to mount bearings in hinges and gears in the power train.\nTheir lightweight properties have also made tolerance rings attractive to automotive manufacturers as they seek to enhance car performance while complying with government requirements for reductions in carbon emissions. In the European Union, regulations",
"-25.212063637329265"
],
[
"travel as V-brakes, except for those that are described as being \"road\" specific. As a general rule, mechanical disc brakes for so-called \"flat bar\" bicycles (chiefly mountain and hybrid bicycles) are compatible with V-brake levers, whereas mechanical disc brakes intended for \"drop-bar\" bicycles are compatible with the cable pull of older brake designs (cantilever, caliper, and U-brake).\nPoorly designed V-brakes can suffer from a sudden failure when the noodle end pulls through the metal stirrup, leaving the wheel with no braking power. Although the noodle can be regarded as a service item and changed regularly, the hole in the stirrup",
"-25.21022236160934"
],
[
"body ply cords extending from the beads and across the tread so that the cords are laid at approximately right angles to the centerline of the tread, and parallel to each other, as well as stabilizer belts directly beneath the tread. The belts may be cord or steel. The advantages of this construction include longer tread life, better steering control, fewer blowouts, improved fuel economy, and lower rolling resistance. Disadvantages of the radial tire are a harder ride at low speeds on rough roads and in the context of off-roading, decreased \"self-cleaning\" ability and lower grip ability at low speeds.Bias",
"-25.20704293489689"
],
[
"better performance, though this is changing as many automakers move to faster dual-clutch transmissions, which are generally shifted with paddles located behind the steering wheel. For example, the 991 Porsche 911 GT3 uses Porsche's PDK. Off-road vehicles and trucks often feature manual transmissions because they allow direct gear selection and are often more rugged than their automatic counterparts.\nConversely, manual transmissions are no longer popular in many classes of vehicles sold in North America, Australia, and some parts of Asia, although they remain dominant in other parts of Asia, and in Europe, Africa, and Latin America. Nearly all vehicles are available",
"-25.130692012491636"
],
[
"belts, pulleys and gears known as millwork. History Early versions of line shafts date back into the 18th century, but they were in widespread use in the late 19th century with industrialization. Line shafts were widely used in manufacturing, woodworking shops, machine shops, saw mills and grist mills.\nIn 1828 in Lowell, Massachusetts, Paul Moody substituted leather belting for metal gearing to transfer power from the main shaft running from a water wheel. This innovation quickly spread in the U.S.\nFlat belt drive systems became popular in the UK from the 1870s, with the firms of J & E Wood and",
"-25.11306245031301"
],
[
"is a standard technique in most countries where manual transmissions remain popular, for example the UK. Cars equipped with a parking brake pedal are not suited for this maneuver unless it is released by hand, for example in the Citroen XM.",
"-24.903314739465714"
],
[
"is called unit drive. Unit drive allowed factories to be better arranged and allowed different machines to run at different speeds. Unit drive also allowed much higher speeds, which was especially important for machine tools.\nA step beyond mechanization is automation. Early production machinery, such as the glass bottle blowing machine (ca. 1890s), required a lot of operator involvement. By the 1920s fully automatic machines, which required much less operator attention, were being used.\nSee: Mass production Military usage The term is also used in the military to refer to the use of tracked armoured vehicles, particularly armoured",
"-24.898140098317526"
],
[
"contact, so special bead-lock means are not required.\nHigh traction is desired for tires for automobile dirt track racing, off-road racing, off-road vehicles, and off-road motorcycles, so their tread is therefore coarse. Nevertheless, some riders will lower the tire pressure to cause the tread to spread out and create a larger contact patch. This practice can create a safety hazard, as there may not be enough pressure to adequately secure the tire beads to the wheel. Reactive ground forces push a tire to one side or the other, especially the outside rear tire of a racing vehicle when it is",
"-24.890773883322254"
],
[
"motorscooters. It is a standard part of all common scooters since 1985, and several companies such as Malossi, Polini, Doppler and Stage6 are offering tuning clutches and variomatic for most common 50, 70 and 125 cc scooters. Steel link belts Today the CVT works according to the same principle of split pulleys allowing infinitely variable gear ratios. Rather than the pulled rubber drive belts as originally used by DAF, the modern transmission is made much more durable by the use of steel link belts that are pushed by their pulleys. This update was pioneered by Fiat, Ford and Van Doorne",
"-24.8847607919015"
],
[
"tires and held in place with rim chains, which may be chain or cable, elastic or adjustable tensioners. Automatic chains do not wrap around the tire but swing under the tire from devices permanently mounted under the vehicle which deploy via an electronic solenoid activated in the cab. Some tire chains mount onto the tires from only one side. Others use a ratcheting system for easier installation.\nAlternatives include studded tires, which are snow tires with metal studs individually mounted into holes in the treads; emergency traction devices which may be similar to tire chains but mount around the tire through",
"-24.85909472053754"
],
[
"Idler-wheel Friction drive An idler-wheel may be used as part of a friction drive mechanism. For example, to connect a metal motor shaft to a metal platter without gear noise, early phonographs used a rubber idler wheel.\nLikewise, the pinch roller in a magnetic tape transport is a type of idler wheel, which presses against the driven capstan to increase friction. Idler pulley In a belt drive system, idlers are often used to alter the path of the belt, where a direct path would be impractical.\nIdler pulleys are also often used to press against the back of a pulley in",
"-24.809001333313063"
],
[
"using a single, wider belt instead of multiple, thinner belts, the belt may be put under increased tension without stretching. Higher tension reduces slip, which increases belt life and mechanical efficiency. Reduced slip can allow the use of lower-ratio pulleys; this reduces the load on the engine, increasing fuel economy and available power. The tendency for V-belts to \"flip over\" in the pulley groove (at high RPM and/or when the belt stretches) is eliminated, and a serpentine belt is also much easier to maintain and replace, since there is no need to remove multiple belts in order to",
"-24.752955085481517"
],
[
"and a compatible tire.\nUniversal System Tubeless (UST), originally developed by Mavic, Michelin and Hutchinson for mountain bikes is the most common system of tubeless tires/rims for bicycles. The main benefit of tubeless tires is the ability to use low air pressure for better traction without getting pinch flats because there is no tube to pinch between the rim and an obstacle.\nSome cyclists have avoided the price premium for a tubeless system by sealing the spoke holes with a special rim strip and then sealing the valve stem and bead seat with a latex sealer. However, tires not designed for tubeless",
"-24.74733827242744"
],
[
"the axle. However, lock-nut wheels are the best in preventing the cars from losing the wheels during a run.\nThere are four types of tires: rubber, sponge, reston, and semi-pneumatic. Rubber tires come as standard with the Mini 4WD, and, although it has good grip, it is heavy and is susceptible to slipping on wet surfaces. The alternate solution to the rubber tire are the reston or sponge tires, which are very light, have good grip, and are better suited for rainy days. Yet, these get dirty easily, and they tend to exhaust the motor. Bumpers Bumpers are usually found at",
"-24.74133751273621"
],
[
"construction uses textile or steel belts arranged at 90 degrees to the direction of travel, along with a layer of belts running around the tyre's circumference, with motorcycle radials deviating from the true radial design by adding belts running at angles to the radial belts, in the manner of bias-ply tyres, allowing the grip, durability, feel, and other characteristics to be adjusted to suit the tyre's design. The benefit of radial tyres is that the tyres run cooler yet maintain great flexibility, allowing engineers to coax significant increases in both grip and tread life, without compromise, under a broader range",
"-24.71410856966395"
],
[
"motorcycles. Trailer manufacturers often offer trailers specifically designed for carrying motorcycles.\nGeneral purpose enclosed trailers, as seen in the photo above left, have the advantage of providing a more secure way of locking up the motorcycles contained within it, keeping them out of sight, and protecting them from all kinds of weather. However, as they are heavier than open trailers and create more wind resistance, pulling a general purpose enclosed trailer can decrease the fuel efficiency of the tow vehicle. Conversely, an enclosed motorcycle-specific trailer can be built low enough so that wind resistance is reduced. As a result, fuel",
"-24.69013639865443"
],
[
"crowdfunding and sold as consumer products. Some bicycle-sharing systems also use them. Smart locks introduce added security risks through the possibility of hacking. Disc rotor locks Disc brakes are a popular braking system for bicycles, most notable for mountain bikes but recently there has been an increase in their popularity for road bikes, especially after the UCI approved them for use in professional races in May 2018.\nDisc rotor locks have been popular for motorcyclists for many years but with the proliferation of bicycles now using them smaller, more compact versions for bicycles have been created. They work by inserting a",
"-24.657995740824845"
],
[
"tire used to propel a roller coaster train along a piece of track. Although they are most often used in station areas and brake runs, they can also be used to launch trains at greater speeds. However, they are generally used to propel the train at speeds between 5-8 mph. The Incredible Hulk Coaster at Universal's Islands of Adventure is notable for using drive tires to launch the train up an incline. Some roller coasters, most noticeably Vekoma Roller Skaters (Vekoma's version of a junior coaster) and Zierer Tivoli/Force (also junior coasters) also use drive tires instead of a chain on",
"-24.63769680960104"
],
[
"use shoes (rollers only used on low pressure types) and have casings filled with lubricant to prevent abrasion of the exterior of the pump tube and to aid in the dissipation of heat, and use reinforced tubes, often called \"hoses\". This class of pump is often called a \"hose pump\".\nThe biggest advantage with the hose pumps over the roller pumps is the high operating pressure of up to 16 bar. With rollers max pressure can arrive up to 12 Bar without any problem. If the high operating pressure is not required, a tubing pump is a better option than a",
"-24.631779682356864"
],
[
"Constant-velocity joint Constant-velocity joints (also known as homokinetic or CV joints) allow a drive shaft to transmit power through a variable angle, at constant rotational speed, without an appreciable increase in friction or play. They are mainly used in front wheel drive vehicles. Modern rear wheel drive cars with independent rear suspension typically use CV joints at the ends of the rear axle halfshafts and increasingly use them on the drive shafts.\nConstant-velocity joints are protected by a rubber boot, a \"CV gaiter\", usually filled with molybdenum disulfide grease. Cracks and splits in the boot will allow contaminants in, which",
"-24.601672582997708"
],
[
"maintain. Wheeled drivetrains are cheaper and give a higher top speed. The tracked drivetrain has greater off-road capability.\nTires play a significant role for any off-road vehicle equipped with wheels, as they ensure optimal traction required to keep it moving. The off-road tire tread types vary depending on the terrain type. The most common types of off-road tires are A/T (stands for \"All Terrain\") and M/T (stands for \"Mud Terrain\"). While the A/T tires perform excellently on the sand, they are barely usable in the mud. There are also unique Sand Blaster and Mud bogging tires used for the most challenging",
"-24.567177988647018"
],
[
"have a self-adjusting mechanism so as the brake pad wears, the pistons keep the distance from the pad to the disc consistent to maintain the same brake lever throw. Some hydraulic brakes, especially older ones, and most mechanical discs have manual controls to adjust the pad-to-rotor gap. Several adjustments are often required during the life of the pads. Hydraulic vs. \"mechanical\" There are two main types of disc brake: \"mechanical\" (cable-actuated) and hydraulic. Advantages and disadvantages are highly discussed by the users of each system. As advantages of cable-actuated disc brakes are argued lower cost, lower maintenance, and lighter system",
"-24.555614520329982"
],
[
"wide availability of replacement inner tubes.\nMost of bicycle inner tubes are torus-shaped balloons while some are not. For example, inner tubes in bicycles of the Moscow bike-sharing service are simply rubber tubes long enough to be coiled and inserted into a tire. Tubeless Tubeless tires are primarily used on mountain bikes due to their ability to use low air pressure for better traction without getting pinch flats. Tubeless tires work similarly to clinchers in that the bead of the tire is specifically designed to interlock into a corresponding tubeless rim, but without an inner tube. Air is inflated directly into",
"-24.55411911716328"
],
[
"golf carts, and on utility vehicles in situations where the risk of puncture is high, such as on construction equipment. Many tires used in industrial and commercial applications are non-pneumatic, and are manufactured from solid rubber and plastic compounds via molding operations. Solid tires include those used for lawn mowers, skateboards, golf carts, scooters, and many types of light industrial vehicles, carts, and trailers. One of the most common applications for solid tires is for material handling equipment (forklifts). Such tires are installed by means of a hydraulic tire press.\nSome railway wheels and other older types of rolling stock are",
"-24.542237243098498"
],
[
"Wheelie In vehicle acrobatics, a wheelie, or wheelstand, is a vehicle maneuver in which the front wheel or wheels come off the ground due to sufficient torque being applied to the rear wheel or wheels, or rider motion relative to the vehicle. Wheelies are usually associated with bicycles and motorcycles, but can be done with other vehicles such as cars, especially in drag racing and tractor pulling. History The first wheelie was done in 1890 by trick bicyclist Daniel J. Canary, shortly after modern bicycles became popular. Wheelies appear in popular culture as early as 1943, as U.S Army motorized",
"-24.518332254316192"
],
[
"been used to a lesser extent on automobiles, primarily those powered by motorcycle engines. They can also be found on racing remote control cars. Some experimental aircraft use a slipper clutch to control torsional resonance in the drive train and protect the engine from shock in the event of a propeller strike. A slipper clutch for an automobile was patented with a French priority date of 1953 to J.Maurice et al. The principle of this slipper is identical to that used in modern motorcycles.\nOne-way sprag clutches have also been used for the",
"-24.505352154817956"
],
[
"replace one of them, although newer adjustable-length V-belts (\"link belts\") can be put on without having to remove other belts, and their link design also allows a self-tensioning characteristic to reduce the risk of flipping over. Also since only one movable belt tensioner is required all of the peripheral components (alternator, A/C compressor, etc.) can simply be mounted to the engine without the need to swivel. Disadvantages The drawback of this single belt is that if the belt breaks or is knocked loose, the vehicle instantly loses multiple critical functions. The water pump, power steering pump, and alternator (for",
"-24.49681295757182"
],
[
"airbags qualify as passive-safety devices. Further terminological confusion can arise from the fact that passive devices and systems—those requiring no input or action by the vehicle occupant—can operate independently in an active manner; an airbag is one such device. Vehicle safety professionals are generally careful in their use of language to avoid this sort of confusion, though advertising principles sometimes prevent such semantic caution in the consumer marketing of safety features. Further confusing the terminology, the aviation safety community uses the terms \"active\" and \"passive\" in the opposite sense from the automotive industry. Origins The airbag \"for the covering of",
"-24.48977255669888"
],
[
"over by providing a bearing pressure that will not deform the surface excessively.\nThe materials of modern pneumatic tires are synthetic rubber, natural rubber, fabric and wire, along with carbon black and other chemical compounds. They consist of a tread and a body. The tread provides traction while the body provides containment for a quantity of compressed air. Before rubber was developed, the first versions of tires were simply bands of metal fitted around wooden wheels to prevent wear and tear. Early rubber tires were solid (not pneumatic). Pneumatic tires are used on many types of vehicles, including cars, bicycles, motorcycles,",
"-24.466910815710435"
],
[
"Tire manipulator Use Tire manipulator is commonly developed and manufactured to customer specification because sizes of tires varies in every industry. In mining industry it is common to use tires with diameter over 3 meters. One of the biggest haulers in the world has tires with diameter of 4 meters. They can weigh over 2 000 kg. On the other hand, in agriculture tires are rarely greater than 2 meters, with weigh up to 1,000 kg.\nCompanies started to use tire manipulators mostly because of safety and effectiveness. In the past, many people were injured, or even killed by heavy tires exploding or",
"-24.46623129991349"
],
[
"for use both on- and off-road. Such tires attempt to compromise between grip on loose terrain and safety or comfort on paved roads. Some tires, such as the bar grip used on United States military vehicles in World War II, accomplish this by separating the tire into distinct on-road and off-road tread zones. Modern all-terrain tires typically employ hybrid tread patterns and tougher compound to increase the wear life under mixed-surface conditions.",
"-24.464420414180495"
],
[
"rubber with high-tensile fibres (e.g. fiberglass or Twaron/Kevlar) running the length of the belt as tension members. The belt itself is constructed in sturdy materials such as molded polyurethane, neoprene or welded urethane with various standard, non-standard or metric pitches. The distance between the centers of two adjacent teeth on the timing belt is referred to as the pitch.\nRubber degrades with higher temperatures, and with contact with motor oil. Thus the life expectancy of a timing belt is lowered in hot or leaky engines. Newer or more expensive belts are made of temperature resistant materials such as \"highly",
"-24.426888697198592"
],
[
"a longer fatigue life. Uses Drive shafts on vehicles and power take-offs use splines to transmit torque and rotation and allow for changes in length.\nSplines are used in several places on bicycles. The crank arm to BB shaft interfaces that are splined include ISIS Drive, Truvativ GXP and Howitzer, Shimano's Octalink and many others, most of which are proprietary. Some cranksets feature modular spiders, where torque is transmitted through splines. Cassettes engage the freehub via a spline that has one groove wider than the others to enforce a fixed orientation. Disc brake mounting interfaces that are splined include Centerlock, by",
"-24.41474474547431"
],
[
"most popular choice to power stationary tools, though in the past they were powered by windmills, water wheels, and steam. Some museums and hobbyists still maintain and operate stationary tools powered by these older power sources. Portable electric tools may be either corded or battery-powered. Compressed air is the customary power source for nailers and paint sprayers. A few tools (called powder-actuated tools) are powered by explosive cartridges. Tools that run on gasoline or gasoline-oil mixes are made for outdoor use; typical examples include most chainsaws and string trimmers. Other tools like blowtorches will burn their fuel externally to generate",
"-24.374283420154825"
],
[
"large, luxury cars with heavy clutches and gearboxes without synchromesh, as the freewheel permitted a smoother and quieter change. Citroën combined a freewheel and a centrifugal clutch to make the so-called 'TraffiClutch', which let the driver start, stop, and change the lower gears without using the clutch. This was an option on Citroën 2CVs and its derivatives and, as the name implied, was marketed as a benefit for driving in congested urban areas. Similarly, the Saab 93 was available with an optional Saxomat clutch.\nA common use of freewheeling mechanisms is in automatic transmissions. For instance traditional, hydraulic General Motors transmissions",
"-24.371243139728904"
],
[
"as a supplement to \"active\" restraints. Because no action by a vehicle occupant is required to activate or use the airbag, it is considered a \"passive\" device. This is in contrast to seat belts, which are considered \"active\" devices because the vehicle occupant must act to enable them.\nThis terminology is not related to active and passive safety, which are, respectively, systems designed to prevent accidents in the first place, and systems designed to minimize the effects of accidents once they occur. In this use, a car antilock braking system qualifies as an active-safety device, while both its seatbelts and",
"-24.37026013387367"
],
[
"may enlarge through wear. The stirrup cannot normally be replaced, so good quality V-brakes use a durable metal for the stirrup.\n\"Mini V-brakes\" (or \"mini V's\") are V-brakes with shorter arms, typically between 8 and 9 centimeters. This reduces the required cable pull, making them compatible with brake levers intended for cantilever brakes. Mini V-brakes retain advantages specific to V-brakes such as not requiring extra cable stops. On the downside, their shorter arms provide very small tyre and wheel clearance and generally make for a less forgiving setup: they can only accommodate smaller tyre sizes compared to cantilever brakes, may",
"-24.344177993712947"
],
[
"causes brakes on non-steered wheels to work harder, worsening fade. An advantage of low-fade brakes such as disc brakes is steered wheels can do more braking without causing brake steer.\nBrake fade typically occurs during heavy or sustained braking. Many high-speed vehicles use disc brakes, and many European heavy vehicles use disc brakes. Many U.S. and third-world heavy vehicles use drum brakes due to their lower purchase price. On heavy vehicles, air drag is often small compared to the weight, so the brakes dissipate proportionally more energy than on a typical car or motorcycle. Thus, heavy vehicles often need to use",
"-24.339359544683248"
],
[
"an automobile wheel is not hard-mounted to the automobile's frame or unibody chassis. It is instead mounted to a suspension component which allows that wheel to move in response to road irregularities and steering inputs. Because the wheel must be able to move, a length of flexible hose must be used between the end of the run of metal brake line tubing, and the brake at each wheel. Since the ideal brake system would use only hard tubing for its lack of expansion, but some use of flexible hose is required, the ideal compromise is to use a hose type",
"-24.292655006283894"
],
[
"around the circumference is used to clamp the tire to the wheel. For motorcycles, a rim lock or bead stopper is a curved plate tightened by a single bolt. For both 4-wheel drive vehicles and motorcycles, a different style of beadlock can be used that is similar to an inner tube which is inflated to press the tire against the wheel.\nBead lock may also refer to a product used to secure a swimming pool liner into the pool liner track installed on many above ground pools. It has a wedge shaped edge on the front of the strip. When installing",
"-24.251944473435287"
],
[
"bicycles. Some (such as wheels with an aerodynamic ring, flat spokes, and fewer spokes than the traditional 32) are legal for use in most cycling events, while others such as carbon-fiber tri-spokes (wheels with only three large, rigid spokes) generally are only legal in triathlons and time-trials. Typically wheels that are lighter are preferred and, although this is an obvious consideration, it is not the only one. Higher profile wheels (larger rim) are conducive to laminar flow of air past them more so than traditional thin rimmed wheels.\nSolid disc wheels are used as well, though in outdoor settings these are",
"-24.22786818887107"
],
[
"usage rates of manual seat belts, particularly in the United States.\nThe 1972 Volkswagen ESVW1 Experimental Safety Vehicle presented passive seat belts. Volvo tried to develop a passive three point seatbelt. In 1973, Volkswagen announced they had a functional passive seat belt. The first commercial car to use automatic seat belts was the 1975 Volkswagen Golf.\nAutomatic seat belts received a boost in the United States in 1977 when Brock Adams, United States Secretary of Transportation in the Carter Administration, mandated that by 1983 every new car should have either airbags or automatic seat belts. There was strong lobbying against the passive",
"-24.21862347354181"
],
[
"rotates faster than the driveshaft. For example, Saab used a freewheel system in the Saab 96 V4 and early Saab 99 for better fuel efficiency. It was also used in Saab's two-stroke models at the cost of engine braking. Some cars, such as the Rover P4, include a manual switch to engage or disengage the freewheel. Manual Manual transmission is also known as a manual gearbox, stick shift, standard, and stick. Most automobile manual transmissions have several gear ratios that are chosen by locking selected gear pairs to the output shaft inside the transmission. Manual transmissions feature a driver-operated clutch",
"-24.21433158486616"
],
[
"Treadle bicycle A treadle bicycle is a bicycle powered by a treadle instead of the more common crank. Treadles were one of the mechanisms inventors tried in order to position the pedals away from the drive wheel hub before the development of the bicycle chain or instead of it. Treadles have also been used to drive tricycles and quadracycles. History Treadles were used before the advent of highwheelers on Thomas McCall's velocipede, on highwheelers themselves in an to attempt to address safety issues, on alternative configurations of highwheelers, and on the first device called a safety bicycle by British engineer",
"-24.213059923727997"
],
[
"bearings, thus reducing friction in the inner wheel. Higher chain tension was found to be more efficient: \"This is actually not in the direction you'd expect, based simply on friction\". Maintenance How best to lubricate a bicycle chain is a commonly debated question among cyclists. Liquid lubricants penetrate to the inside of the links and are not easily displaced, but quickly attract dirt. \"Dry\" lubricants, often containing wax or Teflon, are transported by an evaporating solvent, and stay cleaner in use. The cardinal rule for long chain life is never to lubricate a dirty chain, as this washes abrasive particles",
"-24.206700638053007"
],
[
"the track shoe, or they may be bolted onto the track shoe for ease of replacement as they become worn. While grousers are usually straight, they may have more complex shapes, including spikes and involute curves, depending on the type of terrain and the performance requirements of the vehicle. Grousers are typically made of metal, such as forged steel, and are not designed for use on paved roads. Various devices, with names such as road bands, have been developed to temporarily cover grousers/cleats in order to allow a vehicle to travel on paved roads.\nGrousers have been used in such exotic",
"-24.18519714503782"
],
[
"even useful to provide a means of adjusting this whilst driving. This was a feature only used on luxury cars, often larger cars that might need to set their suspension for varying numbers of passengers. Stiffness could be increased between \"town\" and a stiffer setting for the faster open road. These dampers were best known under the Telecontrol brand name. A hydraulic control, with an inflatable rubber bag in the disk pack, could be used to increase the clamping force and thus their damping stiffness.\nOne of the major reasons for the decline of frictional dampers post-war, in favour of hydraulic",
"-24.180104515216954"
],
[
"driving separate motors, which may incorporate a gear reduction, to fully integrated units containing a pump, motor and gear reduction. Hydrostatic transmissions are more expensive than mechanical transmissions, but they are easier to use and can transmit greater torque to the wheels compared to a typical mechanical transmission. The least common drive type, and the most expensive, is electric.\nThere have been a number of attempts to replace hydrostatic transmissions with lower cost alternatives, but these attempts, which include variable belt types, e.g., MTD's \"Auto Drive\", and toroidal, have various performance or perception problems that have caused their market life to",
"-24.162582929362543"
],
[
"Treadmill A treadmill is a device generally for walking, running or climbing while staying in the same place. Treadmills were introduced before the development of powered machines, to harness the power of animals or humans to do work, often a type of mill that was operated by a person or animal treading steps of a treadwheel to grind grain. In later times, treadmills were used as punishment devices for people sentenced to hard labour in prisons. The terms treadmill and treadwheel were used interchangeably for the power and punishment mechanisms.\nMore recently, treadmills are not used to harness power, but as",
"-24.158260193435126"
],
[
"resist the motion, moving only when walkers push the belt with their feet. The latter are known as manual treadmills.\nAccording to Sports & Fitness Industry Association, treadmills continue to be the largest selling exercise equipment category by a large margin. As a result, the treadmill industry counts with hundreds of manufacturers throughout the world. History The origins of the treadmill can be traced back to the 1st century AD. The Ancient Romans used a treadwheel or polyspaston crane for manipulating heavy objects.\nThe first consumer treadmill for home use was developed by William Staub, a mechanical engineer. Staub developed his treadmill",
"-24.157576711848378"
],
[
"vehicles and powered equipment. Lubricant vs. Anti-tack Coating Anti-tack or anti-stick coatings are designed to reduce the adhesive condition (stickiness) of a given material. The rubber, hose, and wire and cable industries are the largest consumers of anti-tack products but virtually every industry uses some form of anti-sticking agent. Anti-sticking agents differ from lubricants in that they are designed to reduce the inherently adhesive qualities of a given compound while lubricants are designed to reduce friction between any two surfaces. Keep moving parts apart Lubricants are typically used to separate moving parts in a system. This separation has the benefit",
"-24.145669666671893"
],
[
"generally use a 36-46 gearing. Many professional-level cyclo-cross bikes are set up with deep-section carbon tubular wheels, not for the purpose of aerodynamics, but to keep the wheel from being entrapped in deep sand or mud sections. Tubular tires are used to avoid pinch flats, decrease rolling resistance and increase grip with lower tire pressures. In addition, single speed cyclo-cross bikes are becoming increasingly popular for a variety of reasons, including lower initial cost of setup, ease of use and maintenance, and decreased likelihood of mechanical failure on the course. Clothing Clothing is similar to that of road racing. However,",
"-24.137262864183867"
],
[
"the world production of polybutadiene, with a majority of it being high cis. The polybutadiene is used primarily in the sidewall of truck tires, this helps to improve fatigue to failure life due to the continuous flexing during run. As a result, tires will not blow out in extreme service conditions. It is also used in the tread portion of giant truck tires to improve the abrasion, i.e. less wearing, and to run the tire comparatively cool, since the internal heat comes out quickly. Both parts are formed by extrusion.\nIts main competitors in this application are styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) and",
"-24.123879375169054"
],
[
"tubes were used on some models, and some brands made rear wheels easier to detach. Spoked wheels with tubes remained standard until the 1970s, when solid, usually alloy, wheels began to appear and eventually dominate street motorcycles, making lighter tubeless tyres practical.\nAs the early motorcycle industry progressed, larger tyre sizes accompanied larger engine displacements, so that by 1909–1914, 2 ¹⁄₄ in (57 mm) section, 26 in (660 mm) diameter tyres were used on 250 to 350 cc (15 to 21 cu in) motorcycles, and 2 ³⁄₈ to 2 ¹⁄₂ in (60 to 64 mm) section tyres appeared on motorcycles with displacements over 350 cc. Indian tyres reached 3.0 in × 28 in (76 mm × 711 mm), giving even",
"-24.110862844390795"
]
] |
4zn08a | When you're flying, how come nearby clouds don't seem disturbed by the plane? | [
"What looks nearby to you is actually some distance away -- clouds are HUGE. Planes do disturb the part near them -- see these pics. URL_3 URL_2 URL_0 URL_1 ",
"Pilot here (PPL). As has been pointed out, clouds are often massive and wing vortices generally affect clouds to the rear and below your fuselage. However you can see the effect as a pilot depending on the aircraft you fly. A commercial airliner leaves you with no chance of seeing it because of the speed, dimensions and limited field of view (Even for the pilot). However I in my little Piper can brush some cloud and look back to see the effect to a good degree and anyone in a bubble canopy has an even better view of it. I would never do that as a deliberate act though, merely if I was transitioning through, even though I am IFR rated. Cloud is never a thing you want to be near or in as a pilot if you can avoid it and indeed many private pilots have to specifically avoid it as they fly under a restriction called visual flight rules or VFR. Airliners often do have an effect on clouds that are quite far away from them. The turbulence from big jet engines can spawl around for quite some distance and affect clouds that are reasonably far away.",
"To see any disruption you'd have to sit out on the wing and look backwards, and down. An aircraft wake is only a bit wider than the wingspan (roughly 2x the span, so imagine that the wings are twice as long.) And, rather than trailing horizontally behind the aircraft, it moves downward. The [typical famous photos]( URL_0 ) show a rear-facing view of the Learjet's descending wake punching a slot in a fog bank below the plane's path.",
"Clouds are disturbed, but only behind the aircraft, where you cannot see them, and directly around the aircraft, where they pass so quickly that you cannot see them properly. If you see a different aircraft flying through clouds it is possible to see some perturbation behind it.",
"Related/unrelated thread hijacking question: Why do pilots continue to fly in clouds when there is turbulence? I've been on Aeroflot and Lufthansa flights where the pilot or copilot comes on the PA system and says that due to turbulance they will ask permission to climb to a higher altitude where the effects are less.... sure enough the turbulence stops. Flying on every other airline, turbulence in the clouds ah never mind. Do the pilots get a kick out of it... or are they all being denied access to a higher altitude?",
"Planes certainly \"disturb\" the clouds they fly near. However, purely because of how the wings of an aeroplane work, it affects the areas behind the wings the most. Since an aeroplane's wings create lift, they can appear to \"push\" air/clouds below them downwards. Unless you have a proper rear view, you generally won't be able to see this happen while on the plane. (On a commercial jet, you most certainly can't) Another effect of aeroplane wings are the vortices created by the wing tips. At the end of a wing, the difference in speed between air flowing over and under the wing creates spiral flows of air (sort of like a cyclone), called wingtip vortices. Both of these effects create a phenomenon called wake turbulence, which can be extremely dangerous to other aeroplanes. This is why it is important to keep planes separated from each other, particularly much smaller planes from larger ones, as they can be severely shaken about and damaged. Most modern planes have curled wingtips (so-called winglets or sharklets), which redirect the air to make this phenomenon less intense.",
"The clouds get very disturbed by planes.. damned flying buses getting all up in their business. Rain is cloud tears",
"Another thing to consider: clouds aren't really all that densely filled with particles. We only see them because there is a lot of thickness we have to see through. Some local turbulence caused by a plane isn't really a big deal because the rest of the thickness that we look through is preserved and untouched. Thought experiment for a moment: a screen on a window, by itself, doesn't really block vision. But if you put a bunch of screens stacked on top of eachother your vision starts to get blocked. Clouds are the same way. More specifically, according to URL_0 , there is only about 0.5 grams of material per cubic meter in a cloud. For perspective: that's a few drops of water in a volume a little larger than your stove. Next time you're cooking, spit in a hot pan and spread out the vapor in the volume above your stove - that's about a cloud's density. After it spreads out even a little bit beyond your pan, it's probably in-perceivable in the relatively small volume. Lastly, and another way to think about it: why don't you make wake in ground-fog? I can't find exact numbers for some reason (probably because it's so variant) but my guess is that a good pea-soup fog is higher particle/vapor density than a cloud.",
"Scientist here. The earth is actually flat. When you get on a plane, they lift it with a crane, surround you with stills of clouds (hence the not moving!) and quickly rearrange everything during flight time to match your destination.",
"Same reason they don't appear to be in a boat if you look to the side. The plane leaves a wake behind it too, you're just traveling 600mph so it's far behind it.",
"ELI5 - its the same as a power boat going through water. The boat does not disturb water that is in front of, beside and underneath the boat. There is only a small line of a wake left almost directly behind the vehicle. This is the same for airplanes, and in most airplanes you cannot see directly back enough to see any wake. Plus, since you can't see air, and thick clouds would block your view of the wake, its hard to see the wake even if you can look behind the airplane. URL_0 ",
"The easiest way to think of this, for me at least, is to think of a motor boat. When traveling through the water in a motor boat the water on either side of you is not disturbed by your boat unless it is very close to the boat. Behind the boat the most disturbance is right behind the boat in the same general size and shape of the boat, it spreads out from there are you travel away from it... creating the wake of the boat. The faster you travel on a boat the more narrow your wake looks, because it is spreading out at the same rate but you are moving away from it faster. The same general thing happens on a plane, but it is much harder to see in the air."
] | [
[
"a window, they are likely to see only the stationary interior of the plane due to the small window sizes and during flights at night. Another factor is that while in flight, the view out of windows may be blocked by clouds, preventing passengers from seeing the moving ground or passing clouds. Seasickness Seasickness is a form of terrestrial motion sickness characterized by a feeling of nausea and, in extreme cases, vertigo experienced after spending time on a watercraft such as a boat or ship. It is essentially the same as carsickness, though the motion of a watercraft tends",
"-37.571977502972004"
],
[
"The ash with the smallest size can remain in the atmosphere for a considerable period of time, and can drift away from the eruption point. The ash cloud can be dangerous to aviation if it reaches the heights of aircraft flight paths.\nPilots can't see ash clouds at night. Also, ash particles are too small to return an echo to on-board weather radars on commercial airliners. Even when flying in daylight, pilots may interpret a visible ash cloud as a normal cloud of water vapour and not a danger—especially if the ash has travelled far from the eruption site. ",
"-36.47422902342987"
],
[
"the aircraft with respect to the false horizon, resulting in an accident. Helicopter rotor wash also causes sand to blow around outside the cockpit windows, possibly leading the pilot to experience the vection illusion, where the helicopter appears to be turning when it is actually in a level hover. This can also cause the pilot to make incorrect control inputs, which can quickly lead to disaster when hovering near the ground. In night landings, aircraft lighting can enhance the visual illusions by illuminating the brownout cloud.\nThe visible effects of sand rotor abrasion have been extensively observed in Afghanistan. U.S. military",
"-35.47690690601485"
],
[
"blown downwind at that level. Both features can be seen on visible satellite imagery, during daytime, by the shadows they cast on surrounding clouds.\nIn multicellular storms and squall lines, the mid-level jet stream is often intersecting the line and its dry air introduced into the cloud is negatively unstable. This results in a drying of the cloudy air in the region where the jet plunge groundward. On the back edge of the line, this shows as clear notches where one can find stronger downdrafts at the surface. These kind of lines often have a very characteristic undulating pattern caused",
"-35.45494826560025"
],
[
"that it was malfunctioning, even though their view of the surrounding area was obstructed by thick cloud cover. Furthermore, the pilots were distracted by conversation on the flight deck unrelated to flying the plane, which contributed to their failure to notice that the plane was in danger. The investigation also found that the pilots were unaware of the terrain in the area because they lacked the proper charts for the area. A contributing factor was the lack of a Minimum Safe Altitude Warning System at the airport and the air traffic controller being too overworked to notice the impending crash.",
"-35.28631509813749"
],
[
"they cannot fly through clouds or icing conditions, and they cannot take off or land during certain gust and wind conditions. The certifications did not mention line-of-sight control. On 12 September 2013, a ScanEagle with ConocoPhillips conducted its first flight from a research vessel and flew for 36 minutes. On its second flight, the aircraft experienced engine failure. It aborted the flight and landed in the water, as it was programmed to. A boat recovered the downed ScanEagle.\nIn July 2016, IHS Janes reported that Royal Navy frigates will cease operating the ScanEagle by November 2017. It will likely be replaced",
"-34.72461263114383"
],
[
"sloping cloud deck can also lead to misjudgments of the vertical and of speed and distance or even combine with the nonvisual ones to produce an even more powerful illusion. The result of these various visual and nonvisual illusions is spatial disorientation. Various models have been developed to yield quantitative predictions of disorientation associated with known aircraft accelerations. Effects of disorientation Once an aircraft enters conditions under which the pilot cannot see a distinct visual horizon, the drift in the inner ear continues uncorrected. Errors in the perceived rate of turn about any axis can build up at",
"-34.614031778521166"
],
[
"to recover since the aircraft is close to the ground on final approach.\nSo when the pilot encounters benign cumulonimbus, it may be a better choice to stay aloft and use the updraughts under the cumulus in front of the thunderstorm along the flanking line (or even under the cumulonimbus itself in its laminar region) and wait for the thunderstorm to dissipate instead of attempting a landing in the presence of possible downbursts. Soaring In some countries, sailplanes are permitted to fly inside clouds. For example, during the 1972 World Soaring Championship at Vršac, Yugoslavia, Helmut Reichmann attempted to use the",
"-34.54299541590626"
],
[
"the cockpit were the artificial horizon, the altimeter, the airspeed indicator and the vertical speed indicator. The only thing the crew could see on the horizon were faint light spots due to distant forest burnings, and at 21:06, local time, the plane crash-landed over treetops that extended over 50 m (160 ft) above ground.\nThe deceleration due to the crash was such that passengers without fastened seatbelts were flung to the front of the airplane, and some seats detached from the floor, also racing forward. When the aircraft fell through the foliage, two thick trees tore away both wings, and caused a severe",
"-34.24354168424179"
],
[
"to blind collision.\nCommunications towers that are lighted at night for aviation safety may help reduce bird collisions caused by poor visibility, but they bring about a second, even more deadly mechanism for mortality. When there is a low cloud ceiling, hazy or foggy conditions, lights on a tower reflect off water or other particles in the air creating an illuminated area around the tower. Migrating birds lose their stellar cues for nocturnal migration in such conditions. In addition, they often lose any broad orienting perspective they might have had on the landscape. When passing the lighted area, it may be",
"-33.91888397699131"
],
[
"gusts of 60 knots or more.\nSafely landing a light aircraft in these conditions can be virtually impossible. Moreover, close to the ground, a glider or airplane pilot can be caught by surprise by a sudden reversal of the wind direction and transition from an upwind to a downwind situation. If the airspeed becomes too low, the aircraft will stall and may crash into the ground due to the altitude lost recovering from the stall. As a consequence of famous instances of crashes of this nature in the United States, a network of wind profilers and Terminal Doppler Weather Radars was developed",
"-33.90827098044247"
],
[
"on the atmospheric conditions at the upper part of the troposphere, where the plane is flying, these high clouds rapidly disappear or persist. When the air is dry and stable, the water rapidly evaporates inside the contrails and can only observed up to several hundreds of meters from the plane. On the other hand, if humidity is high enough it exists an ice oversaturation and the homogenitus get wide and it can exist for hours. In the later case, depending on the wind conditions Cca may evolve to Cirrus homogenitus (aCi), or Cirrostratus homogenitus (Csa). The existence and persistence",
"-33.74587604142289"
],
[
"often recovered from an aircraft after a crash to determine control settings and other parameters during the incident. Weather systems Weather systems such as weather radar (typically Arinc 708 on commercial aircraft) and lightning detectors are important for aircraft flying at night or in instrument meteorological conditions, where it is not possible for pilots to see the weather ahead. Heavy precipitation (as sensed by radar) or severe turbulence (as sensed by lightning activity) are both indications of strong convective activity and severe turbulence, and weather systems allow pilots to deviate around these areas.\nLightning detectors like the Stormscope or Strikefinder have",
"-33.690105779924124"
],
[
"can happen during a final approach at night (with no stars or moonlight) over water or unlit terrain to a lighted runway, in which the horizon is not visible. As the name suggests, it involves an approach to landing during the night where there is nothing to see between the aircraft and the intended runway, there is just a visual, “black-hole”. Pilots too often confidently proceed with a visual approach instead of relying on instruments during nighttime landings. As a result, this can lead to the pilot experiencing glide path overestimation (GPO) because of the lack of",
"-33.628669024557894"
],
[
"urgency seemed to lead the flight crew to believe they could land ahead of the storms.\nIn coming through the storm, the high winds in the storm cell lead investigators to believe that a strong downdraft pushed the plane below the glide slope. The crew's evasive actions were not sufficient to prevent the plane from striking the ground.\nThe investigators' main questions were why the controller had not indicated the severity of the storm to the flight, and, when the flight knew of the storms, why they had not requested a different path to the airport to avoid the storm. Cause",
"-33.176653134738444"
],
[
"until they're about to get stepped on. Spotting them is often a matter of first hearing the typically short evasive flight, before seeing where one landed. This is especially true for the males, which emit a characteristic pulsing buzz during the few seconds in flight; this sound tends to be loud and noticeably higher pitched than that of a flying female.\nIf you slowly approach a perched individual during hot weather then it may repeatedly fly up and grab any mosquitoes or freeloader flies circling around you, often returning to its original perch to feed for several minutes after each catch.",
"-33.117676004792884"
],
[
"down. Grabbing the stick, I pulled back on it. The results were that the wings fluttered a bit.\nBut after several tens of seconds passed, suddenly I was once again out in the sunshine. The aircraft had punched through the black cloud. Behind and below me were the dam and the reservoir. Off to the left I could see the departing Sabres, having lost me in the cloud and perhaps figured I was dead. Following me had proven to be useless, the sea was near, and not wanting a new fight, even though I had come close to passing out from",
"-32.91203784188838"
],
[
"didn't notice that he had stepped the pedals.\nBEA then found that the crew may have been suffering a somatogravic illusion in flight. Somatogravic illusion, in aviation, is a type of optical illusion which can cause the crew to think that they are pitching up, while in reality, they are not. This could happen during night-time flying (causing the crew to lose their visual reference, as it was dark) accompanied by the lack of monitoring of the flight's indicator. Somatogravic illusion was responsible for the crash of Gulf Air Flight 072 in Bahrain. However, the BEA also suspected the specific features",
"-32.90213154350931"
],
[
"or passengers.\" Learmount went on to say that to land in just 350–400 metres (1,150–1,310 ft), the aircraft must have been near stalling when it touched down. The captain also reported the aircraft's stall warning system had sounded.\nThe METAR in force at the time indicated that the wind was forecast to gust according to ICAO criteria for wind reporting, but it was not gusting at the time and wind shear had not been reported. The possibility of a bird strike was raised, but there were no sightings or radar reports of birds. Speculation had focused on electronics and fuel supply issues.",
"-32.74675027362173"
],
[
"reports of bad weather at the time.\nCommunication with the flight was lost half an hour into the short, routine trip.\n\"The accident occurred due to loss of control after experiencing adverse weather that caused the plane to stall... resulting in a nosedive,\" state media said.\nAfter studying black box data, investigators decided the crash was \"not from any act of sabotage, explosion or engine failure\".\nThe plane was flying from Myeik to Yangon and the debris was found in the sea off the coastal town of Dawei.\nIt remains unclear why the pilot flew into the storm, given that weather radar normally allows such",
"-32.70430689512432"
],
[
"with significant crosswind and tailwind components. Four minutes before the accident, the controller in Campbeltown advised the pilot that there were now a \"few\" clouds at 300 ft (91 m) as well as the broken layer at 400 ft (122 m). For the duration of the flight, the pilot likely had very little visual contact with the ground due to being in or over clouds, or out over water in low visibility. As the aircraft descended through the cloud base, the pilot likely had no visual cue that he was below the clouds because the aircraft was about 7 nmi (13 km) out to sea and",
"-32.647916659165276"
],
[
"from the appearance of haze, to almost zero visibility. Many lives are lost each year worldwide from accidents involving fog conditions on the highways, including multiple-vehicle collisions.\nThe aviation travel industry is affected by the severity of fog conditions. Even though modern auto-landing computers can put an aircraft down without the aid of a pilot, personnel manning an airport control tower must be able to see if aircraft are sitting on the runway awaiting takeoff. Safe operations are difficult in thick fog, and civilian airports may forbid takeoffs and landings until conditions improve.\nA solution for landing returning military aircraft developed in",
"-32.62642542961771"
],
[
"extinguished. Because the aircraft is at such a low altitude, the sudden loss of airspeed threatens to stall the airplane. As the engine reignites, Chambers is forced to use another fire suppression bottle. But by this time, the aircraft stall alarm is activated and the aircraft's tail hits the water. All the passengers wake up, and realizing what is happening, most panic. Chambers is able to pull up, but the plane's right wing hits the water again. The plane lifts into the air for a moment, then hits the water. Because of the hard impact, the plane ditches and begins",
"-32.62641693936894"
],
[
"way to distinguish between these two types of clouds is through an atmospheric sounding preceding the flight. If the base of these false cumulus is higher than the convective condensation level, the pilot is probably close to unwanted cumulonimbus. Moreover, when a cumulus breaks down, there may still exist an updraft column under the cloud base that did not originate from the ground. In particular, at the end of the day, the airmass can be stable up to 2000 feet and unstable above this stable layer. The cumulus turn into stratocumulus or altocumulus depending on their height. Before the 1956 version",
"-32.59865453853854"
],
[
"hurricane hunter plane, which was sent up to study wind velocities in the storm's right front quadrant. The plane went down in the storm, taking all 16 crew members with it. Although no direct cause was stated, it was speculated that the winds of the typhoon caused the airplane to go into a tailspin. Another theory was that the low pressures caused the plane's altimeters to give a false reading, and that caused the pilots to assume that they were flying much higher than they actually were, causing them to continue flying on their assumed altitude until they crashed. The",
"-32.5832566712852"
],
[
"to the background. For example, the moon on a cloudy, windy night appears to be racing through the sky opposite to the direction of the clouds, though the moon is essentially stationary in the sky and only appears to be moving due to the movement of the clouds. For an illustration, see http://psychlab1.hanover.edu/Classes/Sensation/induced/ Induced movement with a moving target A moving object appears to be moving faster when it is moving in the opposite direction to the background; it appears to be moving slower when it is moving in the same direction as the background. History of induced movement Induced",
"-32.54281280113355"
],
[
"(in the flanking line) is mainly dynamic, the airmass being smooth and the cloud base higher, a glider pilot could be tempted to fly in this zone. However, conditions can rapidly become dangerous, since the wall cloud can generate a tornado that will pulverise any aircraft. Moreover, since the rising air is widespread, the glider pilot (especially if flying a low-speed, low-performance glider like a paraglider) may be unable to escape and may be sucked into the cloud up to its top. Thus, the FAA recommends that aircraft should never be closer than 20 miles from severe thunderstorms. Lightning Although it",
"-32.515130510610106"
],
[
"pitot tubes.\nThe inconsistency between the airspeeds measured by the different sensors is one of the causes of the accident according to the final report.\nThe US FAA recommends that aircraft (including gliders) stay at least 20 nautical miles away from a severe thunderstorm, while a glider pilot could be tempted to use the updraughts below and inside the cloud. There are two sorts of danger for this type of aircraft. One is related to the shear effects between updraughts and downdraughts inside the cloud - effects that can smash the glider. This shear creates a Kelvin-Helmholtz instability that can generate extremely",
"-32.473268575631664"
],
[
"cumulonimbus or at a pinch the flanking lines associated with strong thunderstorms. However, examples above show that a seemingly innocuous cloud can rapidly become very dangerous. Squalls and supercell thunderstorms are definitely deadly hazards to uninformed pilots. Based on visual flight rules, flights in pre-storm areas must be visual; the pilots must be able to watch the evolution of a thundercloud and take the necessary actions of avoidance or to quickly land when appropriate.\nThe above examples demonstrate that the different phenomena associated with cumulonimbus can jeopardise any type of aircraft and its occupants when the pilot flies in the vicinity",
"-32.45140158833965"
],
[
"in the approach phase. A pilot who suspects wake turbulence is affecting his or her aircraft should get away from the wake, execute a missed approach or go-around and be prepared for a stronger wake encounter. The onset of wake can be insidious and even surprisingly gentle. There have been serious accidents (see the next section) where pilots have attempted to salvage a landing after encountering moderate wake only to encounter severe wake turbulence that they were unable to overcome. Pilots should not depend on any aerodynamic warning, but if the onset of wake is occurring, immediate evasive action is",
"-32.436561601572976"
],
[
"its peculiar, silent flight in the room center, where it circles down-hanging articles, particularly lamps. It changes the flight direction jerkily. This is a patrol flight, in which the males supervise, if necessary, their district and attack intruders. During short breaks and in the night hours, the flies sit on lamps or on walls and leave their small excrement marks. In the wild, tree branches serve the flies for their swarm dances.",
"-32.42095319504733"
],
[
"altitude, falling into a sideslip and descending into the ground, first hitting it with the right wingtip. The cause of loss of altitude was unknown, but could either have been part of a sideways banking maneuver or uncontrolled. The varying weather with pockets of good and poor visibility led the commission to believe that the aircraft could have flown into an area with fog and lost sight of the horizon. It reported that the accident took place towards the end of a very long flight and that fatigue could have reduced the pilots' faculties. This could be a decisive pivoting",
"-32.39799163464704"
],
[
"of 100 to 200 feet above the ground.\nAccording to a majority of the interviewed witnesses, the airplane suddenly rolled to the left until the wings were perpendicular to the ground. The aircraft then descended in a nose-down attitude and disappeared from sight behind trees near the airport. One witness told investigators that they saw a puff of smoke emanate from the aircraft prior to or subsequent to the airplane rolling to the left. Others reported loud engine noises described as a squeal, whine, or an overspeeding or accelerating engine during the last moments of the flight, although they said that",
"-32.38343286827876"
],
[
"some cite the co-pilot's radio call to Wichita, an hour into the flight, saying, \"The weather here is getting tough. We're going to turn around and go back to Kansas City.\") Later theories conclude that the pilots thought their difficulty controlling the plane was due to clear-air turbulence, and the transmission was sent before they were aware of the wing's deficiency, if indeed they ever knew before the wing failed.\nIt is often claimed that the flight went down in or shortly after a thunderstorm, but meteorological records show that there was no significant convective activity at the time.\nThe late",
"-32.30877213572967"
],
[
"within the engine or airframe can cause electrical failure—which poses an immediate hazard to the aircraft. Other volcanic hazards to aviation Sulfur dioxide—another product of volcanoes that is carried in ash clouds after an eruption—is corrosive to aircraft that fly through it. Countermeasures There has been an attempt to prove that the sulphur dioxide usually accompanying a volcanic eruption is indeed a good indication of the presence of ash clouds such as to facilitate avoidance of ash clouds in aviation.\nHowever, it has been found that the two species of clouds tend to separate due to windshear. Additionally, the detection methods",
"-32.28634239920939"
],
[
"yoke or the stick forward to pitch the nose of the aircraft down. A night take-off from a well-lit airport into a totally dark sky (black hole) or a catapult take-off from an aircraft carrier can also lead to this illusion, and could result in a crash. Head-down The head-down illusion involves a sudden linear deceleration (air braking, lowering flaps, decreasing engine power) during level flight where the pilot perceives the illusion that the nose of the aircraft is pitching down. The pilot's response to this illusion would be to pitch the nose of the aircraft up. If this illusion",
"-32.24748109824577"
],
[
"First Officer Lopez noticed areas of light to moderate precipitation in their path, depicted as green and yellow areas on their weather radar, as well as \"some isolated red cells\" indicative of heavy precipitation to both sides of their intended flight path.\nThe flight entered clouds at FL 300 (about 30,000 feet or 9,100 metres), the crew selecting \"continuous ignition\" and turning on engine anti-ice to protect their turbofan engines from the effects of precipitation and icing, either of which is capable of causing a flameout, where the engines lose all power. Despite flying a route between the two areas of",
"-32.224792390679795"
],
[
"often partially poor due to sea fog, since the southern part of the airport is located close to the sea. Mountainous terrain in the north with southerly winds prevailing may cause a mass of low clouds and fog to occur along the mountainous area north of Runway 18R, with a probability of increased precipitation in the area.\nWeather at the time of crash was poor. Satellite imagery retrieved from the Korea Meteorological Administration radar showed that a large, wide area of rain clouds could be seen, starting from Busan to the southeast as far as Japan, and moving slowly to the",
"-32.15921719142352"
],
[
"Thunderstorm turbulence can (and has) tear apart airplanes.\nThe International cloud atlas soothes these claims: it simply states that \"la turbulence is often very strong \" below the cloud. Serious hazard to glider pilots A glider pilot convinced that cumulonimbus are always violent risks getting a nasty surprise. If he flies under the flanking line of a supercell thunderstorm and finds that the air is very smooth and updraughts are moderate, he may falsely infer that he is safe and not under a cumulonimbus; since cumulonimbus are, officially, always turbulent. He may thus not realise when he is under a secondary",
"-32.11709801189318"
],
[
"the shifting winds. An expansion of the rain shaft near ground level, in the general shape of a human foot, is a telltale sign of a downburst. Gustnadoes, short-lived vertical circulations near ground level, can be spawned by outflow boundaries. Effects Gust fronts create low-level wind shear which can be hazardous to planes when they takeoff or land. Flying insects are swept along by the prevailing winds. As such, fine line patterns within weather radar imagery, associated with converging winds, are dominated by insect returns. At the surface, clouds of dust can be raised by outflow boundaries.",
"-32.05572650815884"
],
[
"unaware of the wind shear. As the aircraft passes into the region of the downdraft, the localized headwind diminishes, reducing the aircraft's airspeed and increasing its sink rate. Then, when the aircraft passes through the other side of the downdraft, the headwind becomes a tailwind, reducing lift generated by the wings, and leaving the aircraft in a low-power, low-speed descent. This can lead to an accident if the aircraft is too low to effect a recovery before ground contact. \nAs the result of the accidents in the 1970s and 1980s, most notably following the 1985 crash of Delta Air Lines",
"-31.861918195987528"
],
[
"etc.). Outflow boundaries can be seen either as fine lines on weather radar imagery or else as arcs of low clouds on weather satellite imagery. From the ground, outflow boundaries can be co-located with the appearance of roll clouds and shelf clouds.\nOutflow boundaries create low-level wind shear which can be hazardous during aircraft takeoffs and landings. If a thunderstorm runs into an outflow boundary, the low-level wind shear from the boundary can cause thunderstorms to exhibit rotation at the base of the storm, at times causing tornadic activity. Strong versions of these features known as downbursts can be generated",
"-31.821656349107798"
],
[
"large mats of cirrus, and increased air traffic has been implicated as one possible cause of the increasing frequency and amount of cirrus in Earth's atmosphere. Use in forecasting Random, isolated cirrus do not have any particular significance. A large number of cirrus clouds can be a sign of an approaching frontal system or upper air disturbance. This signals a change in weather in the near future, which usually becomes stormier. If the cloud is a cirrus castellanus, there might be instability at the high altitude level. When the clouds deepen and spread, especially when they are of the cirrus",
"-31.721843408740824"
],
[
"other. In addition, the radar controller stated that he did not see the Beechcraft on his radar scope until 22 seconds before the crash. Controllers testified that the zone near the crash site was a zone where small planes could be difficult to detect on radar, but flight checks in the area proved inconclusive.\nThe National Transportation Safety Board investigated the accident and determined that due to the high rate of descent of the DC-9, its pilots were not able to see the other plane in time to avoid a collision. Weather conditions included widely scattered, thin clouds, with",
"-31.665829388693965"
],
[
"flew too close to the mountain. There were no ground proximity warning systems on aircraft at that time, so when the terrain abruptly appeared in front of the windshields, it was too late for the pilot to divert the plane.\nThe investigators also concluded that lack of conversation between both pilots also played a major factor of the crash. They believe that the accident could have been avoided if the captain, sitting in the passenger's seat, had reminded the pilot at control that the flight was dangerously close to the terrain.\nAnother theory suggested that both the pilots were disoriented and failed",
"-31.62026233585766"
],
[
"radar. Findings The board of inquiry determined that:\nThe cause of the accident was that the flight crew failed to follow procedural requirements for an instrument let-down approach, but continued to descend under visual flight rules in darkness and some cloud, i.e. without having some contact with the ground, below minimum safe altitude and minimum assigned altitude, and in addition ignored the GPWS alarm.\nIn addition the board issued five safety recommendations which covered the use of and recurrent training in approved terminology in ATC communications for both ground and flight crews, monitoring of crew compliance with established procedures, a proposal that",
"-31.567643474390934"
],
[
"under a rotating wall cloud (and any attendant tornadoes), which is the \"bear\", and to the blinding precipitation (which can include window-shatteringly large hail) surrounding some or all sides of a tornado, which is the \"cage\". Similarly, chasing at night heightens risk due to darkness.\nIn reality, the most significant hazard is driving, which is made more dangerous by the severe weather. Adding still more to this hazard are the multiple distractions which can compete for a chaser's attention, such as driving, communicating with chase partners and others with a phone and/or radio, navigating, watching the sky, checking weather data, and",
"-31.51582314942425"
],
[
"that the flight suffered a bird strike; the engines ingested a bird without failing; but the bird also disabled the remaining pitot tubes, freezing the plane at cruising altitude. The aircraft has lost all indication of air speed until they descend to below 22,000 feet, where air temperature is above freezing point.\nWith the aircraft unable to complete the journey, the captain elects to return to Haneda airport, now suffering from severe weather conditions. The flight crew and ground controllers then have to work together to take the plane back home, win the cooperation of a \"difficult\" passenger, fly around adverse",
"-31.476949477866583"
],
[
"in place for when the weather conditions created the possibility of low altitude wind shear. It faulted the controller for failing to inform the departing flight about the rapidly deteriorating visibility and changes in wind speed and direction, and it said that the controller did not have adequate supervision and assistance in the air traffic control tower.\nThe investigation made several recommendations to the airline to prevent similar accidents from happening in the future. It said that the airline should make changes to its operating procedures to prevent a person who is not an assigned crew member from taking",
"-31.452884265767352"
],
[
"this was not prohibited by law), but they could use their judgment on whether to descend to critical height (200 feet (61 m) for this aircraft) and then attempt a landing.\nCaptain Nowroz \"decided that since patchy fog shifts quickly he would make an approach with a view to landing at Gatwick\". The accident report stated that because he was relying principally on visual indications as he came in to land, he may have been distracted from his flight-deck duties; and patchy fog in otherwise clear conditions has been known to severely affect the sighting of visual references, sometimes leading to \"disastrous",
"-31.451923790362343"
],
[
"been stated that individual clouds will have their own behaviors, and that they will impact aircraft performance depending on its location within the system.\nFlight Simulator will populate roads with vehicles, water will flow realistically based on wind direction, and trees will have individual leaves, creating the illusion of a living world. It will feature over two million cities and towns and more than 40,000 real-world airports. Development Flight Simulator was announced at E3 2019 on June 9. It is the first major entry in the series since 2006's Microsoft Flight Simulator X, following a long period of uncertainty over the",
"-31.45133649069612"
],
[
"cloud where he encountered accelerations of 18 g and became unconscious.\nDue to the phase change of water droplets (to ice), the cumulonimbus top is almost always turbulent. Moreover, the glider can become covered with ice, and the controls can freeze and remain stuck. Many accidents of this kind have occurred. If the pilot bails out and opens his parachute, he may be sucked upward (or at least held aloft) as happened to William Rankin after ejecting from an F-8 fighter jet and falling into a cumulonimbus (within which his parachute opened).\nA skydiver or paraglider pilot under a cumulonimbus is exposed to",
"-31.439768736665428"
],
[
"difficulty of safely moving aircraft on the ground in low visibility. Visibility and air pollution A visibility reduction is probably the most apparent symptom of air pollution. Visibility degradation is caused by the absorption and scattering of light by particles and gases in the atmosphere. Absorption of electromagnetic radiation by gases and particles is sometimes the cause of discolorations in the atmosphere but usually does not contribute very significantly to visibility degradation.\nScattering by particulates impairs visibility much more readily. Visibility is reduced by significant scattering from particles between an observer and a distant object. The particles scatter light from",
"-31.435477388557047"
],
[
"approaching the island, thick, low cloud cover formed. The crew of the formation leader decided to descend into the clouds to determine their lower boundary and see if it was possible to land. While carrying out this mission, the helicopter crashed to the ground.\nThe IAC board's report it states that “the most probable cause of the R66 RA-06233 helicopter’s crash was the PIC’s loss of flight altitude control during the attempt to establish visual contact with terrain under weather conditions that did not comply with VFR and the pilot’s experience level, which led to the aircraft’s collision with the icy",
"-31.40833907080014"
],
[
"with clouds and heavy rain, and some reports of turbulence. The aircraft was not equipped with ground proximity warning system, nor was this required. There was no requirement for the aircraft to have a flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder (CVR), but the airline had chosen to install the latter. Interviews with the surviving passengers showed that none of them perceived that there was any problems with the flight until the sudden impact. One of the passengers was a navigation professional and could see parts of the cockpit from his seat; he was thus able to confirm some of",
"-31.347780105746097"
],
[
"aircraft are required to approach the airport at very low speeds, making the aircraft extremely vulnerable to sudden downdrafts and strong winds that are known to occur in the mountains. Contributing factors might include poor visibility on final approach and the inexperience and lack of technology available to air traffic control.\nIn December 2017, an investigation committee of the Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal submitted its final report on the accident and concluded that \"Very low visibility\" was the cause of the accident. As the aircraft was flying through dense fog for several minutes before the approach, it missed the runway",
"-31.341325899837102"
],
[
"specific cause of the accident. The flight took place in darkness and weather conditions of high wind and rain soon after the aircrew had been awakened, and at a very low altitude while attempting to locate a difficult target—in such conditions there was a low margin for safety and any loss of altitude would have been fatal.",
"-31.279805667065375"
],
[
"to tap into the jet stream and aim it towards the surface the phenomenon known as \"Jet stream enhancement\", which usually occurs in the unstable air found in a cold front in a mid latitude cyclone. The result was extensive damage to structures both directly and indirectly from falling trees and debris.",
"-31.25612275277672"
],
[
"also warned not to fly too low, because seawater would ruin the lift in his wings. Flying too low is even more dangerous than flying too high, because it feels deceptively safe.\"",
"-31.252525055031583"
],
[
"fall from the sky or go through an emergency landing, resulting in deaths and property damage. In addition, poor weather conditions, such as low air density, lightning storms and heavy rain, snow or fog could be challenging and affect the aircraft's aerodynamics.\nA major problem, which increases rapidly with wider adoption, is the risk of mid-air collisions. Another is the unscheduled or emergency landing of a flying car on an unprepared location beneath, including the possibility of accident debris. Regulatory regimes are being developed in anticipation of a large increase in the numbers of roadable aircraft and personal air vehicles in",
"-31.239894399909417"
],
[
"\"castles in the air.\" \nPeople often assume that mirages occur only rarely. This may be true of optical mirages, but conditions for radar mirages are more common, due to the role played by water vapor which strongly affects the atmospheric refractivity in relation to radio waves. Since clouds are closely associated with high levels of water vapor, optical mirages due to water vapor are often rendered undetectable by the accompanying opaque cloud. On the other hand, radar propagation is essentially unaffected by the water droplets of the cloud so that changes in water vapor content with altitude are very effective",
"-31.219042547840218"
],
[
"avoid the other aircraft, or insufficiency of en route air traffic advisory information due to inadequacy of facilities and lack of personnel in air traffic control.\nIn the report, weather and the airworthiness of the two planes were thought to have played no role in the accident. Lacking credible eyewitnesses and with some uncertainty regarding high altitude visibility at the time of the collision, it was not possible to determine conclusively how much opportunity was available for the TWA and United pilots to see and avoid each other.\nNeither flight crew was specifically implicated in the CAB's finding of probable cause, although",
"-31.215448830267633"
],
[
"safe feeling in the flight (fly in peace). Even in turbulent conditions, the wing retains largely stoic and does not detract from the good feeling of flight. The glide of the Eden 6 is at the top of the current B segment. The manufacturer claims a glide ratio of 10+. This seems to be no dreamy optimism, but is according to our experience, corresponding to the reality.\"",
"-31.205043268258123"
],
[
"was distracted while trying to locate the runway in heavy fog, as a consequence, the plane went below the minimum safe altitude in a mountainous region with the flight crew ignoring the voice commands of the proximity radar until seconds before impact.",
"-31.17690479699013"
],
[
"of the water, including fish of different sizes, frogs, and even turtles, can be lifted into the air. A waterspout can sometimes suck small animals such as fish out of the water and all the way up into the cloud. Even if the waterspout stops spinning, the fish in the cloud can be carried over land, buffeted up and down and around with the cloud’s winds until its currents no longer keep the flying fish in the atmosphere. Depending on how far they travel and how high they are taken into the atmosphere, the fish are sometimes dead by the",
"-31.08434099951637"
],
[
"cleared the clouds, they instantly discovered the plane was in a dive and moments away from impact, and they attempted to pull up. The stress of the turbulence coupled with the sudden change of direction tore loose one of the wings, followed by both engines and finally the tail. The plane's fuselage then spun into the ground seconds later, coming to rest nose down in a ravine after striking terrain at Plateau du Coiron, near Saint-Bauzile, Ardèche, France. Lady Hartington was instantly killed along with Fitzwilliam, pilot Peter Townshend, and navigator Arthur Freeman.\nHer father was the only family member",
"-31.058858283438894"
],
[
"about half of the approach lights. Visual conditions existed outside the fog area. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) found that the probable cause was \"an unrecognized loss of altitude orientation during the final portion of an approach into shallow, dense fog. The disorientation was caused by a rapid reduction in the ground guidance segment available to the pilot at a point beyond which a go-around could not be successfully effected.\"\n35 passengers and crew out of the 37 on board were killed.",
"-31.058568868334987"
],
[
"improving conditions generally, while noting smoke aloft from the burning plane.\nThe Canadian Broadcasting Corporation reported that the accident happened two hours after a ground stop was declared at the airport because of severe thunderstorms in the area (\"red alert\" status, which, for safety reasons, halts all ground activity on the apron and gate area. Aircraft can still land, and take off if still in queue). Visibility at the time of the accident was reported to be very poor. There was lightning, strong gusty winds, and hail at the time and the rain just began as the plane was landing. Within",
"-31.01395931164916"
],
[
"fog, snow, high winds and torrential rain reported.\nThe cause of the accident was that the pilot flew too low whilst trying to descend out of icing conditions. A navigational error may also have contributed to the accident.",
"-30.98141857820883"
],
[
"considered pilot error, faulty ground support equipment and poor weather conditions as possible causes. The plane's pilot blamed bad weather for the accident; while the plane's operator, South Airlines, stated that the plane was in good condition and the pilot should not have landed in the fog and should have diverted to another airport. One passenger mentioned \"engine failure during landing\".\nDeputy Prime Minister Oleksandr Vilkol stated that the cause for the crash was a loss of speed by the aircraft during landing approach due to an error of the unprepared crew, which had no clearance to make the flight in",
"-30.963726404988847"
],
[
"had my telephoto lens on and could tell that there was some sort of struggle going on board the plane. The wings were rapidly tipping from side to side. At one point the plane almost became perpendicular, no more than six feet off the ground. That's when I put down my camera and saw the plane right in front of me. I quickly crouched to avoid getting hit and looked over my shoulder and watched it clip the bus, crash into the tree and explode on impact into the garage.\nAs the band members on board the bus were all shaken",
"-30.959970299682027"
],
[
"determined that a plane can be \"seriously affected\" by \"a downburst of air current\". Fujita proposed new methods of detecting and identifying downbursts, including installation of additional weather monitoring equipment at the approach ends of active runways, and also proposed development of new procedures for immediately communicating downburst detection to incoming aircraft.\nFujita's downburst theory was not immediately accepted by the aviation meteorology community. However, the crashes of Pan Am Flight 759 in 1982 and Delta Airlines Flight 191 in 1985 prompted the aviation community to re-evaluate and ultimately accept Fujita's theory and to begin researching downburst/microburst detection and avoidance systems",
"-30.94337307142905"
],
[
"rather than along its flank. Due to whiteout conditions, \"a malevolent trick of the polar light\", the crew were unable to visually identify the mountain in front of them. Furthermore, they may have experienced a rare meteorological phenomenon called sector whiteout, which creates the visual illusion of a flat horizon far in the distance. (It appeared to be a very broad gap between cloud layers allowing a view of the distant Ross Ice Shelf and beyond.) Mahon noted that the flight crew, with many thousands of hours of flight time between them, had considerable experience with the extreme accuracy of",
"-30.874317150142815"
],
[
"these noises seemed to have stopped, or at least faded before the aircraft impacted with flat ground two miles short of the runway.\nOne witness interviewed by the NTSB, a pilot driving on a road southwest of the airport, told investigators that he saw the airplane in normal flight at normal altitudes, and that he believed that the approach was not abnormal. The airplane completed a 180-degree turn from the downwind leg of the approach and continued the turn. He then saw the aircraft pitch slightly, before it rolled to the left until the wings were vertical. The airplane then turned",
"-30.86524038695279"
],
[
"coordinate the aircraft with the rudder. Airplanes can readily enter into a slip climbing out from take-off on a windy day. If left unchecked, climb performance will suffer. This is especially dangerous if there are nearby obstructions under the climb path and the aircraft is underpowered or heavily loaded.\nA slip can also be a piloting maneuver where the pilot deliberately enters one type of slip or another. Slips are particularly useful in performing a short field landing over an obstacle (such as trees, or power lines), or to avoid an obstacle (such as a single tree on the extended centerline",
"-30.849954279376107"
],
[
"turbulence around the same area and at a similar time to when Flight 447 had crashed. Because the pilots could not obtain immediate permission from air traffic controllers to descend to a less turbulent altitude, the mayday was to alert other aircraft in the vicinity that the flight had deviated from its normal flight level. This is standard contingency procedure when changing altitude without direct ATC authorization. After 30 minutes of moderate-to-severe turbulence, the flight continued normally. The flight landed safely in Paris six hours and 40 minutes after the mayday call. Inaccurate airspeed indicators There have been several cases",
"-30.791436996893026"
],
[
"the aircraft was unable to penetrate into the core of the eye due to severe turbulence; however, they were successful after a second attempt. Once inside the eye, they discovered an almost cloud-free center with \"an amphitheater or bowl-like appearance.\" Stratocumulus clouds were suppressed to an unusually low altitude of 1.2 km (0.75 mi). The core of Nora was exceptionally warm, with temperatures reaching a near-record 30 °C (86 °F) at the 700 mb level. At 0020 UTC on October 6, a dropsonde released by the reconnaissance team recorded a surface pressure of 877 mb (hPa; 25.91 inHg) just inside the eyewall of the typhoon. At this time, maximum",
"-30.781928169590174"
],
[
"eyewitness reported seeing smoke coming from the plane's engines as it came down. The aircraft's flight data recorder was recovered in good condition.\nThe Interstate Aviation Committee (MAK) released their final report on 16 July 2013. They determined the cause of the accident to be that the aircraft departed without having been de-iced, though the crew were aware snow and ice had accumulated, and, as a result, stalled on climb-out. The crew did not realise the aircraft had stalled. The report also identified a number of contributing factors that had to do with the airline's safety and training deficiencies.\nIn November 2015,",
"-30.736072533047263"
],
[
"lead author of the study, Paul Williams, a researcher at the National Center for Atmospheric Science, at the University of Reading stated, \"air turbulence does more than just interrupt the service of in-flight drinks. It injures hundreds of passengers and aircrew every year – sometimes fatally. It also causes delays and damage to planes.\" Noise Aircraft noise is seen by advocacy groups as being very hard to get attention and action on. The fundamental issues are increased traffic at larger airports and airport expansion at smaller and regional airports.\nAviation authorities and airlines have developed Continuous Descent Approach procedures to",
"-30.732670164259616"
],
[
"east. The clouds moved very slowly, and heavy clouds were seen lying in the sea south of Gimhae. Gusts of up to 16 knots were also observed. Rescue squads at the crash site also reported that it was covered with thick fog, with the precipitation heavier than a drizzle. Airport lighting Investigators interviewed Captain Wu. Captain Wu Xinlu stated that as he observed the lights on the final approach course to Runway 36L, he saw that neither the runway approach lights on the downwind leg nor the circling guidance lights during the circling approach were on. According to the",
"-30.706114750508277"
],
[
"in the landing area, the \"waveoff window\" is adjusted so that approaching aircraft get no lower than 100 feet above the highest obstacle in the landing area. If there is neither personnel nor aircraft in the landing area but the deck is still foul, aircraft must be waved off in time to pass no lower than 10 feet above the landing area. LSO platform LSOs do their waving from the LSO Platform, which is on the port side of the ship aft of the port side aircraft elevator. It is protected by a wind deflector, and has an escape area",
"-30.6940852714215"
],
[
"witnesses on the ground located by accident investigators after the crash indicated that the aircraft began drifting east of the direct route soon after takeoff. The plane was also reported to have been flying very low and that the weather was very poor, with zero ceiling and visibility along the route. The plane's flight path, miles east of the direct course, resulted in the aircraft flying over significantly higher terrain, the foothills of the Allegheny Mountains, than the flight would have encountered on the direct route.\nThe only surviving crew member, a flight attendant, later recounted that the two",
"-30.67934043369678"
],
[
"as squall lines and cold fronts. It is commonly observed near microbursts and downbursts caused by thunderstorms, fronts, areas of locally higher low-level winds referred to as low level jets, near mountains, radiation inversions that occur due to clear skies and calm winds, buildings, wind turbines, and sailboats. Wind shear has significant effects on control of an aircraft, and it has been a sole or contributing cause of many aircraft accidents.\nWind shear is sometimes experienced by pedestrians at ground level when walking across a plaza towards a tower block and suddenly encountering a strong wind stream that is flowing around",
"-30.66510954437399"
],
[
"effort.\nAccording to the NTSB's report, two witnesses fishing nearby testified \"that they saw a low-flying airplane in a steep right bank. According to these witnesses, as the right bank angle increased, the nose of the airplane dropped and continued downward. The airplane struck the ground in a nearly vertical attitude.\"\nThey reported seeing no external damage or any sign of fire or smoke other than the engine exhaust. A group of sightseers in a small private plane also witnessed the crash and provided a nearly identical account, stating that Flight 592 seemed to \"disappear\" after hitting the swamp and they could",
"-30.662790747399413"
],
[
"that was below VFR minima, that is the minimum visibility and distance from cloud required to fly in accordance with visual flight rules, as the accident flight had planned to do.\nThe crew subsequently lost situational awareness until the aircraft impacted a mountainside, without any action being taken by the crew to avoid the impact. The report noted that the crew had not received CFIT-specific training nor the Approach and Landing Accident Reduction (ALAR) training.\nFollowing the loss of Flight 823, Nusantara Buana Air took a number of safety measures, emphasizing the importance of maintaining visual meteorological conditions during VFR flights. The",
"-30.63693328125555"
],
[
"violent sub-vortices. The second danger is more insidious: the strong updraughts below a supercell cumulonimbus can cover a large area and contain little or no turbulence as explained below. In this case, the glider can be sucked into the cloud, where the pilot can quickly lose visual reference to the ground, causing conditions to quickly become IMC.\nIn these conditions, the aircraft (if not equipped for IMC flight and flown by a pilot experienced in IMC flight) is likely to enter a graveyard spiral and eventually break up by exceeding the wing load limit. In this situation, the cause of the",
"-30.629649967571822"
],
[
"behind the hail. Filtering These two images show what can be presently achieved to clean up radar data. The output on the left is made with the raw returns and it is difficult to spot the real weather. Since rain and snow clouds are usually moving, one can use the Doppler velocities to eliminate a good part of the clutter (ground echoes, reflections from buildings seen as urban spikes, anomalous propagation). The image on the right has been filtered using this property.\n\nHowever, not all non-meteorological targets remain still (birds, insects, dust). Others, like the bright band, depend on the structure",
"-30.626916930750667"
],
[
"the air.\" \nPeople often assume that mirages occur only rarely. This may be true of optical mirages, but conditions for radar mirages are more common, due to the role played by water vapor which strongly affects the atmospheric refractivity in relation to radio waves. Since clouds are closely associated with high levels of water vapor, optical mirages due to water vapor are often rendered undetectable by the accompanying opaque cloud. On the other hand, radar propagation is essentially unaffected by the water droplets of the cloud so that changes in water vapor content with altitude are very effective in producing",
"-30.617240182651585"
],
[
"to climb to 3,000 feet (910 m). The plane struggled to climb due to the severe weather conditions, veered to the right and rapidly descended. The flight crew desperately tried to control the airplane as it plummeted toward the ground. It was later determined that the wind shear alert system did not alert them with a red indicator and aural warning because of a software discrepancy that lowered the sensitivity while the flaps were in transit from 40 degrees to 15 degrees during the go around procedure. A Honeywell engineer stated that the pilots should have received a warning 8–9 seconds",
"-30.589714541078138"
],
[
"played a role in the crash. They have contributed to previous similar crashes.\nThe Indonesian Meteorology, Climatology, and Geophysical Agency (BMKG) reported that the weather was clear around the time of the crash, with winds at 5 knots (9.3 km/h; 5.8 mph) from the northwest. Visibility was good with no cumulonimbus clouds. Police Hospital Chief Musyafak said that an examination of the body parts indicated that it was unlikely that there had been an explosion or fire on board the aircraft. Flight abnormalities Aviation experts noted that there were some abnormalities in the altitude and the airspeed of Flight 610. Just three minutes",
"-30.58388040033242"
],
[
"waves. There is normally a broad temperature gradient behind the boundary with more widely spaced isotherms. A wide variety of weather can be found along a stationary front, but usually clouds and prolonged precipitation are found there. Stationary fronts will either dissipate after several days or devolve into shear lines, but can change into a cold or warm front if conditions aloft change causing a driving of one air mass or the other. Stationary fronts are marked on weather maps with alternating red half-circles and blue spikes pointing in opposite directions, indicating no significant movement.\nWhen stationary fronts become smaller in",
"-30.578202668973972"
],
[
"at 10,200 feet (3,109 m) the GPWS sounded again, but the captain responded not to worry about it. The captain was accustomed to hearing GPWS warnings in normal flight, so it became a habit to disregard the warnings. About one minute before the accident the captain took over control and initiated a climb. The aircraft impacted a mountainside at 10,700 feet (3,261 m) and came to a rest at 10,982 feet (3,347 m) near Dana village, Myagdi district. Aviation Safety Network gives the probable cause as a loss of situational awareness when entering clouds while flying under Visual Flight Rules (VFR). Recovery",
"-30.570866699170438"
],
[
"crashed. One of the survivors said that \"the plane had left Egypt normally, but when we entered the Tunisian airspace we found an unusual climatic situation that I had not seen since the year. And we stayed for about half an hour between the fog and could not see the surface of the earth at all,\" adding that \"while the pilot was preparing to land at the airport in Tunisia, the plane suddenly crashed into the mountain, and that maybe something wrong from the pilot and something from the plane.\" Aftermath After the accident, the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board",
"-30.56021945581233"
],
[
"flight minimizes this possibility by using hills and mountains to break the line of sight (terrain masking), defeating terrestrial air defense radar and in rough enough terrain also airborne early warning. Sensors for NOE Most NOE flying is done during the day using visual reference by pilots who are experienced in low flying. Data from a radar altimeter or terrain-following radar system is also used, the latter enabling low flying in adverse weather where it would not be possible by visual reference and manual pilot control. At night, a night-vision device may be used. Helicopter NOE flying The lowest",
"-30.55043476395383"
],
[
"although the captain thinks it might be something else. There is no apparent damage to the aircraft. Still unable to contact anyone on the ground, and at the risk of potential collision with other aircraft, Farver finally decides to descend below the clouds: the crew is able to identify the coastline of Manhattan Island and other geographic landmarks, but there is no city. The crew realizes that they have traveled far back in time when they look out the window and see grazing dinosaurs.\nWith dwindling fuel supply, their only hope of returning to the present day",
"-30.53552088702054"
],
[
"turn, with the controller not having a clear picture of what the flight was doing, due the Medan radar system having a refresh time of 12 seconds.\nWithout a constant up-to-date view over the flight's heading, the controller thought the plane was continuing left, when it was actually turning right and over high terrain. During this time the flight descended through 2,000 ft due to the captain inputting the wrong altitude of 1,500 ft. The pilots did not notice this due to the poor visibility from the 1997 Southeast Asian haze. Five seconds prior to initial impact with the treetops, the First Officer",
"-30.489156492407346"
],
[
" In the event of bad weather or air traffic circumstances, the exit altitude is lowered. In addition, thick cloud conditions may cause a delay in the jump time altogether.",
"-30.483666995751264"
],
[
"there were no advisories for weather phenomena reported along the air route, per AIRMETs or SIGMETs.\nAfter a routine takeoff and ascent, the aircraft had reached its normal flight altitude of 24,000 feet (7,300 m), when at around 13:48, about 23 nautical miles (43 km; 26 mi) south-southeast of Kahului on the island of Maui, a small section on the left side of the roof ruptured with a \"whooshing\" sound. The captain felt the aircraft roll to the left and right, and the controls went loose; the first officer noticed pieces of grey insulation floating above the cabin. The cockpit door had broken away",
"-30.46860791132349"
],
[
"The aircraft was completely destroyed in the accident. Cause An investigation carried out into the crash was unable to determine the exact cause of the accident. Low cloud cover may have caused the pilots to lose orientation and crash.",
"-30.4658473658028"
],
[
"regarded as positive factors, with one important provision in relation to weather conditions. Should either bright sunshine or rainstorms be encountered, the pilot's visibility could be dangerously compromised either by glare throwback or lack of good sighting.\nTaxiing was easy and was only complicated by rain, when the pilot needed to slide back the window panel and look out to establish direction. On take off, Brown reported very little \"swing\" and the aircraft was well balanced. On landing, Brown noted that approach speed should be above 145 km/h (90 mph) and should be held until touchdown. This was to avoid a tendency by",
"-30.427141315420613"
]
] |
5ewbrj | Most people who take LSD come out of the experience with the sense that we are all one/interconnected with all living things. What happens in the brain to induce this specific epiphany? | [
"The mechanism of action isn't well understood, but as someone who's done literally a couple hundred hits of LSD lifetime, on high dose experiences you begin to forget who you are and lose a sense of individuality and feel like you're just melting into the universe. There is no longer a \"you\", there is only everything. We are all a part of the universe, just groups of atoms and molecules spit out randomly and perfectly in just a way that we are able to identify ourselves and observe our universe. At lower doses there isn't this \"ego death\" as much as you realize that anger is a choice and we are just another animal existing in a spec of dust in a universe grander than we could ever imagine",
"It is because the duality between \"you\" vs. \" the outside world\" is merely a psychological construct. Taking psychedelics breaks this construct down, which puts you in a state of egolessness. This state is characterised by feeling one with everything. The whole idea of \"the self\" as a singular, finite and bounded entity is flat-out wrong. \"The self\" is an evolutionary mechanism, a model of you as biological machine, one that enhances your survivability. Since it is only a model, it is an imperfect representation of reality. While it is at the core of our being and perceiving the world, it is essentially, an illusion. In reality, there is no duality: everything is interconnected and there is no boundary where \"you\" stop and the external world begins. Psychedelics can be a reminder of this. Source: Philosophy major that has taken load of psychedelics",
"I'd be surprised to see too many scientific sources as its a schedule 1 drug and difficult to study.",
"You may want to post this to r/askscience, an ELI5 of this nature will draw a lot of anecdotal evidence.",
"We don't really know. As someone mentioned its a schedule 1 drug so no studying can be done on specific brain pathways. We do know: LSD-25 activates 5HT (serotonin) receptors directly on the target cell. the overall response to this activation is dependent on what part of the brain you are activating or where the receptors are located, LSD activates receptors on raphe neurons that project all over the brain but in higher concentrations in the thalamus (known as our perception modulator, it filters incoming stimuli and passes it along) LSD binds to receptors, activates them and makes the thalamus freak out. This is the mechanism of perceptual alterations and may be responsible for interconnected experiences. LSD is a psychedelic, if you are looking for experiences of unity, dissociative hallucinogens (PCP, Ketamine) will give you a stronger effect.",
"When I took acid I felt an overwhelming disconnect between myself and my body, and could see other people as spiritual beings trapped in physical bodies. This made me believe that we are all connected as we are all on a path that we cannot change due to our physical trappings. I understood that I am part of God because he is everything and anything and this world is only a collection of senses to us all, that is held together with spiritual glue, so to speak. The interconnectedness of everything was highly apparent in that it's obvious but subtle.",
"It comes from the idea that the boundary of where you begin and where you end isn't really that clear. Think about poop. Is your poop you? Even when it's inside of you? Does that mean there are portions of space inside your body that aren't you? Whatever you feel, there be dragons in this line of thought.",
"In my opinion it's a fundamental truth that under just the right conditions can bubble to the surface. It's something we are for the most part blocked off from feeling in our day to day lives. I know it sounds strange considering how \"out there\" one can get on the stuff, but to me it's like a brief moment of raw clarity, that once experienced can deeply affect your perspective/world view. Potentially for the rest of your life. It's not for everyone, and the same truth can be realized through different means I'm sure. However, for me and a lot of people psychedelics like LSD have been the most accessible and reliable way to get that feeling. YMMV.",
"There is a part of the brain that processes all sensory info called the thalamus. It chooses the info that is relevant and relays them as senses as most of us experience. LSD lowers activity in the thalamus, and some theorize that this allows the user to break down the barriers they usually experience when perceiving the world around them, and that it is this that gives them a sense of connectivity they have not experienced before. For more I would check out the LSD podcast on stuff you should know. Very informative stuff."
] | [
[
"sedatives, to increases in the intensity of sensory qualities produced by stimulants, cannabis, empathogens–entactogens such as MDMA (\"Ecstasy\"), or most notably by the class of drugs known as psychedelics. LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, Dimethyltryptamine, and others in this group can produce major distortions of perception, including hallucinations; some users even describe their drug-induced experiences as mystical or spiritual in quality. The brain mechanisms underlying these effects are not as well understood as those induced by use of alcohol, but there is substantial evidence that alterations in the brain system that uses the chemical neurotransmitter serotonin play an essential role.\nThere has been",
"-32.903091230022255"
],
[
"production, hyperreflexia, and tremors. Psychological The most common immediate psychological effects of LSD are visual hallucinations and illusions (colloquially known as \"trips\"), which can vary greatly depending on how much is used and how the brain responds. Trips usually start within 20–30 minutes of taking LSD by mouth (less if snorted or taken intravenously), peak three to four hours after ingestion, and last up to 12 hours. Negative experiences, referred to as \"bad trips\", produce intense negative emotions, such as irrational fears and anxiety, panic attacks, paranoia, rapid mood swings, intrusive thoughts of hopelessness, wanting to harm others, and suicidal",
"-32.56785352755105"
],
[
"psychological phenomenon in which an individual experiences an episode of some of LSD's subjective effects after the drug has worn off, \"persisting for months or years after hallucinogen use\".\nA diagnosable condition called hallucinogen persisting perception disorder has been defined to describe intermittent or chronic flashbacks that cause distress or impairment in life and work, and are caused only by prior hallucinogen use and not some other condition. Cancer and pregnancy The mutagenic potential of LSD is unclear. Overall, the evidence seems to point to limited or no effect at commonly used doses. Studies showed no evidence of teratogenic or",
"-32.233239269327896"
],
[
"in the U.S. found that other than personality disorders and other substance use disorders, lifetime hallucinogen use was not associated with other mental disorders, and that risk of developing a hallucinogen use disorder was very low. How hallucinogens affect the brain LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, and PCP are drugs that cause hallucinations, which can alter a person's perception of reality. LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin cause their effects by initially disrupting the interaction of nerve cells and the neurotransmitter serotonin. It is distributed throughout the brain and spinal cord, where the serotonin system is involved with controlling of the behavioral, perceptual, and",
"-31.948612033971585"
],
[
"the central nervous system in order to create positive emotions and feelings. The hallucinogen LSD is a psychoactive drug commonly used as a recreational drug.\nSome national laws prohibit the use of different recreational drugs; and medicinal drugs that have the potential for recreational use are often heavily regulated. However, there are many recreational drugs that are legal in many jurisdictions and widely culturally accepted.\nCannabis is the most commonly consumed controlled recreational drug in the world (as of 2012). Its use in many countries is illegal but is legally used in several countries usually with the proviso that it can only",
"-31.728729538997868"
],
[
"have been suggested to be involved in many types of mental conditions including Parkinson's disease, senility, schizophrenia, and Alzheimer's. Research on this question has not reached a firm conclusion. The same concerns do not apply to psychedelics that do not release neurotransmitters, such as LSD, nor to dissociatives or deliriants.\nNo clear connection has been made between psychedelic drugs and organic brain damage. However, hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) is a diagnosed condition wherein certain visual effects of drugs persist for a long time, sometimes permanently, although science and medicine have yet to determine what causes the condition.\nA large epidemiological study",
"-31.71174567885464"
],
[
"plays a role in precipitating the onset of acute psychosis in previously healthy individuals with an increased likelihood in individuals who have a family history of schizophrenia. There is evidence that people with severe mental illnesses like schizophrenia have a higher likelihood of experiencing adverse effects from taking LSD. Suggestibility While publicly available documents indicate that the CIA and Department of Defense have discontinued research into the use of LSD as a means of mind control, research from the 1960s suggests that both mentally ill and healthy people are more suggestible while under its influence. Flashbacks \"Flashbacks\" are a reported",
"-31.64607729151612"
],
[
"experience as: \"complex revelatory insights into the nature of existence… typically accompanied by a sense of certainty that this knowledge is ultimately more relevant and \"real\" than the perceptions and beliefs we share in everyday life.\" The philosopher Alan Watts likened psychedelic experiencing to the transformations of consciousness that are undertaken in Taoism and Zen, which he says is, \"more like the correction of faulty perception or the curing of a disease… not an acquisitive process of learning more and more facts or greater and greater skills, but rather an unlearning of wrong habits and opinions.\"\nThe LSD experience was described",
"-31.53087947293534"
],
[
"by LSD may contribute to its psychoactive effects in humans.\nLSD binds to most serotonin receptor subtypes except for the 5-HT₃ and 5-HT₄ receptors. However, most of these receptors are affected at too low affinity to be sufficiently activated by the brain concentration of approximately 10–20 nM. In humans, recreational doses of LSD can affect 5-HT1A (Kᵢ=1.1nM), 5-HT2A (Kᵢ=2.9nM), 5-HT2B (Kᵢ=4.9nM), 5-HT2C (Kᵢ=23nM), 5-HT5A (Kᵢ=9nM [in cloned rat tissues]), and 5-HT₆ receptors (Kᵢ=2.3nM). 5-HT5B receptors, which are not present in humans, also have a high affinity for LSD. The psychedelic effects of LSD are attributed to cross-activation of 5-HT2A receptor",
"-31.162725238042185"
],
[
"Lysergic acid diethylamide Recreational LSD is commonly used as a recreational drug. Spiritual LSD is considered an entheogen because it can catalyze intense spiritual experiences, during which users may feel they have come into contact with a greater spiritual or cosmic order. Users sometimes report out of body experiences. In 1966, Timothy Leary established the League for Spiritual Discovery with LSD as its sacrament. Stanislav Grof has written that religious and mystical experiences observed during LSD sessions appear to be phenomenologically indistinguishable from similar descriptions in the sacred scriptures of the great religions of the world and the texts",
"-31.150269730365835"
],
[
"Its connection with experience is so deep that, in one sense, it is the final understanding of all experience.\" Psychedelic drugs Dr. R.R. Griffiths and colleagues at Johns Hopkins University had done a double blind study evaluating the psychological effects of psilocybin comparing with methylphenidate(Ritalin). 36 hallucinogen-naive adults were recruited. 22 of the 36 reported mystical experience. The effect persisted even at 2 and 14 months follow-up. The group continued to do studies in evaluating the effect with different dosing and the resulting mystical effect on personality. Psychiatry A 2012 paper suggested that psychiatric conditions associated with psychotic spectrum symptoms",
"-30.820983701443765"
],
[
"were prone to purposeless movements and had hallucinations (or \"dreams\") during and after anaesthesia. Some patients found the hallucinations euphoric while others found them disturbing.\nAt sub-anesthetic doses, dissociatives alter many of the same cognitive and perceptual processes affected by other hallucinogenic drugs such as mescaline, LSD, and psilocybin; hence they are also considered hallucinogenic, and psychedelic. Perhaps the most significant subjective differences between dissociatives and the classical hallucinogens (such as LSD and mescaline) are the dissociative effects, including: depersonalization, the feeling of being unreal, disconnected from one's self, or unable to control one's actions; and derealization, the feeling",
"-30.7800491291855"
],
[
"short an empathic resonance is consistently evoked. While psychedelics like LSD may sometimes yield effects of empathic resonance, these effects tend to be momentary and likely passed over on the way to some other dimension or interest. In contrast, the main characteristic that distinguishes MDMA from LSD-type experiences is the consistency of the effects of emotional communion, relatedness, emotional openness—in short, empathy and sympathy. Examples The chemicals below have a varying degree of entactogenic effects; some of them induce additional effects, including serenic effects, stimulant effects, antidepressant effects, anxiolytic effects, and psychedelic effects. Therapeutic uses Psychiatrists began using empathogens as",
"-30.67903270100942"
],
[
"Psychedelic experience Definition A psychedelic experience is a temporary altered state of consciousness induced by the consumption of psychedelic drugs (the best known of which are LSD and psilocybin 'magic' mushrooms). The psychedelic altered state of consciousness is commonly characterised as a higher (elevated or transcendent) state relative to ordinary (sober) experience; for example, the psychologist Benny Shanon observed from ayahuasca trip reports: \"the assessment, very common with ayahuasca, that what is seen and thought during the course of intoxication defines the real, whereas the world that is ordinarily perceived is actually an illusion.\"\nSimilarly, psychologist Stanislav Grof described the LSD",
"-30.594551995047368"
],
[
"or express feelings can also occur. Not everyone, however, experiences problems with long-term use. Additionally, an altered perception of self, environment and relationships may occur.\nCompared to other sedative-hypnotics, visits to the hospital involving benzodiazepines had a 66% greater odds of a serious adverse health outcome. This included hospitalization, patient transfer, or death, and visits involving a combination of benzodiazepines and non-benzodiapine receptor agonists had almost four-times increased odds of a serious health outcome. Cognitive effects The short-term use of benzodiazepines adversely affects multiple areas of cognition, the most notable one being that it interferes with the formation and consolidation of",
"-30.4917374940851"
],
[
"state of higher consciousness and transcendence. Typical psychedelic drugs are hallucinogens including LSD, DMT (Dimethyltryptamine), cannabis, peyote, and psilocybin mushrooms. According to Wolfson, these drug-induced altered states of consciousness may result in a more long-term and positive transformation of self.\nAccording to Dutta, psychedelic drugs may be used for psychoanalytic therapy, as a means to gain access to the higher consciousness, thereby providing patients the ability to access memories that are held deep within their mind.",
"-30.43676787876757"
],
[
"psychedelic experiencing as \"non-specific amplification of unconscious mental processes\", and he analysed the phenomenology of the LSD experience (particularly the experience of psychospiritual death and rebirth) in terms of Otto Rank's theory of the unresolved memory of the primal birth trauma.",
"-30.42993570953695"
],
[
"being prevented. Alleviation of dysphoria theory The alleviation of dysphoria theory suggests that people with severe mental illness commonly have a negative self-image, which makes them vulnerable to using psychoactive substances to alleviate these feelings. Despite the existence of a wide range of dysphoric feelings (anxiety, depression, boredom, and loneliness), the literature on self-reported reasons for use seems to lend support for the experience of these feelings being the primary motivator for alcoholism and other drug misuse. Multiple risk factor theory Another theory is that there may be shared risk factors that can lead to both substance abuse and mental",
"-30.414687341835815"
],
[
"to facilitate \"mystical\" experiences and if these experiences could cause permanent and beneficial personality transformation. In order to do so, he recruited 20 Protestant divinity students, 10 of whom would take synthetic psilocybin and 10 of whom would take a placebo. The experiment took place in a basement chapel in which the audio from a Good Friday service conducted in the main chapel upstairs was broadcast.\nThroughout the short history of LSD research, people unaffiliated or loosely affiliated with the scientific establishment distributed supplies of LSD outside of laboratory settings. Soon the lines between legitimate research and personal experimentation began to",
"-30.37808227527421"
],
[
"that persisted behind my closed eyes. Kaleidoscopic, fantastic images surged in on me, alternating, variegated, opening and then closing themselves in circles and spirals, exploding in colored fountains, rearranging and hybridizing themselves in constant flux ...\"\nThe events of the first LSD trip, now known as “Bicycle Day”, after the bicycle ride home, proved to Hofmann that he had indeed made a significant discovery: a psychoactive substance with extraordinary potency, capable of causing significant shifts of consciousness in incredibly low doses. Hofmann foresaw the drug as a powerful psychiatric tool; because of its intense and introspective nature, he couldn't imagine anyone",
"-30.32076065347428"
],
[
"Psychedelics and ecology Researchers have noted the relationship between psychedelics and ecology, particularly in relation to the altered states of consciousness (ASC) produced by psychedelic drugs and the perception of interconnectedness expressed through ecological ideas and themes produced by the psychedelic experience. This is felt through the direct experience of the unity of nature and the environment of which the individual is no longer perceived as separate but intimately connected and embedded inside.\nSwiss chemist Albert Hofmann, the first person to synthesize LSD, believed that the drug made one aware and sensitive to \"the magnificence of nature and of the animal",
"-30.313882087357342"
],
[
"expressed the opinion that if the active agent could be isolated and a sufficient supply assured, it might become a vital tool in the study of psychic processes. She also stated that as the drug would become better known, medical uses would be found for it, perhaps in the treatment of alcoholism, narcotic addiction, mental disorders, and terminal diseases associated with severe pain. Several years later a team of researchers working in Baltimore independently tested the validity of her unusual vision. Her suggestion that transition to death could be eased by a dosage of LSD was followed by Aldous",
"-30.18825261312304"
],
[
"fear, and anxiety.\nStrassman also stressed the importance of the context where the drug has been taken. He claimed that DMT has no beneficial effects of itself, rather the context when and where people take it plays an important role.\nIt appears that DMT can produce a hallucinogenic experience. It can induce a state or feeling to a person that he or she is able to \"communicate with other intelligent-life forms\" (see \"Machine Elves\"). High doses of DMT produce a hallucinatory state that involves sense of \"another intelligence\" that people sometimes describe as \"super-intelligent\", but \"emotionally detached\".\nIn 1995 Adolf Dittrich and Daniel",
"-30.142722814227454"
],
[
"cortex.\nModern studies are revealing details of mechanisms of damage to the nervous system such as apoptosis (programmed cell death) and free-radical disruption. Phencyclidine has been found to cause cell death in striatopallidal cells and abnormal vacuolization in hippocampal and other neurons. The hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD), also known as post-psychedelic perception disorder, has been observed in patients as long as 26 years after LSD use. The plausible cause of HPPD is damage to the inhibitory GABA circuit in the visual pathway (GABA agonists such as midazolam can decrease some effects of LSD intoxication). The damage may be the result",
"-30.0885804167483"
],
[
"or divine union, equated with mysticism or entheogenic ('that which causes God to be within an individual') experiences. In others, the 'entactogenic' qualities of drugs are used to enhance feelings of empathy among congregations. Personal development and exploration Some people believe that altered states of consciousness enable many people to push the boundaries of human experience, knowledge, and creativity. There is thus a moral imperative to experiment with drugs in terms of human progress, teleological development, or just increased artistic creativity; such ideas are central to Cognitive Liberty, Stoned Ape Hypothesis and Aldous Huxley's The Doors of Perception.\n\nIn PiHKAL, Alexander",
"-30.02526820068306"
],
[
"LSD with psychotherapy as treatment for alcoholic patients. This work was backed by the State Hospital Alcoholic Rehabilitation Unit. The findings of this experiment were published four years later in 1967. \nAccording to the experimenters themselves, the rationale for using psychedelics to treat alcoholic patients is in the “clinical picture” presented in the features of alcoholic patients. Various personality types such as “neurotic, psychopathic, and schizoid” were thought to have a vulnerability that led to their addiction to alcohol. These individuals were perceived as having a weakened ability to “handle psychological stress, tensions, and frustrations.” They also believed",
"-29.963452630283427"
],
[
"coined the term \"psychedelic\"), Hoffer and other scientists sought to find medicinal uses for hallucinogenic drugs. Part of the research involved Hoffer, Osmond and their wives consuming LSD in an effort to become better acquainted with, and better understand its effects, later joined by other experimenters and their wives. Their work began attracting notoriety within professional, provincial and federal and political circles, and they were courted by the emerging movement to restrict peyote as well as Native American groups that used the substance in religious ceremonies. Hoffer, Osmond and others treated alcoholics with LSD. Canadian scientists",
"-29.95378085237462"
],
[
"mescaline are affected by his deep familiarity with Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism. So the experience may not be the same for others who take the drug and do not have this background, although they will undoubtedly experience a transformation of sensation. Zaehner himself was a convert to Catholicism.\nThat the longing to transcend oneself is \"one of the principal appetites of the soul\" is questioned by Zaehner. There are still people who do not feel this desire to escape themselves, and religion itself need not mean escaping from the ego. Zaehner criticises what he sees as Huxley's apparent call for all",
"-29.95113375619985"
],
[
"the physiological, rather than psychological, aspects of psychiatry. Other medical researchers questioned the validity of Huxley's account. The book contained \"99 percent Aldous Huxley and only one half gram mescaline\" according to Roland Fisher. Joost A.M. Meerloo found Huxley's reactions \"not necessarily the same as... other people's experiences.\"\nFor Steven J. Novak, The Doors Of Perception (and \"Heaven and Hell\") redefined taking mescaline (and LSD, although Huxley had not taken it until after he had written both books) as a mystical experience with possible psychotherapeutic benefits, where physicians had previously thought of the drug in terms of mimicking a psychotic episode,",
"-29.91541605180828"
],
[
"remains no consensus regarding the nature and causes of HPPD or flashbacks. A study of 44 HPPD subjects who had previously ingested LSD showed EEG abnormalities. Given that some symptoms have environmental triggers, it may represent a failure to adjust visual processing to changing environmental conditions. There are no explanations for why only some individuals develop HPPD. Explanations in terms of LSD physically remaining in the body for months or years after consumption have been discounted by experimental evidence.\nLSD is metabolized by the liver, and has an elimination half-life of around 2.5 to 4 hours. Strychnine Anti-drug educators",
"-29.825479644350708"
],
[
"self-medication with non-prescribed drugs such as alcohol, tobacco and other recreational drugs.\nThere is some evidence that the subset of bipolar patients with a history of psychosis may smoke more heavily than the general population.",
"-29.823660540118"
],
[
"free of their neuroses. Carbogen users are said to have discovered unconscious contents of their minds, with the experience clearing away repressed material and freeing the subject for a smoother, more profound psychedelic experience.\nOne subject reported: \n\"After the second breath came an onrush of color, first a predominant sheet of beautiful rosy-red, following which came successive sheets of brilliant color and design, some geometric, some fanciful and graceful …. Then the colors separated; my soul drawing apart from the physical being, was drawn upward seemingly to leave the earth and to go upward where it reached a greater Spirit",
"-29.81797265842033"
],
[
"have occurred due to LSD. Eight individuals who accidentally consumed very high amounts by mistaking LSD for cocaine developed comatose states, hyperthermia, vomiting, gastric bleeding, and respiratory problems–however, all survived with supportive care.\nReassurance in a calm, safe environment is beneficial. Agitation can be safely addressed with benzodiazepines such as lorazepam or diazepam. Neuroleptics such as haloperidol are recommended against because they may have adverse effects. LSD is rapidly absorbed, so activated charcoal and emptying of the stomach is of little benefit, unless done within 30–60 minutes of ingesting an overdose of LSD. Sedation or physical restraint is rarely required, and",
"-29.674662350444123"
],
[
"states of altered consciousness, psychedelics tend to affect the mind in ways that result in the experience being qualitatively different from those of ordinary consciousness. Whereas stimulants cause an energized feeling and opiates produce a dreamy, relaxed state, the psychedelic experience is often compared to non-ordinary forms of consciousness such as trance, meditation, yoga, religious ecstasy, dreaming and even near-death experiences. With a few exceptions, most psychedelic drugs fall into one of the three following families of chemical compounds; tryptamines, phenethylamines, and lysergamides. Many psychedelic drugs are illegal worldwide under the UN conventions unless used in a medical or",
"-29.65863179540611"
],
[
"could make a big difference to the lives of many who still suffered. Bill is quoted as saying: \"It is a generally acknowledged fact in spiritual development that ego reduction makes the influx of God's grace possible. If, therefore, under LSD we can have a temporary reduction, so that we can better see what we are and where we are going — well, that might be of some help. The goal might become clearer. So I consider LSD to be of some value to some people, and practically no damage to anyone. It will never take the place",
"-29.606282936700154"
],
[
"mutagenic effects. Tolerance Tolerance to LSD builds up with consistent use and cross-tolerance has been demonstrated between LSD, mescaline\nand psilocybin.\nThis tolerance is probably caused by downregulation of 5-HT2A receptors in the brain and diminishes a few days after cessation of use.\nThe NIH comments that LSD is addictive, while other sources state it is not. A 2009 textbook states that it \"rarely produce[s] compulsive use\". A 2006 review states it is readily abused but does not result in addiction. Overdose As of 2008 there were no documented fatalities attributed directly to an LSD overdose. Despite this several behavioral fatalities and suicides",
"-29.51439203953487"
],
[
"Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies Psychedelic therapy The psychoactive properties of LSD were discovered in 1943 by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann when he accidentally ingested a small dose through the skin while studying the compound. Controlled research on human subjects began soon after and Hofmann's colleague Werner Stoll published his findings about the basic effects of LSD on human subjects in 1947.\nAfter the earliest European and American research efforts investigated whether LSD could reliably induce psychotic disorders, some began to evaluate the potential for LSD to assist in traditional Freudian psychotherapy in the 1950s. Studies into the effects of LSD",
"-29.47570558253574"
],
[
"or a person with Down Syndrome; some have even gone as far to say it was a dead baby. \"Homeopathic\" drug water In 2004–2005, an Internet rumor was going around that said that LSD (and other drugs) were being diluted with water to extremely low concentrations, which allegedly made the drugs more powerful, yet cheaper and undetectable. This is related to the pseudo-scientific \"Law of Infinitesimals,\" one of the principles behind homeopathy. However, there is no evidence that this actually has effects different from a placebo, or that a significant number of users or dealers were ever actually",
"-29.471631201915443"
],
[
"under certain conditions: temporal lobe epilepsy, head trauma, stroke, and brain tumors. They also note that it can likewise occur during stages of meditation, deep concentration, sensory deprivation, or with use of psychedelics such as LSD or mescaline, and even, in some cases, marijuana. However, synesthetes report that common stimulants, like caffeine and cigarettes do not affect the strength of their synesthesia, nor does alcohol.\nA very different theoretical approach to synesthesia is that based on ideasthesia. According to this account, synesthesia is a phenomenon mediated by the extraction of the meaning of the inducing stimulus. Thus, synesthesia may be fundamentally",
"-29.429953495506197"
],
[
"experiential phenomena. Two scientific studies have concluded that psilocybin (a typical psychedelic compound that occurs naturally in psilocybin mushrooms) reliably triggers mystical-type experiences. The more recent study at Johns Hopkins University identified mystical experiences by means of several questionnaires designed to categorise altered state 'non-ordinary' experiences, including one questionnaire called 'the mysticism scale'.\nFurthermore, psychedelic drugs have a long history of religious use across the world. They are often called entheogens because of their propensity to induce these kinds of experiences.\nSeveral modern religions exist today that base their religious activities and beliefs around psychedelic experiencing, such as Santo Daime and the",
"-29.398086375382263"
],
[
"prolonged period after use, or upon withdrawal. Individuals who have a substance induced psychosis tend to have a greater awareness of their psychosis and tend to have higher levels of suicidal thinking compared to individuals who have a primary psychotic illness. Drugs commonly alleged to induce psychotic symptoms include alcohol, cannabis, cocaine, amphetamines, cathinones, psychedelic drugs (such as LSD and psilocybin), κ-opioid receptor agonists (such as enadoline and salvinorin A) and NMDA receptor antagonists (such as phencyclidine and ketamine). Caffeine may worsen symptoms in those with schizophrenia and cause psychosis at very high doses in people without the condition. Alcohol",
"-29.362146112282062"
],
[
"disease, a disorder that affects a person's ability to move as they want to, resulting in stiffness, tremors or shaking, and other symptoms. Some studies suggest that having too little or too much dopamine or problems using dopamine in the thinking and feeling regions of the brain may play a role in disorders like schizophrenia or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Dopamine is also involved in addiction and drug use, as most recreational drugs cause an influx of dopamine in the brain (especially opioid and methamphetamines) that produces a pleasurable feeling, which is why users constantly crave drugs.\nSerotonin:\nSimilarly, after some",
"-29.333931297354866"
],
[
"and support the patient in exploring their inner experience. Patients participate in psychotherapy before the drug psychotherapy sessions to prepare them and after the drug psychotherapy to help them integrate their experiences with the drug.\nAn early practitioner of psychedelic drug based psychiatry was Humphrey Osmond, a British psychiatrist who was responsible for coining the word 'psychedelic' in the first place. Osmond claimed that his own personal use of LSD had helped him to understand the inner mental states of his schizophrenic patients.\nAnother important practitioner in this field is Stanislav Grof, who pioneered the use of LSD in psychotherapy. Grof characterised",
"-29.327961422357475"
],
[
"drug, and may result in persons with lesions in the insula reporting that their bodies have forgotten the urge to use, according to this study. Subjective certainty in ecstatic seizures A common quality in mystical experiences is a strong feeling of certainty which cannot be expressed in words. Fabienne Picard proposes a neurological explanation for this subjective certainty, based on clinical research of epilepsy. \nAccording to Picard, this feeling of certainty may be caused by a dysfunction of the anterior insula, a part of the brain which is involved in interoception, self-reflection, and in avoiding uncertainty about the internal representations",
"-29.318008722621016"
],
[
"\"producing\"): \"A mind-altering chemical, drug, or agent, specifically a chemical the most prominent pharmacologic action of which is on the central nervous system (mescaline); in normal people, it elicits optic or auditory hallucinations, depersonalization, perceptual disturbances, and disturbances of thought processes.\"\nPharmacology divides hallucinogens into three classes. Psychedelic (first used in 1956 from Greek psyche- \"mind; soul\" and delein \"to manifest\"): \"Pertaining to a rather imprecise category of drugs with mainly central nervous system action, and with effects said to be the expansion or heightening of consciousness, LSD, hashish, mescaline, psilocybin.\" Dissociative is a class of hallucinogen that produces feelings of",
"-29.275040514519787"
],
[
"LSD-25, Hubbard felt this was something that he was destined to learn more about and to be involved with. Hubbard found a researcher who was conducting reported experiments on LSD with rats. He was able to obtain some LSD for himself. He believed in its utility for opening the human mind to deeper, broader vistas.\nThe confident and connected Al Hubbard requested Dr. Humphry Osmond's company for lunch at the Vancouver Yacht Club. Osmond and his colleagues were using the drug, as well as the similar substance, mescaline, in psychiatric research and treatment at Weyburn, Saskatchewan. Osmond later recalled that the",
"-29.236746744161792"
],
[
"Contact high A contact high is a psychological phenomenon that occurs in otherwise sober people and animals who come into contact with someone who is under the influence of recreational drugs. It involves a supposed transfer of the physiological state of intoxication.\nA glossary of drug users' language from the 1970s describes the term as \"a psychogenic 'trip' without taking drugs by being close to somebody while he or she is on drugs. The term is often incorrectly used to describe the high obtained by inhaling the smoke of other marijuana smokers.\"\nIn Alexander Shulgin's book PiHKAL under the 2C-I entry, a",
"-29.23450467333896"
],
[
"by a sense of detachment from one's physical body and the external world which is known as depersonalization and derealization. Effects include hallucinations, changes in the perception of distances, relative scale, color and durations/time, as well as a slowing of the visual system's ability to update what the user is seeing. Other In the 2000s, synthetic phenethylamines such as 2C-I, 2C-B and DOB have been referred to as club drugs due to their stimulating and psychedelic nature (and their chemical relationship with MDMA). By late 2012, derivates of the psychedelic 2C-X drugs, the NBOMes and especially 25I-NBOMe, had become common",
"-29.224091853015125"
],
[
"Drug Enforcement Administration stated that LSD \"produces no aphrodisiac effects, does not increase creativity, has no lasting positive effect in treating alcoholics or criminals, does not produce a 'model psychosis', and does not generate immediate personality change.\" More recently, experimental uses of LSD have included the treatment of alcoholism and pain and cluster headache relief. Psychedelic therapy In the 1950s and 1960s LSD was used in psychiatry to enhance psychotherapy known as psychedelic therapy. Some psychiatrists believed LSD was especially useful at helping patients to \"unblock\" repressed subconscious material through other psychotherapeutic methods, and also for treating alcoholism. One study",
"-29.211259962175973"
],
[
"endorphins – the brain’s naturally occurring opioids. Accordingly, blocking endorphin receptors might help alcoholics resist drinking. In 1983, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted permission to test this theory on patients. With funding provided by the U.S. Veterans Administration Substance Abuse Center in Philadelphia, O’Brien and one of his students, fellow University of Pennsylvania psychiatrist Joseph Volpicelli, and others conducted a study in which all addiction patients received counseling, but half of them also received Naltrexone, while the other half received a placebo. During three months of treatment, those receiving Naltrexone had fewer relapses to heavy drinking and",
"-29.163435406444478"
],
[
"was set aside for five years, until 16 April 1943, when Hofmann decided to reexamine it. While re-synthesizing LSD, he accidentally absorbed a small amount of the drug through his fingertips and discovered its powerful effects. He described what he felt as being:\n... affected by a remarkable restlessness, combined with a slight dizziness. At home I lay down and sank into a not unpleasant intoxicated[-]like condition, characterized by an extremely stimulated imagination. In a dreamlike state, with eyes closed (I found the daylight to be unpleasantly glaring), I perceived an uninterrupted stream of fantastic pictures, extraordinary shapes with intense, kaleidoscopic",
"-29.152059685759014"
],
[
"ingested, and hourly thereafter (following a 10-minute rest in bed). Physical measurements included pulse, blood pressure, rectal temperature, kneejerk reflex sensitivity, and pupil diameter (opiates cause constriction (miosis) while LSD causes dilation (mydriasis)). Psychological measurements consisted of a self-evaluation form with multiple statements (e.g., \"I am confused\"), as well as evaluation by experienced and trained observers. Some subjects had negative reactions to LSD (as noted above), but others found the experience \"pleasant\", or even \"dearly loved\" it as long as the dosage was not too high (less than 2 micrograms per kilogram of body weight). Opioids Isbell and associates",
"-29.140747070683574"
],
[
"a first-time user without adequate supervision.\nIn December 2007, Swiss medical authorities allowed psychotherapist Peter Gasser to perform psycho-therapeutic experiments on patients suffering from terminal-stage cancer and other deadly diseases. Completed in 2011, these represent the first study of the therapeutic effects of LSD on humans in 35 years – other studies had examined the drug's effects on consciousness and body. Hofmann acclaimed the study and reiterated his belief in LSD's therapeutic benefits. In 2008, Hofmann wrote to Steve Jobs, asking him to support this research; it is not known if Jobs responded. The Multidisciplinary Association of Psychedelic Studies (MAPS)",
"-29.13993923785165"
],
[
"the ego or identity. Such experiences of enlarged consciousness can occur in a variety of ways: sensory deprivation, yoga exercises, disciplined meditation, religious or aesthetic ecstasies, or spontaneously. Most recently they have become available to anyone through the ingestion of psychedelic drugs such as LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, DMT, etc. Of course, the drug does not produce the transcendent experience. It merely acts as a chemical key — it opens the mind, frees the nervous system of its ordinary patterns and structures.\nLeary married model Birgitte Caroline \"Nena\" von Schlebrügge in 1964 at Millbrook. Both Nena and her brother Bjorn, known as",
"-29.09759997110814"
],
[
"disorders and mental disorders like depersonalization disorder, borderline personality disorder, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, dissociative identity disorder, and other mental conditions.\nCannabis, psychedelics, dissociatives, antidepressants, caffeine, nitrous oxide, albuterol, and nicotine can all produce feelings mimicking feelings of derealization, particularly when taken in excess. It can also result from alcohol withdrawal or benzodiazepine withdrawal. Opiate withdrawal can also cause feelings of derealization, whose symptoms can be protracted (chronic), delayed-onset or possibly instigated by such events, exhibiting high variability in inter-personal subjectivity of the phenomenon.\nDerealization can also be a symptom of severe sleep disorders and mental disorders like depersonalization disorder, borderline personality disorder,",
"-29.094039357369184"
],
[
"analysed to describe the phenomenom. Analysis of this anecdotal evidence has supported the original consensus that ASMR is euphoric but non-sexual and nature, and has divided those who experience ASMR into two broad categories of subjects. One category depends upon external triggers to experience the localized sensation and its associated feelings, which typically originates in the head, often reaching down the neck and sometimes the upper back. The other category can intentionally augment the sensation and feelings through attentional control, without dependence upon external stimuli, or 'triggers', in a manner compared by some subjects to their experience of meditation. Whispering",
"-29.086645699571818"
],
[
"analyze the reaction resulting from the administration of LSD to chronic schizophrenic patients. In an attempt to conduct this study with scientific proof, the researchers administered LSD using a double blind procedure. By the end of the first study, the researchers determined that it was not possible to administer LSD using a double blind, because it was obvious to the researchers who had been given LSD. It was, however, found that LSD was unique in its effects on consciousness and unlike other drugs, resulted in rapid tolerance in patients. They determined the effects of LSD to include intense hallucinations and",
"-29.05069766048109"
],
[
"what they already have.\nThe vast majority of bipolar patients rarely experience delusions. Typically, when experiencing or displaying a stage of heightened excitability called mania, they can experience, joy, rage, a flattened state in which life has no meaning and sometimes even a mixed state of intense emotions which can cycle out of control along with thoughts or beliefs that are grandiose in nature. Some of these grandiose thoughts can be the expressed as strong beliefs that the patient is very rich or famous or has super-human abilities, or can even lead to severe suicidal ideations. In the most severe",
"-29.050679557432886"
],
[
"can help to dissociate the underlying symbol from the real person who embodies the symbol for the patient. In this way, the patient no longer uncritically transfers their feelings about the archetype onto people in everyday life, and as a result can develop healthier and more personal relationships.\nPractitioners of analytic psychotherapy, Jung cautioned, could become so fascinated with manifestations of the collective unconscious that they facilitated their appearance at the expense of their patient's well-being. Schizophrenics, it is said, fully identify with the collective unconscious, lacking a functioning ego to help them deal with actual difficulties of life. Application to",
"-28.97415635357902"
],
[
"Psychedelic Studies have renewed clinical research of LSD. Other uses In the 1950s and 1960s, some psychiatrists (e.g. Oscar Janiger) explored the potential effect of LSD on creativity. Experimental studies attempted to measure the effect of LSD on creative activity and aesthetic appreciation.\nSince 2008 there has been ongoing research into using LSD to alleviate anxiety for terminally ill cancer patients coping with their impending deaths.\nA 2012 meta-analysis found evidence that a single dose of LSD in conjunction with various alcoholism treatment programs was associated with a decrease in alcohol abuse, lasting for several months, but no effect was seen at",
"-28.962728049838915"
],
[
"was generally positive, there were also negative effects of LSD treatment in the patient including intense fear, uncontrollable breakdowns, and emotional stress during treatment. LSD was also known to produce feelings of depression, headache, and depersonalization in some cases. In addition, since subjects received LSD treatment and psychotherapy treatment, it is unclear whether the LSD caused the positive outcomes, the psychotherapy, or the carefully prepared combination of LSD and psychotherapy treatment.\nThese shortcomings demonstrate the possibility that beneficial results in the experiments may not be attributed solely to LSD treatment. Rather, it may be more likely that results occurred out of",
"-28.954375246656127"
],
[
"Mind at Large Mind at Large is a concept from The Doors of Perception and Heaven and Hell by Aldous Huxley. This philosophy was influenced by the ideas of C. D. Broad. Psychedelic drugs are thought to disable filters which inhibit or quell signals related to mundane functions from reaching the conscious mind. In the aforementioned books, Huxley explores the idea that the human mind filters reality, partly because handling the details of all of the impressions and images coming in would be unbearable, partly because it has been taught to do so. He believes that psychoactive drugs can partly",
"-28.916910075000487"
],
[
"a wide range of conditions, environmental, sociological, and economic.\nIndividuals may become dependent upon a wide variety of chemical substances that produce central nervous system effects ranging from stimulation to depression. All of these drugs have one effect in common: they are capable of creating, in certain individuals, a particular state of mind that is termed \"psychic dependence \".\nSome drugs… induce physical dependence, which is an adaptive state that manifests itself by intense physical disturbances when the administration of the drug is suspended or when its action is affected by the administration of a specific antagonist.\nThe committee offered several disclaimers of",
"-28.858557178231422"
],
[
"with LSD,\n \ncross-tolerance between LSD and psilocybin,\nand the ability of pure THC to cause marijuana-like effects.\nNew pharmaceutical substances were assayed (in the prisoner population) for their abuse and addiction (substance dependence) potential (medications for pain, cough, and diarrhea were of particular concern), and this information was utilized by groups such as the World Health Organization.\nOther work at the ARC during Isbell's tenure included \npsychological aspects of human opiate addiction (e.g., re-arousal of craving after abstinence upon return to the addiction environment, i.e. a \"conditioned\" response), \nEEG studies of mental activity during drug use (including mescaline), \nand animal studies.\n(A detailed annotated",
"-28.857503115432337"
],
[
"Anonymous, when he tried LSD. In addition to using hallucinogens like LSD and mescaline in psychedelic therapy, Eisner also gave stimulants such as methylphenidate and the inhaled gas mixture carbogen to her patients.\nHowever, Eisner's interest in finding new tools for psychotherapy was not limited to drugs. Eisner was particularly focused on extra-pharmacological variables that she felt influenced outcome of psychotherapeutic sessions. She considered the specific individuals present as an important variable in therapeutic outcome and sometimes conducted sessions in group settings. Some of these group sessions included \"encounter group\"-style expression and body work. Eisner also described the psychotherapeutic importance of",
"-28.850166911492124"
],
[
"neurotransmitter responsible for feelings of euphoria and pleasure. The use of dopaminergic drugs alters the amount of dopamine released throughout the mesolimbic system, and regular or excessive use of the drug can result in a long-term downregulation of dopamine signaling, even after an individual stops ingesting the drug. This can lead the individual to engage in mild to extreme drug-seeking behaviors as the brain begins to regularly expect the increased presence of dopamine and the accompanying feelings of euphoria, but how problematic this is depends highly on the drug and the situation.\nSignificant progress has been made on central mechanisms of",
"-28.848126783057523"
],
[
"the DMT reaches the brain before it can be metabolized by the body's natural monoamine oxidase. Taking a MAOI prior to vaporizing or injecting DMT prolongs and potentiates the effects. Subjective psychedelic experiences Several scientific experimental studies have tried to measure subjective experiences of altered states of consciousness induced by drugs under highly controlled and safe conditions.\nIn the 1990s, Rick Strassman and his colleagues conducted a five-year-long DMT study at the University of New Mexico. The results provided insight about the quality of subjective psychedelic experiences. In this study participants received the DMT dosage intravenously via injection and the findings",
"-28.84635152287956"
],
[
"awareness of causing it by thinking. The brain has patterns of neurons that once activated generate physiologic responses that happens up to 10 seconds before we are aware. (Koch, Christof. 2012. “How Physics and Neuroscience Dictate Your “Free” Will”. Scientific American: April 12.) and many others. Dualist solutions Some have claimed that while the mental and the physical are quite different things, they can nonetheless causally interact with one another, a view going back to Descartes [(Descartes & 1642/1986), especially meditations II & VI]. This view is known as interactionist dualism. The major problem that interactionist dualism faces",
"-28.82315013621701"
],
[
"concluded, \"The root of the therapeutic value of the LSD experience is its potential for producing self-acceptance and self-surrender,\" presumably by forcing the user to face issues and problems in that individual's psyche.\nTwo recent reviews concluded that conclusions drawn from most of these early trials are unreliable due to serious methodological flaws. These include the absence of adequate control groups, lack of followup, and vague criteria for therapeutic outcome. In many cases studies failed to convincingly demonstrate whether the drug or the therapeutic interaction was responsible for any beneficial effects.\nIn recent years organizations like the Multidisciplinary Association for",
"-28.81622742282343"
],
[
"physical task, then any intellectual thoughts may cease. On the other hand, making a spirit journey in an ecstatic trance involves the cessation of voluntary bodily movement. Types Ecstasy can be deliberately induced using religious or creative activities, meditation, music, dancing, breathing exercises, physical exercise, sexual intercourse or consumption of psychotropic drugs. The particular technique that an individual uses to induce ecstasy is usually also associated with that individual's particular religious and cultural traditions. Sometimes an ecstatic experience takes place due to occasional contact with something or somebody perceived as extremely beautiful or holy, or without any known reason. \"In",
"-28.765693755456596"
],
[
"rats and flies, making neurons more likely to branch out and connect with one another. Dependence liability The dependence potential of DMT and the risk of sustained psychological disturbance are minimal when used for religious ceremonies. DMT, like most psychedelics, is considered to be non-addictive. Conjecture regarding endogenous effects In the 1950s, the endogenous production of psychoactive agents was considered to be a potential explanation for the hallucinatory symptoms of some psychiatric diseases; this is known as the transmethylation hypothesis. Several speculative and yet untested hypotheses suggest that endogenous DMT is produced in the human brain and is involved",
"-28.756207789148903"
],
[
"are often repeated in multiple sessions before they achieve peak effectiveness. Conscious and unconscious mind Some hypnotists view suggestion as a form of communication that is directed primarily to the subject's conscious mind, whereas others view it as a means of communicating with the \"unconscious\" or \"subconscious\" mind. These concepts were introduced into hypnotism at the end of the 19th century by Sigmund Freud and Pierre Janet. Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory describes conscious thoughts as being at the surface of the mind and unconscious processes as being deeper in the mind. Braid, Bernheim, and other Victorian pioneers of hypnotism did",
"-28.739009076962247"
],
[
"an inaccurate description of the effects of LSD, some attribution (typically to a well-regarded hospital or a vaguely specified \"adviser to the president\"), and instructs parents to contact police if they come across the blue star tattoos. No actual cases of LSD distribution to children in this manner have ever been documented. LSD is not addictive, and it is unlikely to be abused by an unwitting user. Therefore, there is no plausible motivation for a drug dealer to distribute LSD in this manner. Legally insane There is an urban legend that a person who has used LSD more than seven",
"-28.69884196849307"
],
[
"to be of some value to some people, and practically no damage to anyone. It will never take the place of any of the existing means by which we can reduce the ego, and keep it reduced.\" Wilson felt that regular usage of LSD in a carefully controlled, structured setting would be beneficial for many recovering alcoholics. However, he felt this method only should be attempted by individuals with well-developed super-egos. In 1957 Wilson wrote a letter to Heard saying: \"I am certain that the LSD experiment has helped me very much. I find myself with a heightened colour",
"-28.69410383712966"
],
[
"perception and an appreciation of beauty almost destroyed by my years of depressions.\" Most AA members were strongly opposed to his experimenting with a mind-altering substance. In terminal illness Richard Yensen, Albert Kurland and other researchers collected evidence that psychedelic therapy could be of use to those suffering from anxiety and other problems associated with terminal illness. In 1965, research consisting of providing a psychedelic experience for the dying was conducted at the Spring Grove State Hospital in Maryland. Of 17 dying patients who received LSD after appropriate therapeutic preparation, one-third improved \"dramatically\", one-third improved \"moderately\", and one-third were unchanged",
"-28.68908541131168"
],
[
"physiological harassment for special interrogations on human subjects. At first agents used cocaine, marijuana, heroin, peyote, mescaline, but they increasingly saw LSD as the most promising drug. The subjects who left this project were fogged with amnesia, resulting in faulty and vague memories of the experience. In 1952, LSD was increasingly given to unknowing CIA agents to determine the drug's effects on unsuspecting people. One record states an agent was kept on LSD for 77 days.\nARTICHOKE researched the potential of dengue fever and other diseases. A declassified ARTICHOKE memo read: “Not all viruses have to be lethal… the objective includes",
"-28.687040437711403"
],
[
"to the drug psilocybin found that absorption had the largest effect of all the psychological variables assessed on the intensity of individual experiences of altered states of consciousness. Absorption was strongly associated with overall consciousness alteration and with mystical-type experiences and visual effects induced by psilocybin. Researchers have suggested that individual differences in both absorption and responsiveness to hallucinogenic drugs could be related to the binding potential of serotonin receptors (specifically 5-HT2A) which are the main site of action of classic hallucinogens, such as LSD and psilocybin. Dream recall Research has found that frequency of dream recall is associated with",
"-28.67538080198574"
],
[
"than 100 articles on LSD had appeared in medical journals, and by 1961, the number had increased to more than 1000 articles. Hallucinogens were also researched in several countries for their potential as agents of chemical warfare. Most famously, several incidents associated with the CIA's MK-ULTRA mind control research project have been the topic of media attention and lawsuits.\nAt the beginning of the 1950s, the existence of hallucinogenic drugs was virtually unknown to the general public in the West. However this soon changed as several influential figures were introduced to the hallucinogenic experience. Aldous Huxley's 1953 essay The Doors of",
"-28.674446043849457"
],
[
"depersonalization disorder. There are also conditions viewed as neurological where a person appears to consciously register neurological stimuli that cannot possibly be coming from the part of the nervous system to which they would normally be attributed, such as phantom pain or synesthesia, or where limbs act without conscious direction, as in alien hand syndrome. Theories and assumptions about consciousness, free will, moral responsibility and social stigma can play a part in this, whether from the perspective of the clinician or the patient.\nConditions that are classed as mental disorders, or learning disabilities and forms of intellectual disability, are not themselves",
"-28.662443670778885"
],
[
"of the synthesis was to obtain a respiratory and circulatory stimulant (an analeptic). It was set aside for five years, until April 16, 1943, when Hofmann decided to take a second look at it. While re-synthesizing LSD, he accidentally absorbed a small amount of the drug through his fingertips and discovered its powerful effects. He described what he felt as being:\n... affected by a remarkable restlessness, combined with a slight dizziness. At home I lay down and sank into a not unpleasant intoxicated-like condition, characterized by an extremely stimulated imagination. In a dreamlike state, with eyes closed (I found the",
"-28.652495563961565"
],
[
"sensory-perceptual effects, hallucinogenic substances may induce feelings of depersonalization, emotional shifts to a euphoric or anxious/fearful state, and a disruption of logical thought. Hallucinogens are classified chemically as either indolamines (specifically tryptamines), sharing a common structure with serotonin, or as phenethylamines, which share a common structure with norepinephrine. Both classes of these drugs are agonists at the 5-HT₂ receptors; this is thought to be the central component of their hallucinogenic properties. Activation of 5-HT2A may be particularly important for hallucinogenic activity. However, repeated exposure to hallucinogens leads to rapid tolerance, likely through down-regulation of these receptors in specific target cells.",
"-28.640878808422713"
],
[
"of ancient civilizations. Medical LSD currently has no approved uses in medicine. A meta analysis concluded that a single dose was effective at reducing alcohol consumption in alcoholism. LSD has also been studied in depression, anxiety, and drug dependence, with positive preliminary results. Physical LSD can cause pupil dilation, reduced appetite, and wakefulness. Other physical reactions to LSD are highly variable and nonspecific, some of which may be secondary to the psychological effects of LSD. Among the reported symptoms are numbness, weakness, nausea, hypothermia or hyperthermia, elevated blood sugar, goose bumps, heart rate increase, jaw clenching, perspiration, saliva production, mucus",
"-28.61503659375012"
],
[
"and Metzner's book. Paul McCartney confirmed this, stating that when he and Lennon visited the newly opened Indica bookshop, Lennon had been looking for a copy of The Portable Nietzsche and found a copy of The Psychedelic Experience that contained the lines: \"Whenever in doubt, turn off your mind, relax, float downstream.\"\nLennon said he bought the book, went home, took LSD, and followed the instructions exactly as stated in the text. The book held that the \"ego death\" experienced under the influence of LSD and other psychedelic drugs is essentially similar to the dying process and requires similar guidance. This",
"-28.605788491491694"
],
[
"music, and he anticipated that Smile would be the preeminent psychedelic pop art statement. He also believed that psychotropics were closely related to spirituality, citing his own psychedelic experiences which he considered \"very religious\". In 1966, Wilson predicted that \"psychedelic music will cover the face of the world and color the whole popular music scene. Anybody happening is psychedelic.\" The Guardian argued that until the negative effects of LSD surfaced in rock music via Skip Spence's Oar (1969) and Syd Barrett's The Madcap Laughs (1970), \"artists tactfully ignored the dark side of the psychedelic experience\", which could be suggested by",
"-28.604691754997475"
],
[
"alcohol withdrawal. Psychedelics Starting in 1956, Isbell and associates published studies on LSD, psilocybin, psilocin, \nDMT, \nbufotenine, \nmorning glory seeds (ololiuqui),\nand mescaline; these substances were sometimes described as \"psychotomimetic\". LSD and psilocybin for many of the experiments was supplied by Sandoz Pharmaceuticals (both of these substances were legal at the time). According to a 1986 interview with Isbell, the psychedelics research was initiated by an explicit CIA request. Drug policy In 1951 Isbell testified to Congress before the passage of the Boggs Act of 1952 that \"smoking marijuana has no unpleasant aftereffects, no dependence is developed on the drug, and",
"-28.598576403746847"
],
[
"observations from LSD research, uncovered four major types of experiences that, according to Grof, correspond to levels in the human unconscious: (1) Abstract and aesthetic experiences; (2) Psychodynamic experiences; (3) Perinatal experiences; (4) Transpersonal experiences. Grof returns to many of these findings in later books. Psychodynamic levels, which correspond to the theory of Sigmund Freud, is the area of biographical memories, emotional problems, unresolved conflicts and fantasies. Perinatal levels, which correspond to the theories of Otto Rank, is the area of physical pain and agony, dying and death, biological birth, aging, disease and decrepitude. Transpersonal levels, corresponding to the theories",
"-28.55984320573043"
],
[
"in mood, energy, and ability to function. Self-awareness is crucial in those suffering from this disease, as they must be able to distinguish between feeling a certain way because of the disorder or because of separate issues. \"Personality, behavior, and dysfunction affect your bipolar disorder, so you must 'know' yourself in order to make the distinction.\" This disorder is a difficult one to diagnose, as self-awareness changes with mood. \"For instance, what might appear to you as confidence and clever ideas for a new business venture might be a pattern of grandiose thinking and manic behavior\". Issues occur between understanding",
"-28.550898825078093"
],
[
"games, shopping, and drugs such as alcohol, caffeine; illegal drugs such as cocaine and heroin, and controlled medical drugs — such as zopiclone — obtained via prescription or without one from an online pharmacy.\n He believes that the boundaries between everyday addictions and less socially acceptable ones are becoming increasingly blurred, and also perceives an overlap between them, citing evidence that sugar triggers \"the brain's natural opioids,\" and that the brain can become addicted to them in the same way that it does to morphine or heroin. Reception The Economist described the book as an \"entertaining and informative account\" of",
"-28.54898628598312"
],
[
"information by propaganda of various kinds.\nDue to the lack of information about drug addiction and drug addicts, people do not understand how an individual can become an addict. Drug addiction has been categorized as a subcategory of mental illness. They are referred to as co-occurring disorders, which means if a person is dealing with an addiction, they may also struggle with a mental illness. Most individuals who suffer from drug dependency are nearly twice as likely to suffer from a mental illness as well. According to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, about 8.9 million adults who have",
"-28.54434160934761"
],
[
"and required higher dosages to produce responses.\nIn 1953, D.W. Liddell and H. Weil-Malherbe studied the effects of LSD on mental processes and adrenaline in the blood and began characterizing the behaviors resulting from LSD administration to patients. They found that “depressive patients,” experienced enhanced symptoms, becoming more depressed; while schizophrenic patients experienced catatonic, or altered, states. They also found that after administering LSD through the patients' veins, adrenaline levels would fluctuate by rising, dropping, and rising, while blood glucose remained unaffected by the drug. Their method of administering LSD through the veins of schizophrenic patients was adopted in later",
"-28.53872138306906"
],
[
"like marijuana. A marijuana withdrawal syndrome occurs, consisting of anxiety, depression, sleep and appetite disturbances, irritability, tremors, diaphoresis, nausea, muscle convulsions, and restlessness. Often, persons using marijuana erroneously believe that the drug is helping them combat these symptoms without realizing that actually marijuana is the cause of these effects. Therefore, when a patient anecdotally reports a drug to have medicinal value, this must be followed by objective scientific studies.\"\n\nThe US Drug Enforcement Administration also says:\nThere is a growing misconception that some illegal drugs can be taken safely. For example, savvy drug dealers have learned how to market drugs like Ecstasy",
"-28.53021312522469"
],
[
"William Cohen's way of explaining the physiological and pharmacological responses that the body has to psychoactive drugs, those chemicals that can pass through the blood brain barrier and produce a mental effect in the central nervous system. Thus, uppers stimulate, downers depress, and psychedelic drugs have a variety of effects on the neurotransmitters.",
"-28.523098740915884"
],
[
"frustrations of everyday life vanished; in their place was a majestic, sunlit, heavenly inner quietude.” Cohen immediately began his own experiments with LSD with the help of Aldous Huxley whom he had met in 1955. In 1957, with the help of psychologist Betty Eisner, Cohen began experimenting on whether or not LSD might have a helpful effect in facilitating psychotherapy, curing alcoholism, and enhancing creativity. Between 1957 and 1958, they treated 22 patients who suffered from minor personality disorders. LSD was also given to artists in order to track their mental deterioration, but Huxley believed LSD might enhance their creativity.",
"-28.52171662566252"
],
[
"published research about them. Psychedelics In collaboration with Amanda Feilding and the Beckley Foundation, David Nutt is working on the effects of psychedelics on cerebral blood flow. In March 2015 it was announced that a crowdfunding site set up by Nutt to raise funds to research the effects of LSD on the brain had attracted more than 1,000 backers in less than a week. The study, a part of the Beckley Foundation's Psychedelic Research Programme, initially sought to raise £25,000 for an fMRI and MEG imaging study into LSD on the brain. After some £50,000 was raised in under a",
"-28.51425879751332"
],
[
"the exploration of consciousness-expanding drugs. The group's journal was the Psychedelic Review.\nThe Castalia Foundation hosted weekend retreats on the estate where people paid to undergo the psychedelic experience without drugs, through meditation, yoga, and group therapy sessions. The Castalia Foundation adopted some of the mystic teachings of Gurjieff for their non-drug workshops. During 1965 Castalia Foundation members collaborated with artists, including the media art collective USCO (The Company of US), to reproduce the LSD experience in improvised audio-visual psychedelic shows in Manhattan.\nThe origins of the League for Spiritual Discovery can also be found in the Original Kleptonian Neo-American Church, whose",
"-28.461203290731646"
],
[
"LSD between 1954 and 1959.\nLSD was originally perceived as a psychotomimetic capable of producing model psychosis. By the mid-1950s, LSD research was being conducted in major American medical centers, where researchers used LSD as a means of temporarily replicating the effects of mental illness. One of the leading authorities on LSD during the 1950s in the United States was the psychoanalyst Sidney Cohen. Cohen first took the drug on October 12, 1955 and expected to have an unpleasant trip, but was surprised when he experienced “no confused, disoriented delirium.” He reported that the “problems and strivings, the worries and",
"-28.44576544270967"
],
[
"support for the notion that psychedelic drugs can facilitate religious experiences. One of the participants in the experiment was religious scholar Huston Smith, who would become an author of several textbooks on comparative religion. He later described his experience as \"the most powerful cosmic homecoming I have ever experienced\". Doblin's follow-up In a 25-year follow-up to the experiment, all of the subjects given psilocybin described their experience as having elements of \"a genuine mystical nature and characterized it as one of the high points of their spiritual life\". Psychedelic researcher Rick Doblin considered Pahnke's original study partially flawed due to",
"-28.434283934853738"
],
[
"indicative of one's own personal desires. Drug-induced obsessive-compulsive disorder Many different types of medication can create/induce pure OCD in patients that have never had symptoms before. A new chapter about OCD in the DSM-5 (2013) now specifically includes drug-induced OCD.\nSecond generation atypical anti-psychotics, such as Olanzapine (Zyprexa), have been proven to induce de-novo OCD in patients. Treatment People with sexual obsessions can devote an excessive amount of time and energy attempting to understand the obsessions. They usually decide they are having these problems because they are defective in some way, and they are often too ashamed to seek help. Because",
"-28.422495338338194"
],
[
"either withdrawal or inflammatory encephalopathy, which are major contributors to musical hallucinations. Some of the drugs that have been found to relate to musical hallucinations include salicylates, benzodiazepines, pentoxifylline, propranolol, clomipramine, amphetamine, quinine, imipramine, a phenothiazine, carbamazepine, marijuana, paracetamol, phenytoin, procaine, and alcohol. General anesthesia has also been association with musical hallucinations.\nIn a case study by Gondim et al. 2010, a seventy–seven-year-old woman with Parkinson's disease (PD) was administered amantadine after a year of various other antiparkinsonian treatments. Two days into her treatment, she started to experience musical hallucinations, which consisted of four musical pieces. The music persisted until",
"-28.371037169301417"
],
[
"the psychedelic experience is unclear, but it is likely that it acts by increasing excitation in the cortex, possibly by specifically facilitating input from the thalamus, the major relay for sensory information input to the cortex. Examples Examples of classical psychedelics include DMT, LSD and psilocybin. The tryptamine psychedelics, such as DMT and psilocybin, structurally resemble serotonin itself. The phenethylamine psychedelics on the other hand, such as mescaline, and compounds of the 2C family, more closely resemble the neurotransmitter dopamine. Recreational use The most widely known use of serotonergic psychedelics is as recreational drugs, providing the user with a psychedelic",
"-28.310184843605384"
]
] |
5a9i5t | What is that feeling when you randomly violently shiver, or when someone "walks over your grave"? | [
"[\"The modern-day scientific explanation for sudden unexplained shuddering and for goose pimples is that they are caused by a subconscious release of the stress hormone adrenaline. This may be as a response to coldness or an emotional reaction to a poignant memory.\"]( URL_0 )",
"Myoclonus. I majored in psychology and I took a neurobiology class that implied that they were the result of feed back loops in your brain getting confused due to levels of serotonin and GABA . SO. Your nervous system is made up of a bunch of pathways. Some are designed to interact with the most basic parts of your brain (the brain stem ) and some others are designed to skip your brain entirely. The ones that skip your brain tend to work basically on reflexes (you feel your hand burn, you yank it away) . The catch is that these systems interact with the ones that go directly to your brain (so you can decide if it's safe or not) . These systems are CONSTANTLY talking to each other. This creates a series of feed back loops. Now serotonin and GABA are neuro transmitters (chemicals that control various functions of your brain basically) serotonin affects things like sleep, mood elevation and excitation. GABA is like all muscle control. Somewhere in the levels of neuro transmitters and those feed back loops your brain has a hiccup basically. Why? Well my textbook claims they still can't fully explain Edit: I'd expect low serotonin and an over excitation of GABA production would then make your brain think it was getting stronger signals and thus: shiver. This is wrong see later edit. Edit 2: Seritonin also affects you tempreture regulation which may add the \"cold\" feeling Edit 3: I should apologize. I stupidly reversed the actual function of GABA (it is inhibitory which means the more there is the less your muscles will twitch) I also want to add that if you are interested in this is gave you broad strokes. It IS genuinely more complex than that but hopefully this explanation helps you give a cool explanation to others. To those who say it's not what the OP is talking of from personal experience...I kinda want someone to collect data on the various descriptions of this phenomenon so that perhaps we can solidify the description. But my professor told me \"walking over your grave\" was a form of myoclonus some 2 years ago and I have stuck with that till new information comes to light. Edit 4: the comment below mine by u/annalogical supports my professor's diagnosis. Also just looked at the wiki article and though it's similar to what I said it IS rather incorrect in major areas so beware!",
"My SO used to have 10+ a day. Turns out they were tiny seizures, aka myoclonic jerks. I used to joke that someone was peeing on his grave. After he started having grand mal seizures and got on meds, they mostly went away. 2-3 a week now. Eta: And no complex partials or grand mals in over a month now!! Yay!",
"The pathophysiologic mechanism is something called \"myclonus\" Myclonus is an involuntary muscle spasm and includes things like the [\"Hypnic jerk\"]( URL_2 ) which most people have experienced. It's when your leg twitches while you're falling asleep. Another form is the [\"shudders\"]( URL_0 ) or the so called walking on the grave phenomenon. Myclonus is normal and can be due to something as simple as an electrolyte imbalance, but persistent myoclonus could indicate many underlying neurological diseases (MS, lupus, Parkinson's to name a few). Hiccups are also a kind of myoclonus! URL_1 ",
"Like, when you feel \"pressure\" build up in your spine, and suddenly your upper body convulses mildly and feels cold? I get that as well, and I, too, have wondered for many years what it is. Or are you referring to something else?",
"Assuming we're talking about the same thing I've heard it referred to as a myoclonic jerk. I get them a lot when I'm sleeping (I suddenly jerk awake) and also occasionally when I'm awake. The explanation given to me by my doctor was that it's a leftover trait from when humans were still arboreal (lived in trees) and the jerk was to awaken us if we started to fall out of a tree while sleeping. I suppose the thought is that something tricks out brain into thinking it's falling and that's our reaction. Failing that evolutionary explanation I think the most likely case is that it's meaningless and just represents our brains version of crossed wires.",
"This awkward shiver only seems to happen regularly while I'm urinating (which is ironically, probably the worst time for it to happen). Can anybody further explain why this so-called subconscious adrenaline dump would only occur regularly while I'm peeing?",
"I think we need a disambiguation. The \"goose walked on your grave\" involuntary shudder is similar to but not the same as a hypnic jerk. (Both are myoclonic jerks). ASMR and frisson are also myoclonic. I guess you could explain the \"walked over your grave\" shudder thusly to a five year old: \"You know how you shiver when you're cold? There's a part of your brain that makes sure you're warm enough. If it thinks you're cold it will make you shiver to warm you up. It seems like feelings other than being cold also make your brain think you need to shiver, but we don't quite understand why.\"",
"Are you talking about [frisson]( URL_0 )? Or something else?",
"This happens to me all of the time (everyday, several times). I've had a history of depression as well. I wonder if this means that I'm not producing enough serotonin?",
"Anyone know the history of or who came up with the term \"walking over your grave\"? I first saw the term \"a goose walked over my grave\" in a short story in high school and have always liked it.",
"I always get these when I pee. I read somewhere it was bc of the warm pee leaving my body thus my body lowering in temp a bit which causes the shivers",
"Ok can someone enlighten me what is \"walks over your grave\"? Is it some English metaphor? Sorry English is not my first language",
"Is this the same as when you're about to fall asleep and sometimes your body just shakes/shivers uncontrollably?",
"Is this why I shiver just a bit at the end of a piss? < -male",
"is this the same concept as piss shivers ?",
"Is this the same as the pee pee shakes?",
"There is a lot of misinformation happening on the post. What you are describing is a myoclonic jerk, which is can be thought of as a mini seizure in a specific pathway in your brain, even though everyone gets them. There are dozens of causes of myoclonic jerks, each works on a different pathway, but the main motif is that they are a sudden and short chaotic brain activity in one of the many pathways in the brain that deals with motor. You can't really generalize them all to one thing any more than that Here is a good ELI5 source of the different types of myoclonus: URL_0 The Wikipedia page on myoclonus regarding pathophysiology lacks citations and is actually incorrect. I'm a med student, not a neurologist so I'm not going to make the edits as I'm not an expert on the matter. I just know enough to say that it's incorrect. In general there is a poor understanding of myoclonus because the number of different causes makes it difficult to study.",
"It's related to the hypothalamus, which regulates your body's temperature, keeping it where it needs to be (AKA homeostasis). There are several different causes for shivering, and different types of shivering. The one people are most familiar with would be continuous shivering when you're very cold. There's also the emotional shiver, for example when you hear a certain part of a song that you love or connect with in some way, it can give you an odd feeling and a short shiver. But these seemingly random shivers, they don't seem to have an obvious cause. I've read somewhere before that they are a hypothalamus 'reset' of sorts, but sadly I don't have a source on that. If I Google that it comes up with some weight loss theory. I'll have a further look.",
"I get a similar kind of shiver when I'm driving in the dark and another car with bright headlights passes in the oncoming lane and the light hits my eyes. What's that all about?",
"I don't have an explanation, but my grandma says she \"took a chill\" when it happens, if that helps anyone know what OP is describing. Like one big full body shiver.",
"Quick question to those in the thread that understand this occurrence: If I experience between three and five of these a day is it anything to worry about?",
"any1 explain difference between cold chill, this thing in OP's post, frission, and cold sweat?"
] | [
[
"be \"haunted.\" Many stories do exist which seem to suggest that something strange does happen there on occasion. Footsteps are heard in the back hall and on the stage when no one else is there. Electrical equipment mysteriously malfunctions and, in at least one case, a figure has been reported to have walked down the right main aisle just before vanishing instantly.\nOne particularly vocal supporter of the validity to the hauntings believes they are caused by Rachel Hatch herself, who died after choking on a hot dog in the cafeteria at Caswell. Rumor has it that when her picture in",
"-35.128754154080525"
],
[
"to wake just before 3am. That night, Holly sees the ghostly figure again, and it reacts aggressively, threatening her. Scott calms the others by telling them that there is no evidence a ghost has ever harmed a living person; all it can do is scare them. Holly, more shaken than the others, reveals she took the job to conquer her fear of ghosts.\nDuring the day, Holly senses a presence and strong temperature change, which the others do not feel. Scott's EMF meter reads nothing, but he soon realizes he forgot to insert a battery. When he does so, it immediately",
"-34.614006626018636"
],
[
"the ghostly sounds of sobbing. The servants insist that the sound is the wind, but one night Mary goes exploring and discovers Mr. Craven's bed-bound son Colin (Jadrien Steele), who weeps incessantly because he is convinced he is going to die. Everyone in the house hates him and hopes he will finally die because of his bad temper. The two gradually become friends as Mary tells him about his mother's garden and how she and Dickon have been restoring it. At last Colin is curious enough that he demands to see this garden.\nWith Dickon's help, Mary take Colin in his",
"-34.359560255135875"
],
[
"prevent the cold weather causing any noticeable shivers that the crowd could have mistaken for fear: \"the season is so sharp as probably may make me shake, which some observers may imagine proceeds from fear. I would have no such imputation.\"\nHe walked under guard from St James's Palace, where he had been confined, to the Palace of Whitehall, where an execution scaffold had been erected in front of the Banqueting House. Charles was separated from spectators by large ranks of soldiers, and his last speech reached only those with him on the scaffold. He blamed his fate on his failure",
"-34.20124608706601"
],
[
"reportedly heard Capone twanging his banjo in the shower. Ranger Lori Brosnan has said that many visitors have reported feeling a cold chill when walking through the shower room, and one visitor reported feeling fingers on the back of his neck, but turned around and nobody was there. Brosnan herself has reported unexplained sounds such as cell doors moving in the night when the vices were locked tight and only she had the keys. Other rangers have also reported doors opening on their own accord, whispering sounds in cells, and the sounds of a harmonica. Ghostly voices from the hospital",
"-34.20117256027879"
],
[
"being shot in the head. In 2013, after attending a meeting of people with TBI, Borsook realized that some others with TBI had the same experiences of disconnection she had always felt, a \"ghostly\" feeling that \"[s]omething gets dislocated in the sense of knowing that you belong to yourself and your life\". From this epiphany, she conceived the project “My Life as a Ghost,” an art installation that combines video, audio, performance, and other media into a built environment to explore \"[w]hat happens when the soul is blasted out of the body and is incompletely returned\".\nShe became the first artist",
"-34.00364074826939"
],
[
"weeks after the funeral. She said that Shue was a cruel man who abused her, and who had attacked her in a fit of rage when he believed that she had cooked no meat for dinner. He broke her neck; to prove this, the ghost turned her head around until it was facing backwards.\nSupposedly, the ghost appeared first as bright light, gradually taking form and filling the room with a chill. She is said to have visited Mrs. Heaster over the course of four nights. Exhumation and autopsy Armed with the story allegedly told to her by",
"-33.98202408233192"
],
[
"a ghost. It is \"uncanny\" rather than dangerous, and the special kind of fear it excites may be called Dread. With the Uncanny one has reached the fringes of the Numinous. Now suppose that you were told simply \"There is a mighty spirit in the room,\" and believed it. Your feelings would then be even less like the mere fear of danger: but the disturbance would be profound. You would feel wonder and a certain shrinking—a sense of inadequacy to cope with such a visitant and of prostration before it—an emotion which might be expressed in Shakespeare's words",
"-33.970871851663105"
],
[
"his wife described doing herself as a child. The settler family are then shown dead after an attack, and the ghost watches the daughter's corpse decay and get overgrown by grass.\nHe is transported in time again and watches as he and his wife move into the house. They argue about moving out. When his earlier self tells his wife that he is ready to move, the ghost sits at the piano and strikes the keys, causing the noise that startled them. Later as the wife moves out, the ghost sees his earlier self (now a ghost) watching her leave. He",
"-33.69564376102062"
],
[
"ghost of the man he might have been—is haunting the \"jolly corner\", his nickname for the old family house. After a harrowing night of pursuit in the house, Brydon finally confronts the ghost, who advances on him and overpowers him with \"a rage of personality before which his own collapsed.\" Brydon eventually awakens with his head pillowed on Alice Staverton's lap. It is arguable whether or not Spencer had actually become unconscious or whether he had died and has awoken in an afterlife. She had come to the house because she sensed he was in danger. She tells him",
"-33.54352734895656"
],
[
"Haunted house Possible causes According to science writer Terence Hines, cold spots, creaking sounds, and odd noises are typically present in any home, especially older ones, and \"such noises can easily be mistaken for the sound of footsteps by those inclined to imagine the presence of a deceased tenant in their home.\"\nDavid Turner, a retired chemist, suggested that ball lightning could cause inanimate objects to move erratically.\nSkeptical investigator Joe Nickell writes that in most cases he investigated, he found plausible explanations for haunting phenomena, such as physical illusions, waking dreams, and the effects of memory. According to Nickell, the power",
"-33.46697773056803"
],
[
"of women cooking in the kitchen have also been observed. The Old Stone House may also contain one of Washington's only malevolent spirits, nicknamed \"George,\" who has choked and pushed visitors and whose presence (often indicated by an extremely cold spot) leaves witnesses with an intense feeling of dread. The hauntings at the Old Stone House are so well known that they were mentioned in Sandi Wilson's short crime story, \"The Blonde in Black.\"\nBridges in Georgetown may also be the sites of ghostly activity. Two specters are said to haunt the site of the M Street Bridge. M Street NW",
"-33.420966891833814"
],
[
"near her bed, and who had heard knocks and scratches. When the gentlemen entered, the girl declared that she felt the spirit like a mouse upon her back, and was required to hold her hands out of bed. From that time, though the spirit was very solemnly required to manifest its existence by appearance, by impression on the hand or body of any present, by scratches, knocks, or any other agency, no evidence of any preter-natural power was exhibited. The spirit was then very seriously advertised that the person to whom the promise was made of striking the coffin,",
"-33.30370443320135"
],
[
"is nearly terrified out of her senses when, hiding in the chapel, she sees a ghostly figure come from the grand organ. The house is roused by her screams as she flees the room, and she is forbidden from going back there by the sister of the missing man. During the following night she is locked in her room during a thunderstorm, and while escaping through a window sees the ghostly figure again in the family graveyard. She enlists the aid of an old black man and, both badly scared, make an investigation which starts from a particular chord played",
"-33.29147988272598"
],
[
"feeling of dread and trepidation. The sufferer may feel this phobia all the time. The sufferer may also experience this sensation when something triggers the fear, like a close encounter with a dead animal or the funeral of a loved one or friend. The fear may have developed when a person witnessed a death, or was forced to attend a funeral as a child. Some people experience this after viewing frightening media.\nThe fear can manifest itself as a serious condition. Treatment options include medication and therapy.\nThe word necrophobia is derived from the Greek nekros (νεκρός) for \"corpse\" and",
"-33.257221032719826"
],
[
"seemed to be shaking during the encounter. The southwest side of the building was apparently a focus for paranormal activity: strange noises, objects being moved, dresses being cut with regular patterns of holes, and doors opening and shutting were all reported there.\nA grey-clad female ghost was reported several times throughout the 20th century. Reputed sightings included one in the boiler room of the house, early in the 20th century; two in quick succession by a World War II firewatcher, first on the main staircase then on the parapet of the roof; and one by a security guard. ",
"-33.20355486465269"
],
[
"of the group positioned himself against the bed, but was asked by one of the ghost's sympathisers to move. He refused, and following a brief argument the ghost's supporters left. The gentleman then asked if Parsons would allow his daughter to be moved to a room at his house, but was refused. For the remainder of the night the ghost made no sound, while Elizabeth Parsons, now extremely agitated, displayed signs of convulsions. When questioned she confirmed that she had seen the ghost, but that she was not frightened by it. At that point several",
"-32.991648245370016"
],
[
"they’re properly attended to” (La Vita Nuova in digitaldante, 2012). Dante recounts this experience in La Vita Nuova by noting:\n\"No sooner did I make this suggestion than I thought I sensed the appearance of a marvelous trembling that started on the left side of my chest and spread rapidly throughout my entire body. Then I had to prop myself, \nsurreptitiously, against one of the pictures that ran around the walls of this house; and fearing that someone might have noticed my shaking, I raised my eyes, and looking around at the women, among them",
"-32.971583860991814"
],
[
"a burial shroud, only understanding the shocked reaction of passersby when he sees his reflection in a shop window.\nAnother suggested literary model is Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein (1818), in which the creature causes a shock when he enters a cottage: \"I had hardly placed my foot within the door before the children shrieked, and one of the women fainted.\" The monster later looks in a pool of water and sees his reflection for the first time.\nColin Wilson, in The Strength to Dream (1961), points to Oscar Wilde's short story \"The Birthday of the Infanta\", in which a misshapen dwarf is",
"-32.877371374634095"
],
[
"is brought near hysteria by nightly sightings of what appears to be a ghost. When Clara's father and his friend, Clara's doctor, keep awake one night to find out what is causing the disturbances, they see that the \"ghost\" is actually just Heidi, who's sleepwalking in her nightgown. The doctor sees that Heidi is under a great deal of stress, and warns Mr. Sesemann that if Heidi is not sent back to her mountain home promptly, she may become very ill. The very next day, a joyous Heidi returns to the Alm, where she teaches her grandfather about the comfort",
"-32.798725897751865"
],
[
"their house full of religious articles, and the dishes rattling and bed shaking caused by the train, Caron felt ghosts were haunting him. Up until the age of eight, he was plagued by horrifying nightmares that would leave him physically ill. He would imagine shadowy apparitions coming through the bars of his bed to choke him or large waves that would crash over him making it impossible to breathe. Later, a parish priest was able to help Caron fend off his nightmares. He (Caron) told the priest he had accidentally broken the hand off a large Saint Joseph statue",
"-32.795513419114286"
],
[
"describes the tremors in great detail in his Travels in the Interior of America in the Years 1809, 1810 and 1811, published in 1817.\nAfter supper, we went to sleep as usual: about ten o'clock, and in the night I was awakened by the most tremendous noise, accompanied by an agitation of the boat so violent, that it appeared in danger of upsetting ... I could distinctly see the river as if agitated by a storm; and although the noise was inconceivably loud and terrific, I could distinctly hear the crash of falling trees, and the screaming of the wild fowl on",
"-32.74093145758161"
],
[
"buildings trembled, \"shrieks and lamentations could be heard\". The successive tremors were accompanied by thunder-like sounds from the ground. The air reportedly \"grew dim with the vaporous exhalations of a smoky haze rising from an unknown source, and gleamed with a dull radiance\".\nThe panicked residents started evacuating their houses, gathering in streets and alleyways. Agathias observed that the city had precious few \"wide open spaces entirely free of obstructions\", which meant that residents were not safe from falling debris even outdoors. A shower of sleet soaked those outside and everyone \"suffered greatly from the cold\". Many sought refuge within the",
"-32.68526225692767"
],
[
"\"shivers\".",
"-32.59695272964018"
],
[
"was a form of hysteria called klikushestvo (кликушество). It caused the bewitched person to shriek, curse, and fall to the floor when in the presence of religious objects or displays.",
"-32.51826934632845"
],
[
"kept well informed of life's events – for whenever the dead have reasons to be “surprised,\" they will want to ask questions, thereby causing trouble for the living.\nThe dead communicate with their living descendants through the dreams that they induce in them. This is because when a person dies, the breathing stops, the body becomes stiff, cold and soon begins to stink and to decompose. But when a person dies, the ‘spirit’ – known as fanahy up to the moment of death – permanently departs from the body. In its new disembodied, ghostly form, the spirit – now known as",
"-32.502460211806465"
],
[
"Fear of ghosts Typical character The fear of ghosts is widespread even in post-industrial societies. Philosopher Peter van Inwagen wrote:\n\"...I am perfectly aware that the fear of ghosts is contrary to science, reason and religion. If I were sentenced to spend a night alone in a graveyard, <...> I should already know that twigs would snap and the wind moan and that there would be half-seen movements in the darkness. And yet, after I had been frog-marched into the graveyard, I should feel a thrill of fear every time one of these things happened...\"\nIn many traditional accounts, ghosts are often",
"-32.49882679473376"
],
[
"1716. In Mrs. Wesley's words, \"there was such a noise in the room over our heads, as if several people were walking, then running up and down stairs that we thought the children would be frightened\". According to the tale, as she and her husband searched the house in vain for the culprit, Old Jeffrey continued \"rattling and thundering in every room, and even blowing an invisible horn at deafening decibels\". \"Old Jeffrey\" supposedly disappeared in January 1717 just as suddenly as he had appeared.\nAddington Bruce (1908) noted that the earliest records that document the haunting have large discrepancies from",
"-32.33522125309537"
],
[
"the house or to see Rick. However, she gains access to Windward House through Rick, who becomes infatuated with her.\nThe Fitzgeralds' initial enchantment with the house diminishes when they unlock an artist's studio where they feel an inexplicable chill. Just before dawn, Rick hears the sobs of an unseen woman, a phenomenon that Pamela investigates whilst awaiting her brother's return with their Irish housekeeper, Lizzie Flynn. The superstitious Lizzie notices a peculiar draft on the stairs. Rick and Pamela must face the obvious: Windward House is haunted.\nWhen Stella comes to Windward for dinner, she senses a spirit. Rather than fearing",
"-32.333680428913794"
],
[
"trail of blood that leads a hundred feet south, where Shivers climbed out of the gully and went into the woods. Sgt. Raup (Vincent T. Brown) decides to break the news to Lynn in the morning after she gets a good night sleep. The ending leaves it ambiguous as to whether Shivers is alive, or he died after heading out into the woods.",
"-32.283321457362035"
],
[
"a ryōge).\nIn Amami Ōshima, it is said that near the time of Obon, at cemetery roads and other such place, a lukewarm wind would graze by and give one a chill, and when one returns home and tries taking off one's clothing, there would be some kind of speckle on some part of the body. Before long, a high fever comes about and one would need to need to go to a yuta (a shaman of Okinawa, Kagoshima, or the Amami Islands) to have it exorcized.\nIn the village of Kuroiwa, Takaoka District, Kōchi Prefecture) (now Ochi), a devilish wind resembling",
"-32.27411986666266"
],
[
"claims of ghosts by inmates but as time progressed some were reported to have experienced unusual activity themselves, including feeling cold spots, unseen fingers on the back of their neck, and crying in the night. The first Warden of Alcatraz, James A. Johnston, was reputed to have heard a woman sobbing while conducting tour of the prison. Occupants of the prison reported seeing prisoners from the early military prison in 19th century garb walking the corridors in A-Block which would disappear when approached by the guards, and one member of staff reputedly saw a gang of Native American prisoners marching",
"-32.19028741196962"
],
[
"person who did this, before her death in 1955. By 2007 the placing of flowers had expanded into all sorts of votive offerings: coins, candles, shells, small crosses and toys, for instance.\nMotorists, passing at night, claim to have glimpsed ghostly figures in their headlights, others report seeing a dark, hooded figure kneeling there. Notable uses of the story Jay's Grave was the inspiration for John Galsworthy's short story The Apple Tree, written in 1916. In the 1970s, knowledge of the legend prompted Martin Turner of British rock band Wishbone Ash to write the lyrics to a song called \"Lady Jay\"",
"-32.12876957334811"
],
[
"called out. Serious and continuing problems are blamed on angry, disturbed, or confused ghosts for whom rites are then held to placate, cool or quiet them. The most prominent ancestral ghosts are named and wheat flour and the blood of sacrificial animals are poured on the graves.",
"-32.07180950342445"
],
[
"the \"action\". Producer Keisuke Kikuchi and director of the Xbox port, Zin Hasegawa, called it \"horror that appeals to human imagination\", citing how some people get scared when hearing faint sounds in the dark. Kikuchi cited symmetry as a central theme in the story, in that, \"tragedies and fear are based on what happens when you tear things apart,\" such as butterflies and twins.\nIn creating the horror atmosphere, they considered more closely how spirits may behave. They may randomly disappear or reappear in different locations, and their presence can sometimes still be felt after they are killed. Shibata called these",
"-32.037492527679206"
],
[
"both died from shock a few days afterwards. A brewer's servant, Thomas Groom, later testified that, while walking through the churchyard with a companion one night, at close to 9:00 pm, something rose from behind a tombstone and seized him by the throat. Hearing the scuffle, his companion turned around, at which the ghost \"gave me a twist round, and I saw nothing; I gave a bit of a push out with my fist, and felt something soft, like a great coat.\" \nOn 29 December, William Girdler, a night-watchman, saw the ghost while near Beaver Lane and gave chase; the apparition",
"-32.01587767718593"
],
[
"and bizarre happenings, and it is said to host the spirits of not just the bride, who wanders up and down the staircase, and the despairing groom, but also of other wedding guests. Witnesses have typically been the waiters and waitresses at the Brass Rail, who claim to have seen the ghosts of the couple, usually late at night when they are cleaning up. Other bizarre occurrences said to have happened include phone calls with no one answering on the other line, trays falling to the ground, hearing voices, and the misplacement of items. The upscale restaurant has also grabbed",
"-31.962042726168875"
],
[
"common description is that a person feels a presence of a supernatural malevolent being which immobilizes the person as if sitting on his/her chest. Various cultures have various names for this phenomenon and/or supernatural character. For example, sleep paralysis is referred to as a pandafeche attack in Italy.\nAmong Italians the pandafeche may refer to an evil witch, sometimes a ghostlike spirit or a terrifying catlike creature. Sleep paralysis among Cambodians is known as “the ghost pushes you down,” and entails the belief in dangerous visitations from deceased relatives. In Egypt, sleep paralysis is conceptualized as a terrifying jinn attack. The",
"-31.945535541366553"
],
[
"making \"ghost noises\", but in the middle of it all Paillardin wakes up and is frightened by them. He goes running through the hotel yelling about ghosts, and the daughters themselves are scared into hysterics by Paillardin unexpectedly appearing in their room.\nMaxime and Victoire are brought downstairs by the racket, and are frightened when they discover Paillardin running around. After trying to hide in Mathieu's room, they exit the hotel.\nPaillardin tries to get into Pinglet's and Marcelle's room to hide from the \"ghosts\", and when he finally succeeds in breaking down the door, Pinglet hides in the fireplace. His face",
"-31.9117232413264"
],
[
"chalkboard, and invites him to stay the night. During the night, they are disturbed when her father, a rancher, arrives. Scott hears a commotion downstairs, and runs to the kitchen, where he sees two bloodied bodies, and witnesses Heather's father throwing a woman's severed head into the well outside. He finds Heather unharmed, and she insists they leave the house. On the chalkboard, she writes that there are ghosts there. Suddenly, they are confronted by her father, who attacks Scott with an axe. They flee from the house, and as they leave, he passes by Heather's father, who walks toward",
"-31.86230736758216"
],
[
"fear, and Chris soon gets a strange vision of funeral pyres, dead people and a scary looking woman. When he suddenly sees that same woman appear as a ghost in front of him, he takes Tim with him downstairs where they lock themselves in a room. While Tim goes into shock and Chris and Laura, Tim's girlfriend, try to reanimate him, strange noises come from outside the room, and black fire seems to be coming through the walls, burning Joline alive. Unable to save Tim, Chris takes the lead and gets everyone out of the room to hide somewhere else.\nWhile",
"-31.83473275936558"
],
[
"usually considered to be perturbed and restless due to some factor that prevents them from moving on (to transmigration, non-being, nirvana, or heaven or hell, depending on tradition). This could be a violent death, unsettled matters in their lives, or simply the failure of their survivors to perform proper funerals.\nIn Central and Northern India, ojha or spirit guides play a central role. It duly happens when in the night someone sleeps and decorates something on the wall, and they say that if one sees the spirit the next thing in the morning he will become a spirit too, and that",
"-31.786532162701405"
],
[
"out, the ghost feels the attic walls, in search of something. Kenny and the ghost see each other; the ghost does not speak, and flinches away and disappears when Kenny raises a shoe in defense.\nKenny tells his father there is something upstairs, but his father interprets that as a metaphor for “something you don’t want anyone to know about. Secrets.” Kenny visits the local library, where he meets an old historian, Pardon Willinghast, who is also curious about the property. Kenny tries to talk with the ghost boy, who mutters the word “slave.” He asks Willinghast if any former owners",
"-31.783754256379325"
],
[
"be haunted by the ghosts of those buried there; that the spirits of individuals buried at Druid Ridge would annually convene at the statue; that no grass would grow on the ground where the statue's shadow would lie during the daytime; or that the statue would animate itself during the night, whether by physically moving or by showing glowing red eyes.\nThese urban legends led to much unwelcome attention toward the statue; many people were caught breaking into the cemetery at night to visit it, and the pedestal was frequently vandalized. The Agnus family, disturbed by the attention the statue received,",
"-31.735129435255658"
],
[
"government and non-profit organizations.\" Alleged haunting Over the years, several staff and former students have observed strange occurrences at Government House. Doors have been said to open and close repeatedly with no one near, the sound of crying babies and laughing children have been heard late at night with no one around, and others have claimed to see eerie faces next to theirs when looking into mirrors.\nOne particular apparition of note is \"Howie\", believed to be Cheun Lee, the former cook of Lieutenant-Governor Archibald McNab. Many believe that his ghost roams the house; his footsteps often heard shuffling through",
"-31.73488655203255"
],
[
"Shivers (film) Plot At Starliner Towers, a luxury apartment complex outside of Montreal, Dr. Emil Hobbes murders a young woman named Annabelle. He slices open her stomach, pours acid into the wound and then commits suicide. Nick Tudor, who has been suffering from stomach convulsions, finds their bodies but leaves without calling the police. The two bodies are found by resident doctor Roger St. Luc, who calls the police. Hobbes' medical partner, Rollo Linsky, tells St. Luc that he and Hobbes had been working on a project to create: \"a parasite that can take over the function of a human",
"-31.716413770103827"
],
[
"then claimed to have seen a spirit emerging in his peripheral vision, but when he turned to face the figure, it vanished.\nHe discovered the cause of the \"haunting\" by accident. The next day Tandy, a keen fencer, was polishing his sword when he noticed that the blade was vibrating even when clamped in a vice. From this Tandy developed the idea that infrasound might be present in the laboratory. Further experimentation showed that the infrasound trapped in the laboratory was at its highest next to Tandy's desk, right where he had seen the ghost. The infrasound was found to have",
"-31.66703669614799"
],
[
"and Shivers falls into a gully. Lynn goes to check to see if Peters is okay, but looks to see Shivers rise up out of the gully. Lynn takes Peter's gun and points it at Shivers, but before she can pull the trigger, Stoltz (who was only injured in the face) pops out of nowhere and shoots Shivers three times in the chest, knocking him back into the gully. It is never revealed whether Peters is dead, or he's just simply unconscious.\nThe police arrive, only to find out that there's no body in the gully, only that there is a",
"-31.664194698125357"
],
[
"not the major problem in the early stages of exposure as other stresses are more immediately life-threatening.\nCold shock response is the initial reaction to immersion in cold water. It generally starts with a gasp reflex in response to sudden and rapid chilling of the skin, and if the head is immersed there is a risk of inhaling water and drowning. This is followed by a reflexive hyperventilation, with a risk of panic and fainting if not controlled. Cold induced vasoconstriction causes the heart to work harder and the additional work can overload a weak heart, with a possible consequence of",
"-31.65813305512711"
],
[
"Tobias, and rumours of a ghostly woman. Several previous tenants had left upon seeing this apparition. The landlord agrees to spend the night in the house as well. In the dead of night, they see a ghostly, naked child running through the house. They have little doubt that it is a supernatural manifestation. The landlord claims to see a woman, apparently searching for the child, although Carnacki cannot see it. All of the seals on the doors are unbroken. As they debate what they have seen, the mildew smell returns, more powerful than ever. The downstairs passages are wet with",
"-31.639603865056415"
],
[
"and cries in the night. Suddenly, she spots a pale-faced man perched on a tower of the house. When the man disappears, she becomes frightened and wonders if she has seen a ghost. Her mind is put at ease by the playing of the children, and their singing of the nursery rhyme \"Tom, Tom, the Piper's Son\". Later she sees the same man looking in through a window. She decides to ask Mrs. Grose about the man. Based on her description the housekeeper tells the Governess about Peter Quint, the former valet at Bly House. Mrs. Grose implies that Quint",
"-31.60862864385126"
],
[
"Series 1, Episode 1 (Being Human) Cold open Bristol, England, present day: Annie muses on her current situation. She's a young woman who also happens to be a ghost, killed after a fall in her home. As her family, friends and fiancé move on without her, she haunts her former house. Unable to either communicate or even effectively make herself known to the succession of tenants who rent it, she is close to succumbing to \"the worst thing about being a ghost... It's lonely. You'll give anything for that crumb of comfort. That feel of skin against skin that says,",
"-31.490408226687578"
],
[
"who sent it forth.\"\nThe authors state that when a person is suddenly frightened, then has a place the effect shown in Fig. 27. It is emphasized that \"all the crescents\" on the right, which apparently have been emitted earlier than others, do not show anything other than \"the livid grey of fear; but a moment later the man is already partially recovering from the shock, and beginning to feel angry that he allowed himself to be startled.\" The later crescents have changed to scarlet, and it evidences the \"mingling of anger and fear,\" while the last crescent is quite scarlet,",
"-31.451918738894165"
],
[
"soul or ghost trying to warn Linh something, to the point Linh is unable to leave that house as her heart will stop beating once she does it. Finally, after being heavily haunted, Son can't take it anymore and confesses that he caused the accident that killed Phuong in the middle of the street, however, he was in a rush to the hospital. Son drove away after calling the police to inform the situation. The police named Sau Dung invites him to the police station for a couple of questions. Thinking everything is coming to an end, things are getting",
"-31.40497801906895"
],
[
"sick, he rushes to a nearby public toilet that his son Billy believes to be haunted, where he vomits. A creepy voice whispers unintelligibly to him and, before passing out, David sees what he believes to be a ghostly figure murder his wife.\nWhen Alice does not return home he contacts the police. When Detective McNamara questions him, David denies knowledge of the affair and does not mention the events at the canal. The police eventually find her body at the bottom of the canal, though they rule her death accidental. As David grieves, he becomes obsessed with a series of",
"-31.398361388441117"
],
[
"from the pulmonary beds into the systemic circulation, which has become dilated due to hypoxia.\nAs with any syncopal episode that results from a cardiac dysrhythmia, the fainting does not depend on the patient's position. If they occur during sleep, the presenting symptom may simply be feeling hot and flushed on waking. Causes The attacks are caused by any temporary lack of cardiac output. This in turn could be due to any number of causes, including antimony poisoning, cardiac asystole, heart block, Lev's disease or ventricular fibrillation. Paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia or atrial fibrillation is the underlying cause in up",
"-31.390064154431457"
],
[
"The man then supposedly perished with unexplained causes. To this day, many people have reported hearing the ghosts' conversations, then a woman's scream followed by a man's scream. A second story is that a woman was being chased down the road and when she got to the bridge she did not know the area and thought that there was a river underneath, so she jumped over the bridge and when she saw the train tracks screamed all the way down to her death. They say that to this day on certain nights you can still hear her screaming. Another popular",
"-31.38721037452342"
],
[
"Stir crazy (condition) Stir crazy is an experience of anxiety about being trapped in a future of boredom; it is associated with prisoners and adolescents. It is also called \"chronophobia\". According to the Oxford English Dictionary the phrase dates back to 1908 and stems from the slang term \"stir\" for prison.",
"-31.372071542718913"
],
[
"include shortness of breath and rapid chest movement. While death rattle is a strong indication that someone is near death, it can also be produced by other problems that cause interference with the swallowing reflex, such as brain injuries.\nIt is sometimes misinterpreted as the sound of the person choking to death, or alternatively, that they are gargling. Timing This symptom most commonly appears sometime during the last 24 hours of the person's life, although some people live somewhat longer. Management The dying person is usually unaware of the noisy breathing and is not disturbed by it, but some healthcare",
"-31.356668094580527"
],
[
"chill doing errands for Parish in the rain.\nEventually, Niggle is forced to take his trip, and cannot get out of it. He has not prepared, and as a result ends up in a kind of institution, in which he must perform menial labour each day. Back at the home to which he cannot return, Niggle's painting is abandoned, used to patch a damaged roof, and all but destroyed (except for the one perfect leaf of the story's title, which is placed in the local museum). \nIn time, Niggle is paroled from the institution, and he is sent to a place",
"-31.339991030312376"
],
[
"Shiver (2003 film) Plot Regional Crime Unit officer Chan Kwok-ming (Francis Ng) and his wife, Sammi Mok (Athena Chu) were on the way to finalize their proceedings for separation where an armed robbery breaks out in the streets. Kwok-ming steps in to assist in hunting the criminals, but Sammi was hit by a stray bullet and was seriously injured, leading her into a coma. Several months later, Sammi awakes from her coma. Sammi's doctor, Ko Chuen (Nick Cheung) warns her to be especially careful with her body as her blood type is very rare.\nSince Kwok-ming is often busy and handling",
"-31.328423943399685"
],
[
"thought to be deceased people looking for vengeance, or imprisoned on earth for bad things they did during life. The appearance of a ghost has often been regarded as an omen or portent of death. Seeing one's own ghostly double or doppelgänger is a related omen of death. Wari' Wari', an Amazon rainforest tribe, believe that the spirits of dead people may appear as scaring specters called jima. The jima is said to grab a person with very strong, cold and poisonous hands and try to pull the person's spirit away. Papuans A 19th-century missionary describes the fear of ghosts",
"-31.317708541289903"
],
[
"A Ghost Story Plot A musician lives with his wife in a small house in Dallas, Texas. She wants to move, but he does not. One night, they hear a bang on their piano but cannot find the cause.\nThe husband is killed in a car accident in front of their house. At the hospital, his wife views his body and covers it with a sheet. The man awakens as a ghost covered in the sheet, and wanders through the hospital, invisible. A door of light opens before him, but he doesn't step towards it, and it closes. He walks home",
"-31.286507383149"
],
[
"this year [1812] may be singularized by the shaking of the earth, which occurred so often that it would be both tedious and useless to have noticed every one. On the 14th of February, 2 hours before day, was the heaviest shock that was felt on the Wabash. A number of brick houses were cracked and the tops of some chimneys fell off. From carried information, we learn, that the shaking occurs almost daily in New Madrid, that the earth's motion appears to be about 12 inches horizontally in a north and south direction, that large chasms can be seen",
"-31.277494844627654"
],
[
"to believe that Suki's ghost is always nearby. \nNot long afterwards, Mrs Ayers kills herself by slashing her wrists with the glass from a broken picture frame. Roderick attends the funeral, admonishing Caroline to leave the house lest she might be the next to die. On the night of the funeral, Faraday and a reluctant Caroline make plans to marry in six weeks' time. Later, Faraday considers that the strange occurrences in the house may well be due to poltergeist activity. It is suggested that supernatural phenomena might be the product of random, unintended telekinesis, which may well be poltergeist-like",
"-31.233919093298027"
],
[
"answer. Darling replies, “I think I’ll become one of your ghost stories now.” Darling breaks down the locked door upstairs and is horrified by what she sees, but it is not shown to the audience. Darling paces the hall, cuts up all of her clothes and dons the cross necklace. A woman arrives at the house with two police officers, presumably having been alerted by Madame via telephone, and they find the bag of body parts after entering with a spare key. Darling hears them, climbs up to the roof and jumps off - her visions now coming full circle.\nIn",
"-31.23305644321954"
],
[
"reality itself. It's like waking from a dream, or a light going on, or a giant \"You are here\" sign appearing in the sky. The mere fact that I'm actually real and actually breathing suddenly hits me in the head with a thwack. It leaves me giddy. It causes a brief surge of clammy, bubbling anxiety, like the opening stages of a panic attack. The moment soon passes, but while it lasts it's strangely terrifying. The Masquerade The concept of masquerade can be analyzed as an extension of identity, as opposed to the Oxford English dictionary that does not make",
"-31.21775847498793"
],
[
"sick and seems to have a small panic attack. She ignores these signs, believing them into being leftovers from her old trauma. Eaven before the furniture is brought in, the first scary incident happens. Suddenly she starts to hear a gruesome voice in the house, singing and whispering when she's alone. As the scary incidents start to increase and her fear starts to grow, she is finally convinced that she is not alone in this big, dark house. She seeks help from a befriended priest and contacts her psychiatrist, but no one seems to believe her.\nCompletely alone, unable to get",
"-31.214421595199383"
],
[
"An Inhabitant of Carcosa Synopsis A man from the city of Carcosa, contemplating the words of the philosopher Hali concerning the nature of death, wanders through an unfamiliar wilderness. He knows not how he came there, but recalls that he was sick in bed. He worries that he has wandered out of doors in a state of insensibility. The man calms himself as he surveys his surroundings. He is aware that it is cold, though he does not exactly feel cold. He follows an ancient paved road and sees the disassembled remnants of tombstones and tombs. He",
"-31.163344035478076"
],
[
"the lawn carrying a coffin on his back. The man stopped and looked up at Dufferin and their eyes met for a moment, before he continued on into the shadows and disappeared. Dufferin thought the whole event might have been just a bad dream, but the next morning his hostess assured him that the next time he saw the apparition, he would die.\nSome years later Dufferin, then British ambassador to France, recognised the lift operator at the Grand Hotel in Paris as the man he had seen in the garden in Ireland. He refused to get into the lift and",
"-31.131958890677197"
],
[
"in which a he would be in a given situation and suddenly feel a presence. When he looked up, a gypsy woman stood there looking at him. The sudden appearance of this woman always unnerved him, although it wasn't until some years after these dreams started that he encountered a real gypsy. This happened on a walk in the New Forest, and she warned him not to take a certain path. He ignored her and the wooden bridge he was crossing broke beneath his weight, casting him into the fast-running stream below and nearly drowning him.\nThese occurrences came back to",
"-31.1125907161113"
],
[
"the house. After hearing this, The King also fell into grief and falls from his fort and dies. Later the people who lived near the house felt paranormal activities and were killed by the ghost. This news travels to a Buddhist Monk and he offers a visit to Sivankondamalai. There, the Buddhist Monk starts meditating in Sivankondamalai. As he opens his eyes he finds himself in a bungalow and encounters the ghost which threatens to kill him, but the monk traps the ghosts in a magical box and he faints due to a concussion. His assistants warn the owner of",
"-31.106013270109543"
],
[
"their ghosts to join Tom. Florence tells Tom that her soul will not rest if she dies now, so Tom brings her medicine.\nThe following scene shows Florence walking throughout the school. She passes by several adults on her way out, but none notice her. Florence catches up to Robert and shares a cigarette with him. Florence explains that being unable to see ghosts anymore is not the same as forgetting them. She then asks Robert to tell their driver to pull up to the end of the drive since she has always enjoyed the walk, and that she will see",
"-31.085915371833835"
],
[
"terrified of the ghostly noises in the attic of a deserted house, more so than even Jeff, and he doesn't appear to have any sense of other paranormal phenomenon when he can not physically see them. He also shows a subservience to the 1920s American gangster ghost of Bugsy in the eighth episode \"Murder Ain't What it Used to Be\".",
"-31.0783297996677"
],
[
"The Ghost Walks Plot On a stormy night, a theatrical producer, his secretary, and playwright Prescott Ames are stranded when their car skids off the road and gets stuck. The three take refuge in the nearby home of Dr. Kent, a friend of Ames. One of Kent's patients, who is staying at the house, is acting strangely, and the others in the house tell the newcomers that she is behaving this way because it is the anniversary of her husband's murder. At dinner, the group begins exchanging accusations about the murder, when suddenly the lights go out, and soon afterwards",
"-31.069231875706464"
],
[
"room in which he died. A 1912 newspaper article related the story of a man who had stayed for a month in a room in the Octagon which he claimed was visited nightly by the spirit of a man who was killed over a card game held in the room.\nThere are numerous reports of occurrences in the Octagon that were supposedly caused by the household ghosts. The sound of rustling silk is said to be heard on the main staircase, the hanging lamp in the main hallway allegedly swings by itself, there is a spot at the foot of the",
"-31.05118482094258"
],
[
"nod; both the arms may fling out together and simultaneously a head nod may occur. Symptoms have some variability amongst subjects. Sometimes the entire body may jerk, just like a startle response. As is the case with all generalised seizures, the patient is not conscious during the event but the seizure is so brief that the person appears to remain fully conscious.\nIn reflex epilepsies, myoclonic seizures can be brought on by flashing lights or other environmental triggers (see photosensitive epilepsy).\nFamiliar examples of normal myoclonus include hiccups and hypnic jerks that some people experience while drifting off to sleep. Severe cases",
"-31.04809510151972"
],
[
"An American Haunting Plot A terrified young girl runs through the forest and into her house to escape from an unseen threat. She awakens with a scream. Her mother dismisses it as a dream and reminds her that this is her week to visit her father. She picks up an old, broken doll and asks her daughter where she got it. When the girl answers that she found it in the attic, her mother reminds her that the attic is off-limits and not to go up there again.\nThe mother goes to her desk and picks up",
"-31.046583547751652"
],
[
"as a possible explanation for haunted houses as early as 1921.\nPeople who experience sleep paralysis often report seeing ghosts during their experiences. Neuroscientists Baland Jalal and V.S. Ramachandran have recently proposed neurological theories for why people hallucinate ghosts during sleep paralysis. Their theories emphasize the role of the parietal lobe and mirror neurons in triggering such ghostly hallucinations. Judaism and Christianity The Hebrew Bible contains several references to owb (Hebrew: אוֹב), which are in a few places akin to shades of classical mythology but mostly describing mediums in connection with necromancy and spirit-consulting, which are grouped with witchcraft and other",
"-31.046129491762258"
],
[
"on the site of the old Brentwood Mansion. According to a website on Washington ghost stories, students have reported that it is haunted by the spirit of a little girl. Allegedly, blankets have been yanked off, an unplugged alarm clock went off, papers have moved with no draft or breeze, there are feelings of being watched, and at least one student has been tapped awake with no one there. Geography The Brentwood and Bloomingdale neighborhoods are low-lying areas, located at the foot of hills a few blocks north. Because of this, flash flooding can occur during the spring and",
"-31.044214713358087"
],
[
"idea that it was so came strongly upon me one day when I was sitting in the Musée of the school, with my head in my hands, trying vainly to shut out of my ears the piteous shrieks and cries which floated incessantly towards me up the private staircase ... Every now and then, as a scream more heart-rending than the rest reached me, the moisture burst out on my forehead and on the palms of my hands, and I prayed, \"Oh God, take me out of this Hell; do not suffer me to remain in this awful place.\" Death",
"-31.02009647160594"
],
[
"feel scared at all? For some scenes, like a rape scene, I can't help but wonder why they have to use a real woman to impersonate the victim. Didn't those who acted as the dead feel anything at all?\" Locations Some of the filming locations were actual famous crime scenes. These include \"The Haunted House at Nong Jork\", an unfinished house where a construction worker was killed during a drunken brawl. Work then stopped on the house and it has been used since as a place where criminals dump dead bodies.\nAnother location is a deserted house in Bang Len, where",
"-30.98854568967363"
],
[
"Tandy conjectured, was why he had seen a ghostly figure—it was, he believed, an optical illusion caused by his eyeballs resonating. The room was exactly half a wavelength in length, and the desk was in the centre, thus causing a standing wave which caused the vibration of the foil.\nTandy investigated this phenomenon further and wrote a paper entitled The Ghost in the Machine. He carried out a number of investigations at various sites believed to be haunted, including the basement of the Tourist Information Bureau next to Coventry Cathedral and Edinburgh Castle. Infrasound for nuclear detonation detection Infrasound is one",
"-30.97709690024203"
],
[
"whatever evil ghost arose from the grave. In addition, the grave was deliberately made too small for the body, so that the murderer would feel uncomfortable even in death. Quicklime was added and the pit was covered over.\nThe procession also stopped for ten minutes in front of The King's Arms, where the coachman reportedly whipped the dead man three times across the face.\nIn August 1886 a gas company began to excavate a trench in the area where Williams had been buried. They accidentally unearthed a skeleton, reportedly buried upside down and with the remains of the wooden stake",
"-30.95774782569788"
],
[
"of ways which included being swung up in a hammock, her hands and feet extended. As expected, the noises commenced, but stopped once Elizabeth was made to place her hands outside the bed. For two nights the ghost was silent. Elizabeth was told that if no more noises were heard by Sunday 21 February, she and her father would be committed to Newgate Prison. Her maids then saw her conceal on her person a small piece of wood about 6 by 4 inches (150 by 100 mm) and informed the investigators. More scratches were heard but the observers concluded",
"-30.951140986129758"
],
[
"falling off walls, loud wails heard coming from the upstairs, unexplained moisture in spots around the house, and the constant feeling of being watched. \"Legend has it that the property lies in an area where several murders occurred, and several unmarked graves reportedly lie under or near the house\". Hopkins's niece and her friends recall seeing a black man lying in the street, and as they went to see if he needed help, the man supposedly disappeared. This black man could be one of the men from the Stockade Case or another man that was rumored to have been hanged",
"-30.94366012356477"
],
[
"down to see what had happened... Afterwards, it struck me that ‘incident’ is a very detached word for something so destructive and traumatic for the people involved. And then I had the sensation that the spirit of someone that had died in the accident entered into my car and was sitting next to me.\nThe irony of such a cold expression for such seismic events appealed to me, and I began to pick out other ‘incidents’ reported in the media and news, I wrote about the evacuation of teenage girls from a religious cult in Texas, a family terrorizing its neighbours,",
"-30.936831052880734"
],
[
"One evening, Melissa appears to both Geno and Frankie. The town clock begins to chime and Frankie realizes that her nightly death re-enactment is about to commence. They follow her ghost to the school then wait until her lifeless body reappears, which is then carried by an invisible figure out of the school and onto the cliffs. At the last minute, she awakes and begins screaming as she is thrown over the cliffs. A pale, blond woman dressed in white then comes out of the cottage. Upon seeing Melissa's lifeless body on the rocks below, she flings herself off the",
"-30.89792750705965"
],
[
"noises.\n\"...A great faceted eye watched ...and the ropeless tentacle began to uncoil purposefully...\".The victim will feel unendurable cold and pain, and hear a brief whistling, as Iod draws out his spirit. Nyogtha Men knew him as the Dweller in Darkness, that brother of the Old Ones called Nyogtha, the Thing that should not be. He can be summoned to Earth's surface through certain secret caverns and fissures, and sorcerers have seen him in Syria and below the black tower of Leng; from the Thang Grotto of Tartary he has come ravening to bring terror and destruction among the pavilions of",
"-30.87742765920848"
],
[
"the complications caused by Shivers and the police. Bert visits Shivers, who is revealed to be Doug Richardson, a former patient of his, a sex offender with Leber's congenital amaurosis. Worried that Shivers will wreck his plans, Bert orders him to leave Lynn alone.\nIgnoring Bert, Shivers sends a party clown to Lynn's house to distract the guard, who he beheads, spotting Heston nearby as he does so. When Shivers leaves, Heston breaks into Lynn's home, and is shot with his own gun during a struggle with Lynn and Tuck, who had stopped by to check on Lynn. At the Tokyo",
"-30.872735758748604"
],
[
"The ghost watches them eat dinner, play piano, and celebrate Christmas. The children sense and are bothered by his presence, and the family moves out after he hurls plates from the kitchen cabinet in anger. The second ghost continues to wait next door. At a party thrown later by the next occupants, the ghost listens to a man describe his theories about how people try to create a legacy, but everything is ultimately destroyed. The partygoers notice the lights flicker.\nThe house eventually goes abandoned and derelict. As the ghost manages to remove a piece of the wall concealing the note,",
"-30.843086700260756"
],
[
"outside my window. Then I heard a voice: ‘Chan, come and meet me outside and all the past will be forgotten.’ I remember sitting up in bed and saying ‘No!’ And when I said that, I felt as if something was coming fast, straight from under the earth, these dark spirits. I know that sounds completely insane. So I sprung out of bed and rushed into every room [mimes shutting windows in a panic]. Then they came, thousands of them, all up against the kitchen window. They were clear, black as night, trying to get into my soul. That’s when",
"-30.839023667795118"
],
[
"then I'll look all around,\n\nAnd when I find Susanna, I'll fall upon the ground.\n\nBut if I do not find her, this darkie'll surely die,\n\nAnd when I'm dead and buried—Susanna, don't you cry. Modern version Oh, I come from Alabama with a banjo on my knee!\n\nGoing to Louisiana, my true love for to see\n\nOh Susanna! Oh don't you cry for me!\n\nFor I come from Alabama with a banjo on my knee\n\nIt rained all night the day I left, the weather it was dry\n\nThe sun so hot I froze to death, Susanna don't you cry\n\nOh Susanna! Oh don't you cry for me!\n\nFor",
"-30.82174237939762"
],
[
"for him. Neighbors who try to warn him that he is living with a ghost are all killed.\nOne day, as Nak is preparing nam phrik, she drops a lime off the porch. In her haste to retrieve it, she stretches her arm to pick it up from the ground below. Mak sees it and at last realizes his wife is a ghost. Terrified, he tries to find a way to flee without alarming her.\nThat night, Mak says he has to go downstairs to urinate. He then runs away into the night.\nDiscovering her husband has fled, Nak pursues him. Mak sees",
"-30.811810127284843"
],
[
"\"Dream Weaver\" by Gary Wright. In an interview, he said, \"When I looked down there was a man very much like Freddy walking along the sidewalk. He must have sensed that someone was looking at him and stopped and looked right into my face. He scared the living daylights out of me, so I jumped back into the shadows. I waited and waited to hear him walk away. Finally I thought he must have gone, so I stepped back to the window. The guy was not only still looking at me but he thrust his head forward as if to",
"-30.806256860334543"
],
[
"Emma Barton (Gillian Kearney) dancing in the fog. However, as they dance, a mysterious ghostly figure is among them, almost haunting them. One death is confirmed, with speculation that it could be Ashley, Robert, Aaron, or even James. The storylines have been influenced by several horror and thriller films including: Misery, Final Destination and The Big Chill.\nThe week follows the characters in the same 24 hour time period. However, the week's first four episodes features a flash forward to the funeral for the character who dies in the week. Then, a vision is seen, Monday's is of Aaron drowning in",
"-30.788923590880586"
],
[
"over me: I tried to draw back my arm, but the hand clung to it, and a most melancholy voice sobbed,\n\"Let me in — let me in!\"\n\"Who are you?\" I asked, struggling, meanwhile, to disengage myself.\n\"Catherine Linton,\" it replied, shiveringly (why did I think of LINTON? I had read EARNSHAW twenty times for Linton). \"I'm come home: I'd lost my way on the moor!\"\nAs it spoke, I discerned, obscurely, a child's face looking through the window.\nThis is the first of many supernatural occurrences in the novel, although Lockwood, despite being unable to recollect the incident, writes it off as",
"-30.75141682702815"
],
[
"have I experienced such cold in all my life. It was like jumping into a deep freeze. The shock forced the breath out of my body. My heart seemed to stop beating. I felt crushed, unable to think. I had rigor mortis, without the mortis. And then I surfaced, spat out the dirty water and, gasping for breath, found my voice.\n\"Stop!\" I shouted. \"Don't listen to me! It's bloody awful! Stay where you are!\"\nBut it was too late ....\nDuring the sinking, a steward pauses as he flees through the first-class smoking room to ask ship's designer Thomas Andrews, \"Aren't you",
"-30.747895568420063"
],
[
"required to lead to a false memory of abduction. Sleep paralysis The vast majority of abduction experiences are thought to originate from an episode of sleep paralysis, which is often accompanied by a feeling of a heavy weight pressing down upon one's chest, as well as hypnopompic hallucinations—the feeling of flying or levitating, flashing lights, feeling a presence in one's bedroom, and hallucinations of figures (such as a person or an animal) near one's bed. The content of these hallucinations tends to be strongly influenced by the individual's cultural beliefs. Before the 20th century, such hallucinations were interpreted as attacks",
"-30.732322104944615"
],
[
"Stendhal syndrome Stendhal syndrome, Stendhal's syndrome or Florence syndrome is a psychosomatic condition involving rapid heartbeat, fainting, confusion and even hallucinations, allegedly occurring when individuals become exposed to objects or phenomena of great beauty. History The affliction is named after 19th-century French author Stendhal (pseudonym of Marie-Henri Beyle), who described his experience with the phenomenon during his 1817 visit to Florence in his book Naples and Florence: A Journey from Milan to Reggio. When he visited the Basilica of Santa Croce, where Niccolò Machiavelli, Michelangelo and Galileo Galilei are buried, he was overcome with profound emotion. Stendhal wrote:\nI was in",
"-30.729544627974974"
]
] |
3ehnwf | When dogs wag their tail and smack it against a hard surface, does it hurt them? | [
"Pain and excitement receptors are closely linked. When dogs are excited they're less likely to feel the pain as pain. Same reason you don't feel as much pain during sex.",
"Yes. My uncle had a dog who would get so excited she would beat her tail against the wall until it split open, then she would fling blood all over the room. It would look like an episode of Dexter.",
"Yep. It's called [Happy Tail Syndrome]( URL_0 ) and dogs sometimes have to get their tails amputated because of repeated damage.",
"Had a great dane with this problem, after bandaging his tail over and over for about a year, we finally decided to have about 6 inches cut off. Unfortunately, that just became another bandage that with excitement, would cause problems of it's own. Cleaning blood off the walls was just another chore that had to be done regularly. He didn't seem to mind. This was also a problem with toenails, he had to have a toe amputated as a puppy because he ran into a wall at the top of the stairs and got his nail stuck in the wall. It would have healed up if the vet had cauterized it, but it happened on a Sunday so our only option was the emergency vet who insisted on just bandaging it. After almost a year of the toe not healing, it too had to go. Obedience training combined with finding a place without walls and corners close to the front door kept this problem from reoccurring as he got older. He was a good dog."
] | [
[
"wagging, may be subject to abrasion or other injury while moving through dense brush or thickets. Bones in the tail can be broken by impact in the field, causing spinal injury to the tail, or terriers can become stuck underground, necessitating being pulled out by the tail, in which case the docked tail protects the dog from spinal injury or trauma. The American Veterinary Medical Association (the largest veterinary professional organization in the United States), disputes these justifications, saying \"These justifications for docking working dogs’ tails lack substantial scientific support. In the largest study to date on tail injuries in",
"-37.39646508801161"
],
[
"Limber tail syndrome Signs and symptoms The injury affects the tail of the dog, causing it to be painful at or near its base. Limber tail can be recognized by a very flaccid tail, or a tail that is held horizontally for approximately 10 cm, and then drops vertically. The condition is also more pronounced in dogs that wag their tails a lot. Cause It has been said by many dog owners that limber tail had been caused shortly (24 hours) after swimming in water that is too cold or on rare occasions too warm and indeed this has certainly",
"-37.13214821738984"
],
[
"and behavioural changes regulated by the dog's owners. Problematic behaviour It is common for problems to arise when dogs compulsively chase their tails. One case study described a dog who began to lose weight, demonstrated aggressive behaviour when its owner attempted to stop the chasing, and became uninterested in enjoyable daily activities, such as walks and eating. Another case study described a dog with similar symptoms but who also injured its tail and head while chasing its tail. Furthermore, with increased tail chasing behaviour, the injuries become more serious, such as fractures from the animals often banging into things while",
"-35.00473848456022"
],
[
"these positive emotions, tail wagging is also an indication of fear, insecurity, challenging of dominance, establishing social relationships or a warning that the dog may bite. Recommendations Many organizations, nonprofit, companies, educational entities and governmental agencies publish recommendations for the public in the prevention and treatment of dog bites.",
"-33.98573189334638"
],
[
"the Dog bites him on the leg, the Donkey kicks him with his hooves, and the Rooster crows and chases him out the door, screaming. He tells his companions that he was beset by a horrible witch who had scratched him with her long fingernails (the Cat), a man who has a knife (the Dog), a black monster who had hit him with a club (the Donkey), and worst of all, the judge who had screamed from the rooftop (the Rooster). The robbers abandon the cottage to the strange creatures who have taken it, where the animals live happily for",
"-33.709925418384955"
],
[
"let Tom off so easily, the dog undoes his smile, grabs Tom's tail, rolls him up like a bowing ball, and bowls him through some garbage cans and into the water, where a crab pinches Tom's tail hard. Tom leaps out in pain and knocks the crab back into the water.\nSoon, Tom spots a smaller dog being chased by a dog catcher. Tom forcibly grabs the dogcatcher's net and drags him to the dog, who is captured instead, knowing that he is Jerry's protector. Jerry, who wants to be protected by the dog, angrily gets a saw in a tool",
"-33.688394367098226"
],
[
"the dog would twist to its side while snarling and yelping; something that was originally thought to be the exacerbation of an existing arthritis condition. A pair of Doggles was ordered, and while the terrier did not initially like wearing them, they did solve the problem. Eventually the owner found that a baseball cap designed for dogs proved to be the solution as the terrier did not mind wearing it.",
"-33.548440517941344"
],
[
"protects it from the bite of another dog, but humans are furless and are not so protected.\nAttack training is condemned by some as promoting ferocity in dogs; a 1975 American study showed that 10% of dogs that have bitten a person received attack dog training at some point.",
"-33.51215256033447"
],
[
"accepted the defense that Ms. Langridge's dog's aggressive behaviour was attributable to the effects of the shock collar. \"Ms. Langridge sought the help of a behaviourist when her dogs started to run away from her on their walks along the beach. The dogs were given shock collars, which Miss Langridge was told to keep on for three months and activate whenever they misbehaved. But the first time the dogs got a shock was by mistake, after a small dog they were walking past made Miss Langridge jump. From then on her pets associated the shocks with small dogs and became",
"-33.215460033879936"
],
[
"of their dogs, which can lead to trouble. Some owners are unaware of \"dog language\" and inadvertently read signs of aggression where there are none. Still others ignore warning signs or mistakenly think that a stiff wagging tail means that a dog is friendly.\n\nSome people keep their dogs locked up in a crate during the week, only to unleash their dogs in a dog park on the weekend without proper exercise, creating issues; and still others allow dogs with illnesses or unvaccinated dogs to run alongside healthy dogs. Dogs who are shy or aggressive can learn to interact safely with",
"-33.01782005873247"
],
[
"the car moving, and the dog comes back and bites a tire. This act causes the air from the tire to be sucked out, into the dog. It inflates like a balloon. Bosko gets mad and sucks the air back to the tire. The unhappy dog leaves, but soon comes back. When the trio walk to the picnic location, they find a log. They put the picnic basket there and start conversing. Bosko whispers an ungentlemanly suggestion to Honey's ear, which causes her to stand up in a huff. Bosko resorts to tempting her with food. He eats a sandwich,",
"-32.890696780686994"
],
[
"chasing their tails, getting skin abrasions and infections from creating open wounds on the tail, and abrasions on the pads of their feet. The most serious cases can result in amputation or even euthanasia if other treatments are unsuccessful. Surveys from owners suggest that tail chasing diminishes quality of life for the dog and usually interferes with the relationship between dog and owner. OCD Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) in humans is characterized by the onset of intrusive, repetitive thoughts and urges (obsessions), that are typically eased through a certain behaviour (compulsions). In addition, it can present early in life or",
"-32.81728664147113"
],
[
"Bulldogs, Ca de Bous and bull and terriers, were bred to bait animals, mainly bulls and bears. During bull-baiting the dog would attempt to flatten itself to the ground, creeping as close to the bull as possible, then darting out and attempting to bite the bull in the nose or head area. The bull would often be tethered by a collar and rope which was staked into the ground. As the dog darted at the bull, the bull would attempt to catch the dog with his head and horns and throw it into the air.\nIn 1835, the Cruelty to Animals",
"-32.752321978419786"
],
[
"catches them and they both retreat as if they have been scolded. \nFinally, after A. Flea sets off an explosion in his fur, the dog cannot stand it any longer. Yelping and dragging his posterior across the floor, at one point he stops briefly and says to viewers, \"Hey, I better cut this out. I may get to like it.\" Elmer advances and the dog, realizing a bath is imminent, brakes and slides to a halt. He begs not to be taken for the bath, but Elmer grabs him and begins dragging him toward the inevitable. Suddenly, the",
"-32.75052019648865"
],
[
"can cause dry eye or leakage of tears onto the face.\nAs field dogs they are prone to minor injuries such as cuts and sprains, and, if inactive, obesity is a common problem as they will eat whenever food is available and rely on their owners to regulate their weight. When working or running free they are also likely to pick up parasites such as fleas, ticks, harvest mites, and tapeworms, and irritants such as grass seeds can become trapped in their eyes, soft ears, or paws.\nBeagles may exhibit a behaviour known as reverse sneezing, in which they sound as if",
"-32.64802911307561"
],
[
"perpetuated in the breeds. They point to the many breeds of working dogs with long tails that are not traditionally docked, including English Pointers, Setters, Herding dogs, and Foxhounds.\nWhile the tails of some working dogs are docked to prevent injury or infection, the tails of larger dogs commonly used for guard work or protection work (not to be confused with patrol work where a handler can provide secondary aid) may be docked to prevent their tails from being grabbed in a fight. This is most common in the Rottweiler, Dobermann Pinscher, Bandog, Cane Corso, Boerboel, etc.\nA study conducted at the",
"-32.61483798718473"
],
[
"also be an indication of fear, insecurity, the challenging of dominance, or a warning sign that the dog may bite. Considerable effort has been put in to describing this aspect of dog behaviour, whereby it can now be broken down into two conditions: right-biased tail wagging, and left-biased tail wagging. Research has demonstrated that dogs display asymmetric tail wagging as a result of distinctive emotional stimuli. Right-biased Tail Wagging Right-biased tail wags are ones biased to the right side of a dog’s body, as viewed from the rear. Studies show that dogs were relaxed when presented with a conspecific showing",
"-32.52237126248292"
],
[
"but initially owners may only notice that their dog's bark sounds different, that their dog can't run as much as before, or that the dog has trouble in hot weather in unilateral cases because the unaffected side can compensate for the paralysed side. However most unilateral cases will eventually progress to include both sides of the larynx, a more serious problem with symptoms appearing more often. \nSigns are usually worse in hot and humid weather, during exercise, during times of stress or excitement, and in obese pets. Acute or late-stage symptoms are usually unmistakable and require immediate emergency",
"-32.48619159791633"
],
[
"dog!\" (German: Mensch, faß den Hund) By \"man\" Franz meant Barry; the \"dog\" was the inmate whom Barry was supposed to attack. Barry would bite his victim wherever he could catch him. The dog was the size of a calf so that, unlike smaller dogs, his shoulders reached to the buttocks and abdomen of a man of average size. For this reason he frequently bit his victims in the buttocks, in the abdomen and often, in the case of male inmates, in the genitals, sometimes partially biting them off. When the inmate was not very",
"-32.48002418020042"
],
[
"hundreds of dogs attempted to catch it, but the beast eluded the hunters and continued to kill.\nThe beast’s strange behaviour continued. It would sometimes kill during the day and seemed to take pleasure in savaging livestock but not feeding from them. In one instance, the creature tore lumps out of the hindquarters of a big ram and then left it alive but crippled. The creature also would allow a single pursuing hunting dog to catch up to it, only to crush the dog's foreleg with its jaws.\nDuring one hunt, the pack had pursued the beast into a small wood",
"-32.47112215784364"
],
[
"of dog bites are from the pet of family or friends, and 50% of attacks occur on the dog owner's property. Animal bites, most of which are from dogs, are the reason for 1% of visits to an emergency department in the United States. Young children sustain bites by familiar or family dogs during normal activities. Some people, like the very young or the very old are more susceptible to being bitten by a dog.\nMore serious injuries from dogs are often described in the media. In 2010, more people were killed by dogs (34) than were hit by lightning (29).",
"-32.3873101861509"
],
[
"when a dog is frightened. It is thought that this secretion leaves a signal to other dogs allowing them to recognize the source of the individual fecal deposit. This odor is also likely the signal being sampled when strange dogs investigate one another by sniffing out the anal area. Dogs' anal glands can become swollen and unable to drain naturally, sometimes requiring a visit to the veterinarian or groomer to express the built up liquid. Excessive licking and chewing of the area is one indication of this. Typically, these glands are expressed during routine professional grooming as a",
"-32.368596655724104"
],
[
"The terrier is so bothered by the fleas, thus starting to bite and scratch a lot. This goes until all the terrier's hairs fall off.\nThough naked, the terrier takes the boot, and tosses it off an edge of Fairy Land. The terrier thinks he has the last laugh, and goes on to howl loudly. A giant Fairy Land inhabitant finds the howling bothersome, and therefore hurls a jar. The terrier finds his head stuck in the jar, prompting that canine to leave the scene for good. Oswald goes to also do some howling, thus irritating more inhabitants who hurl boots",
"-32.35002507649733"
],
[
"during the first week \"to avoid mis-mothering, mis-adventure and injury.\" Dogs As with other domesticated animals there is a long history of docking the tails of dogs. It is understood to date at least to the Roman Empire. The most popular reason for docking dog breeds is to prevent injury to working dogs. In hunting dogs, the tail is docked to prevent it from getting cut up as the dog wags its tail in the brush. This is contested by a wide range of groups and is sometimes considered a form of animal cruelty. This has led to the",
"-32.31970215154979"
],
[
"they are choking or gasping for breath, but are actually drawing air in through the mouth and nose. The exact cause of this behaviour is not known, but it can be a common occurrence and is not harmful to the dog. Hunting Beagles were developed primarily for hunting hare, an activity known as beagling. They were seen as ideal hunting companions for the elderly who could follow on horseback without exerting themselves, for young hunters who could keep up with them on ponies, and for the poorer hunters who could not afford to maintain a stable of good hunting horses.",
"-32.269251293597335"
],
[
"their eyes can glaze over and go hard, followed by the dog snapping into alert mode before finally attacking. It appears to an outsider like an exaggerated form of aggression. Often a specific dog can have a certain trigger, such as the unexpected approach of people whilst he or she is sleeping.\nDr. Roger A. Mugford, to whom the term is attributed, identified that the problem starts on average at around seven and a half months old in English Springer Spaniels. However some of his research subjects showed signs at as early as three months and as late as two years.",
"-32.230605503842526"
],
[
"Dog flea Anatomy The dog flea's mouthparts are adapted for piercing skin and sucking blood. Dog fleas are external parasites, living by hematophagy off the blood of dogs. The dog often experiences severe itching in all areas where the fleas may reside.\nFleas do not have wings and their hard bodies are compressed laterally and have hairs and spines, which makes it easy for them to travel through hair. They have relatively long hind legs for jumping.\nThe dog flea can be distinguished from the very similar cat flea by its head, which is anteriorly rounded rather than elongate, and the tibiae",
"-32.16788193913621"
],
[
"its lever did not stop the shock. To a dog in Group 3, it seemed that the shock ended at random, because it was his/her paired dog in Group 2 that was causing it to stop. Thus, for Group 3 dogs, the shock was \"inescapable\".\nIn Part 2 of the experiment the same three groups of dogs were tested in a shuttle-box apparatus (a chamber containing two rectangular compartments divided by a barrier a few inches high). All of the dogs could escape shocks on one side of the box by jumping over a low partition to the other side. The",
"-32.15566262483844"
],
[
"aggressive or threatening, one of these variations of the signal may be seen. When the dog is taken by surprise or takes someone by surprise, he will turn away quickly. The same happens when someone is staring or acting in a threatening way. In most cases, this signal will make the other dog calm down. Play bow Going down with front legs in a bowing position can be an invitation to play if the dog is moving legs from side to side in a playful manner. Just as often, the dog is standing still while bowing and is using the",
"-32.14931313079251"
],
[
"disproportionately dangerous. Pit bull-type dogs are more frequently identified with cases involving very severe injuries or fatalities than other breeds, but the review suggests this may relate to the popularity of the breed, noting that sled dogs, such as Siberian Huskies, were involved in a majority of fatal dog attacks in some areas of Canada. Bite statistics by breed are not tracked by the CDC, AVMA or the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA). State Farm Insurance spokeswoman Heather Paul stated \"Pit bulls in particular are often misidentified when a bite incident occurs, so reliable bite",
"-32.12476950402106"
],
[
"of the most commonly reported behaviour issues to canine professionals. It is seen when a dog uses specific behaviour patterns so that they can control access to an item, and the patterns are flexible when people are around. If a canine places value on some resource (i.e. food, toys, etc.) they may attempt to guard it from other animals as well as people, which leads to behavioural problems if not treated. The guarding can show in many different ways from rapid ingestion of food to using the body to shield items. It manifests as aggressive behaviour",
"-32.0422108526036"
],
[
"than the pit bulls and described as \"urine-soaked\" with its hair falling out, was thought to be a \"bait dog\" used in training others.\nWBBM radio news reported that the dogs seized in the raid ranged from weeks-old puppies to older dogs, some of whom suffered from physical injuries. Officers wore industrial masks Friday as they rescued the dogs, which were kept in pet transport carriers in the barn and positioned in a way that restricted sunlight. Several of the carriers had bite marks around their openings. Dart described the conditions inside the barn as horrible. \"It's very difficult to breathe",
"-32.02596206389353"
],
[
"is an indication of fear or submission. If a dog's tail is wagging freely and vigorously, this displays a friendly or playful mood. Similar to ear position, tail positions and movements may be mostly or completely ineffective in dog breeds with short, tightly curled, or docked tails.\nThe tail of a dog can communicate a number of emotions and intentions. Tail wagging by dogs is familiar to those who interact with them. When a dog wags its tail, most people interpret this as the dog expressing happiness and friendliness. Though indeed tail wagging can express these positive emotions, it can",
"-31.931633546432977"
],
[
"Muzzle (mouth guard) Dog muzzles Muzzles are sometimes used on trained and untrained dogs, large or small, to prevent unwanted biting, scavenging, or wound licking. They can also be used on dogs who display aggression, whether motivated by excitement, fear, or prey drive. Muzzles are also used on dogs when there is a risk of them taking baits that have been laid for vermin.\nMuzzles can also be used on racing dogs and working dogs (military, police, security, etc.).\nThey are usually made with a strong buckle or other fastening device to ensure that they do not come off accidentally. The",
"-31.919270276234784"
],
[
"Tail chasing Tail chasing is a behaviour exhibited in dogs that is characterized by spinning in tight circles in either direction, and can be slow and focused on the tail or fast and unfocused. It is a compulsion similar to those seen in humans suffering from OCD and it can be quite disruptive to the lives of the dogs themselves, as well as their owners. Some causes have been suggested, including genetic factors, and environmental factors that vary depending on the individual dog. Furthermore, treatment options include drugs that decrease the frequency of tail chasing by targeting the underlying mechanisms,",
"-31.869115514422447"
],
[
"black, salt-and-pepper, and harlequin.\nGerman Pinschers previously had their tails docked and ears cropped in countries where the procedures are legal. Historically, tail docking was thought to prevent rabies, strengthen the back, increase the animal's speed, and prevent injuries when working. Ears also were cropped, as they were thought to prevent injuries while working and increase the intense appearance of the canine. Today, these are done mainly for cosmetic reasons, although most countries are moving away from the procedure that has been found to be unnecessary for most dogs in their new life as pets and activity partners. Health Due to",
"-31.846289449465985"
],
[
"holds out his nose, the boot's toe cap closes, biting the dog with the pointy nails. While the dog twitches in pain, the ducklings nab the basket and set sail with it. Elmer takes off the boot, but it's too late. \nThe ducklings ride the basket at sea and eat the contents, unaware that they are being spotted by an octopus. The octopus grabs the little mallards and takes them below the surface. Elmer at first thinks of coming to their rescue but immediately turns back, recalling the theft they committed. Nevertheless, the dog's conscience prevails, and Elmer swims in",
"-31.740210527997988"
],
[
"to do with hunting behavior – when the prey is running, the dog attacks. Once the prey stops, the dog will stop too. We can often see this when dogs are chasing cats. This behavior, however, is used in several different situations. When you get angry and aggressive and appear threatening, the dog will often freeze and not move in order to help you calm down. Other times the dog may walk slowly, freeze, and then move slowly again. Very often a dog will stop and remain still when someone is approaching. Should a dog be in a conflict situation",
"-31.723659004414003"
],
[
"upon the stick, Bruno is spooked by the sound and movement coming from a covered basket: running back to alert his master, the dog bumps into a young tree and is forthwith buried in snow. Undeterred, the animal continues back to the basket, now accompanied by Bosko, who warns his friend to stay back. But, finding the contents of the basket to be harmless, Bosko invites Bruno to check under its cover: a baby in a bonnet pops out, squeezing Bruno's nose when the animal comes too close. Repelled, Bruno's plight is lovingly laughed at by Bosko, who merrily orders",
"-31.63088614806111"
],
[
"breed standard.\nAt least 170 dog breeds have naturally occurring bobtail lines. These appear similar to docked dogs but are a distinct naturally occurring phenotype. Purpose Historically, tail docking was thought to prevent rabies, strengthen the back, increase the animal's speed, and prevent injuries when ratting, fighting, and baiting. \nTail docking is done in modern times either for prophylactic, therapeutic, cosmetic purposes, and/or to prevent injury. For dogs that work in the field, such as some hunting dogs, herding dogs, or terrier dogs, tails can collect burrs and foxtails, causing pain and infection and, due to the tail's",
"-31.59350137388958"
],
[
"tailed peers. Videos comparing docked and undocked dogs running and jumping show that dogs who are docked have to work harder to compensate for the loss of the tail. Canine pathologist and sports-medicine expert Prof. Chris Zink believes the extra stress imposed on the joints can have long-term health consequences. \nIn 2007, Stephen Leaver, a graduate student at the University of Victoria, published a paper on tail docking which found that tail length was important in the transmission of social cues. The study found that dogs with shorter tails (docked tails) would be approached with caution, as if the",
"-31.504915357272694"
],
[
"as early as one year of age. This has been shown to be associated with impulsive behaviors, anxiety behaviors, fear of noise, and fear of unfamiliar people or animals. Tail There are many different shapes for dog tails: straight, straight up, sickle, curled, or cork-screw. As with many canids, one of the primary functions of a dog's tail is to communicate their emotional state, which can be important in getting along with others. In some hunting dogs, however, the tail is traditionally docked to avoid injuries. In some breeds, such as the Braque du Bourbonnais, puppies can be born with",
"-31.500137819380143"
],
[
"dog's tail would end as they ran into a residential gate.\nJust to toy with its pursuers, the fox steps on mud then walks on the ground, leaving a trail of its footprints. Oswald and the dog follow the tracks which lead to a tree, and Oswald goes for a climb. The rabbit reaches the top but finds nothing. It appears that the fox was actually on the ground as it ties the dog's tail around a wooden spike and goes on to shake the tree. Oswald then drops to ground, and the fox flees the scene.\nOswald chases the fox into",
"-31.44940277054411"
],
[
"argument and was bitten by her Labrador during the night.\nIn a statement made on 6 February 2006, Dinoire said that \"after a very upsetting week, with many personal problems, I took some pills to forget ... I fainted and fell on the ground, hitting a piece of furniture.\"\nDinoire's daughter reported that the family is sure that the dog, which was euthanized, mutilated Dinoire by accident. They believe that the damage was caused when the dog, finding Dinoire wouldn't wake up, got more and more frantic, and began scratching and clawing her. Dinoire was \"heartbroken\" when Tania was euthanized and kept",
"-31.439984082092224"
],
[
"gut. In the UFAW team's opinion, hindleg and back injuries could have been extremely painful until chest or neck injuries were inflicted\".\nThe Burns Inquiry, set up by the UK Government to examine hunting with dogs in England and Wales, which included coursing, concluded that \"We are ... satisfied that being pursued, caught and killed by dogs during coursing seriously compromises the welfare of the hare. It is clear, moreover, that, if the dog or dogs catch the hare, they do not always kill it quickly. There can also sometimes be a significant delay, in driven coursing, before the picker-up reaches the",
"-31.43646426140549"
],
[
"dogs in Groups 1 and 2 quickly learned this task and escaped the shock. Most of the Group 3 dogs – which had previously learned that nothing they did had any effect on shocks – simply lay down passively and whined when they were shocked.\nIn a second experiment later that year with new groups of dogs, Overmier and Seligman ruled out the possibility that, instead of learned helplessness, the Group 3 dogs failed to avert in the second part of the test because they had learned some behavior that interfered with \"escape\". To prevent such interfering behavior, Group 3 dogs",
"-31.414816368696847"
],
[
"and hold technique rather than the bark and hold technique meaning once the dog is deployed, it bites the suspect until the dog handler commands it to release. This often results in serious puncture wounds and is traumatic for suspects. A dog has the legal status of property in Canada. As such, developing case law is moving towards absolute liability for the handlers of animals deliberately released to intentionally maim suspects. The dog is effectively a weapon.\nIn 2010, an Alberta Court of Queen's Bench judge stayed criminal charges against Kirk Steele, a man who was near-fatally shot by a police",
"-31.411688531706204"
],
[
"Tail wagging by dogs Tail wagging by dogs is the behavior of the dog observed as its tail moves back and forth in the same plane. It is considered a social signal. Tail wagging by dogs can be described by its vigorous movement or even just the slightest movement of the tip of its tail. Other dogs wag their tail in a circular motion, and even when the tail is between their legs or the dog is on its back. The tail wagging behavior of a dog may not always be an indication of its friendliness or happiness, as is",
"-31.393298436942132"
],
[
"case of C. canimorsus isolated from a dog bite wound on a small dog's head has been reported; the bacteria were localized to the wound and the dog did not present with bacteremia. A few cases of infection have been reported in rabbits after being bitten by dogs. Clinical manifestations of C. canimorsus in rabbits causes a range of symptoms, including disseminated intravascular coagulation, cellular necrosis (tissue death), low blood pressure, gangrene, and kidney failure. High-risk categories In addition to those at higher risk of developing complications from C. canimorsus due to greater contact with felines and canines,",
"-31.388256769211353"
],
[
"dogshit that people are putting out for the sake of it. It’s bollocks. It’s a destructive force. And we want to fight that.\n— Josh Friend",
"-31.326963330888248"
],
[
"Dog aggression Causes Many dogs show \"displays of aggression\" such as barking, growling, or snapping in the air, which are considered distance-increasing actions, those that intend to get the person or dog to move away from the dog. There are several types of aggression in dogs such as human directed aggression, idiopathic aggression, interdog aggression, redirected aggression and territorial aggression. Some dog-aggressive dogs display aggression that is mainly defensive, and they harm another dog only if they perceive that they have no option. Yet, other dogs may develop dog-aggressive behaviour due to medical reasons, such as hormonal imbalances, neurological",
"-31.31801451886713"
],
[
"stinging tail and throws a sausage on the floor to make the old man drinking what appears to be whiskey at the table send his doberman pinscher outside. Consuming the dog, the monster gains a set of powerful jaws. Re-entering the trailer, it murders the old man by biting his throat out, alerting his wife, who shoots at it. Tricking her into shooting out her window, it climbs in. There are multiple endings, a few of which end up with the slug being shot to pieces. It can suffocate, disembowel, behead, or, ideally, assimilate her.",
"-31.3072250909172"
],
[
"dog's brain. In severe cases, it can be fatal. Docking Traditionally, the Yorkshire Terrier's tail is docked to a medium length. Opposition to this practice began very early in the history of the breed; Hugh Dalziel, writing about Yorkshire Terriers in 1878, declared that \"There is no reason for mutilating pet dogs, and perfect ears and tails should be bred, not clipped into shape with scissors.\" American Kennel Club and Canadian Kennel club still require the Yorkie’s tail be docked in order to compete at its events. The majority of the rest of the world has adopted a",
"-31.289213873954168"
],
[
"very difficult time getting out on its own if it cannot turn around.\nWith two animals underground (dog and quarry), it is essential that a flow of air be maintained to avoid asphyxiation. The tighter a dog is in the pipe, the more the air flow will be constricted. In addition, a small dog has better maneuverability and can more easily avoid being bitten. Because of this, small dogs often receive less injury underground than larger dogs, which are more likely to find themselves jammed in a den pipe, face to face with the quarry, and unable to",
"-31.22268981099387"
],
[
"an English animal behaviour consultant.\nThe rage syndrome has no connection to rabies, for which its name is often mistaken (as the Latin translation stands for \"rage\"). Symptoms The dog will suddenly act aggressively toward anyone nearby, but minutes later will be calm and normal. The dog does not seem to remember or realize what has taken place and may act immediately friendly to the person(s) whom they attacked. Attacks such as these cannot be prevented with training because it is a problem that the dog seemingly cannot consciously control. The attack will happen without apparent cause.\nShortly prior to an attack,",
"-31.16775062186207"
],
[
"puts dogs at a disadvantage in several ways. First, dogs use their tails to communicate with other dogs (and with people); a dog without a tail might be significantly handicapped in conveying fear, caution, aggression, playfulness, and so on. Leaver and Reimchen, in 2007, found that longer tails were more effective than shorter tails at \"conveying different intraspecific cues, such as those provided by tail motion\".\nIt has also been suggested that certain breeds use their tails as rudders when swimming, and possibly for balance when running; so active dogs with docked tails might be at a disadvantage compared to their",
"-31.122067911783233"
],
[
"visibility. Large barracudas can be encountered in muddy shallows on rare occasion. Barracudas may mistake things that glint and shine for prey. One incident reported a barracuda jumping out of water and injuring a kayaker, but Jason Schratwieser, conservation director of the International Game Fish Association, said that the wound could have been caused by a houndfish.\nHandfeeding or touching large barracudas in general is to be avoided. Spearfishing around barracudas can also be dangerous, as they may be attracted to the injured animals and attempt to eat them. As food Barracudas are popular both as food and game fish. They",
"-31.080517920592683"
],
[
"lead to signals of aggression, fear, dominance, friendship or territoriality being misinterpreted by the other species. Dogs have a natural instinct to chase smaller animals that flee, an instinct common among cats. Most cats flee from a dog, while others take actions such as hissing, arching their backs and swiping at the dog. After being scratched by a cat, some dogs can become fearful of cats.\nIf appropriately socialized, cats and dogs may have relationships that are not antagonistic, and dogs raised with cats may prefer the presence of cats to other dogs. Even cats and dogs that have got along",
"-31.061163649945684"
],
[
"realizing that the \"rabid dog\" is actually Porky's pet.\nAfter several more antics, the shaving cream is removed, and Porky sees that it is just Black Fury (after his fur returns to normal). Penguin angrily rolls up his \"sleeve\" and stares Black Fury down, uttering \"So...\" in anticipation of a fight. This sets off the silkworm, who wraps Penguin up into a state of mummification and once again has a top hat pop up as his head.",
"-31.026517661175603"
],
[
"they are playing with. This is in contrast to when they produce a growl that accurately projects their body size when guarding food, which is necessary because it will be more dangerous if their opponent thinks they are bigger, as this may result in more injury.\nGrowling in dogs is generally seen as unfavorable, and there are various methods to deal with this behaviour including therapy, training and temperament testing. The therapy approach to fear based or aggressive growling in dogs seems to work the most favourably, having a strong emphasis on owner-dog communication and understanding, as well as a strong",
"-30.99618781775962"
],
[
"have certain pieces of equipment, such as an arctic parka, an ax, snowshoes, and boots for each dog's feet to protect against cutting ice and hard packed snow injuries. The dog sled Racing sleddogs wear individual harnesses to which \"tuglines\" are snapped, pulling from a loop near the root of the tail. The dogs are hooked in pairs, their tuglines being attached in turn to a central \"gangline\". The lines usually include short \"necklines\" snapped to each dog's collar, just to keep the dogs in proper position. It is unusual ever to see more than 22 dogs hooked at once",
"-30.99146806285171"
],
[
"not bite a stranger or other animals unless continuously provoked, leading them to be considered very dog and animal friendly. From thousands of years of guarding sheep, they are very intelligent, calm and independent. Maintenance After thousands of years of running around sheep, the Polish Tatra Sheepdog has a good amount of energy and needs a decently large fenced yard to run around in. It is not a good apartment dog because of its size and amount of energy. They are not very active inside, but are very active outside. This is why constant walks are",
"-30.97679915841036"
],
[
"threat. The communication may be directed at cats as well as other species – the puffed-up hissing and spitting display of a cat toward an approaching dog is a well-known behavior. Cats hiss when they are startled, scared, angry, or in pain, and also to scare off intruders into their territory. If the hiss and growl warning does not remove the threat, an attack by the cat may follow. Kittens as young as two to three weeks will hiss and spit when first picked up by a human. \"Spitting\" is a shorter but louder and more emphatic version of hissing.",
"-30.937324735768925"
],
[
"dog and its unfortunate consequence; 'Man bites Dog, goes to hospital' \nOn May 5, 2013, \"Nine News\", an Australian news outlet, ran a story headlined \"Man bites dog to save wife\" about a man who bit a Labrador on the nose, after it attacked his wife and bit off her nose.\nOn March 12, 2014, Rosbalt, a Russian news agency, reported that a man in Lipetsk had burnt a bed in his apartment, run around the city in his underwear, and, finally, \"bit a fighting breed dog\" following an hours-long online debate about the situation in Ukraine.\nIn April 2014, CNN reported",
"-30.935644430406683"
],
[
"but there is one case of a dog that was kicked in the belly in 1995. The blow left no puncture, but there was severe bruising. The dog later died from an apparent intestinal rupture.\nAnother human death due to a cassowary was recorded in Florida on April 12, 2019. The bird's owner, 75-year-old Marvin Hajos, who had raised the animal, was apparently clawed to death after he fell to the ground.",
"-30.922120845587415"
],
[
"pit bull puppy back into the home with a fire extinguisher, resulting in the dog's death. It was reported that the officers laughed over the incident. The armored personnel carrier (APC) used during the assault also ran over and damaged a neighbor's vehicle when its brakes failed. Police recovered two weapons: one antique shotgun; and one 9mm pistol. After failing to find illicit weapons the police served an arrest warrant for the house's owner, who was also wanted on a misdemeanor warrant for failing to appear in Tempe Municipal Court on several traffic citations. Changes to jail operations During",
"-30.88437507413255"
],
[
"him until she sees the chapel, whereupon she begins to run, cursing and crying, until she plunges into the jamb of the door. \nInside, Robin stands before a contrived altar, and when Nora hits the jamb, she goes down before the dog, dragging her knees and swinging her head against the dog's. The dog, frightened, tries to escape, but is cornered. He grows more and more agitated, biting at Robin, and then Robin begins to bark too, to which the dog cries, and their affects decrease in intensity until Robin lies out, weeping, and the dog too lies down, head",
"-30.88101104255111"
],
[
"makes noises to test the earmuffs, and when the dog stays asleep, he happily goes off to corner Jerry. Jerry blows his whistle while Tom only looks more menacing than before, but then Jerry pulls out a pair of earmuffs for himself and continues whistling. Thinking that Jerry stole the dog's earmuffs, Tom gets so scared that he rolls himself into a ball and bowls off the pier, and even grabs the crab and attaches it to his tail. However, in the final scene, Jerry then puts that pair on as he lies down next to the dog (who still",
"-30.847919743100647"
],
[
"it can cause any harm. The dog catchers arrive and open fire on the wrong dog. While the vet tries to operate on the hurt dog Scully enters the building and begins to hear screaming in the back room. She discovers that the vet has been attacked. After Scully leaves, the hurt animal transforms into the dhole, revealing that the dog can mimic any shape.\nScully begins to question Berquist's motives, noting that she was the reason Mulder decided to look into this investigation. Mulder, however, begins to suspect Detweiler after learning that he had been at the vet's office; Mulder",
"-30.83449108584864"
],
[
"also decided to introduce a ban on tail docking.\nHistorically, tails were docked in the UK to avoid taxation of sporting dogs. Today, proponents of tail docking argue working Norwich Terriers should have a docked tail because there is less risk of damaging the tail or spine if it is used to extract the dog from a hole. Some proponents suggest the docked tail makes for a prettier breed silhouette. Opponents of tail docking note that docking severely damages the important canine tail-signalling system, so vital to dogs' social communication. Where form follows function, the tail assists the",
"-30.825440745506057"
],
[
"absorb the shock of jumping and running, and to provide flexibility of movement. If the dog's skeletal structures in areas other than the foot are compromised, the foot may be burdened with compensatory loading. Structural faults such as straight or loose shoulders, straight stifles, loose hips, and lack of balance between the forefoot and hindfoot, can all cause gait abnormalities that in turn damage the hindfoot and paws by overloading their foot structures as they compensate for the structural faults.\nIn the horse, dryness of the hoof may cause stiffening of the external foot structure. The stiffer hoof",
"-30.805096797048463"
],
[
"these \"fighters\". The bait is mauled or killed in the process. Often bait animals are stolen pets, as officials with the Sheriff's Department in Pima County, Arizona say they were shocked to discover a few years ago, according to a story by National Geographic News. According to news reports compiled by the National Humane Society, the snouts of bait dogs are wrapped with duct tape to prevent them from injuring dogs being trained for fighting. Some bait animals have been recovered with their teeth ground down to the gums to render them helpless against fighting dogs. Other animals,",
"-30.78127350591967"
],
[
"the window, demanding the dog catcher to let him out, but the dog catcher isn't listening to a word. He then removes the rubber dog mask from his costume yelling, \"I'm not a dog, I'm a cat! K-A-T!\"—a fatal error, as all the dogs in the truck notice immediately and begin to attack him as the truck disappears down the street. Tweety then says: \"Dere won't be no more puddytats awound to chase me now.\", before he sees two cats in the room with lamp shades on their heads, to which he says: \"Of tourse, I tould be wong.\"",
"-30.773651010596495"
],
[
"Having a dog in the household is associated with a higher likelihood of being bitten than not having a dog. As the number of dogs in the home increases, so does the likelihood of being bitten. Adults with two or more dogs in the household are five times more likely to be bitten than those living without dogs at home.\nThe behavior of a dog may not always indicate its friendliness or unlikelihood of biting. This is because when a dog wags its tail, most people interpret this as the dog expressing happiness and friendliness. Though indeed tail wagging can express",
"-30.766112456516566"
],
[
"The Australian Cattle Dog can be the friendliest of companions although it is quick to respond to the emotions of its owners, and may defend them without waiting for a command. The ACD was originally bred to move reluctant cattle by biting, and it will bite if treated harshly. The Australian Cattle Dog's protective nature and tendency to nip at heels can be dangerous as the dog grows into an adult if unwanted behaviours are left unchecked.\nWhile an Australian Cattle Dog generally works silently, it will bark in alarm or to attract attention. It has a distinctive intense, high-pitched bark.",
"-30.754466573946047"
],
[
"dog out into the snow again, and when he falls into the pool of ice water the turtle was previously in, he finds himself frozen in a block of ice when Pepé gets him out. As soon as Pepé frees the dog from the block, the dog catches a cold.\nPepé tries in vain to make the dog go away with his stench. However, thanks to his cold, the dog can't smell a thing. After being forced out, Pepé throws the dog a note which reads: WARNING! A COLD CAN BE FATAL! SEE YOUR DOCTOR NOW! The dog hurriedly phones a",
"-30.674095945583304"
],
[
"can lead to persistent barking. To avoid annoying the neighbors, dog owners should make every effort to curb excessive barking through training.\nSchnauzers have distinctive beards and long, feathery eyebrows. They are generally either a salt and pepper color, black, or white, but they can be brown also. Some owners shave their Schnauzers down the back while the hairs on their legs are kept long and curly, but this changes the coat color, so show Schnauzers especially will have their back coat \"stripped\" by hand, to encourage the salt and pepper pattern to emerge. It was traditional to have the tails",
"-30.654733387222223"
],
[
"long enough to protect the snout from insects. The dog is also well known for being well-balanced. Movement Formosan dogs are particularly agile; they are known for their hopping skill, especially when they are hunting small animals, such as rats. When they are startled or trying to intimidate their target, they will hop sideways back and forth. Unlike Rottweilers and German Shepherds, Formosan dogs do not hold their bite on their target. This habit is adopted and may be traced back to early boar hunting. Taiwanese aborigines used five to six Formosan dogs to circle a wild boar and each",
"-30.63608151756489"
],
[
"and extended out to the street, where it is quickly run over by a truck, leading the dog to believe he has been hurt until he finds Tosh behind him. After blocking two attempts by Tosh to get back into his hole, the dog challenges Tosh to come up with a trick, which he does: a card with firecracker that explodes, allowing Tosh to escape.\nFurious, Geo then gets a can of TNT and pours it down the Gophers' hole. Mac then emerges from the other one and asks to borrow a match, to which Geo obliges, only to see the",
"-30.622960779648565"
],
[
"S.chlamydospora, which can cause serious mycosis in canines. Canine S.chlamydospora infections can cause the animal to limp, experience pain in its spine, and feel a general lack of energy. If left untreated, these infections can spread to humans. Habitat and ecology S. keratitidis is a human eye pathogen, unlike its other genus counterparts, whose habitat is either soil, manure, or fodder. Although rare, it may occur due to poor sanitation in individuals who wear contact lenses.",
"-30.610672522425375"
],
[
"its dog find him. The man notices the dog's nails are worn down almost to his paws, so he treats them while his dog warms up the Doberman. The next morning, the dog sets off again, arriving in Los Angeles the next morning.\nGeorge tells Bobby he has a contractor friend who might have a job for Bobby. Bobby and George end up in another argument which ends when George leave Bobby on the side of a freeway. When he gets back to the house, Bobby barks at the girl to get her things because they are leaving. They",
"-30.60270108007353"
],
[
"both dogs' collars and leaves them to be caught by Animal Control. Duke fears that he will be killed if he goes back to the pound. When Gidget, a white Pomeranian who is clearly in love with Max, discovers that he is missing, she decides to find him.\nMax and Duke are rescued by a white rabbit named Snowball, the leader of \"The Flushed Pets\"—a cult of feral sewer-dwelling animals who hate humans because their owners mistreated and abandoned them. After Max and Duke pretend to despise humans as much as they do by saying they killed their owners, the Flushed",
"-30.598345976621204"
],
[
"a branch of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), concurred in regulatory action against a manufacturer of a bark collar, stating \"Complaints received, which were later corroborated by our own testing, included severe burns in the collar area and possible personality adjustment injuries to the dogs. The shocking mechanism was found to be activated not only by barking but by vehicle horns, slamming doors or any other loud noise. CVM concurred in regulatory action against the device since it was deemed to be dangerous to the health of the animal.\". The standing policy of the US FDA is that",
"-30.57476904732357"
],
[
"bite attempts) towards owners and other dogs, it indicated they tend to be more aggressive than average toward strangers. This aggression appears correlated with watchdog and territorial instincts.\nIn the Rottweiler Handbook, Joan H. Walker states that \"The Rottweiler is very territorial\", meaning that the owner will have to regularly work with the dog to control its territorial aggressiveness. Working style According to the American Kennel Club, Rottweilers have a natural gathering style with a strong desire to control. They generally show a loose eye and have a great amount of force while working well off the stock. They make",
"-30.54525804079367"
],
[
"treatment, Yates claimed that his pet pit bull had bitten him; however, the medical personnel were suspicious, because the width of the bite marks suggested an animal with a much larger jaw. Later, Yates said he had been bitten while trying to keep Ming away from Shadow, a cat he had recently adopted. \nYates checked out of the hospital on October 3, and the same day, following up on a tip, an officer of New York City Police Department was sent to his home address to investigate. Loud growling noises could be heard through the door of the apartment, causing",
"-30.542619293164535"
],
[
"dogs can eat. However, it doubles back and attacks Maya, who is badly injured when it claps its reptile-like maw onto her paw. In a rage, the other five dogs jump on the seal, tearing and slashing at its face and body. The seal, overwhelmed, quickly drags itself back through the ice into the water, swimming away, and the dogs turn back to the Orca and feast. After they have eaten their fill, the team, now reunited, continue traveling. They are starving, freezing and exhausted, and eventually the injured Maya collapses into the snow to rest. The dogs lie down",
"-30.51528394491106"
],
[
"directly through them, from a water cooler, and opening umbrellas that are, as they, mere skeletons. The dog chases a skeleton into a wall, where it breaks apart.\nA curtain flies off of an open window as a result of the gust outside and Bozo slips on it into the next room, taking Buddy with him. The dog rushes through a threshold, but Buddy is knocked upwards onto a balcony, from which he can clearly see Cookie when she briefly emerges from a doorway to scream for help. Buddy finds his way over the balcony and knocks on the very door,",
"-30.51037198404083"
],
[
"and starts looking the bulldog's dish. The bulldog makes his appearance and growls at the cat, but the feline smacks the dog with the bowl. The chase between the dog and cat ensues (with Tweety following the bulldog) until the leash attached to the dog's collar yanked him to the ground, with his face scrunched in. The bulldog says to the audience, \"This shouldn't even happen to a dog\" and then loosens the collar off his face.\nTweety decides to wander and ends up into the cat's mouth, while he is looking for the bird. Tweety decides to set",
"-30.49938583085509"
],
[
"ornate wobbegong is usually not hostile towards humans, but it can bite when disturbed. It uses its sharp anterior teeth to inflict \"shallow but painful wounds\". Because it camouflages so well, divers often fail to see it even when they are close, and some are bitten. It has bitten people who go into tide pools, including fishers and waders. It sometimes swims towards nearby divers, possibly with hostile intent. The International Shark Attack File has recorded 39 attacks by wobbegongs, but only one of these was confirmed to be by an ornate wobbegong. Distribution The ornate wobbegong lives in tropical",
"-30.47923147639449"
],
[
"the only reason they are unprofitable is because the sheep keep being attacked and stating that they will never have to leave. The manager drives off and stops on the side of the road to urinate, but before he can return to his car he is promptly attacked by a pack of wild dogs that viciously tear his flesh and drag him down the hill.\nLater that night the family is having a quiet evening. Sophie, who is in the shower, does not notice the shadow of a dog in the hall. When Carla and Henry go into the basement to",
"-30.478836451265124"
],
[
"Barking can be a sign of boredom or frustration, although research has shown that pet dogs increase their vocalisation when raised in a noisy environment. It responds well to familiar dogs, but when multiple dogs are present, establishing a pecking order can trigger aggression. It is not a breed that lives in a pack with other dogs.\nData accumulated from Council reports in New South Wales from April to June 2013, showed that dogs identified as Australian Cattle Dogs were involved in 66 attacks, where an attack is defined as any incident where a dog rushes at, bites, harasses or chases",
"-30.47568705206868"
],
[
"2004 book Himalaya, when the latter interviewed him at his house and was greeted by \"three amiable dogs... tails wagging vigorously, until that becomes too much of an effort and they collapse, bellies flat against warm stones or on their backs in the shade of the verandah, legs spread-eagled in abandon.\" Palin describes one of the dogs as a Labrador.\nIn his book Pakistan: A Personal History, Khan notes: \nI am a completely outdoor person; I have always been – even as a boy during the hot summer months in Lahore my mother had trouble making me stay indoors. Since 2005",
"-30.42600126684465"
],
[
"problems for the societies in which they live, so campaigns to spay and neuter them are sometimes implemented. They tend to differ from rural free-ranging dogs in their skill sets, socialization, and ecological effects. Bites Like wolves, to survive, street dogs need to avoid conflict with humans. However, dog bites and dog attacks can occur when dogs are trying to mate or fighting among themselves, and pedestrians and other humans in the vicinity may be bitten by fighting. Quality of life Barking and howling and dog fights over mating among dogs can be disturbing to people, and the smell",
"-30.384536898061924"
],
[
"dog may lose hair, get bald spots, exhibit hot spots due to extreme irritation, and develop infections that result in smelly skin. Treatment and prevention Preventing and controlling flea infestations is a multi-step process. Prevention in the case of flea infestations can sometimes be difficult, but is the most effective way to ensure the dog will not get reinfected. Controlling flea infestations implies not only the pet has been cured and the fleas living on it are killed, but also that the environment in which the pet lives is free of these parasites. Of all these, removing the fleas",
"-30.369368819057854"
],
[
"the dog has vicious propensities and the owner still allows it to run at large and a person is bitten, the owner can be fined for up to $1,000 and is also liable for 6 months of prison unless the victim has abused the dog and provoked the harmful behavior.\nIn Delaware, dogs are not allowed to run at large unless in situations when the owner is present and has control over the pet. An exception is for farm dogs. Also, during the night dogs must be kept in an enclosure from which they cannot escape, firmly secured with a collar",
"-30.36650501029908"
],
[
"throat. Those little fox terriers have no sense. They’re just wild. So my poor dog was being chewed to pieces and wasn’t able to respond. But I wasn’t going to have a dogfight under my feet so I let go of his collar. And then Sultan took this little dog and shook him, which he deserved. But in the fight, my index finger on my right hand was bitten...\nWilliam Simon: By the terrier?\nHWMR: I don't know. Fury! Wild, stupid animal! But my poor old finger, the finger next to the thumb. The thumb is very important in tennis. So that",
"-30.362769558032596"
],
[
"pressures including habitat loss and fragmentation, road mortality, environmental degradation, and intentional killing. Defensive behavior When threatened, the neck is flattened and the head is raised off the ground, not unlike a cobra. They also hiss and will strike, but they do not attempt to bite. The result can be likened to a high speed head-butt. If this threat display does not work to deter a would-be predator, a hognose snake will often roll onto its back and play dead, going so far as to emit a foul musk from its cloaca and let its tongue hang out of its",
"-30.360407979002048"
],
[
"the house she sees it closing in on her. She goes to the pick-up truck instead and climbs through the back window to get the tire iron and beat it. She fights it off long enough to get the truck door open. As it leaps through the window and she slams the door, closing the dog inside. She hides under the truck but is soon dragged out by the dog. As she sits at the side of the truck with the crowbar still in hand, the lead dog approaches her slowly snarling and showing his teeth. As he is about",
"-30.358415006408904"
],
[
"the backs of cattle in the area downwind. The fallout had the appearance of small flaky dust particles. The cattle showed temporary burns, bleeding, and loss of hair. Dogs were also affected; in addition to localized burns on their backs, they also had burned paws, likely from the particles lodged between their toes as hoofed animals did not show problems with feet. About 350–600 cattle were affected by superficial burns and localized temporary loss of dorsal hair; the army later bought 75 most affected cows as the discolored regrown hair lowered their market value. The cows were shipped to Los",
"-30.351950670828955"
],
[
"in the air by man, he jumps to bone, but without parachute bag. Dog understands that he is in air, but it's too late, and dog crashes. Dog lies in hospital with fractures and next to him lies....broken bone.\nThen, dog puts on the helmet and tests what impact its head will bear with helmet. The dog bears even 500 newton hammer impact, but falls shortly after taking it. Dog then must distinguish the real tree from the soldiers camouflaged as trees. He almost pisses on one of camouflaged soldiers, but they quickly go out from dog. Dog realizes that he",
"-30.326116272248328"
]
] |
6ak3ij | Why do christians follow the King James bible when it was written 1600 years after Jesus? | [
"While some Christians prefer the King James translation of the Bible, there are many, many translations of the Bible in many different languages, made at different times. Christianity is a world religion, and has become very aggressive about translating its holy texts into whatever languages its people speak. The original languages of the Bible are Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. What we call \"Modern English\" didn't exist until shortly before the time of Shakespeare - and the King James Bible. There are earlier English translations, but they're even more difficult to read for people nowadays. The influence & staying power of the King James Version comes from a couple of things: the translation was made after the invention of the printing press, so it was widely available. The translation was authorized by the Church of England, which used it exclusively, so anywhere that the C of E had influence, the KJV did too: it wasn't too long after the KJV was published that the British Empire circled the globe, bringing British culture and religion with it. And the KJV was, for its time, the best English translation available. There are other translations of the Bible made about that time and later, but for centuries the KJV remained dominant for the reasons above. But languages change over time, and the meanings of words change. Eventually re-translation is necessary. The last century has produced a number of very good English translations now widely used by English-speaking Christians. (My favorite is the English Standard Version, first published in 2001.) But because the KJV was the dominant translation for so long, its language has become entrenched in English-speaking society. And people like tradition. It feels weird to change how a holy text reads or sounds. People stick with what they know or what they're used to. Therefore the KJV is still around and will still be around for many years.",
"Christian pastor, college prof, academic writer here. The vast majority of Christians do not prefer the KJV over the translations in their language or ones that are more modern. Some are vehemently opposed to anything but KJV, King James Only-ist, and they have been mentioned. This is rare but very energetic. I don't fight with them, I just tell them I pledge to obey and believe the KJV, too. They tend to be conspiracy theorists that think that other translations have been damaged. And 9/11 was an inside job. As others have mentioned the Bible wasn't \"written\" but translated from manuscripts that came from real historical figures and groups. These manuscripts number in the thousands, with many, many copies of each book spread all over the Ancient Near East, Egypt, Asia Minor. That's much better than having one \"original\" manuscript as far as increasing or improving certitude. One \"original\" can always be faked. But thousands of almost identical copies spread over the known world can't be faked. Copies buried in a cave can't be faked. So the KJV was translated from a group of manuscripts available during the 1600s that were pretty good, though not as good as the ones we have now, and that's enabled us to clear up some confusion about certain words--not teachings, not doctrines, just very fine adjustments in the precise word or semantic range of a word. So modern translations are generally better, although some have been influenced by modern gender-equity issues to make them neutralize pronouns and things like that--I'm not for it. If the Bible is a very male oriented book, then for truth's sake, make that clear in your translations. But even then, we are talking about whether we use it or he. Not a big issue (except in Galatians 3-4). And then not a big issue except for scholarly types.",
"National Geographic [published an article]( URL_0 ) a few years ago, which speaks to both the poetics and the influence of the KJV on the English language. It's worth a read. Curiously, there are some concepts that are holdovers from the KJV that are so ingrained in the Christian tradition that they've persisted into an era in which other English translations are preferred. For example, everyone knows that Moses parted the Red Sea, despite that this is evidently a mistranslation, and should be the \"Sea of Reeds\". The latter could perhaps describe wetlands and tidal flats that would make more geographical sense. Another holdover from KJV is that we largely still infer that Jesus was a carpenter, owing to the stated profession of his father. However, the word given for Joseph's profession is tekton, which is also used for stonemasons. The KJV translators were largely from Western and Northern Europe, and went with \"carpenter\". However, contextual clues would seem to suggest stonemason. Stories about Jesus routinely find him using analogies about building with stone. \"The stone the builders rejected has become the cornerstone,\" although here, \"cornerstone\" may actually read \"head of the arch,\" which would suggest not only a stone analogy, but also an understanding of the construction of a Roman arch. There are metaphors about safe places to build, adding rooms to houses, etc, all of which were stone structures. But, KJV established certain readings, and they outlive that particular translation.",
"I only glanced through and didn't see this comment and it's important to understand when talking about translations. There are two ways to translate a book. 1) Is to be word for word as accurate as possible. You don't look at the context, inference, anything like that. Tree = tree even if the description sounds what we would call in English a bush. 2) They try to figure out the idea they were trying to get across and use the best words in English to convey what was trying to be said, and that's what they translate it to. He towered above them might get translated to he was taller than the men around him (this is a terrible example but gets the idea across) Someone smarter than me can explain it better. There are other people who can describe it better and come up with some examples. Edit: Slide show showing different methods of translation: URL_0 ",
"A lot of answers are debating different versions of the Bible. The sense I get from your question is that you believe the bible wasn't written until 1600. (Forgive me if I'm wrong.) The Bible, whichever translation you use, is a collection of books and letters written thousands of years ago. The New Testament was written by Jesus' contemporaries. These original works were written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. The King James Bible was the English translation commissioned by King James of England. Personally, I prefer the NKJV (New King James Version) because I think it's a more accurate translation. For example, the KJV says, \"Thou shalt not kill.\" whereas the NKJV says, \"You shall not murder.\" (Exodus 20:13) The NKJV recognizes that, just like English, Hebrew has several words to describe taking the life of another person. (Murder, kill, manslaughter, homicide, patricide, etc.) It's hard to argue that the Bible doesn't contradict itself if it says \"thou shalt not kill\" and then the Lord tells the Israelites to kill the Canaanites. However, if you understand that killing someone in a field of battle in defense of your nation is not the same as cold-blooded, premeditated murder, then the NKJV correctly translates this and avoids the appearance of contradiction.",
"\"Christians\" is a pretty broad category, and it is very untrue that all Christians follow the King James. King James sounds like Christianity, it's been popularized so much that it has that old timey gospel feel in the language. The old language also sounds more formal and authoritative. But there are many many better translations, including ~~King James II~~ New King James, and the NIV. Those were translated more than 1900 years after Jesus, but they are based on older manuscripts, so they actually represent a better translation than the King James. **edit** Called the New King James, King James II, they are entirely different things",
" > Why do christians follow the King James bible when it was written 1600 years after Jesus? 1. It wasn't \"written\" 1600 years later, it is a particular translation that was translated 1600 years later. 2. Not all christians prefer it. 3. Most of the other popular translations are written even later than the KJV, for example, the New International Version (NIV). 4. As a former southern baptist I can say that the SBC tends to (or used to tend to) favor this translation the most. I always assumed that it was because it sounded more archaic/fancier than the modern translations. 5. I have also had people from a number of different evangelical persuasions who told me that the KJV was the original version, or the original true translation. In other words, they believe that god thinks and speaks in English, and that the previous translations were flawed until finally it was translated into god's \"native\" KJV English. Clearly that's a load of crap, but there are some people who believe it.",
"Because they don't know Hebrew, Greek or Aramaic.. The King James Version of the Bible isn't made up, it's simply a translation of the Bible from its original languages.",
"Just to add something that I don't think anyone else has mentioned, the King James bible is I think the only widely-available English translation that doesn't have a copyright. So Christians can duplicate it however they want. I know a few Christians for whom that's a significant detail.",
"(wall of text incoming, but it's relevant to the question.. bear with me!) In the early 16th century, the Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus tried to compile a 'New testament in Greek' as a comprehensive version didn't really exist and there were doubts about the quality and integrity of the few manuscripts that were available for study around that time. The New Testament texts had been written around 50-150 AD (as is commonly accepted) but around the 15th/16th century, most known Greek manuscripts were only a couple of hundreds of years old - anything older was either lost and forgotten in monasteries all over Europe, or worn out beyond use, or decomposed due to the age of the biological materials used to write on, for instance. So, Erasmus studied the few manuscripts he could find and, in 1516, published the first edition of his New Testament in Greek - which became popularly known as the 'Textus Receptus' (TR for short) There were several revised editions later, as more/earlier manuscripts were found in monasteries and such and textual variants were discussed, accepted or rejected. For a long time, the TR was the gold standard of Greek New Testament - and it had a large influence on the KJV; the translators that made the KJV made extensive use of it. You could even say that the KJV is largely based on the TR! Now - Erasmus lived in northwestern Europe. The manuscripts (parchments) he could study, came from the western church, via Byzantium (eastern Roman empire). In later centuries, howver, archeology and other research yielded many new texts for study, not parchments from the western (byzantine) tradition, but from sources in Egypt for instance: papyri, often much older than the parchments Erasmus had. Some of these papyri are dated to the second and third century AD, which brings ur much close to their time of writing, when compared to what Erasmus had to work with! These texts are sometimes called 'alexandrian' (from Alexandria in Egypt), to distinguish them from the western 'byzantine' texts. Slowly but surely, the influence of these alexandrian texts grew. And newer compilations of a Greek New Testaments (such as Nestle Aland) which replaced the Textus Receptus, made good use of the more ancient alexandrian sources, with their own unique textual variants. This leads to textual differences with the Textus Receptus of course! So how is this relevant to the usage of the KJV today? Well, most newer bible translations no longer use the Textus Receptus as source, but newer compilations such as the already metioned Nestle Aland. But, there is a specific subset of christians that do not accept the alexandrian textual variants as valid; they consider them corrupted by gnostic influences and/or other early heresies, or by theologians such as Origenes for example. These christians only want to use a bible translation that is based on the TR and that pretty much leaves you with the KJV only! In Dutch, we have the 'Statenvertaling' bible translation, which was based on the TR and made in the early 17th century, and here, too, we have people who only want to read that one translation for pretty much the same reasons. (edit - punctuation)",
"I grew up in a church that was King James only. Like many have already said, it is far from \"all Christians\", i but you could call it a regional thing, probably mostly the southern US. As a young man I read the Bible quite a bit and as some of it sunk in, I started wondering why King James only. It does not help to spread the word at all. I could never get a good answer from the church leaders that wasn't essentially dogma. Tradition. Here's a theory though, and it holds for much of the history of the Bible. If you lead a group of people and authority comes from a book, the more those people depend on you to interpret that book, the more power you hold. If you can force the adoption of a text that most people cannot understand, then you can essentially tell the people whatever you want to.",
"A lot of these top level comments don't seem to address a very important issue. Where the translations came from. I went to a Baptist school and this is what we were taught as to why they believed in that. There are two main categories of manuscripts that we have found. (haven't found any originals, but the most complete and oldest manuscript are considered the source as far as translations are concerned.) The two types are the Codex Sinaiticus and the Codex Vaticanus. - The Sinaiticus was found in a monastery on Mt. Saini, only had parts of the old testament, but most or all of the new testament. - Vaticanus was found in the Vatican library and had pretty much the entire New and Old testament. (IIRC the monks/priests in that area took delicate care to preserve the words when they originally hand copied it. So it is without mistakes from the original.) The King James Version was translated word for word from the Vaticsnus, with essentially no interpretation taken by the interpreter. So it is as close as possible to the original. Every other version was translated from the Sinaiticus, or a combination of the two. This is what leads to different phrases, wordings, and versions. Now this is a debated topic even among Christians. We have hundreds of denominations and many different interpretations of the Bible, so there's going to be a lot of dispute. One of the big difference between Conservative Christians (Baptists, Pentscostals) is that they believe that the word should be literally translated with no interpretation by the part of the translator. Contemporary Christians believe that so long as the interpretation doesn't change, the Doctrine doesn't change, and that the spirit of the translation is there, it doesn't matter.",
"There are several different versions and translations of the Bible. The King James Version is only one, and it was the first that was printed in English. Most Christian churches I've attended tend to use the New International Version (NIV) because it uses modern language. There was no agreement of what constituted \"The Bible\" for several hundred years after the supposed life of Christ. Even after there was some agreement, the Bible was only printed in Latin, because the Catholic Church at that time believed the common people were not capable of understanding it for themselves. It was not until the Protestant Reformation in the 1500's or so that there was any major effort to print the Bible in a language other than Latin. My understanding, and I'm sure I will be corrected if I'm wrong, is the goal of \"versions\" of the bible is to remain as true as possible to the original language of the canonical books, while translations \"interpret\" those books. **EDIT:** I don't think I've ever been more wrong in a comment.",
"The Catholic Church alone is 1+ billion Christians that don't go by the King James version as it was written by...well a heretic. You should look up the history of it. King James did some pretty sketchy things that discredit it on the minds of many non English speaking non Anglican derived churches.",
"Most don't. The King James bible was the first English language bible so a lot of English Speakers used it. But there are numerous modern translations: New International Version (NIV), New King James Version (NKJV), New Revised Standard (NRS), and others. These more modern translations go to as old of text as they can get, (Hebrew, Greek, and Aramaic) and translate them into the modern language. The reason that people read these is that most do not understand Hebrew, Greek, or Aramaic.",
"I see some important stuff missing from the answers here, although there is a mention of the quality of the language. First of all, the King James Bible is a revision to the Tyndale Bible, which was the very first translation of the bible into English. In addition to the Vulgate, Tyndale used numerous sources including manuscripts older and more authoritative than the Latin Vulgate, which was the only version of the bible authorized by the Roman Catholic Church. Second, this pissed off the Roman Catholic Church for two reasons—one, the scripture and mass were kept in Latin in order to maintain the \"catholic\" nature of the worldwide church (and for elitist reasons too). During the reformation, bibles in native tongues became popular as a way of democratizing Christianity. The establishment of the Church of England made English language bibles the norm. After a few years, many criticisms emerged of existing English versions, which is why mainstream Anglicans and Puritans alike were looking for a better edition. Therefore King James assembled a committee of scholars to undertake a new English translation. This pleased the Puritans because they wanted the word of God without an intermediary, and it pleased the Anglicans because James, as head of the Church of England would be providing them with an *authorized* text. The clergy of an organized church could debate and contemplate ecclesiastical issues and reach some level of consensus more easily. The committee relied on all the extant English versions (particularly Tyndale's) and numerous other texts in their original languages, but apparently few or no ancient manuscripts. Third, tradition. That's been mentioned. And, for the material they had available, as a translation it is Not That Bad. Fourth, the beauty and power of the language. I am agnostic with absolutely no leanings or sympathy towards the religions of Abraham. However, one has to know at least some of the bible in order to more fully appreciate literature and European culture. If I want a good translation, I will go to some newer scholarly edition such as the English Standard Version. If I want gorgeous poetic language, I will go to King James.",
"Well \"Christians\" don't necessarily, as the King James Bible is only accepted by Protestant branches. Anyways, it contains the works written around the time of Jesus, it was just translated into English during the time of King James 1 of England. The New Testament was largely originally written in Greek or Aramaic then translated in to Latin and stayed like that until the Protestant Reformation.",
"Some say that other modern translations are \"better,\" but that's highly debatable. What the King James has going for it is that it's based off of the *majority* text, The Textus Receptus. The *majority* of existing manuscripts are in agreeance with the Textus Receptus and thus the King James. While other modern versions translate mostly from the Nestle-Aaland Greek text, which also favors the Westcott & Hort greek texts. And these texts are based off of the \"minority\" of manuscriptive evidence. They chose rather to translate from the suspected oldest manuscripts in existence (because dating these manuscripts isn't even an exact science). They believe that older = better. But that isn't necessarily true. The older manuscripts could have been manipulated. And the majority of manuscripts were likely not as old because they had been read and read, and copied and copied. It shows signs of great use. Which is a sign that they were much more highly valued. KJV vs. Modern translations is a highly debated topic. I would encourage anyone looking to read a Bible to read multiple versions, compare, and look into the histories of each translation.",
"You may not realize this, but most of the New Testament was written 80+ *years* after Jesus died. Think about that for a moment. If something happened today and no one bothered to write any of it down until 2097 - there would probably be a few inaccuracies. That is what biblical scholars do, they try to look at the newly discovered information and fix them with new revisions. If this interests you and you're in college or have access to an affordable community college, I would encourage you to take a class that looks at the New Testament from a scholarly point of view. What was happening in the world at that time, why Christmas occurs when it does, and so forth, is all very fascinating.",
"There are many translations. King James is popular, which is why some Christians prefer it. However is of horrible quality and also have a very dated language, so dated that some words they use don't even mean the same thing today. A Christian should conduct his bible studies study using several translations in all the languages he understand, with cross references, dictionaries, concordance, etc. Even learning some rudimentary hebrew/Greek to read the original language texts is good. Speaking of which, there is no ancient manuscript that is so well verified as the Bible, with over 6000 different manuscripts and fragments found, so there's a whole lot to research in. Some quick checks you can do to check if the translation is good or not: 1. Does it translate the name of God? The book is about God after all, and his name is in there almost 7000 times. If it uses Yahweh, Jehovah, Yehowah, etc then it's better than if it says \"LORD\". King James gets it right 2 times out of 7000. No bueno. 2. Check Job 40:15. If it says \"Hippopotamus\" instead of \"Behemoth\" it means the translators put their own ideas into it, because no one really knows what a Behemoth is. 3. Check Matthew 24:28. If it says \"Vultures\" instead of \"Eagles\", the translators are also taking liberties. Ed: 27 > 28",
"There reportedly are 30,000 \"Christian\" sects or branches (defined as faith groups who identify with Jesus Christ). For Catholics, only bibles as defined by the Douay-Rheims conference from the mid-1500's are correct. Other branches have customized bibles, or variations of mainline protestant bibles.",
"Are you asking why they don't read the original Aramaic, Greek, and Hebrew versions?",
"I think that Christians like the \"King James Version\" (KJV) of the bible for three reasons. First, because it is very famous. People tend to like and trust famous and well-known things simply because they are famous and well-known. This is called 'celebrity.' Second, people like the KJV because it is very old, and people tend to like or trust things that people have trusted and liked for a long time. Old things that people do and have done for a long time are called \"traditions,\" and most people like traditions. Last, some Christians like the KJV because it is fancy. The KJV is a more 'flowery' or fancy version of the bible than many other translations, and it has lots of old, fancy-sounding words like 'thy' (means \"your\") or hath (means \"has\"). These old words make the KJV seem even older and more interesting to some people. I am a Christian, and while the KJV is not my favorite version of the bible, there are two things about it that I do like: First, when I read it, the fanciness of the words reminds me more than other bible versions of how old and special the bible is. I also think that some of the fancy parts of the KJV sound very nice and grand, even though I also think that it confusing and wrong in some other places. Second, the fact that I do not understand some of the words in the KJV (even though it is an \"English\" translation) reminds me that when I read ANY version of the bible I am not actually reading the bible as it was written, but I am actually reading a translation of the bible from very old languages into modern English. This helps me remember that if I really want to know what the bible is really trying to say in one part or another, I need to think about what the real words of the original language would have meant to the real people who originally wrote and read them.",
"Your question is phrased poorly. People don't 'follow' the King James Bible any more than they necessarily 'follow' any other bible. It's just the case that some people prefer to read it over other translations, and it's particularly popular because it's one of the oldest English bibles and it's become ingrained into the way a lot of people, particularly in the Church of England, hear the bible (thou shalt not kill, for example may sound more familiar than you shall not murder, but it's the same thing).",
"I am not exactly sure about the version of the Bible, but I was raised Catholic, studied in a very strict Catholic school run by sisters and they say that Bible versions with the Imprimatur and Nihil Obstat are the only ones recognized by the R.C. Church. So those are the only ones we have at home.",
"I'll add that the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS - Mormon) uses the KJV exclusively, with a belief it is the most correct translation. Those missionaries you see around - they are carrying the KJV and the Book of Mormon, both valued equally.",
"Some do, most don't, Catholics, for example are the largest Christian sect (50.1%), and dont use the KJV.",
"In addition to the many great answers given here, there is a spiritual element as well. We believe that God would have made sure, in His infinite power, that His word was available to His children in an accurate way. Faith tells us that if God did not consider the KJV or NIV versions of the Bible to be correct, He would not have let them become what is considered \"the norm\" when referring to it.",
"Some churches use it. They do this because it's one of the oldest translations of the original text into English and fear a newer one may be altered in some way. Others use more modern translations, and some even use the original texts, the Vulgate (a famous latin translation, iirc for a long time basically the entire Bible was original Hebrew and greek- > greek- > the Vulgate- > english), or something else entirely.",
"As a catholic I upvote this. 3% battery won't allow me to explain the subject more, but the main points are: Luther and his changes to the Bible. Bad translations of the Bible. And Christian's that won't recognize Old Testament books written by the Jews during diaspora.",
"Little note is that the king james version has extra verses in it as most modern bible translations actually use older copies than the king james did and those verses that werent in the older copies were taken out of the newer translations.",
"While most of these answers are really good, I want to tack on something that I think many people have missed in reading OP's question. The King James Version of the Bible, or KJV, was not \"written\" 1600 years after Jesus death. It is an English translation of the Bible that was finished being written within 60-120 years of his death. Also, churches sticking so strictly to this translation are not as common as they once were. It's actually almost a meme for younger Christians to joke about how that the \"only good translation\" (it's not, but that's just because we have a better understanding of how to translate the original text. For what it was, it actually is pretty decent.) And we don't \"follow\" that specific translation either. We follow the Bible to the best of our understanding of what the authors' intents were. We typically rely on Theologians to follow good historical practice in trying to discern what that meaning was. And I don't mean to say there is some special or hidden meaning in the Bible left behind for us modern people. I mean much of that meaning has likely been forgotten due to changes in cultures and languages, and we're just trying to figure out what it meant back then. I hope this clears some things up for you OP.",
"Bible scrolls WRITTEN in the first century were all lost due to rot, mold, fires, floods, wars, famines, etc. But we know even from secular history that groups of Christians kept hand writing duplicate copies which soon made their way south to the the Alexandrians (Egypt), east to the Orthodox church (Turkey, Russia), and of course west throughout the Roman Empire. The 1611 King James version gathered the most reliable and earliest scrolls that were available at that time and paid the most experienced translators of Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, etc. in London for several years. I own and read several 20th century translations so I am not telling anybody what to do. However, I appreciate the fact that the KJV predates most of the natural sciences and all of the social sciences. Therefore, if the KJV has errors, they aren't because someone literally tried to subtly force them into agreement with post-enlightenment ideas. The Dead Sea scrolls unearthed in 1946 include an even earlier version of Isaiah than the KJV translators had access to...which has further validated their attention to detail and accuracy.",
"ELI5: Why do people make blanket statements about \"Christians\" as though any one statement could possibly apply to all of them, when it's super-easy to say \"many Christians\" or \"some Christians\"?",
"Short answer, it's the dominant english translation of the work and english is the worlds dominant language.",
"The King James Bible wasn't written 1600 years after Jesus lived, it was *transcribed* from the different languages previous versions of the same book and put into English by the most learned linguistic scholars available to the king of England(not just Englishmen mind you, there were African scholars among them.) Back in the olden times schools weren't a thing, some rich folks had people to teach their kids but most folks didn't and so almost everyone was illiterate, they couldn't read. Because most were poor and nobody had cars, information, like languages, was very expensive to move around and teach people, because of this there were way more languages in a single area than there are today so in order for the early church to spread they couldn't just print out bibles for everyone to read, men had to travel across the land telling people about Jesus and his miracles, often they had to learn this new language then preach the gospel in that language to the people were they were and build a church there, keep a postal correspondence, pen pals. About 60 years after the death and resurrection it struck the leaders of the early church that they should write this down and that it would be easier to have one guy in charge of reading from one book to a bunch of people instead of sending men to places to teach an oral tradition. When they took to writing this book they used the languages which were common and which they knew. The Torah, the old testament, had been finished for hundreds of years by this point and it was written in Hebrew, the new testament had pars in Aramaic, the Jesus' first language, an off shoot of Hebrew, Greek as it was a common language after Alexander the great conquered so much of the world, and Latin which was the roman language it was becoming very popular at the time because the roman empire was expanding rapidly and and almost all of the events of the new testament happened within Rome's borders. After a time this early assembly of texts began spreading so far the none of those languages were known to the local population, so the early church decided to put together a Latin only version and to have all the priests and other people who read the book for others learn just that language and this sped up the spread of the religion even faster, it also helped people from all over Europe and north Africa communicate because the upper classes were all learning Latin themselves. There was a problem with this strategy of spreading the bible though, bad men could become book readers and lie about what it said for their own benefit and eventually the heads of the church began doing this. That made other people in the church very upset and so the church began to split up into new sects, one man named Martin Luther was largely responsible for the biggest split when he nailed a list of 95 grievances to the door the Castle Church in Wittenberg. It was out this act and many others that Protestantism was born, and the main labor of early protestants was to translate the bible out of Latin and into their own languages so the people could read and understand the words themselves. advancements in technology and trade had helped standardize languages over longer distances, the printing press had sped up the time it took to make a copy of a book from months and years to a matter of days. As early versions were being written people noticed certain things didn't translate very well and whole orders of monks, friars, vicars and other faithful and well learned men came to translate these books as accurately as possible. The reason we can trust a book that is so old to be accurate is because newer versions of the bible are a relatively new thing. The bible is the best selling and most printed book in world history that means almost every major publisher in the world wants to get in on that market and so many order a new translation to stir up a bit of media interest and to makes sure they hold all the rights to their unique translation, it is a very valid argument to say that the first and second king James versions are the most thoroughly researched versions of the English bible and does it's best to keep to a literal translation which results in certain things being hard to understand without context but it wont oversimplify the translation. It's also worth noting that modern translations have political purposes behind them in some cases. KJV first the have other versions at hand for quick contrast, a scoefield study bible paired with KJV is the best you can do though, it's the difference between knowing that Ham saw his father Noah naked and was cursed and knowing that the phrase\"To see/uncover your father's nakedness\" was an idiom or turn of phrase meant to express that you had slept with one of your father's wives. other versions may simply say Ham got his father drunk and undressed him and was cursed they don't leave the idiom in tact nor do they explain who cursed Ham, it wasn't God, it was Noah. I hope this helps, I really did my best to put this together so a young child could grasp it.",
"It wasn't \"written\" It was translated. It is accepted because of the method used to create the translation, it was an honest attempt to translate from the oldest trusted documents available to be as clean a translation as possible, without an attempt to interpret. It's important to know the sheer number of people invovled and the decision making process when a line was in dispute to understand why it is accepted. Are there still likely mistakes? Of course. Does it rely entirely on the accuracy of the chosen sources, which themselves have been questioned? Again, yes. But its not unreasonable to pick a standard that was created under such an effort. Clearly better than the dominant catholic translation, which leaves out entire lines or has some very forced translation in order to push the Catholic doctrine. It should be noted that the biggest oddity in translation is names. Old testament names and new testament names are translated differently, even when they are the same name. Joshua/Jesus, Jacob/James being the two most obvious examples.",
"User of KJV here. The KJV is descended from the original manuscript called the \"textus receptus.\" Which we believe was the original words of God. The manuscript's origin is a place called Antioch. Antioch is significant to Chistians because of a number of reasons I forgot. But the main reason it was significant is because that is the place where followers of Christ were first called \"Christians.\" Almost all of The of the modern versions are said to be descended from various \"corrupted\" manuscripts which originated in Alexandria, Egypt. The reason we believe that these aren't the true words of God is because of their origin. Egypt was known in the Bible as a very ungodly place. Is it often used as an example when referencing wicked places. It's where the Israelites were enslaved for over 400 years, it's the place that received the ten plagues. And they were considered the most wicked because of their constant conflict with Israel. Hope this made sense.",
"I don't get it either. Don't really understand the obsession with the bible at all. Jesus didn't write it. It is just an edited collection of *some* of the stories told about jesus from his contemporaries. The early church didn't even think the books were that big a deal as they valued more highly the conversations and opinions of believers who are the body of Christ. Seems like at some point, the churches had too much local variations and so they tried to find compromise by compiling all the written accounts they had and then choosing which ones they wanted to legitimize. Then three edits and three translations later **THIS IS THE ONLY LEGITIMATE TRUE WORD OF GOD!!**. But that was never the point. The point was never the words. The point is how you treat others, and that is with kindness, empathy, generosity and humility.",
"Lots of answers that are technically correct but needlessly complicated. Also many assholes. Let me make it simple. It wasn't WRITTEN 1600 years after Jesus lived, it was TRANSLATED at that time. The Bible's various parts were written over several hundred years ending around 70 AD, in Greek, Hebrew, and Aramaic. The King James Version is one of many translations into English. For what it's worth, it's pretty accurate to the original (as translations go), but its English is a bit archaic now. But there are lots of newer translations, and many Christians prefer those instead.",
"The best thing you could do is learn how to read Hebrew and Greek and research the original holy documents. The King James is a word for word translation of those documents into English. This was done when the English language was born and began to spread across nations so that people could understand the original writings in their own language. English was not yet established when the prophets and apostles laid down in writing the founding scriptures. English began to thrive long after.",
"KJV was written based on 10 different sources which was all they had at that time. We now have over 5,500 Greek pyro and over 27,000 Latin and Greek texts. Dr. James White has a great YouTube video covering all the many issues with the Bible and how they don't detract in any way from the Bible once you understand the history of Gospel transmission here. URL_0 ",
"Uh just also want to point out that, statistically, most Christians are Catholic, and therefore used the Douay Rheims bible and later the New American. DR was based on the Vulgate, the Catholic Latin Bible from the 4th century. KJV was based on Greek new testament translations. But i think to say that KJV is dominant or the most popular is a biased statement.",
"Im assumimg you're talking about English speaking Christians. William Tyndale was the first person to translate the bible from the original Hebrew/Greek (where applicable) to English, as opposed to Latin, and was the first to use a printing press to distribute it. This was early 1500s, the King's English was English. He was later executed and his bible (translation/press edition) banned.",
"Just going to add something. Catholics make up a large majority of Christians, and some Catholics can read some of the original manuscripts of the Bible. One of the newer translations in English that is based upon these is the New American Bible, so that is something you can take into account.",
"The bible is actually a collection of books. The new testament, which is a subsection of books, were each written shortly after Christ's death and resurrection. When new versions come out, it's like a new version of an anthology - not a new version of a whole book.",
"Tradition. It was the best English translation of the original Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek at the time. Now there are newer translations (ESV, NIV, NASB) that more closely resemble today's english that were also translated directly from the original Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. No games of telephone.",
"Honestly, I love the poetry of it. The language has weight to it. But, to be clear, the KJV has some parts that are specifically interpreted to support the monarchy. This means you have to read carefully in order to filter out the bullshit.",
"Not written, translated. Of course, the books were all written over a pretty broad time period as well but were all over a thousand years old before the King James translation was made. Written and translated are not the same thing.",
"King James AUTHORIZED the TRANSLATION of the King James Bible. He had help from a bunch of Hebrew and English scholars, to translate the Bible from Hebrew to English. He didn't write the Bible or make the Bible.",
"People prefer certain interpretations - often over the original. It's why so many people have seen Disney movies over and over, but how many of them actually read the original Grimm and Hans Christian Anderson fairytales?",
"In my view The first bible wasn't until much later after Christ anyway but it was also in ancient Hebrew and Greek so as language changed translations were made to accompany it",
"u/purestvideos said ELI5 not \"need out for a minute\" the KJV was the first time the bible had been put into English and passed around freely. There you go 5yo, u/purestvideos",
"Because at the time it was translated that version was the best translation into English for centuries. I think some people still use the KJV out of habit/tradition in their Church.",
"it was translated to english 1600 years after jesus from ancient scripts of which some predates jesus. they did not come up with it 1600 years after jesus.",
"lol, it wasn't written from scratch. Its largely an amalgamation of earlier works. Its the most popular (probably) because it is the first one written in English.",
"Such good answers all around. Just to add: For English speaking Catholics, the most recent translation is the New American Bible (Revised Edition).",
"The old Christian joke - \"If it was good enough for the apostle Paul, it's good enough for me.\"",
"Eastern / Greek Orthodox Bible is what I used. I am a Christian and not catholic or protestant.",
"I am a Christian and I read bibles in several different translations to understand it better.",
"Simple answer: The King James Bible is a mere **translation** of the original Greek/aramaic/Hebrew text.",
"Why did Martin Luther remove books from the Bible?"
] | [
[
"centuries, indicate that early Christians generally used and revered the Hebrew Bible (the Tanakh) as religious text, mostly in the Greek (Septuagint) or Aramaic (Targum) translations.\nEarly Christians wrote many religious works, including the ones included in the canon of the New Testament. The canonical texts, which have become the main sources used by historians to try to understand the historical Jesus and sacred texts within Christianity, were probably written between 50 and 120 AD. Historical views Prior to the Enlightenment, the gospels were usually regarded as accurate historical accounts, but since then scholars have emerged who question the reliability",
"-30.57740686580655"
],
[
"of the Bible, viz., that now in Use, was begun in 1607, and published in 1611.\nKing James's Bible is used as the name for the 1611 translation (on a par with the \"Genevan Bible\" or the \"Rhemish Testament\") in Charles Butler's Horae Biblicae (first published 1797). Other works from the early 19th century confirm the widespread use of this name on both sides of the Atlantic: it is found both in a \"Historical sketch of the English translations of the Bible\" published in Massachusetts in 1815, and in an English publication from 1818, which explicitly states that the 1611 version",
"-30.372822226257995"
],
[
"in the manuscripts of the earlier centuries,\" he adds. \"And because the King James Bible is based on later manuscripts, such verses \"became part of the Bible tradition in English-speaking lands.\" He notes, however, that modern English translations, such as the New International Version, were written by using a more appropriate textual method.\nMost modern Bibles have footnotes to indicate passages that have disputed source documents. Bible Commentaries also discuss these, sometimes in great detail. While many variations have been discovered between early copies of biblical texts, most of these are variations in spelling, punctuation, or grammar. Also, many of",
"-30.358512598308153"
],
[
"the Gospel of John.\nThe authors of the New Testament generally showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age. The gospels were primarily written as theological documents in the context of early Christianity with the chronological timelines as a secondary consideration. One manifestation of the gospels being theological documents rather than historical chronicles is that they devote about one third of their text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem. Although the gospels do not provide enough",
"-30.225053589092568"
],
[
"as the Word of God, only to be rescued by another character's defense of the King James Version.\nJoey Faust, a Baptist pastor and researcher, is the author of The Word: God Will Keep It: The 400 Year History of the King James Bible Only Movement which documents a number of KJV Only proponents throughout history.\nThe 2015 Manual of the Bible Missionary Church, a Methodist denomination in the conservative holiness movement, states: \"We wholeheartedly endorse the use of the Authorized Version (King James Version) of the Bible as the final authority in our English-speaking churches and schools. We also go on",
"-30.206736361142248"
],
[
"present in any complete Vulgate Bibles earlier than the 9th century; and even after that date, do not become common in the Vulgate Old Testament until the 13th century. In the Old Latin version of the Bible, these two works appear to have been incorporated into the Book of Jeremiah, and Latin Fathers of the 4th century and earlier always cite their texts as being from that book. However, when Jerome translated Jeremiah afresh from the Hebrew text, which is considerably longer than the Greek Septuagint text and with chapters in a different order, he steadfastly refused to incorporate either",
"-30.117520986881573"
],
[
"created, may demonstrate that, by 140 AD, it had become widely accepted that other texts formed parts of the records of the life and ministry of Jesus. Although arguments about some potential New Testament books, such as the Shepherd of Hermas and Book of Revelation, continued well into the 4th century, four canonical gospels, attributed to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, were accepted among proto-orthodox Christians at least as early as the mid-2nd century. Tatian's widely used Diatessaron, compiled between 160 and 175 AD, utilized the four gospels without any consideration of others. Irenaeus of Lyons wrote in the late",
"-29.913547955511604"
],
[
"struggle for control of the Christian churches during the first century.\nThe hypothesis of Marcan priority holds that the Gospel of Mark was the first gospel to be written. However, biblical scholars do not have access to any primary sources for the gospels (see Historical reliability of the Gospels), which makes any conclusions about them susceptible to doubt, as is also the case with any oral transmission of the gospels prior to the first-written. Noting that the gospels were written decades after Jesus' death, Carrier claims that the gospels are \"wildly fictitious\", and proposes that the Gospel of Mark is really",
"-29.685359293885995"
],
[
"be produced to unify better the Anglican Church in England and Scotland, James embraced the idea. He could not only be rid of those inconvenient annotations, but he could have greater influence on the translation of the Bible as a whole. He commissioned and chartered a new translation of the Bible which would eventually become the most famous version of the Bible in the history of the English language. Originally known as the Authorized Version to be read in churches, the new Bible would come to bear his name as the so-called King James Bible or King James Version (KJV).",
"-29.431826517597074"
],
[
"converted. Couchoud noted that in this hymn the name Jesus was given to the Christ after his torturous death, implying that there cannot have been a ministry by a teacher called Jesus. George Albert Wells George Albert Wells (1926–2017), a professor of German, revived the interest in the Christ myth theory. In his early work, including Did Jesus Exist? (1975), Wells argued that because the Gospels were written decades after Jesus's death by Christians who were theologically motivated but had no personal knowledge of him, a rational person should believe the gospels only if they are independently confirmed. In The",
"-29.24099206086248"
],
[
"King James Only movement The King James Only movement asserts that the King James Version of the Bible is superior to all other English translations. Adherents, largely from evangelical, conservative holiness movement and Baptist churches, believe that the KJV is the greatest English translation ever produced, needing no further improvements, and they also believe that all other English translations which were produced after the KJV are corrupt.\nThese assertions are generally based upon a preference for the Byzantine text-type or the Textus Receptus and a distrust of the Alexandrian text-type or the critical texts of Nestle-Åland, and Westcott-Hort, on which",
"-29.13408356087166"
],
[
"The first and early editions of the King James Bible from 1611 and the first few decades thereafter lack annotations, unlike nearly all editions of the Geneva Bible up until that time. Initially, the King James Version did not sell well and competed with the Geneva Bible. Shortly after the first edition of the KJV, King James banned the printing of new editions of the Geneva Bible to further entrench his version. However, Robert Barker continued to print Geneva Bibles even after the ban, placing the erroneous date 1599 on new copies of Genevas which were actually printed circa",
"-29.004276428633602"
],
[
"even corrects the Greek text from which it was translated. Hymers disagrees and has written that, though the King James is not perfect or given by inspiration in English, it is the only reliable Bible because it is the only one taken solely from the best texts, the Textus Receptus Greek text of the New Testament, and the Masoretic Hebrew text of the Old Testament.\nHymers has written extensively against what he calls \"Decisionism\" which he believes started about the time of Charles G. Finney, a nineteenth-century evangelist who disavowed the central teachings of the Reformation and made salvation hinge upon",
"-28.9937639409618"
],
[
"as readings from these books were included in the daily Old Testament lectionary of the Book of Common Prayer. Protestant Bibles in the 16th century included the books of the Apocrypha—generally, following the Luther Bible, in a separate section between the Old and New Testaments to indicate they were not considered part of the Old Testament text—and there is evidence that these were widely read as popular literature, especially in Puritan circles; The Apocrypha of the King James Version has the same 14 books as had been found in the Apocrypha of the Bishop's Bible; however, following the practice of",
"-28.9082953275647"
],
[
"Court Conference also bore fruit for the Puritans, who, led by Rainolds, insisted that man know God's word without intermediaries, as it led to James's commissioning of that translation of the Christian Bible into the English vernacular, which would be known as the Authorised Version because it alone was authorised to be read in Churches. It is now commonly described as the King James Version. Crucially, the King broadened a base of support, which under his predecessor Elizabeth I had been narrowed through harsh anti-Catholic laws, through his moderate and inclusive approach to the problems of English religion; while alienating",
"-28.905138011061354"
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[
"questioned whether the teachings of James were heretical.\nIts late recognition in the Church, especially in the West, may be explained by the fact that it was written for or by Jewish Christians, and therefore not widely circulated among the Gentile Churches. There is some indication that a few groups distrusted the book because of its doctrine. In Reformation times a few theologians, most notably Martin Luther in his early career, argued that this epistle should not be part of the canonical New Testament.\nMartin Luther's description of the Epistle of James changes. In some cases, Luther argues that it was not",
"-28.869643698039"
],
[
"10:4 in describing Jesus Christ, which reads: \"They all ate the same spiritual food and drank the same spiritual drink; for they drank from the spiritual rock that accompanied them, and that rock was Christ.\"\nAlthough Matthew 16 is used as a primary proof-text for the Catholic doctrine of Papal supremacy, some Protestant scholars say that prior to the Reformation of the 16th century, Matthew 16 was very rarely used to support papal claims, despite it being well documented as being used in the 3rd century by Stephen of Rome against Cyprian of Carriage in a \"passionate disagreement\" about baptism and",
"-28.726130137918517"
],
[
"the four gospels have been regarded as canonical since Irenaeus in the 2nd century, Harnack—like earlier German scholars—rejected the Gospel of John as without historical value regarding Jesus' life:\nIn particular, the fourth Gospel, which does not emanate or profess to emanate from the apostle John, cannot be taken as an historical authority in the ordinary meaning of the word. The author of it acted with sovereign freedom, transposed events and put them in a strange light, drew up the discourses himself, and illustrated great thoughts by imaginary situations. Although, therefore, his work is not altogether devoid of a real, if",
"-28.723435138119385"
],
[
"was later translated into Greek. The New Testament was gathered and put together after Jesus's death. St. Paul's letters were circulated until they were eventually gathered into books, and later the Gospels were written and added. At this time people started to tell the stories of Jesus and his miracles, starting an oral tradition that still continues today. Popularity The Bible is the most published book ever with over 50 billion copies sold and distributed. It has been translated completely into 683 languages, but small parts of it have been translated into thousands of languages and dialects around the world.",
"-28.72146523790434"
],
[
"been described as portraying a \"strongly conservative\" version of Mormonism that is largely reflective of the theological positions of apostle Bruce R. McConkie, who assisted Monson in editing the work and wrote the chapter headings.\nIn 1992, the church's First Presidency announced the King James Version was the church's official English Bible, stating \"[w]hile other Bible versions may be easier to read than the King James Version, in doctrinal matters latter-day revelation supports the King James Version in preference to other English translations.\" In 2010, this statement was written into the church's Handbook, which directs official church policy and programs.",
"-28.717522569932044"
],
[
"understanding of words, grammar, and syntax used in the historical period of their conception. Some versions of the Bible include a separate Apocrypha section between the Old Testament and the New Testament. The New Testament, originally written in Koine Greek, contains 27 books which are agreed upon by all churches.\nModern scholarship has raised many issues with the Bible. While the King James Version is held to by many because of its striking English prose, in fact it was translated from the Erasmus Greek Bible, which in turn \"was based on a single 12th Century manuscript that is one of the",
"-28.7083193132421"
],
[
"Bible version debate The first King James Version debate Following the execution of William Tyndale in 1536, there existed a complete translation of the New Testament from Greek into English for the first time, and in several editions. From this point on, with the English Reformation in full swing, other publications of English translations began to appear, often with sponsorship from businessmen on the continent (e.g., Jacob van Meteren for the Coverdale Bible). The most notable of these were the Great Bible, the Bishop's Bible, and the Geneva Bible.\nThe Great Bible, first published in 1539, was the only English Bible",
"-28.706814755685627"
],
[
"satisfied lay needs for the New Testament. Daniell claimed that Love's book actually contained little of Christ's teaching and a large amount of invented material not in the Gospels. Daniell argued that:\nCatholic revisionist historians miss the point...The Church would never permit a complete printed New Testament in English from the Greek, because in that New Testament can be found neither the Seven Sacraments nor the doctrine of purgatory, two chief sources of the Church's power...An elementary working knowledge of the Bible, the ultimate root of the Christian faith, could only have been developed within Protestantism...[Catholic] piety and practice, in many",
"-28.681638288951945"
],
[
"by Peter, because it appears to have been written in the early 2nd century, long after Peter had died. Yet, opinions on the first epistle are more divided; many scholars do think this letter is authentic.\nIn one epistle, the author only calls himself James (Ἰάκωβος Iákobos). It is not known which James this is supposed to be. There are several different traditional Christian interpretations of other New Testament texts which mention a James, brother of Jesus. However, most modern scholars tend to reject this line of reasoning, since the author himself does not indicate any familial relationship with Jesus. A",
"-28.66898453745307"
],
[
"is now the New Testament, which included four gospels and argued against objections to them. Thus, while there was plenty of discussion in the Early Church over the New Testament canon, the \"major\" writings were accepted by almost all Christian authorities by the middle of the second century.\nThe next two hundred years followed a similar process of continual discussion throughout the entire Church, and localized refinements of acceptance. This process was not yet complete at the time of the First Council of Nicaea in 325, though substantial progress had been made by then. Though a list was clearly necessary to",
"-28.62375682289712"
],
[
"However, the trend among the 21st century scholars has been to accept that while the gnostic gospels may shed light on the progression of early Christian beliefs, they offer very little to contribute to the study of the historicity of Jesus, in that they are rather late writings, usually consisting of sayings (rather than narrative, similar to the hypothesised Q documents), their authenticity and authorship remain questionable, and various parts of them rely on components of the New Testament. The focus of modern research into the historical Jesus has been away from gnostic writings and towards the comparison of Jewish,",
"-28.55679860326927"
],
[
"Puritans who did not already conform to the Established Church or who had left the Church in recent years. The project to create the Authorized Version of the Bible was one such attempt at reconciliation. The continued use of what has also been termed the King James version of the Bible, by Anglicans and other Protestants alike in the English-speaking world, is a reflection of the success of this endeavour at cooperation.\nDuring the reign of King Charles I, however, as divisions between Puritan and Catholic elements within the Church of England became more bitter, and Protestant Nonconformity outside the Church",
"-28.527476450486574"
],
[
"the earliest written Christian materials. A large portion of the New Testament is the Gospels written by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, also known as the four Evangelists. The Evangelists were disciples of Jesus, and all told His story in a different way. Timeline and Location It is believed that the Old Testament started to be put together in the 8th century B.C. Deuteronomy and Judges were added in the 6th Century B.C., and within the years leading up to the birth of Jesus the rest of it was put together. The Old Testament was originally written in Hebrew, but",
"-28.523601016961038"
],
[
"some considerable time. Hence, it may be inferred that they were prefixed to the evangelical narratives as early as the first part of that same century. That however, they do not go back to the first century of the Christian era, or at least that they are not original, is a position generally held at the present day. It is felt that since they are similar for the four Gospels, although the same Gospels were composed at some interval from each other, those titles were not framed and consequently not prefixed to each individual narrative, before the collection of the",
"-28.50519199599512"
],
[
"of the whole Bible (1588), a version that was used by the people of Wales, with little change, for the next four centuries.",
"-28.499477543053217"
],
[
"Old Testament which had been recognised as canonical by the Council of Trent, but which were not in the Hebrew canon\nThe acceptance of some of these books among early Christians was widespread, though not universal, and surviving Bibles from the early Church always include, with varying degrees of recognition, books now called deuterocanonical. Some say that their canonicity seems not to have been doubted in the Church until it was challenged by Jews after AD 100, sometimes postulating a hypothetical Council of Jamnia. Regional councils in the West published official canons that included these books as early as the 4th",
"-28.497142071661074"
],
[
"Study Bible History Perhaps the first edition of an English language Bible that qualified as a \"study Bible\" was the Geneva Bible; it contained extensive cross-references, synopses, and doctrinal points. The text of the Geneva Bible was usually not printed without the commentary, though the Cambridge edition was printed without commentary.\nThe Church of England disputed some of the statements made in the Geneva Bible annotations. This led to the creation of the King James Bible, which was typically printed with a much less extensive apparatus or none at all. Several commentators have supplied annotated King James Bibles containing",
"-28.48565283411881"
],
[
"for James as the leader of the Jewish Christian church in Jerusalem. It was probably composed in Greek in the first decades of the 2nd century, and is believed to have been used by Greek-speaking Jewish Christians in Egypt during that century.\nIt is the only Jewish–Christian gospel which the Church Fathers referred to by name, believing there was only one Hebrew Gospel, perhaps in different versions. Passages from the gospel were quoted or summarized by three Alexandrian Fathers – Clement, Origen and Didymus the Blind; it was also quoted by Jerome, either directly or through the commentaries of Origen. The",
"-28.45525036327308"
],
[
"1 April AD 33 and the crucifixion on Friday 3 April AD 33 and the Resurrection two days later. Context and overview The Christian gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in the life of Jesus They were written as theological documents in the context of early Christianity rather than historical chronicles, and their authors showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age. One indication that the gospels are theological documents rather than historical chronicles is that they devote",
"-28.4463349415455"
],
[
"last 70 years was taken up and reapplied by the author of the Book of Daniel in the 2nd century BCE. Christianity The understanding of the early Christians that Jesus represented a \"new covenant\" (see 1 Corinthians 11:25 and Hebrews 8:6–13) is based on Jeremiah 31:31–34, in which a future Israel will repent and give God the obedience he demands. The Gospel's portrayal of Jesus as a persecuted prophet owes a great deal to the account of Jeremiah's sufferings in chapters 37–44, as well as to the \"Songs of the Suffering Servant\" in Isaiah.",
"-28.42964387551183"
],
[
"to John. He did not put them in a separate named section, but he did move them to the end of his New Testament. The Bible and the Puritan revolution The British Puritan revolution of the 1600s brought a change in the way many British publishers handled the apocryphal material associated with the Bible. The Puritans used the standard of Sola Scriptura (Scripture Alone) to determine which books would be included in the canon. The Westminster Confession of Faith, composed during the British Civil Wars (1642–1651), excluded the Apocrypha from the canon. The Confession provided the rationale for the",
"-28.429214670992224"
],
[
"springing from the assumption that the Bible is inerrant, and most scholars have concluded that Luke's account is an error. Working backwards from when Jesus began preaching Another approach to estimating the year of birth works backwards from when Jesus began preaching, based on the statement in Luke 3:23 that he was \"about 30 years of age\" at that time. Jesus began to preach after being baptised by John the Baptist, and based on Luke’s gospel John only began baptising people in \"the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar\" (Luke 3:1–2), which scholars estimate would be in about",
"-28.388148534913853"
],
[
"of the early church rather than a reflection of the historical Jesus; and in 1919 Karl Ludwig Schmidt showed how the links between the episodes are the invention of the writer, thus undermining the claim that the gospel is a reliable guide to the chronology of Jesus' mission. The gospel is nevertheless still seen as the most reliable of the four in terms of its overall description of Jesus's life and ministry. Setting Christianity began within Judaism, with a Christian \"church\" (or ἐκκλησία, ekklesia, meaning \"assembly\") that arose shortly after his death, when some of his followers claimed to have",
"-28.386849843915115"
],
[
"the Letter of James \"an epistle of straw,\" finding little in it that pointed to Christ and His saving work. He also had harsh words for the Revelation of John, saying that he could \"in no way detect that the Holy Spirit produced it.\" In his translation of the New Testament, Luther moved Hebrews and James out of the usual order, to join Jude and the Revelation at the end, and differentiated these from the other books which he considered \"the true and certain chief books of the New Testament. The four which follow have from ancient times had a",
"-28.35173096167273"
],
[
"in Western European society. Indeed, for most medieval Western Christians, it was the only version of the Bible ever encountered. The Vulgate's influence on Latin culture throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance into the Early Modern Period is even greater than that of the King James Version in English; for Christians during these times the phraseology and wording of the Vulgate permeated all areas of culture.\nAside from its use in prayer, liturgy, and private study, the Vulgate served as inspiration for ecclesiastical art and architecture, hymns, countless paintings, and popular mystery plays. The Reformation While the Genevan Reformed tradition",
"-28.32545168005163"
],
[
"the present New Testament canon, though there were still disputes over the acceptance of the Letter to the Hebrews, James, II Peter, II John, III John, Jude and Revelation, known as the Antilegomena. Likewise, the Muratorian fragment is evidence that perhaps as early as 200, there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar to the twenty-seven book NT canon, which included four gospels and argued against objections to them. Thus, while there was a good measure of debate in the Early Church over the New Testament canon, the major writings are claimed to have been accepted by",
"-28.30471881123958"
],
[
"of Americans say the Bible is the inspired word of God but that it should not be taken literally, consistently the most common view in Gallup's nearly 40-year history of this question. Another 17% consider the Bible an ancient book of stories recorded by man.\" History The high regard for religious scriptures in the Judeo-Christian tradition seems to relate in part to a process of canonization of the Hebrew Bible which occurred over the course of a few centuries from approximately 200 BCE to 200 CE. In the Jewish tradition, the highly regarded written word represented a direct conduit",
"-28.28955010289792"
],
[
"a word of the King James Bible is verging on the barbarian\". Several retellings of the Bible, or parts of the Bible, have also been made with the aim of emphasising its literary qualities. With estimated sales of over 5 billion copies, the Bible is widely considered to be the best-selling book of all time. It sells approximately 100 million copies annually, and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the West, where the Gutenberg Bible was the first book printed using movable type.\nIn Byzantine literature, four different cultural elements are recognised: the Greek, the Christian,",
"-28.15849221360986"
],
[
"books considered (by its own author at least) to form Christian scripture, included Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. Irenaeus of Lyons went further, stating that there must be four gospels and only four because there were four corners of the Earth and thus the Church should have four pillars. Non-canonical gospels Epiphanius, Jerome and other early church fathers preserve in their writings citations from Jewish-Christian gospels. Most modern critical scholars consider that the extant citations suggest at least two and probably three distinct works, at least one of which (possibly two) closely parallels the Gospel of Matthew.\nThe Gospel of Thomas",
"-28.107627123245038"
],
[
"J. Louis Martyn suggested that John's Gospel could be read on two levels, portraying events and contesting controversies in the early church through a narrative portraying the life and teaching of Jesus. Such a reading suggests a controversy regarding Jewish partial-believers in Jesus as the Messiah who, according to the evangelist, did not accept the whole \"truth\" of orthodox Christian teaching and maintained that their covenantal relationship with God was rooted in the Abrahamic tradition rather than the salvation (freedom) offered by Jesus. For this group of Jews, the fundamental credal proposition was that \"Abraham is our father\" (John 8:39a).",
"-28.104236025421415"
],
[
"Fathers, brief references in histories produced decades or centuries later by pagan and Jewish sources, gnostic documents, and early Christian creeds. Founding of the Christian Church According to Christian tradition, the Christian Church was founded by Jesus. In the Gospel according to Matthew, the resurrected Jesus gathered his Twelve Apostles together, issued the Great Commission, and selected Simon Peter as their leader, proclaiming \"I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven\". Many modern scholars, including some Catholic ones, flatly deny that Jesus ever even intended to found a Church, much less that he did so.",
"-28.006213483087777"
],
[
"two other events in the gospels are historically certain, namely that Jesus called disciples, and caused a controversy at the Temple.\nEver since the Augustinian hypothesis, scholars continue to debate the order in which the gospels were written, and how they may have influenced each other, and several hypothesis exist in that regard, e.g. the Markan priority hypothesis holds that the Gospel of Mark was written first c. 70 CE. In this approach, Matthew is placed at being sometime after this date and Luke is thought to have been written between 70 and 100 CE. However, according to the competing, and",
"-27.983610904891975"
],
[
"Epistle of James, II Peter, II John and III John and the Book of Revelation, known as the Antilegomena. Likewise, the Muratorian fragment is evidence that, perhaps as early as 200, there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar to the twenty-seven book NT canon, which included four gospels and argued against objections to them. Thus, while there was a good measure of debate in the Early Church over the New Testament canon, the major writings are claimed to have been accepted by almost all Christians by the middle of the 3rd century.\nOrigen was largely responsible for the collection",
"-27.974642929024412"
],
[
"his crucifixion, and reports of his resurrection.\nThe authors whose works are contained in the New Testament sometimes quote from creeds, or confessions of faith, that obviously predate their writings. Scholars believe that some of these creeds date to within a few years of Jesus' death, and developed within the Christian community in Jerusalem. Though embedded within the texts of the New Testament, these creeds are a distinct source for Early Christianity. 1 Corinthians 15:3–4 reads: \"For what I received I passed on to you as of first importance: that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures, that he",
"-27.960449501872063"
],
[
"the two-gospel hypothesis comes from the gospels themselves (\"internal evidence\"), while some of the evidence is found in the testimony of the early church (\"external evidence\"). The early church did not just testify as to who wrote the gospels, in what order, and when they wrote them, it also testified on the specific circumstances surrounding the creation of each gospel. For example, early church documents claim that Mark's Gospel was created after Mark made fifty copies of a series of speeches that Peter had given in Rome. The external evidence (mainly the testimony of the early church) is the",
"-27.954112604173133"
],
[
"true People of the Book.\nThe Catholic church teaches that the Bible is \"one book\" in a dual sense: the Old and New Testaments are the word of God, and Jesus Christ is the word of God incarnate. Hence the church teaches that Christianity \"is not a 'religion of the book.'...[but] the religion of the 'Word' of God,\" and that this Word is Christ himself.",
"-27.949111894355156"
],
[
"Bible, as this latter version had been translated from the Vulgate, and had been widely used by English Catholic churchmen unaware of its Lollard origins.\nNevertheless, it was a translation of a translation of the Bible. Many highly regarded translations of the Bible routinely consult Vulgate readings, especially in certain difficult Old Testament passages; but nearly all modern Bible versions, Protestant and Catholic, go directly to original-language Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek biblical texts as their translation base, and not to a secondary version like the Vulgate. The translators justified their preference for the Vulgate in their Preface, pointing to accumulated corruptions",
"-27.916652909480035"
],
[
"the general concept within the early Gentillic Christian Church that Jesus existed, was crucified and was raised from the dead.\nThe references by Paul to Jesus do not in themselves prove the existence of Jesus, but they do establish that the existence of Jesus was the accepted norm within the early Christians (including the Christian community in Jerusalem, given the references to collections there) twenty to thirty years after the death of Jesus, at a time when those who could have been acquainted with him could still be alive. Gospels The four canonical gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, are the",
"-27.8898158040829"
],
[
"Bible into vernacular languages provided new literary models. The Book of Common Prayer (1549) and the Authorized King James Version of the Bible have been hugely influential. The King James Bible, one of the biggest translation projects in the history of English up to this time, was started in 1604 and completed in 1611. It represents the culmination of a tradition of Bible translation into English from the original languages that began with the work of William Tyndale (previous translations into English had relied on the Vulgate). It became the standard Bible of the Church of England, and some",
"-27.88370295590721"
],
[
"birth between 6 and 4 BC.\nThree details have been used to estimate the year when Jesus began preaching: a mention of his age of \"about 30 years\" during \"the fifteenth year\" of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, another relating to the date of the building of the Temple in Jerusalem, and yet another concerning the death of John the Baptist. Hence, scholars estimate that Jesus began preaching and gathering followers around AD 28–29. According to the three synoptic gospels Jesus continued preaching for at least one year, and according to John the Evangelist for three years.\nFive methods have been used to estimate the",
"-27.880402444629"
],
[
"Christians recite in their own churches was composed at a later date, when Israelite prophets had begun to prophesy the coming of the messiah. Levinson points out that there is no evidence, internal to the Hebrew Bible or in external sources, to support this conjecture. He concludes that its vogue among later critical historians represents the persistence of the idea that the supersession of Judaism by Christianity is part of a longer history of progress from the ritualistic to the ethical.\nBy the 1930s, historians who accepted the basic premises of multiple authorship had come to reject the idea of an",
"-27.871477395296097"
],
[
"New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures History Until the release of the New World Translation, Jehovah's Witnesses in English-speaking countries primarily used the King James Version. According to the publishers, one of the main reasons for producing a new translation was that most Bible versions in common use, including the Authorized Version (King James), employed archaic language. The stated intention was to produce a fresh translation, free of archaisms. Additionally, over the centuries since the King James Version was produced, more copies of earlier manuscripts of the original texts in the Hebrew and Greek languages have become available. According",
"-27.8602242016932"
],
[
"the first Christians The earliest surviving Christian writings are the letters of Paul, written between 50–57 (or possibly 48–57). The First Epistle to the Corinthians contains one of the earliest Christian creeds reporting post-mortem appearances of Jesus, and expressing the belief that he was raised from the dead, namely 1 Corinthians 15:3–41: \n[3] For I handed on to you as of first importance what I in turn had received: that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the scriptures, [4] and that he was buried, and that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the",
"-27.85896297643194"
],
[
"manuscripts, up to the Middle Ages, with the Byzantine manuscripts, and concluded that the text had more than 90% stability over this time period. It has been estimated that only 0.1% to 0.2% of the New Testament variants impact the meaning of the texts in any significant fashion. Internal consistency Authors such as Raymond Brown point out that the Gospels contradict each other in various important respects and on various important details. W. D. Davies and E. P. Sanders state that: \"on many points, especially about Jesus' early life, the evangelists were ignorant … they simply did not know and,",
"-27.84921770397341"
],
[
"Biblical apocrypha Vulgate prologues Jerome completed his version of the Bible, the Latin Vulgate, in 405. In the Middle Ages, the Vulgate became the de facto standard version of the Bible in the West. The Vulgate manuscripts included prologues, in which Jerome clearly identified certain books of the older Old Latin Old Testament version as apocryphal – or non-canonical – even though they might be read as scripture.\nIn the prologue to the books of Samuel and Kings, which is often called the Prologus Galeatus, he says:\nThis preface to the Scriptures may serve as a \"helmeted\" introduction to all the books",
"-27.824321845255326"
],
[
"Christian gospels did not understand the Essene thought. When writing down the Gospels based on the stories they had heard, the evangelists confused the meaning of the scrolls. In this way, according to Allegro, the Christian tradition is based on a misunderstanding of the scrolls. He also argued that the story of Jesus was based on the crucifixion of the Teacher of Righteousness in the scrolls. Mark Hall writes that Allegro suggested the Dead Sea Scrolls all but proved that a historical Jesus never existed.\nAllegro argued that Jesus in the Gospels was in fact a code for a type of",
"-27.789460695843445"
],
[
"University announced the discovery of an early draft manuscript of a portion of the King James Bible, specifically 1 Esdras and Wisdom 3-4, among Ward's papers in the archives of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. Written in Ward's own handwriting and dating from 1604 to 1608, the manuscript shows Ward crafting portions of the Apocrypha, with translation notes in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. The manuscript sheds light on the translation process used for the King James Bible, notably that many portions were at least initially translated independently and not collaboratively as was originally thought.\nPrior to Miller, the existence of Ward's draft",
"-27.77263458177913"
],
[
"little) and of all four Gospels together: \nSo Matthew, among the Hebrews in their own dialect, brought forth a writing of the Gospel, while Peter and Paul in Rome were evangelizing and founding the church. But after their departure Mark, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, himself handed what was preached by Peter down to us in writing. And Luke, the follower of Paul, set forth in a book the Gospel that was preached by him. Then John, the disciple of the Lord and also the one who leaned against his chest, also published the Gospel when residing in Ephesus",
"-27.767689861240797"
],
[
"Gospel of James Authorship and date The protoevangelium presents itself as written by a source of moral and ecclesiastical authority, ending with the declaration: \"I, James, wrote this history in Jerusalem.\" The purported author is thus James, the brother of Jesus, who held considerable clout within the early Christian community. However, textual scholarship has indicated that the text is a work of pseudepigrapha, a common literary style to this period. It was likely composed some time in the mid-second century. The author(s) does appear to have both a Jewish background and composing his work for a Jewish-Christian audience, as there",
"-27.75295751480735"
],
[
"evidence-based reasoning about biblical texts. As he writes on his website, \"My passion has been the new historical puzzles and 'disconnects' created by recent explorations into the foundations of early Christianity.\" How Jesus Became Christian (2008) In 2008 Wilson published How Jesus Became Christian (New York: St. Martin's Press; Toronto, Random House; London, Orion Publishing Group). Wilson advanced \"the Jesus Cover-Up\" hypothesis, claiming that the theology of Paul of Tarsus covered over the teachings of Jesus and those of his first followers, the Jesus Movement led by Jesus' brother James. Wilson shows in detail how Paul's theology differs from them",
"-27.75128937640693"
],
[
"to the present day. Scripture Many modern Christians approach the Bible and its interpretation as the sole authority to the establishment of their beliefs concerning the world and their salvation. From the Eastern Orthodox point of view, the Bible represents those texts approved by the church for the purpose of conveying the most important parts of what it already believes. The Church more or less accepted the preexisting Greek Septuagint version of Hebrew Scriptures as handed down to them from the Jews; but the New Testament texts were written to members or congregations of the Church which already existed. These",
"-27.74030148482416"
],
[
"the Book of Mormon teach of Christ's coming, and talk of the star that will appear at his birth. After the crucifixion and resurrection in Jerusalem, Jesus appears in the Americas, repeats the Sermon on the Mount, blesses children, and appoints twelve disciples. The book ends with Moroni's exhortation to \"come unto Christ\".\nEarly Mormons understood the Book of Mormon to be a religious history of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Smith's followers view it as a companion to the Bible and an additional witness of Christ, akin to a large apocryphal work. Modern historian Fawn Brodie has called the",
"-27.738057159789605"
],
[
"the earliest traditions on Jesus\". However, New Testament sources remain central for \"both the main lines and the details about Jesus' life and teaching\". Mainstream view Most historians agree that Jesus or his followers established a new Jewish sect, one that attracted both Jewish and gentile converts. Out of this Jewish sect developed Early Christianity, which was very diverse, with proto-orthodoxy and \"heretical\" views like gnosticism alongside each other, According to New Testament scholar Bart D. Ehrman, a number of early Christianities existed in the first century CE, from which developed various Christian traditions and denominations, including proto-orthodoxy. According",
"-27.72704550171329"
],
[
"Christians began at an early period to adopt the Hebrew practice of reckoning their years from the supposed period of the creation of the world.\nCurrently the two dominant dates for creation that exist using the biblical model, are about 5500 BC and about 4000 BC. These are calculated from the genealogies in two versions of the Bible, with most of the difference arising from two versions of Genesis. The older dates of the Church Fathers in the Byzantine Era and in its precursor, the Alexandrian Era, are based on the Greek Septuagint. The later dates of the Ussher chronology and",
"-27.715986547249486"
],
[
"to the throne, James I attempted to bring unity to the Church of England by instituting a commission consisting of scholars from all views within the Church to produce a unified and new translation of the Bible free of Calvinist and Popish influence. The project was begun in 1604 and completed in 1611 becoming de facto the Authorised Version in the Church of England and later other Anglican churches throughout the communion until the mid-20th century. The New Testament was translated from the Textus Receptus (Received Text) edition of the Greek texts, so called because most extant texts of",
"-27.71572568907868"
],
[
"the many strands which survived until the Jewish revolt of 66 to 70 CE, see also Split of early Christianity and Judaism.\nAlmost all historical critics agree that a historical figure named Jesus taught throughout the Galilean countryside c. 30 CE, was believed by his followers to have performed supernatural acts, and was sentenced to death by the Romans, possibly for insurrection. Historicity of the Gospels Most modern scholars hold that the canonical Gospel accounts were written between 70 and 100 or 110 CE, four to eight decades after the crucifixion, although based on earlier traditions and texts, such as \"Q\",",
"-27.713623180112336"
],
[
"in the John Rylands Library in Manchester. United States of America Zondervan released The Holy Bible: 1611 King James Version 400th Anniversary Edition as a replica of the original Authorized Version as it was released in 1611, to mark the anniversary. Digital images from the Bible Museum in Goodyear, Arizona were used to produce this work with the Apocrypha excluded.",
"-27.703214994762675"
],
[
"only provide a broad outline of the life of Jesus. He also points out that Christian non-New Testament sources, such as the church fathers, rely on the New Testament for much of their data and cannot therefore be considered as independent sources.\nThe primary sources on Jesus are the Gospels, therefore the Jesus of history is inextricably bound to the issue of the historical reliability of those writings. The authenticity and reliability of the gospels and the letters of the apostles have been questioned, and there are few events mentioned in the gospels that are universally accepted. However, Bart",
"-27.68732553930022"
],
[
"and Hebrew texts. In the New Testament alone more than 30,000 changes were made, over 5,000 on the basis of what were considered better Greek manuscripts. The work was begun in 1879, with the entire work completed in 1885. (The RV Apocrypha came out in 1895.)\nThe Revised Version of 1885 was the first post-King James Version modern English Bible at the time to gain popular acceptance; and it was used and quoted favorably by ministers, authors, and theologians in the late 1800s and throughout the 1900s, such as Andrew Murray, T. Austin-Sparks, Watchman Nee, H.L. Ellison, F.F. Bruce, and Clarence",
"-27.65469945600489"
],
[
"2025. Differences from other Christian Bibles Bibles used by Catholics differ in the number and order of books from those typically found in bibles used by Protestants, as Catholic bibles remained unchanged following the Reformation and so retain seven books that were rejected principally by Martin Luther. Its canon of Old Testament texts is somewhat larger than that in translations used by Protestants, which are typically based exclusively on the shorter Hebrew and Aramaic Masoretic Text. On the other hand, its canon, which does not accept all the books that are included in the Septuagint, is shorter than that of",
"-27.639965487469453"
],
[
"the foundation of the Christian faith along with the Gospels, Book of Revelation and Letters of the Apostles (including Acts of the Apostles and the Epistle to the Hebrews) of the New Testament.\nBy the early 200's, Origen of Alexandria may have been using the same 27 books as in the modern New Testament, though there were still disputes over the canonicity of Hebrews, James, II Peter, II John and III John, and Revelation, referred to as the Antilegomena. Early orthodox writings – Church Fathers Since the end of the 4th century, the title \"Fathers of the Church\" has been",
"-27.62580885150237"
],
[
"21st Century King James Version Background The 21st Century King James Version Bible is an updated version of the King James Version. It is not generally considered to be a new translation.",
"-27.612730631721206"
],
[
"or the Writings of the Prophets,\" meaning readings from what was to become the Christian Bible. A discourse on the text followed the reading. This was the same practice as that of the synagogues, but now with the New Testament writings added, except that in Christian churches the same person who read the scripture also explained it and there was no set lectionary of readings. Origen, a third-century theologian, preached through most books of the Old Testament and many of the New, which we have today. Origen's sermons on the scripture are expository and evangelistic. By the fourth century, a",
"-27.59715976382722"
],
[
"Koine Greek by about 100 AD; so were numerous apocryphal Gospels. Deciding which books should be included in the Biblical canon took about another two centuries; some differences remain between churches to the present day. The Septuagint also included some books that are not in the Hebrew Bible, which the church accepted due to their use at the time of Christ and because Christ quoted directly from and/or referenced these books in the Gospels of the New Testament. Other early versions The Bible was translated into various languages in late antiquity; the most important of these translations are those",
"-27.59529296134133"
],
[
"involving the risen Jesus (e.g., the Secret Book of James and the Gospel of Mary), but with sayings gospels involving the earthly Jesus (e.g., Q document and the Gospel of Thomas). Crossan suggests that the document might have been written as early as the mid-first century.",
"-27.59513578937913"
],
[
"Christianity and politics Foundations The Hebrew Bible contains a complex chronicle of the Kings of Israel and Judah, written over the course of many generations by authors whose relationships and intimacy with the rulers of the several kingdoms fluctuated widely in both intimacy and respect. Some historical passages of the Hebrew Bible contain intimate portrayals of the inner workings of the royal households of Saul, David and Solomon. The accounts of subsequent monarchs are frequently more distanced and less detailed and frequently begin with the judgment that the monarch \"did evil in the sight of the Lord\".\nThe Christian New",
"-27.587211310863495"
],
[
"Ehrman, Robert Eisenman and others critical of traditional Christian views, in assessing the problems involved in conducting historical Jesus research, say the Gospels are full of discrepancies, were written decades after Jesus' death, by authors who had not witnessed any events in Jesus' life. They go on to say the Gospels were authored not by eyewitnesses who were contemporary with the events that they narrate but rather by people who did not know Jesus, see anything he did, or hear anything he taught, and that the authors did not even share a language with Jesus. The accounts they produced are",
"-27.58489687507972"
],
[
"the biblical Pauline Creed (1Cor 15:23).\nSome Protestant churches proclaim the Mystery of Faith to be: \"Christ has died, Christ is risen, Christ will come again.\" The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Latter-day Saints have particularly distinct and specific interpretations of what are considered to be signs stated in the Book of Revelation. Their scriptures say that Christ will return, as stated in the Bible. Their church also teaches that \"When the Savior comes again, He will come in power and glory to claim the earth as His kingdom. His Second Coming will mark the beginning of the Millennium.",
"-27.565601145819528"
],
[
"Testament books as found in the Canon of Trent. The first council that accepted the present canon of the New Testament may have been the Synod of Hippo Regius in North Africa (393); the acts of this council, however, are lost. A brief summary of the acts was read at and accepted by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419).\nTo Ehrman, \"Proto-orthodox Christians argued that Jesus Christ was both divine and human, that he was one being instead of two, and that he had taught his disciples the truth.\" This view that he is \"a unity",
"-27.53394402563572"
],
[
"and New Testament, and in 391 the Vulgate Latin translation of the Bible was made.\nOther accounts list the Council of Carthage of 397 as the Council that finalized the Biblical canon as it is known today.\nThe Council of Ephesus in 431 clarified the nature of Jesus' incarnation, declaring that he was both fully man and fully God.\nTwo decades later, the Council of Chalcedon solidified Roman papal primacy which added to continuing breakdown in relations between Rome and Constantinople, the seat of the Eastern Church.\nAlso sparked were the Monophysite disagreements over the precise nature of the incarnation of Jesus which led",
"-27.53381979727419"
],
[
"authority for this division, he cited St. Jerome, who in the early 5th century distinguished the Hebrew and Greek Old Testaments, stating that books not found in the Hebrew were not received as canonical. Although his statement was controversial in his day, Jerome was later titled a Doctor of the Church and his authority was also cited in the Anglican statement in 1571 of the Thirty-Nine Articles.\nLuther also expressed some doubts about the canonicity of four New Testament books, although he never called them apocrypha: the Epistle to the Hebrews, the Epistles of James and Jude, and the Revelation",
"-27.530793224927038"
],
[
"through nature as well as the Bible, but they also believed that the Bible, or Scripture, is the only way in which people attain saving knowledge of God. The doctrine of Scripture was also a particularly important area of debate at the time. Scholars had begun to argue that the Hebrew vowel points, marks added to the text to aid in pronunciation, of the Old Testament were probably not part of the original. This caused significant debate between Reformed polemicists and Roman Catholics. Catholics argued that such a discovery demonstrated the need for an authoritative magisterium to interpret the Bible",
"-27.50405543021043"
],
[
"The King James Study Bible The King James Study Bible is an edition of the King James Bible originally produced by Liberty University. It has undergone several name changes and is now sold by Christian publishing house Thomas Nelson in a mass-market edition. The theology in the study notes reflect conservative Christian theology.",
"-27.49499253393151"
],
[
"Historical background of the New Testament Most scholars who study the historical Jesus and early Christianity believe that the canonical gospels and the life of Jesus must be viewed within their historical and cultural context, rather than purely in terms of Christian orthodoxy. They look at Second Temple Judaism, the tensions, trends, and changes in the region under the influence of Hellenism and the Roman occupation, and the Jewish factions of the time, seeing Jesus as a Jew in this environment; and the written New Testament as arising from a period of oral gospel traditions after his death.\nIn 64 BCE,",
"-27.49235082580708"
],
[
"accounts in the New Testament gospels of Matthew and Luke do not mention a date or time of year for the birth of Jesus, and Karl Rahner states that the gospels do not, in general, provide enough details of dates to satisfy the demands of modern historians. Many modern scholars do not see the Luke and Matthew nativity stories as historically factual, and for this reason, they do not consider them a reliable method for determining Jesus' date of birth. Karl Rahner states that the authors of the gospels generally focused on theological elements rather than historical chronologies.\nBoth Luke and",
"-27.46788169274805"
],
[
"replace the witness of the Bible or improve upon it, but because they confirm its message that Jesus Christ is the Living Word of God (Preface of the Book of Mormon; Doctrine and Covenants 76: 3g). We have heard Christ speak in all three books of scripture, and bear witness that he is 'alive forever and ever' (Revelation 1:18).\" Book of Doctrine and Covenants The Community of Christ edition of the Doctrine and Covenants is a growing work of scripture containing inspired documents given through the prophet-presidents recognized by the Community of Christ. It contains inspirational Christian messages such as",
"-27.464974767237436"
],
[
"the New Testament canon developed. Christian baptism was another continuation of a Judaic practice.\nRecent work by historians paints a more complex portrait of late Second Temple Judaism and early Christianity. Some historians have suggested that, before his death, Jesus created amongst his believers such certainty that the Kingdom of God and the resurrection of the dead was at hand, that with few exceptions (John 20: 24-29) when they saw him shortly after his execution, they had no doubt that he had been resurrected, and that the restoration of the Kingdom and resurrecton of the dead was at hand. These specific",
"-27.46292619651649"
],
[
"being an extended metaphor. But Augustine also implicitly accepted the literalism of the creation of Adam and Eve, and explicitly accepted the literalism of the virginity of Jesus's mother Mary.\nIn the Reformation, Martin Luther (1483–1546 CE) separated the biblical apocrypha from the rest of the Old Testament books in his Bible, reflecting scholarly doubts that had continued for centuries, and the Westminster Confession of 1646 demoted them to a status that denied their canonicity. American Protestant literalists and biblical inerrantists have adopted this smaller Protestant Bible as a work not merely inspired by God but, in fact, representing the",
"-27.458565768727567"
],
[
"these books was due more to his theological reservations than to any historical basis regarding them.\n\nIn his book Basic Theology, Charles Caldwell Ryrie countered the claim that Luther rejected the Book of James as being non-canonical. In his preface to the New Testament, Luther ascribed to several books of the New Testament different degrees of doctrinal value: \n\"St. John's Gospel and his first Epistle, St. Paul's Epistles, especially those to the Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, and St. Peter's Epistle-these are the books which show to thee Christ, and teach everything that is necessary and blessed for thee to know, even if",
"-27.452555240073707"
],
[
"as one of the most important texts in understanding early Christianity outside the New Testament. In terms of faith, however, no major Christian group accepts this gospel as canonical or authoritative. It is an important work for scholars working on the Q document, which itself is thought to be a collection of sayings or teachings upon which the gospels of Matthew and Luke are partly based. Although no copy of Q has ever been discovered, the fact that Thomas is similarly a 'sayings' Gospel is viewed by some scholars as an indication that the early Christians did write collections",
"-27.433586271770764"
],
[
"Books and parts of Books usually termed Apocryphal;\nThe American Bible Society adopted a similar policy. Both societies eventually reversed these policies in light of 20th-century ecumenical efforts on translations, the ABS doing so in 1964 and the BFBS in 1966. King James Only movement The King James Only movement advocates the belief that the King James Version is superior to all other English translations of the Bible. Most adherents of the movement believe that the Textus Receptus is very close, if not identical, to the original autographs, thereby making it the ideal Greek source for the translation. They argue that",
"-27.426429269115033"
],
[
"deletions as they please.\" For these reasons modern scholars are cautious of relying on the gospels uncritically, but nevertheless they do provide a good idea of the public career of Jesus, and critical study can attempt to distinguish the original ideas of Jesus from those of the later authors. Canonisation The creation of a Christian canon was probably a response to the career of the heretic Marcion (c. 85–160), who established a canon of his own with just one gospel, the gospel of Luke, which he edited to fit his own theology. The Muratorian canon, the earliest surviving list of",
"-27.42445485832286"
],
[
"Peshitta and Codex Alexandrinus, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.\nThere is no evidence among the canons of the First Council of Nicaea of any determination on the canon, however, Jerome (347-420), in his Prologue to Judith, makes the claim that the Book of Judith was \"found by the Nicene Council to have been counted among the number of the Sacred Scriptures\". The Vulgate Bible Pope Damasus's commissioning of the Latin Vulgate edition of the Bible, c. 383, was instrumental in the fixation of the canon in the West. This list, given below, was purportedly endorsed by Pope Damasus I:\nGenesis,",
"-27.424066852137912"
],
[
"(although there are debates over the number of followers), he moved towards the Davidic capital of the United Monarchy, the city of Jerusalem. Length of ministry Historians do not know how long Jesus preached. The Synoptic Gospels suggest one year, but there is some doubt since they are not written chronologically. The Gospel of John mentions three Passovers, and Jesus' ministry is traditionally said to have been three years long. Others claim that Jesus' ministry apparently lasted one year, possibly two. Parables and paradoxes Jesus taught in parables and aphorisms. A parable is a figurative image with a single message",
"-27.421179587719962"
],
[
"AD 70. In relation to the four gospels' dates of authorship, Robinson placed Matthew as being written sometime between AD 40 and the AD 60s, Mark sometime between AD 45 and AD 60, Luke sometime during the AD 50s and 60s and John sometime between AD 40 and AD 65 or later. Robinson also argued that the letter of James was penned by a brother of Jesus Christ within twenty years of Jesus' death; that Paul authored all the books attributed to him; and that the \"John\" who wrote the fourth Gospel was the apostle John. Robinson also suggested that the results of his investigations implied a need",
"-27.415993964183144"
]
] |
2shm05 | In the lord of the rings, why do the orcs lose all the time even with numerical advantages? | [
"So, going way back (edit: more than 10,000 years prior to the War of the Rings), Iluvatar was the original creator of life on the world of Lord of the Rings (Arda), and of his creations, which included the Valar (beings of great power who basically run things from afar) and the Maiar (beings of slightly lesser power, including the istari (wizards) like Gandalf and Sauron), and the elves, the elves were Iluvatar's favorites. So, one of the Valar, a bad guy named Morgoth, captured some elves and tried to use them to create his own \"children\" - but they were a perversion of the elves, lesser in every way. These \"children\" are the orcs that continue to live on well after Morgoth's departure from the world. Sauron and Saruman continue to use them as armies. These orcs live in the darkest places of earth, like Moria, and some of them couldn't stand being out in daylight (though Saruman bred some that could handle it). The reason they lose all the time is because (1) they initially didn't do too well in the sun, (2) they're not as smart as elves because they're a cheap copy, (3) they don't have love or any other driving force to help motivate them to really TRY to win, and finally, because it is suggested in Tolkien's works that when it counts, *when it really counts*, the Valar and Maiar kind of step in and help out a little bit. Gandalf, for example, lends great power and wisdom to the armies of elves and men throughout the War of the Rings, and some of the goodness and power of the valar still run through the earth and water of Arda. It's some supernatural shit. (Edit: for example, this is partially why the ringwraiths (black riders) are so hesitant to chase after Frodo when Arwen/Glorfindel carries him across the Bruinen, they don't want to go into the water, because the spirit of the Vala, Ulmo, still resides in some of the waters of Middle Earth). Anyway, it's been over 10 years since I was a real Tolkien scholar, but that sums it up pretty much in ELI5 terms, as far as I remember. Someone else might be able to provide a more accurate or detailed answer. Sources: The Silmarillion, the Unfinished Tales, Letters of Tolkien, LotR appendices. Edit: Someone else pointed out that they aren't as well trained, and this is probably part of it for sure. The men of Gondor and many different races of elves were well trained as warriors (especially because elves, who are immortal, had lived through previous dark periods prior to the War of the Rings), so they would have the tactical advantage in some ways. Edit: details and examples Edit: This is literally the only time I've ever felt I could contribute a useful answer in ELI5. Thanks OP.",
"As well as in the books they are usually out maneuvered by Gandalf or another main character. Or eagles. It's always the fucking eagles",
"Because they represent evil and evil never wins",
"Just based on the main battles of the Lord of the Rings, they are generally defeated either because of what's known as 'force multipliers' in military theory or just the fact that they may not actually be outnumbered. A force multiplier is something that makes a force many times more effective than it would be without it. I.e. a small force could do what it would normally take a much larger force to achieve. If we look at the battles at Minas Tirith and Helm's Deep/The Hornberg as the key battles of the lord of the rings, in both instances the good guys are holding highly defensible positions, allowing many waves of enemies to break against them with relatively minor casualties on the side of the good guys. We should also consider the fact that in both cases the defending forces are fighting not just for themselves, but to defend their homes and families, providing an incentive that the opposition does not have. While this defence obviously can't last forever, in both instances it does buy time for an additional, unexpected force to arrive. This is our second force multiplier (as well as just additional forces). The significant morale boost to the men at helm's deep at seeing Gandalf and Eomer arrive, and the men at Minas Tirith at seeing the Rohirrim, coupled with the dismay of the orcs in both cases, is an important turning point in the battles. Which brings us on to our third point; The Rohirrim. Or the force multiplier of superior weapons. The speed and skill of the mounted Rohirrim, facing a largely infantry-based foe allows them to sweep through many times their own number. I think this is more significant at Helm's deep where the forces of evil are entirely infantry, as opposed to the Mumakil (elephants) at Minas Tirith, but they are still important as in both cases it also allows for a two-pronged attack on the enemy's flank. Finally, I could point out that the good guys might not actually have been that outnumbered in the end. At Helm's deep the remainder of the orcs are finished off by Ents and huorns (trees) that have been sent to help. At Minas Tirith, Aragorn arrives with an army of the dead and other people to rout the orcs from the back. I can only think of two significant instances where the good guys are significantly outnumbered with no other factors in their favour. The first is at Osgiliath where Faramir is overwhelmed by a vastly superior force. Most of his men die and he nearly does as they retreat. The second is when they march out from Minas Tirith to bring the fight to the black gates. This is a fight they *expect* to lose. It's purpose is to distract Sauron's attention and forces to clear the way and buy time for Frodo and Sam to get to Mt. Doom. They are only saved when the ring is destroyed and the will that has been driving the evil forces crumbles.",
"I guess it's because they were bred in excess to gain numbers but were never properly trained as an army like the rest of the middle earth population. So, even though they have strength in numbers, they lack the proper strategy to use their greatest potential. But that's just a theory."
] | [
[
"the unmaking of the One Ring and the subsequent loss of the powers of the Nine, while their master Sauron was rendered impotent and unable to threaten Middle-earth again. However, the forces of Rhûn and Harad continued to war with the free peoples of Middle-earth until their eventual decline and defeat. Adaptations Many adaptations of The Lord of the Rings include part of the War in some form or another.\nThere are several games that are patterned after the war: the Games Workshop 2005 Summer Online Campaign, for The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game; a board game developed by",
"-24.494959907373413"
],
[
"Sauron (game) Sauron is a 1977 board wargame published by Simulations Publications, Inc. Gameplay Sauron is a game that deals with the defeat of Sauron by Elendil and Gil-galad at the end of the Second Age. Reception David James Ritchie reviewed Sauron in The Space Gamer No. 17. Ritchie reviewed Gondor and Sauron together and commented that \"They are adequate, but nothing more. Yet this lack of excellent is a cheat. Those who buy these games will do so because of the familiarity with the Tolkien mythos. They will expect the same impact from these games as was present in",
"-24.202304775826633"
],
[
"namely the real-time strategy games The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-earth and its sequel The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-earth II, and the action platformer adaptation of The Return of the King. In the latter, the player actually has to fight them and their King, who is a boss with his own level, before they will fight for Gondor. In The Lord of the Rings: The Third Age, when the player is allowed to play as Aragorn on the Pelennor Fields, an option is to summon Army of the Dead.\nThey are also part",
"-21.998848998220637"
],
[
"The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (video game) Gameplay Described by the developers as a modern version of Gauntlet, The Return of the King is a hack and slash action game played from a third-person perspective. The game is very similar to its predecessor in basic gameplay. Each character has a quick attack which does minimal damage and can be easily blocked, and a fierce attack, which does more damage, but is slower and leaves the player vulnerable to attack. Only fierce attacks can break enemy shields. Each character also has a ranged attack, a \"killing",
"-21.95973643939942"
],
[
"round) are also claimed to cause a reduction in the effect of the passing seasons.\nIn The Lord of the Rings Online: Mines of Moria, Lorien was a region introduced to the game in March 2009, which allows players to visit Caras Galadhon and other locations, and complete quests from the elves.",
"-21.848029539149138"
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[
"the road. The game ends when Sauron is destroyed after the Battle at the Black Gates and Frodo and Sam reach Mount Doom. Reception Computer Gaming World called the game's graphics \"simple, yet pleasing\", but described it as \"a lightweight strategy game that includes several action sequences and some very limited character interaction\". The magazine stated that those who had not read Tolkien's books would likely not understand the game's backstory, and that strategy players would dislike how closely they needed to follow the original story's actions to succeed in the game. Computer Gaming World only recommended it to devoted",
"-21.80640103967744"
],
[
"Ugluk decide to bring forward Grond.\nNotably, the field battle before the walls is fought exclusively by the Rohirrim (until the arrival of Aragorn and the Army of the Dead) on the one hand and Uruk-hai on the other. In the book, the defenders of Minas Tirith also sally forth and play an important part, while Sauron's army includes a huge army of forces. Concept and creation Sauron Defeated, the fourth volume of The History of the Lord of the Rings, part of the History of Middle-earth series, contains superseded versions of the battle. Some changes of detail are apparent. For",
"-21.630353733431548"
],
[
"games of all time. The UK magazine's editor Paul Pettengale commented: \"The popularity of the books, we would suggest, explains why the game based on Tolkien's world is so popular. For the system is overly complicated (being based on the complex Rolemaster system - see number 15), and it suffers from the problem of timing. For example, in which time do you set your campaign? Set it before The Lord of the Rings and everyone knows what's going to happen, set it after The Lord of the Rings and you've got to make a whole load of stuff up.",
"-21.58241776030991"
],
[
"which had to be left out because of space constraints). Tolkien did not like the title The Return of the King, believing it gave away too much of the storyline, but deferred to his publisher's preference. He suggested the title The Two Towers in a deliberately ambiguous attempt to link the unconnected books III and IV, and as such the eponymous towers could be either Orthanc and Barad-dûr, or Minas Tirith and Barad-dûr, or Orthanc and Cirith Ungol.\nTolkien was initially opposed to titles being given to each two-book volume, preferring instead the use of book titles: e.g. The Lord of",
"-21.46568059269339"
],
[
"J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, Vol. I (1994 video game) Gameplay The player begins the game as Frodo Baggins, and progressively acquires the remaining members of the Fellowship; Samwise Gamgee, Peregrin Took, Meriadoc Brandybuck, Aragorn, Legolas, Gimli, and Gandalf (Boromir strangely only makes a single brief appearance). With the addition of extra controllers and the Super Multitap, the game supported more than four players. Players could play as Frodo, Samwise, Pippin, Merry, Gimli, and Aragorn. Using cheats or an emulator, players could also play as a non-combatant Legolas or Gandalf, supporting up to 8 players (although Legolas cannot",
"-21.14414549432695"
],
[
"The Lord of the Rings: The Third Age (Game Boy Advance) Gameplay When starting a campaign, the player is prompted to choose a commander from either good (Aragorn, Gandalf or Elrond) or evil (Saruman, the Witch-King of Angmar or the Mouth of Sauron). Selecting a commander from either side begins a campaign from the perspective of that army. The player can store two saved games at any given time, one each for good and evil.\nDepending on the campaign, a number of secondary heroes are available for use in battle. The good heroes include members of the Fellowship and",
"-21.088399005122483"
],
[
"refocussed to adventure, with emphasizing quests over combat. The game was only titled Baldur's Gate due to Interplay having lost the general D&D license to Atari, but still retaining the right to make Baldur's Gate and Icewind Dale branded D&D games (the same reason as for Baldur's Gate: Dark Alliance's title).\nThe game was not going to be connected to the previous Baldur's Gate series in any way and would start a new series, the Black Hound series. It was to be a sequel in terms of gameplay and not story, although it would continue some aspects of the Icewind Dale",
"-20.742011925729457"
],
[
"Icewind Dale (series) Icewind Dale The gameplay of Icewind Dale is similar to that of Baldur's Gate. As with Baldur's Gate, the game is based on the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition ruleset, and the combat system is a quasi-real-time adaptation of the normally turn-based Dungeons & Dragons combat system used. Dice rolling and the like are all done automatically, without requiring the player's participation, although it is possible to pause the game at any time to issue orders to the party.\nOne of the most noticeable differences compared to Baldur's Gate is the much larger bestiary: ettins, orcs, goblins,",
"-20.737051799485926"
],
[
"explorable than in the previous games.\nThe game was praised by many critics for its pacing, music, numerous improvements over the original game and its expansions, although most found fault with the game's graphics, which consisted of sprite characters and 2d prerendered backgrounds, and were considerably less impressive than those of other CRPGs released that year, such as Neverwinter Nights and The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind. Regardless, Icewind Dale II achieved mostly positive reviews. Further releases Upon the announcement of Baldur's Gate: Enhanced Edition by Atari, Beamdog and Overhaul Games, many fans of the Icewind Dale series took to Twitter to",
"-20.721668391430285"
],
[
"Hobbies assumed anyone buying D&D knew what Hobbits are, there was no real description and the only reason they seemed to have been included was to reinforce the game's connection with Tolkien's stories.\n— Ronald Mark Pehr, A Change of Hobbit\nThe player thus has to pick from his own knowledge of other works, particularly in what is now called the “geek culture”; according to Isabelle Périer, PhD in comparative literature:\n[this intertextuality] is a concision tool—it allows to quickly get into the middle of the action—and an opening towards variations—you can then play with the stereotypes.\nFrench: [Cette intertextualité] est un outil de concision",
"-20.599739892291836"
],
[
"only became invisible, although when Frodo bound Gollum to his service in The Two Towers, he indicated that he could use the Ring to control Gollum (because the Ring had mastered Gollum long ago). Gandalf and Galadriel, however, recognized that they could use the full power of the Ring, becoming even more powerful than Sauron himself, but they resisted, knowing that in the end, the Ring would corrupt them. Gandalf explained to Frodo that, with great concentration and training, even he could tap into the Ring's power, but probably at the cost of his sanity.\nThe One Ring possessed something of",
"-20.573885926569346"
],
[
"appear as enemies in \"Lord of the Rings: The Third Age\". In this game, they are also slow but powerful, and can take a lot of damage before dying. Some of the later \"attack trolls\" in the game wield a pair of large swords, while a stronger kind carries massive war hammers, as well as at least one troll encountered in Moria who carries a pair of drums, which are used to heal and increase the damage of an accompanying troll. Trolls also appear as controllable units in The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-earth, its sequel, The",
"-20.41992282215506"
],
[
"Gondor: The Siege of Minas Tirith Gondor is a 1977 board wargame published by Simulations Publications, Inc. Gameplay Gondor is a game that deals with the siege of Gondor as set forth in J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings (1954–1955). Reception David James Ritchie reviewed Gondor in The Space Gamer No. 17. Ritchie reviewed Gondor and Sauron together and commented that \"They are adequate, but nothing more. Yet this lack of excellent is a cheat. Those who buy these games will do so because of the familiarity with the Tolkien mythos. They will except the same impact from these",
"-20.302737014833838"
],
[
"at the player to his or her right). Any player may also win by acquiring and destroying the One Ring after a complicated set of events.\nLater expansions have added the possibility to take the role of a Ringwraith of Sauron (MELE), a corrupted wizard playing by his own rules (MEWH), the malevolent Balrog (MEBA), or even Sauron himself. The game is somewhat distinguished from most other CCG's with the use of two six-sided dice for a random factor and also by the actual map of Middle-earth, including regions your companies travel through, and site cards they visit.\nMECCG won two Origins",
"-20.289678501433627"
],
[
"must repeat the entire level.\nIn the War of the Ring campaign, containing eight levels, the player loosely follows the major battles of the films with some additions such as the Mines of Moria and Minas Morgul. In the Rise of Sauron campaign, the player controls the forces of Sauron in a reworking of the storyline set over seven levels of a film called The final war for Middle Earth. In this story, the Dark Lord reclaims the ring when Frodo Baggins was corrupted by and failed to destroy the One Ring. The hobbit is then killed by the Witchking of",
"-20.227833182783797"
],
[
"the real-time strategy games The Lord of the Rings: War of the Ring and The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-earth II. In the former, Goblins can be used alongside common Orcs and Uruk-hai, while in the latter Goblins get their own playable faction. The same is true for the MMORPG The Lord of the Rings Online. Goblins are depicted as a race distinct from Orcs.\nIn the film The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring some Uruk-hai are seen being birthed full-grown from what appear to be sacs in muddy pits. (This is used as",
"-20.2075170740427"
],
[
"in that sense, was aimed at a slightly younger audience than the Lord of the Rings films. Tory Skinner, of Vivendi Universal Games, further stated \"The Hobbit was written for a younger audience, so it made sense to create a game that would be enjoyable for younger kids, as well as adults. We looked at the different types of game we could do, and an action-adventure game with a heavy emphasis on the action seemed like the best way to go. We didn't want to make the game inaccessible by loading down gamers with hard-core RPG gameplay.\"\nLead designer Chuck Lupher",
"-20.176470406804583"
],
[
"had Sierra begin work on an adaptation of Tolkien's earlier novel, The Hobbit.\nAfter E3, Sierra explained that because the novel is quite short, parts of the story had to be expanded in the game to ensure the narrative was of sufficient length (for example, Bilbo's rescue of the dwarves from the spiders in Mirkwood is much longer and more detailed in the game than in the book), and considerably more combat was added to the story. However, the developers were under strict instructions not to deviate from the basic plot of the novel. Sierra was in constant communication with Tolkien",
"-20.170485198497772"
],
[
"Fellowship of the Ring arrive to help Arwen and Elrond, but Sauron (having attained full power through recovering the One Ring from the dead Frodo) and all his gathered forces enter the battle and completely destroy the remaining Good forces in the North.\nThe Good Campaign opens after the Fellowship of the Ring has set out on their mission to unmake the One Ring of Power, with Elrond and Glóin planning the War in the North. The Elven hero Glorfindel discovers an impending attack on the Elven sanctuary of Rivendell. Thanks to the early warning, Elrond's forces in Rivendell manage to",
"-20.109530145360623"
],
[
"of Final Fantasy Adventure, the first being the Game Boy Advance game Sword of Mana, which had removed the connections to the Final Fantasy series in favor of being more connected to the rest of the Mana series. According to Adventures of Mana's producer, Masaru Oyamada, the development team focused on not upsetting what had made the original game good, while adding things that had not been possible to do in the original version due to hardware limitations; they also aimed to make the game more comfortable and intuitive to play: for instance, switching armor and weapons and using items",
"-19.985542599344626"
],
[
"to defeat both the Saxon invaders and the sons of Mordred who seek to usurp the throne just as their father did. As the game progresses, enchanted beings threaten Constantine's kingdom and the player must find the magical means to stop these menaces as well, up to the final confrontation with Arthur's half-sister Morgan le Fay who is dabbling in dark arts. The game is won if the player can unite all the fragmented kingdoms of Britain and successfully keep Constantine alive past the last episode. Reception Computer Gaming World praised Excalibur's VGA graphics and described it as a \"technical",
"-19.91103156004101"
],
[
"EA also revealed they were working on having Gollum as a playable character, although this ultimately did not happen, except in the GBA version.\nThe developers called The Return of the King \"bigger and better\" than The Two Towers. \"In The Two Towers the player would occasionally run into 10 or 15 enemies,\" said lead game designer Chris Tremmel, \"in The Return of the King there are areas where the player faces up to 40 orcs [...] Fans familiar with The Two Towers will find that the combat experience in The Return of the King feels familiar but much deeper.\" Before",
"-19.839070064772386"
],
[
"of Games Workshop's The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game.\nIn the massively multiplayer online role-playing game, The Lord of the Rings Online -- Update 14 (released on 14 July 2014) takes you through the Paths of the Dead mere hours behind Aragorn and the Grey Company's passage, to the Stone of Erech, and then on through Western Gondor en route to the Battle of Pelargir.\nAn undetermined number of the cursed Men of the Mountains have decided not to follow Aragorn and become known as \"The Ruthless Dead.\" It is these hostile spirits that the player must defend against on",
"-19.8345375075005"
],
[
"in 2004, and a PSP-exclusive title, The Lord of the Rings: Tactics in 2005.\nIn 2005, EA secured the rights to both the films and the books, thus The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-earth II incorporated elements of the film adaptions, and the original Tolkienesque lore. EA also began work on an open world role-playing video game called The Lord of the Rings: The White Council, but development of the game was cancelled in 2007.\nIn May 2005 Turbine, Inc. announced that they had acquired exclusive rights to create massively multiplayer online role-playing games based on the novel by",
"-19.80135932378471"
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[
"Gollum on the edge of the precipice. Frodo successfully defeats Gollum, knocking him into the lava and destroying the Ring forever. Development Following the success of the video game tie-in of The Two Towers film, an adaptation of The Return of the King was announced on 25 April 2003. While The Two Towers was released on the three major consoles (PlayStation 2, GameCube and Xbox) and the Game Boy Advance, The Return of the King was also set for release on PC. Executive producer Neil Young revealed playable characters would include Gandalf, Aragorn, Legolas, Gimli, Frodo, Sam and two to",
"-19.735160475596786"
],
[
"The Lord of the Rings: The Third Age Gameplay As with many role playing games, gameplay in Third Age is split into two different modes; third-person exploration through a 3D overworld, and combat mode, consisting of turn-based gameplay.\nProgression through the game is built around \"Quests.\" Every area features multiples quests which must be completed in order to progress to the next area. All areas also feature several optional sidequests which do not have to be completed for progression, but which can yield substantial rewards if they are. When the player is in third-person mode, the HUD displays a map with",
"-19.730871120817028"
],
[
"mounting enough forces to push the war on the fronts in the east in order to contribute to Sauron's defeat.\nAt the beginning, the player can in the starting menu choose to start a new game, load an old one, quit, access encyclopedias dealing with featured units and characters, or practice. The practice folds down to tutorials in single-fighter combat:\n- Archery: the player takes control of Legolas attempting to shoot down (18) Orcs from a wall, while crouching from their spears\n- Duel: the player chooses between four Heroes: Aragorn, Legolas, Gimli and Éomer, to fight either an Orc or a Dunlending",
"-19.687040863295806"
],
[
"In Baldur's Gate, players also have the option to allow the artificial intelligence to take control during combat, though they can press the spacebar at any time to regain control of their characters. Further, in Baldur's Gate, players are able to configure the game to automatically pause when certain conditions are met, such as at the end of a round or upon the death of a non-player character. A variation of active pause, called \"Smart Pause Mode\" or SPM, is an advertised feature of Apeiron's Brigade E5: New Jagged Union (2006) and 7.62: High Calibre (2007).\nAmong strategy video games, it",
"-19.55069498438388"
],
[
"J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, Vol. I (1990 video game) Overview The game is a role-playing game (RPG) in which the player, after an opening cinematic, takes control of Frodo Baggins just outside Bag End. From here, the player gradually \"recruits\" various members of the Fellowship, and while the game can be completed by following the novel for the most part, many side-quests also exist to entertain the player. The game world was quite large and featured a cast of characters from both the text and outside of it; character interaction is carried out through \"questioning\" other characters",
"-19.471845983993262"
],
[
"Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-earth II and its expansion The Rise of the Witch-king. In The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-earth, it is necessary for a regular mountain troll to gain a rank (after destroying enemy units, etc.), to become an attack troll where it gains an armor bonus and can heal by itself as the only non-hero unit who is able to do so. In The Battle for Middle-earth II, attack trolls can be made from a Rank 3 Troll Cage. In The Rise of the Witch-king, the Angmar faction has a troll",
"-19.46055127424188"
],
[
"also positively reviewed. The gameplay style was expanded to make the game more like an role-playing game, the ability to craft weapons, armor and amulets was added, Baldur's Gate became a hub city with the addition of a world map and being able to travel back to areas, making the game open world and many more side-quests were added as well as the ability to level up one's class. Cancelled games Development on Baldur's Gate III: The Black Hound was cancelled in 2003 and the third game in the Dark Alliance series was also cancelled in 2004 when Black Isle",
"-19.447882973472588"
],
[
"Excalibur (video game) Gameplay The object of the game is to unite all of Britain under the rule of King Arthur. The players can invade kingdoms, set tithes for their vassals, send plagues and pestilences (with the help of Merlin) and manage the loyalty of their own Round Table by rewarding their knights or, if they grow too disloyal, by banishing them. Reception and legacy Electronic Games stated that \"Excalibur is a grand effort\". Antic stated that the game \"easily ranks as the finest programming achievement to date by Chris Crawford ... one of the richest gaming experiences ever\". Computer",
"-19.428071973845363"
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[
"continues when players lose a match. This can prevent immersion and narrative from breaking when players die in the game. According to Rob Roberts, the system is designed so players can emotionally attach to the protagonist through gameplay drama. They also hoped that through the system, players can create their own villain, leading to an organic story.\nShadow of Mordor bridges the gap between The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, with the team wanting to show iconic elements of the universe in an original way. The team had to draw notes on Tolkien's notes and appendices to ensure that",
"-19.331850697868504"
],
[
"under her control.\nIn 2013's free-to-play mobile game Snow White: Queen's Return (also known as Seven Dwarfs: The Queen's Return), an uncanonical continuation of the film, the Queen has survived the fall at the climax of the film because there was a lake at the bottom of the abyss. She then reverted to her youthful form and, seeking revenge, cast an evil curse on Snow White as well as the dwarfs and their entire forest. The game's updates were supposed to allow the players to \"meet (and defeat)\" the Queen, adding quests involving a search for her hideout to \"help the",
"-19.232630886835977"
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[
"tension between Saruman and Gandalf, for Gandalf already suspected Saruman of desiring to possess the One Ring. Video game In July 2006, Electronic Arts announced development of an open world role-playing game called The Lord of the Rings: The White Council, due for release in late 2007, in which players would serve the Council. The game was said to include elements of Peter Jackson's film adaptations of The Lord of the Rings and other Tolkien books, since Electronic Arts held licenses to both at the time. The game was set to be released for Sony's PlayStation 3, Microsoft's Xbox 360",
"-19.20332250581123"
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[
"be possible to complete the game without using violence. Vogel cited Baldur's Gate II: Shadows of Amn, Planescape: Torment, Deus Ex and EverQuest as influences.\nThe game marked a departure from the Avernum series and its predecessor the Exile series, Vogel expressed a need to work on other projects - \"every few years, I need to do something cool and weird. It keeps me interested.\" He stated that the differences in Geneforge meant the game might struggle to find an audience, however sales exceeded his expectations.",
"-19.20329786837101"
],
[
"If the player decides not to help even one of his knights and thus avoid the trials and arcade sequences, the game can be completed, but the Grail will kill Arthur at the very end of the game. Reception Computer Gaming World stated that Conquests of Camelot's EGA graphics were inferior to those of previous Sierra games, and did not recommend the game to more experienced adventurers because of its puzzles' low difficulty level. In 1990, Dragon gave the game 4½ out of 5 stars.",
"-19.191280947008636"
],
[
"game takes several liberties with Tolkien's works and the film trilogy. Some characters were altered in their appearances, abilities, and roles; for instance, a combat role in the game is given to Tom Bombadil, a merry and mysterious hermit who appears in The Lord of the Rings but does not take part in the war. In addition, Tolkien's earlier novel The Hobbit lends several elements to the game, including characters such as the Giant Spiders from Mirkwood. The story for The Battle for Middle-earth II is divided into Good and Evil Campaigns. Both campaigns focus on the battles fought by",
"-19.1912318452014"
],
[
"though the short hobbits were interacting with taller Men and Elves. Even the simple use of kneeling down, to the filmmakers' surprise, turned out to be an effective method in creating the illusion.\nFor the battle between the Last Alliance and Sauron's forces that begins the film, an elaborate CGI animation system, called MASSIVE, was developed by Stephen Regelous; it allowed thousands of individual animated characters, or \"agents\" in the program to act independently. This helped give the illusion of realism to the battle sequences. The \"Making of\" Lord of the Rings DVD reports some interesting initial problems: in the first",
"-19.14674083623777"
],
[
"all bugs. Reception Info in 1985 rated The Hobbit on the Commodore 64 three-plus stars out of five, stating that the graphics were \"pleasant but no show-stoppers\", and that the game's parser and puzzles were \"typical of most adventures today\". The magazine concluded that \"Tolkien fans will most likely be pleased with this title\".\nThe Hobbit was a bestseller in the UK on the ZX Spectrum in 1983 and both the C64 and BBC the following year. The game won the 1983 Golden Joystick Award for best strategy game. The game was also a huge commercial success, selling over 100,000 copies",
"-19.143981966888532"
],
[
"The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (video game) Gameplay The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring is an action-adventure game played from a third-person perspective. The player controls one of three characters at various points in the game: Frodo Baggins, Aragorn, and Gandalf, each of whom has their own weapons and abilities. Frodo is the only character who can jump, shimmy along ledges and sneak. Only Frodo and Gandalf can push and pull items. Gandalf is the only character who has access to magic. Aragorn has the most health, is physically the strongest",
"-19.140597156248987"
],
[
"Lord of the Rings.\nIn 1999, the company severed their licensing agreement with Iron Crown Enterprises (ICE) for role-playing games set in Middle-earth after ICE ceased developing new products for this line. This contributed to ICE filing for bankruptcy in 2001. Tolkien Enterprises then made a new licensing agreement with Decipher Inc. for their Lord of the Rings Roleplaying Game, which published content from 2002–2006.\nInitially, Miramax was backing the production of Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings films in 1997, but was restricted by then-owner Disney, who demanded that they turn the story into one film instead of two films,",
"-19.137071569857653"
],
[
"he battled X-Force, and slew Cannonball. Sauron was apparently shot dead by Cable, and his body was thrown by Cable to the Morlocks. Sauron was later revealed to have survived the gunshot wound, and battled X-Factor. Sauron went on to menace the X-Men and other heroes on a number of occasions.\nLater, Sauron had the Savage Land Mutates kidnap Havok, hoping to use his energy to satiate his hunger. When his teammates Cyclops, Phoenix, and Polaris came to the rescue, Sauron had both Summers brothers placed in an energy-transferring machine, and the mix of energy mutated Sauron even further, making him",
"-19.117506842128932"
],
[
"Kingmaker scenario Gladiator example Consider this simple game: Three gladiators play, with strengths 3, 4, 5. In turn, each gladiator must engage another, and they begin combat. The result of combat is that the weaker player is eliminated, and the stronger player loses strength equal to that of the weaker player. (For example, if \"5\" attacks \"3\", \"3\" will die and \"5\" will have strength 2.) The winning gladiator is the last one standing.\nEach round of combat eliminates one gladiator, so there will be two rounds of combat. The first round of combat will eliminate one participant and weaken the",
"-19.113599158474244"
],
[
"before the game has ended, especially in games where a player's disconnect will trigger a spike in latency which causes the other players to have to wait. However, in other games such as Starcraft II, the opposite is true: it's considered bad manners to stay in a game after a clear victor has been decided because the victory requirement to destroy all of an opponent's forces is seen as a waste of the player's time. However, in games where leaving early is encouraged, the player is often still expected to say 'gg' or 'good game' before leaving; failure to do",
"-19.101711912662722"
],
[
"hero named Rogash, as well as hill and snow trolls. In all the Battle for Middle-earth games, trolls are depicted as \"tank\" units (slow, very strong, can take massive damage before being killed).\nIn the Lord of the Rings Online massively multiplayer online game, wood-trolls that appear to be semi-entish and made of wood appear in the trollshaws.\nLord of the Rings tabletop wargame, produced by Games Workshop, includes an Isengard troll, which is depicted as wearing armour and carrying a shield similar to Uruk-hai.",
"-19.093738845200278"
],
[
"and hardest (Hexagonest). Additional, \"Hyper\" difficulty stages can be unlocked by surviving for over sixty seconds on a level. Development Super Hexagon started off as a smaller game prototype titled Hexagon, made and released in one day for the late February 2012 game jam Pirate Kart V. As the game's designer Terry Cavanagh saw potential in the project, he decided to increase the game's difficulty and expand upon its concept. Cavanagh has stated that he is \"not much of a visual artist,\" thus settling on a minimal look quickly. The visuals of Super Hexagon are barely different from its original",
"-19.039191277835926"
],
[
"Sûl, and the Fall of Fornost. Several of Arnor's Kings also make an in-game appearance during the campaign, such as Argeleb I, Arveleg I, and Arvedui. Although not playable in multiplayer by default, several mods exist that allow players to use the forces of Arnor in the games skirmish mode.\nIn the Lord of the Rings Online, the majority of the original regions (Bree-Land, the Trollshaws, the Lonelands, the Ettenmoors, the North Downs, and the Shire) all occupy what was once part of the kingdom of Arnor. A seventh region, Evendim, was also added to the game after its release which",
"-18.969955108885188"
],
[
"reasserts itself.\nGrimgor's fighting skill is such that he has been fought to a standstill only once - by the Champion of Chaos Crom the Conqueror. This is partly explained by the mauling of Grimgor's army on that occasion and the fleeing of the survivors, which left Grimgor alone on the field of battle. Orcs Orcs are large creatures with long arms and short legs, huge slabs of muscle move under tough green skin, and their jaws are lined with vicious fangs that jut out from their underbite. They have beady red eyes, a generally foul demeanor, and are naturally bald.",
"-18.932121721925796"
],
[
"that are persistent in games like World of Warcraft and Destiny to differentiate Dauntless from the Monster Hunter games. Houston said that they plan to make extremely difficult quests within the game, so that while most players will be able to reach a principle endgame state, only a few will be skilled enough to take on these quests, similar to some quests in World of Warcraft. The game's look and feel was inspired by the animated film Tangled and other Disney films, avoiding hyper-realism so that the game's graphics will age well.\nSince its announcement, the game has garnered a great",
"-18.924047169741243"
],
[
"veteran gamers back.\nMasuda stated that the basic philosophy of all Pokémon games is communication; in the Pokémon series, this is manifested in trading and battling with other people. When asked about the new concept of double battles, the developers noted that they tried to focus more on the original one-on-one battles as the main type of competition and only added the double battles as a \"new challenge\". They stated that if they receive positive feedback about the double battles, the feature may appear more in future generations.\nThe games were the first in the series that did not contain all of",
"-18.914975986233912"
],
[
"Tolkien's work, all attributed to the game's phenomenal success. Legacy To help players a book called \"A guide to playing The Hobbit\" by David Elkan was published in 1984.\nDeveloper Beam Software followed up The Hobbit with 1985's Lord of the Rings: Game One, 1987's Shadows of Mordor: Game Two of Lord of the Rings, and 1989's The Crack of Doom. They would also reuse Inglish in \"Sherlock\".\nIn 1986 a parody of the game was released by CRL, The Boggit.\nA phrase from the game which has entered popular culture is \"Thorin sits down and starts singing about gold.\"\nAlso, the game is",
"-18.907762039569207"
],
[
"the Hollyhock God because, in the world of Nobilis, hollyhocks represent vanity and ambition. This is because, according to the in-game story, the angels used flowers as a tool to control and direct the brunt of their powers when they created Reality. Each Nobilis and Imperator has a flower that represents them, and flowers are often used in their magical rites. System Unlike most role-playing game systems, Nobilis does not use random elements in determining success in characters' actions. Instead, Nobilis uses a resource management system; players may spend Miracle Points to succeed at certain actions, but otherwise they rarely",
"-18.870340525420033"
],
[
"wait around, becoming bored because I didn't know what to do next.\" He also suggested a simpler HUD than in previous games, arguing that the game should be \"transparent, self-explanatory, and challenging\", citing StarCraft as an example.\nWith Shelley's advice in mind, in the early stages of development, Blue Byte looked at Heritage of Kings and Rise of an Empire to see what didn't work. With Heritage of Kings, the series had gone in the direction of real-time strategy, with far more emphasis on combat than micromanagement or city-building. When the game wasn't well received by fans, Blue Byte addressed their",
"-18.83800969622098"
],
[
"fast and deal significant damage (particularly to enemy buildings and heroes). Additionally, Isengard is the only Evil faction that can build walls. Mordor forces are a mixture of Orcs, Men, Trolls, Mumakil, and Sauron's lieutenants. Mordor Orcs have tough armor, making them useful for absorbing enemy damage while stronger units attack enemies. Trolls contribute greatly to the Mordor offensives, having strong melee attacks and the ability to throw boulders or wield trees like swords. Plot Set in the regions of northern Middle-earth, the game focuses on the events of the War in the North. For the sake of gameplay, the",
"-18.816601311438717"
],
[
"the Mines of Moria. Unlike the book, however, the finale of the game is the fight between the Fellowship and the Balrog creature in the Mines of Moria (the first volume of the book ends significantly later).\nIf a character dies, the death is permanent and the player cannot use them for the rest of the game.\n\nThe sequel, The Lord of the Rings: Volume II, was meant to pick up where Part I left off, but due to poor sales, no sequel was ever released on the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. Reception GamePro panned the game, citing gameplay dominated by \"long,",
"-18.80776644902653"
],
[
"Rings, including Ian McKellen, Andy Serkis, Hugo Weaving, Elijah Wood, Ian Holm, Christopher Lee, Cate Blanchett and Orlando Bloom who reprised their roles. Although the Hobbit films were commercially successful, they received mixed reviews from critics. Video games Numerous video games were released to supplement the film series. They include: The Two Towers, Pinball, The Return of the King, The Third Age, The Third Age (GBA), Tactics, The Battle for Middle-earth, The Battle for Middle-earth II, The Battle for Middle-earth II: The Rise of the Witch-king, The Lord of the Rings Online, Conquest, Aragorn's Quest, War in the North, Lego",
"-18.803801978647243"
],
[
"take their time in battle, allowing them to pause the game at any time in order to adapt their play style and carefully plan their moves. There is also a home base system in which players can craft new gear and items and develop their Champions. Development Some users that were part of the initial Kingdoms of Anteria's closed beta shared their doubts regarding the game's future on Ubisoft's official forums. The lack of news regarding the game has led to speculation on whether Kingdoms of Anteria would ever be released, especially since the game was originally announced to be",
"-18.791617740731454"
],
[
"quick to take the opportunity to end \"on a high\" on the GBA by localizing Yggdra Union. This decision caused the release to be pushed back as Atlus USA announced more GBA games such as Summon Night: Swordcraft Story and Super Robot Taisen: Original Generation. This also led to the game being missed by many.\nYggdra Union was a particularly difficult game to localize due to the stylistic presentation. Characters have effects, innate abilities attached to them. These effects are formatted in such a way that in the Japanese version of the game, there was only room for seven characters of",
"-18.784674014896154"
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[
"three combined armies overcome the defenses and destroy the fortress, eliminating the last threat in the North. Development Tolkien Enterprises granted the publisher of The Battle for Middle-earth II, Electronic Arts, the rights to develop The Lord of the Games video games based on The Lord of the Rings books on July 22, 2005. This agreement was complementary to a separate arrangement made between the two companies in 2001. That agreement gave Electronic Arts the rights to build video games based on The Lord of the Rings film trilogy. The new deal gives Electronic Arts the opportunity to create video",
"-18.767707262570184"
],
[
"Enterprises, and had also employed several Tolkien scholars to work with the game developers. Tolkien Enterprises had veto rights on any aspects of the game which they felt strayed too far from the tone of Tolkien's novel and his overall legendarium. In the early stages of development, there were plans for players to control Gandalf during the Battle of the Five Armies, but this idea was ultimately abandoned. Also included in early builds for the game were interactive minigames depicting the eagle escape from the Misty Mountains and the barrel escape from Mirkwood. Both of these aspects of the game",
"-18.7579315348994"
],
[
"loss of hope, Gandalf perceives that the emissary is lying, seizes the items, and rejects the terms. The battle begins and Pippin kills a Troll, which then falls onto him, and he loses consciousness just as the Great Eagles arrive. Book VI: The End of the Third Age Bearing the One Ring in Frodo's place, Sam resolves to rescue his master from torture and death by Orcs in the Tower of Cirith Ungol. He enters the tower through the front gate and overcomes the silent sentinels using the Phial of Galadriel. He discovers that the orcs have mostly",
"-18.74308930733241"
],
[
"The Two Towers was still in development. Work intensified towards the end of 2003, with the release of The Return of the King. Executive producer, Steve Gray, who had worked on Final Fantasy VII and directed Parasite Eve for Squaresoft, explained he had wanted to make a Lord of the Rings RPG since the 1990s, but had never gotten the chance, until EA acquired the rights to the film trilogy. \nAs the game was under development, various ideas were rejected as the team settled on an approach. For example, initially, the developers planned to have an Active Time Battle combat",
"-18.7406040402293"
],
[
"other to a strength no greater than 2. The nonparticipant's strength is at least 3, so they are guaranteed to win the second round of combat, and the entire contest. Therefore, the game collapses: The winning gladiator is the one not involved in the first battle.\nHence, the gladiator whose turn comes first is the kingmaker. They must be involved in the first battle, hence cannot win, but with the liberty of choosing their opponent in that battle, can elect either of the other two players to be the winner of the contest.",
"-18.732855571433902"
],
[
"budget title; he also compared it to Sorcery in its focus on acquiring spells and items to overcome enemies and obstacles. He concluded that the Doriath was \"[a] good helping of entertainment for those itching to get lost in a labyrinth.\" Zzap!’s two reviewers were somewhat split; G.P. called it \"[a] fairly competent release and certainly a lot better than the other Rabbit/Virgin game, Zyto\", but found the wizard’s jumping controls awkward and the game as a whole \"overpriced for what it offers\". J.R., on the other hand, called it \"a pretty gruesome game\", saying that the graphics",
"-18.73175395297585"
],
[
"from Spirit, which can make the game easier if they were significantly developed in the previous game.\nVengeance of Excalibur has some important differences that set it apart from that of its predecessor. The first difference relates to individual combat, which now allows for 3-versus-3 fights, as opposed to the 1-vs.-1 battles of the original game. In addition, the player can no longer manually control his fighter: there are now however three different combat styles that the player can choose for every character who is fighting (reckless/full offense, normal, and cautious/full defense). The second difference is the size of the locations",
"-18.70775931724347"
],
[
"the 2007 video game The World Ends with You have both been compared to Battle Royale.\nThe 2008 American young adult novel The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins has been accused of being strikingly similar to Battle Royale in terms of the basic plot premise. While Collins maintains that she \"had never heard of that book until her book was turned in\", Susan Dominus of The New York Times reports that \"the parallels are striking enough that Collins's work has been savaged on the blogosphere as a baldfaced ripoff,\" but argued that \"there are enough possible sources for the plot line",
"-18.68401324097067"
],
[
"the lives of others in order to make friends. Competitive battling Gengar has been a top tier Pokemon since the first generation, owing to its good Speed and Ghost typing, and in the third generation, became immune to Ground moves. However, Gengar could not use Ghost and Poison type moves effectively because of its low Attack stat. Generation 4 introduced Ghost and Poison moves that run off Gengar’s large Special Attack stat, and Generation 6 gave it a very strong Mega Evolution, with very high Speed and Special Attack, which was banned from competitive play. However, it lost its Ground",
"-18.658075312850997"
],
[
"is to be waged free of any constraints or mercy and is run with the cold rationality of professionals. For the subjects of the Empire, it becomes a war of extermination, a life-or-death struggle for survival, and their passion is not accounted for in Sauron calculations. The war ends with Sauron being completely destroyed.\nThe Empire's victory is Pyrrhic though, as the Imperial forces have mostly been sacrificed to crush the Saurons. With the Empire weakened, new factions spring up, including claimants to the Imperial throne. It is reduced to a core of loyal planets, and marginal worlds are isolated. Many,",
"-18.651060914620757"
],
[
"Two Towers game, which sold almost four million units and received considerably better reviews. In the United States, the computer version of The Fellowship of the Ring sold 230,000 copies and earned $7.8 million by August 2006, after its release in October 2002. It was the country's 91st best-selling computer game during this period. Cancelled sequels Although the planned Hobbit game, Middle-earth Online and War of the Ring were all ultimately released, the two sequels in the Lords of the Rings trilogy were not. The first game, an adaptation of The Two Towers, was renamed The Lord of the Rings:",
"-18.635581264970824"
],
[
"most difficult games ever made, particularly noting the chance of players accidentally killing their partner in two-player mode.\nNerdist remarks that Battletoads's sudden difficulty spike was intended to combat the then-budding video game rental industry; if the game was more difficult, then it would take longer to complete, and consumers would be more likely to purchase a retail cartridge instead of renting one. Legacy The game's initial success led to Rare developing various sequels which would later become part of the Battletoads franchise. A spin-off game for the Game Boy, also titled Battletoads, was first released in November 1991. Despite having",
"-18.62896394985728"
],
[
"return to previous locations in the game to finish off puzzles which they could not solve earlier because of the lack of specific Psynergy spells. Battle The Lost Age contains both random monster encounters and compulsory battles that advance the story. When a battle begins, a separate screen is brought up where the enemy party is on the opposing side and the player’s party is on the battling side. While a battle being is conducted, the characters and background swirl around and change positions in a pseudo-3D effect.\nGameplay in relation to The Lost Age's battle mode is similar to traditional",
"-18.61759786226321"
],
[
"Hexagon iteration.\nOver the course of developing Super Hexagon, Cavanagh had played through it a large amount of time, becoming particularly experienced with the mechanics. During the development of the game, Cavanagh made various changes based on \"what felt good\", before starting the beta testing process. Cavanagh found that anyone could beat the game once they get better reflexes and a better understanding of the game's mechanics.\nSuper Hexagon is voiced by journalist Jenn Frank. Cavanagh had intended to use a professional voice actor, but did not like their results and returned to Frank, the voice of Hexagon, to reprise the role.",
"-18.544939512445126"
],
[
"but rather represent a three-part adaptation. Jackson takes a more chronological approach to the story than did Tolkien. Frodo's quest is the main focus, and Aragorn is the main sub-plot; many sequences (such as Tom Bombadil) that do not contribute directly to those two plots were left out. Much effort was put into creating satisfactory conclusions and making sure exposition did not bog down the pacing. Along with new sequences, there are also expansions on elements Tolkien kept ambiguous, such as the battles and the creatures. During shooting, the screenplays continued to evolve, in part due to contributions from cast",
"-18.51196294068359"
],
[
"The Lord of the Rings: War of the Ring Gameplay The game plays much like Warcraft III with added features, some previously used in Battle Realms. A similar layout and control system is used, and the player gets to control hero units with special abilities. Most regular units also have abilities of their own. The game also follows certain RTS conventions such as having rally points and controlling unit creation and purchase of upgrades at designated buildings.\nSome features from Battle Realms that were carried over include toggleable walking and running for units and the ability to set buildings on fire.",
"-18.493836358335102"
],
[
"Tolkien's works. Such games feature creatures such as Orcs, Trolls, Elves, Dwarves, Halflings, Ents which are common to Tolkien's mythos even if they do not take place in Middle-earth. Video games The books have been reproduced in video game form a number of times during the 1980s and 2000s, including Melbourne House's Lord of the Rings, Shadows of Mordor, War in Middle-earth; Interplay's Lord of the Rings Vol. 1 and Lord of the Rings Vol. 2.; Electronic Arts' action platformer adaptations of The Two Towers and The Return of the King, real-time strategy games The Lord of the Rings: The",
"-18.488728383323178"
],
[
"reunited at Rivendell midway through The Fellowship of the Ring. The wizard explains why he failed to join Frodo: he had been summoned to consult with Saruman but had been held captive. Saruman initially had proposed that the wizards ally themselves with the rising power of Sauron in order to eventually control him for their own ends. Saruman went on to suggest that they could take the Ring for themselves and challenge Sauron. When Gandalf refused both options, Saruman imprisoned him in the tower of Orthanc at Isengard, hoping to learn from him the location of the Ring. Whilst",
"-18.488208201772068"
],
[
"help defeat the Orcs at the Battle of the Five Armies, Radagast is riding one of the eagles. Others Radagast appears as a non-player character in The Lord of the Rings Online: Shadows of Angmar in the city of Ost Guruth. In the epic quest line (Volume I Book II) the player aids Radagast in dealing with corruption in the Lone-Lands, ending in a confrontation with the Gaunt-Lord Ivar, who is bested by Radagast and driven away. After the instance, Radagast relocates to the tower of Barad Dhorn in Agamaur.\nIn the Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game, Radagast is",
"-18.484562423662283"
],
[
"Challenge 2, prettier than Outrun Europa, and with a sillier name than Super Hang-On. Nevertheless, the site acknowledged that the game was pitted against strong competition. Games-X wrote that the game was a great entry in an inexhaustible genre than kept getting better.\nOn the contrary, CU Amiga felt the simple gameplay was the title's downfall.",
"-18.467463446431793"
],
[
"Vergil, who is now playable. Other changes included an additional survival mode, \"Bloody Palace\", with 9,999 levels; a Jester fight early in the game, with optional fights later; a \"Turbo Mode\", increasing game speed by 20 percent; an easier GOLD mode \"continue\" feature, allowing a player to revive a character or restart a lost fight, and rebalanced difficulty levels. Vergil's gameplay differed from Dante's; although Dante was weaker than Vergil in terms of skills and combos, he was easier to control. Because of the game's space limitations, not all of Vergil's moves were included in the special edition.\nVergil has one",
"-18.463086686795577"
],
[
" While the numbers never rivaled those of The Beast, with absolutely no funding or promotion, the game proved both that it was possible for developers to create these games without corporate funding or promotion, and that there was interest in the ARG form beyond a one-time audience for a production on the Beast's scale. Lockjaw marked the start of the ARG as a genre of gaming, rather than simply a one-time occurrence.\nShortly before Lockjaw's conclusion, players discovered a game that seemed to revolve around the movie Minority Report. Despite speculation to the contrary, the game (known as",
"-18.446922220638953"
],
[
"the number of full mana required to cast the creature falls to the ground, where either duelist can claim them simply by stepping on or near them. Each shard restores approximately half of one mana instantaneously. The only source of mana shards beyond creature destructions are those produced every five seconds by the green creatures Llanowar Elves and Priest of Titania.\nMaintaining a mana advantage is more significant in Battlegrounds than in the card game, because there are no actual cards, and a given spell can be cast an indefinite number of times. Magic Almost everything a duelist can do in",
"-18.4368395882193"
],
[
"a cult game ... appeal[ing] mainly to the seasoned wargamer or fantasy role-player\" because of the slow pace and difficulty.\nCrawford in 1984 wrote \"My greatest regret, though, is that Excalibur has not won the attention that I think it deserves. This game is my magnum opus, much grander in scale than anything else I have done. It is a shame that so few people are even aware of its existence.\" In 1987 he stated that Excalibur was one of the three games he was proud of, with Eastern Front and Balance of Power. In 2013, Crawford publicly released source code",
"-18.432787649333477"
],
[
"In 2014, IGN included the game in their list of the \"5 Best Lord of the Rings Video Games.\" Peter Jackson reaction Despite the game's receiving general critical acclaim and selling well, Peter Jackson, director of the Lord of the Rings film trilogy, stated that the video game tie-in for his next film, King Kong, would not be developed by EA but by Ubisoft. Jackson's manager claimed that despite EA saying the filmmakers were heavily involved in the making of the game, the developers were not interested in Jackson's input on the game. Additionally, Jackson had played Beyond Good &",
"-18.429793497314677"
],
[
"The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-earth II Gameplay The Battle for Middle-earth II is a real-time strategy game. Similar to its predecessor, the game requires that the player build a base with structures to produce units, gather resources, research upgrades, and provide defenses. Units are used to attack the enemy and defend the player's base. Players win matches by eliminating all enemy unit producing structures. Unlike the first game, the player can build an unlimited number of structures anywhere on the map, allowing for more freedom in base building and unit production. Players can build walls to",
"-18.429388254822697"
],
[
"However, unlike Gladiator, Blandia requires players to attack at the uncovered parts of the opponent's body multiple times to defeat him or her, instead of one hit like in Gladiator.\nIn one-player mode, the player must choose one of the \"Original Six Warriors\" to control. Instead of fighting other characters in a random order like in most fighting games back then, the player will move the sword-shaped cursor on a map to choose any region one of the other characters are inside of, fight against them in each battle and then advance to the Golden Castle. In both one-player and two-player",
"-18.418296290095896"
],
[
"sequentially, using the game's resource, Rage, to perform actions. These include upgrading a clan's abilities and forces, having those forces invade the map, or pillaging provinces. Pillaging further improves one's clan and scores points, and can lead to battles with other players. Battles are resolved without luck - players secretly play a card and add that to the strength of their forces in that region to determine the winner.\nAt the end of each age, a portion of the board is removed as Ragnarok approaches, sending any forces on that part of the map to Valhalla and earning players glory (victory",
"-18.40664132736856"
],
[
"war between the Lannisters and the Starks. If the Red Wedding seemed to kill hope, 'Mhysa' made clear that it didn't end anything. And it weaved together the many, many threads of GoT's tapestry by returning to a recurring theme: that Game of Thrones is ultimately about family.\" Matt Fowler of IGN described that the finale had \"nicely set up a lot of cool stuff for Season 4, but it was also lacking some of the power and majesty of previous finales. Especially the ending with Dany, who herself had a better ending back in 'And Now His Watch is",
"-18.40294942894252"
],
[
"Lord of the Rings Adventure Game Setting The setting for LOR is an expanded version of J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth. Published campaign sourcebooks are set just before the year 3018 of the Third Age, i.e. just before the War of the Ring. The Player Characters are able to interact with the main characters of The Lord of the Rings, but do not take direct roles in the outcome of those events. System Originally published by Iron Crown Enterprises (I.C.E.) in 1991-1993, LOR was a simple, \"level-less\" roleplaying system designed to help introduce new players (and game masters) to roleplaying",
"-18.396563441841863"
],
[
"puzzles with multiple solutions (for example, the \"Loud Room\" from Zork). However, Wishbringer has several such puzzles, many of which can be solved either in a straightforward (that is, non-magical) manner or by using one of the stone's wishes. The game can be successfully completed without using any wishes: At the Congratulations screen, the game informs the player of this fact, if the player had used any wishes. Conversely, it is impossible to finish the game using all of the stone's wishes (wishing for flight invariably causes the game to be lost.) Development and release The work on Wishbringer began",
"-18.32354020338971"
],
[
"comes from one of the underground dwarf towns in Lord of the Rings, which is also where the game is set. Within the narrative, the town has been plundered by the Orcs, while the Alqualamir stone remained in the city. The task of the player is to find the stone and escape the city. Reception Freegames.cz commented that the \"hilarous\" Czech game had a simple yet visually pleasing atmosphere. In 2002, FreeHry.cz said that while the game was over a decade old it was still quite good-quality. Historie a kontext produkce počítačových her žánru adventure v České republice praised the",
"-18.308092516468605"
],
[
"their armies.\nCharacters in the game are rated for their abilities in individual combat, magic, army leadership, endurance, and resistance to the lure of the Ring. The latter rating determines the difficulty they have of voluntarily removing the Ring once they put it on; they gain various benefits by wearing it, but if they do so for too many turns, they become a \"semi-Ringwraith\" under Dark Power control.\nTo simulate Sauron's conflicting needs of searching for the Ring versus directing his armies, the Dark Power player is given a variable number of \"Shadow Points\" each turn, which they spend to perform various",
"-18.289660642156377"
],
[
"of games had been dragged out too long. Although this was said to be the most difficult title in the series due to \"hair wrenching puzzles\" it was otherwise weaker than its predecessors with poorer graphics and \"appalling\" animation of the lead character. Lacey concluded the review by stating that it was \"A disappointing conclusion to what was a very good series of games.\"",
"-18.28283959068358"
],
[
"Season 4. Daenerys is as powerful as she's ever been, Jon Snow returns to the Wall while Bran heads north of it and the Greyjoys ready an assault to finally save Theon from his captor. Then there's the fact that Stannis decides to sail north to the Wall to aid the Night's Watch in their fight against the White Walkers, which seems like it's going to end up being the greater, global conflict in the future of 'Game of Thrones'.\" Writing for The A.V. Club, David Sims gave \"Mhysa\" an \"A-\" rating, while Emily VanDerWerff gave it a \"B+\". Sims,",
"-18.282388602441642"
],
[
"and heroes: Goblins, Dwarves, and Elves. Rohan and Gondor are combined into one faction called Men of the West. Along with Mordor and Isengard from the first game, there are six playable factions. The troops of Gondor provide a solid offense and defense with standard infantry and archers, and the Rohirrim of Rohan act as elite cavalry. The Elven archers are effective at inflicting damage from a distance, and their support units, the Ents, can perform a combination of melee and siege attacks, they are often considered the strongest defensive faction due to their strong missile units and powerful 'silverthorn",
"-18.276819955091923"
]
] |
6jw33w | how come software companies have to wait for hackers to find weaknesses in their system and not just figure it out themselves before rolling out a software package? | [
"Try to think about all the ways you could break into your home if you were a burglar. You get a bit of an advantage because you live there and know the layout. Now, ask 1 million burglars how they would break into your home. I guarantee they will find at least one way that you don't. All the internal testing in the world will never be as comprehensive as a huge number of people in your system finding things accidentally (or not accidentally).",
"There's an old story about a programmer that found the most obvious bugs in his software, then passed it over to his beta-tester. Part of the game took place in a cafeteria, and the programmer had written a 'red herring' into the game: the player could take a napkin from the dispenser on the table, but the napkin had absolutely no use anywhere in the game. The tester submitted a bug report that said, 'Game crashes when taking more than 999 napkins from the dispenser in the cafeteria'. The tester had done something that apparently serves no purpose; since it was a text-only game, that meant that the tester had sat at his keyboard and typed 'get napkin from dispenser' 999 times in a row, for no real reason. The programmer later said, 'I hadn't bothered to test the dispenser, because it never occurred to me that someone might actually attempt to take a thousand completely useless objects.'",
"Software companies find 1001 vulnerabilities and close them before anyone knows about them. Most before its ever released. But ultimately developers are people and people don't always see everything, especially when it comes to their own works. So hackers find the 1002nd vulnerability and exploit it. Good developers never stop looking for those holes in their software but you can't expect them to think of every scenario. There are far more hackers than any one developer group has developers so it only makes sense that they can sometimes find holes before the developers can.",
"While everyone else here is going to give you broad answers, the difficulty involved, and much with the uttering of statistics and the doing of things, etc. The truth is more complicated. This is not a problem with security not being given due attention per-se, but rather a consequence of our field's lack of practicing good engineering. Let me explain from an example in a different field: Construction. On 9/11 two planes much larger than the engineers had ever foreseen crashed into them. Despite an event that critically wounded the tower, it remained upright for about half an hour. But they overbuilt the towers, they stayed up long enough for many to escape. The lessons learned from that collapse are now considered in future designs -- many planned skyscraper builds went back to the drawing board after, to be redesigned to account for this. Some of the very first laws in human history detail building codes -- \"If a builder buildeth a house, and it collapses and kills its owner, the builder shall be put to death.\" All of our buildings are built upon the knowledge of previous failures. Their designs are open to public inspection. There are libraries upon libraries filled with analysis and standards. All work (should) be inspected, and engineers cross-check with each other at every step of the design process, and even during construction. The towers stayed up as long as they did because humanity has had over 8,000 years of engineers learning how to build better buildings, and all of the lessons they have learned, we can learn today. In my field... none of this happens. Designs are black boxed, considered trademarked, trade secrets, copyrighted, patented -- the point is, most of our technology is most certainly not available for public inspection. Consequently, when it fails we learn nothing. So why not? Because corporations don't want to admit to wrongdoing, so they blame esoteric reasons far removed from this truth. And so our community learns nothing about the failure, cannot conduct a root cause analysis, and cannot share this information with anyone so our mistakes are learned from. Worse, we have to redesign things from scratch most usually every time. Our software isn't modular (like buildings are). We rarely incorporate well-tested previous designs. In fact, the industry is actively averse to using a proven design because by the time its proven, it's considered \"out of date\". Put another way: We reinvent the wheel with every new model of car. Because of all of these things, a person in our field, no matter how gifted, can only rise to the level of their own competence. They have no shoulders to stand on, and, being human, and unable to communicate with very many other humans for the aforementioned reasons, there are inevitably mistakes. This is why \"hackers\" will win in every contest. Security is only as strong as the weakest link, and with all of these problems, it's almost a statistical certainty they will find not just one, but very many. The problem isn't that companies design badly, or that they didn't invest enough in security. The problem is that no matter how much of an effort you make... it's *your* effort only, not the collective efforts of hundreds of thousands of people. And so we are left with things like cell phones that can catch fire and kill us. We're left with hospitals all over Europe right now that aren't functional because of a \"cyber attack\". Everything that has a microprocessor in it has bugs. And as our society becomes increasingly dependent on information systems, this problem will only increase exponentially. We don't need 8,000 years to fix these problems. Aviation is a relatively new field -- we only started a hundred years ago, and yet thanks to proper engineering *practice*, by applying first principles, it is now the safest way to fly. But until we start applying those principles, our technology will continue to with increasing frequency and severity. Security is defined properly as \"the computer doing what you want it to do, and not doing what you don't want it to do.\" Whether it's a hacker or an \"oops\" -- the end result is the same. And proper engineering would prevent both.",
"Let me rephrase the question: How come hay distributors have to wait for professional needle hunters to find the needles in their haystacks instead of just finding the needles themselves before shipping the hay? Hopefully that puts the scope of the problem in the correct frame of reference. Hay distributors are not trained to find needles, and don't need to be, as 99.98% of all hay has no needles in it. Of course, looking at it the other way, ALL software has bugs in it; there are more possible logic paths that can be taken than a software developer can test for before publishing. If they followed all logical paths and accounted for them, it would be faster and cheaper to do the task manually than to use computer software. So developers pick some arbitrary point in testing as \"good enough\" and some set up a bug bounty reporting system for post-publish discovery.",
"There is a more fundamental problem than others have mentioned. If my business goes offline because Windows had a bug that allowed a hacker to shut me down, I suffer damage, but Microsoft does not. Economically, the people who buy the software are the ones who have the incentive to make it hack-proof, but they have no ability to do so. The developers, who get to choose how much time and effort they spend making their software hack-proof, have very little incentive to do so. Until at least some of the economic harm caused by hackers falls on the companies who write the hacked software, they will always under invest in making their software bullet-proof. I am *not* saying they put no effort in, but ask any senior person in any software QA group in any company, and they will tell you that QA is underfunded in their company.",
"You write a program You write it 99% bug free, there are 1% issues now. You have peer reviews when you're checking it in, they catch 99% of issues, you're now at 0.01% issues. Your QA team checks it over and Pentesters try to break it, they find some other bugs and remove 99% of the remaining issues. Your code is now 99.9999% bug free. Yay! You release it into the wild. If it is only somewhat popular and doesn't contain anything really valuable maybe no one every finds the bugs If its really popular or contains/protects/operates something really valuable you're now a huge target. There are now hundreds or thousands of software engineers pouring over your code trying to find a breach. It is possible for there to be 10-1000x as many people searching for a breach once its out in the wild as touched it when it was in production. You have way more eyes looking at it from so many different perspectives that someone will find something. No code is 100% bug free, and its not possible to ensure that it is. Sometimes built in functions provided by Windows or core HTTP functionality gets broken and there is nothing you can do to stop that. Security is about the most effective protection for the most reasonable cost. If you are a small software developer you will never successfully defend against a nationstate attacker so if Russia wants to breach your system they're getting in so you just focus on making it fairly secure so the average script kiddy isn't going to get through",
"There is a job called 'Pentester', i think, who are hackers for a job and on a legal base. They get hired by companies to test their networks and softwares for weaknesses. I hope i could answer your question ^^",
"It's a nice concept in theory, but sometimes it's just not practical. You and I might want a perfectly bug-free application, but sometimes the goal is just to be first to market. If the product doesn't sell, then you scrap it and you didn't waste time fixing bugs to begin with. And obviously a thorough coder will try to cover any security holes as they are able, but another set of eyes will reveal things the author will not see...extend that out to the worldwide hacking community and there's bound to be *somebody* that will find a hole the company never would have on their own.",
"Finding and fixing bugs costs money. Finding all would cost a fortune. You also have to ship the product - delays means costs. So you ship buggy code or you go out of business.",
"They don't, they definitely do find vulnerabilities in house. You just don't hear or care about these cause nobody reports \"software development going according to plan, all is alright\"."
] | [
[
"of this type. Proprietary software developers are constantly developing techniques such as code obfuscation, encryption, and self-modifying code to make this modification increasingly difficult. Even with these measures being taken, developers struggle to combat software cracking. This is because it is very common for a professional to publicly release a simple cracked EXE or Retrium Installer for public download, eliminating the need for inexperienced users to crack the software themselves.\nA specific example of this technique is a crack that removes the expiration period from a time-limited trial of an application. These cracks are usually programs that alter the program executable",
"-26.862764698707906"
],
[
"vulnerable system; unauthorized data access, arbitrary code execution, and denial of service are examples.\nMany exploits are designed to provide superuser-level access to a computer system. However, it is also possible to use several exploits, first to gain low-level access, then to escalate privileges repeatedly until one reaches the highest administrative level (often called \"root\").\nAfter an exploit is made known to the authors of the affected software, the vulnerability is often fixed through a patch and the exploit becomes unusable. That is the reason why some black hat hackers as well as military or intelligence agencies hackers do not publish their",
"-26.140105221478734"
],
[
"software developers, and thorough testing to iron out bugs, may impede the process and cause it to take longer than expected. However, spreadsheets and off-the-shelf software packages may also contain bugs, and moreover because they may be deployed at a business without formal testing, these bugs may slip through and cause business-critical errors.\nCustom software is often several times the cost of the other two options, and will normally include an ongoing maintenance cost. This will often make custom software infeasible for smaller businesses. These higher costs can be insignificant in larger businesses where small efficiency increases can relate to",
"-26.049185764364665"
],
[
"development tools are not available for the software. Therefore, the faulty software's binary must be analyzed at run time by reverse engineering and debugging. If the problem is found, a fix to the program must be applied. Sometimes only small changes in configuration files or the registry are required, sometimes binary hacks on the executable itself are required to fix bugs. If a software development kit (e.g. for modding) is available, fixes to the content can be easily produced, otherwise the community would need to create their own tools. These found fixes are typically packed to user deployable patches (e.g.",
"-25.60224383341847"
],
[
"cease to exist, or decide to cease or limit production or support for a proprietary software package, recipients and users of the package may have no recourse if problems are found with the software. Proprietors can fail to improve and support software because of business problems. Support for older or existing versions of a software package may be ended to force users to upgrade and pay for newer versions (planned obsolescence). Sometimes another vendor or a software's community themselves can provide support for the software, or the users can migrate to either competing systems with longer support life cycles or",
"-25.287116384599358"
],
[
"define his or her requirements. A developer or designer can then define the requirements of the user and the hacker in the same UML diagram which in turn helps identify the security risks of the system. Current field of research Current research on misuse cases are primarily focused on the security improvements they can bring to a project, software projects in particular. Ways to increase the widespread adoption of the practice of misuse case development during earlier phases of application development are being considered: the sooner you find a flaw, the easier it is to find a patch and the",
"-25.085210330667906"
],
[
"to help companies source, screen, and hire engineers and other technical roles. The HackerRank for Work platform gives businesses the option to leverage a built-in library of programming challenges or write their own so as to tailor that programming challenge directly to a company's open position. Technical recruiters then use those programming challenges to test candidates on their specific programming skills and better understand their qualification for a certain role. Candidate's challenges, once submitted, are auto-scored and the results are then provided to the technical recruiter for review. Companies such as Amplify, Quora, and Capital One are using HackerRank for",
"-25.08373845834285"
],
[
"designed to prevent them. Improvements in these methods, through a software security assurance program, can improve the security of software. Errors or omissions in software requirements The most serious security problems with software-based systems are those that develop when the software requirements are incorrect, inappropriate, or incomplete for the system situation. Unfortunately, errors or omissions in requirements are more difficult to identify. For example, the software may perform exactly as required under normal use, but the requirements may not correctly deal with some system state. When the system enters this problem state, unexpected and undesirable behavior may result. This type",
"-24.999777592369355"
],
[
"to study, copy, modify, and redistribute such software with or without modification. If they would like to change the functionality of software they can bring about changes to the code and, if they wish, distribute such modified versions of the software or often − depending on the software's decision making model and its other users − even push or request such changes to be made via updates to the original software. Privacy and security Manufacturers of proprietary, closed-source software are sometimes pressured to building in backdoors or other covert, undesired features into their software. Instead of having to trust",
"-24.99300632411814"
],
[
"of problem cannot be handled within the software discipline; it results from a failure of the system and software engineering processes which developed and allocated the system requirements to the software. Building in security Improving the software development process and building better software are ways to improve software security, by producing software with fewer defects and vulnerabilities. A first-order approach is to identify the critical software components that control security-related functions and pay special attention to them throughout the development and testing process. This approach helps to focus scarce security resources on the most critical areas. Tools and techniques There",
"-24.92207059368957"
],
[
"are many commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) software packages that are available to support software security assurance activities. However, before they are used, these tools must be carefully evaluated and their effectiveness must be assured. Common weaknesses enumeration One way to improve software security is to gain a better understanding of the most common weaknesses that can affect software security. With that in mind, there is a current community-based program called the Common Weaknesses Enumeration project, which is sponsored by The Mitre Corporation to identify and describe such weaknesses. The list, which is currently in a very preliminary form, contains descriptions of",
"-24.774097150948364"
],
[
"tools that he needs to help him when exploiting. An exploit script is a tool in which uses already written exploit code to find holes in the system or program. Using exploit scripts is easy for even a non-hacker to use because the code is already written in it. A couple exams of some exploit tools are shown in the book and how to use them.\nLog Files\n\nAs stated earlier log files are a way to check events that have been happening on a computer or network. For a hacker, having the ability to change what the log",
"-24.577205539342685"
],
[
"also be considered, and more vulnerabilities can be uncovered.\n\"So why do developers keep making the same mistakes? Instead of relying on programmers' memories, we should strive to produce tools that codify what is known about common security vulnerabilities and integrate it directly into the development process.\"\n— D. Evans and D. Larochelle, 2002 Objective of Language-based security By using LBS, the security of software can be increased in several areas, depending on the techniques used. Common programming errors such as allowing buffer overflows and illegal information flows to occur, can be detected and disallowed in the software used by the consumer.",
"-24.529947326712318"
],
[
"take advantage of the firmware update facility on many devices to install or run themselves. Some, however, must resort to exploits to run, because the manufacturer has attempted to lock the hardware to stop it from running unlicensed code.\nMost firmware hacks are free software. HDD firmware hacks The Moscow-based Kaspersky Lab discovered that a group of developers it refers to as the \"Equation Group\" has developed hard disk drive firmware modifications for various drive models, containing a trojan horse that allows data to be stored on the drive in locations that will not be erased even if the drive is",
"-24.296559121226892"
],
[
"software vendors, both of which appeared to be vulnerable to bugs of a similar nature. These bugs allowed a malicious hacker to glean information on employees relating to the affected companies, such as the name, email, and employee ID of the chat agent, alongside other information such as the backend systems in use, allowing a malicious hacker to potentially gain a foothold within these networks. Some of the affected companies included Google, PayPal, Bank of America, Verizon, Sony, Tesla, Orange, Kaspersky, BitDefender, AT&T, and many other large corporations\n. One of the founders of this exploit was Kane Gamble, who was",
"-24.292406291704538"
],
[
"embedded software) may be too fast to find errors.\nSome sources recommend to use a checklist of the most important problems for reviewing code. For example, a STIG [e.g., Application Security STIG 4.3] provides an excellent vulnerability checklist (although many controls are inapplicable and can be ignored). Supporting tools Many teams perform change-based code reviews based on general-purpose development tools: Online software repositories such as Subversion, Mercurial, or Git and ticket systems such as Redmine or Trac allow groups of individuals to collaboratively review code. But there are also special purpose tools for collaborative code review that can facilitate the code",
"-24.203575089093647"
],
[
"since software flaws have the potential to cause human injury or even death, such software will have far more scrutiny and quality control than, for example, an online shopping website. In applications such as banking, where software flaws have the potential to cause serious financial damage to a bank or its customers, quality control is also more important than, say, a photo editing application. NASA's Software Assurance Technology Center managed to reduce the number of errors to fewer than 0.1 per 1000 lines of code (SLOC) but this was not felt to be feasible for projects in the business",
"-24.180882557993755"
],
[
"software are implemented at the operating system level. The operating system handles several possible security violations such as memory access violations, stack overflow violations, access control violations, and many others. This is a crucial part of security in computer systems, however by securing the behavior of software on a more specific level, even stronger security can be achieved. Since a lot of properties and behavior of the software is lost in compilation, it is significantly more difficult to detect vulnerabilities in machine code. By evaluating the source code, before the compilation, the theory and implementation of the programming language can",
"-24.167901573702693"
],
[
"of defects. Optimize the Whole Software systems nowadays are not simply the sum of their parts, but also the product of their interactions. Defects in software tend to accumulate during the development process – by decomposing the big tasks into smaller tasks, and by standardizing different stages of development, the root causes of defects should be found and eliminated. The larger the system, the more organizations that are involved in its development and the more parts are developed by different teams, the greater the importance of having well defined relationships between different vendors, in order to produce a system with",
"-23.915887200157158"
],
[
"software companies may gain unlimited control over their computers. Package management systems can offer various degrees of patch automation.\nUsage of completely automatic updates has become far more widespread in the consumer market, due largely to the fact that Microsoft Windows added support for them, and Service Pack 2 of Windows XP (available in 2004) enabled them by default. Cautious users, particularly system administrators, tend to put off applying patches until they can verify the stability of the fixes. Microsoft (W)SUS supports this. In the cases of large patches or of significant changes, distributors often limit availability of patches to",
"-23.85808126750635"
],
[
"a fix.\nCompanies sometimes release games knowing that they have bugs. Computer Gaming World's Scorpia in 1994 denounced \"companies—too numerous to mention—who release shoddy product knowing they can get by with patches and upgrades, and who make 'pay-testers of their customers\". In software development Patches sometimes become mandatory to fix problems with libraries or with portions of source code for programs in frequent use or in maintenance. This commonly occurs on very large-scale software projects, but rarely in small-scale development.\nIn open-source projects, the authors commonly receive patches or many people publish patches that fix particular problems or add certain functionality, like",
"-23.627310106821824"
],
[
"they may be exploited to allow hackers to upload their own files (such as a PHP Shell script) that collect sensitive information.\nDevelopers can also use tools to analyze potential vulnerabilities, including WPScan, WordPress Auditor and WordPress Sploit Framework developed by 0pc0deFR. These types of tools research known vulnerabilities, such as a CSRF, LFI, RFI, XSS, SQL injection and user enumeration. However, not all vulnerabilities can be detected by tools, so it is advisable to check the code of plugins, themes and other add-ins from other developers.\nIn March 2015, it was reported by many security experts and SEOs, including Search Engine",
"-23.619145566713996"
],
[
"of software, free for personal use, that will check a PC for vulnerable out-of-date software, and attempt to update it.\nMalware authors target bugs, or loopholes, to exploit. A common method is exploitation of a buffer overrun vulnerability, where software designed to store data in a specified region of memory does not prevent more data than the buffer can accommodate being supplied. Malware may provide data that overflows the buffer, with malicious executable code or data after the end; when this payload is accessed it does what the attacker, not the legitimate software, determines. Insecure design or user error Early PCs",
"-23.593555517931236"
],
[
"package manager may no longer be able to do so automatically.\nMost distributions install packages, including the kernel and other core operating system components, in a predetermined configuration. Few now require or even permit configuration adjustments at first install time. This makes installation less daunting, particularly for new users, but is not always acceptable. For specific requirements, much software must be carefully configured to be useful, to work correctly with other software, or to be secure, and local administrators are often obliged to spend time reviewing and reconfiguring assorted software.\nSome distributions go to considerable lengths to specifically adjust and customize most",
"-23.536114422546234"
],
[
"a reliable manner, and that it won’t create conflicts with other software that may function alongside it. The tests are performed by executing the program with an input and evaluating its behavior and the produced output.\nEven if no security requirements are specified, additional security testing should be performed to ensure that an attacker can’t tamper with the software and steal information, disrupt the software’s normal operations, or use it as a pivot to attack its users. Monitoring Program monitoring records and logs different kinds of information about the program such as resource usage, events, and interactions, so that it can",
"-23.396983391139656"
],
[
"allows a user to automatically manage the software installed on their systems (including both operating system components and third-party software) using command line tools—new software (and the packages required for its proper operation) can be retrieved from local or remote mirrors and automatically installed in a single process. Notable package managers in Unix-like operating systems have included pkgsrc (1997), Debian's APT (1998), YUM, and Gentoo's Portage (which unlike most package managers, distributes packages containing source code that is automatically compiled instead of executables). Some package managers have graphical front-end software which can be used to browse available packages and perform",
"-23.365018751006573"
],
[
"that regulation is needed. Richard Clarke states that \"industry only responds when you threaten regulation. If industry does not respond [to the threat], you have to follow through.\" He believes that software companies must be forced to produce more secure programs. Bruce Schneier also supports regulation that encourages software companies to write more secure code through economic incentives. US Representative Rick Boucher (D–VA) proposes improving cybersecurity by making software companies liable for security flaws in their code. In addition, to improving software security, Clarke believes that certain industries, such as utilities and ISPs, require regulation. Opposition On the other",
"-23.284023490770778"
],
[
"of others as the program develops). Therefore, for the purposes of locating and fixing bugs, it is vitally important to be able to retrieve and run different versions of the software to determine in which version(s) the problem occurs. It may also be necessary to develop two versions of the software concurrently: for instance, where one version has bugs fixed, but no new features (branch), while the other version is where new features are worked on (trunk).\nAt the simplest level, developers could simply retain multiple copies of the different versions of the program, and label them appropriately. ",
"-23.275706227635965"
],
[
"weaknesses and identifying extreme or unexpected situations that could cause the software to fail in ways that would cause a violation of security requirements. Security testing efforts are often limited to the software requirements that are classified as \"critical\" security items.",
"-23.275687404209748"
],
[
"also used for software, with a small release being made to a limited group of individuals for beta testing. Software can be extensively tested by the releasing company, but ultimately it needs to be used to determine how effective it is. Major flaws in the design may emerge during beta testing and can be corrected before the product is released into a major market.\nSome software is soft launched on the Internet, which allows for easy software updates. Early beta testers can grow attached to the program and will continue to download new versions as they are released. Thus, companies often",
"-23.25907976477174"
],
[
"a driver (kernel-mode software) that intercepts system calls (calls into the kernel) and randomly returning a failure for some of the calls. This type of fault injection is useful for testing low level user mode software. For higher level software, various methods inject faults. In managed code, it is common to use instrumentation. Although fault injection can be undertaken by hand, a number of fault injection tools exist to automate the process of fault injection.\nDepending on the complexity of the API for the level where faults are injected, fault injection tests often must be carefully designed",
"-23.212627707165666"
],
[
"new information and alert you to it. For example, the agent may detect a decline in the construction industry for an economy; based on this relayed information construction companies will be able to make intelligent decisions regarding the hiring/firing of employees or the purchase/lease of equipment in order to best suit their firm. Software development agents (aka software bots) Software bots are becoming important in software engineering. An example of a software bot is a bot that automatically repairs continuous integration build failures.",
"-23.18364840443246"
],
[
"software may use a similar technique using preprocessor directives to include features at compile time selectively. This is easier to implement and more secure than a plugin system, but has the disadvantage that a user who wants a specific set of features must compile the program from source.\nSometimes software becomes bloated because of \"creeping featurism\" (Zawinski's law of software envelopment). One way to reduce that kind of bloat is described by the Unix philosophy of \"writing programs that do one thing and do it well,\" and breaking what would be a single, complicated piece of software into numerous simpler components",
"-23.15985557260865"
],
[
"High availability software System architecture High availability software can help engineers create complex system architectures that are designed to minimize the scope of failures and to handle specific failure modes. A “normal” failure is defined as one which can be handled by the software architecture's, while a “catastrophic” failure is defined as one which is not handled. A catastrophic failure therefore causes a service outage. However, the software can still greatly increase availability by automatically returning to an in-service state as soon as the catastrophic failure is remedied.\nThe simplest configuration (or “redundancy model”) is 1 active, 1 standby, or 1+1.",
"-23.136683327145875"
],
[
"or more backdoors may be installed in order to allow access in the future, invisibly to the user.\nThe idea has often been suggested that computer manufacturers preinstall backdoors on their systems to provide technical support for customers, but this has never been reliably verified. It was reported in 2014 that US government agencies had been diverting computers purchased by those considered \"targets\" to secret workshops where software or hardware permitting remote access by the agency was installed, considered to be among the most productive operations to obtain access to networks around the world. Backdoors may be installed by Trojan horses,",
"-23.12048672090168"
],
[
"distributed systems based on open standards, perform input/output operations to exchange data via stateful, structured exchanges known as \"protocols.\" One kind of fault injection that is particularly useful to test protocol implementations (a type of software code that has the unusual characteristic in that it cannot predict or control its input) is fuzzing. Fuzzing is an especially useful form of Black-box testing since the various invalid inputs that are submitted to the software system do not depend on, and are not created based on knowledge of, the details of the code running inside the system. Hardware implemented fault injection This",
"-23.056524636456743"
],
[
"can be edited separately from the main program and thereby circumvent protections implemented in software. System software modification Rather than modifying the game code (which the game itself or a 3rd-party protection system may detect), some cheats modify underlying system components. An example of this is graphics driver modifications that ignore depth checking and draw all objects on the screen—a primitive wallhack. System or driver modification is harder to detect, as there are a large number of system drivers that differ from user to user. Packet interception, tampering & manipulation The security of game software can be circumvented by intercepting",
"-22.993486205166846"
],
[
"usability and other fields of human–computer interaction. Security When designing error messages, software designers should take care to avoid creating security vulnerabilities. The designer should give the user enough information to make an intelligent decision, but not so much information that the user is overwhelmed or confused. Extraneous information may be hidden by default or placed in a separate location. Error message should not expose information that can be exploited by a cracker to obtain information that is otherwise difficult to obtain. Examples are systems which may show either \"invalid user\" or \"invalid password\" depending on which is incorrect, and",
"-22.961473578208825"
],
[
"a change applied to an asset to correct the weakness described by a vulnerability. This corrective action will prevent successful exploitation and remove or mitigate a threat's capability to exploit a specific vulnerability in an asset. Patch management is a part of vulnerability management – the cyclical practice of identifying, classifying, remediating, and mitigating vulnerabilities.\nSecurity patches are the primary method of fixing security vulnerabilities in software. Currently Microsoft releases its security patches once a month, and other operating systems and software projects have security teams dedicated to releasing the most reliable software patches as soon after a vulnerability announcement as",
"-22.96110935642355"
],
[
"new security holes are found in web applications even after testing and launch, security patch updates are frequent for widely used applications. It is often the job of web developers to keep applications up to date as security patches are released and new security concerns are discovered.",
"-22.94331346335821"
],
[
"Software quality management Software quality management (SQM) is a management process that aims to develop and manage the quality of software in such a way so as the best ensure the product meets the quality standards expected by the customer while also meeting any necessary regulatory and developer requirements, if any. Software quality managers require software to be tested before it is released to the market, and they do this using a cyclical process-based quality assessment in order to reveal and fix bugs before release. Their job is not only to ensure their software is in good shape for the",
"-22.9421053850092"
],
[
"tools developed by IfU, as a means of helping enterprises make a profitability analysis. Because falsely estimated investments can steer companies towards crisis situations, it is very important that every decision maker considers all factors before making an investment. The software tool creates a graph based on all the factors integrated into the system, and as a result presents the enterprises with the best possible option of investment. Diverse aspects are considered in the analysis, leaving little to no room for insecurities; a stable investment scenario is presented.\nConsequently, several projects profited from this method; NowBITs - investments in computing services",
"-22.88214537332533"
],
[
"in the specifications may not be detected until deployment. At that point, they can be very expensive to fix.\nThe basic idea of any software development model is that each step of the design process has outputs called \"deliverables.\" If the deliverables are tested for correctness and fixed, then normal human mistakes can not easily grow into dangerous or expensive problems. Most manufacturers follow the waterfall model to coordinate the design product, but almost all explicitly permit earlier work to be revised. The result is more often closer to a spiral model.\nFor an overview of embedded software",
"-22.87779513694113"
],
[
"2016 Cyber Grand Challenge Background Races develop between criminals attempting to abuse vulnerabilities and analysts who assess, remediate, check, and deploy a patch before significant damage can be done. Experts adhere to a process that involves complicated reasoning followed by manual creation of each security signature and software patch, a technical process that requires months and dollars. This has resulted in various software insecurities favoring attackers. Devices such as smart televisions, wearable technologies, and high-end home appliances that are connected to the internet aren't always produced with security in mind and moreover utility systems, power grids, and traffic lights could",
"-22.87306274031289"
],
[
"the program, causing it to depart from the original engineered design. As a consequence of this and a changing environment, assumptions made by the original designers may be invalidated, introducing bugs.\nIn practice, adding new features may be prioritized over updating documentation; without documentation, however, it is possible for specific knowledge pertaining to parts of the program to be lost. To some extent, this can be mitigated by following best current practices for coding conventions.\nActive software rot slows once an application is near the end of its commercial life and further development ceases. Users often learn to work",
"-22.87250482366653"
],
[
"by hackers Job applications are known to be used by hackers to get employees to open attachments or links or connect USB sticks with malware. As companies typically have more financial resources than private individuals they are often a target of cyberextortion − so called ransomware. Ransomware such as \"Petya\" and \"GoldenEye\" were found to make use of job applications. Cyberespionage and attacks on critical infrastructure-related companies may be other reasons for such attacks and other than ransomware attacks may leave employees in the dark about their computer or network infection. The best method for mitigating such risks would be",
"-22.809149588232685"
],
[
"to protect their code from software piracy, a problem that costs the global software industry more than $100 billion annually. However, software protection is not just about preventing revenue loss; it is also about an organization’s ability to protect the integrity of its product or service and brand reputation. Pricing and packaging An independent report by Vanson Bourne found that software vendors are losing revenue due to rigid licensing and delivery options. Since the demands of enterprise and end users are constantly evolving, software companies and device vendors must be able to adapt their pricing and packaging strategies on the",
"-22.7599952587625"
],
[
"methods tend to overwhelm developers, ultimately leaving the team with a long list of known problems, but little actual improvement; in these cases, an in-line auditing approach is recommended as an alternative. Tools Source code auditing tools generally look for common vulnerabilities and only work for specific programming languages. Such automated tools could be used to save time, but should not be relied on for an in-depth audit. Applying such tools as part of a policy-based approach is recommended. Dependency on requirements If set to the low threshold, most of the software auditing tools detect a lot of vulnerabilities, especially",
"-22.715762743842788"
],
[
"input will improve the quality of data. Even though programmers may follow best practices, an application can still fail due to unpredictable conditions and therefore should handle unexpected failures successfully by first logging all the information it can capture in preparation for auditing. As security increases, so does the relative cost and administrative overhead.\nApplications are typically developed using high-level programming languages which in themselves can have security implications. The core activities essential to the software development process to produce secure applications and systems include: conceptual definition, functional requirements, control specification, design review, code review and walk-through, system test review, and",
"-22.708876756834798"
],
[
"the most experienced software developer.\nThe abstractions provided by high-level programming languages also make it harder\nto understand the connection between the source code written by a programmer and\nthe actual program's behaviour.\nIn order to find bugs in programs and to prevent creating new bugs when extending a program, a software developer uses some programming tools to visualize all kinds of information about programs.\nFor example, a debugger allows a programmer to extract information about a\nrunning program in terms of the source language used to program it.\nThe debugger can compute the value of a variable in the source program from the state of the",
"-22.68650773051195"
],
[
"etc.) that are beyond the team's control, still evolving, or too complex to configure in a virtual test lab. Make it easy to get the latest deliverables Making builds readily available to stakeholders and testers can reduce the amount of rework necessary when rebuilding a feature that doesn't meet requirements. Additionally, early testing reduces the chances that defects survive until deployment. Finding errors earlier can reduce the amount of work necessary to resolve them.\nAll programmers should start the day by updating the project from the repository. That way, they will all stay up to date. Everyone can see the results",
"-22.665649412141647"
],
[
"tools is to capture the specification of the required CASE tool and then generate the tool from the specification. Quick CASE tools overview Building large-scale software applications is very complicated process which is not easy to handle. Software companies must have good system of cooperation throughout developing teams and good displicine is highly required.\nNevertheless, using CASE tools is modern way how to speed up software development and ensure higher level of application design. However, there are another issues which has to be kept in mind. First of all usage of these tools doesn't guarantee good results because they are usually",
"-22.66431341628777"
],
[
"a piece of software can lead to these attacks being successful on a system running the vulnerable code. An example of this is the vulnerable edition of Microsoft SQL Server, which allowed the Slammer worm to propagate itself. The approach taken to these attacks is generally to revise the vulnerable code.",
"-22.638304794905707"
],
[
"valuable information, and by deploying devices and decoys to attract and distract attackers. The software is designed to thwart attacks and advanced persistent threats. Instead of targeting just malware, the Illusive software targets actual human beings (cyber attackers) who must make decisions at each step in the process in order to advance further into a network. If the attackers use the deceptive lures during the attack, network administrators will be alerted and given the option to shut the attack down immediately or observe the hacker accruing real-time breach forensics. The software has more than 50,000 users at Fortune 500 companies,",
"-22.52823160297703"
],
[
"As a result, it is possible to increase the speed and frequency at which quality software (software that meets expectations for an acceptable level of risk) is delivered, as well as decrease technical debt.\nMoreover, when software quality efforts and testing are aligned with business expectations, test execution produces a prioritized list of actionable tasks (rather than a potentially overwhelming number of findings that require manual review). This helps teams focus their efforts on the quality tasks that will have the greatest impact, based on their organization's goals and priorities.\nAdditionally, when teams are continuously executing a broad set of continuous tests",
"-22.509806191083044"
],
[
"backdoors allow the strongest encryption to be ignored. Harms From the moment a government allows hacking for investigations and other reasons of state, positive or negative impacts are possible; a number of harms may occur. Property Generally, hackers damage devices or software and may limit their operation; data on devices involved in the attack may be lost. Replacing devices and efforts to recover data may also be costly, increasing financial damage. Reputation Hackers may also harm a target's image, specifically or generally. The reputation of an individual is placed at risk for a number of reasons; a person may be",
"-22.48984352039406"
],
[
"so it can be reverted to if the process fails, or if the newer version performs worse. As an alternative to vendor tools, open source alternatives have been developed such as flashrom. Firmware hacking Sometimes, third parties create an unofficial new or modified (\"aftermarket\") version of firmware to provide new features or to unlock hidden functionality; this is referred to as custom firmware. An example is Rockbox as a firmware replacement for portable media players. There are many homebrew projects for various devices, which often unlock general-purpose computing functionality in previously limited devices (e.g., running Doom on iPods).\nFirmware hacks usually",
"-22.464638748235302"
],
[
"lines of a business, as well as to ensure that those products were profitable. Product managers can come from many different backgrounds, because their primary skills involve working well with customers and understanding the problems the product is intended to solve.\nA product manager is responsible for orchestrating the various activities associated with ensuring that a product is delivered that meets users' needs. A software product manager's role varies as the software moves through its lifecycle; earlier in the development process the product manager meets the intended audience of the product to engage in requirements elicitation, whereas later in the lifecycle",
"-22.45122244034428"
],
[
"software. Other preventative measures include using different logins for services used, frequently monitoring accounts and personal data, as well as being alert to the difference between a request for help and a phishing attempt from strangers. Ethical Hacking To counter security breaches at the hands of social hackers as well as technical hackers, companies employ security professionals, known as ethical hackers, or more popularly, white hat hackers, to attempt to break into their systems in the same manner that social hackers would employ. Ethical hackers will leverage the same tools methods as hackers with criminal intent but with legitimate objectives.",
"-22.373827498871833"
],
[
"package management systems, such as pacman, used in Arch Linux and equo, found in Sabayon Linux.\nAs software repositories are designed to include useful packages, major repositories are designed to be malware free. If a computer is configured to use a digitally signed repository from a reputable vendor, and is coupled with an appropriate permissions system, this significantly reduces the threat of malware to these systems. As a side effect, many systems that have these capabilities do not require anti-malware software such as anti-virus software.\nMost major Linux distributions have many repositories around the world that mirror the main repository. Package management",
"-22.360098365257727"
],
[
"renders it harder to understand. Code that doesn't provide any reinforcement to the already existing code is unwanted. The new code must instead possess equivalent functionality, so that if a function is broken, another providing the same function can replace it, using manual or automated software diversity. To do so, the new code must know how and when to accommodate the failure point. This means more logic needs to be added to the system. But as a system adds more logic, components, and increases in size, it becomes more complex. Thus, when making a more redundant system, the system also",
"-22.352390328538604"
],
[
"in this context, one definition of a \"developer\" in general was published: Testing and debugging Programmers test a program by running it and looking for bugs (errors). As they are identified, the programmer usually makes the appropriate corrections, then rechecks the program until an acceptably low level and severity of bugs remain. This process is called testing and debugging. These are important parts of every programmer's job. Programmers may continue to fix these problems throughout the life of a program. Updating, repairing, modifying, and expanding existing programs is sometimes called maintenance programming. Programmers may contribute to user guides and online",
"-22.348009010311216"
],
[
"software into their own software product packages.\nThe term is often used in the computer industry, where a company purchases computer components and builds (for example) a fully operational personal computer system usually customized for a specific task (such as non-linear video editing). By doing this, the company has added value above the cost of the individual computer components. Customers would purchase the system from the reseller if they lacked the time or experience to assemble the system themselves. Tandy Corporation was an example of a company that sold products through VARs, using relabeled versions of its computers.",
"-22.34535539196804"
],
[
"the shortest programs, because of problems of combinatorial explosion and indeterminacy.\nUnit testing involves writing a test for every function (unit) that a program is to perform.\nIn test-driven development unit tests are written before the code and the code is not considered complete until all tests complete successfully.\nAgile software development involves frequent software releases with relatively small changes. Defects are revealed by user feedback.\nOpen source development allows anyone to examine source code. A school of thought popularized by Eric S. Raymond as Linus's Law says that popular open-source software has more chance of having few or no bugs than other software,",
"-22.312894060465624"
],
[
"and sometimes the .dll or .so linked to the application. Similar cracks are available for software that requires a hardware dongle. A company can also break the copy protection of programs that they have legally purchased but that are licensed to particular hardware, so that there is no risk of downtime due to hardware failure (and, of course, no need to restrict oneself to running the software on bought hardware only).\nAnother method is the use of special software such as CloneCD to scan for the use of a commercial copy protection application. After discovering the software used to protect the",
"-22.285393119367654"
],
[
"of data breaches and exposures since 2014 indicates that breaches has become more frequent and bigger scale than ever. With much more data generated and stored on cloud, malicious actors are interested to exploit systems that are wrongly configured. Hackers gain access to data by exploiting vendor's security loopholes. One challenge in measuring vendor's cyber risk is that the conventional way of measuring a vendor via questionnaire is dated and not comprehensive enough.",
"-22.284457436355297"
],
[
"that he can bring to the job site. Finally, at the highest level, he may have enough equipment available to completely replace everything at the work site in the case of multiple failures.\nThe assessment of a potential SPOF involves identifying the critical components of a complex system that would provoke a total systems failure in case of malfunction. Highly reliable systems should not rely on any such individual component. Software engineering In software engineering, a bottleneck occurs when the capacity of an application or a computer system is severely limited by a single component. The bottleneck has lowest throughput of",
"-22.243778978474438"
],
[
"designed and coded. Debugging the code and correcting errors Programmers tend to write the complete code and then begin debugging and checking for errors. Though this approach can save time in smaller projects, bigger and complex ones tend to\nhave too many variables and functions that need attention. Therefore, it is good to debug every module once you are done and not the entire program. This saves time in the long run so that one does not end up wasting a lot of time on figuring out what is wrong. Unit tests for individual modules, and/or functional tests for web services",
"-22.23581185558578"
],
[
"clients or packaged software for general use – ranging from video games to educational software to programs for desktop publishing and financial planning. Programming of packaged software constitutes one of the most rapidly growing segments of the computer services industry. Some companies or organizations – even small ones – have set up their own IT team to ensure the design and development of in-house software to answer to very specific needs from their internal end-users, especially when existing software are not suitable or too expensive. This is for example the case in research laboratories.\nIn some organizations, particularly small ones, people commonly",
"-22.232091237212444"
],
[
"This simple approach has been used in many large software projects. While this method can work, it is inefficient as many near-identical copies of the program have to be maintained. This requires a lot of self-discipline on the part of developers and often leads to mistakes. Since the code base is the same, it also requires granting read-write-execute permission to a set of developers, and this adds the pressure of someone managing permissions so that the code base is not compromised, which adds more complexity. Consequently, systems to automate some or all of the revision control process have",
"-22.21608325829675"
],
[
"software and hardware manufacturer. The goal of the discipline is to reduce the user or business application downtime, which can have a severe impact on business operations. Inevitably, such downtime can lead to loss of productivity, loss of revenue, customer dissatisfaction and ultimately can damage a company's reputation. Types of outages Planned outages are deliberate and are scheduled at a convenient time. These involve such activities as: - Hardware installation or maintenance - Software maintenance or upgrades of the operating system, the middleware, the database server or the business application - Database administration such as offline backup, or offline reorganization\nUnplanned",
"-22.18108331734402"
],
[
"the \"gap\" between the enterprise engineers and software engineers through the use of different combinations of methods and techniques will be the main objective. However, this objective can only be reached when combined methods result in clear and rich functional software architectures that are developed and used by both parties.\nOptimizing the internal and external business processes through process reengineering is one of the main objectives an enterprise can have in times of high external pressure. A business process involves value creating activities with certain inputs and outputs, which are interconnected and thereby jointly contribute to the final outcome (product or",
"-22.179186081222724"
],
[
"requirements analysis. Customers typically have an abstract idea of what they want as an end result but do not know what software should do. Skilled and experienced software engineers recognize incomplete, ambiguous, or even contradictory requirements at this point. Frequently demonstrating live code may help reduce the risk that the requirements are incorrect.\n\"Although much effort is put in the requirements phase to ensure that requirements are complete and consistent, rarely that is the case; leaving the software design phase as the most influential one when it comes to minimizing the effects of new or changing requirements. Requirements volatility is",
"-22.172985860139306"
],
[
"other hackers. At any time, a fellow hacker might reach into the drawer, pick out the program, and begin adding to it or \"bumming\" it to make it better. Bumming referred to the process of making the code more concise so that more can be done in fewer instructions, saving precious memory for further enhancements.\nIn the second generation of hackers, sharing was about sharing with the general public in addition to sharing with other hackers. A particular organization of hackers that was concerned with sharing computers with the general public was a group called Community Memory. This group of hackers",
"-22.16360082110623"
],
[
"Software quality control Software quality control is the set of procedures used by organizations to ensure that a software product will meet its quality goals at the best value to the customer, and to continually improve the organization’s ability to produce software products in the future.\nSoftware quality control refers to specified functional requirements as well as non-functional requirements such as supportability, performance and usability. It also refers to the ability for software to perform well in unforeseeable scenarios and to keep a relatively low defect rate.\nThese specified procedures and outlined requirements lead to the idea of Verification and Validation",
"-22.163384045445127"
],
[
"file says can help him not to be noticed. There is code and directions on how to change some log files in the book.\nOverlooking the Obvious\n\nAnother sign of a program being hacked is that it will no longer work correctly. Most of the time programs do not work correctly because the hacker has modified them do accomplish another task. A skilled hacker however can modify the program so it still works correctly and does what he wants it do. If a program is exploited there are ways to tell how it happened. Finding out how a program was",
"-22.13868358847685"
],
[
"Software development security Software development challenges As technology advances, application environments become more complex and application development security becomes more challenging. Applications, systems, and networks are constantly under various security attacks such as malicious code or denial of service. Some of the challenges from the application development security point of view include Viruses, Trojan horses, Logic bombs, Worms, Agents, and Applets.\nApplications can contain security vulnerabilities that may be introduced by software engineers either intentionally or carelessly.\nSoftware, environmental, and hardware controls are required although they cannot prevent problems created from poor programming practice. Using limit and sequence checks to validate users’",
"-22.13461527301115"
],
[
"for a well-designed competitive software product to overtake the badly-designed software in terms of features. In my experience, badly designed software can also lead to a more stressed engineering workforce, in turn leading higher staff churn (which in turn affects costs and productivity when delivering features). Additionally, due to the complexity in a given codebase, the ability to accurately estimate work will also disappear. In cases where development agencies charge on a feature-to-feature basis, the profit margin for delivering code will eventually deteriorate.\n— Junade Ali writes in Mastering PHP Design Patterns\nGrady Booch compares how evolving cities is similar to evolving software-intensive",
"-22.132055054884404"
],
[
"a \"mistake\" committed by an analyst in the early stages of the software development lifecycle, which leads to a \"defect\" in the final stage of the cycle has been called 'mistake metamorphism'.\nDifferent stages of a \"mistake\" in the entire cycle may be described as \"mistakes\", \"anomalies\", \"faults\", \"failures\", \"errors\", \"exceptions\", \"crashes\", \"bugs\", \"defects\", \"incidents\", or \"side effects\". Prevention The software industry has put much effort into reducing bug counts. These include: Typographical errors Bugs usually appear when the programmer makes a logic error. Various innovations in programming style and defensive programming are designed to make these bugs less likely, or",
"-22.122688383502464"
],
[
"easier to spot. Some typos, especially of symbols or logical/mathematical operators, allow the program to operate incorrectly, while others such as a missing symbol or misspelled name may prevent the program from operating. Compiled languages can reveal some typos when the source code is compiled. Development methodologies Several schemes assist managing programmer activity so that fewer bugs are produced. Software engineering (which addresses software design issues as well) applies many techniques to prevent defects. For example, formal program specifications state the exact behavior of programs so that design bugs may be eliminated. Unfortunately, formal specifications are impractical for anything but",
"-22.105998370272573"
],
[
"software systems by establishing a standard solution and common mechanisms for information exchange; (b) reduction of the development costs of software projects through the reuse of common assets; (c) improvement of the communication inside the organization because stakeholders share the same architectural mindset; and, (d) influencing the learning curve of developers due to the need of learning its features.",
"-22.105187818786362"
],
[
"and there is a clear difference in philosophy between some of them. Linked Existing Software Some vendors who have previously marketed standalone software for the subsurface and the surface are now marketing additional software which provides a datalink between the various packages. The obvious benefit of this approach is that there is no loss in accuracy and it does not require a remodelling exercise. However this approach also has its drawbacks, there is no time gain and the integration component of the entire package requires expertise which is not readily available, external specialist are frequently called upon to build and",
"-22.049556355632376"
],
[
"are run, they will show failures.\nCollective code ownership may lead to better member backup, greater distribution of knowledge and learning, shared responsibility of the code, greater code quality, and reduced rework. But it may as well lead to increased member conflict, increase of bugs, changes of developers mental flow and breaks of their reasoning, increased development time, or less understanding of the code. Simple design Programmers should take a \"simple is best\" approach to software design. Whenever a new piece of code is written, the author should ask themselves 'is there a simpler way to introduce the",
"-22.048976143618347"
],
[
"access to the system, and to undocumented parts of the system (in particular, a video game-like simulation mode and direct interaction with the artificial intelligence).\nAlthough the number of backdoors in systems using proprietary software (software whose source code is not publicly available) is not widely credited, they are nevertheless frequently exposed. Programmers have even succeeded in secretly installing large amounts of benign code as Easter eggs in programs, although such cases may involve official forbearance, if not actual permission.\nA countermeasure against backdoors is open-source software, where the source code can be examined for potential backdoors and it is as such",
"-22.044652177894022"
],
[
"suited to projects where requirements and scope are fixed, the product itself is firm and stable, and the technology is clearly understood. Criticism Clients may not know exactly what their requirements are before they see working software and so change their requirements, leading to redesign, redevelopment, and retesting, and increased costs.\nDesigners may not be aware of future difficulties when designing a new software product or feature, in which case it is better to revise the design than persist in a design that does not account for any newly discovered constraints, requirements, or problems.\nOrganisations may attempt to deal with a lack",
"-22.043590639455942"
],
[
"in unused or unusable components being created before the project is finished. Similarly, projects with less tangible clients (often experimental projects, see independent game development) could begin with code and never a formal analysis of the design requirements. Lack of design analysis could lead to incorrect or insufficient technology choices, possibly requiring the developer to port or rewrite their software in order for the project to be completed. Incompleteness Many software development models, such as Extreme Programming, use an incremental approach which stresses that the software must be releasable at the end of each iteration. Non-managed projects may have few",
"-22.042955348384567"
],
[
"flood, earthquake) by separating redundant machines.\nSophisticated policies can be specified by high availability software to differentiate software from hardware faults, and to attempt time-delayed restarts of individual software processes, entire software stacks, or entire systems. Use in industry In the past 20 years telecommunication networks and other complex software systems have become essential parts of business and recreational activities.\n“At the same time [as the economy is in a downturn], 60% almost -- that's six out of 10 businesses -- require 99.999. That's four nines or five nines of availability and uptime for their mission-critical line-of-business applications. And 9% of the",
"-22.042526601057034"
],
[
"the bureau can regularly render. The software choice is also significant in that bureau trade associations are often formed based on the choice of software, as they generally face the same challenges and offer the same in the same manner.\nThe common wisdom of \"newer is better\" that applies to most software, does not apply in the bureau industry. Due to the complexity and potential for expensive errors that goes with, moving clients from one system to another, it is very common for older software to be in just as much use as newer software. Clients generally have a low tolerance",
"-22.040502292395104"
],
[
"high quality. The strategy consists of step-wise improvements in software organization, defining which processes are key in development. The software process and the software product quality are predictable because they are kept within measurable limits.",
"-22.00621151505038"
],
[
"decision maker with a set of good compromises between cost and user satisfaction as well as the requirements risk. Debugging and maintenance Identifying a software bug (or a code smell) and then debugging (or refactoring) the software is largely a manual and labor-intensive endeavor, though the process is tool-supported. One objective of SBSE is to automatically identify and fix bugs (for example via mutation testing).\nGenetic programming, a biologically-inspired technique that involves evolving programs through the use of crossover and mutation, has been used to search for repairs to programs by altering a few lines of source code. The GenProg Evolutionary",
"-21.98692941282934"
],
[
"as Ronny Balcaen, have proposed to create a new label to counter the diminishing quality of products due to the planned obsolescence technique. In software Software companies sometimes deliberately drop support for older technologies as a calculated attempt to force users to purchase new products to replace those made obsolete. Most proprietary software will ultimately reach an end-of-life point - usually because the cost of support exceeds the revenue generated by supporting the old version - at which the supplier will cease updates and support. As free software and open source software can always be updated and maintained by",
"-21.935633164830506"
],
[
"is inadvisable to skip levels of software testing. During all phases of testing, software faults are discovered, corrected, and re-tested. Reliability estimates are updated based on the fault density and other metrics. At a system level, mean-time-between-failure data can be collected and used to estimate reliability. Unlike hardware, performing exactly the same test on exactly the same software configuration does not provide increased statistical confidence. Instead, software reliability uses different metrics, such as code coverage.\nEventually, the software is integrated with the hardware in the top-level system, and software reliability is subsumed by system reliability. The Software Engineering Institute's capability maturity",
"-21.93008818826638"
],
[
"maintain the links between the components. Bespoke Software There are relatively few software packages on the market which are truly integrated, however these can offer the benefit of shorter runtimes and lower expertise thresholds. Software as a service A number of the established service companies now offer integrated asset modelling as a service. In practice this means that existing models will be either converted or linked by specialists to form an integrated solution. This solution is expensive but frequently the preferred option if the highest accuracy is required.",
"-21.92712572653545"
],
[
"defective product based on where a defect lies on the product and/or the total defective surface area of an object. It offers more control in defining a wider range of defective products, and if used to control the sorter's ejection system, it improves the accuracy of ejecting defective products, which improves product quality and increases yields.\nNew software-driven capabilities are constantly being developed to address the specific needs of various applications. As computing hardware becomes more powerful, new software-driven advancements become possible. Some of these advancements enhance the effectiveness of sorters to achieve better results while others enable completely new sorting",
"-21.916946337674744"
],
[
"when the number of individual patches to a given program reaches a certain (arbitrary) limit, or the software release has shown to be stabilized with a limited number of remaining issues based on users' feedback and bug tracking such as Bugzilla. In large software applications such as office suites, operating systems, database software, or network management, it is not uncommon to have a service pack issued within the first year or two of a product's release. Installing a service pack is easier and less error-prone than installing many individual patches, even more so when updating multiple computers over a network,",
"-21.913844251001137"
],
[
"the organization's preventive and detective security measures employed to protect assets and data. As part of this service, certified ethical hackers typically conduct a simulated attack on a system, systems, applications or another target in the environment, searching for security weaknesses. After testing, they will typically document the vulnerabilities and outline which defenses are effective and which can be defeated or exploited. They also typically provide recommended remediation plans to address weaknesses discovered.\nIn the UK penetration testing services are standardized via professional bodies working in collaboration with National Cyber Security Centre.",
"-21.909643846563995"
],
[
"helps companies align their sales and marketing goals and provides a strategic plan for how the business should operate. Data types and usage Proposal software is frequently used for storing, controlling, revising, semantically enriching, and publishing documentation. Serving as a central repository, the proposal software increases the version level of new updates to an already existing file.\nA standard requirement for salespeople is to have a standard proposal that you can modify to meet the specific requirements of your customer or prospect. Simple cutting and pasting of boilerplate materials can make it easy to create good proposals.\nThe software enables users to",
"-21.902729069668567"
],
[
"Software product management The need for software product management To develop, sell and support a successful software product a business needs to solve a market problem, understand its market, identify the opportunity as well as develop and market an appropriate piece of software. Hence the need for product management as a core business function in software companies.\nHardware and physical products companies may also have a need for software product management, since software and digital systems are often part of the delivery, such as when providing operating systems, supporting the physical product or software embedded in a device.",
"-21.88558409892721"
],
[
"vulnerable software.\nA remote exploit works over a network and exploits the security vulnerability without any prior access to the vulnerable system.\nA local exploit requires prior access to the vulnerable system and usually increases the privileges of the person running the exploit past those granted by the system administrator. Exploits against client applications also exist, usually consisting of modified servers that send an exploit if accessed with a client application.\nExploits against client applications may also require some interaction with the user and thus may be used in combination with the social engineering method. Another classification is by the action against the",
"-21.876692306017503"
],
[
"company advises buyers on software products via free telephone consultations with software analysts. The Software Advice website gives pricing and demo information on individual systems, as well as market reports based on buyer interactions, and detailed reviews and comparisons. The company's reports have been used as a source of expertise in Forbes, Entrepreneur, Huffington Post, Business Insider, Yelp, Inc., and the Wall Street Journal among others.\nSoftware Advice releases biannual reports to highlight top software products in different categories. Its FrontRunners for Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), April 2019 report analyzed the software solutions that companies use to track information such",
"-21.875187615747564"
]
] |
2qtx5z | Why does the ride share app Uber catch all the heat while its competitor Lyft seems to be slipping under the radar? | [
"I could be mistaken, but my perception is that the founder of Uber is a bit of a loudmouth jerk who gets himself in the papers for all the wrong reasons, while the founder of Lyft keeps his mouth shut.",
"No, Uber is under fire for a lot of bad business practices. Lyft has been operating cleanly and has pulled from cities that deny it access to function in. Uber's CEO is also a giant dick, so there's that. It's like if the CEO of Mcdonald's was a douche, lied about pink slime, etc while Burger King is sitting there chilling like \"we have low fat fries now\".",
"Same reason that McDonalds catches all the heat even though Burger King and Wendy's are basically the same - they are the biggest/best known player. Uber was first, Uber is the most well known... so Uber has to lead the charge.",
"1) Uber is bigger 200+ markets vs. 65 for Lyft 2) Uber is already international, Lyft isn't yet 3) Uber has become synonymous with the segment 4) Uber has been more aggressive at challenging regulations and flouting restrictions (or at least is seen to be) 5) Uber has been caught conducting some shady business practices and had a few PR gaffes/CEO has a bad rep. 6) I think Lyft was a bit more proactive with background checks and inspections and things (although they are probably comparable in that dept. now). I could be wrong on that. 7) Lyft has managed to get better PR as a \"friendlier\" and more \"community\" oriented program. 8) Uber has not handled the issue of surge pricing well, which has made people angry."
] | [
[
"with the Uber account.\nOn March 6, 2017, the City of Portland, Oregon announced an investigation into whether Uber had used its Greyball software tool to obstruct the enforcement of city regulations. The investigation by the Portland Bureau of Transportation (PBOT) found that: \"Uber used Greyball software to intentionally evade PBOT’s officers from December 5 to December 19, 2014 and deny 29 separate ride requests by PBOT enforcement officers.\" Following the release of the audit, Portland's commissioner of police suggested that the city subpoena Uber to force the company to turn over information on how Uber used software to evade regulatory",
"-32.80248827004107"
],
[
"it had failed to live up to its promise to provide reasonable security for consumer data. It was the largest multi-state settlement related to a data breach. Safety concerns It is unclear if Uber is less or more safe than taxicabs, as major cities don't have much data on taxi-related incidents. Allegations of inadequate background checks and vetting of drivers Concerns regarding Uber's background checks were raised after reports of sexual abuse of passengers by Uber drivers. Sexual assaults in relation to Uber are most often committed by either Uber drivers themselves or by individuals posing as Uber drivers.",
"-32.67786337796133"
],
[
"of police suggested that the city subpoena Uber in order to force the company to turn over information on how Uber used software to evade regulatory officials. Transport for London ruling Transport for London cited the use of Greyball in London as one of the reasons for its decision not to renew Uber's private hire operator licence. The decision stated that the way in which Uber used Greyball contributed to it failing to meet the standards of a \"fit and proper\" private hire operator. Consequently, Uber would not be able to operate legally in London after its licence expired on",
"-32.437824269953126"
],
[
"that they otherwise would miss; but in bad weather drivers took advantage of the many fares to be found on the street, and none were available to users on Gett. In similar conditions Uber applies increased \"surge prices\", but is still available (cars do not ply for hire on the streets). Edwards took advantage of a promotion, and did not compare prices; he found Gett's old-school Hackney cabs more comfortable, and the level of service provided by Gett at quiet times to be similar to Uber, but \"rubbish for people who aren't standing on the main street but still need",
"-32.06391231622547"
],
[
"Australia, South Korea, and China. At first, in response to the report, Uber stated that Greyball was designed to deny rides to users who violate Uber's terms of service, including those involved in sting operations. According to Uber, Greyball can \"hide the standard city app view for individual riders, enabling Uber to show that same rider a different version\". Uber reportedly used Greyball to identify government officials through factors such as whether a user frequently opens the app near government offices, a review of social media profiles by Uber employees to identify law enforcement personnel, and the credit cards associated",
"-32.03764306154335"
],
[
"those of taxis and were 35% cheaper than UberBLACK. By early 2013, the service was operating in 35 cities. Uber allowed drivers to use their personal vehicles as part of UberX starting in April 2013. Rates were quickly lowered, which caused some dissatisfaction among UberBLACK and taxi drivers, whose earnings decreased as a result of the increased competition at lower rates.\nIn August 2014, Uber launched UberPOOL, a carpooling service, in the San Francisco Bay Area. The service was then launched in other cities worldwide: Paris in November 2014, New York City in December 2014, China in August 2015, Washington, D.C.",
"-31.918909218569752"
],
[
"found that:\nWhen Uber illegally entered the Portland market in December 2014, the company tagged 17 individual rider accounts, 16 of which have been identified as government officials using its Greyball software tool. Uber used Greyball software to intentionally evade PBOT’s officers from December 5 to December 19, 2014 and deny 29 separate ride requests by PBOT enforcement officers [...] In using Greyball, Uber has sullied its own reputation and cast a cloud over the [Transportation Network Companies] industry generally.\n— Transportation Network Companies: Regulation Evasion Audit, Portland Bureau of Transportation, Report Summary, April 28, 2017\nFollowing the release of the audit, Portland's commissioner",
"-31.896033646262367"
],
[
"2019 Lyft and Uber drivers' strikes Background Both Lyft and Uber operate as transportation network companies that were founded as peer-to-peer ridesharing apps. Drivers, serve as independent contracts to Uber and Lyft and provide rides to individuals, much akin to a taxicab company. Users are able to request or drive for both companies by downloading a smartphone app. Drivers are required to go through an online training or an in-person training to make sure they are properly licensed and have a vehicle that is adequate for the company's standards. Drivers then link to a banking account so that Uber and",
"-30.766410868556704"
],
[
"promised to stop using the tool for that purpose. U.S. Department of Justice investigation In May 2017, several news organizations reported that the United States Department of Justice had opened a criminal investigation into Uber's use of Greyball to avoid local law enforcement operations. The Department of Justice initially focused on Portland, but the inquiry was expanded to include Philadelphia. City of Portland investigation On March 6, 2017, the City of Portland, Oregon announced an investigation into whether Uber had used Greyball to obstruct the enforcement of city regulations. The investigation by the Portland Bureau of Transportation (PBOT)",
"-30.598838778212667"
],
[
"is common ground that a driver can only be described as providing services to Uber when he is in the Territory (i.e., for present purposes, in London) and has the Uber App switched on. The Claimants contended, and the ET found, that they were providing services to ULL throughout the time when they satisfied these requirements. Uber submitted that, if (contrary to its primary submissions) the drivers were providing services to ULL, it could only be during each ride, that is to say from the time the passenger is picked up until the time the car reaches the passenger's destination.",
"-30.035137370228767"
],
[
"city, then, if it faced regulatory opposition, Uber mobilized public support for its service and mounted a political campaign, supported by lobbyists, to change regulations.\nIn 2014, while in the midst of a regulatory battle, Portland, Oregon's transportation commissioner called Uber management \"a bunch of thugs\".\nIn June 2014, Uber distributed to its riders the personal contact information of a commissioner in Virginia who opposed the company, and told riders to flood his inbox with complaints.\nIn November 2017, CEO Dara Khosrowshahi dropped the \"win at all costs\" strategy and implemented new values for the company, including \"we do the right thing\". Alleged",
"-29.967767949332483"
],
[
"177 Uber employees had ordered and canceled approximately 5,560 Lyft rides since October 2013, and that it had found links to Uber recruiters by cross-referencing the phone numbers involved. The report identified one Lyft passenger who canceled 300 rides from May 26 to June 10, 2014, and who was identified as an Uber recruiter by seven different Lyft drivers. Uber did not apologize, but suggested that the recruitment attempts were possibly independent parties trying to make money. Greyball Uber developed an internal software tool called Greyball, which uses data collected from the Uber mobile app and other means, to avoid",
"-29.757474924539565"
],
[
"vehicle miles traveled (VMT) implications of ridehailing services, at present. Both studies found that Uber and Lyft are increasing VMT, with the heaviest impacts seen in some of the busiest areas of each city. However, both of these studies do not take into consideration modal shift changes. Ridesplitting Ridesplitting is a form of ridesourcing in which customers can opt to split both a ride and fare in a ridesourcing vehicle. Ridesplitting services include: Lyft Line, UberPOOL, Ola Share, and Didi Express Pool, among others. These services allow dynamic matching and route variation in real-time as passengers request pickups. The user",
"-29.548426121356897"
],
[
"equilibrium between demand and supply of drivers can be approached. Customers receive notice when making an Uber reservation that prices have increased. The company applied for a U.S. patent on surge pricing in 2013, though airlines are known to have been using similar techniques in seat pricing for years.\nThe practice has often caused passengers to become upset and invited criticism when it happens as a result of holidays, inclement weather, natural disasters or other factors. During New Year's Eve 2011, Uber prices were as high as seven times normal rates, causing outrage. During the 2014 Sydney hostage crisis, Uber",
"-29.534985691832844"
],
[
"while both Grab and Uber were excluded from such requirements. In response, the Vietnamese Ministry of Transport set to review the legal status of both Grab and Uber to ensure a fair business environment for firms. A draft of a new circular was submitted in early 2018 that includes regulations for passenger transport (by car) through software which directly focusing on those applications.\nIn Thailand in 2016, the motorbike taxi services of Grab and Uber were suspended on claims the services are breaking local rules and clashing with registered transport companies. Further crackdown on the services was continued in early 2017",
"-29.486771928728558"
],
[
"Uber Passengers Passengers use an app to order a ride, where they are quoted the fare. Uber uses a dynamic pricing model; prices for the same route vary based on the supply and demand for rides at the time the ride is requested. At the end of the ride, payment is made based on the rider's pre-selected preferences, which could be a credit card on file, Google Pay, Apple Pay, PayPal, cash, or, in India, Airtel mobile wallet or Unified Payments Interface. After the ride is over, the rider is given the option to provide a gratuity to the",
"-29.464213322266005"
],
[
"their application. In this case, restaurants just focus on preparing the order. The app services provide the riders who deliver the food to the consumer.\nZomato allows the customers to see what restaurants are near them, along with the ratings the restaurant has received in their food.\nUber Eats delivers the food in special lunch bags that make sure the food remains hot or cold. It allows the customers to monitor the progress of the food, as well as, the location of the driver delivering the food. Uber Eats has expanded to the Middle East, Europe, and Africa.\nTalabat allows the customers to",
"-29.293930244166404"
],
[
"from UberCab to Uber after complaints from San Francisco taxi operators.\nThe company's early hires included a nuclear physicist, a computational neuroscientist, and a machinery expert who worked on predicting demand for private hire car drivers and where demand is highest. In April 2012, in Chicago, Uber launched a service where users were able to request a regular taxi or an Uber driver via its mobile app.\nIn July 2012, the company introduced UberX, a cheaper option that lets people drive for Uber using non-luxury vehicles, subject to a background check, registration requirement, and car standards. At first, rates were similar to",
"-29.185168827418238"
],
[
"Kallman, the Uber spokesman, said the second person was in the car for purely data related tasks, not safety. When Uber moved to a single operator, some employees expressed safety concerns to managers, according to the two people familiar with Uber's operations. They were worried that going solo would make it harder to remain alert during hours of monotonous driving.\nThe recorded telemetry showed the system had detected Herzberg six seconds before the crash, and classified her first as an unknown object, then as a vehicle, and finally as a bicycle, each of which had a different predicted path according to",
"-29.148139824737882"
],
[
"a third on July 29, 2019 with the lay-off of 400 people. Engineer hires were frozen as well.\nIn early September 2019, Uber laid off an additional 435 employees with 265 coming from the engineering team and another 170 coming from the product team.\nIn October 2019, Uber launched Uber Works to connect workers who want temporary jobs with businesses. The app is available in Chicago only as a start.\nIn October 2019, Uber announced airport helicopter taxi service available to all users from JFK airport. Self-driving car research Advanced Technologies Group (Uber ATG) is a subsidiary of the company that is",
"-29.093300445121713"
],
[
"officials.\nOn March 8, 2017, Uber admitted that it had used Greyball to thwart government regulators and pledged to stop using the service for that purpose.\nIn May 2017, the United States Department of Justice opened a criminal investigation into Uber's use of Greyball to avoid local law enforcement operations. Ripley After a police raid in Uber's Brussels office, a January 2018 report by Bloomberg News stated that \"Uber routinely used Ripley to thwart police raids in foreign countries.\" Developed as a type of secret \"panic button\" system, initially called \"unexpected visitor protocol\", then nicknamed \"Ripley\", to disrupt government raids on Uber's",
"-29.085091801709495"
],
[
"for Fortune, \"What Uber is getting right that other startups aren't,\" which was cited by Vanity Fair in \"Why Uber Won't Be Just a Taxi Company Forever.\" In \"Delta Rolls Out Diversity Training Amid Reports of Passenger Discrimination,\" Wingard provided insights on corporate training and diversity initiatives for Bloomberg News.\nWingard's access initiatives at Columbia University have been covered in the press, including \"Columbia University partners with HBCUs to fight lack of business diversity\" in The Undefeated, \"Columbia and Brooks Brothers\nUnite To Dress Future Female Changemakers\" in Swaay, a \"Columbia Girls in STEM Initiative\" segment on Fox 5 NY, \"Showing",
"-28.921880307840183"
],
[
"is available and other people will use it (Link & Co). Uber is a car-sharing app which helps users quickly pick up a car that is nearby and go to the point at cheap rates instead of taking a taxi; or one can offer his car and himself as a driver.",
"-28.824599376501283"
],
[
"cars on the road and, in late 2010, raised $1.25M in angel funding. In 2011, the company continued to expand across the United States and abroad, including major markets such as New York City and Paris. Uber's motto is \"Everyone's Private Driver\" and, in mid-2012, launched UberX and Uber SUV to offer customers low cost options and more vehicle choices. In late 2012, Uber launched UberTAXI, allowing taxi drivers to use the application with taxi-like fares for customers, and, in early 2013, CEO Kalanick announced that Uber would begin offering a ride-sharing service, allowing community drivers to use the application.\nUber",
"-28.799770909477957"
],
[
"travel ban.\nUber and Lyft pulled out of Austin in May 2016 as a result of a city ordinance mandating fingerprint-based background checks for drivers of any transportation network company. However, other services such as (locally based) RideAustin, Fasten and Fare, were available, although in high demand. Uber and Lyft resumed service in Austin in May 2017. 2018 SXSW 2018 ran from March 9 to 18.\nFinalists of the 2018 SXSW Accelerator Pitch Event included Cambridge Cancer Genomics and Bluefield Technologies. Two winners of the event were Austin-based: GrubTubs (in the Hyper-Connected Communities category) and ICON 3D (in the Social and Culture",
"-28.798847953774384"
],
[
"Passengers are not required to rate the driver, although are encouraged to do so using the same 1 to 5 scale. Riders and drivers who have low ratings can be deactivated. In May 2019, Uber began actively banning riders with low ratings. The company has not defined in detail what will be considered a “below average rating”, but the update is intended to remove users who are unable to improve their behavior. History Uber was founded in 2009 as UberCab by Garrett Camp, a computer programmer and the co-founder of StumbleUpon, and Travis Kalanick, who had sold his Red Swoosh",
"-28.753537757438608"
],
[
"as San Francisco and New York City have arguably become more congested due to their use. According to transportation analyst Charles Komanoff, \"Uber-caused congestion has reduced traffic speeds in downtown Manhattan by around 8 percent\". Effect on the elderly The percentage of seniors in the work force has increased from 20.7% in 2009 to 23.1% in 2015, an increase in part attributed to the rise of the access economy. The Taylor Review As a response to the fast-changing nature of working practices in the modern economy, especially temporary work, The UK Government has carried out a review and issued guidelines",
"-28.565381864114897"
],
[
"the process of migrating away from it.\" He added that his team has already begun testing their software for other possible issues. Google Project Zero team Tavis Ormandy initially stated that he was \"really impressed with Cloudflare's quick response, and how dedicated they are to cleaning up from this unfortunate issue.\" However, when Ormandy pressed Cloudflare for additional information, \"They gave several excuses that didn't make sense,\" before sending a draft that \"severely downplays the risk to customers.\" Uber Uber stated that the impact on its service was very limited. An Uber spokesperson added \"only a handful of session tokens",
"-28.550190790221677"
],
[
"through local oversight in which drivers are elected to a hearing board to Uber and Lyft. Finally, Philadelphia drivers demanded both companies invest in public education campaigns for riders before instituting any new background check policies. Reactions In Philadelphia, the city's driver's union and the local chapter of the Industrial Workers of the World showed solidarity and promoted \"Uber National Day of Action\".\nOn May 9, 2019 the day before Uber's initial public offering and the day following the second general strike, the company announced that it reached settlements with a majority of the 60,000 drivers who filed arbitration demands over",
"-28.388963776116725"
],
[
"year, Uber issued a reflective 70-page safety report in which Uber stated the potential for its self-driving cars to be safer than those driven by humans, however some of their employees worry that Uber is taking shortcuts to hit internal milestones. To be legal in all states for private use, or anywhere at the commercial level, the technology must hard code assured clear distance ahead driving.\nThe National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and the American Automobile Association had previously identified nighttime driving as an area for safety improvement. This follows similar changes in attitudes against tolerating drunk driving, starting in the",
"-28.362599802887416"
],
[
"conclusions when rejecting the contention that the contract was between driver and passenger and that [Uber] was simply the agent in this relationship, providing its services as such to the drivers. Having rejected that characterisation of the relevant relationships, on its findings as to the factual reality of the situation, the ET was entitled to conclude there was a contract between [Uber] and the drivers whereby the drivers personally undertook work for [Uber] as part of its business of providing transportation services to passengers in the London area. Court of Appeal The majority of the Court of Appeal (Sir Terence",
"-28.277838087276905"
],
[
"with Uber and Lyft.\nIn March 2018, BMW and Daimler announced that their carsharing services, ReachNow and Car2go, would merge into a combined entity that would be jointly operated.\nBMW cancelled ReachNow Ride in May 2019 and on July 17, 2019, announced that it would cancel all of its services in Seattle and Portland effective immediately. Service area ReachNow initially launched in April 2016 serving a limited area of the city of Seattle, but expanded several times to eventually encompass the entire city by December. ReachNow also expanded to serve the Seattle–Tacoma International Airport in August 2016.\nReachNow expanded to Portland, Oregon on",
"-28.247677901032148"
],
[
"concerned that his taxis may be taking an incorrect route or overcharging him. Taking inspiration from Garrett Camp's ride sharing concept, Anthony decided to take this problem up as a project while studying at Harvard Business School. When he presented the project to his professors, the comments he received were that this project was \"difficult to implement\" despite the success of other ride hailing services in the U.S. such as Uber. The project won second place at the Business Plan Contest at Harvard Business School. The app was also selected as the finalist at Harvard’s Minimum Viable Product Funding award.\nIn",
"-28.12215720815584"
],
[
"Stockholm), and \"Barcelona Reus\" (88 km (55 mi) from Barcelona). Frommers has dubbed Ryanair the \"ultimate bait-and-switch airline\" for this deceptive practice.\nRyanair was ordered by the ASA to stop claiming that its flights from London to Brussels were faster than the rail connection Eurostar, on the grounds that the claim was misleading, due to required travel times to the airports mentioned. Ryanair stood by its claims, noting that the flight time is shorter than the train trip and that travel time is also required to reach Eurostar's stations.\nIn April 2008, Ryanair faced a probe by the UK Office of Fair Trading, after",
"-28.03896568235359"
],
[
"New York City.\nDrivers must meet requirements for age, health, car age and type, have a driver's license and a smartphone or tablet, and must pass a background check. In many cities, vehicles used by Uber drivers must pass annual safety inspections and/or must have an Uber emblem posted in the passenger window. Some cities also require Uber drivers to have a business license. A mechanism called \"Real-Time ID Check\" requires some drivers to occasionally take selfies when logging on to Uber.\nDrivers use an app to receive and accept offers for transportations and further information. The Uber driver app includes accommodations",
"-27.933228191104718"
],
[
"offices by locking, shutting off, and changing passwords on staff computers upon a raid; Uber likely used this button at least 24 times, from spring 2015 until late 2016. God view On November 19, 2014, then U.S. Senator Al Franken, Chairman of the United States Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on Privacy, Technology and the Law, sent a letter to Kalanick regarding privacy. Concerns were raised about internal misuse of the company's data, in particular the ability of Uber staff to track the movements of its customers, known as \"God View\". In 2011, a venture capitalist disclosed that Uber staff members were",
"-27.8656269647945"
],
[
"March 2017. The counters enable commuters to book an Uber, and is aimed at commuters who do not have access to the internet or do not have the Uber mobile app installed on their phone. Ola Cabs announced a similar arrangement on 22 February 2017. Vertical gardens The BMRC granted permission to Hydrobloom, a start-up company, to grow hydroponic plants on the pillars of the Namma Metro. Pillars covered with plants are referred to as vertical gardens. Hydrobloom had previously developed a vertical garden on a metro pillar near Rangoli Art Centre next to the MG Road Metro station. The",
"-27.76683157728985"
],
[
"mobile apps) started offering real-time bus information, as did various other mobile app developers with free or paid apps, such as the Transit app. In March 2017, RTD rolled out a new web-based tracking system, optimized for mobile devices, called Next Ride to track buses and light rail, predict arrivals, show nearby stops and routes. Mobility as a service (MaaS) In February 2019, RTD became the first transit authority to integrate its public transport services into the Uber app, enabling Uber riders in Denver to select a new ‘Transit’ option within the app, and plan their journey with real-time information",
"-27.594517889694544"
],
[
"Transit (app) Features Transit is compatible with car-sharing and ride-hailing apps Uber, Lyft, Via, Ola, CarShare Atlantic, Vrtucar, Pogo, and Communauto, along with multiple bike-share systems. In April 2018, the app expanded to include scooter-sharing systems in four American cities. The app provides users with a color-coded system that matches colors with modes of transportation in order for users to quickly associate a color with the transportation they are monitoring. \nIn February 2019, the Transit app released an update that allows users to look up bus and train schedules, or determine if a bike-sharing station has bikes available, without a",
"-27.53138782287715"
],
[
"of shared automated vehicle (SAV) services in recent years. This interest is likely due to the highly publicized AV development space, as well as the popularity of ridesourcing services and the realization that operating cost per mile of mobility services may substantially decrease compared to current prices, with automation. Many experts, companies, public agencies, and universities are at the initial stages of exploring the potential impacts of SAVs.\nA few pilots have launched involving ridesourcing services and automated vehicles. Uber began testing an AV service open to frequent customers in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in September 2016. Waymo (formerly Google's Self-Driving Car Project)",
"-27.3482569482876"
],
[
"to about a $6.5 billion market globally by 2020.\nRidehailing companies have been the subject of debate among regulators, as many see them as challenging incumbent markets, like the taxi industry, and many see them as adversely impacting traffic, the environment, and public safety. Even so, the travel behavior impacts of ridehailing services are relatively understudied, at present. A study of ridehailing users in San Francisco in 2014 evaluated modal shifts due to ridehailing and found that, if ridehailing were unavailable, 39% of respondents would have taken a taxi and 33% would have used a form of public transit. Four percent",
"-27.298820014984813"
],
[
"to the general public, the company will focus on electric bus sales in North America.\nBy March 2015 there were about 25 BYD e6s being used by Uber drivers in Chicago as part of a test program. BYD's dealer in the city offered several options to drivers interested in the e6, including a traditional lease or a lease-to-own program. The most popular program allows an Uber driver to lease an e6 for US$200 a week and use it for a driving shift, and thereafter the car is returned to a dealer lot, where it is charged until it is used again.",
"-27.244354595430195"
],
[
"employees' safety concerns.\nIn November 2017, Uber announced a non-binding plan to buy up to 24,000 Volvo XC90 SUV vehicles designed to accept autonomous technology (including a different type of steering and braking mechanism and sensors) between 2019 and 2021.\nIn March 2018, the death of Elaine Herzberg by an Uber self-driving vehicle in Tempe, Arizona resulted in temporary pause to Uber's self driving vehicle testing. According to police, the woman was run down by the Uber vehicle while attempting to cross the street, while the person in the vehicle was watching videos on her phone. Uber pulled its self-driving cars off",
"-27.21545337990392"
],
[
"does not charge passengers, however, it takes a certain percentage of each taxi fare.\nThere are other similar companies that provide E-hailing services such as Easy Taxi, UnTaxi, Auto Amigo. Unlike Uber that competes with licensed taxi companies around the world, these services partnered directly with taxi firms.\nIn October 2017, Wall Street Journal reported that Nekso facilitates 400,000 rides per month and also has 140,000 active monthly users on its platform. The company CEO also announced Nekso's plan to expand their services to some Canadian and U.S cities. Awards Blanclink, the parent company of Nekso, was chosen as one of Top",
"-27.071998765226454"
],
[
"to be manufactured later than 2005 for safety reasons. Reception Initial reception to Fasten in Boston was mixed. Riders were quick to laud Fasten's cheaper prices compared to similar services such as UberX and Lyft, especially due to the number of promotions that Fasten was running. Cars on Fasten's network also seemed to be of slightly higher quality. However, critics also pointed out the scarcity of drivers, with pickup times exceeding those of competing services. Fasten has tried to combat this and attract more drivers by offering amenities such as a driver's lounge in Boston. However, as Scott Krisner of",
"-27.026298762648366"
],
[
"rides, typically hailed, coordinated, and paid for via smartphone. Ridehailing platforms connects drivers using their own personal vehicles with passengers requesting a ride. Transportation experts have called these services \"ridesourcing\" or \"ridehailing\" to distinguish these services from ridesharing and to clarify that drivers do not share a destination with their passengers. Ridehailing companies have spread around the world and include: Uber, Lyft, Ola, Didi Chuxing, Grab, Gett, Cabify, Careem, Easy Taxi, and Fasten, among others. As of August 2017, 2 million people drive for Uber every week. Estimates predict the $3.3 billion the ridehailing sector made in 2015 will double",
"-27.02624057311914"
],
[
"tasked with improving Uber's reputation amid fast growth and increased scrutiny. While at Uber, Jones was named one of Ad Age's 2016 Power Players.\nJones worked at Uber for six months before leaving the company in March 2017. He was among several top executives to leave Uber during a period when the company faced numerous controversies, including sexual harassment in the workplace. At the time, he was the highest-ranking departure. Jones released a statement upon his departure: \"It is now clear, however, that the beliefs and approach to leadership that have guided my career are inconsistent with what I saw and",
"-26.853333876439137"
],
[
"are the drivers workers?\n99. If, as the ET found and we accept, the drivers were workers providing their services to ULL, the final question (argued only briefly before us) is at what times they were to be classified as so working. Uber places great emphasis on the fact that its standard terms (whether in the 2013 or the 2015 versions) expressly permit drivers to use other competing apps and to have more than one switched on at the same time. There appears to have been very little evidence before the ET as to how often this occurs in practice.\n100. It",
"-26.784442138159648"
],
[
"in such area, fares increase to get more drivers to that area. The rate quoted to the rider reflects such dynamic pricing.\nRidesharing companies were criticized for extreme surcharges during emergencies such as Hurricane Sandy, the 2014 Sydney hostage crisis, and the June 2017 London Bridge attack, especially when taxis offered to transport riders for free; however, in many cases, the surcharges were refunded by the ridesharing companies and the companies later agreed to either not charge surcharges, or in some cases, offer free rides, during certain emergencies. Increased traffic congestion Ridesharing companies have been criticized for increasing traffic congestion in",
"-26.755732387915486"
],
[
"March 2017, and Pasco, while allowing Uber, is not offering Uber service as of May 2017. Passenger rail Amtrak provides connection to the daily Empire Builder serving Portland and Chicago. Recreation Due to the dry climate, hot summers, and mild winters, the Tri-Cities offers a variety of outdoor activities. Golf The area is home to 10 golf courses which can be played nearly year-round. These include Canyon Lakes Golf Course (Kennewick), Columbia Park Golf Course (Kennewick), Zintel Creek Golf Club (Kennewick), Sun Willows Golf Course (Pasco), Pasco Golfland (Pasco), Columbia Point Golf Course (Richland), Horn Rapids Golf Club (Richland), West",
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[
"as Yango. The launch announcement was made on 8 November 2018, and the app started working the next day. Shortly after launch, the Lithuanian Ministry of Defense advised Finnish authorities to look closer at the new app because they believed it was transferring users data outside the EU. The media published an article analyzing different taxi booking apps and found that, Uber asks the most permissions of all apps operating in Finland. Yango came in second. But the app requires permissions like those of similar applications. The company which stated that it “works like other similar apps and does",
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[
"the state of Arizona.\" Uber also announced it would not renew its permit to test self-driving cars in California after the California Department of Motor Vehicles wrote to inform Uber that its permit would expire on March 31, and \"any follow-up analysis or investigations from the recent crash in Arizona\" would have to be addressed before the permit could be renewed.\nLegal woes for Uber were among the collision fallout. Herzberg's daughter retained the law firm Bellah Perez, and together with the husband quickly reached an undisclosed settlement on March 28 while local and federal authorities continued their investigation. Herzberg's mother,",
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[
"at the company's 2014 AGM, chief executive Michael O'Leary said that the airline needed to \"stop unnecessarily pissing people off\". Ryanair said up to 20% of its 81 million customers were travelling as families and it wanted to raise that figure. Kenny Jacobs, Ryanair's chief marketing officer, said: \"Families are a big deal for us. It's a group of customers that we want to get closer to\". As another step, the company launched LiveChat on its website to improve the quality of service and experience provided by the company. The change in the approach almost immediately had positive effect on",
"-26.629469297011383"
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[
"for hearing-impaired drivers. Promotional limited services Uber has also operated promotional limited services, such as rides of up to 15 minutes each on September 6–8, 2013 in San Francisco in the DeLorean that was featured in the Back to the Future film franchise.\nUber allowed users to hire speedboats in the summer to/from certain points on the coast of Croatia. Uber has also offered transport across Biscayne Bay during Miami Art Week and across the Bosporus strait in Istanbul in the summer. Rating scores After each journey, drivers are required to rate passengers on a scale of 1 to 5 stars.",
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[
"Uber BV v Aslam Facts Mr Yaseen Aslam and Mr James Farrar claimed that they should be paid the minimum wage under the National Minimum Wage Act 1998 and receive paid annual leave under the Working Time Regulations 1998 while working as drivers for Uber. Uber BV, a Dutch incorporated subsidiary of Uber argued that their drivers were self-employed independent contractors, and that it owed them no worker or employee obligations. Its contracts described Mr Aslam and Mr Farrar as \"partners\" and stated that \"nothing shall create an employment relationship between Uber and the partner\". Aslam and Farrar argued that",
"-26.573681601962562"
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[
"Uber to transport both patients and carers.Following the launch of its partnership with Uber, Cera Care commenced a partnership with taxi service Gett to deliver items from London chemists to patients at home. \nCera Care introduced a chatbot, Martha, in May 2017. Created with Bloomsbury AI, it was designed to use artificial intelligence to review patients' digital records and provide health alerts based on data points gathered by care workers. Cera Care later developed a patient care dashboard to provide patients with on-demand access to care, medications, transportation, food, and doctor's services via tablet computer. It also claims to have",
"-26.46660035860259"
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[
"Authority. Transportation network companies Transportation network company Uber entered the Philadelphia market in June 2012 as a chauffeured limousine service. UberX, which connects riders to drivers, began operating in Philadelphia in October 2014. Public Transportation Statistics The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Philadelphia, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 93 min. 35% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 16 min, while 27% of riders wait for over 20",
"-26.45311821132782"
],
[
"Uber Eats History Uber Eats' parent company Uber was founded in 2009 by Garrett Camp and Travis Kalanick. The company made its foray into food delivery in August 2014 with the launch of the UberFRESH service in Santa Monica, California. In 2015, the platform was renamed to UberEATS, and the ordering software was released as its own application, separate from the app for Uber rides. Its London operation opened in 2016.\nIn August 2018, Uber Eats changed its flat $4.99 delivery fee to a rate that is determined by distances. The fee ranges from a $2 minimum to an $8 maximum.",
"-26.432094527524896"
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[
"details in this regard but did not itself publicise its on-time statistics. EasyJet denied this.\nIn April 2011, Ryanair advertised 'a place in the sun destinations' but the advert was banned when it was found that some of the destinations experienced sunshine for as little as three hours per day and temperatures between 0 and 14 °C (32 and 57 °F).\nIn 2016, Ryanair stated that websites such as Opodo and CheapOair; and their partners; engaged in screenscraping and false advertising, and attempted to prevent them from showing Ryanair data. Criticism of surcharges In February 2011, a Ryanair passenger, Miro Garcia, brought a claim",
"-26.42303700890625"
],
[
"implemented surge pricing, resulting in fares of up to four times normal charges; while it defended the surge pricing at first, it later apologized and refunded the surcharges. Uber CEO Travis Kalanick has responded to criticism by saying: \"...because this is so new, it's going to take some time for folks to accept it. There's 70 years of conditioning around the fixed price of taxis.\" Multidimensional pricing Multidimensional pricing is the pricing of a product or service using multiple numbers. In this practice, price no longer consists of a single monetary amount (e.g., sticker price of a car), but rather",
"-26.364000064932043"
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[
"for advertisers to target travelers down to their departure city and destination. Sojern was one of the first companies to partner with such airlines as Delta Air Lines to offer boarding pass advertising technology. Criticism In-flight advertising has come under fire for being too intrusive, as it has expanded \"to offset rising fuel costs and other operating expenses.\" A 2005 article in the Washington Post called passengers \"captive customers,\" accusing airlines of being \"aggressive pitchmen for a range of products to passengers at 30,000 feet.\" Moreover, targeted advertising used on boarding passes has been cited as a breach of privacy.",
"-26.360164909507148"
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[
"For this reason, traffic became the single biggest threat to rider safety during the ride.",
"-26.312939634692157"
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[
"developing self-driving cars. Uber ATG is minority-owned by Softbank Vision Fund, Toyota, and Denso.\nIn early 2015, the company hired approximately 50 people from the robotics department of Carnegie Mellon University.\nOn September 14, 2016, Uber launched its first self-driving car services to select customers in Pittsburgh, including Pittsburgh Mayor Bill Peduto, using a fleet of Ford Fusion cars each equipped with 20 cameras, seven lasers, Global Positioning System, lidar, and radar equipment that enabled the car to create a three-dimensional map utilizing landmarks and other contextual information to keep track of its position.\nOn December 14, 2016, Uber began using self-driving Volvo",
"-26.133817493799143"
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[
"driver, which is also billed to the rider's payment method. In some locations, if the driver has to wait more than a few minutes after arriving to the pickup location, riders are charged a wait time fee. Drivers The status of drivers as independent contractors is an unresolved issue (see Criticism). Uber drivers use their own cars although drivers can rent or lease a car to drive with Uber. Uber offers car rental or leasing via Getaround, Hertz, and Fair and Uber and BYD Auto have a partnership to provide leasing of electric cars to Uber drivers in Chicago and",
"-26.016071851568995"
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[
"purchase ride and bike-share passes within the app's interface. Transit has been endorsed by multiple cities' Transportation Authorities including the MBTA, MDOT, and the Edmonton Transit System. Investors In 2018, Transit raised $17.5 million. The majority of investments came from auto manufacturers. The lead investor was Alliance Ventures. Others included Jaguar Land Rover's venture capital fund, InMotion Ventures, Accel, and Real Ventures. Cons A common complaint of the Transit app is that it does not always display accurate departure times for public transportation. This can be due to scheduling errors or a lack of users providing real-time data.",
"-26.003075425483985"
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[
"from the University of California, Santa Barbara campus to visit his girlfriend in Los Angeles. He had used Craigslist’s ride boards but wanted to eliminate the anxiety of not knowing the passenger or driver. When Facebook opened its API to third-party developers, Green said he thought \"Here’s the missing ingredient.\" Zimride linked drivers and passengers through the Facebook Connect application. By using Facebook profile information, student drivers and passengers could learn about each other. Zimride eventually became the largest carpool company in the United States. Green was introduced to John Zimmer through a mutual friend and the pair initially met",
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[
"driving courtesy, and traffic regulations and regulations. The seminar is composed of four core modules namely anger management, road courtesy, traffic rules, and terms and conditions of a franchise. The program was designed by the LTFRB, LTO, University of the Philippines, and De La Salle University. Regulation of TNVS In October 2014, LTFRB launched a sting operation against Uber for operating as a public vehicle with the lack of a franchise. A few days later, DOTr, then DOTC, urged LTFRB to meet with Uber Executives to discuss terms as they see potential in Uber as a service.\nIn May 2015, the",
"-25.87513945819228"
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[
"the company announced plans to triple its workforce in its European markets. As of November 2018, the company reported making food deliveries in 200 cities in 20 countries in EMEA markets.\nIn 2019, Uber Eats announced that it will deliver food to customers by drones, starting in summer 2019, and partnered with Apple on the release of the Apple Card. Operation Users can read menus, order, and pay for food from participating restaurants using an application on the iOS or Android platforms, or through a web browser. Users are also able to tip for delivery. Payment is charged to a",
"-25.844352760352194"
],
[
"reported that it has experienced an increase in the number of passengers carried as a result of operating the Pokémon Jets.",
"-25.838295152701903"
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[
"in October 2015, London in December 2015, the suburbs of Boston in January 2016, Hyderabad, Kolkata Mumbai, and Singapore in June 2016, Delaware in September 2016, Toronto (Brampton and Scarborough) in April 2017, Nashville in December 2017, Sydney in April 2018, and Melbourne in June 2018.\nIn August 2014, Uber launched Uber Eats, a food delivery service.\nIn August 2016, after facing tough competition in China, Uber sold its operations in China to DiDi, in exchange for an 18% stake in Didi. Didi also agreed to invest $1 billion into Uber Global. Uber had started operations in China in 2014, under the",
"-25.836085091228597"
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[
"San Francisco.\nIn December 2015, Lyft became the first ridesharing company allowed to pick up passengers at Los Angeles International Airport.\nIn May 2016, Lyft began offering a service to let clients schedule rides up to 24-hours in advance.\nIn November 2016, Lyft began offering riders the ability to make multiple stops during a trip.\nIn January 2017, the company announced its 160 millionth ride.\nIn January 2017, Lyft announced it would add 100 U.S. cities, bringing its total to 300 U.S. cities served.\nIn December 2017, Lyft expanded into Canada, with operations in the Greater Toronto Area, Hamilton, Ontario and Ottawa.\nIn July 2017, the company",
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[
"Krikorian joined Uber in 2015 in the research department to work on \"massive scale data and software platforms”. He has since become the Engineering Director in charge of the Advanced Technologies Center and self-driving. Starting on Wednesday, September 14, 2016, Uber deployed the self-driving cars onto the roads of Pittsburgh, PA. Krikorian has called Pittsburgh the “double-black diamond of driving” and also commented that if “...Uber can master autonomous driving in Pittsburgh … it can make it almost anywhere.\" Democratic National Committee Krikorian joined the Democratic National Committee as their Chief Technology Officer in 2016. He claims he joined because",
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[
"pricing model, which has been a source of controversy for competitors Uber and Lyft. Instead of surge pricing, Summon uses flat fares on busy times and event days. In addition, it implemented a FareBack program, which gives customers a portion of their ride cost back as credits to use on future Summon rides. Regulatory responses On December 20, 2012, the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) initiated a rulemaking proceeding to determine whether ridesharing apps like Summon fall under its jurisdiction and, if so, how to regulate such apps. The CPUC issued a decision on September 23, 2013.\nOn March 8, 2013,",
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[
"food and register to be UberEATS drivers. Similar to Uber drivers, UberEATS drivers get paid for delivering food. An example of grocery delivery in sharing economy is Instakart. It has the same business model as that of sharing economy based companies like Uber, Airbnb, or CanYa. Instacart uses resources that are readily available, and the shoppers shop at existing grocery shops. The contract workers use their personal vehicles to deliver groceries to customers. Instacart manages to keep its cost low as it does not require any infrastructure to store goods. In addition to having contract workers, Instacart allows signing up",
"-25.73530922246755"
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[
"April 3, 2018, Uber announced Urgent.ly as a partner on the Uber-branded Visa Debit Card for Uber drivers. Urgent.ly roadside assistance is available to all Uber drivers for a monthly fee, and cardholders receive a discount. Roadside-as-a-Service Urgent.ly provides a Roadside-as-Service solution in which its platform and service provider network powers the roadside assistance programs for companies in the automotive, insurance, telematics and other transportation-focused vertical industries, including new mobility segments (e.g., ride-sharing, bike-sharing, autonomous vehicles, electric vehicles). Platform Services Urgent.ly also provides Platform Services, in which other companies use the Urgent.ly platform to provide a similar service and experience,",
"-25.72687349993066"
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[
"owners and ClassPass which mirrors the relationship with other digital intermediary services such as Amazon.com and Uber.",
"-25.69689628703054"
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[
"normal cars except at very low speeds.\nThe city is also served by a large fleet of taxis. Rates are controlled by a taxi driver's union, and set in negotiations between the union and the city. Rates are based on established zones rather than using taxi meters.\nAs of June 2017, Uber began operating in Puerto Vallarta. Their arrival has not been without conflict, as there have been confrontations between them due to their much lower rates. Education Puerto Vallarta has schools for all levels from kindergarten to university education both private and public. Universities Puerto Vallarta has a campus from one",
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],
[
"FastPass Changes in implementation On August 30, 2007, the Walt Disney Company filed a patent for using SMS as a way to get and use Fastpasses in the park. The patent indicated that guests staying at Disney hotels would be allowed to make early reservations for attractions using their in-room television. Disney FastPass+ FastPass+ allows guests to reserve and plan a visit to a Disney Park in advance for select FastPass+ attractions, Character Greetings, entertainment, and viewing areas for parades and fireworks. The new system allows guests to make reservations up to 60 days in advance, and change at any",
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[
"all traffic was diverted to the Sydney Harbour Tunnel. On the morning of 16 December, road diversions remained in place and Martin Place train station remained closed. In the evening of 16 December, Elizabeth Street, Macquarie Street and Hunter Street were opened to traffic.\nUber fares for travel in Sydney surged during the event under the company's dynamic pricing system, which led to criticism. Uber subsequently refunded excessive fares and provided free rides out of the CBD. Gunman Iranian-born Monis was identified as the hostage-taker and named early on the morning of 16 December.\nIn September 2009, Monis was convicted for criminal",
"-25.647693515129504"
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[
"and approved six hybrid models to be used as cabs.\nIn April 2015, the TLC posted a notice in the City Record proposing the \"Licensing of For-Hire Vehicle Dispatch Applications\", requiring mobile app operators to apply for approval of certain changes to any app used to arrange vehicle rides for hire, widely considered to be targeted at Uber, causing a controversy.\nIn August 2018, the TLC stopped issuing new vehicle licenses for one year, in an attempt to \"study the effects of ride-hail services in the city.\" History Mayor John Lindsay created the TLC in 1971 to regulate the taxi and for-hire",
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[
"major taxi ranks are in East Street in the Lanes, at the Level in central Brighton, at Brunswick Place in Hove, and at both main railway stations. In September Uber were given a six-month extension on their licence to operate pending outcome of Ubers licence review in London. Uber have been openly mocked in local press for charging more than tradition taxis. Coaches National Express operates coach services from Pool Valley coach station, near the Palace Pier. Facilities include a bus shelter and two benches. Coaches operate to London Victoria, Gatwick Airport, Eastbourne, Helston, Southampton, Exeter, Plymouth, Heathrow Airport and",
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[
"announced a new CEO for Shannon, Matthew Thomas. Ryanair announced that it will be ending its Paris and Memmingen routes in late 2016, and it also reduced its Manchester and London Stansted routes. Ryanair is aiming for 720,000 passengers in Summer 2017 even though that they were close to 800,000 in Summer 2016. In October 2016, SAS announced a new route to Stockholm from 1 August 2017 to 7 October 2017. Shortly after that, Lufthansa announced a weekly service to Frankfurt running from April to October in 2017. In September 2017 Ryanair announced a new Route to Reus. It",
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[
"as “Transportation Network Companies”. Thus, Tickengo was the second company in the world to get a license for ride-sharing, just before Lyft and Uber obtained theirs. In early 2014 Tickengo rebranded as Wingz.\nWillie Brown, former Mayor of San Francisco, served as lawyer and advisor to Wingz, representing the company before the California Public Utilities Commission. Funding In March 2015, Wingz announced that it had raised $2.7M in equity funding from Ocotea Holdings, Florence Ventures, Blue Angels Ventures, Big Bloom Investments, Binux Capital, Bright Success Capital Limited, Olive Tree, Jack Russo, David Chen, Vincent Ma, Larry Marcus and other angel",
"-25.558241686690053"
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[
"People Express' frequent flier program was called SMARTbank, and it also operated Club Travelati, a group for customers to receive special discounts. In May 2012, the airline was fined by the United States Department of Transportation for violating a ban on premature advertising in connection with its solicitation for memberships in Club Travelati, of which the airline claimed to have sold over 130 before suspending sales at the end of March 2012.",
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[
"to a different ticket-selling website. Whereas Tickets.com generates revenue through web advertisements, Ticketmaster received money through Internet ticket selling and advertisements founded upon how many visitors accessed its homepage. Tickets.com employed a web crawler to systematically comb Ticketmaster's webpages and retrieve event details and uniform resource locators (URLs). After obtaining the facts, the web crawlers would destroy in 15 seconds the webpage copies but retain the URLs. The lawsuit, scholars Teresa Scassa and Michael Eugene Deturbide wrote, were motivated by how Ticket.com was becoming the \"choice portal\" for consumers buying tickets on the web by taking advantage of Ticketmaster's content.",
"-25.474775430528098"
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[
"New York City and San Francisco. A report published by Schaller Consulting in July 2018 showed that, as a result of ridesharing companies, traffic congestion increased both cities, which already had comprehensive public transport systems in place. A main reason was that a large number of people, who would otherwise have used public transport, shifted to services offered by transportation network companies. Reduced usage of public transportation Studies have shown that ridesharing companies have led to a reduction in use of public transportation. Lack of wheelchair accessible vans In some areas, ridesharing companies are required by law to have a",
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[
"a member of the Priceline Group Affiliate Network as well as the Expedia, Inc. Partner Network to combine inventories for flights, accommodations, and rental cars from direct, corporate, and consumer sites. Users can access mobile apps for Uber and Lyft in their mobile travel itineraries while traveling. Additional partners include Coupa and Expensify for expense management within the platform.",
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[
"permits the court to ignore written contractual terms which do not reflect what reasonable people would consider to be the reality. The latter concerns the question as to what reasonable people would consider to be the reality of the actual working relationship between Uber and its drivers. We consider that the extended meaning of \"sham\" endorsed in Autoclenz provides the common law with ample flexibility to address the convoluted, complex and artificial contractual arrangements, no doubt formulated by a battery of lawyers, unilaterally drawn up and dictated by Uber to tens of thousands of drivers and passengers, not one",
"-25.28890334093012"
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[
"obtain a taxi is to either call a taxi operator or to go to a taxi rank. However, although not the norm, one can hail a passing taxi on the street.\nUber ceased operations in Frankfurt on 9 November 2015 after operating in the city for 18 months. Bicycles Deutsche Bahn makes bicycles available for hire through their Call a Bike service. The bicycles are stationed all over the city, including at selected railway stations. They can easily be spotted because of their eye-catching silver-red colour. To rent a specific bike, riders either call a service number to get an unlock",
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[
"late 1970s through the 1990s, and has occurred in concert with a cultural shift towards active lifestyles and multi-modal use of roadways which has been formally adopted by the National Association of City Transportation Officials.\nAfter the collision that killed Herzberg on March 18, 2018, Uber returned their self-driving cars to the roads in public testing in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on December 20, 2018. Uber said they received authorization from the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation. Uber said they were also pursuing the same with cars on roads in San Francisco, California and Toronto, Ontario.",
"-25.2102152784355"
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[
"The Telegraph, Daily Mail, Los Angeles Times, and USA Today. Los Angeles Times writer Terry Gardner stated that the social media website Twitter is the \"new darling for travelers,\" due in part to the easy by which people can find mistake fares. Compliance Mistake fares' capacity for working depends on the willingness of companies to comply with the mistake fares when they are made. Whether a mistake fare will be honored depends on the company as well as the laws and policies that a company has to adhere to. Federal regulations created certain restrictions to an airline's ability to refuse",
"-25.209284812386613"
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[
"lumped in with standard taxi services and that there was too much red tape. After working with the city government, Battle rewrote the vehicle for hire ordinance that had kept Uber wary of adding Huntsville to its list and saw the successful integration of the service in 2016. Battle was quoted as saying, \"Citizens and business travelers enjoy having transportation options\". Transportation network companies such as Uber, Lyft and Sidecar \"offer convenient alternatives for people on the go.\" Re-election in 2016 On September 23, 2015, Battle posted a statement confirming his running for a third term as mayor in 2016.\nBattle",
"-25.16014964529313"
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[
"as a result of lobbying by Uber who had been flouting the law.\nDrivers must comply with work-time rules and maintain a logbook, with the onus on training falling on companies and drivers since the P endorsement course was abandoned.\nThe New Zealand Taxi Federation is the national advocacy group for taxi companies within New Zealand. Navigation Most experienced taxi drivers who have been working in the same city or region for a while would be expected to know the most important streets and places where their customers request to go. However, to aid the process of manual navigation and the taxi",
"-25.144127942621708"
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[
"that deliver packages. CNS deliveries are either made in separate trips or in multiple-purpose trips that may also serve passengers simultaneously. The now defunct Sidecar is an example of a TNC that incorporated this hybrid passenger and package delivery service. Uber also has food and goods delivery services like UberEATS for food and UberRUSH for bike, foot, and vehicle messenger deliveries. Scootersharing Scootersharing is a recent application of the sharing economy within the transportation space. Scootersharing companies took inspiration from the fourth generation bikesharing strategy, but replaced bicycles with GPS-tracked electric scooters. These scooters are also “dockless”, and are dropped",
"-25.12578755314462"
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[
"for expanding its services to cities in USA and Canada.\nThe Nekso app is available on iOS and Android. It provides a mobile application that serves as a network between users and taxi lines, The taxi user can utilize technology to find taxi service in their vicinity, schedule for a trip and make a transaction. Also, there is panic button that can be accessed by the user and the driver to have his/her location shared if he/she is in danger. At the end of the service the application gives the user the option to rate the driver. The app",
"-25.10642362642102"
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[
"of Ola Cabs has been criticised because of charging errors caused by technical glitches in their system. As of December 2018, there were 190 negative reviews on Ola Cabs posted on TripAdvisor by dissatisfied customers. Surge pricing has been an issue with customers, as Ola is said to initially eliminate competition by lowering prices, and then hiking up prices through what it calls surge pricing. The fact that the same ride can cost different amounts depending on the time, day and the profiles, history and rating of the driver as well as passenger has also incurred much customer wrath. Assaults",
"-25.09325843449915"
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[
"more direct flights between IND to FedEx hubs in Europe and Asia.\nCargolux, which flies to Chicago O'Hare, Los Angeles, and Luxembourg, also operates out of IND. Mass transit The Indianapolis Public Transportation Corporation, known locally as IndyGo, provides public transportation for the city. IndyGo was established in 1975 after the city of Indianapolis took over privately owned Indianapolis Transit Systems, Inc. Prior to 1997, IndyGo was called Metro. Central Indiana Commuter Services (CICS), funded by IndyGo to reduce pollution, serves Indianapolis and surrounding counties.\nHistorically, Indianapolis had an extensive network of streetcar routes. In 1953, the last streetcars ran in",
"-25.073512785485946"
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[
"is focusing on development of its ground-transportation-to-airport platform. In 2016 the company partnered with Ethiopian Airlines.\nAs of 2018 Mozio provides ground transportation services for JetBlue, Booking.com, Hotels.com, Despegar, New Zealand Air, CheapOAir and incorporates Uber and Lyft in its transportation network. News media report that Mozio has a \"bigger fleet than Uber and Lyft combined\" due to its partnerships with those and other ground transportation companies.",
"-25.02069147338625"
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[
"against Ryanair for unfair surcharges, claiming that the €40 (£30) surcharge on passengers who failed to print out a boarding card prior to arrival at the airport was unfair. Judge Barbara Cordoba, sitting in the Commercial Court in Barcelona, held that, under international air travel conventions, Ryanair can neither demand passengers turn up at the airport with their boarding pass, nor charge them €40 (£30) if they do not, and that the fines were abusive because aviation law obliges airlines to issue boarding passes. Judge Cordoba stated that: \"I declare abusive and, therefore, null, the clause in the contract by",
"-25.010791514476296"
],
[
"or jam-packed\"). Media analysis Simon Calder, travel correspondent for The Independent, wrote that overcrowding on intercity routes (such as the one Corbyn was travelling on) is much less frequent than on commuter routes, and he argued that in fact the bigger problem for the East Coast franchise was too many empty seats on off-peak trains (making them inefficient) rather than too few.\nAccording to The Independent, \"as the traingate saga seemed to spiral out of control\" and \"while Twitter had a field day\", aides were unable to contact Corbyn for a response to Virgin's claims because he was at home, making",
"-24.993150930444244"
]
] |
4dffle | What it means to "pop the clutch" and why you would do it? | [
"Also known as \"dropping the clutch\", it means releasing the clutch very quickly, sometimes by slipping your foot off the pedal or fingers off the lever letting it \"pop\" to its resting position. One reason would be, with high revs, to break traction and engage in a \"fuckin sick burnout\". Another reason would be when trying to roll start a vehicle, where quickly disengaging the clutch is needed to transfer energy from the wheels back into the engine forcing the engine to turn over.",
"Assuming you don't know a great deal about clutches - the engine spins a pole, and on the end of that pole is a plate. The wheels are connected to another pole, which also has a plate on the end. These plates are known as the clutch, and you can imagine it like so: [Engine]---||---[Wheels] When cruising along normally, these plates are squished together (as above), and friction causes the spinning engine pole and plate to also spin the wheel plate and pole which obviously spins the wheels and makes the car go. When you press the clutch pedal in, it separates these plates so that the engine pole, although it may still be spinning, is no longer also making the wheel pole spin: [Engine]---| |---[Wheels] Importantly, you can make the engine rev and spin as much as you please with the clutch disengaged like this (to the point of blowing up the engine). When you 'drop/pop' the clutch, you are releasing your foot from the pedal suddenly, so that it returns ('drops/pops') to its normal position (in a very rough way), squashing the plates together, and causing the spinning engine pole to immediately transfer its movement to the wheel pole. You would do this for a couple reasons, as suggested - because you might want to have the engine be producing power in advance of needing it, and then deliver it all at once (as in a drag race), or you might want to stall the car to turn it off (so that instead of the engine's motion transferring to the wheels, the wheels lack of motion transfers to the engine). Alternatively, if your engine will not go but you can get the wheels spinning (by rolling the car down a hill), it is possible to jump start some cars by dropping the clutch and thus reversing the normal pattern of behaviour, by transferring the wheel's motion to the engine, and (hopefully) making the engine work normally and start using fuel to continue spinning.",
"Usually when you're push starting a car. You put it in second gear, turn the key to on, push in the clutch, have a friend push it to about 5mph and you release the clutch quickly. The action of quickly releasing the clutch is considered \"popping\" it. The compression will start the car for you. This can also be done on a motorcycle. It's often called push starting. You can youtube videos for it.",
"These people only provide examples of push starting. Popping the clutch is also used for revving the engine (with the clutch depressed) and then letting go of the clutch pedal quickly so all the energy from the engine goes to the transmission(and wheels) very quickly. You can do it to push start a car or to fly off the line in a racing scenario. Its not good to do because it will wear out your clutch quickly and possibly do some tranny damage. Usually racers have a clutch designed with more friction material and reinforced design for the sole purpose of popping it. Edit: dont do it on a motorcycle if you dont know wtf you are doing. Youll end up on your ass and your bike down the street.",
"2nd gear boys and girls, 1st and 3rd are like pissing in to the wind. It might get the job done but it could get messy.",
"Basically it's letting the clutch out quickly while revving. It can be used to launch or for a \"bump start\" which is putting your car in gear and letting the clutch out after getting it rolling to a decent speed to start your car if the battery is dead or something."
] | [
[
"Push start Push starting, also known as bump starting, clutch starting, popping the clutch or crash starting, is a method of starting a motor vehicle with an internal combustion engine by engaging the manual transmission while the vehicle is in motion. The technique is most commonly employed when other starting methods (automobile self starter, kick start, jump start etc.) are unavailable.\nThe most common way to push start a vehicle is to put the manual transmission in second gear typically, switching the ignition to on/run, depressing the clutch, and pushing the vehicle until it is at a speed of 5 to",
"-33.13152133554104"
],
[
"or keeping the clutch partially engaged while accelerating with the gas pedal, can cause unnecessary damage to the clutch. Slipping the clutch Slipping the clutch (sometimes referred to as feathering the clutch) is a term used by automotive enthusiasts to describe when the driver alternately applies and releases the clutch to achieve some movement of the car. It's called slipping because the clutch plate will slip against the flywheel surface when such an action is performed. Slipping the clutch is known to be hard on the clutch surface due to the sliding friction created.\nDrivers can frequently be observed slipping the",
"-33.00080416770652"
],
[
"Snap fastener A snap fastener (also called press stud, popper, snap or tich) is a pair of interlocking discs, made out of a metal or plastic, commonly used in place of traditional buttons to fasten clothing and for similar purposes. A circular lip under one disc fits into a groove on the top of the other, holding them fast until a certain amount of force is applied. Different types of snaps can be attached to fabric or leather by riveting with a punch and die set specific to the type of rivet snaps used (striking the punch with a",
"-30.217965925083263"
],
[
"Snap (gridiron football) Action The ball begins on the ground with its long axis parallel to the sidelines of the field, its ends marking each team's line of scrimmage in American football; in Canadian football, the line of scrimmage of the team without the ball is 1 yard past their side of the ball. The player snapping the ball (known officially as the \"snapper\" in rule books) delivers the ball to another player, and that action is the snap. The snapper may hand, throw, or even roll the ball to the other player. The snap must be",
"-29.6967176781327"
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[
"has been utilized in calculators, push-button telephones, kitchen appliances, and various other mechanical and electronic devices, home and commercial.\nIn industrial and commercial applications, push buttons can be connected together by a mechanical linkage so that the act of pushing one button causes the other button to be released. In this way, a stop button can \"force\" a start button to be released. This method of linkage is used in simple manual operations in which the machine or process has no electrical circuits for control.\nRed pushbuttons can also have large heads (called mushroom heads) for easy operation and to facilitate the",
"-29.671950909716543"
],
[
"Snapback (electrical) Snapback is a mechanism in a bipolar transistor in which avalanche breakdown or impact ionization provides a sufficient base current to turn on the transistor. It is used intentionally in the design of certain ESD protection devices integrated onto semiconductor chips. It can also be a parasitic failure mechanism when activated inadvertently, outwardly appearing much like latchup in that the chip seems to suddenly blow up when a high voltage is applied.\nSnapback is initiated by a small current from collector to base. In the case of ESD protection devices, this current is caused by avalanche breakdown due to",
"-29.62647699227091"
],
[
"button simply like (X) will stand for a different base. When the button is pressed, the ball would be thrown to the selected base.\nThe new \"Big Slam\" mechanic allows the player to bring four consecutive batters up. If the first batter makes contact a single will automatically register. This will continue until the 4th batter is reached. If the first three players reached base by making contact, the 4th batter, upon making contact, will automatically hit a grand slam.\nBecome a Legend is a mode where the player creates a character who is recovering from an injury in the Mexican League,",
"-29.570859007231775"
],
[
"Pushing Buttons features a heavier sound than their earlier work, with a metal-inspired re-recording of \"More Than You Are\" (previously recorded for the Green Album), and the songs \"Black Friday\" and \"Snap Your Fingers, Snap Your Neck\". \"Snap Your Fingers, Break Your Neck\" is a cover of a song by American heavy metal band Prong (which was included on that band's 1994 album, Cleansing). The other songs are a lot lighter. \"Black Friday\" received significant airplay and was voted in at No. 22 on the Triple J's Hottest 100 for 1998. Release Pushing Buttons was not released in the United States",
"-29.359310751817247"
],
[
"regulating button is to throw the point of the jack out of the nose of the hammer butt, and allow the hammer to rebound from the string. If the button is too high, it does not throw or trip the jack in time to prevent blocking. When the button is too low, it disengages too soon, and much of the force of the key is lost before it reaches the hammer.\nBR, is the block rail, felted on the side next to the jack which strikes against it when thrown from nose. This rail is absent in some actions, in which",
"-29.03433093393687"
],
[
"Snap-fit A snap-fit (Integral Attachment Feature) is an assembly method used to attach flexible parts, usually plastic, to form the final product by pushing the parts' interlocking components together. There are a number of variations in snap fits, including cantilever, torsional and annular. Snap fits are an alternative to assembly using nails or screws, and have the advantages of speed and no loose parts. Snap-fit connectors can be found in everyday products such as battery compartment lids, snap fasteners and pens. History Snap-together connectors have been used for thousands of years. The first ones were metal. Some of the oldest",
"-29.030071379098445"
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[
"makes contact when the button is pressed and breaks when the button is released. Each key of a computer keyboard, for example, is a normally-open \"push-to-make\" switch. A \"push-to-break\" (or normally-closed or NC) switch, on the other hand, breaks contact when the button is pressed and makes contact when it is released. An example of a push-to-break switch is a button used to release a door held closed by an electromagnet. The interior lamp of a household refrigerator is controlled by a switch that is held open when the door is closed. Rotary switch A rotary switch operates with a",
"-28.886354084301274"
],
[
"pressure on the clutch pedal to re-engage the engine to the driveshaft. If the pedal is released quickly, a definite lurch can be felt as the engine and driveshaft re-engage and their speeds equalize. However, if the clutch is released slowly the clutch disc will \"slip\" against the flywheel; this friction permits the engine a smoother transition to its new rotation speed. Such routine slippage causes wear on the clutch analogous to the wear-and-tear on a brake pad when stopping. Some amount of wear is unavoidable, but with better clutching/shifting technique it can be minimized by",
"-28.787098625653016"
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[
"is said \"sec\" (dry), \"chien sec\" or \"coup sec\". When easy to trigger, the strike or the bridge is said \"gras\" (fat), \"chien gras\", or \"coup gras\".\nThere are various stylistic techniques that are used as the player turns the crank, striking the wheel at various points in its revolution. This technique is often known by its French term, the coup-de-poignet (or, more simply, the shortened coup). The percussion is transmitted to the wheel by striking the handle with the thumb, fingers or base of the thumb at one or more of four points in the revolution of the wheel (often",
"-28.710984533041483"
],
[
"snapper's job is to snap the football to the holder, who will catch and position it for the placekicker. There is not usually a holder on kickoffs, because the ball is kicked off a tee; however, a holder may be used in certain situations, such as if wind is preventing the ball from remaining upright on the tee. The player on the receiving team who catches the ball is known as the kickoff returner (KR).\nThe positions specific to punt plays are the punter (P), long snapper, upback and gunner. The long snapper snaps the football directly to the punter, who",
"-28.685241137631238"
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[
"snap-in area. The specific name of the snap-fit is usually named after the type of stress or strain it utilizes; the torsional snap-fit uses torque to hold parts in place. Annular The annular snap-fit utilizes hoop-strain to hold into place. Hoop-strain is the expansion of the circumference of the more elastic piece as it is pushed onto the more rigid piece. In most cases the design is circular. Some popular examples are pen caps, ball and socket joints, Snap fasteners, and some water bottle caps. This kind of snap-fit can be used multiple times. However, permanent strain may develop, loosening",
"-28.644628206209745"
],
[
"Boom goes the dynamite \"Boom goes the dynamite!\" is a catchphrase coined by Ball State University student Brian Collins, popularized after a video of him delivering an ill-fated sports broadcast that included the phrase was shared on YouTube in 2005. In the ensuing years it has become a popular phrase, used to indicate a pivotal moment. Origins During his freshman year, Collins agreed to appear on Ball State University's campus newscast in place of the regular sportscaster, who was ill. The teleprompter was operational, but an inexperienced operator accidentally fast-forwarded through the script, leaving Collins with no choice but to",
"-28.634540514321998"
],
[
"Tilt fuze A tilt fuze or fuse is a device usually used in the operation of car bombs and other such detonators, relying on the force of a jerk or similar movement for the triggering of the desired explosion.\nThe tilt fuze is typically a home-made mercury switch. It consists of a small tube no larger than a medical tablet bottle, made from plastic, glass or some other such material. At the bottom end of the tube, a certain volume of mercury is placed, while at the cap end are wired two live electrical contacts linked to a battery and bomb.",
"-28.56671272474341"
],
[
"Clutch hitter Does clutch hitting exist? Various baseball analysts, including Bill James, Pete Palmer and Dick Cramer, and the Baseball Prospectus editors, have found so-called \"clutch hitting\" ability to be a myth. This is not to say that clutch hits, like those listed above, do not exist, but that \"there is virtually no evidence that any player or group of players possesses an ability to outperform his established level of ability in clutch situations, however defined\". In his 1984 Baseball Abstract, James framed the problem with clutch hitting this way: \"How is it that a player who possesses the reflexes",
"-28.39997483487241"
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[
"presses out his clutch, moves his hand lever forward, and lets in the clutch in the ordinary way with slight acceleration. Thereafter the whole of the drive is done with the accelerator pedal, the accelerator allowing the engine to run up and keep constant maximum speed governed by the control lever on the top of the steering wheel by which engine braking power can also be regulated. When the accelerator is pressed after being released the effect is rather similar to that with a free wheel in use, in that the engine picks up to the speed that is suitable",
"-28.234639787726337"
],
[
"Push-button A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a simple switch mechanism for controlling some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of hard material, usually plastic or metal. The surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the human finger or hand, so as to be easily depressed or pushed. Buttons are most often biased switches, although many un-biased buttons (due to their physical nature) still require a spring to return to their un-pushed state.\nTerms for the \"pushing\" of a button include pressing, depressing, mashing, slapping, hitting, and punching. Uses The \"push-button\"",
"-28.210938308329787"
],
[
"Pop Toob A pop toob is a noisemaker. It consists of tubes that are extendable, bendable, and connectable.",
"-28.113744975067675"
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[
"to the first baseman. A snap throw can also refer to the catcher throwing the ball to the base following a pitch. The spin move is when the pitcher lifts his leg like he is going to pitch the ball but then rotates his body toward first and throws the ball. The pitcher will try to vary this move by doing this move while looking at the runner or at the batter, which can be deceiving to the baserunner. A former pickoff move in Major League Baseball used mostly by right-handed pitchers was called \"third to first\" and could",
"-27.997689611904207"
],
[
"is performed so that the opponent falls across the ring ropes. Named after \"Hot Stuff\" Eddie Gilbert. Pop-up Also called a \"free-fall\" or \"push-up flapjack\". A pop-up is a flapjack where the attacker, upon facing an opponent rushing towards them, flings the opponent vertically up into the air without holding on to the opponent. The standing attacker or the airborne opponent is free to carry out an attack after the pop-up. Examples of attacks from the standing wrestler include performing a European uppercut to the falling opponent, or catching the opponent and then performing a sitout powerbomb. Examples of attacks",
"-27.94781493235132"
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[
"is dragged to the top of the screen. Dragging windows to the left or right edges of the screen allows users to snap software windows to either side of the screen, such that the windows take up half the screen. When a user moves windows that were snapped or maximized using Snap, the system restores their previous state. Snap functions can also be triggered with keyboard shortcuts. Shake hides all inactive windows when the active window's title bar is dragged back and forth rapidly (metaphorically shaken).\nWindows 7 includes 13 additional sound schemes, titled Afternoon, Calligraphy, Characters, Cityscape, Delta, Festival, Garden,",
"-27.942150451883208"
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[
"down between the wheel and the tool rest. The spark arrestors catch stray sparks.\nGrinding is usually done with the workpiece resting on the tool rest. This prevents sudden slips in which the wheel grabs the work momentarily and yanks it out of the operator's hand or pulls the hand toward the wheel. Wheel guards The wheel guards serve to intercept the fragments of an exploding wheel, keeping them from killing people or damaging surroundings. This is why running a grinder without the guards is prohibited. Coolant Grinding metal on a power-driven grinding wheel quickly heats up the workpiece. Most bench",
"-27.835204583854647"
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[
"by Clutch, except where noted.",
"-27.76331451299484"
],
[
"Placebo button A placebo button is a push-button or other control which has apparent functionality but has no physical effect when pressed. Such buttons can appear to work, by lighting up or otherwise reacting, which rewards the user by giving them an illusion of control. They are commonly placed in situations where it would have once been useful to have such a button but the system now operates automatically, such as a manual thermostat in a temperature-regulated office. Were the control removed entirely, some users would feel frustrated at the awareness they were not in control.\nIn many cases a button",
"-27.74860882718349"
],
[
"Push the Button (Teapacks song) Style and lyrics The song is an up-tempo number, featuring many changes in tempo and style. Lead singer Kobi Oz begins by singing in English over a steady accordion beat, explaining that \"The world is full of terror\" and singing about the risk posed by \"some crazy rulers\" who are bent on destruction. At this point, the song moves to the chorus, featuring a guitar riff and the repeated phrase \"They're gonna push the button\".\nThe second verse begins in a similar style to the first, with the exception that the lyrics are delivered in French.",
"-27.747589751175838"
],
[
"Punch in/out Usage in digital recording In modern, Digital Audio Workstation-based recording environments, punching in and out can be done automatically by pre-selecting the in and out points on the timeline of the DAW. When the record button is pressed, the DAW software will play back the previously recorded track outside of these points. As soon as the playhead reaches the in-point, the recording begins and the previously recorded material is muted. At the out-point, recording stops and the software reverts to playback.",
"-27.738149917073315"
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[
"Upon receiving the snap, the holder holds the ball against the ground vertically, with the stitches away from the kicker. The kicker begins his approach during the snap, so the snapper and holder have little margin for error. A split-second mistake can disrupt the entire attempt. Depending on the level of play, the ball, upon reaching the holder, is held up by either the aid of a small rubber \"tee\" (all ranks up to the high school level, which is not the same as the kickoff tee, but rather a small platform, and comes in either 1 or 2 inch",
"-27.669874160608742"
],
[
"Design Like the earlier snaplock and later flintlock, the snaphance drives flint onto steel to create a shower of sparks to ignite the main charge (propellant).\nThe flint is held in a clamp at the end of a bent lever called the cock. Upon pulling the trigger, this moves forward under the pressure of a strong spring and strikes a curved plate of hardened steel (called simply the steel, or in 17th century English dialect the frizzen) to produce a shower of sparks (actually white-hot steel shavings). These fall into a flash pan holding priming powder. The flash from the pan",
"-27.66191682056524"
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[
"hit drives, which travel flat and rapidly over the net into the opponents' rear midcourt and rear court. Pushes may also be hit flatter, placing the shuttlecock into the front midcourt. Drives and pushes may be played from the midcourt or forecourt, and are most often used in doubles: they are an attempt to regain the attack, rather than choosing to lift the shuttlecock and defend against smashes. After a successful drive or push, the opponents will often be forced to lift the shuttlecock. Biomechanics Badminton biomechanics have not been the subject of extensive scientific study, but some studies confirm",
"-27.658465106214862"
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[
"or airplane, or door lock, or other mechanisms which typically make a \"clicking\" sound. In these contexts, unclicking means to open the latch or seat belt. It has also been used in the context of guns, in which a safety catch is \"unclicked\", or flooring materials in which pieces are interlocked, The term has been used to describe the act of answering a cell phone by pressing on a button when it is ringing.",
"-27.55607424606569"
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[
"explosives or \"bang\" is used, progress can be slow due to the need to not visit the passages for weeks to wait for the bad air to clear.\nA more recently developed technique is known as \"capping\", where a hole is drilled into the rock using a battery-powered drill, a small explosive charge (possibly designed for use with a nail gun) is inserted, and tapped with a long steel rod in order to cleave off pieces of rock. Caving groups in Texas and Oklahoma have developed a technique whereby small amounts of powder are sealed into straws and detonated electronically. This",
"-27.367810496827587"
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[
"football) In a snap, the snap count is decided on in the huddle, usually expressed as \"...on <number>.\" being the final words spoken by the quarterback after calling the play but before the huddle breaks and the players go to the line of scrimmage. The snap count allows offensive players to have a small head start. Association football In Association football (soccer), the huddle has been used before games by Brazil and the Ireland national teams and club teams such as Derry City FC. Celtic FC from Scotland have used the huddle as a pre-match ritual since 1995, although this",
"-27.286682936985926"
],
[
"Rollover (key) Rollover is the ability of a computer keyboard to correctly handle several simultaneous keystrokes. Keyboard usage During normal typing on a conventional computer keyboard, only one key is usually pressed at any given time, then released before the next key is pressed. However, this is not always the case. When using modifier keys such as Shift or Control, the user intentionally holds the modifier key(s) while pressing and releasing another key. Rapid typists may also sometimes inadvertently press a key before releasing the previous one. Certain unusual forms of keyboarding require multiple keys to be pressed or held",
"-27.277328763797414"
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[
"jaws are controlled by a button on the end or the side of the pencil. When the button is pushed, the jaws move forward and separate, allowing the lead to advance. When the button is released and the jaws retract, the \"lead retainer\" (a small rubber device inside the tip) keeps the lead in place, preventing the lead from either falling freely outward or riding back up into the barrel until the jaws recover their grip. Other designs use a precisely-fitted metal sleeve to guide and support the lead, and do not need a rubber retainer.\nIn one type of ratchet-based",
"-27.213082694041077"
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[
"and so eliminate slippage under power when fully engaged.\nThe Hele-Shaw clutch was a wet clutch that relied entirely on viscous effects, rather than on friction.\nA dry clutch, as the name implies, is not bathed in liquid and uses friction to engage. Centrifugal clutch A centrifugal clutch is used in some vehicles (e.g., mopeds) and also in other applications where the speed of the engine defines the state of the clutch, for example, in a chainsaw. This clutch system employs centrifugal force to automatically engage the clutch when the engine rpm rises above a threshold and to automatically disengage the clutch",
"-27.151756117007608"
],
[
"Bang snaps Bang snaps (also known as \"Devil Bangers\", \"Lil' Splodeys\", Throwdowns, snap-its, poppers, whack-pops, poppies, pop-its, snappers, Snap Dragons, whip'n pops, Pop Pop Snappers, whipper snappers, fun snaps, party snaps, pop pops, whiz-bangers, cherry poppers, pop rocks, snap'n pops or bangers) are a type of small novelty firework sold as a trick noisemaker. Composition Bang snaps consist of a small amount of gravel or coarse sand impregnated with a minute quantity (~0.2 milligrams) of silver fulminate high explosive and twisted in a cigarette paper to produce a shape resembling a cherry. The friction-sensitive silver fulminate detonates when stepped on,",
"-27.14482122915797"
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[
"clutch.",
"-27.10826751717832"
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[
"rolling bomb, however, if the player is holding a flag while they have TagPro, and are touched by an enemy player, they will pop (as will the enemy who touched them) and lose the flag.\nTop speed: Top speed was a power-up that allows the player to have a higher maximum velocity once they reach that point. Because of the fact that a player had to accelerate first in order to reap the effects of this powerup, it was retired, as it was deemed to be too weak and the effects not noticeable (i.e. a weaker and earlier version of the",
"-27.098833432944957"
],
[
"Pop gun A pop gun (also written as popgun or pop-gun) is a toy gun that was made by American inventor Edward Lewis and uses air pressure to fire a small tethered or untethered projectile (such as cork or foam) out of a barrel, most often via piston action though sometimes via spring pressure. Other variants do not launch the obstruction, but simply create a loud noise. This mechanism consists of a hollow cylindrical barrel which is sealed at one end with the projectile and at the other with a long-handled plunger. In this type, the plunger is rapidly forced",
"-27.069885671604425"
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[
"produces a shock wave causing the clicking sound. The lightning bolt is simply a scaled-up version of the sparks seen in more domestic occurrences of static discharge. The flash occurs because the air in the discharge channel is heated to such a high temperature that it emits light by incandescence. The clap of thunder is the result of the shock wave created as the superheated air expands explosively. Electronic components Many semiconductor devices used in electronics are very sensitive to the presence of static electricity and can be damaged by a static discharge.\nThe use of an antistatic strap is mandatory",
"-27.059660900296876"
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[
"Nuclear button The \"nuclear button\" is a figurative term referring to the power to use nuclear weapons. \"Pushing the nuclear button\" refers to actually using them. The actual procedure for using such weapons is more complex than simply pushing a button. The \"nuclear button\" may be transferred to another official due to political changes or the incapacitation of a person currently in control of it.\nVarious nuclear countries have nuclear briefcases that accompany the leader (such as the president of the United States) allowing him or her to launch nuclear missiles at any time.\nDepictions of a nuclear buttons sometimes appear in",
"-26.97645700769499"
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[
"two additional action buttons for attacking and jumping. The button on top of the joystick allows the player character to grab onto any overhead bar or tightrope and hang from there. There are five primary techniques performed by pressing the joystick and buttons individually or in combination with each other. These consists of the \"Triple Blow Combination\" (a series of punches and kicks that serve as the player's standard attack), the \"Flying Neck Throw\" (performed by attacking the enemy while jumping), the \"Hang Kick\" (performed by attacking the enemy while hanging from a bar), the \"Tightrope Walk\" (in which",
"-26.9449450042448"
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[
"they receive and the grit-filled environments where they are often used.\nThe type of work they do means that they require a \"slip-clutch\" which engages when the drill bit jams and sufficient torque is put onto the \"slip-clutch\" mechanism. This stops the violent wrenching motion that a drill without a clutch would cause when stopped suddenly from full speed, protecting the drill from damage. The slip-clutch also protects the operator, but does not always prevent injury. Some manufacturers have introduced additional technology to protect the operator. Hilti has a technology called \"ATC\" or \"Active Torque Control\" which works by disengaging the",
"-26.934520222828723"
],
[
"Crunk Etymology The term has been attributed mainly to African-American slang, in which it holds various meanings. It most commonly refers to the verb phrase \"to crank up\". It is theorized that the use of the term came from a past-tense form of \"crank\", which was sometimes conjugated as \"crunk\" in the South, such that if a person, event, or party was hyped-up, i.e. energetic – \"cranked\" or \"cranked up\" – it was said to be \"crunk\".\nIn publications, \"crunk\" can be traced back to 1972 in the Dr. Seuss book Marvin K. Mooney Will You Please Go Now!. He uses",
"-26.828592340432806"
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[
"the center required by rule to be the snapper. In other codes, a guard, tackle, tight end or split end can legally deliver the snap; such scenarios, known as an unbalanced line, are seldom used outside of trick plays and novelties.\nFor a handed snap, the snapper will usually have his head up, facing opponents. For a thrown snap, especially in formations wherein the ball may be snapped to players in different positions, the snapper will commonly bend over looking between his legs. Because of the vulnerability of a player in such a position, the National Collegiate Athletic Association",
"-26.807444561680313"
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[
"bounced (for the start of play after a goal, or a ball-up), or thrown (for an out of bounds) by the umpire. During a bounce, using the arrow keys will start the player moving, only after the ball has touched the ground. Pressing A at the moment of contact will tap the ball to another team member, while pressing B will knock the ball a larger distance but not to a particular player. During a ball up or a boundary throw in, pressing A will make the player leap into the air, and then the same actions apply as a",
"-26.782243864960037"
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[
"the car is equipped with disc brakes. For this reason, impact wrenches should properly be used only for removing lug nuts, not for tightening them, although in practice this rule is often ignored for convenience's sake, even by professional mechanics.\nWhen re-fitting a wheel, the nuts (or bolts) should be tightened in a criss-cross pattern (to even out the forces) and initially should only be tightened \"finger tight\" on all nuts. In this context \"finger tight\" is tight enough to reach the point where free play is taken up and proper tightening is about to begin, say, the tightening force using",
"-26.748373963404447"
],
[
"an army manual on pile driving hammers:\nThe initial start-up of the hammer requires that the piston (ram) be raised to a point where the trip automatically releases the piston, allowing it to fall. As the piston falls, it activates the fuel pump, which discharges a metered amount of fuel into the ball pan of the impact block. The falling piston blocks the exhaust ports, and compression of fuel trapped in the cylinder begins. The compressed air exerts a pre-load force to hold the impact block firmly against the drive cap and pile. At the bottom of the compression stroke, the",
"-26.66996252955869"
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[
"the snap-fit from breaking. One very popular example is a battery compartment lid. Torsional In a torsional snap fit, one must deflect, or force the protruding edges of piece B away from the insertion area. Piece A then slides in between the protruding edges until the desired distance is reached. The edges of piece B is then released and piece A is held in place. The snap-fits in this description are the protruding edges of piece B. These types of snap-fits may have a spring in place; so that when activated, the locked in piece is released and put into",
"-26.66244911670219"
],
[
"the flag, and must be touched by an enemy player again to get popped. However, players can still die with a rolling bomb if they hit a spike or a gate.\nGrip (colloquially Juke Juice): When a player equips the Grip power-up, it increases the maximum acceleration of his ball, which gives the player greater control over his movements as well as allowing the player to reach their maximum velocity faster.\nTagPro: When a player has TagPro, they have the ability to pop any enemy player they collide with, regardless of whether or not the opponent is carrying the flag. Unlike the",
"-26.65630333937588"
],
[
"that can suck up cracker crumbs at high speed. When it starts trying to snatch a packet of Wallace's crackers, he yanks the box away and throws it to Gromit, who eventually lassos the machine and rides it like a rodeo bull. Gromit ties a knot in its suction hose, causing the rear end to burst and shower dirt all over both Wallace and the area of the room around him. He disgustedly asks Gromit to get the dustpan and brush he had been using at the start. The Turbo Diner While trying to repair the Autochef, Wallace tries a",
"-26.635057654086268"
],
[
"attacking aircraft from the blast effects of a nuclear (or conventional) bomb. Pop-up In pop-up bombing, the pilot approaches from low altitude in level flight, and on cues from the computer pulls up at the last moment to release the bomb. Release usually occurs between 20° and 75° above the horizontal, causing the bomb to be tossed upward and forward, much like an underarm throw of a ball. Level toss Although \"pop-up\" bombing is generally characterized by its low-level approach, the same technique of a toss starting from level flight can be used at any altitude when it is not",
"-26.633057812112384"
],
[
"BANG file Another meaning In some early ICL mainframe computers, a bang file was a temporary data storage file whose name began with a ! character (which is sometimes nicknamed \"bang\") and automatically deleted when the run or user session ended.",
"-26.62289308596337"
],
[
"phones. Exploding Snap Exploding Snap is a wizarding card game in which the cards spontaneously explode during games. The game is popular with Hogwarts students. In Chamber of Secrets, Harry and Ron are held back from investigating why spiders were fleeing Hogwarts because Fred and George delayed them with this game. Ron later singed his eyebrows while building a card house with Exploding Snap cards. In Order of the Phoenix, Lee Jordan is punished by Dolores Umbridge for saying that she cannot tell them off for playing this game, as one of her Educational Decrees states that teachers can only",
"-26.602781558365677"
],
[
"Boom operator (media) A boom operator is an assistant of the production sound mixer. The principal responsibility of the boom operator is microphone placement, usually using a boom pole (or \"fishpole\") with a microphone attached to the end (called a boom mic), their aim being to hold the microphone as close to the actors or action as possible without allowing the microphone or boom pole to enter the camera's frame. Invention of the boom mic The first noted use of a boom mike was on the set of Beggars of Life (1928) when director William A. Wellman wanted a tracking",
"-26.598456645326223"
],
[
"crank is struck, the hammer lifts up suddenly and vibrates against the soundboard, producing a characteristic rhythmic buzz that is used as an articulation or to provide percussive effect, especially in dance pieces.\nOn French-style instruments, the sensitivity of the buzzing bridge can be altered by turning a peg called a tirant in the tailpiece of the instrument that is connected by a wire or thread to the trompette. The tirant adjusts the lateral pressure on the trompette and thereby sets the sensitivity of the buzzing bridge to changes in wheel velocity. When hard to trigger, the strike or the bridge",
"-26.594339001661865"
],
[
"the snap, in the jet sweep, the receiver goes in motion and the quarterback calls for the snap just as the receiver passes him. The fly sweep is commonly seen at the high school and college level, but not as often at the professional level due to the defensive linemen generally being faster and thus able to stop the play for minimal or no gain, or even a loss. Fake end-around A derivative of the end-around has the quarterback hand off to a running back, then pretend he still has the ball, and is giving it to the wide receiver",
"-26.59337219571171"
],
[
"phone plug halfway into the insert until there is a springy \"click\" feeling, at which point the plug is contacting the signal within the insert jack, but isn't breaking the normalized contact. The \"half-click\" method works fine until the insert cable is jarred or wiggled, causing noise or a loss of signal within the channel.\nBecause of the combination of balanced external devices and unbalanced insert jacks, the process of inserting involves finding out which devices have which kinds of output configurations. Full electronic balancing needs a different cabling style than transformer balancing, which in turn needs a different cabling style",
"-26.57874829467619"
],
[
"to overcome the static friction, then the reduction of the friction to the kinetic friction can cause a sudden jump in the velocity of the movement. The attached picture shows symbolically an example of stick-slip.\nV is a drive system, R is the elasticity in the system, and M is the load that is lying on the floor and is being pushed horizontally. When the drive system is started, the Spring R is loaded and its pushing force against load M increases until the static friction coefficient between load M and the floor is not able to hold the load anymore.",
"-26.56320102380414"
],
[
"Snaphance A snaphance or snaphaunce is a type of lock for firing a gun or is a gun using that mechanism. The name is Dutch in origin but the mechanism cannot be attributed to the Netherlands with certainty. It is the mechanical progression of the wheellock firing mechanism, and along with the miquelet lock and doglock are predecessors of the flintlock mechanism. It fires from a flint struck against a striker plate above a steel pan to ignite the priming powder which fires the gun. Examples of this firearm can be found through Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East.",
"-26.545442427508533"
],
[
"red button that says \"Do Not Press\", and only accidentally presses it when instructed to press the adjacent one when Noel is trying to calm down Fintan. This causes the plane to start dumping fuel. Dougal tells Ted there's a problem with the plane and that it is going to crash, and that there are only two parachutes aboard. Ted talks to the pilot, who agrees they shouldn't tell the other passengers this and take calm steps to resolve the situation. They press the \"emergency\" button which causes sirens and warnings about the pending crash in the passenger cabin.\nTed takes",
"-26.5393268589105"
],
[
"the computer actuates both the stick shaker and an auditory alert.\nThe shaker itself is composed of an electric motor connected to a deliberately unbalanced flywheel. When actuated, the shaker induces a forceful, noisy, and entirely unmistakable shaking of the control yoke. This shaking of the control yoke matches the frequency and amplitude of the stick shaking that occurs due to airflow separation in low-speed aircraft as they approach the stall. The stick shaking is intended to act as a backup to the auditory stall alert, in cases where the flight crew may be distracted.\nIn a 1963 BAC-111 stall test,",
"-26.510085537047416"
],
[
"Eye popper An eye popper or rubber popper is a popular children's toy. Information An eye popper is a small, dome-shaped piece of rubber or similar material resembling a half of a rubber ball; the shape of a smile is often imprinted on the dome. When pressed, the toy inverts, but after a few seconds, it pops back into its original shape, making a loud popping sound. If resting on the ground when this happens, the toy will fly several feet into the air. The eye popper's behavior resembles the process by which a ball compresses upon hitting a hard",
"-26.49170368583873"
],
[
"Knuckle Cracking The physical mechanism behind the popping or cracking sound heard when cracking joints such as knuckles has recently been elucidated by cine MRI to be caused by tribonucleation as a gas bubble forms in the synovial fluid that bathes the joint. Despite this evidence, many still believe it to be caused by synovial fluid filling the vacuum left by the joint's displacement.",
"-26.491081327549182"
],
[
"Long snapper In gridiron football, the long snapper (or deep snapper) is a special teams specialist whose duty is to snap the football over a longer distance, typically around 15 yards during punts, and 7–8 yards during field goals and extra point attempts.\nDuring field goals and point after touchdown, the snap is received by the holder typically 7–8 yards away. During punt plays the snap is delivered to the punter from 13–15 yards away. Following a punt snap the snapper often executes a blocking assignment and then must cover the kick by running downfield and attempting to stop the opposing",
"-26.490371910782414"
],
[
"(NCAA) and the National Federation of State High School Associations (\"Fed\") have adopted rules providing that if a player is positioned at least 7 yards behind the neutral zone to receive a snap, opponents are not to deliberately contact the snapper until one second after the snap (NCAA), or until the snapper has a chance to react (Fed). However, in professional football it is common for a center to be able to practice a single \"shotgun\" formation thrown snap enough to keep his head up and toss it blindly.\nIn the National Football League (and presumably other levels), the snap",
"-26.472604437207337"
],
[
"diving away on their own. When making a ticking sound, the callers do not open their mouths, so it is hard to distinguish who is the maker of the sound. The parent who carries the chicks tend to make the ticking sound more often than those that do not, and both of male and female parents are equally likely to tick. Another vocalization noise is clucking, and this signals for food. When a parent clucks, the young respond to it by poking their head out of their parent back where they are on to receive food. Reproduction and survival The",
"-26.464807355310768"
],
[
"Ball-up A ball-up (pl. ball-ups) in Australian rules football describes a method of restarting play at a neutral contest after a stoppage within the field of play. It is not to be confused with a boundary throw-in which occurs in most cases when the ball is forced out of bounds. Ball-ups may be considered to be the equivalent of a jump ball, faceoff or dropped-ball. Historically they were performed in most cases by a field umpire throwing the ball firmly into the ground such that it bounces directly upwards several metres into the air. They are also known",
"-26.429620053851977"
],
[
"build-up discharges, explosions can be caused by ignition of the flammable mixture. Belt friction Belt friction is a physical property observed from the forces acting on a belt wrapped around a pulley, when one end is being pulled. The resulting tension, which acts on both ends of the belt, can be modeled by the belt friction equation.\nIn practice, the theoretical tension acting on the belt or rope calculated by the belt friction equation can be compared to the maximum tension the belt can support. This helps a designer of such a rig to know how many times the belt or",
"-26.42865661138785"
],
[
"with great force. This can carve grooves into the rock's surface, or, if the cam is in a crack behind a flake, the expansion can loosen the flake and eventually (or suddenly) split it off. Wedges (nuts) can also be forced into a crack much harder than the leader intended, and cracks have been damaged as cleaners try to chisel or pull stuck nuts out of their constrictions. In very soft rock, nuts and cams both can blow right through the rock and out of their placements, even with forces as small as those generated by tugging to \"set\"",
"-26.406336683256086"
],
[
"mechanical energy necessary for the snap action of the switch mechanism is made of a beryllium copper alloy that is hardened to form a spring as part of the fabrication of the contact. The same part often also forms the body of the contact itself, and is thus the current path. Abusing the switch mechanism to hold the contacts in a transition state, or severely overloading the switch, will heat and thus anneal the spring, reducing or eliminating the \"snap action\" of the switch, leading to slower transitions, more energy dissipated in the switch, and progressive failure. Push button The",
"-26.400801799107285"
],
[
"snap-fits found are snap fasteners, or buttons, shown on the Chinese Terracotta Army featuring soldiers from the late Warring States Period. Metal snap fasteners, spring clips, and other snap-type connectors are still in broad use today.\nWith the development of new flexible yet springy materials, such as molded plastic, and new manufacturing processes, many new variations in these types of connectors have been invented, and are commonly called snap-fits. They can be found in on our phones, laptops, keys, and other household devices. Engineers have studied and developed these snap-fits, creating formulae concerning the amount of deflection allowed",
"-26.40070467336045"
],
[
"Slide (baseball) In baseball, a slide is the action of a player, acting as a baserunner, who drops his body to the ground once he is very close to the base he is approaching and slides along the grounはちはたはたはたd to reach the base. Sliding is widely considered to be an essential component of baserunning in both youth and professional baseball, though not precisely for the same reason.\nA baserunner may slide into a base in a number of different ways and for a number of perceived reasons, including to avoid a tag out, to avoid overrunning the base, and to",
"-26.37904555501882"
],
[
"down. Also it's hard to diagnose the problem if the motor's blown up. Because you're in a position this weekend where you just have to go for it and what you hope is you've got something as simple as a plug wire or a spark plug that you can replace and the motor's not going to grenade. We came here and looked at it, and actually on the digital dash, we have a little diagnosis page and nothing is showing up, so we didn't know what was wrong. We were just going to salvage as long as we could.\" He",
"-26.37620644213166"
],
[
"example, with the microphone suspended, a slight tilt on the horizontal axis will cause the ribbon to 'sag' slightly, resulting in a noticeable boost in the lower-midrange frequencies.\nThe ribbon is positioned inside the housing in such a way that fricatives may cause popping sounds, due to the explosion of air directly into the ribbon. A common solution to this problem has been to attach a pencil vertically across the front of the microphone. The pencil deflects a vocalist's breath as it reaches the microphone, and prevents it from hitting the ribbon directly.",
"-26.370372649158526"
],
[
"hit can create sparks, which may ignite flammable or explosive gases. These are a hazard in some industries such as underground coal mining (due to the presence of methane gas), or in other hazardous environments such as petroleum refineries and chemical plants. In these environments, a variety of non-sparking metal tools are used, primarily made of aluminium or beryllium copper. In recent years, the handles have been made of durable plastic or rubber, though wood is still widely used because of its shock-absorbing qualities and repair-ability. As a force amplifier A hammer is a simple force amplifier that works by",
"-26.352771422360092"
],
[
"Ground burst A ground burst is the detonation of an explosive device such as an artillery shell, nuclear weapon or air-dropped bomb that explodes upon hitting the ground. These weapons are set off by (fuses) that are activated when the weapon strikes the ground or something equally hard, such as a concrete building.\nIn the context of a nuclear weapon, a ground burst is a detonation on the ground, in shallow water, or below the fallout-free altitude. This condition produces substantial amounts of nuclear fallout. An air burst or a deep subterranean detonation, by contrast, makes little fallout. Ground shock",
"-26.33845653841854"
],
[
"a stick and another holds a knife; the sound made by the stick and the knife striking each other has a rhythmic, almost musical quality, hence the name bang bang chicken.",
"-26.33361473394325"
],
[
"The squeaky wheel gets the grease The squeaky wheel gets the grease is an American proverb used to convey the idea that the most noticeable (or loudest) problems are the ones most likely to get attention. It is alternately expressed as \"The squeaky wheel gets the oil\". Cultural differences Culturally, the adage contrasts with that of the Japanese proverb, \"The stake that sticks up gets hammered down\", or \"The nail that stands out gets pounded down,\" (出る釘は打たれる, deru kugi wa utareru), or the Dutch proverbs \"Tall trees catch loads of wind\" (\"Hoge bomen vangen veel wind\", implying they're the",
"-26.320418547693407"
],
[
"Stick-slip phenomenon The stick-slip phenomenon, also known as the slip-stick phenomenon or simply stick-slip, is the spontaneous jerking motion that can occur while two objects are sliding over each other. Cause Below is a simple, heuristic description of stick-slip phenomena using classical mechanics that is relevant for engineering descriptions. However, in actuality, there is little consensus in academia regarding the actual physical description of stick-slip which follows the lack of understanding about friction phenomena in general. The generally agreed upon view is that stick-slip behavior results from common phonon modes (at the interface between the substrate and the slider) that",
"-26.31021519191563"
],
[
"Juke (football move) A juke is a move in most forms of American football used to evade a tackler by deception, and thus without need of a stiff arm. It can also be called sidestepping.\nA typical juke involves a ball-carrier faking as if he will run one way, then planting his foot and running the opposite. When this is done against the flow of play, it is called a cutback. Spin move One variation on the common juke is a spin move.",
"-26.30917349550873"
],
[
"Hit-testing In computer graphics programming, hit-testing (hit detection, picking, or pick correlation ) is the process of determining whether a user-controlled cursor (such as a mouse cursor or touch-point on a touch-screen interface) intersects a given graphical object (such as a shape, line, or curve) drawn on the screen. Hit-testing may be performed on the movement or activation of a mouse or other pointing device.\nHit-testing is used by GUI environments to respond to user actions, such as selecting a menu item or a target in a game based on its visual location. In Web programming languages such as HTML, SVG,",
"-26.287568942003418"
],
[
"be shaken for a rattling sound or be clapped together. Technique The usual technique employed when using clapsticks is to clap the sticks together to create a rhythm that goes along with the song.",
"-26.260120159946382"
],
[
"snapped. The Canadian Football League and the Arena Football League allow for motion towards the line of scrimmage at the time of the snap. Motion and shift There is a distinction drawn between a shift and motion in football. Motion occurs when a player is moving at the time of the snap. A shift occurs when one or more players changes their position on the offensive side of the ball before the snap, causing a change in formation. History and purpose In the earliest days of American football, offenses were allowed to shift and assemble themselves as much as they",
"-26.25506122497609"
],
[
"Scuttle shake Scuttle shake (sometimes called cowl shake in the US) is the term used for the phenomenon experienced in many convertible or open top automobiles where, due to lower structural rigidity caused by the lack of a roof, the middle section of the chassis flexes, causing the bulkhead in front of the passenger compartment to move and vibrate when the vehicle is subject to uneven road surfaces. Passengers feel it as a noticeable vibration and shudder.",
"-26.25333214038983"
],
[
"blowback (sometimes referred to as \"simple\", \"straight\" or \"pure\" blowback) system represents the most basic auto loading operation type. In a blowback mechanism, the bolt rests against the rear of the barrel, but is not locked in place. At the point of ignition, expanding gases push the bullet forward through the barrel while at the same time pushing the case rearward against the bolt. The expanding gases push the bolt assembly to the rear, but the motion is slowed by the mass of the bolt, internal friction, and the force required to compress the action spring. ",
"-26.246877716155723"
],
[
"which is normally-off (i.e. push-to-make) and a \"stop\" switch which is normally-on (i.e. push-to-break).\nWhen the motor is not running, although line voltage is available, no current is drawn by the starter or motor.\nWhen the \"start\" button is pressed, the motor is not powered directly, rather the electromagnet in the contactor is energized. The magnetic switch in the contactor then engages, simultaneously switching current to the motor and providing self-sustaining current to maintain its own state. Thus when the start button is released, the magnetic switch remains engaged and the motor remains running.\nPressing the \"stop\" button breaks the circuit",
"-26.224686622808804"
],
[
"even when the foot clutch is depressed, creating an unsafe condition. By disconnecting the load from the PTO under these conditions, the overrunning clutch improves safety. Similarly, many unpowered 'push' cylinder lawnmowers use a freewheel to drive the blades: these are geared or chain-driven to rotate at high speed and the freewheel prevents their momentum being transferred in the reverse direction through the drive when the machine is halted. Engine starters A freewheel assembly is also widely used on engine starters as a kind of protective device. Starter motors usually need to spin at 3,000 RPM to get the engine",
"-26.179490018963406"
],
[
"pressure plate is arranged at one end of the stack so that an axial force may be applied, compressing the stack and causing it to transmit the drive. Releasing the pressure releases the clutch.\nIn the Hele-Shaw clutch, the many plates are lightweight pressings from thin sheets of steel. Each plate has a ring pressed into it, V-shaped in section and forming a frustum of a cone with each side. The clutch is always used wet, so that there is a very thin layer of oil between the plates, even when compressed. For high powers there may be a great many",
"-26.171225658559706"
],
[
"when dynamite he is holding explodes, Hurley blames himself and his bad luck. Season 2 Hurley is brought into the hatch the survivors have found, and is given the task of checking the food inventory, and brings Rose to help. Hurley, believing everyone will hate him, attempts to blow up the food with dynamite, but Rose manages to talk him out of it. Hurley decides to distribute the food freely, explaining there is no feasible way to ration it. Shortly after the arrival of the tail-section survivors, Hurley takes a liking to Libby and the two bond. However, Sawyer eventually",
"-26.15076155386123"
],
[
"Power wrench A power wrench is type of wrench that is powered by other means than human force. A typical power source is compressed air. There are two main types of power wrenches: impact wrenches and air ratchet wrenches or pneumatic ratchet wrenches. Air ratchet wrench An air ratchet wrench is very similar to hand-powered ratchet wrenches in that it has the same square drive, but an air motor is attached to turn the socket drive. Pulling the trigger activates the motor which turns the socket drive. A switch is provided to change which direction the socket drive turns.\nThis type",
"-26.135374010307714"
],
[
"Finger snapping Snapping (or clicking) one's fingers is the act of creating a snapping or clicking sound with one's fingers. Primarily this is done by building tension between the thumb and another (middle, index, or ring) finger and then moving the other finger forcefully downward so it hits the palm of the same hand at a high speed. In culture In Ancient Greece snapping of fingers was used by musicians and dancers as a way to keep the rhythm and it was known with the words \"ἀποληκέω\" (apolekeo), \"ἀποκρότημα\" (apokrotema) (from the verb \"ἀποκροτέω\" - apokroteo, \"to snap the",
"-26.132827582783648"
],
[
"Punch-down block A punch-down block (also punchdown block, punch block, punchblock, quick-connect block and other variations) is a type of electrical connection often used in telephony. It is named because the solid copper wires are \"punched down\" into short open-ended slots which are a type of insulation-displacement connector. These slots, usually cut crosswise (not lengthwise) across an insulating plastic bar, contain two sharp metal blades which cut through the wire's insulation as it is punched down. These blades hold the wire in position and make the electrical contact with the wire as well. Overview A tool called a punch down",
"-26.1238003638573"
],
[
"solenoids can also be built into the starter itself, often visible on the outside of the starter. If a starter solenoid receives insufficient power from the battery, it will fail to start the motor, and may produce a rapid 'clicking' or 'clacking' sound. This can be caused by a low or dead battery, by corroded or loose connections in the cable, or by a broken or damaged positive (red) cable from the battery. Any of these will result in some power to the solenoid, but not enough to hold the heavy contacts closed, so the starter motor itself never spins,",
"-26.112750045627763"
],
[
"be thrusting (kekomi) or snapping (keage), or somewhere in between. In its thrusting or kekomi form the kicker pushes the foot into the target powerfully leveraging the momentum of his own body weight in order to propel the opponent or target backwards. In its snapping or keage form the kicker emphasizes the extremely quick retraction or recoil or re-chamber of the foot and the lower leg immediately after impact (thereby making it difficult to catch or grab the leg by the opponent); The keage kick exhibits less pushing force but more breaking impact than the kekomi form of the kick.",
"-26.1085846258502"
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[
"on the right hand handlebar. Once started on its stand with the clutch disengaged, the choke is reset by fully opening the twist-grip throttle momentarily.\nPulling away from rest is easily achievable without pedal assistance owing to the relatively high torque the motor delivers but this is not recommended practice as the frail clutch will fail rapidly with this sort of treatment. Pedal assisted starts are therefore much recommended. In fact, engine starting can be done by pedalling away from rest with the clutch engaged using the decompressor.\nOnce under way the machine pulls strongly up to about 25 mph but any increase",
"-26.108356380471378"
],
[
"Normally the snap is caught in two hands, and then the ball is moved to the throwing hand (typically right) while the non-throwing arm moves lower. In this trick, the quarterback carries out the same motions, but moves the ball to the non-throwing hand. When he fakes the pass, the non-throwing arm is moved behind his back, hiding the ball. One of the backs, running in the direction opposite the fake pass, takes the ball and starts a rush. Like the reverse, the goal is to catch the defense on the wrong side of the line, and can be a",
"-26.099347502251476"
]
] |
7tty8l | Why is butter sometimes measured in cups? | [
"There are only two ways to measure something you're introducing into a recipe. Mass or volume. There was a time before it only cost $10 for a digital scale to keep in your kitchen. In that time, most recipes were made using volume measurements. In addition, the butter churning process ends with setting your butter in a container to solidify again. If you have your 1-cup measures that you pour it into to let solidify, then you already have 1 cup of butter measured. In more modern times, sticks of butter are a known size. A pound of butter is 2 cups, and a stick of butter is half a cup. These can be portioned off as needed for smaller measures.",
"Butter has been around longer than refrigeration. Most likely people churned the butter and used it right away.",
"Of course, sticks are labeled by the cup and teaspoon so practically speaking, it's actually pretty easy to measure out that way.",
"Because butter in cooking is/was often used in melted form. Or if your really go back you are using a measuring cup to measure out butter from the large butter churn/crock used in the home. It is also an easy measurement with butter. A half pound (2 sticks) is a cup."
] | [
[
"Measuring cup A measuring cup or measuring jug is a kitchen utensil used primarily to measure the volume of liquid or bulk solid cooking ingredients such as flour and sugar, especially for volumes from about 50 mL (2 fl oz) upwards. Measuring cups are also used to measure washing powder, liquid detergents and bleach for clothes washing. The cup will usually have a scale marked in cups and fractions of a cup, and often with fluid measure and weight of a selection of dry foodstuffs. \nMeasuring cups may be made of plastic, glass, or metal. Transparent (or translucent) cups can be read from",
"-34.40716751642594"
],
[
"that, averaging around 81% butterfat. European butters generally have a higher ratio—up to 85%.\nClarified butter is butter with almost all of its water and milk solids removed, leaving almost-pure butterfat. Clarified butter is made by heating butter to its melting point and then allowing it to cool; after settling, the remaining components separate by density. At the top, whey proteins form a skin, which is removed. The resulting butterfat is then poured off from the mixture of water and casein proteins that settle to the bottom.\nGhee is clarified butter that has been heated to around 120 °C (250 °F) after the water",
"-33.7251191719115"
],
[
"made butter may have as little as 65% fat and 30% water. Butterfat is a mixture of triglyceride, a triester derived from glycerol and three of any of several fatty acid groups. Butter becomes rancid when these chains break down into smaller components, like butyric acid and diacetyl. The density of butter is 0.911 g/cm³ (0.527 oz/in³), about the same as ice.\nIn some countries, butter is given a grade before commercial distribution. Types Before modern factory butter making, cream was usually collected from several milkings and was therefore several days old and somewhat fermented by the time it was made into butter.",
"-32.83233027695678"
],
[
"products such as peanut butter and almond butter. It is often applied to spread fruit products such as apple butter. Fats such as cocoa butter and shea butter that remain solid at room temperature are also known as \"butters\". Non-dairy items that have a dairy-butter consistency may use \"butter\" to call that consistency to mind, including food items such as maple butter and witch's butter and nonfood items such as baby bottom butter, hyena butter, and rock butter. Production Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules. These globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids (fatty acid emulsifiers)",
"-32.27277079434134"
],
[
"butter. \"Whipped\" butter, another product designed to be more spreadable, is aerated by incorporating nitrogen gas—normal air is not used to avoid oxidation and rancidity.\nAll categories of butter are sold in both salted and unsalted forms. Either granular salt or a strong brine are added to salted butter during processing. In addition to enhanced flavor, the addition of salt acts as a preservative. The amount of butterfat in the finished product is a vital aspect of production. In the United States, products sold as \"butter\" must contain at least 80% butterfat. In practice, most American butters contain slightly more than",
"-32.113454368925886"
],
[
"Peanut butter cup Brands The most popular brand of peanut butter cup is the Reese's Peanut Butter Cups (sold as Reese in Canada), now a Hershey brand. The Reese's Peanut Butter Cup is considered the \"finest creation\" of Harry Burnett \"H. B.\" Reese, a former employee of Hershey's, who set up his own candy-manufacturing business in the 1920s. The company merged with Hershey's in a July 2, 1963 tax free stock-for-stock merger, seven years after the May 16, 1956 death of Reese. The famous slogans, \"Two great tastes that taste great together\" and \"How do you eat a Reese's?\"",
"-31.488448080635862"
],
[
"test, also known as the cold water test, to determine the saturation of the confection. Fudge is made at the \"soft ball\" stage, which varies by altitude and ambient humidity from 235 °F (113 °C) to 240 °F (116 °C). Butter is added, and then the fudge is cooled and beaten until it is thick and small sugar crystals have formed. The warm fudge is sometimes poured onto a marble slab to be cooled and shaped. Flavors and similar candies Fudge-making evolved a variety of flavors and additives. The favored flavors vary by place. In the US, peanut butter is a",
"-31.48131288017612"
],
[
"and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, separating from the other parts of the cream. Variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three separate forms: free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules. In the finished product, different proportions of these forms result in different consistencies within the butter; butters with many crystals are harder than butters",
"-31.342972208047286"
],
[
"and is resistant to rancidity. The several types of peanut oil include: aromatic roasted peanut oil, refined peanut oil, extra virgin or cold-pressed peanut oil, and peanut extract. In the United States, refined peanut oil is exempt from allergen labeling laws. Peanut butter Peanut butter is a food paste or spread made from ground dry roasted peanuts. It often contains additional ingredients that modify the taste or texture, such as salt, sweeteners or emulsifiers. Peanut butter is served as a spread on bread, toast or crackers, and used to make sandwiches (notably the peanut butter and jelly sandwich). It is",
"-31.340221139704227"
],
[
"4 ounces (about 113 g). Volume In American cooking, a stick of butter may also be understood as ½ cup or 8 tablespoons (about 118 mL).",
"-31.186253722589754"
],
[
"roll-in fat is to form and maintain a barrier between the different dough layers during sheeting and folding. As previously stated, the ability for fat to maintain separation between folded dough layers ensures proper dough lift.\nThe type of roll-in fat used is typically butter or margarine. Butter and margarine are both water-in-oil emulsions, composed of stabilized water droplets dispersed in oil. While butter is appealing due to its high consumer acceptance, its low melting point, 32 °C, actually makes it undesirable for production purposes. The use of butter as roll-in fat during the lamination step will cause problems of oiling out",
"-31.176297359823366"
],
[
"Clarified butter Clarified butter is milk fat rendered from butter to separate the milk solids and water from the butterfat. Typically, it is produced by melting butter and allowing the components to separate by density. The water evaporates, some solids float to the surface and are skimmed off, and the remainder of the milk solids sink to the bottom and are left behind when the butterfat (which would then be on top) is poured off. This butterfat is the clarified butter.\nCommercial methods of production also include direct evaporation, but may also be accomplished by decantation and centrifugation followed by vacuum",
"-31.128138946427498"
],
[
"butter produced in the United States was factory made; Europe followed suit shortly after.\nIn 1920, Otto Hunziker authored The Butter Industry, Prepared for Factory, School and Laboratory, a well-known text in the industry that enjoyed at least three editions (1920, 1927, 1940). As part of the efforts of the American Dairy Science Association, Professor Hunziker and others published articles regarding: causes of tallowiness (an odor defect, distinct from rancidity, a taste defect); mottles (an aesthetic issue related to uneven color); introduced salts; the impact of creamery metals and liquids; and acidity measurement. These and other ADSA publications helped standardize practices",
"-30.969162811234128"
],
[
"solids and, although not technically the same as Brix degrees determined through an infrared method, renders an accurate measurement of sucrose content, since sucrose in fact forms the majority of dried solids. The advent of in-line infrared Brix measurement sensors has made measuring the amount of dissolved sugar in products economical using a direct measurement. Consumption Refined sugar was a luxury before the 18th century. It became widely popular in the 18th century, then graduated to becoming a necessary food in the 19th century. This evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient unleashed major economic",
"-30.912495913536986"
],
[
"Zahn cup A Zahn cup is a viscosity measurement device widely used in the paint industry. It is commonly a stainless steel cup with a tiny hole drilled in the center of the bottom of the cup. There is also a long handle attached to the sides. There are five cup specifications, labeled Zahn cup #x, where x is the number from one through five. Large number cup sizes are used when viscosity is high, while low number cup sizes are used when viscosity is low.\nTo determine the viscosity of a liquid, the cup is dipped and completely filled with",
"-30.80112409463618"
],
[
"Harvick (2007–2010). Criticism Reese's Peanut Butter Cups are made with the controversial ingredient PGPR (Polyglycerol polyricinoleate, E476, a.k.a. Palsgaard 4150), which is used as a replacement for cocoa butter. The FDA has determined it to be \"safe for humans as long as you restrict your intake to 7.5 milligrams per kilogram of body weight\".",
"-30.481014894336113"
],
[
"Butter dish A butter dish is defined as \"a usually round or rectangular dish often with a drainer and a cover for holding butter at table\". Before refrigerators existed, a covered dish made of crystal, silver, or china housed the butter. The first butter dish was made by Simpson, Hall, Miller, and Co. around 1880 in Connecticut, out of silver. These butter dishes were made to hold the traditional round shape of butter at the time and came with an \"ice chamber\" to keep the butter cold. Another type of butter dish, a French butter dish, keeps butter fresh by",
"-30.1163677656441"
],
[
"and a quarter\". History The pint is traditionally one-eighth of a gallon. In the Latin of the apothecaries' system, octavius or octarius (plural octavii or octarii; symbol O) reflected the \"eighth\" concept in its octa- syllable. Because of the variety of definitions of a gallon, there have been equally many versions of the pint.\nAmerica adopted the British wine gallon, defined in 1707 as 231 cubic inches exactly (3 in × 7 in × 11 in) as its basic liquid measure, from which the US wet pint is derived; and the British corn gallon (¹⁄₈ of a standard \"Winchester\" bushel of corn, or 268.8 cubic inches)",
"-30.10167569341138"
],
[
"Shea butter Shea butter (/ʃiː/, /ˈʃiːə/, or /ʃeɪ/) is a fat extracted from the nut of the African shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa). It is usually ivory in color when raw, with more processed versions being white in color. It can be yellow when a root is added to it. It is widely used in cosmetics as a moisturizer, salve or lotion. Shea butter is edible and is used in food preparation in some African countries. Occasionally, shea butter is mixed with other oils as a substitute for cocoa butter, although the taste is noticeably different.\nThe English word \"shea\" comes",
"-29.882227221882204"
],
[
"Cocoa butter Adulterants Some food manufacturers substitute less expensive materials such as vegetable oils and fats in place of cocoa butter. Several analytical methods exist for testing for diluted cocoa butter. Adulterated cocoa butter is indicated by its lighter color and its diminished fluorescence upon ultraviolet illumination. Unlike cocoa butter, adulterated fat tends to smear and have a higher non-saponifiable content. Substitutes Cocoa butter is becoming increasingly costly. Substitutes have been designed to use as alternatives. In the United States, 100% cocoa butter must be used for the product to be called chocolate. The EU requires that alternative fats not",
"-29.86423135446603"
],
[
"Peanut Butter & Co. Peanut Butter & Co. is a peanut butter brand that was founded in 1998 by Lee Zalben. Zalben has stated that he began working with peanut butter due to a childhood love of it.\nThe company sells a line of peanut butter to supermarkets featuring ten \"all natural\" flavors and from peanuts grown by farmers in the United States. In 2005 the company published The Peanut Butter & Co. Cookbook, which has numerous recipes for using peanut butter. Several of the company's products have been praised by publications such as Men's Health.\nFrom 1998 to 2016, the company",
"-29.819240357002855"
],
[
"Cupcone History Although the origins of the recipe and the first use of the term are unclear, cupcones and cupcake cones have been a party favorite in recent history. The term cupcone is used to describe a cupcake product cooked in a flat bottomed ice cream cone instead of a paper cup in order to eliminate the waste paper after consumption. Described as a way to be more earth friendly, the cupcone takes its name from the common recipe of a cake whose ingredients were measured by volume, using a standard cup, instead of being weighed. Recipes whose ingredients",
"-29.78609418119595"
],
[
"Buttercream Simple buttercream Simple buttercream is made by creaming together fats (butter, margarine, or vegetable oil shortening) and powdered sugar to the desired consistency and lightness. Typically twice as much sugar as butter by weight is used. Flavorings, in the form of extracts and oils, may also be added. Some recipes call for cream, non-fat milk solids, flour, or meringue powder. Meringue-based buttercream There are two types of meringue-based buttercream: Italian and Swiss. The meringues must be cooled to room temperature in order not to melt the butter (which has a variable melting point below 35 °C (95 °F) as it is",
"-29.74990377193899"
],
[
"Artificial butter flavoring Artificial butter flavoring may contain diacetyl, acetylpropionyl, or acetoin, three natural compounds in butter that contribute to its characteristic flavor. Because of this, manufacturers of margarines or similar oil-based products typically add diacetyl, acetylpropionyl and acetoin (along with beta carotene for the yellow color) to make the final product butter-flavored, because it would otherwise be relatively tasteless.\nChronic industrial exposure to diacetyl fumes, such as in the microwave popcorn production industry, has been associated with bronchiolitis obliterans, a rare and life-threatening form of non-reversible obstructive lung disease in which the bronchioles (small airway branches) are compressed and narrowed",
"-29.69097809872983"
],
[
"system, where packages and measures are generally sold in \"round numbers\"; in a hard metric system, butter might come in a 500 g package). Mandatory nutrition facts labelling (the Nutrition Facts Table) uses metric units for several basic nutrients, although serving sizes can be described in any form of unit (can, cup, quantity, etc.).\nIn restaurants, wine is usually served by the litre, 750 mL (26-imperial-fluid-ounce; 25-US-fluid-ounce) or 500 mL (18-imperial-fluid-ounce; 17-US-fluid-ounce) bottle, but a wine glass is measured in ounces. Similarly, fast food restaurants (e.g. McDonald's Quarter Pounder) often advertise measurements of food and drink in US customary units, but converted to metric",
"-29.67956328301807"
],
[
"drying; or direct from cream by breaking the emulsion followed by centrifugation. Properties Clarified butter has a higher smoke point (252 °C or 486 °F) than regular butter (163–190 °C or 325–374 °F), and is therefore preferred in some cooking applications, such as sautéing. Clarified butter also has a much longer shelf life than fresh butter. It has negligible amounts of lactose and casein and is, therefore, acceptable to most who have a lactose intolerance or milk allergy. Regional variations In South Asian cuisine and Arab cuisine, ghee is made by cooking clarified butter longer during the separation process in order to caramelize the",
"-29.650835846696282"
],
[
"Samples taken to measure butterfat content were tested using the inaccurate \"oil test\". Butter produced at the creamery was stored in 56-lb tubs.\nIn April 19, 1894 (as reported in the Teeswater News) \"The building of the factory for the Culross and Teeswater Butter and Cheese Manufacturing is progressing rapidly. Mr. John Y. Scott is the contractor and he expects to have his work completed by May 1.\" At this time, the creamery was owned by S.R. Brill's father who later sold it to his son. At some point between 1894 and 1922, it was renamed \"Star",
"-29.586513860791456"
],
[
"hand-tooled leather. Butter sculpture facts Christensen is among many artists who work with butter in the United States. Butter art originally started when the ancient Tibetan monks first carved animals and deities out of yak butter. It journeyed its way to North America in the early 1800s where butter sculptures became a tradition displayed at state fairs. The first butter cow was created in 1910 at the Iowa State Fair. About 600 pounds of pure butter is used for each butter cow. Many famous characters and symbols have been enshrined in butter including Charlie Brown and the Peanuts gang, the",
"-29.543013858201448"
],
[
"butter. One pound of butter plus equals 50 pounds of actual butter.\nIn 2003, David Michael & Co. launched both Cocoa-Mate and Honey-Mate, designed to offer savings in times of high cocoa or honey prices.\nThe company’s other brands include Biovan, Supervan, DMChoice, Mixevan, Michtex, MichaelLite and Michaelcap.",
"-29.542424404113262"
],
[
"Baby Bottom Butter Baby Bottom Butter is a balm sold by English supermarket chain Waitrose, used upon babies' bottoms to soothe them and prevent nappy rash. It is produced in Hampshire. When they reformulated it to remove preservative parabens and other petrochemicals, they found that sales increased significantly as mothers started to use it themselves, in place of expensive moisturizer. The natural ingredients now include olive oil, camomile oil and lavender. As the word spread through parenting websites, with many women praising its softening and firming effect, the product sold out at many stores. In 2008, the",
"-29.52301150295534"
],
[
"is used in a variety of desserts, especially as a topping for ice cream. When it is used for crème caramel or flan, it is known as clear caramel and only contains caramelized sugar and water. Butterscotch sauce is made with dark brown sugar, butter, and often a splash of whiskey. Traditionally, butterscotch is a hard candy more in line with a toffee. Toffee Toffee, sometimes called \"caramel candy\", is a soft, dense, chewy candy made by boiling a mixture of milk or cream, sugar(s), glucose, butter, and vanilla (or vanilla flavoring). The sugar and glucose are heated separately to",
"-29.511398477916373"
],
[
"butter, which is kept for later use and has a faint cheesy flavor. Staka butter is used in Cretan pilaf (piláfi), commonly served at weddings. Alternatives Cooks can substitute for roux by adding a mixture of cold water and wheat flour to a dish that needs thickening, since the heat of boiling water will release the starch from the flour; however, this temperature is not high enough to eliminate the floury taste. A mixture of water and flour used in this way is colloquially known as “cowboy roux”, and in modern cuisine it is called a white wash. It is",
"-29.394357382843737"
],
[
"peanut butter in empty ration cans to make improvised smoke candles while on long patrols. Being extremely oily, the peanut butter burned with ease, and could be used to boil water for coffee, although it left a greasy black stain on the bottom of the canteen cup.\nOther menu items were more popular, such as the pound cake, canned pears, and the spaghetti & meatballs. In 1973, Army Colonel Henry Moak was issued a MCI ration during his stay in Vietnam. Included in the MCI ration was a can of pound cake, manufactured in 1969. He kept the unopened can",
"-29.39209677017425"
],
[
"Butter curler A butter curler is a kitchen tool designed to produce decorative butter shapes for use in food decoration. It can also be used to make chocolate and wax shavings. In typical use, the material to be cut is chilled slightly while the curler is dipped into hot water to ease the cutting.",
"-29.339888728976803"
],
[
"as flakes first in a flaker mill and exposed to solvent extraction. Applications Sal oil or butter is used for cooking locally and used for soap up to 30%. Refined, modified fat is a substitute for cocoa butter and used in confectionery industry. Sal butter is used in the manufacturing of edible ghee (vanaspati), paints and pigments, lubricants, auto oil, etc.",
"-29.337107630766695"
],
[
"French butter dish A French butter dish is a container used to maintain the freshness and spreadable consistency of butter without refrigeration. This late 19th century French-designed pottery crock has two parts: a base that holds water, and a cup to hold the packed butter which also serves as a lid. The cup containing butter is placed into the base, where water creates an airtight seal that keeps the air (and thus oxygen) away from the butter so that refrigeration is not needed, and the butter can be used in its soft form. This method will keep butter for",
"-29.334255004359875"
],
[
"M. Babcock (1843-1931) and Edward H. Farrington (1860-1934) at the University of Wisconsin, who had been commissioned to develop a practical standard test for measuring the fat content of milk. Babcock had designed a special flask, now known as a Babcock bottle, for that purpose.\nIn the wake of that visit, Louis founded the company Louis F. Nafis, Inc. in Chicago to make scientific glassware, and was the first company to market Babcock's standard flask. In 1932 he sold the company to Kimble Glass, which was later taken over by Owens-Illinois Glass and is now part of DWK Life Sciences. ",
"-29.31836626288714"
],
[
"being healthier. In the United States, margarine consumption overtook butter during the 1950s, and it is still the case today that more margarine than butter is eaten in the U.S. and the EU. Elsewhere Outside of the United States, the shape of butter packages is approximately the same, but the butter is measured for sale and cooking by mass (rather than by volume or unit/stick), and is sold in 250 g (8.8 oz) and 500 g (18 oz) packages. The wrapper is usually a foil and waxed-paper laminate. (The waxed paper is now a siliconised substitute, but is still referred to in some places",
"-29.28562308047549"
],
[
"and rub it into a pound of butter very fine. Make it up into a light paste, with cold water, just stiff enough to work it up. Then roll it out about as thick as a crown piece; put a layer of butter all over, then sprinkle on a little flour, double it up, and roll it out again. Double and roll it, with layers of butter three times, and it will be properly fit for use. Illustrations The book has a frontispiece, which in later editions consists of a large medallion of J.C. Schnebbelie above a representation of The",
"-29.26249839940283"
],
[
"It reached peak annual sales of 517,000,000 kilograms (1.140×10⁹ lb) in 1960. Buttermilk's popularity has declined since then, despite an increasing population, and annual sales in 2012 reached less than half that number. \nHowever, condensed buttermilk and dried buttermilk remain important in the food industry. Liquid buttermilk is used primarily in the commercial preparation of baked goods and cheese. Buttermilk solids are used in ice cream manufacturing, as well as being added to pancake mixes to make buttermilk pancakes. Acidified buttermilk Acidified buttermilk is a substitute made by adding a food-grade acid such as vinegar or lemon juice to milk. It",
"-29.25183988652134"
],
[
"Butter cake History The invention of baking powder and other chemical leavening agents during the 19th century substantially increased the flexibility of this traditional pound cake by introducing the possibility of creating lighter, fluffier cakes using these traditional combinations of ingredients, and it is this transformation that brought about the modern butter cake. Ingredients and technique Butter cakes are traditionally made using a creaming method, in which the butter and sugar are first beaten until fluffy to incorporate air into the butter. Eggs are then added gradually, creating an emulsion, followed by alternating portions of wet and dry ingredients. Butter",
"-29.251288730119995"
],
[
"acids constitute 85–90% of the fatty acids. Though a fat, it is not extracted in a fluid state like other oils, but is processed in the form of a white, odourless, and nearly tasteless creamy paste or similar to firm butter. The shea butter produced in the Mossi plateau region of Burkina Faso has higher average stearic acid percentage and is thus harder than the shea butter from other West African regions; this is due to scientific inference that the phenolic content in shea kernels varies from region to region. Quality The quality of shea nuts and butter, both of",
"-29.221763496556378"
],
[
"oil was collected in cups and given to visitors on cotton balls.\nA test commissioned by The Washington Post from Microbac Laboratories of Pittsburgh found that sample contained 80 percent corn or soybean oil, and 20 percent chicken fat. Another test done by 20/20 found a sample of the oil to be 75% olive oil, and other tests found different or inconclusive results. Linda Santo agreed in response to a reporter's questioning that it was impossible to prove someone did not apply the oil to the statues, but insisted that she had not done so. Blood During several masses at which",
"-29.1923488005923"
],
[
"Dilatometer A dilatometer is a scientific instrument that measures volume changes caused by a physical or chemical process. A familiar application of a dilatometer is the mercury-in-glass thermometer, in which the change in volume of the liquid column is read from a graduated scale. Because mercury has a fairly constant rate of expansion over ambient temperature ranges, the volume changes are directly related to temperature. Applications Dilatometers have been used in the fabrication of metallic alloys, study of martensite transformation, compressed and sintered refractory compounds, glasses, ceramic products, composite materials, and plastics. \nDilatometry is also used to",
"-29.184104991989443"
],
[
"Amish, dairies. Commercial raw cream butter is virtually unheard-of in the United States. Raw cream butter is generally only found made at home by consumers who have purchased raw whole milk directly from dairy farmers, skimmed the cream themselves, and made butter with it. It is rare in Europe as well.\nSeveral \"spreadable\" butters have been developed. These remain softer at colder temperatures and are therefore easier to use directly out of refrigeration. Some methods modify the makeup of the butter's fat through chemical manipulation of the finished product, some manipulate the cattle's feed, and some incorporate vegetable oil into the",
"-29.10942309386155"
],
[
"signal the method to the baker; \"cup cake\" uses a volume measurement, and \"pound cake\" uses a weight measurement.\nCupcones can be used interchageably with cupcakes that are often served during a celebration, such as children's birthday parties. Additionally, they can be served as an accompaniment to afternoon tea. Cupcones are a more convenient alternative to a full-sized cake as they don't require utensils or division into individual portions.",
"-29.086995672910234"
],
[
"levels of patulin present in the product. Nutrition The nutritional value of apple butter varies quite a bit based on the recipe used to prepare that particular product. The ingredient list can be as simple as just two ingredients to a much more complicated mixture of foods. Although the ingredients may vary, which changes the nutritional value of the apple butter, the two main things that stand out to consumers on the nutritional facts table are the amount of carbohydrates and the amount of sugar that the apple butter contains. For 1 tablespoon the amount of carbohydrates range from 4-15",
"-29.048575193701254"
],
[
"Buttermilk Traditional buttermilk Originally, buttermilk referred to the liquid left over from churning butter from cultured or fermented cream. Traditionally, before the advent of homogenization, the milk was left to sit for a period of time to allow the cream and milk to separate. During this time, naturally occurring lactic acid-producing bacteria in the milk fermented it. This facilitates the butter churning process, since fat from cream with a lower pH coalesces more readily than that of fresh cream. The acidic environment also helps prevent potentially harmful microorganisms from growing, increasing shelf-life.\nTraditional buttermilk is still common in many Indian, Nepalese,",
"-29.048554884488112"
],
[
"Butter Etymology The word butter derives (via Germanic languages) from the Latin butyrum, which is the latinisation of the Greek βούτυρον (bouturon). This may be a compound of βοῦς (bous), \"ox, cow\" + τυρός (turos), \"cheese\", that is \"cow-cheese\". The word turos (\"cheese\") is attested in Mycenaean Greek. The unlatinized form is found in the name butyric acid, a compound found in rancid butter and dairy products such as Parmesan cheese.\nIn general use, the term \"butter\" refers to the spread dairy product when unqualified by other descriptors. The word commonly is used to describe puréed vegetable or seed and nut",
"-29.00151307148917"
],
[
"butter, while in Russian ones regular butter is used. Herbs (parsley and dill) can be added to the butter. In some American recipes butter is replaced by blue cheese.\nIn the classical preparation of French côtelettes de volaille, the humerus bone of the wing is left attached. This also holds for their Russian versions and in particular for chicken Kiev. For serving, the bone is usually covered with a frilled paper napkin. However, industrially produced pure fillets are often used nowadays, and the cutlets are served without the bone. This is the usual way of serving chicken Kiev in the US.",
"-28.992540538689354"
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[
"One cup of whole buttermilk contains 152 calories and 8.1 grams of total fat. Low fat buttermilk is also available. Buttermilk contains vitamins, potassium, calcium, and traces of phosphorus.",
"-28.98615720414091"
],
[
"Butter made from a fermented cream is known as cultured butter. During fermentation, the cream naturally sours as bacteria convert milk sugars into lactic acid. The fermentation process produces additional aroma compounds, including diacetyl, which makes for a fuller-flavored and more \"buttery\" tasting product. Today, cultured butter is usually made from pasteurized cream whose fermentation is produced by the introduction of Lactococcus and Leuconostoc bacteria.\nAnother method for producing cultured butter, developed in the early 1970s, is to produce butter from fresh cream and then incorporate bacterial cultures and lactic acid. Using this method, the cultured butter flavor grows as the",
"-28.966832654172322"
],
[
"Ebullioscope An ebullioscope (from the Latin ēbullīre (to boil) + -scope) is an instrument for measuring the boiling point of a liquid. This can be used for determining the alcoholic strength of a mixture, or for determining the molecular weight of a non-volatile solute based on the boiling-point elevation. The procedure is known as ebullioscopy.\nThe first ebullioscope was invented in 1838 by Honoré Brossard-Vidal, and was used for measuring alcoholic content. The advantage of this method was that the boiling point is relatively insensitive to other components such as sugars. Older alcoholimeters were based on measuring the density, which is",
"-28.946930472753593"
],
[
"dominated by free fats.\nChurning produces small butter grains floating in the water-based portion of the cream. This watery liquid is called buttermilk—although the buttermilk most common today is instead a directly fermented skimmed milk. The buttermilk is drained off; sometimes more buttermilk is removed by rinsing the grains with water. Then the grains are \"worked\": pressed and kneaded together. When prepared manually, this is done using wooden boards called scotch hands. This consolidates the butter into a solid mass and breaks up embedded pockets of buttermilk or water into tiny droplets.\nCommercial butter is about 80% butterfat and 15% water; traditionally",
"-28.882492838107282"
],
[
"cups; however, they were more commonly baked in tins as layers or loaves. In later years, when the use of volume measurements was firmly established in home kitchens, these recipes became known as 1234 cakes or quarter cakes, so called because they are made up of four ingredients: one cup of butter, two cups of sugar, three cups of flour, and four eggs. They are plain yellow cakes, somewhat less rich and less expensive than pound cake, due to using about half as much butter and eggs compared to pound cake.\nThe names of these two major classes of cakes were",
"-28.882436879415764"
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[
"flavor than the 28% fat. Powdered peanut butter Peanut flour can be mixed with sugar and salt to create a powdered version of peanut butter. Since peanut flour has had most of its oil removed, peanut butter reconstituted from this powder can be up to 88% less fattening than traditional peanut butter.\nPowdered peanut butter can be used in baking, cooking and desserts.",
"-28.877448076120345"
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[
"milk until a desired pH drop (or increase in acidity) is attained. Cultured cream, cultured butter, and cultured buttermilk owe their tart flavour to lactic acid bacteria and their buttery aroma and taste to diacetyl. Production Diacetyl is produced industrially by dehydrogenation of 2,3-butanediol. Acetoin is an intermediate. In food products Diacetyl and acetoin are two compounds that give butter its characteristic taste. Because of this, manufacturers of artificial butter flavoring, margarines or similar oil-based products typically add diacetyl and acetoin (along with beta-carotene for the yellow color) to make the final product butter-flavored, because it would otherwise be relatively",
"-28.866660485538887"
],
[
"researching the composition of butter and was publishing his findings, and this led to disputes about priority. As early as 1815, Chevreul claimed that he had found the substance responsible for the smell of butter. By 1817, he published some of his findings regarding the properties of butyric acid and named it. However, it was not until 1823 that he presented the properties of butyric acid in detail. The name of butyric acid comes from the Latin word for butter, butyrum (or buturum), the substance in which butyric acid was first found. Production Industrially, butyric acid is prepared by fermentation",
"-28.843533738458063"
],
[
"Dry gallon The dry gallon, also known as the corn gallon or grain gallon, is a historic British dry measure of volume that was used to measure grain and other dry commodities and whose earliest recorded official definition, in 1303, was the volume of 8 pounds of wheat. It is not used in the US customary system – though it implicitly exists since the US dry measures of bushel, peck, quart, and pint are still used – and is not included in the handbook that many states recognize as the authority on measurement law.\nThe US fluid gallon is about 14.1%",
"-28.84248797915643"
],
[
"Almond butter Compared to peanut butter Almond butter is an alternative to peanut butter for those with peanut allergies or who dislike the taste of peanuts. Almond butter contains significantly more fiber, calcium, potassium, iron, and manganese than peanut butter, and about half the saturated fat, although a slightly higher total fat content. Almonds, a type of tree nut, are not legumes, whereas peanuts are, so almond butter can be consumed by those looking to avoid legumes.",
"-28.79434640062391"
],
[
"the world prefers metric measurement by weight, though the preference for volume measurements continues among home cooks in the United States (\"almost exclusively\"),, India , Pakistan and the rest of North America. Different ingredients are measured in different ways:\nLiquid ingredients are generally measured by volume worldwide.\nDry bulk ingredients, such as sugar and flour, are measured by weight in most of the world (\"250 g flour\"), and by volume in North America (\"1/2 cup flour\"). Small quantities of salt and spices are generally measured by volume worldwide, as few households have sufficiently precise balances to measure by weight.\nMeats are",
"-28.784694835281698"
],
[
"Volumetric flask A volumetric flask (measuring flask or graduated flask) is a piece of laboratory apparatus, a type of laboratory flask, calibrated to contain a precise volume at a certain temperature. Volumetric flasks are used for precise dilutions and preparation of standard solutions. These flasks are usually pear-shaped, with a flat bottom, and made of glass or plastic. The flask's mouth is either furnished with a plastic snap/screw cap or fitted with a joint to accommodate a PTFE or glass stopper. The neck of volumetric flasks is elongated and narrow with an etched ring graduation marking. The marking indicates the",
"-28.77867805144342"
],
[
"at least in part, by creaming butter and sugar together, which introduces air bubbles into the butter. The tiny bubbles locked within the butter expand in the heat of baking and aerate the cookie or cake. Some cookies like shortbread may have no other source of moisture but the water in the butter. Pastries like pie dough incorporate pieces of solid fat into the dough, which become flat layers of fat when the dough is rolled out. During baking, the fat melts away, leaving a flaky texture. Butter, because of its flavor, is a common choice for the fat in",
"-28.736945700457"
],
[
"Cup A cup is an open-top container used to hold liquids for pouring or drinking; it also can be used to store solids for pouring (e.g., sugar, flour, grains). Cups may be made of glass, metal, china, clay, wood, stone, polystyrene, plastic, aluminium or other materials, and are usually fixed with a stem, handles, or other adornments. Cups are used for quenching thirst across a wide range of cultures and social classes, and different styles of cups may be used for different liquids or in different situations. Cups of different styles may be used for different types of liquids or",
"-28.731353256327566"
],
[
"nutmeg. It is used as a natural food flavoring in baked goods, syrups, beverages, and sweets. It is used to replace ground nutmeg, as it leaves no particles in the food. The essential oil is also used in the manufacturing of toothpaste and cough syrups. Nutmeg butter Nutmeg butter is obtained from the nut by expression. It is semisolid, reddish-brown in colour, and has the taste and smell of nutmeg itself.About 75% (by weight) of nutmeg butter is trimyristin, which can be turned into myristic acid, a 14-carbon fatty acid, which can be used as a replacement for cocoa butter,",
"-28.70883493564179"
],
[
"Reese's Whipps Reese's Whipps is a candy bar made of peanut butter nougat and a layer of peanut butter coated with milk chocolate. It was introduced in 2007. \nThe Whipps is marketed as a lower fat candy bar (similar to the 3 Musketeers) due to it mainly being composed of nougat. But of the 9g of fat, 7g are saturated and the bar contains 230 calories, which is in the same range as most similarly-sized candy bars.",
"-28.668567164626438"
],
[
"Chiffon cake Characteristics The high oil and egg content create a very moist cake, and as oil is liquid even at cooler temperatures, chiffon cakes do not tend to harden or dry out as traditional butter cakes might. This makes them better-suited than many cakes to filling or frosting with ingredients that need to be refrigerated or frozen, such as pastry cream or ice cream. The lack of butter, however, means that chiffon cakes lack much of the rich flavor of butter cakes History The recipe is credited to Harry Baker (1883–1974), a Californian insurance salesman turned caterer. Baker kept",
"-28.651472741890757"
],
[
"Butter salt Butter salt is a seasoning developed in the late twentieth century for the purpose of combining the flavours found in salt and butter. It is a fine, golden powder, originally salt, enriched with butter flavouring. It is often used as a seasoning for popcorn. It is said to impart a \"rich, buttery flavour\".\nThe contents are usually salt, artificial butter flavoring, and yellow food colouring. Use in butter Butter salt (sometimes called buttersalt) also refers to salt that is used in the preparation of butter and other dairy products. Some manufacturers produce salt specifically for the use in butter,",
"-28.637625685572857"
],
[
"Babcock bottle A Babcock bottle is a clear glass flask with a long graduated neck, used in the Babcock test to evaluate the cream contents of milk. It is also called a Babcock milk test bottle, milk test bottle, cream test bottle, and other similar names.\nThis bottle (or variations thereof) may also be used to estimate the amount of a lighter phase in other two-phase mixtures, such as are obtained in standard tests for gasoline and other petroleum products. Description The Babcock test consists in adding to a standard sample of the milk certain chemicals that cause the fat",
"-28.629351537194452"
],
[
"in Normandy and Brittany. By the 1860s, butter had become so in demand in France that Emperor Napoleon III offered prize money for an inexpensive substitute to supplement France's inadequate butter supplies. A French chemist claimed the prize with the invention of margarine in 1869. The first margarine was beef tallow flavored with milk and worked like butter; vegetable margarine followed after the development of hydrogenated oils around 1900.\nUntil the 19th century, the vast majority of butter was made by hand, on farms. The first butter factories appeared in the United States in the early 1860s, after the successful introduction",
"-28.5379020175169"
],
[
"sometimes vanilla and lecithin as an emulsifier), and then refined, conched and tempered. Alternatively, it can be separated into cocoa powder and cocoa butter using a hydraulic press or the Broma process. This process produces around 50% cocoa butter and 50% cocoa powder. Standard cocoa powder has a fat content around 10–12%. Cocoa butter is used in chocolate bar manufacture, other confectionery, soaps, and cosmetics.\nTreating with alkali produces Dutch-process cocoa powder, which is less acidic, darker, and more mellow in flavor than what is generally available in most of the world. Regular (nonalkalized) cocoa is acidic, so when cocoa",
"-28.530772485915804"
],
[
"Butterfat Butterfat or milkfat is the fatty portion of milk. Milk and cream are often sold according to the amount of butterfat they contain.",
"-28.508595432242146"
],
[
"World the Brix scale is used to describe the readings of a refractometer when measuring the sugar content of a given sample. \nSince a refractometer actually measures the refractive index of the grape must, it can be translated to many different scales (both related and unrelated to wine) based on their correlation to refractive index. Thus, all of these methods are similar and the differences are more cultural than significant, but all are equally valid ways to measure the density of grape must and other sugar-based liquids.\nThe Normalizovaný Moštomer (°NM) measures kg of sugar in 100 l of must and",
"-28.501875297764855"
],
[
"Truffle butter Truffle butter is a spread made with butter, truffles and other ingredients such as mushrooms, and synthetic truffle flavorings such as 2,4-dithiapentane.",
"-28.476362238201546"
],
[
"internationally.\nButter also provided extra income to farm families. They used wood presses with carved decoration to press butter into pucks or small bricks to sell at nearby markets or general stores. The decoration identified the farm that produced the butter. This practice continued until production was mechanized and butter was produced in less decorative stick form. Today, butter presses remain in use for decorative purposes.\nPer capita butter consumption declined in most western nations during the 20th century, in large part because of the rising popularity of margarine, which is less expensive and, until recent years, was perceived as",
"-28.461538238596404"
],
[
"(30 °C) and coconut palm (22.7 °C). The quality of Murumuru butter makes it possible to mix it with other vegetable butters that have a lower melting point. It can also be used to partially substitute cocoa butter in chocolate, providing a firmer consistency in environments where the temperature is higher..\nMurumuru butter has the great advantage of having a low acidity value (4% to 5%), especially when made from fresh seeds, which reduces the cost of refinement.\nMurumuru butter was highly valued in Europe and the United States during the 1940s and 1950s, when it served as an ingredient in vegetable creams and",
"-28.45201064494904"
],
[
"exceed 5% of the total fat content.\nSubstitutes include: coconut, palm, soybean, rapeseed, cottonseed and illipe oils; and shea butter, mango kernel fat and a mixture of mango kernel fat and palm oil, and PGPR. Uses Cocoa butter is a major ingredient in practically all types of chocolates (white chocolate, milk chocolate, and dark chocolate). This application continues to dominate consumption of cocoa butter. \nPharmaceutical companies use cocoa butter's physical properties extensively. As a nontoxic solid at room temperature that melts at body temperature, it is considered an ideal base for medicinal suppositories. Personal care For a fat melting around",
"-28.412850663487916"
],
[
"in marble, but occasionally continued to make butter art. She returned for the 1893 Chicago Columbian Exposition and made busts of Queen Isabella and Christopher Columbus. By then, however, there were other butter sculptors: the art form had come into its own.\nThe heyday of butter sculpting was from about 1890 to 1930. During this period refrigeration became widely available, and the American dairy industry began promoting butter sculpture as a way to compete against synthetic butter substitute like Oleomargarine (margarine). Butter sculpting decreased during the Great Depression and WWII due to shortages but picked up again after the war. United",
"-28.412664498900995"
],
[
"liquids. A rounded teaspoon is a larger but less precise measure, produced without leveling the ingredient off or heaping it as high as possible. A heaping or heaped teaspoon is a larger inexact measure consisting of the amount obtained by scooping the dry ingredient up without leveling it off. For some ingredients, e.g. flour, this quantity can vary considerably. Apothecary measure As an unofficial but once widely used unit of Apothecaries' measure, the teaspoon is equal to 1 fluid dram (or drachm) and thus ¹⁄₄ of a tablespoon or ¹⁄₈ of a fluid ounce. The Apothecaries' teaspoon (formerly tea spoon or",
"-28.38327448263408"
],
[
"Westphal balance A Westphal balance (also known as a Mohr balance) is a scientific instrument for measuring the density of liquids.",
"-28.35487999615725"
],
[
"butter soon developed a reputation for excellence; in June 1906 the factory's product won first prize at the Maryborough show. Catalysts for dairying occurring around this time included the 1904 and 1905 Dairy Produce Acts; a cream testing certificate for officers in butter factories, introduced in 1906; and the 1906 Closer settlement Act. By 1910 there were 100 suppliers for the Nanango factory, which produced 197,889 pounds (89,761 kg) of butter. In 1911 the railway reached Nanango from the north, and in 1913 it reached Yarraman from the south.\nOn 25 October 1918, a fire started by lightning destroyed the factory, which",
"-28.348880504490808"
],
[
"body temperature, cocoa has good stability. This quality, coupled with natural antioxidants, prevents rancidity – giving it a storage life of two to five years. The velvety texture, pleasant fragrance and emollient properties of cocoa butter have made it a popular ingredient in products for the skin, such as soaps and lotions. Physical properties Cocoa butter typically has a melting point of around 34–38 °C (93–101 °F), so chocolate is solid at room temperature but readily melts once inside the mouth. Cocoa butter displays polymorphism, having different crystalline forms with different melting points. Conventionally the assignment of cocoa butter crystalline forms uses",
"-28.3297281388368"
],
[
"about 500-600 pounds of butter is used. Over the years, sculptors moved from working in chilled rooms to large refrigerated display cases with temperatures between 35 and 40ᵒF. The butter is placed on a wooden-and-wire armature, at first in large amounts to achieve the general shape of the cow, and later in smaller quantities to fine-tune the form. The butter is added layer upon layer until the cow is in its finished form, taking between two days and a week, depending on the artist. Though the sculptors claim it was never a secret that the Buttercow is built on a",
"-28.32457411487121"
],
[
"Chameleon oil pattern A Chameleon oil pattern is a pattern of oil on a bowling lane. It is used by the Professional Bowlers Association in tournament play among others.\nA typical Chameleon pattern is 43 feet long. It forces players to play in a specific zone on the lane because of the way the oil is layered in \"strips\". The lane conditions dictate where the bowler should play. This is considered a \"retro\" approach to pattern designing.\nUse of a Chameleon pattern results in a large range of scores (low to high), as does the bowlers' approach to the pattern. No one",
"-28.310889669286553"
],
[
"Measuring spoon A measuring spoon is a spoon used to measure an amount of an ingredient, either liquid or dry, when cooking. Measuring spoons may be made of plastic, metal, and other materials. They are available in many sizes, including the teaspoon and tablespoon. International Metric measuring spoons are available in sets, usually between four and six, typically with decilitre (100 ml), tablespoon (15 ml), teaspoon (5 ml) and millilitre measures. For fractional measures, there is often a line inside to indicate “half” or “a quarter”, or a separate measure may be included, like ¹⁄₂ dl. United",
"-28.305758086701644"
],
[
"Congo, Kenya and Guinea.\nA testa found at the site of the medieval village of Saouga is evidence of shea butter production by the 14th century. Composition and properties Shea butter extract is a complex fat that in addition to many nonsaponifiable components (substances that cannot be fully converted into soap by treatment with alkali) contains the following fatty acids: oleic acid (40–60%), stearic acid (20–50%), linoleic acid (3–11%), palmitic acid (2–9%), linolenic acid (<1%) and arachidic acid (<1%).\nShea butter melts at body temperature. Proponents of its use for skin care maintain that it absorbs rapidly into the skin, acts as",
"-28.268334889048674"
],
[
"butter is aged in cold storage. For manufacturers, this method is more efficient, since aging the cream used to make butter takes significantly more space than simply storing the finished butter product. A method to make an artificial simulation of cultured butter is to add lactic acid and flavor compounds directly to the fresh-cream butter; while this more efficient process is claimed to simulate the taste of cultured butter, the product produced is not cultured but is instead flavored.\nDairy products are often pasteurized during production to kill pathogenic bacteria and other microbes. Butter made from pasteurized fresh cream is called",
"-28.25458488689037"
],
[
"Communion cup A communion cup is a ritual liturgical vessel, a variant of a chalice, used by only one member of the congregation. A communion cup is usually quite small; it can be as small as a shot glass. They may be designed as small beakers or as miniature versions of the usual liturgical chalice.\nThis manner of administering consecrated wine at Holy Communion has become established in various Christian denominations, either as a general practice or as a temporary arrangement; for example, during epidemics.\nIn churches such as the Catholic Church, which generally offer communion without wine, or where intinction (dipping",
"-28.189069306623423"
],
[
"butter has a shelf life of several months at refrigerator temperatures. Butter can also be frozen to further extend its storage life.\n\"French butter dishes\" or \"Acadian butter dishes\" have a lid with a long interior lip, which sits in a container holding a small amount of water. Usually the dish holds just enough water to submerge the interior lip when the dish is closed. Butter is packed into the lid. The water acts as a seal to keep the butter fresh, and also keeps the butter from overheating in hot temperatures. This method lets butter sit on a countertop for",
"-28.176111325265083"
],
[
"Butyrometer Butyrometer is a measuring instrument used to measure fat content in milk or milk products in general. The method used in the determination is Gerber's method as invented by Swiss chemist Niklaus Gerber.",
"-28.171259563066997"
],
[
"by James Baverstock Sr in 1770. Henry Thrale adopted its use and it was later popularized by John Richardson in 1784.\nIt consists of a large weighted glass bulb with a thin stem rising from the top with calibrated markings. The sugar level can be determined by reading the value where the surface of the liquid crosses the scale. The higher the sugar content, the denser the solution, and thus the higher the bulb will float. Thermohydrometer A thermohydrometer is a hydrometer that has a thermometer enclosed in the float section. For measuring the density of petroleum products, such",
"-28.16260505768696"
],
[
"of the wine.\nBrix (°Bx) is one measure of the soluble solids in the grape juice and represents not only the sugars but also includes many other soluble substances such as salts, acids and tannins, sometimes called total dissolved solids (TDS). Because sugar is the dominant compound in grape juice, these units are effectively a measure of sugar level. The level of sugar in the grapes determines the final alcohol content of the wine as well as indirect index of grape maturity. °Bx is measured in grams per hundred grams of solution, so 20 °Bx means that 100 grams of juice contains",
"-28.137037678534398"
],
[
"be used to sauté due to their low smoke point. Clarified butter, rapeseed oil and sunflower oil are commonly used for sautéing; whatever the fat, it must have a smoke point high enough to allow cooking on medium-high heat, the temperature at which sautéing is done. For example, though regular butter would produce more flavor, it would burn at a lower temperature and more quickly than other fats due to the presence of milk solids. Clarified butter is more fit for this use. Methods In a sauté, all the ingredients are heated at once, and cooked quickly. To facilitate this,",
"-28.082882308117405"
],
[
"family and officially launched Justin’s, named after the labels he used to include on the jars of nut butters he’d make for himself and roommates.\nIn 2006, Justin's introduced its “portable” squeeze packs and was the first nut butter brand to market the single-serve squeeze pack. Since then, Justin's has also introduced its organic dark, milk and white chocolate peanut butter cups, as well as several other flavors of spreads, including its chocolate hazelnut butter and maple almond butter. In 2011, the trade magazine Progressive Grocer named Justin's peanut butter cups one of the best roll-outs of 2011.\nBy 2012, Justin's was",
"-28.074045080080396"
],
[
"Peanut butter and jelly sandwich History Peanut-butter was originally paired with a diverse set of savory foods, such as pimento, cheese, celery, watercress, saltines and toasted crackers. In a Good Housekeeping article published in May 1896, a recipe \"urged homemakers to use a meat grinder to make peanut butter and spread the result on bread.\" The following month, the culinary magazine Table Talk published a \"peanut butter sandwich\" recipe. In the early 1900s, this sandwich was adopted down the class structure as the price of peanut butter dropped. It became popular with children as manufacturers began adding sugar to the",
"-28.070222626032773"
],
[
"The Best Butter The Best Butter (French: Au bon beurre) is a 1952 novel by the French writer Jean Dutourd. It was published in the United Kingdom as The Milky Way. It tells the story of a Paris dairy shop during the German occupation, and how the politically uninterested manager adapts to the situation and collaborates whenever he finds it favorable. The novel satirizes the French attitude toward the occupation.\nIt received the Prix Interallié. It became a bestseller in France and sold more than two million copies. A film adaptation for TF1 directed by Édouard Molinaro was released in 1981.",
"-28.06624000546799"
],
[
"Cruet Uses Cruets today typically serve a culinary function, holding liquid condiments such as olive oil and balsamic vinegar. They often have a filter built into them to act as a strainer, so that vinegar containing herbs and other solid ingredients will pour clear. Cruets also serve as decanters for lemon juice and other oils. \nThey are also used for the serving of the wine and water in the Christian Mass, especially those of the Roman Catholic, Lutheran, and Anglican traditions. In Canada and the United Kingdom, a small cruet can also hold previously ground salt or pepper, according to",
"-28.050838137511164"
],
[
"sweet cream butter. Production of sweet cream butter first became common in the 19th century, with the development of refrigeration and the mechanical cream separator. Butter made from fresh or cultured unpasteurized cream is called raw cream butter. While butter made from pasteurized cream may keep for several months, raw cream butter has a shelf life of roughly ten days.\nThroughout continental Europe, cultured butter is preferred, while sweet cream butter dominates in the United States and the United Kingdom. Cultured butter is sometimes labeled \"European-style\" butter in the United States, although cultured butter is made and sold by some, especially",
"-28.038125824474264"
],
[
"and butter are sustained by the gemstones and by government employment.",
"-28.033154500531964"
],
[
"a unit of culinary measure, one teaspoon in the United States is ¹⁄₃ tablespoon, that is, exactly 4.92892159375 mL; it is exactly 1 ¹⁄₃ US fluid drams, ¹⁄₆ US fl oz, ¹⁄₄₈ US cup, and ¹⁄₇₆₈ US liquid gallon and ⁷⁷⁄₂₅₆ or 0.30078125 cubic inches. \nFor nutritional labeling and medicine in the US, the teaspoon is defined the same as a metric teaspoon—precisely 5 millilitres (mL). Dry ingredients For dry ingredients, if a recipe calls for a level teaspoon of a (salt, flour, etc.), this refers to an approximately leveled filling of the spoon, producing the same volume as for",
"-28.030201527726604"
]
] |
2ifcvj | If you bear a resemblance with a stranger, are they more closely related to you than other strangers are? | [
"Your appearance is defined by multiple genes and multiple pathways. For example you can share a similar face through inheriting different set of genes. So \"external\" similarity doesn't necessarily imply shared ancestry. Height for example is a multifactorial trait which depends among other things on nutrition, it's hard to say you **aren't** related to someone because he/she hasn't the same height. Other backdraw, since you inherit half of your genetic material from one of your parents it's hard to trace certain traits like \"oh he has that kind of nose or hair* we have something in common\" (without having the pedigree of both subjects you are comparing). Maybe he inherited those traits from a russian father while you got them thanks to your irish mother instead of your russian father. Also, -broadly speaking- the same genes are present in most of the populations or ethnicities, the diversity is derived from the frequency of said alleles (or variants within the genes) within the populations. In such way the sampling ~~bias~~ might affect your conclusions (If by chance you are in front of one of the few redhead from population X that hasn't anything to do with a shared origin with that subject). **Edit #2** There is no huge amount of genes that determine the physical appearance. And said gene/traits are the blank of strong sexual selection (let's say you prefer wide hips now). You are going to try to find a mate with wide hips regardless her ancestry whether she is from irish, italian or spanish ancestry (yeah I picked an actual example that could occur in my city/country). Then in a matter of few generations said traits are diluted or detached of some signal of ancestry (yeah you can actually say those hips look like someone from South America but that is all the \"geographical context\" you can provide or infer). No matter how long you are going to trace the problem or lineages the example works, I could have picked African descendants, or from Colombia for that matter and only think at a different scale. Then certain traits say little about ancestry since they are strongly selected.",
"I've always wondered the same. Everybody is actually much more closey related than they think, there was a very fine bottleneck to humans population in the relevant past.",
"My aunt and cousin once harassed a young man eating with his family because they were convinced he was me. It was in a city about 10 hours away. And before anyone makes jokes about my father as a traveling salesman you should know i resemble my mother. I have no uncles on that side and my grandfather died decades before I was born. They took a picture of the kid and I'll be damed if he wasn't my twin, although a bit heavier and he wore glasses.",
"Different genotypes can give rise to similar phenotypes. But it would be different for different traits.",
"3+3 = 6, but 2+4 is also ~~3~~ 6. I like to think that this is how DNA works in an EXTREMLY simplified way, the processes are different but the result are the same. So it could be the same with DNA?",
"Well Skin color, Eye color and hair color as well as facial shape are strongly associated with racial background so yes. addiionally facial structure has now been largely genetically identified so much so that some researchers now claim to be able to create facial reconstructions from dna analysis alone. URL_1 (more examples URL_4 ) The latter doesn't mean you are related but it is far MORE likely you are more closely related if you have similar genomes so , again, yes. The only exception might be lots of widely varied racial mixing but even then I would think you would resemble someone more who had similar widely varied racial mixing so again , yes, you would be more related than someone who didn't have widely varied racial mixing. So yes. ELIAPHD some more evidence from URL_0 \"To take the idea a step further, a team led by population geneticist Mark Shriver of Pennsylvania State University and imaging specialist Peter Claes of the Catholic University of Leuven (KUL) in Belgium used a stereoscopic camera to capture 3D images of almost 600 volunteers from populations with mixed European and West African ancestry. Because people from Europe and Africa tend to have differently shaped faces, studying people with mixed ancestry increased the chances of finding genetic variants affecting facial structure. Kayser's study had looked for genes that affected the relative positions of nine facial \"landmarks\", including the middle of each eyeball and the tip of the nose. By contrast, Claes and Shriver superimposed a mesh of more than 7000 points onto the scanned 3D images and recorded the precise location of each point. They also developed a statistical model to consider how genes, sex and racial ancestry affect the position of these points and therefore the overall shape of the face. Next the researchers tested each of the volunteers for 76 genetic variants in genes that were already known to cause facial abnormalities when mutated. They reasoned that normal variation in genes that can cause such problems might have a subtle effect on the shape of the face. After using their model to control for the effects of sex and ancestry, they found 24 variants in 20 different genes that seemed to be useful predictors of facial shape (PLoS Genetics, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004224).\" and the original research URL_2 a graph is worth a thousand words URL_3 ",
"I think this is true in a probabilistic sense. That is, if someone looks like you, there's a better than 50% chance that she's more closely related to you than a stranger selected at random. But it's far from guaranteed."
] | [
[
"are sure a particular activity—e.g. Olympic target shooting—is a game while a similar activity—e.g. military sharp shooting—is not? Wittgenstein's explanation is tied up with an important analogy. How do we recognize that two people we know are related to one another? We may see similar height, weight, eye color, hair, nose, mouth, patterns of speech, social or political views, mannerisms, body structure, last names, etc. If we see enough matches we say we've noticed a family resemblance. It is perhaps important to note that this is not always a conscious process—generally we don't catalog various similarities until we reach a",
"-29.799582998204414"
],
[
"the one mentioned immediately above, though other scholars disagree that these two were the same person.",
"-29.77857612996013"
],
[
"Stranger with My Face Plot Seventeen-year-old Laurie Stratton, a Native American adopted by the Strattons when she was very young, is seen by friends and family members in places where she knows she was not. After her adoptive sister Megan sees a spirit who looks like Laurie, Megan calls the spirit Laurie's \"ghosty\". The spirit contacts Laurie and identifies herself as Lia, her twin sister. Helen Tuttle, Laurie's friend, suggests that Lia was using astral projection, which involves sending the soul outside the body to travel elsewhere in the universe. Helen, however, has suspicions that Lia is not benevolent, and,",
"-29.00262675367412"
],
[
"started a rumor that they were cousins as a joke because they looked alike, dressed alike and were tall. People still confused the two as each other. They were best friends until Doug's untimely death in 1962. Doug and Paul were not related other than loving one another as friends and fellow bass players.",
"-28.589167913713027"
],
[
"Mister was long believed to be a separate author until historic research revealed the two to be the same person in 1989.",
"-28.37592813534866"
],
[
"apart—barely seem to like each other, let alone have any serious family bond.\"",
"-28.271813471976202"
],
[
"of genetic similarity removed, children from the same family often appear no more alike than randomly selected strangers; yet identical twins raised apart are nearly as similar in personality as identical twins raised together. What these findings suggest is that shared family environment has virtually no effect on personality development, and that similarity between relatives is almost entirely due to shared genetics. Although the shared environment (including features like the personality, parenting styles, and beliefs of parents; socioeconomic status; neighborhood; nutrition; schools attended; number of books in the home; etc.) may have a lasting impact at the extremes of parenting",
"-28.194527511834167"
],
[
"and to a lesser extent, American society. A similarity of both stories, aside from the physical maturity of both characters, is that Tony develops a crush on the eldest daughter of his next door neighbors, just as Margaret has feelings for her neighbor's friend. However, Tony also has to deal with the fact that she is three years older than he is, and, that if such a crush developed further, the age difference would be uncommon among boys he knows. Both stories also deal with moving from an urban area to the suburbs, but the reason behind the move for",
"-27.98454716604465"
],
[
"closeness in age and same father's name indicated by the patronym (Jonas was born about 1600, Pieter, born in 1616 in Jönköping, Sweden) it has been claimed that Pieter was a nephew or cousin to Jonas Bronck, and not a son as had been surmised. This would however in both cases mean that Jonas Bronck or his father Jonas have had a living brother with identical name, something which is unheard of in Scandinavian naming. They might instead have been brothers, as an age difference of 16 years among even full siblings is far from unlikely. Still he has been",
"-27.977561606574454"
],
[
"– all about the same height, regardless of their different animal species - but also some who were all animal, and others who were wholly human), Toby Twirl has some regular friends. These include, Pete the Penguin, Eli the Elephant (also known, formally, as Eli Phant, his mother being Mrs Phant), Winnie the Wallaby, and a squirrel-headed fellow, as well as some less friendly folk, such as Warty Weasel. Adult characters, such as Mrs Twirl (and less frequently, Mr Twirl) tend to appear briefly at the start and end of the stories to express their relief at Toby's safe return.",
"-27.66634839154267"
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[
"same scar or cowlick at the top of their forehead. Dr. Kyle concluded that there could be no reasonable doubt they were the same person. Historian Doris Karren Burton also investigated the lives of both women and published a book in 1992 claiming they were one and the same.\nHowever, Bassett's and Place's chronologies do not align. Several documents prove that Bassett was in Wyoming during much of the time when Place was in South America. Bassett was arrested and briefly incarcerated in Utah for rustling cattle in 1903 while Place was in South America with Longabaugh and Parker. Bassett also",
"-27.658617695604335"
],
[
"that a given pair of people either know each other or are strangers. If six people enter a room, show that there must be at least three people who know each other pairwise or there must be at least three people who are pairwise strangers.\"",
"-27.62073098050314"
],
[
"others. As you walked beside me with complete detachment, I could not express it to you. It was a rare sort of closeness, as if we two, you and I, were in love with something that was utterly indifferent to both of us, something that remained aloof from us by virtue of its extraordinary inability to adapt to the other side of life.'\nThe cousins' initial passion developed into a lifelong close friendship. From 1910 Pasternak and Freidenberg exchanged frequent letters, and their correspondence lasted over 40 years until 1954. The cousins last met in 1936. Ida Wissotzkaya Pasternak fell in",
"-27.480236888834042"
],
[
"the concepts of facial familiarity and similarity due to the instances of wrongful convictions based on eyewitness testimony. In one case, a person spent 17 years behind bars persistently denying any involvement with the crime of which he was accused. He was finally released after someone was found who shared a striking resemblance and the same first name.",
"-27.437341981974896"
],
[
"of brothers has the characteristics found in that of comrades and in general between people who are like each other, is as much as they belong more to each other and start with a love for each other from their very birth, and in as much as those born to the same parents and brought up together and similarly educated are more akin in character; and the test of time has been applied most fully and convincingly in their case\".\nFor these reasons, it is the job of the older brother to influence the ethics of the younger brother by being",
"-27.32526302500628"
],
[
"relationships, and (in some cases) fall in love. Several general principles of attraction have been discovered by social psychologists, but many still continue to experiment and do research to find out more. One of the most important factors in interpersonal attraction is how similar two particular people are. The more similar two people are in general attitudes, backgrounds, environments, worldviews, and other traits, the more probable an attraction is possible.\nPhysical attractiveness is an important element of romantic relationships, particularly in the early stages characterized by high levels of passion. Later on, similarity and other compatibility factors become more",
"-27.301201537949964"
],
[
"on the friendship, saying she was surprised to hear the pair would become friends as naturally they would not be expected to be friends. She elaborated on this, saying the characters are at opposite \"ends of the spectrum\" but have both been through traumatic times and have had people not believe them. They have shown each other kindness so there is \"a real tenderness in their friendship\". Conclusion It was revealed Silas would take his torment of Lynsey to a new level when he makes her play a \"sick game\". Silas tells Lynsey she has until Halloween to guess who",
"-27.161336842138553"
],
[
"some of them may have belonged to the same family.",
"-27.12118864255899"
],
[
"are the same person.\"",
"-27.116067868104437"
],
[
"Engkanto Appearance Engkanto have many similarities to humans in that they age, appear to have male and female sexes, can suffer from illness and indeed even die. They are an object of mythology for many Filipinos, often told by adults as stories and shown on media. They have different appearances. Some appear to be beautiful having blue eyes, fair complexion and golden hair. They may however have unusual features such as high-bridged noses, fair skin, blond hair and lack of philtrum. They have a wide range of appearances but one common fact of a different feeling or vibe than",
"-27.090851184388157"
],
[
"knowing what someone's identity is actually like.\nThe most vulnerable age group to online predators is often considered to be young teenagers or older children. \"Over time - perhaps weeks or even months - the stranger, having obtained as much personal information as possible, grooms the child, gaining his or her trust through compliments, positive statements, and other forms of flattery to build an emotional bond.\" The victims often do not suspect anything until it is too late, as the other party usually misleads them to believe that they are of similar age.\nThe show Dateline on NBC has, overall, conducted three",
"-27.063239104434615"
],
[
"from the official Thumbs! website:\n\"There are these twins, the Briarley twins. I think they're twins. Twins who look alike! They went into the woods, been there hundreds of times, but this time they go lost. Couldn't find their way! They'd been there hundreds of times, but this time, they got lost. Then they saw this woman, up in the air, floatin'. She took their heads, switched them, like it was a sick game. She took their bodies, she switched em too! They came out looking exactly the same, but we all knew they'd been all switched up.\"\nThe",
"-27.048810316162417"
],
[
"of the individuals in the friendship is physically attracted to the other. Objective physical/sexual attraction happens when one individual thinks that the other is attractive in general, yet they are not attracted to the person. Romantic attraction within the cross-sex friendship occurs when one of the individuals within the friendship desires to turn the friendship into a romantic relationship because they believe he or she would make a good girlfriend or boyfriend. Friendship attraction is simply when an individual feels very platonically connected to his or her friend. The four types can coexist together within a friendship or can occur",
"-27.0431138635322"
],
[
"Hester thinks she sees Adeline and Emmeline playing in the woods, she later says she must have seen a ghost. A doppelganger.\nThe bond shared by Adeline and Emmeline is one of deep meaning. Only the two together, can you create a whole and the absence of one can cause great physical and emotional trauma. When Hester and Dr Maudsley experiment with original case study research, the separation of the twins is painful for all to see. It greatly affected the mental abilities of each twin. The heartfelt pain of losing not just a sibling, but a twin, the one who",
"-27.029029791010544"
],
[
"of these traits.\nIdentical twins reared apart are far more similar in personality than randomly selected pairs of people. Likewise, identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins. Also, biological siblings are more similar in personality than adoptive siblings. Each observation suggests that personality is heritable to a certain extent. A supporting article had focused on the heritability of personality (which is estimated to be around 50% for subjective well-being) in which a study was conducted using a representative sample of 973 twin pairs to test the heritable differences in subjective well-being which were found to be fully accounted for by",
"-26.98542878672015"
],
[
"an exploratory expedition. There is a sudden sense of realization as the man and woman recognize each other as siblings; the man collapses, overcome by shock.\nThe story then switches to a first-person account, written by John Robertson after his meeting with his sister Ellen. Thirty years earlier, at the age of 25, Robertson had been traveling through rural Tibet; wandering away from his party, he had gotten lost and had fallen over a precipice. He was nursed back to health by local villagers, but his memory was deeply impaired. It was only when his sister found him that he regained",
"-26.97634656203445"
],
[
"been hanging out for years, they're not too intimate, but they know each other. Aside from in sports, or being a cop, I can't think of any other situation where a friendship like that is called for.\" Mortensen felt similarly, saying, \"I like to ride horses, and I like Westerns, but there are a lot of bad ones. What set this one apart is just how the characters are a little more guarded.\" Mortensen studied Frederic Remington drawings and other images of the American Old West to get into character and master the proper way to stand during a gunfight.\nThe",
"-26.9456006706896"
],
[
"in the late twentieth century has been proven by family members in recent years to be that of someone else.",
"-26.799035413947422"
],
[
"and me,\n\nLike to climb up a tree.\n\nMy buddy and me,\n\nWe're the best friends that could be.\nMy Buddy, My Buddy,\n\nMy Buddy and Me!\"",
"-26.761643220394035"
],
[
"sometimes called the older brother and other times called the younger brother; second, in this world, Alex and Scott are frequently at odds with each other, both ideologically and physically; and third, neither seems interested in mending this rift. Ideologically, their rift was evidenced by Alex's affiliation with Emma Frost's Academy of Tomorrow. There is also more than one reference to their physical competition over Polaris. In one case, Alex even knocked out Scott with a wrench, though he states that this was because Scott let him. The two have shown to help each other in great danger, but in",
"-26.753551078872988"
],
[
"was mentioned as his only surviving brother. And he was a different race (white). That's how close we were. I know he has my back and he's there supporting me.\"",
"-26.750042485364247"
],
[
"children (one around five years old, the other between 24 and 30 months old).\nKeith believed that the crania he examined displayed similar features to one another, suggesting that this meant that they all belonged to \"one family - or several families united by common descent.\" Similar observations have been made regarding the crania from other long barrows in Britain. The osteoarchaeologists Martin Smith and Megan Brickley cautioned that this did not necessarily mean that all of the individuals in any given barrow were members of a single family group, for such shared cranial traits would also be consistent with \"a",
"-26.740732493019095"
],
[
"become the people they were- detached from everyone but each other. Isolation does many things to a person. Charlie, Isabelle, Emmeline, Adeline and Angelfield are not normal.\nTwins\nIn the mythologies of many cultures around the world, twins make frequent appearances. They appear both fortuitous in some and ominous in others. Twins in mythology are often cast as two halves of the same whole, sharing a bond deeper than those of other ordinary siblings, or facing fierce rivalry. Sometimes twins can represent some \"other\" aspect of the \"self\"- either a doppelganger or a shadow. Often in mythology the twin is evil, or",
"-26.73704801897111"
],
[
"that parents in general are not attached, in normal conditions, to their offspring, or if that is a common situation.\nIt should also be noted that these ethnographic examples correspond to a small minority of the World's population. In many cultures, people often value and even pay respect to deceased ancestors they never met, as well as a beloved parent they don't know without being his or her fault. Also, feelings towards relatives should be seen as a more personal and individual issue and particular circumstances be hold into account instead of a common whole-group mentality. Situations where the bond between",
"-26.734329976548906"
],
[
"up but they have remained close friends.",
"-26.723814394761575"
],
[
"look alike. Was this a case of an 'evil twin' or could they be the same person?",
"-26.616317806232473"
],
[
"We Are Brothers Plot Two brothers were separated in childhood at an orphanage, only to find each other as adults 30 years later. But right after their reunion, their birth mother, who suffers from Alzheimer's disease, suddenly disappears. So Sang-yeon (a pastor raised in America) and Ha-yeon (a shaman) team up together and go on a road trip to search for her.",
"-26.582439854508266"
],
[
"was related to the Austrian-Jewish writer Stefan Zweig, whom he described as \"a very distant relative\". Some sources describe them as cousins.",
"-26.569118606334087"
],
[
"them as the same person in the mid seventeenth century. Both George Petrie and John O’Donovan of the antiquities division of the Ordnance Survey c.1830/40s doubted the link between the two names.",
"-26.565820434945635"
],
[
"contact between siblings; those who live closer to one another are more likely to visit each other frequently. In addition, gender also plays a significant role. Sisters are most likely to maintain contact with one another, followed by mixed-gender dyads. Brothers are least likely to contact one another frequently.\nCommunication is especially important when siblings do not live near one another. Communication may take place in person, over the phone, by mail, and with increasing frequency, by means of online communication such as email and social networking. Often, siblings will communicate indirectly through a parent or a mutual friend of relative.",
"-26.565541667107027"
],
[
"He is very trusting of strangers and makes friends easily, though he does not have many friends his own age. In the film it is alluded that he has Asperger's syndrome. Oskar mentions being taken in for testing in his first interaction with Abby Black, however he states that \"...Tests weren't definitive.\"\nOskar's mother, Linda Schell, referred to as \"Mom\" by Oskar in the book, cares for her family greatly. After Thomas's death, Linda tells Oskar \"I won't fall in love again.\"[4] Though it is implied that she knows Oskar is running around the city meeting strangers, she nevertheless allows",
"-26.56160324891971"
],
[
"distinction between cross cousins, who are one's true cousins and parallel cousins, who are, in fact, siblings.\nLike Iroquois people, Dravidians use the same words to refer to their father's sister and mother-in-law (atthai in Tamil and atthe in Kannada) and their mother's brother and father-in-law (maamaa in Tamil and maava in Kannada). In Kannada, distinction between these relationships may be made because sodara is added before atthe and maava to specifically refer to one's father's sister and mother's brother respectively, although this term is not used in direct address. In Tamil, however, only one's mother's brother is captioned",
"-26.557644045038614"
],
[
"village. It would have been especially rare to mate with somebody who lived in another country. However, Chang et al found that a rare person who mates with a person far away will in time connect the worldwide family tree, and that no population is truly completely isolated. \nThe MRCA of all humans almost certainly lived in East Asia, which would have given them key access to extremely isolated populations in Australia and the Americas. Possible locations for the MRCA include places such as the Chuckchi and Kamchatka Peninsulas that are close to Alaska, places such as Indonesia",
"-26.471127975761192"
],
[
"especially relevant for older siblings, is that if an infant and one's mother are seen to care for the infant, then the infant and oneself are assumed to be related. Another factor, especially important for younger siblings who cannot use the first method, is that persons who grew up together see one another as related. Yet another may be genetic detection based on the major histocompatibility complex (See Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection). This kinship detection system in turn affects other genetic predispositions such as the incest taboo and a tendency for altruism towards relatives.\nOne issue within this approach",
"-26.467239255307504"
],
[
"what had happened. However, the investigation is very complicated by the fact that almost all those present are connected with each other by strange, not the most pleasant and sometimes very unexpected relationships…",
"-26.42768305010395"
],
[
"not seen my dear groom before and would not be able to identify him, I asked that he should be pointed out to me to prevent any embarrassment. I cannot put into words the feelings that overcame my heart when I met with my dear husband. One has to experience something of this nature…We did not look at each other as if we are seeing each other for the first time, because even before we met, the Lord had tied our hearts deeply together. Before we left the room where we greeted each other for the first time, we fell",
"-26.415784015203826"
],
[
"closest friends, one of which is Noel Agius, who has a diamond of a right foot and will knock you out if you get on his bad side.",
"-26.316174645079172"
],
[
"but relations become icy, because they would kill Rima, if they could. Rima often speaks of her dead mother, who was always depressed. Abel falls in love with Rima, but she (17 and a stranger to white men) is confused by \"odd feelings\". This relationship is further strained because Abel cannot speak her unknown language.\nAtop Ytaiao Mountain, Rima questions Abel about \"the world\" known and unknown, asking him if she was unique and alone. Abel sadly reveals that it is true. However, when he mentions the storied mountains of Riolama, Rima perks up. It turns out that \"Riolama\" is her",
"-26.31352958334901"
],
[
"Cousin Basic definitions People are related with a type of cousin relationship if they share a common ancestor and the most recent common ancestor is two or more generations away from both people. This means neither person is an ancestor of the other, they do not share a parent (siblings), and neither is a sibling of a common ancestor (aunts/uncles and nieces/nephews).\nIn the English system the cousin relationship is further detailed by degree and removal. For example, the \"second cousin once removed\" relationship is a \"second-degree cousin\" with one removal. When the degree is not specified first cousin is assumed.",
"-26.29925795661984"
],
[
"closer to friends and relatives.",
"-26.29654569365084"
],
[
"one or the other, raising the possibility that apparent parallel cousins are in fact half-siblings, sired by the same father. Likewise, mothers who are also sisters may overtly or covertly share sexual access to the husband of one or the other, raising the possibility that apparent parallel cousins are in fact half-siblings, sired by the same father. Note that there is no possibility of any classificatory cousins sharing the same mother. Because maternal identity is never in question, they would be automatically classified as siblings. Only mistaken paternity leads to such errors.\nThis possibility is much less likely for cross-cousins, because",
"-26.296373706427403"
],
[
"The Brother from Another Planet Plot The sweet-natured and honest Brother looks like an ordinary African American man, distinguished only by his being mute and—although other characters in the film never see them—his feet, which each have three large toes. Upon arrival in Ellis Island, the Brother displays psychic powers, being able to hear the experiences of the immigrants that came before him. He is able to regenerate a foot that he lost after crashing in the ocean. The Brother also has telekinetic powers but, unable to speak, he struggles to express himself and adjust to his new surroundings,",
"-26.185101941635367"
],
[
"to Columbia and appear throughout his travels. They appear to be near-identical fraternal twins, but it is later revealed that they are the same person from two different realities, differing by sex as well as core ideals. This causes them to disagree about certain theories, such as the effects of one person being introduced into a dimension other than their own. Rosalind is shown to be the one to have developed the technology that keeps Columbia afloat under Comstock's orders, and through that, made contact with Robert. Together they worked out how to communicate with and subsequently cross between dimensions",
"-26.096686242497526"
],
[
"be referred to as \"uncle\"), an older friend or family friend with a deep friendship and a sufficient age gap will also informally address the other as his godparent or godchild, a gesture often initiated by the older person.",
"-26.064568414585665"
],
[
"that identical twins Caroline and Christina were born to an Australian mother and a second-generation Australian father, whose parents had emigrated from Italy. The have an older sister and two younger brothers, but the twins were always closer to each other than anyone else in the Alessi family. When they were younger, the twins often played pranks on their teachers and boyfriends. As they grew older, they kept \"a mischievous sense of humour\" and shared similar thoughts.\nCaroline and Christina developed very different personalities. Where Caroline is more academic, Christina is \"less driven and more reserved\". She becomes \"awkward\" under pressure",
"-26.05275074178644"
],
[
"act after identifying genetic similarity with the surrounding spermatozoa. In humans Whether or not Hamilton's rule always applies, relatedness is often important for human altruism, in that humans are inclined to behave more altruistically toward kin than toward unrelated individuals. Many people choose to live near relatives, exchange sizeable gifts with relatives, and favour relatives in wills in proportion to their relatedness. Experimental studies, interviews, and surveys Interviews of several hundred women in Los Angeles showed that while non-kin friends were willing to help one another, their assistance was far more likely to be reciprocal. The largest amounts",
"-26.049328504974255"
],
[
"were tested on their ability to distinguish two faces from four different racial groups. Facial prompts were presented from their own racial group, as well as, African, Asian, and Middle Eastern. At three months of age, infants were able to show recognition for familiar faces from all racial groups, but by six months, a pattern was beginning to emerge where the infants could only recognize faces from the Caucasian or Chinese groups—groups they had more familiarity with. At nine months, recognition took place only in the own-race group. These cross race studies provide strong evidence that children do",
"-26.04796673177043"
],
[
"of involvement with the child. Older siblings can take on more of a parental role with younger siblings thus creating more of a parental bond. This parental bond is found when a parent dies, or when the level of parental involvement is low, however this area of research is still fairly new. Siblings that are close in age often have more of a friendship bond. Siblings can also have a different type of bond that is not seen in other relationships because siblings have a close bond but may have more indecisive feelings towards each other.\nThe",
"-26.012159393227194"
],
[
"natural object paired with a random number between 1 and 20. Everyone with the same name would be cousins, and everyone with the same name and number would be siblings.\nTheir parents and the staff of the mansion believe the children are retarded, and the children play this up when in the company of others, so as to not interfere with what they view as a perfect childhood. But after hearing their mother wish that they were normal, the children reveal their intelligence to their parents.\nEliza is still deemed retarded, and is sent to a mental institution. Wilbur however is",
"-25.99285806111584"
],
[
"One of Twins Summary Henry Stevens, one of a set of twins, explains to someone how he has never really experienced much in terms of strange phenomeena as a twin except for this one series of events which he will relate. \nFirst, he explains that he and his twin brother John were so identical that it is likely they were switched back and forth many times in their infancy. Upon growing up, they moved to San Jose where they ended up living in different parts of the city. \nOne day, the narrator encounters a man who begins",
"-25.957046864146832"
],
[
"people, each with such different backgrounds, will have to rely on their new friendships.",
"-25.953622558212373"
],
[
"they were old friends who used to encounter many of the same people, places, and experiences together. Watson argued that if the two men were to do some of their old shared activities and go to some of the old same places (the stimuli), then the response (or memory) would occur. Study of emotions Watson was interested in the conditioning of emotions. Of course behaviorism putting an emphasis on people's external behaviors, emotions were considered as mere physical responses. Watson thought that, at birth, there are three unlearned emotional reactions: Fear, rage and love.\nFear: According to Watson, there are only",
"-25.921847918943968"
],
[
"other to each other or to other people. They have a bond, intellectually and spiritually, like nothing I've ever seen ... but sometimes, you know, you just think, God, why don't you just get a room?!\" In the same interview, a Radio One documentary, upon being asked just how close their relationship was, Doherty responded \"I love him. Wouldn't go, um - certainly not on Radio 1 - go into too much detail, but... we had lots of wonderful times together, yeah.\" Barât, when questioned similarly, steadfastly denied that the relationship had involved anything \"physical\". Barât has insisted that \"people",
"-25.915800513874274"
],
[
"in discipline and traditions who has very different ideals and mindset than the cousins and the concept \"Friends are forever, Cousins are for life!\".\nDespite their differing personalities, the cousins are linked together by a common thread of love and friendship and are each other's support system. Saurav, their childhood friend, is also a part of the cousins' gang.\nThe cousins sort through all the troubles that crop up during Dolly's wedding (that they themselves inevitably caused) and ensure she gets married to Sumit.\nUmesh wants to open his own restaurant but is scared of his father who wants him to continue their",
"-25.853348066098988"
],
[
"an interview on the official Hollyoaks website. He responded saying: \"I think it's kind of like any brotherly relationship. As the older brother you've got to look out for them, but also they're there for you to have a little mess around with. I don't know which direction things will go, but at the moment a lot of the time when we're together, we don't seem that bothered about each other. But as brothers we get on, and that's kind of like most brothers isn't it. You don't want to know too much about them, you just want them there,",
"-25.832415115721233"
],
[
"persons other than close blood relatives, etc.).",
"-25.823113116653985"
],
[
"a group with a whole bunch of different people. So far, we’ve seen that there’s a guy with no eyes, and there’s a woman who now is covered in thorns. And as in the X-Men world, there are a handful of people who look more like them, but a lot of them turn out to be just attractive people with powers. And we thought, “Hey, let’s have some of those as well!” We were looking for a new character to come on, and Luke just really impressed us. He was a good actor, had a nice quality, and we felt",
"-25.81277566056815"
],
[
"of the same generation are termed Garnia (great-nephew) or Garneacht (great-niece). Col Gaolta Col Gaolta is a word for cousin; in the Irish kinship system, this word is used for all relatives in one's generation or those near your age, except in the case of a brother or a sister. The word actually means related by blood. Mo Mhuintir Mo Mhuintir, being Irish for My People, is a vague term used for relatives people believe they are related to, but do not have enough information to determine how.",
"-25.809438203054015"
],
[
"sees more differences than similarities. However, when the actor starts to think he is so different from O'Malley, an awkward move can suggest otherwise. \"I was walking, doing a scene with Katherine Heigl. I finished my line with her, and then I walked straight into the light stand.\" Critical of her affair with O'Malley, Knight's co-star Heigl explained: \"They really hurt somebody, and they didn't seem to be taking a lot of responsibility for it. I have a really hard time with that kind of thing. I'm maybe a little too black and white about it.\" Speaking of O'Malley's relationship",
"-25.789814950083382"
],
[
"him.\nAt the age of six, Luke claims to have a friend named Ivan whom Elizabeth cannot see. Though at first she is exasperated with this imaginary friend, she starts playing along with Luke when she learns that imaginary friends will only last about 3 months.\nThough invisible to most, Ivan is real. Only Luke can see him, though he comes to realise that Elizabeth can feel his presence. Knowing that only people who are in real need of a friend are able to see him, he follows Elizabeth around. When, suddenly, she is able to see him, Ivan is delighted, but",
"-25.784054816525895"
],
[
"reasonable doubt that they were the same person.\nAuthor and researcher Doris Karren Burton indicates in her 1992 book Queen Ann Bassett: Alias Etta Place that when Bassett is absent from historical records, Place is actively traveling with Cassidy and the Sundance Kid/Harry Longabaugh, and when Place is absent from historical records, Bassett is visible.\nHowever, Burton did not account for documented instances showing Bassett to have been in the United States at the same time that Etta Place was known to have been in South America. While Place was in South America with Cassidy and Longabaugh in 1903, Bassett was",
"-25.750886875815922"
],
[
"The Stranger Who Looks Like Me Plot Joanne Denver was adopted at birth and is searching for her birth parents. She meets Chris Schroeder, who is also adopted and is searching for his birth parents.",
"-25.7394254936371"
],
[
"or both children are intellectually gifted. According to a review by Macionis, older siblings tend to report rivalry peaking in childhood, while younger siblings report a peak later during early adolescence.\nRivalries also occur between people who have competing romantic interests in the same potential romantic partner:\nThe jealousy mechanism is activated if a committed romantic relationship is threatened by a rival. ... In heterosexual relationships, the rival is an individual of the opposite sex; in homosexual relationships, the rival is of the same sex. The rival can be imagined, suspected, or real. The minimal requirement for an individual to be perceived",
"-25.737545662850607"
],
[
"peaks of such close proximity to share the same name, especially when named by the same individual.",
"-25.725541677359615"
],
[
"natural mother. Dr. Segal has found that twins separated for even long periods of time, have surprising similarities. For example, Bridget and Dorothy, a pair of separated twins were wearing the same jewellery when they were reunited: \"seven rings, three bracelets and a watch.\" Where these similarities come from is a complicated question, but Dr. Segal suspects that genes associated with intelligence, temperament, and personality may explain some of the similarities between separated twins.\nAnn and Elizabeth have a number of similarities. They both married men named \"Jim.\" Both are widowed, grandmothers, and religious. After talking on Skype many",
"-25.714860626438167"
],
[
"José Maria and the earlier João Maria, uniting them as one person.",
"-25.713843195720983"
],
[
"three people with the same birthdates are compared. The other two are the mighty and wealthy heiress Ngai Chor Gwan (Carina Lau), and an arrogant fashion designer, Yeung Pak Kai (Gilbert Lam).\nMr. Yeung is an orphan. Similar to Kin, his parents died at an early age. He worked hard, juggling his studies and work and was soon recognized as Asia's top fashion designer.\nGwan is the elder daughter of tycoon and Ngai Holdings chairman Ngai Kwan (Kwan Hoi San), who is Bong's business rival and elder cousin-in-law. Her mother died when Gwan was only six. Gwan has a younger half-brother, general",
"-25.692877737106755"
],
[
"Hum Badal Gaye Synopsis The root of every new relationship outside the realm of familial ties is friendship. Friends constitute a crucial position in an individual's public, private and emotional domain. No set boundaries, norms limit the blossoming of a new friendship. It does not necessarily mean that friendship should be only between humans. Hum Badal Gaye exactly tries to show this and brings into limelight the love and friendship between a boy Ryan and Xanah, his beloved cat. In today’s world where animals are ill-treated and tortured and killed for various selfish motives, the film celebrates the essence of",
"-25.68309620890068"
],
[
"of the people that are close to me, and those that influenced me.\"",
"-25.654856019627687"
],
[
"one person and 4 generations prior for the other (one person's great-grandfather is the other person's great-great-grandfather) the cousins are separated by one generation and therefore once removed. Two people can be removed but be around the same age due to differences in birth dates of parents children and other relevant ancestors.\nThe degree of the cousin relationship is the number of generations prior to the parents before a most recent common ancestor is found. If the cousins are removed, the smaller number of generations to the most recent common ancestor is used to determine the degree of the cousin relationship.",
"-25.63738688621379"
],
[
"of the ties between the two people corresponding.",
"-25.615956675130292"
],
[
"between two friends can be likened by each friend to being a pseudo elder sibling–younger sibling relationship, with each friend acting accordingly based on that relationship (the friend who sees himself as the \"younger sibling\" will show more deference to the friend who is the \"older sibling\"). Guanxi is also based in concepts like loyalty, dedication, reciprocity, and trust, which help to develop non-familial interpersonal relations, while mirroring the concept of filial piety, which is used to ground familial relations.\nUltimately, the relationships formed by guanxi are personal and not transferable. In a business context In China, a country where business",
"-25.597628269119014"
],
[
"War VC, Robert Grieve. However, descendants of both Grieve families have been in contact with each other and have found that they are not great uncle and great nephew.",
"-25.53451202902943"
],
[
"he is old, for from what I hear he is only two years younger than you are [the rumor was correct]. He impresses me as a remarkable kind of man, but of uncertain temper, and has a way of taking for granted that everybody agrees with him when he expresses an opinion, which offends me; yet he is most agreeable and has a peculiarly sweet voice and a winning manner of asserting himself. The fact is, he is the kind of person I should expect to rescue one from a mad dog at any risk, but to insist upon a",
"-25.527366579246518"
],
[
"have known each other almost all their lives. Reide is practical and situation oriented. It was his idea to leave the village and work for hire in Haven, in order to be less of a burden to the town that was his home. He proposed the idea to Lance, who agreed. Terrai Hanswitch Age: 22\n\nHeight: 167 cm\n\nTrigger: Skin contact with iron. (exact notes will be added)\n\nHeightening: (Amplificatory) The ability to repel attention. Implies that people are highly likely to not notice her presence. Shadow Age: 15\n\nHeight: 172 cm\n\nTrigger: Unknown\n\nHeightening: Unknown\n\nBackground: Very little is actually known about the one called Shadow. He rose",
"-25.523343743523583"
],
[
"human beings, who have emotions, hearts and feelings. The only thing that makes us different is our choice of different or same genders to love,\" he said in an interview with The Canadian Press, reading from a statement written with the help of his wife. He would repeat similar comments against violence towards people in the LGBTQ community in other interviews, and emphasize that his outlook has changed since the tour.",
"-25.522693443926983"
],
[
"Identical Strangers Identical Strangers: A Memoir of Twins Separated and Reunited is a 2007 memoir written by identical twins Elyse Schein and Paula Bernstein and published by Random House. The authors were separated as infants, in part, to participate in a \"nature versus nurture\" twin study. They were adopted by separate families who were unaware that each girl had a sister. Soon after the twins reunited for the first time in 2004 at the age of 35, they began writing the book. Of the 13 or more children involved in the study, three sets of twins and one set of",
"-25.43551154875422"
],
[
"the same race. Significant differences have been found between these two groups on holding hands in public, whereby interracial couples are less likely to do so, yet these differences do not maintain significance in the context of private displays of intimate affection. Therefore, it appears that the fear of being negatively judged in public inhibits interracial couples from displaying physical affection in comparison to couples of the same race. Interracial couples have also been found to engage in other strategies to deter potential judgment, including ignoring public harassment to avoid confrontation, staying at home or filtering their social group to",
"-25.42050771950744"
],
[
"The notion of people picking a spouse that would likely look similar at an older age wasn't ruled out completely, but predisposition wasn't the best reason. The explanation the scientists agreed on was empathy. Most married couples that have been together for 25 years (or longer) can identify with the other person's feelings. A lot of human emotions and feelings are expressed through the face, and when two people make similar facial expressions for 25 years, it could result in similar wrinkle patterns. Preferences need no inferences In 1980, a speculative and widely debated paper entitled \"Feeling",
"-25.415435441420414"
],
[
"out about his ancestry, Goodman said: \"I feel no different, I look no different, I am no different and yet I’m not what I thought I was. I thought that I was truly an Anglo-Saxon, English through and through.\"",
"-25.408197038865183"
],
[
"each other and are, in some strange way, the same person. \nCabral is developing other feature films, scripts and TV shows and is represented by the commercial production company, MJZ.",
"-25.402079215855338"
],
[
"old man had \"given him his ancestor.\" He would continue the line down and show that he and his people were the relatives of the other group in the junior lineage and therefore of less importance and prestige in that locality. In his own locality, the visitor might have prestige by right of conquest or from intermarriage. A member of the visiting group would recognize the genealogy and pick up where the old man had \"given him his ancestor.\" He would continue the line down and show that he and his people were the relatives of the other group. In",
"-25.39687943586614"
],
[
"even remarking that the boys and girls who think they are his friends are really just \"acquaintances\". Colin and Roy become close friends in a short period of time, and Roy declares them to be \"blood brothers\" after a brief ceremony. Roy displays some odd behavior, such as asking if Colin has ever killed anything and calling anything fun a \"popper\", but Colin does not think anything of it.\nColin meets a beautiful girl called Heather Lipschitz in a store one day, and is overwhelmed but thrilled as he realizes the two are developing a romantic interest in each other. He",
"-25.39322710223496"
],
[
"the stranger as he is the father of her child. The 3 friends are dejected. As planned, Rajendran and Venkat take revenge on the Hindi teacher and the grandfather respectively. But Palanisamy is still loyal to Puppy's mother and impresses Jaya. Jaya decides Palanisamy will be her true lover. \nJaya's father proudly tells her about his former student working in the U.S. and she sees his photo in the newspaper. Jaya then approaches Palanisamy and requests him to reunite her with the stranger who impregnated her. She gives the photo in the newspaper to Palanisamy and says he is the",
"-25.39008488403124"
],
[
"actor Francis McDonald. Though they bear a physical resemblance and were born in 1891, they were born three months apart and spelled their surnames differently.",
"-25.37783752492396"
],
[
"have never met. The children find themselves on a journey that is emotional as well as literal; during their weeks on the road, their adventures and the people they meet along the way help them to find out more about who they are and what is important to them, as well as to cope with the loss of their mother and to understand society's reaction to her poverty, isolation, mental illness, and the fact that she was an unmarried mother of four.\nThirteen-year-old Dicey Tillerman, and her brothers James (10) and Sammy (6), and sister Maybeth (9), lived in a wooden",
"-25.376728720992105"
],
[
"male friends of the same age, whose \"physiognomy displays average intelligence\" and who hold hands as a \"sign of an indissoluble communion of feeling\". Present-day views of the picture have emphasised the difficulty in interpreting representations of male bonding such as the one in Friendship.\nThe works of Leempoels, including some of his most famous paintings such as Destiny and Humanity, are mainly held in private collections. The current location of many of his works is unknown and some works are only known from contemporary black-and-white reproductions in magazines and exhibition catalogues. Only a few museum collections include examples of Leempoels'",
"-25.373957212024834"
],
[
"characters travelling to parallel worlds where they find alternative versions of people they met before. Despite sharing the same physical appearances, these identical versions have been through different experiences earning their own identities. Syaoran also has his own doppelgänger commonly referred as \"The Other Syaoran\" who at the same time shares the same identity as the protagonist from xxxHolic, Kimihiro Watanuki. Across the series, these character are developed and choose their own paths to earn their own identities. Manga Written and illustrated by Clamp, Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle was serialized in Japan in Kodansha's Weekly Shōnen Magazine between May 2003 and October 2009.",
"-25.357637581939343"
],
[
"Unusually Unusual Content In the song the narrator talks about how his significant other is \"unusually unusual\" because of the things she does. He talks about how her personality is beautiful to him.",
"-25.318667839106638"
],
[
"For example, if one of the cousins has to go back one generation beyond their parents (the grandparents) before finding the most recent common ancestor and the other has to go back one or more they are first cousins. If one had to go back two generations beyond the parents (great grandparents) and the other had to go back two or more they would be second cousins. Multiplicities Double cousins arise when two siblings of one family mate with two siblings of another family. This may also be referred to as 'cousins on both sides.' The resulting children are related",
"-25.29849762833328"
]
] |
2rcndn | How do we lay internet cables at the bottom of the ocean? | [
"If you want to watch a 45 minute TV show with more detail than a short video, there is a great TV series called \"Mighty Ships\" that covers different kinds of ships every episode. One episode is about the ship Tyco Resolute, which lays internet cable on the bottom of the ocean and sets up the land connections as well. It's a really great show and the Tyco Resolute episode is particularly interesting. [Mighty Ships, Tyco Resolute -- laying underwater internet cable]( URL_0 )",
"I work for a company that does this...jet plow, its awesome! Also ships that can hold dead still in high winds using directional thrusters.",
"So how do they fix a broken cable if its at the bottom of the fucking ocean?",
"Wait, so there are actually tons of internet cables laid at the bottom of the ocean? A friend said that to me, I said it was ridiculous. Someone please explain to me what the cables are for and how does the internet work in general so I can stop looking like an ass-hat.",
"We can lay line in the ocean but not to the city I live in?",
"When we say \"unexplored\", it is generally taken to mean \"no one has been down there and looked at it\". All of the world's seabeds and ocean floors are already mapped from satellite information and (where we need a bit more information) through sonar surveys carried out by ships. Depending on the water depth, a ship sonar survey can cover a few kilometres each side of the ship's path. Subsea cables (and pipelines) are very thin. When we lay them, we perform surveys of the seabed along the corridor of the intended route. These surveys only need to cover the route +/-50m on each side. When we lay the cables or pipes, they are monitored using underwater cameras, so we get to see a very small amount of the seabed. Incidentally, the bottom of the seabed away from shallow waters (say, more than 100m deep, which is most of the ocean) looks like a desert. There's very little there. Source: I am an offshore construction engineer with two masters degrees, and have laid pipes and cables. A.",
"If you'd like to read Neal Stephenson's account of laying the longest cable on earth, follow the link below to the best Wired article ever written. Caution, if you know Stephenson, you know it's a long read, but, utterly worth it. URL_0 ",
"[They say a picture is worth a thousand words.]( URL_0 ) That is a cable laying ship. I think you can guess how it works.",
"Special ships map the route and lay the huge thick cables by spooling them out on gigantic wheels. [Video Aid]( URL_0 )",
"I've heard somewhere that the bottom of the ocean is actually just 3 miles deep. Obviously, there are much deeper parts, but on average or in general or something it's about 3 miles deep. I don't have a source, so this may not be true, but it sounds reasonable to me.",
"A ship starts at one end of the ocean with a spool of cable on it. The ship crosses to the other side dropping the cable into the water as it goes. At the other side they take the end of the cable off the ship and connect it.",
"Cable routes are first planned roughly 2 years before the actual lay, based on general surveys. Then the route is precisely mapped via a sonar \"flying\" a kilometer over the seabed, to avoid rocks, cliffs, rifts... Then, it's all done by GPS and Dynamic Positioning (at 5km water depth and \"full speed\", the cable touches the seabed 50km behind the ship) Source : I work in the business",
"Very carefully. That's the answer my dad would have given me when I was 5.",
"Follow up question, what stops some evil mastermind from simply cutting the cables in a bunch of places. Does he/she then kill the internet?",
"What about the massive long ditch in the pacific ocean that we cannot go to the bottom of?",
"This will probably be buried, but here's a great example of undersea cables: the southern cross cable network linking NZ, AUS, and US West Coast: URL_0 .",
"This could be interesting too: URL_0 Postet in /r/InternetIsBeautiful",
"Totally possible. My ex used to be in charge of a big part of the process for a US company. I always figured they mapped the undersea areas first to make sure they weren't laying them in the grand canyon of the sea but I don't really know. I just remember the day Egypt went black during the Arab Spring. He was sort of in a panic and I was like \"It's probably a problem with your cable\" (since there were only a few going into Africa at the time). That did not make him feel better but luckily I turned out to be wrong. In my defense, mechanical malfunction seemed more probable at the time than Egypt turning off the Internet.",
"Wired has an excellent article in their archives, they posted in 1996: URL_0 It's written by a guy who travelled around the world with a boat that was laying down cable through the oceans connecting Asia to other parts of the world. Very long, but beautifully explains why the cables were moved around some locations due to political reasons or to avoid war prone areas, why they avoided land (poor people think it's copper cable and try to steal it, or cut it on purpose), how locals in some countries saw the project, how the cables are connected together. Overall, a very informative and insightful story, well worth reading.",
"Neal Stephenson wrote an article for Wired exploring the history of underseas cables as he traveled the world reporting on the building of the longest (at the time) fiber optic cable. Its a classic, you should read it! URL_0 ",
"Cable Laying Ships like the Tyco Resolute. The show Mighty Ships had an episode that featured it.",
"How do you lay cable at the bottom of your toilet? Fiber. It is all about fiber.",
" > Or, is this work resulting in new areas being mapped? Back in the 1850s, when the first undersea lines were laid down, we hardly knew what the bottom of the ocean looked like. Bathymetry, or measuring depth, consisted of lowering a weighted rope into the ocean. As a mapping tool, this could only be done effectively in rivers and harbours. Now that cables were being laid down, it was found there were certain areas of the ocean where the cable kept breaking. Keeping track of these obstacles (such as ridges or trenches) provided the best undersea maps until the development of sonar in the early-mid 20th century. So yes, the laying of undersea cables inadvertently became the first mapping tool of the ocean floor.",
"I have a guy tagged on RES as \"knows a lot about underwater cables\" because he gave a very in depth explanation to this exact question awhile ago...wish I could remember his username :\\ edit: You can look at your user tags and find people that way (yay!) so here's the thread I tagged him in: URL_0 Lots of good information there including this link to a map of all the submarine cables: URL_1 Also, calling /u/kim_jong_unko",
"medium to large sized ships with special underwater cable-laying equipment and very sensitive maneuverability characteristics are paid to lay these internet cables. cable companies usually charter the ship's voyage. source: i'm a Third Officer licensed to operate ships of any gross tonnage",
"The true answer given to a 5 year old for this question is: Very Carefully. Seriously it's not especially groundbreaking technology (excuse the pun) but just very careful (and large scale) application of that technology",
"Animated GIFs are ok but don't really do the full operation justice. Some good videos are available on YouTube though about the atlantic cable connecting the US and the UK. Great watch :) URL_0 ",
"Saw that this has not been asked before: Who pays for this project? I imagine whoever \"owns\" the cables eventually lease them out to telcos which eventually bill us users for using the internet?",
"How does it cross the Mariana Trench? Does it just cross the trench like a bridge or go down the trench a bit?"
] | [
[
"Submarine communications cable A submarine communications cable is a cable laid on the sea bed between land-based stations to carry telecommunication signals across stretches of ocean and sea. The first submarine communications cables laid beginning in the 1850s carried telegraphy traffic, establishing the first instant telecommunications links between continents, such as the first transatlantic telegraph cable which became operational on 16 August 1858. Subsequent generations of cables carried telephone traffic, then data communications traffic. Modern cables use optical fiber technology to carry digital data, which includes telephone, Internet and private data traffic.\nModern cables are typically about 1",
"-34.00421622686554"
],
[
"continent. As do the other Internet regions, there is an operational forum, the Internet Community of Operational Networking Specialists.\nThere are many programs to provide high-performance transmission plant, and the western and southern coasts have undersea optical cable. High-speed cables join North Africa and the Horn of Africa to intercontinental cable systems. Undersea cable development is slower for East Africa; the original joint effort between New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) and the East Africa Submarine System (Eassy) has broken off and may become two efforts. Asia and Oceania The Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC), headquartered in Australia, manages IP",
"-31.742137567387545"
],
[
"to serve the developing world. For instance, in July 2009, an underwater fiber optic cable line plugged East Africa into the broader Internet. The company that provided this new cable was SEACOM, which is 75% owned by Africans. The project was delayed by a month due to increased piracy along the coast. Antarctica Antarctica is the only continent not yet reached by a submarine telecommunications cable. All phone, video, and e-mail traffic must be relayed to the rest of the world via satellite links that have limited availability and capacity. Bases on the continent itself are able to communicate with",
"-31.195255857426673"
],
[
"International Cable Protection Committee Introduction The International Cable Protection Committee was formed in 1958 and its primary goal is to promote the safeguarding of international submarine cables against man-made and natural hazards. The organisation provides a forum for the exchange of technical, legal and environmental information about submarine cables and, with more than 155 members from over 60 nations, including cable operators, owners, manufacturers, industry service providers, as well as governments, it is the world's premier submarine cable organization.\nNearly 100% of the world's intercontinental electronic communications traffic is carried by the undersea cable infrastructure. Likewise, submarine power cables underpin the",
"-31.1214200395043"
],
[
"of 6,912 miles (11,124 km) and the project cost about $12 million. Before this, messages had to travel across the Atlantic to the Far East via Cape Town and the Indian Ocean, or via London to Russia, then across the Russian landline to Vladivostok, then by submarine cable to Japan and the Philippines.\nThe first section of cable was laid in 1902 by the cableship CS Silvertown from Ocean Beach, adjacent to the famous Cliff House in San Francisco to Honolulu. It began operating on January 1, 1903. Later that year, cables were laid from Honolulu to Midway Atoll, thence to",
"-30.481994995283458"
],
[
"AMX-1 Information The submarine cable means an investment of 500 million of dollars. It connects six countries (Mexico, Guatemala, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and Brazil) with United States. The cable has a length of 17,500 kilometers, and ends in Miami, Florida.",
"-30.07427929372352"
],
[
"system. Submarine power cables can operate at many kilovolts: for example, the Fenno-Skan power cable operates at 400 kV DC.\nA cable termination station is the point at which the submarine cable connects into the land-based infrastructure or network. A cable termination station may be the same facility as the cable landing station, or may be many miles away. The termination station will usually be the point where high-capacity 'backhaul' land-based network connects to areas of high demand, which are usually centres of high population density, rather than the usually remote locations of cable landing points/landing stations/termination stations. A good",
"-29.91780412557273"
],
[
"cybersecurity issues. Law issues Submarine cables are suffering from the inherent issue stemming from the historically established practice of cable laying. Since the cable connection is usually done by the private consortiums, there is a problem with responsibility in the beginning. Firstly, deciding the responsibility inside consortium can prove tricky on itself, since there is not a one clearly leading company which could be designed as responsible it could lead to confusion when it is needed to decide who should be taking care about the cable. Secondly, it is hard to navigate the issue of cable damage through the international",
"-29.90064529602023"
],
[
"company's central office, known as the \"head end.\" The cable company then connects to the Internet using a variety of means – usually fiber optic cable or digital satellite and microwave transmissions. Like DSL, broadband cable provides a continuous connection with an ISP.\nDownstream, the direction toward the user, bit rates can be as much as 400 Mbit/s for business connections, and 320 Mbit/s for residential service in some countries. Upstream traffic, originating at the user, ranges from 384 kbit/s to more than 20 Mbit/s. Broadband cable access tends to service fewer business customers because existing television cable networks tend to service residential buildings and",
"-29.480944016179137"
],
[
"Main One Path The Main One Cable is an undersea cable system stretching from Portugal to South Africa with landings along the route in various west African countries. Impact Main One will provide international capacity into a region that has experienced explosive growth in tele-density in recent years, but which remains constrained with respect to access to international cable capacity for global connectivity.\nThe Main One Cable system will provide open access to regional telecom operators and Internet service providers at rates that are less than 20% of current international bandwidth prices in the region available via SAT3 or satellite service",
"-29.21627583098598"
],
[
"is a terminus for a segment of the Southern Cross Cable, the major Submarine communications cable connecting to the island.",
"-29.105321447510505"
],
[
"over a greater distance, but SEA-ME-WE 4 provides far higher data transmission speeds intended to accommodate increasing demand for high-speed internet access in developing countries. Technologies The cable uses dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM), allowing for increased communications capacity per fibre compared to fibres carrying non-multiplexed signals and also facilitates bidirectional communication within a single fibre. DWDM does this by multiplexing different wavelengths of laser light on a single optical fibre so that multiple optical carrier signals can be concurrently transmitted along that fibre. Two fibre pairs are used with each pair able to carry 64 carriers at 10 Gbit/s each. This",
"-29.033447046240326"
],
[
"the instruments at the experimental sites. In concert, these parts make up the RSN secondary infrastructure. \nExtension cables are used to link the primary nodes to the secondary infrastructure, providing power and communications.\nEquipment is linked using wet-mate connectors. Different types of cable were installed depending on load requirements. Bandwidth from these cables ranges from 10 Gbit/s to 1 Gbit/s.\nDuring the VISIONS ’13 expedition to continue construction of RSN, over 22,000 meters of extension cables were installed on the ocean floor. The cables all successfully went online.\nUpon completion in 2014, over 100 cabled seafloor and water column",
"-28.86601452267496"
],
[
"(as noted above) multiple paths are available in the event of a cable break. Also, the total carrying capacity of submarine cables is in the terabits per second, while satellites typically offer only 1,000 megabits per second and display higher latency. However, a typical multi-terabit, transoceanic submarine cable system costs several hundred million dollars to construct.\nAs a result of these cables' cost and usefulness, they are highly valued not only by the corporations building and operating them for profit, but also by national governments. For instance, the Australian government considers its submarine cable systems to be \"vital to the national",
"-28.85463359154528"
],
[
"reserved for unclassified information, such as regular Internet websites and firewalled but unclassified military websites. OpenNet According to the U.S. Department of State Foreign Affairs Manual, \"OpenNet is a physical and logical Internet Protocol (IP)-based global network that links the Department of State's Local Area Networks (LANs) domestically and abroad. The physical aspect of the network uses DTS circuits for posts abroad, FTS-2001-provided circuits, leased lines, and dial-up public switch networks. This includes interconnected hubs, routers, bridges, switches, and cables. The logical aspect of the network uses Integrated Enterprise Management System (NMS) and TCP/IP software, and other operational network applications.",
"-28.778078808403734"
],
[
"the transpacific crossings.\nFLAG includes undersea cable segments, and two terrestrial crossings. The segments can be either direct point-to-point links, or multipoint links, which are attained through branching units. At each cable landing point, a FLAG cable station is located. The total route length exceeds 27,000 kilometres (16,780 miles; 14,580 nautical miles), and comprises 1,020 kilometres (634 miles) of terrestrial crossings. Approximately 6,600 kilometres (4,100 miles; 3,560 nautical miles) of the submerged cable is buried 1 metre (3 feet 3 inches) below the sea bed. Cable burial was performed by either a submersible plough as the cable was",
"-28.506135789706605"
],
[
"at lower cost by accessing more such cables.\nDespite their advantages, cabled observatories can (and do) relay compromised data to scientists, particularly when located in remote parts of the ocean. Factors such as instrumental malfunction and biofouling are often responsible for this. Systematic improvements, to lessen the impacts of such factors, are currently being studied by groups such as Ocean Networks Canada.",
"-28.488695537693275"
],
[
"information is also provided to prospective new submarine cable owners to encourage the adoption of minimum industry standards for the benefit of all involved with the seabed. The ICPC has also entered into memorandums of understanding with the International Seabed Authority and the Rhodes Academy to further cooperation with these two bodies. The ICPC also has a working relationship with the East-West Institute. Information sharing The ICPC provides a forum for members to interact and learn about legal, technical, and environmental developments relevant to submarine cables where areas of common interest are identified such that members can benefit from working",
"-28.41437235759804"
],
[
"the world's Internet traffic passes through Ashburn, Virginia. Access Common methods of Internet access by users include dial-up with a computer modem via telephone circuits, broadband over coaxial cable, fiber optics or copper wires, Wi-Fi, satellite, and cellular telephone technology (e.g. 3G, 4G). The Internet may often be accessed from computers in libraries and Internet cafes. Internet access points exist in many public places such as airport halls and coffee shops. Various terms are used, such as public Internet kiosk, public access terminal, and Web payphone. Many hotels also have public terminals that are usually fee-based. These terminals are widely",
"-28.4051899523256"
],
[
"example of this is the Endeavour cable system which connects Australia to Hawaii. The cable landing point in Sydney is Tamarama Beach, some distance from the cable termination station in Paddington. \nFor power cables the term cable termination station is not strictly determined. It is either the point where the underwater cable ends and where the overhead powerline starts or if the whole line is implemented as cable, the first cable sleeve on the land. However one can also say that the substation or HVDC static inverter plant, where the connection to the grid is made describe as cable termination",
"-28.340274325266364"
],
[
"Australia's international links, being able to handle around 80,000 voice circuits (phone calls), a great increase on the 1984 built ANZCAN cable it superseded which could handle only 1,380 voice circuits.\nThe PacRim survey was one of the largest international contracts ever awarded to an individual survey company. It totaled nearly $7 million and was spread over 18 months.\nPacRimWest at the time was the longest continuous submarine cable laid to that date at 7,062km (4,414 miles) and one of the most trailblazing cables passing through the Mariana Trench near Guam at a depth of 8,900m (29,000 feet). The cable used only",
"-28.33500450954307"
],
[
"DARE (cable system) Topology The ACE system uses wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) technology, which is currently the most advanced for submarine cables. With WDM, cable capacity can be increased without additional submarine work. With an overall potential capacity of 5.12 Tbit/s, the system will support the 40 Gbit/s technology from its launch.",
"-28.19437748707651"
],
[
"1980s, which made way for the currently used systems of ME, NG-SDH, ADSL, WiMAX d, ATM and others. Undersea cables The Eastern Africa Submarine Cable System (EASSy) is an initiative to connect countries of eastern Africa via a high bandwidth fibre optic cable system to the rest of the world. Seacom is a privately funded venture which built, owns, and operates a submarine fibre-optic cable connecting communication carriers in south and east Africa. SAT-3/WASC or South Atlantic 3/West Africa Submarine Cable is a submarine communications cable linking Portugal and Spain to South Africa, with connections to several West African countries",
"-28.104277363687288"
],
[
"laid, or jetting the laid cable into the sea bed via remotely operated vehicles (ROVs).\nOver several years, the route evolved as new branches and feeder systems were considered and realised. FLAG includes two terrestrial crossings, one in Egypt, and the other in Thailand. Each of these land crossings is totally duplicated on fully different routes. As a result, any fault within one route will cause automatic protection switching to the other route within a time period of less than 50 ms.\nLike other global undersea networks, FLAG uses erbium-doped fibre amplifiers (EDFAs). EDFAs boost the optical signals instead",
"-28.0232455903315"
],
[
"about 15-20% of all information on the Internet. Deep web The deep web is made of non-indexable resources that cannot be found with the help of search engines. This happens for several reasons. The main one is that only the owner knows about the site or server, and he has never published a link to his page anywhere. Deep web is of greatest interest to network researchers because of its vastness and non-knowledge. Netstalkers use programs to scan ranges of IP addresses to study this segment. Darknet or Dark web The darknet is closed Internet space which cannot be accessed",
"-28.0139000271447"
],
[
"IP equipment.\nCommunication with spacecraft beyond earth orbit has traditionally been over point-to-point links through the Deep Space Network. Each such data link must be manually scheduled and configured. In the late 1990s NASA and Google began working on a new network protocol, Delay-tolerant networking (DTN) which automates this process, allows networking of spaceborne transmission nodes, and takes the fact into account that spacecraft can temporarily lose contact because they move behind the Moon or planets, or because space weather disrupts the connection. Under such conditions, DTN retransmits data packages instead of dropping them, as the standard TCP/IP Internet Protocol does.",
"-27.86441851951531"
],
[
"while long-distance networks are used for petroleum and natural gas.\nCable transport is a broad mode where vehicles are pulled by cables instead of an internal power source. It is most commonly used at steep gradient. Typical solutions include aerial tramway, elevators, escalator and ski lifts; some of these are also categorized as conveyor transport. Airports Airports serve as a terminus for air transport activities, but most people and cargo transported by air must use ground transport to reach their final destination.\nAirport-based services are sometimes used to shuttle people to nearby hotels or motels when overnight stay is required for connecting",
"-27.768374389386736"
],
[
"a common practice was to use one or more interconnected active hubs, each of which provided coverage for nodes no more than 60 m (200 ft) away. Cable was run from each port of the active hubs to a different location no more than 30 m (100 ft) away. A passive hub would then be attached to the end of the cable, and cables would be run locally from the passive hub, allowing connection of up to three nodes. In this way, a single 8-port active hub could be used to connect 24 networked devices over an area not exceeding 120 m (400 ft) in",
"-27.71219603899044"
],
[
"is common for aerial and underground cables up to several thousand pairs in North America. In the UK, the British Post Office (later BT) used this color code for what is now known loosely as CW1308 specification cables, referring to the Post Office's \"Cable and Wire\" specification No. 1308. Extra pairs and colors When working on aerial cable splicing and installation, it is common to use a telephone lineman's set or \"Butt Set\" to communicate over long distances. To facilitate this, extra pairs of wires are embedded in cables. One extra pair (Red-White) may be embedded into cables that",
"-27.657091761531774"
],
[
"for global internet provisioning will use wireless laser communication to establish optical mesh networks between satellites in outer space. Airborne optical networks between high-altitude platforms are planned as part of Google's Project Loon and Facebook Aquila with the same technology.\nFree-space optical networks can also be used to set up temporary terrestrial networks e.g. to link LANs on a campus. Transmission Medium At its inception, the telecommunications network relied on copper to carry information. But the bandwidth of copper is limited by its physical characteristics—as the frequency of the signal increases to carry more data, more of the signal’s energy",
"-27.631282396556344"
],
[
"Networking cables Networking cables are networking hardware used to connect one network device to other network devices or to connect two or more computers to share printers, scanners etc. Different types of network cables, such as coaxial cable, optical fiber cable, and twisted pair cables, are used depending on the network's physical layer, topology, and size. The devices can be separated by a few meters (e.g. via Ethernet) or nearly unlimited distances (e.g. via the interconnections of the Internet).\nThere are several technologies used for network connections. Patch cables are used for short distances in offices and wiring closets. Electrical",
"-27.527600979410636"
],
[
"Interchange Cable Network Future Cables Interchange Limited plans to construct two more subsea cables. The first (ICN2) will connect Port Vila to Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea, A spur will also be built to Vanuatu's largest island by land area Espiritu Santo. On 21 January 2014 Interchange signed a supply agreement for the construction of the cable, the planned completion date of this cable is early 2016. The second will connect Port Vila to New Caledonia, with a spur to the Vanuatu island of Tanna. As of November 2013 no date for completion has been set.\nThese cables will provide",
"-27.50473855639575"
],
[
"a standardized protocol to transmit digital information underwater using acoustic sound (like modems and fax machines do over telephone lines). Documented in STANAG 4748, it uses 900Hz to 60kHz frequencies at distances of up to 28 kilometres (17 mi). It is available for use with military and civilian, NATO and non-NATO devices; it was named after the Roman god of gateways, openings, etc.",
"-27.31564567264286"
],
[
"Internet. Other nodes use this information to evaluate whether there is a connection to the Internet close to them and how much bandwidth is available. They can either use a specific gateway or allow B.A.T.M.A.N. to determine which gateway to use, based on criteria such as connection speed.\nAnnouncing devices not running B.A.T.M.A.N. themselves was also included in this version. Usually, this method is used to connect home networks to mesh-networks. An antenna installation on the roof will connect to the wireless network through B.A.T.M.A.N. and the rest of the building will simply be announced, thus also be reachable.\nThis version of",
"-27.308927058591507"
],
[
"and is not necessarily connected to the Web. Connectivity transpires within the process called address mapping. Here, Intranet addresses are converted to Internet addresses to provide the required transparency and vice versa.\nThrough the intranet portal, the private network is able to impose its own local rules of behavior because of the installation and maintenance of a mechanism such as a firewall and intranet portal solutions. Internet browsers cannot connect to the server behind it and must contact the gateway machine and abide by the restrictions mandated by the gateway. Only users within an organization can access the network. Users can",
"-27.30077689117752"
],
[
"infrastructure of the Internet consists of its hardware components and a system of software layers that control various aspects of the architecture. Routing and service tiers Internet service providers (ISPs) establish the worldwide connectivity between individual networks at various levels of scope. End-users who only access the Internet when needed to perform a function or obtain information, represent the bottom of the routing hierarchy. At the top of the routing hierarchy are the tier 1 networks, large telecommunication companies that exchange traffic directly with each other via very high speed fibre optic cables and governed by peering agreements. Tier 2",
"-27.256560053880094"
],
[
"international Internet service in Bangladesh was slowed following a cable cut on the eastern leg of the SEA-ME-WE 4 optical fiber cable due to the reason that Bangladesh did not have an alternative submarine cable or other high-speed international connections. Then the Kuakata Submarine Cable Project was taken up to connect to the SEA-ME-WE 5 cable to provide an alternative route and achieve better transmission link. The new submarine cable connectivity was up from December 2016 and the commercial operation started in early 2017, with the equipment set-up operating at 100 Gbit/s for each DWDM wavelength. Usage The number of",
"-27.235536001229775"
],
[
"roaming over a building or campus, allowing seamless wireless LAN connections over the entire area, similar to cellular telephones.\nIn 1996, Digital Ocean partnered with two other companies to provide Apple and PC platforms with their first ability to be on the same wireless LAN network through a single access point. The solution viewed each computer as an agnostic system when accessing the network, which placed all computers on equal footing in regards to their ability to communicate across an enterprise. Chipsets In 1995 and 1996, Digital Ocean entered into three-way development contracts with AT&T/Lucent and Aironet to license Digital Ocean's",
"-27.15884296951117"
],
[
"Cable entry system Cable entry systems are used for routing electrical cables, corrugated conduits or pneumatic and hydraulic hoses into switch cabinets, electrical enclosures, control panels and machines or in large heavy-duty vehicles, rolling stock and ships. Possible requirements can be high ingress protection rates or integrated strain relief.\nIt is being differentiated between entry systems for routeing standard cables (without connectors) with a high packing density and split cable entry systems which enable routeing of pre-terminated cables (with connectors) or complete cable harnesses. Cable entry systems for cables without connectors For routing of standard cables and other electrical, pneumatic or",
"-27.141698209074093"
],
[
" Internet is provided using a combination of UNOLS-designed proprietary satellite system (C-Band), shore cellular network (3G, 4G/LTE), and/or Inmarsat FleetBroadBand (L-Band). In addition to the cluster, there's a wide array of data acquisition computers hooked up to a modular display array. All live processed data from the ship's standard set of acquisition systems is displayed on the array, and provide live feedback of the ship's underway data. There are repeating displays in the main lab, and hydro lab that shows MET and navigation data.\nThe various Windows, Linux, and Mac acquisition machines perform data acquisition, archiving and",
"-27.011883309896803"
],
[
"Pipe Pacific Cable Capacity Quoting directly from PIPE International's PPC-1's Blog, substantial capacity will be available on the submarine cable network:\n\"PPC-1 will be configured primarily as a two optic-fibre pair system however it will include up to an additional 4 optic fibre pairs providing the potential to install spurs extending to a number of strategic locations within and outside of Australia. The main backbone will be laid in deep water with landings in Sydney, Australia and Piti, Guam. The main segment of the network will cover approximately 6,500km. It will use the latest submarine wave division multiplexing to provide up",
"-27.000527068099473"
],
[
"national optical fibre networks. There are several companies with national fibre networks, including BT, Level 3 Communications, Virgin Media, Cable & Wireless, Easynet and Thus. Microwave links are used up to the 155 Mbit/s level, but are seldom cost-effective at higher bit rates. International trunks The UK is a focal point for many of the world's submarine communications cables, which are now mostly digital optical fibre cables. There are many satellite links too, but these now provide a relatively small part of the international bandwidth. Broadcast transmission Most broadcasting organisations, BBC and commercial, lease transmission facilities from one or more",
"-26.94713173189666"
],
[
"unstable countries and unreliable overland transit networks.\nCurrently, internet traffic bounded from South Africa to the Americas routes through Europe. The SAex cable if constructed, will reduce latency and bandwidth costs associated with the distance that internet traffic currently has to travel by providing the shortest route possible from South Africa to the Americas. The initial design capacity of the cable is 40 TBit/s and will be over 10,000 kilometres in length (7,400 km from South Africa to Brazil and 3,000 km from Cape Town to Mtunzini). It will consist of four fibre pairs, each capable of carrying 10 TBit/s of data using",
"-26.91217990135192"
],
[
"From an engineering viewpoint, the Internet is the set of subnets, and aggregates of subnets, which share the registered IP address space and exchange information about the reachability of those IP addresses using the Border Gateway Protocol. Typically, the human-readable names of servers are translated to IP addresses, transparently to users, via the directory function of the Domain Name System (DNS).\nOver the Internet, there can be business-to-business (B2B), business-to-consumer (B2C) and consumer-to-consumer (C2C) communications. When money or sensitive information is exchanged, the communications are apt to be protected by some form of communications security mechanism. Intranets and",
"-26.899299025870278"
],
[
"streams.\nThe 1, 10, 40, and 100 gigabit Ethernet (GbE, 10 GbE, 40/100 GbE) IEEE standards (802.3) allow digital data to be delivered over copper wiring at distances to 100 m and over optical fiber at distances to 40 km. Cable Internet access Cable Internet provides access using a cable modem on hybrid fiber coaxial wiring originally developed to carry television signals. Either fiber-optic or coaxial copper cable may connect a node to a customer's location at a connection known as a cable drop. In a cable modem termination system, all nodes for cable subscribers in a neighborhood connect to a cable",
"-26.820741299452493"
],
[
"service to the area. Underwater cables As of 2000, undersea connections in Herring Cove connected it with Europe via a 5,500km cable to Liverpool, another 5,600km cable to Dublin, to Boston via a 750km cable. As of 2012 Hibernia Atlantic will add direct connections to London and New York City for a total distance of 6,021km, about 11% more than the great circle route absolute minimum of 5583km. The 30,000 square foot cable landing station at Hospital Point on Herring Cove remains the densest cluster of sub-70ms connectivity on the North Atlantic, the critical link on cables that",
"-26.814551127084997"
],
[
"Cable Internet access Hardware and bit rates Broadband cable Internet access requires a cable modem at the customer's premises and a cable modem termination system (CMTS) at a cable operator facility, typically a cable television headend. The two are connected via coaxial cable or a hybrid fibre-coaxial (HFC) plant. While access networks are sometimes referred to as last-mile technologies, cable Internet systems can typically operate where the distance between the modem and the termination system is up to 160 kilometres (99 mi). If the HFC network is large, the cable modem termination system can be grouped into hubs for efficient management.\nDownstream,",
"-26.76600462591159"
],
[
"upon standards for cable installation, protection, and maintenance. The ICPC actively monitors the evolution of international treaties and national legislation and help to ensure that submarine cable interests are fully understood and protected by all relevant stakeholders. ICPC supports peer-reviewed research into the interactions of cables with the ocean environment to provide an evidence-based foundation for those interactions. History The Cable Damage Committee was established on May 22, 1958. The name of the committee was later changed to the International Cable Protection Committee (ICPC) in 1967 to better reflect that intended aims of the organisation and its membership. The original",
"-26.740412677128916"
],
[
"the cabling between nodes. It is built of peer radio devices that do not have to be cabled to a wired port like traditional WLAN access points (AP) do. Mesh infrastructure carries data over large distances by splitting the distance into a series of short hops. Intermediate nodes not only boost the signal, but cooperatively pass data from point A to point B by making forwarding decisions based on their knowledge of the network, i.e. perform routing by first deriving the topology of the network.\nWireless mesh networks is a relatively \"stable-topology\" network except for the occasional failure of nodes or",
"-26.733966433501337"
],
[
"internet, cable telephony and wireless services, using both unlicensed and licensed spectrum. Broadband internet access is achieved over coaxial cable by using cable modems to convert the network data into a type of digital signal that can be transferred over coaxial cable. One problem with some cable systems is the older amplifiers placed along the cable routes are unidirectional thus in order to allow for uploading of data the customer would need to use an analog telephone modem to provide for the upstream connection. This limited the upstream speed to 31.2 Kbp/s and prevented the always-on convenience broadband internet typically",
"-26.68954945970836"
],
[
"(SEA-ME-WE 4) submarine optical fiber cable on Wednesday morning (27 March 2013) has been reported leading to a degradation of internet speed by 60% in several countries including Pakistan and Egypt. A consortium of SEA-ME-WE-4 Cable System is working on the fault but they have not come up with a resolution time for this problem and confirmed nature of fault is yet to be determined\nThree men were arrested for trying to cut the cable near Alexandria.\nThe issue was resolved on the 8 April 2013. 25–28 December 2013 fault Fiber cut in SMW4 segment 3 (Egypt terrestrial path). Slow internet speeds",
"-26.66998037562007"
],
[
"a satellite link to carry IP data in both directions between the central hub and remote terminals. At the hub, routers connect to the Internet backbone and IP data is embedded in a DVB-S2 format carrier to be uplinked to the satellite from SES' teleport and, from there, downlinked to the remote terminal where the signal is received with a domestic-type dish for the satellite internet modem, which extracts the IP data for the end user's PC.\nThe return path is handled in a similar fashion, but with a low power 500 mW transmitter on each terminal dish providing the uplink to",
"-26.63423718290869"
],
[
"Transpac (cable system) TRANSPAC or Trans-pacific cable (TPC) is a series of undersea cables under the Pacific Ocean. Transpac 1 TRANSPAC-1 (TPC-1) was laid by AT&T's cable ship C.S. Long Lines. and opened on June 19, 1964. It connected Hawaii, Midway Atoll, Wake Island, Guam, and Japan. A branch from Guam to The Philippines was completed in December 1964. This cable connected with HAW-1 to complete the telephone connection to the mainland United States. It had a capacity of 142 channels. TRANSPAC-1 was part of the network that supported the Apollo 11 moon landing mission in 1969. Transpac 2 In",
"-26.62125515617663"
],
[
"the Bashi Channel, making it a major potential point of failure for the Internet. In December 2006, a magnitude 6.7 submarine earthquake cut several undersea cables at the same time, causing a significant communications bottleneck that lasted several weeks.",
"-26.6005341601915"
],
[
"APNG (cable system) APNG (Australia Papua New Guinea ) is a submarine telecommunications cable system in the Coral Sea linking Australia and Papua New Guinea.\nIt has landing points in Cairns, Queensland, Australia and Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.\nIt is an analogue coaxial copper cable with a capacity of 480 channels at 5 MHz each, giving a data rate of 16 Mbit/s. It has a total cable length of 897 km. It started operation in 1976 and has been replaced by the APNG-2 cable, in early 2006.",
"-26.60039036692615"
],
[
"management needs at either end are different. \nBuildings and office furniture are often designed with cable management in mind; for instance, desks sometimes have holes to pass cables, and dropped ceilings, raised floors, and In Floor Cellular Raceway Systems provide easy access. Some cables have requirements for minimum bend radius or proximity to other cables, particularly power cables, to avoid crosstalk or interference. Power cables often need to be grouped separately and suitably apart from data cables, and only cross at right angles which minimizes electromagnetic interference.\nThe organized routing of cables inside the computer case allows for optimal airflow",
"-26.596015075803734"
],
[
"Intraweb Corporate internal web Intranets are networks used internally in organizations to facilitate communication and access to corporate information. Internet protocol suite and tools build intranets and especially the Web application layer to provide organisations with integrated and unified interfaces to corporate 'legacy' data and information systems.\nVery often the term intranet refers only to the most visible service i.e. the internal websites. In fact for a large portion, intranets are solely relying on World Wide Web software. More than just a play on the word 'Internet', the word intranet was formed from the prefix intra-, meaning \"inside, within\", plus",
"-26.591011096024886"
],
[
"of information technology infrastructure within the country. StreetNets (SNet) StreetNets is a name used to refer to the local mesh networks that are built by Cuban citizens in order to connect localities to a private network that is outside of the view of the government and can operate in a way that is completely uncensored. Members of the mesh networks are able to communicate online privately with one another and share files through the network without fear of government oversight or censorship. The mesh network is formed by a series of Wi-Fi antennas and Ethernet cables that are connected to",
"-26.586583371055895"
],
[
"SURFnet History The organisation was established in 1986, it started supplying IP connectivity services in 1989, deploying the TCP/IP suite. SURFnet has deployed a series of network generations in an overbuilt manner. The initial SURFnet network was based on 9.6 kbit/s and 64 kbit/s X.25 connections, providing DECNET protocol. SURFnet2 was established in 1989 and delivered TCP/IP over an X.25 network. The SURFnet3 network delivered native TCP/IP via leased lines and became operational in 1991, mainly consisting of 64 kbit/s and 2 Mbit/s lines. In 1994 SURFnet4 was developed based on ATM and, later on SDH, links. SURFnet5 was developed",
"-26.552659137931187"
],
[
"order to cut down costs for both operators and end users. At least three projects for an underseas backbone in the Indian Ocean have been started. EASSy (East African Submarine cable System), sponsored by the World Bank and the Development Bank of Southern Africa, is a cable system that will connect Mtunzini (South Africa) and Port Sudan (Sudan), with branches to several countries on the eastern coast of Africa. The Kenyan government has started a similar project named TEAMS (The East Africa Marine System), with the collaboration of Etisalat. A third project, SEACOM, is completely African-owned. SEACOM bandwidth has already",
"-26.549562829430215"
],
[
"of capacity was available across the Atlantic Ocean, but only 2,726 gigabits per second existed across the Pacific Ocean. Most links to China had to go through a hub in Japan, and access topped out at 155 Mbit/s. The TPE is more than 60 times the overall capacity of the existing cable directly linking the U.S. and China, and thus its construction was a major enhancement to the cable systems between the two nations. It is the first next-generation undersea optical cable system directly linking the U.S. and China, and was also the first major undersea system",
"-26.455556469387375"
],
[
"Active cable Technology The active component in active cables is a semiconductor device which acts to boost the quality of the data signal. The most common technology used is equalization and de-skew, both forms of filtering and amplification which is applied to the signal before it leaves the connector at the end of the cable. In some cases, chips are used at both ends of an active cable where the first device actively boosts the signal before it is transmitted over the copper lines and the second chip improves the signal integrity before it leaves the end connector. Consumer electronics",
"-26.432502054638462"
],
[
"Underwater acoustic communication Underwater acoustic communication is a technique of sending and receiving messages below water. There are several ways of employing such communication but the most common is by using hydrophones. Underwater communication is difficult due to factors such as multi-path propagation, time variations of the channel, small available bandwidth and strong signal attenuation, especially over long ranges. Compared to terrestrial communication, underwater communication has low data rates because it uses acoustic waves instead of electromagnetic waves.\nAt the beginning of the 20th century, some ships communicated by underwater bells, the system being competitive with the primitive Maritime radionavigation service",
"-26.417601692315657"
],
[
"Internet and that encapsulate physical goods within them.\nThe vision of the Physical Internet involves encapsulating goods in smart, ecofriendly and modular containers ranging from the size of a maritime container to the size of a small box. It thus generalizes the maritime container that succeeded to support globalization and shaped ships and ports, and extends containerization to logistics services in general. The Physical Internet moves the border of the private space to be inside of the container instead of the warehouse or the truck. These modular containers will be continuously monitored and routed, exploiting their digital interconnection through the Internet",
"-26.394558777305065"
],
[
"net, an abbreviation of 'network'. Likewise, 'intraweb' is formed from the prefix intra- plus web and thus refers to web sites that are only accessible to people within a specific group, organization or community. Nowadays, most large companies have intrawebs as part of their internal information system. Security and privacy aspects Being built on the same technology, intranets can offer similar services within an organization to those provided by the Internet outside it but: (1) they are not necessarily connected to the Internet and (2) their services can tap into internal organisation resources.\nWith the advent of mobile computing, the notion",
"-26.342324980389094"
],
[
"island connects it to the internet. Internet services were provided using VDSL and ADSL until central government introduced a national fibre optic rollout that included urban parts of Waiheke. Central government also forced the separation of the cable infrastructure from the ISPs, with the fibre backbone being maintained by Chorus which has contracts with numerous ISPs. The locally owned WISP continues to provided wireless internet and some islanders use both services to ensure system redundancy.\nSolid Waste: The community established a charitable trust which successfully tendered for Auckland City's contract for solid waste disposal. The recycling centre was implemented with such",
"-26.338993014520383"
],
[
"and international services to long distance carriers and foreign administrations. The corporation currently manages the landing points in Puerto Rico of the undersea cable systems of AMERICAS-I, AMERICAS-II, ANTILLAS I, and ARCOS-1.",
"-26.291609617881477"
],
[
"Serial communication Cables Many serial communication systems were originally designed to transfer data over relatively large distances through some sort of data cable.\nPractically all long-distance communication transmits data one bit at a time, rather than in parallel, because it reduces the cost of the cable. The cables that carry this data (other than \"the\" serial cable) and the computer ports they plug into are usually referred to with a more specific name, to reduce confusion.\nKeyboard and mouse cables and ports are almost invariably serial—such as PS/2 port, Apple Desktop Bus and USB.\nThe cables that carry digital video are almost invariably",
"-26.286910500843078"
],
[
"Cable modem termination system A cable modem termination system or CMTS is a piece of equipment, typically located in a cable company's headend or hubsite, which is used to provide high speed data services, such as cable Internet or Voice over Internet Protocol, to cable subscribers. A CMTS provides many of the same functions provided by the DSLAM in a DSL system. Connections In order to provide high speed data services, a cable company will connect its headend to the Internet via very high capacity data links to a network service provider. On the subscriber side of the headend,",
"-26.282096709444886"
],
[
"Clearnet (networking) Clearnet is a term typically referring to the publicly accessible Internet, the opposite of the darknet that typically describes the encrypted, anonymous services built on the Tor Internet service, and similar.\nThe World Wide Web is one of the most popular distributed services on the Internet, and the surface web is composed of the web pages and databases that are indexed by traditional search engines. The opposite of the surface web is the deep web, which is not indexed, but most of which is publicly accessible. It includes web portals to databases that require text searches, and interactive",
"-26.26968064371613"
],
[
" A vast variety of cable patterns can be invented by changing the number of cables, the separations of their center lines, the amplitudes of their waves (i.e., how far they wander from their center line), the shape of the waves (e.g., sinusoidal versus triangular), and the relative position of the crests and troughs of each wave (e.g., one wave crests as another is crossing its center line).\nNew cable patterns can also be inspired by pictures, scenes from nature, Celtic knotwork, and even the double helix of DNA. Cable lattices In some cases, one can form a lattice of cables,",
"-26.263626170286443"
],
[
"of internal versus external network is no longer physical; intranets and extranets often make use of Virtual private networks (VPN). The main reason for the separation between intranets and the Internet is to preserve the confidentiality and security of the corporate information system. These mini-Internets are owned and managed by companies and enable these corporations to share their resources with their employees without confidential information being made available on the public Internet. Web sites running on an intranet look and act just like any other Web sites, but the firewall surrounding the intranet prevents any unauthorized access thus creating a",
"-26.222923465858912"
],
[
"base IPv4 address of 192.168.1.1 and has a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0, then any data addressed to an IP address outside of 192.168.1.0\nis sent to the network gateway. IPv6 networks work in a similar way. While forwarding an IP packet to another network, the gateway may perform network address translation. Internet-to-orbit gateway An Internet-to-orbit gateway (I2O) connects computers or devices on the Internet to computer systems orbiting Earth, such as satellites or manned spacecraft. Project HERMES, run by the Ecuadorian Civilian Space Agency, was first to implement this kind of gateway on June 6, 2009. Project HERMES has a maximum",
"-26.217386788339354"
],
[
"information required to properly route traffic. Such networks may operate by themselves or may be connected to the larger Internet. They may contain one or multiple and different transceivers between nodes. This results in a highly dynamic, autonomous topology.\nMANETs usually have a routable networking environment on top of a Link Layer ad hoc network. MANETs consist of a peer-to-peer, self-forming, self-healing network. MANETs circa 2000–2015 typically communicate at radio frequencies (30 MHz – 5 GHz). History on packet radio The earliest wireless data network was called PRNET, the \"packet radio\" network, and was sponsored by Defense Advanced Research Projects",
"-26.195071618010843"
],
[
"Intranet An intranet is a computer network for sharing corporate information, collaboration tools, operational systems, and other computing services only within an organization, and to the exclusion of access by outsiders to the organization. The term is used in contrast to public networks, such as the Internet, but uses most of the same technology based on the Internet Protocol Suite.\nA company-wide intranet can constitute an important focal point of internal communication and collaboration, and provide a single starting point to access internal and external resources. In its simplest form, an intranet is established with the technologies for local area networks",
"-26.19208360038465"
],
[
"Circe (cable system) Circe is a submarine communications cable that connects network switches in the United Kingdom with those in Belgium, France, Germany, and the Netherlands. It was built at a cost of US$1 billion by Viatel in the late 1990s and measures up to 8,700 km in total length. According to a 1998 Bloomberg Businessweek article, Circe is one of the first cross-border fibre-optics networks in Europe.\nIn 2013, media reports revealed that communication passing through Circe is being secretly monitored by the British intelligence agency GCHQ as part of its ongoing surveillance project.",
"-26.177354426094098"
],
[
" This technology comprises short lengths of EDF spliced into the land cable. The erbium-doped sections are situated within the cable span, and are pumped by 1,480 nm pump lasers which are based at the station.\nAn upgrade to the network was announced in 2006, when the acronym was expanded to \"Fibre Loop Across Globe\" (FLAG). Segments and landing points Cable landing points are: December 2006 and January 2007 The 2006 Hengchun earthquake on 26 December 2006, off the southwest coast of Taiwan, disrupted internet services in Asia, affecting many Asian countries. Financial transactions, particularly in the foreign exchange market",
"-26.091935755335726"
],
[
"allows connections only to specific ports, such as 443 for HTTPS. Technical overview As an example of network layer over network layer, Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE), a protocol running over IP (IP protocol number 47), often serves to carry IP packets, with RFC 1918 private addresses, over the Internet using delivery packets with public IP addresses. In this case, the delivery and payload protocols are the same, but the payload addresses are incompatible with those of the delivery network.\nIt is also possible to establish a connection using the data link layer. The Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) allows the transmission",
"-26.078093020390952"
],
[
"3 and the SEA-ME-WE 4 cable systems are intended to provide redundancy for each other. The two cable systems are complementary, but separate, and 4 is not intended to replace 3. Both derive from the same series of projects (SEA-ME-WE), but have different emphases. SEA-ME-WE 3 is far longer at 39,000 kilometres (compare to SEA-ME-WE 4's 18,800 kilometres) and extends from Japan and Australia along the bottom of the Eurasian landmass to Ireland and Germany. SEA-ME-WE 4 has a faster rate of data transmission at 1.28 Tbit/s against SEA-ME-WE 3's 0.96 Tbit/s. SEA-ME-WE 3 provides connectivity to a greater number of countries",
"-26.06251119400258"
],
[
"of NATs map multiple private hosts to one publicly exposed IP address. In a typical configuration, a local network uses one of the designated private IP address subnets (RFC 1918). A router on that network has a private address in that address space. The router is also connected to the Internet with a public address assigned by an Internet service provider. As traffic passes from the local network to the Internet, the source address in each packet is translated on the fly from a private address to the public address. The router tracks basic data about each active connection (particularly",
"-26.05003028488136"
],
[
"post items are sent by air twice weekly, but all other mail is sent by sea and can take up to two months for delivery. Internet .cc is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Cocos (Keeling) Islands. It is administered by VeriSign through a subsidiary company eNIC, which promotes it for international registration as \"the next .com\"; .cc was originally assigned in October 1997 to eNIC Corporation of Seattle WA by the IANA. The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus also uses the .cc domain, along with .nc.tr.\nInternet access on Cocos is provided by CiiA (Christmas Island Internet",
"-26.00513954355847"
],
[
"commercial buildings do not always include wiring for coaxial cable networks. In addition, because broadband cable subscribers share the same local line, communications may be intercepted by neighboring subscribers. Cable networks regularly provide encryption schemes for data traveling to and from customers, but these schemes may be thwarted. Digital subscriber line (DSL, ADSL, SDSL, and VDSL) Digital subscriber line (DSL) service provides a connection to the Internet through the telephone network. Unlike dial-up, DSL can operate using a single phone line without preventing normal use of the telephone line for voice phone calls. DSL uses the high frequencies, while the",
"-25.967968413926428"
],
[
"EAC-C2C EAC-C2C Merger In 2007, Asia Netcom (now Pacnet) merged the EAC cable system and the C2C cable system into a single EAC-C2C cable system, spanning 36,800 kilometers between Japan, Korea, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, the Philippines and Singapore, connecting 17 cable landing stations. EAC-C2C cable system becomes the most resilient submarine network in Asia region.",
"-25.954501281608827"
],
[
"National intranet A national intranet is an Internet protocol-based walled garden network maintained by a nation state as a national substitute for the global Internet, with the aim of controlling and monitoring the communications of its inhabitants, as well as restricting their access to outside media. Other names have been used, such as the use of the term \"halal internet\" in Islamic countries.\nSuch networks generally come with access to state-controlled media and national alternatives to foreign-run Internet services: search engines, web-based email, and so forth. \nNorth Korea's Kwangmyong network, dating back to 2000, is the best-known of this",
"-25.926008136924793"
],
[
"Universal Master Control Station Physical architecture & connectivity The UMCS has three main layers: HMI, logic/control and subsea communications to control pods on the ocean floor. Two complete and segregated channel networks simultaneously monitor data functions to and from each other, as well as between surface and subsea equipment. The UMCS uses OPC for communications with each subsea gateway. The subsea gateway consists of the SCM communication application and OPC Client. Each subsea vendor provides their own gateway, thereby preserving their traditional proprietary design and safeguards inherent in each system. This scheme alleviates the need for modifying any subsea vendor's",
"-25.919438323864597"
],
[
"correct to destination. A packet is constructed for a specific transmission and it is dismantled once it has reached its destination. The Digital Internet is based on a protocol structuring data packets independently from equipment. In this way, data packets can be processed by different systems and through various networks: modems, copper wires, fiber optic wires, routers, etc.; local area networks, wide area networks, etc.; Intranets, Extranets, Virtual Private Networks, etc.\nThe Physical Internet does not manipulate physical goods directly, whether they are materials, parts, merchandises or yet products. It manipulates exclusively containers that are explicitly designed for the Physical",
"-25.906439811747987"
],
[
"Broadband Global Area Network The Broadband Global Area Network (BGAN) is a global satellite network with telephony using portable terminals. The terminals are normally used to connect a laptop computer to broadband Internet in remote locations, although as long as line-of-sight to the satellite exists, the terminal can be used anywhere. The value of BGAN terminals is that, unlike other satellite Internet services which require bulky and heavy satellite dishes to connect, a BGAN terminal is about the size of a laptop and thus can be carried easily. The network is provided by Inmarsat and uses",
"-25.86559076278354"
],
[
"the cable became ready for use.\nSHEFA-1 was deployed from 1971 to 1994, when CANTAT-3 (the fibre-optic submarine cable between Canada and Europe, with branches to both Iceland and the Faroe Islands), was established. It was a coaxial cable with 120 channels, carrying 120 telephone conversations at a time.\nSHEFA-2 is a fibre-optic submarine cable and the capacity with today’s technology is 57x10 gigabits per second. The total length of the cable is around 1000 km. SHEFA-2 includes the world’s longest purely passive optical fibre cable link (390 km), entirely without amplifiers. With no submarine repeaters and no power feeds, repair and maintenance of",
"-25.83348951174412"
],
[
"Telecommunications cable Telecommunications cables are a type of guided transmission mediums. Cables are usually known to transmit electric energy (AC/DC); however, cables in telecommunications fields are used to transmit electromagnetic waves; they are called electromagnetic wave guides.\nTelecommunications are based on transmitting modulated waves/signals through a medium and receiving them. When the distance between the transmitter and receiver is far, or an unguided medium transmission is used, antennas are used; otherwise, telecommunications cables are used in guided medium transmission.",
"-25.813267402758356"
],
[
"GLO-1 The GLO-1 (Globacom-1) submarine communications cable is a cable system along the west coast of Africa between Nigeria and the UK, owned by Nigerian telecoms operator Globacom.\nThe submarine cable system is 9,800 km long, and became operational in 2011 with a minimum capacity of 640 Gbit/s.\nA project of Globacom, Nigeria's 2nd largest telecoms provider, total capacity of the system is now advertised as 2.5 Tbit/s. The cable's link To Ghana was turned up in April, 2011. Security breach In February 2018, The Sunday Times reported that the infrastructure for the UK landing site of the Apollo, GLO-1 and Europe India",
"-25.81203429469315"
],
[
"World Wide Telecom Web World Wide Telecom Web (also called as Spoken Web or Telecom Web) is an initiative to create an alternate web for the under-privileged. It could help bridge the digital divide by bringing the benefits of the information revolution to the billions of underserved people by providing information and services through a voice driven channel over an ordinary phone call. Information on this web could be community created as well as leveraged from World Wide Web. It is essentially a voice driven eco-system parallel and complementary to that of the existing Web. Though primarily meant for the",
"-25.788963067054283"
],
[
"by US radio amateur Dick Newell, AK1A in the late 1980s, and quickly became popular as a means of exchanging DX-related information. Before the internet became widely available, the nodes running the cluster software would connect via radio links at certain frequencies allocated within the amateur radio bands. Users of the system would then connect to a node using frequencies different from those used by the nodes.\nWhen the internet became widely available, the system was expanded to make use of telnet connections to internet nodes, in addition to the already established packet radio nodes. Users of internet nodes connect to",
"-25.783469272355433"
],
[
"SEACOM (Asian cable system) SEACOM is a telephone submarine cable linking Hong Kong with Malaysia.\nIts telephone link was opened in 1967.\nAt one stage it also included the terrestrial radio microwave analogue link along the eastern coast of Australia, operated by the Postmaster-General's Department which was the forerunner of Telstra. This communication link rejoined the undersea cable section at Cairns in north Queensland.",
"-25.78227398492163"
],
[
"submarine Estlink cables.",
"-25.735873106692452"
],
[
"cable\" (GWWOP) is sometimes used to describe wrapped fibre optic cables for installation on power lines. and may be a brand name owned by Furukawa Electric of Japan. The Russian language description for wrapped cable technology is \"ОКНН\" (оптоволоконного кабеля неметаллического навивной) (in English: OCNN = Optical Cable, Non-metallic, coiling or wrapping (Navivnoj)). The French language term is \"Câble Optique Enroulé\" (COE)\nThe name \"SkyWrap\" is one of three related brand names introduced by FOCAS in 1990 to describe its fibre optic cable products used in the construction of power utility communications networks, the others being SkyLite OPGW and SkySpan ADSS.",
"-25.711348885670304"
],
[
"hub. https://www.sapphirego.com/ Access Users can auto-obtain wireless connectivity using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)-IP addressing. Upon launching their Internet browser, subscribers are redirected to a captive portal homepage where they can either sign up for a new account, or logon to an existing account. Android and iOS mobile apps for Sapphire data plans are also available. Technology In each area of operation, technicians position a satellite earth station and erect and operate a main communication tower. Sectoral flat panel antennas affixed to the main tower provide 360-degree coverage for up to three square kilometers. A point-to-multi-point or terrestrial fiber optic",
"-25.67714201612398"
],
[
"ACE - Africa Coast to Europe submarine cable Technical features This 17 000-kilometers long cable is the only one connecting 24 west African and European countries. The ACE consortium members are organized according to a global access concept: multiple investors in one landing station. ACE marine routes have a low history of fault and a time-proof technology. The cable is able to adopt newer transponder technology. \nTechnical features are as below : \n- PoP-to-PoP connection providing access to major cities in Europe and Africa (Paris, Telvent, Cape Town)\n-100G technology proof\n-Design capacity = 12.8 terabytes per second\n-Lit capacity = 1.6 terabytes per",
"-25.636830238508992"
],
[
"their 1990 patent, invented a \"cable communication system comprising a bidirectional transmission network connected to the head end for transmitting signals downstream from the head end to a plurality of subscriber stations, and for transmitting data signals upstream to the Cable provider\". Along with others, this system forms the basic technology for addressing data traveling over the internet.\nIn 2003–2004 he was the featured artist in a televised segment on Mountain Lake PBS Television, Plattsburgh, New York. His work is cataloged in the National Library of Canada.\nIn 2003 Samir Sammoun was the invited guest of Emile J. Lahoud, President",
"-25.624629636469763"
],
[
"as well as in East Africa, Reunion Island, Madagascar and Mauritius, Asia and Indonesia. The company also laid a new cable in the Caribbean sea, linking U.S. Virgin Islands, the Dominican Republic and Jamaica.",
"-25.60175722988788"
],
[
"of an intranet is made accessible to customers and others outside the business, it becomes part of an extranet. Businesses can send private messages through the public network, using special encryption/decryption and other security safeguards to connect one part of their intranet to another.\nIntranet user-experience, editorial, and technology teams work together to produce in-house sites. Most commonly, intranets are managed by the communications, HR or CIO departments of large organizations, or some combination of these.\nBecause of the scope and variety of content and the number of system interfaces, intranets of many organizations are much more complex than their respective public",
"-25.598075945745222"
]
] |
3o9r4o | What happens in the brain when you lose your temper? Why the sudden outburst of rage? | [
"The current top answer is wrong. this URL_0 is why O.P. \"An Amygdala Hijack is an immediate and overwhelming emotional response out of proportion to the stimulus because it has triggered a more significant emotional threat. The amygdala is the part of our brain that handles emotions.\" Edit:I am the current top answer and I AM RIGHT!!!!!!!! *tears off shirt* Edit 2: For the people saying it's not Eli5 enough *Ahem* The part of your mind that makes you mad doesn't know how mad to make you so it makes you all the way mad just to be sure.",
"There is this thing called Amygdala Highjacking where the brain will will shunt impulses that threaten, frighten or offend you directly to your amygdala (where emotions and your fight of flight response springs from like anger spring from) for processing in stead of sending them to the prefrontal cortex where your consciousness resides. This means that you get angry before you have even had a chance to consider the impulse that caused the anger on a conscious level. This is because when a tiger jumps at you, then you really don't want your brain to spend a few milliseconds considering how you feel about it - you want it to run away or fight as soon as possible. This explains why we can sometimes get these sudden bursts of rage - when your consciousness does catch up it is then normal to feel embarrassed by your overreaction or your brain might after-rationalize your response after the fact. The only way to help your brain not to overreact is to harden it int thinking that fewer things are offensive. You can train your brain into not doing this by exposing it to whatever is causing the outburst again and again.",
"Ur high bro? Woahhh 420 dude epic meme LOL. I smoke too but i dont mention it in an unrelated post description because im not 14",
"No expert here so please accept my postulations at face value. Do you remember a few weeks ago when they said that [self-control saps memory?]( URL_0 ) Well I don't think it's unreasonable to conclude that managing your calm in a stressful situation saps *multiple* kinds of resources - your energy as well as your memory. In this way, I think we can call patience a finite resource. As a resource, it is metered, controlled, gained and lost. I think snapping is when your brain no longer has the power to maintain your \"calm\" social homeostasis. The brain knows what it wants: it wants the annoyance gone, it wants it stopped. Being patient often means tolerating annoyances; losing your temper is your basic brain pushing \"override\" and saying, \"OK we did it your way, now I'm going to address the problem my way.\" I couldn't venture to guess the literal chemical process, though. Also, check out [this response]( URL_1 ) from /u/archchancellor that better contextualizes my statements.",
"So its been 7 hours. How you feelin bud?",
"You know how animals that feel threatened can suddenly become uncontrollably aggressive when they're cornered? Basically, loss of temper is that as applied to human beings. Living things are motivated by their survival instincts, and this is greatly influenced by the Fight or Flight response. This is the process by which the brain decides whether to flee from danger, or turn aggressive and fight it. Stress is the brain and body's response to feeling endangered. It is your biology priming itself for a potential Flight or a potential Fight. Beyond a certain stress threshold, the brain becomes like a cornered animal - no way out from the dangerous situation, so the only option left is to fight. This is where \"loss of temper\" comes in. The brain treats things like rationality and reason to be superfluous in a fight to the death, and so these things are switched off. All your resources are directed into making you as scary and as physically aggressive as possible, in order to beat whatever it is that has you cornered. People that experience a loss of control, or can't recall their actions, do so because the parts of their brain responsible for that has shut down to save resources and give you more punching power. This is also why people with anger issues show much more physical strength and power when they have lost their temper, and why they can be so dangerous to those around them. This is great all if your biggest cause of stress is the risk of being eaten by a bear or crushed by a hippo, but it doesn't translate well into modern society. The brain does not have a means of distinguishing between the kind of threats faced by our ancient, primitive ancestors and social and economic factors that cause us stress today, and it reacts to both in the same way.",
"Fight or flight response kicking in. Body evolved to have a mechanism to let you fight a bear at a moment's notice. What's remarkable is that some people are able to suppress it as well as they do.",
"I have my own theory on this. I lose my temper once or twice per year. I have tried to control my emotions my whole life, so I spend a lot of time thinking about what makes me angry and what leads to me losing my cool. My realization is that it comes from the following (at least for me). 1) Setting expectations 2) Having those expectations umnet repeatedly 3) Something that compounds those expectations 4) Using force in a desire to control the outcome of your expectations Try and think of all the times you got pissed off and see if this list does not apply, any response is appreciated. Here is an example: Suzie accidentally gets charged an extra $40 on her phone bill. She calls the phone company and expects to have the money back in her account within a reasonable amount of time and to not be on hold for very long. Fist off, she is put on hold twice (not meeting her expectations) now she is getting nervous because she is short on cash and the money was budgeted for something (compounding those expectations) as soon as she is on the phone with a rep she is put on hold again (not meeting her expectations). Finally, she informed that the policy is 7 days for refunds (not meeting her expectations) That is the last straw, Suzie looses her cool and now she is ready to use force in a desire to control the outcome of her expectations. Most times I see average people lose their cool these things apply (by average, I mean normal people who never get angry and are calm and polite 99.99% of the time) So I guess the answer is that your brain gets to the point when it has tired everything else and it is ready to fight it out with someone.",
"Our brain has evolved to deal with threats/stress by either running away or fighting it (fight or flight). We are literally designed to act this way in responce to high stress. unfortunately, in our modern world, we are stressed constantly. Our brain is programmed to start kicking ass or running away. Modern stress is solved by neither responce... so we freak out and break shit because our monkey brains have not caught up with our modern lifestyle of being constantly stressed to death. Our brain wants to kick someones ass and in modern times thats neither productive nor helpful. TLDR; our monkey brain thinks we live on the african savannah and this is no longer the case. Our brain has not evolved for this environment and this is the result.",
"If it's all impulsive and this Amygdala is hijacking our reactions - why are some crimes still prosecuted as if the person should be punished for it? I've had moments where I have literally snapped and done shit that afterwards I feel \"wtf, why...\"",
"For a different perspective, consider the Jungian concept of constellation, which is what happens when a complex (for example a deep seated feeling of inferiority) is so provoked that it temporarily seizes control of your mind. There are an endless number of possible complexes and they can evoke all kinds of behavior. You can recognize past moments of constellation as times when the internal thinking \"I\", or ego complex, was pushed aside. If you don't like how you act when constellated, pay attention to what triggers it and try to identify the real feelings that provoked it. It may be easier said than done though, since complexes are often formed from material you have found too difficult to confront consciously in the past.",
"Good question OP. I've always wondered why people have certain 'triggers' (including myself) that would essentially lead them into an irrational fit of rage. After reading the top comment, I did a search on the amygdala and came up with this interesting video discussing the subject. URL_0 ",
"It is controllable. I spent my former life surrounded by abuse, torture, pain, betrayal, violence and loss. Now it just feels like I'm continuing the cycle if I react, so I don't. God help us if I do."
] | [
[
"in rage may also experience tunnel vision, muffled hearing, increased heart rate, and hyperventilation. Their vision may also become \"rose-tinted\" (hence \"seeing red\"). They often focus only on the source of their anger. The large amounts of adrenaline and oxygen in the bloodstream may cause a person's extremities to shake. Psychiatrists consider rage to be at one end of the spectrum of anger, and annoyance to be at the other side.\nIn 1995, rage was hypothesized to occur when oxytocin, vasopressin, and corticotropin-releasing hormone are rapidly released from the hypothalamus. This results in the pituitary gland producing and releasing large amounts",
"-31.875762575476983"
],
[
"emotion, which leads to the disinhibition, or release, of laughing/crying centers in the brainstem. Other theories implicate the prefrontal cortex. Secondary condition PBA is a condition that occurs secondary to neurological disease or brain injury, and is thought to result from disruptions of neural networks that control the generation and regulation of motor output of emotions. PBA is most commonly observed in people with neurologic injuries such as traumatic brain injury (TBI) and stroke, and neurologic diseases such as dementias including Alzheimer's disease, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), multiple sclerosis (MS), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), PANDAS in children and adults, and",
"-29.97992198123393"
],
[
"illusion that anger has a discrete external cause. The angry person usually finds the cause of their anger in an intentional, personal, and controllable aspect of another person's behavior. This explanation, however, is based on the intuitions of the angry person who experiences a loss in self-monitoring capacity and objective observability as a result of their emotion. Anger can be of multicausal origin, some of which may be remote events, but people rarely find more than one cause for their anger. According to Novaco, \"Anger experiences are embedded or nested within an environmental-temporal context. Disturbances that may not have involved",
"-29.732019182105432"
],
[
"to locate features, and program crashes as frequent initiators of computer frustration. These technical issues, paired with tight timelines, poor work progress, and failure to complete a computer task can create heightened computer anger and frustration. When this anger and frustration exceeds a person's control, it can turn into rage. Psychological factors Research on emotion has shown that anger is often caused by interruptions of plans and expectations, especially through the violation of social norms. This sense of anger can be magnified when the individual does not understand why they are unable to meet their goal or task at hand",
"-29.55941310484195"
],
[
"explosive release of suppressed anger. The anger was then displaced as violence against those who had nothing to do with the matter. There is also the case of Francine Hughes, who suffered 13 years of domestic abuse. Her suppressed anger drove her to kill her abuser husband. It is claimed that a majority of female victims of domestic violence who suppress their aggressive feelings are unable to recognize, experience, and process negative emotion and this has a destabilizing influence on their perception of agency in their relationships. Another example of widespread deflection of anger from its actual cause toward scapegoating,",
"-28.704809273855062"
],
[
"anger, but there are other, less-known factors that can lead to people acting in a negative way. Prolonged or intense anger and frustration contributes to physical conditions such as headaches, digestive problems, high blood pressure and heart disease. Problems dealing with angry feelings may be linked to psychological disorders such as anxiety or depression. Angry outbursts can be a way of trying to cope with unhappiness or depression.\nMigraines: Frequent migraine can be associated with levels of aggression and the need for anger management. A 2013 study examined migraines and its association with anger problems in young children (m = 11.2",
"-28.66617441512244"
],
[
"type of therapy has proven to be effective for individuals that are highly stressed and are prone to rage.\nAn emerging business is the rage room, a place where people relieve their stress by destroying objects within a room. Psychology According to psychologists, rage is an in-born behavior that every person exhibits in some form. Rage is often used to denote hostile/affective/reactive aggression. Rage tends to be expressed when a person faces a threat to their pride, position, ability to deceive others, self-deceptive beliefs, or socioeconomic status. This maladaptive conflict management strategy often stems from cognitive dissonance, most simply put,",
"-28.648623646397027"
],
[
"region, and in the ventral striatum, and that neural activity decreased in the anterior insula. That the neural activities of rationalization occur in seconds, without conscious deliberation on the part of the person; and that the brain engages in emotional responses whilst effecting decisions. Emotional correlations The results reported in Contributions from Research on Anger and Cognitive Dissonance to Understanding the Motivational Functions of Asymmetrical Frontal Brain Activity (Harmon-Jones, 2004) indicate that the occurrence of cognitive dissonance is associated with neural activity in the left frontal cortex, a brain structure also associated with the emotion of anger; moreover, functionally, anger",
"-28.526910967833828"
],
[
"anger resulting from mild stimuli. The concept has been rejected by many affective neuroscientists on the grounds that nonhuman animals displaying rage behaviors do indeed experience rage. This is the view of Jaak Panksepp, for example, who was among the first to describe the neural generators of rage. Symptoms The physiological symptoms of sham rage include rise in blood sugar, pulse, respiratory rates, and blood pressure. These symptoms can occur spontaneously and may also be evoked by sensory stimulations. In some cases animals have suffered several convulsive attacks followed by withdrawal of sodium barbital. It has been concluded that",
"-28.51299493154511"
],
[
"motivates neural activity in the left frontal cortex. Applying a directional model of Approach motivation, the study Anger and the Behavioural Approach System (2003) indicated that the relation between cognitive dissonance and anger is supported by neural activity in the left frontal cortex that occurs when a person takes control of the social situation causing the cognitive dissonance. Conversely, if the person cannot control or cannot change the psychologically stressful situation, he or she is without a motivation to change the circumstance, then there arise other, negative emotions to manage the cognitive dissonance, such as socially inappropriate behavior.\nThe anterior cingulate",
"-28.249428667331813"
],
[
"branch of treatment. Both stress and anger are caused by external stimuli, mediated by internal processing, and expressed in either adaptive or maladaptive forms. Meichebaum, and later Novaco, used each aspect of experiencing the relevant emotion as an opportunity for improvement to the patient's overall well-being. Medical causes Drug addiction, alcoholism, a mental disability, biochemical changes and PTSD can all lead to a person committing an aggressive act against another person. Not having sufficient skills on how to handle oneself when faced with aggression can lead to very undesirable outcomes. These factors are typically associated with a heightened chance of",
"-28.13713324773562"
],
[
"that person to react irrationally and destructively. \nGoleman states that emotions \"make us pay attention right now—this is urgent—and gives us an immediate action plan without having to think twice. The emotional component evolved very early: Do I eat it, or does it eat me?\" The emotional response \"can take over the rest of the brain in a millisecond if threatened.\"\nAn amygdala hijack exhibits three signs: strong emotional reaction, sudden onset, and post-episode realization if the reaction was inappropriate.\nGoleman later emphasized that \"self-control is crucial...when facing someone who is in the throes of an amygdala hijack\" so as",
"-28.10676785139367"
],
[
"logic and reasoning are used to handle the situation. When a degree of cognitive inhibition ability is absent in an individual, it can result in \"trait anger\", or frequent angry and violent outbursts at relatively inoffensive stimuli. Without cognitive inhibition and its resulting omission of irrelevant or unimportant information, emotional stability can be compromised. Behavioral neuroscience Behavioral neuroscience applies the principles of neurobiology, to the study of physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behavior. Cognitive inhibition is caused by several different interacting biological factors. The first is the existence of inhibitory neurotransmitters, or chemicals emitted by brain cells",
"-27.98352966993116"
],
[
"brain becomes used to violence it may stay continually in an alert state (similar to being stuck in the fight or flight mode). \"Researchers claim that the youth who are exposed to violence may have emotional, social, and cognitive problems. They may have trouble controlling emotions, paying attention in school, withdraw from friends, or show signs of post-traumatic stress disorder\".\nIt is important for youth exposed to violence to understand how their bodies may react so they can take positive steps to counteract any possible short- and long-term negative effects (e.g., poor concentration, feelings of depression, heightened levels of anxiety). By",
"-27.931339179209317"
],
[
"somehow lost control, and thus worry that this anger may lead them to harm others and/or damage relationships. On the other end of the spectrum, men are less concerned with damaging relationships and more focused on using anger as a means of affirming their masculinity. According to the general strain theory, men would more likely engage in aggressive behavior directed towards others due to externalized anger whereas women would direct their anger towards themselves rather than others. Also emotions could be influenced by gender. Results of Ingram et al. (2012) study shows ,,Feelings of anger were hypothesized to be reported",
"-27.901689721649745"
],
[
"researchers found some evidence for the retention of positive outcomes in one-third of the patients, which were not limited to improvements in rageful behaviour but also included a decrease in the overall frequency of seizures. Another follow-up study by Professor Narabayashi and colleagues observed the clinical effects of amygdalotomy in 40 cases from 3 to 5 years and found 27 of the cases had continued a satisfactory improvement in calming and taming effects on what was previously uncontrollable aggression including destructive and violent beahviour. Risks and side-effects In most cases of amygdalotomy in humans, there is no substantial evidence",
"-27.800179486454"
],
[
"in activation in areas related to negative emotional reactions in response to loss aversion another found that individuals with damaged amygdalas had a lack of loss aversion even though they had normal levels of general risk aversion, suggesting that the behavior was specific to potential losses. These conflicting studies suggest that more research needs to be done to determine whether brain response to losses is due to loss aversion or merely to an alerting or orienting aspect of losses; as well as to examine if there are areas in the brain that respond specifically to potential losses . Intertemporal",
"-27.682993650407298"
],
[
"anger involve restructuring thoughts and beliefs to bring about a reduction in anger. These therapies often come within the schools of CBT (or Cognitive Behavioural Therapies) like modern systems such as REBT (Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy). Research shows that people who suffer from excessive anger often harbor and act on dysfunctional attributions, assumptions and evaluations in specific situations. It has been shown that with therapy by a trained professional, individuals can bring their anger to more manageable levels. The therapy is followed by the so-called \"stress inoculation\" in which the clients are taught \"relaxation skills to control their arousal and",
"-27.68004599984124"
],
[
"the scientific evidence is limited, rage syndrome has been described as an epileptic disorder affecting the emotion-related parts of the dog's brain. There is also some evidence that in at least some cases it is an inheritable genetic disorder. In English Springer Spaniels, the appearance of rage syndrome has been traced back to a winner at the Westminster Kennel Club show who went on to become a top stud. (see Popular sire effect) Treatment Often it can take a veterinarian who specialises in neurology or animal behavior to successfully diagnose rage syndrome and guardians may often not realise the",
"-27.638308803201653"
],
[
"suggested that the tendency for anger may be genetic. Distinguishing between genetic and environmental factors however requires further research and actual measurement of specific genes and environments.\nIn neuroimaging studies of anger, the most consistently activated region of the brain was the lateral orbitofrontal cortex. This region is associated with approach motivation and positive affective processes.\nThe external expression of anger can be found in physiological responses, facial expressions, body language, and at times in public acts of aggression. The rib cage tenses and breathing through the nose becomes faster, deeper, and irregular. Anger activates the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. The catecholamine activation is",
"-27.561044054396916"
],
[
"collected in a conflict situation. However, an increase in negative emotions (i.e. anger) only exacerbates the initial conflict. Even when group members to discuss their positions calmly and dispassionately, once they become committed to their positions, an emotional expression often replaces logical discussion. Anger is also contagious: when group member negotiates with someone who is angry, they become angry themselves. Conflict resolution Nicholson notes that a conflict is resolved when the inconsistency between wishes and actions of parties is resolved. Negotiation is an important part of conflict resolution, and any design of a process which tries to incorporate positive",
"-27.53032699620144"
],
[
"recognized in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). However, according to an article published by the Associated Press in June 2006, the behaviors typically associated with road rage can be the result of a disorder known as intermittent explosive disorder that is recognized in the DSM. This conclusion was drawn from surveys of some 9,200 adults in the United States between 2001 and 2003. The surveys were funded by the National Institute of Mental Health. Penalties Road rage is a relatively serious act: It may be seen as an endangerment of public safety. It is, however, not",
"-27.436790325264155"
],
[
"intense signs of anger and aggression because of their inability to handle their impulses. The type of this aggression is called \"impulsive aggression\". Furthermore, it is worth to be mentioned that the pattern of organic personality disorder presents some similarities with pattern of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). Specifically patients who suffer from this chronic disorder type of epilepsy, express aggressive behaviours, likewise it happens to patients with organic personality disorder. Another similar symptom between Temporal lobe epilepsy and organic personality disorder is the epileptic seizure. The symptom of epileptic seizure has influence on patients' personality that means it causes behavioural",
"-27.279556293418864"
],
[
"problems when the rage erupts into unchecked aggression. Such children are said to fail to develop a conscience, to not trust others, to seek control rather than closeness, to resist the authority of caregivers, and to engage in endless power struggles. They are seen as highly manipulative and as trying to avoid true attachments while simultaneously striving to control those around them through manipulation and superficial sociability. Such children are said to be at risk of becoming psychopaths who will go on to engage in very serious delinquent, criminal, and antisocial behaviors if left untreated. The tone in which the",
"-27.25269102305174"
],
[
"in problems. Anger is an active emotion that calls the person feeling it to respond. People get into anger issues because both the instigator and instigated lack interpersonal and social skills to maintain self-control. They can train to respond to their anger as unwanted and unpleasant rather than react to its need. Turning a blind eye or forgiveness is a tool to turn anger off. Getting enough sleep, exercise and good diet are tools which can assist in preventing anger. Professionals who deal with those who have trouble managing anger include occupational therapists, mental health counselors, drug and alcohol",
"-27.23687379594594"
],
[
"to an individual who threw his computer out the window, but forgot that the window was closed. Prevalence In 1999, it was speculated that computer rage had become more common than road rage in traffic, but in a 2015 study, it was found that reported rates of anger when using a computer were lower than reported rates of anger while driving. However, reports of anger while driving or using computers were found to be far more common than anger in other situations.\nIn a 2013 survey of American adults, 36% of respondents who reported experiencing computer issues, also reported that they",
"-27.194077778432984"
],
[
"brain, the result is a striking inability to gauge the emotional significance of events; this condition is sometimes called 'affective blindness'\". In some cases, blunted affect can fade, but there is no conclusive evidence of why this can occur.",
"-27.143207689383416"
],
[
"Amygdala hijack An amygdala hijack is a person's emotional response that is immediate, overwhelming, and out of measure with the actual stimulus because it has triggered a much more significant emotional threat. The term was coined by Daniel Goleman in his 1996 book Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. Definition The output of sense organs is first received by the thalamus. Part of the thalamus' stimuli goes directly to the amygdala or \"emotional/irrational brain\", while other parts are sent to the neocortex or \"thinking/rational brain\". If the amygdala perceives a match to the stimulus, i.e., if the",
"-27.105604006334033"
],
[
"indicate that the individual is actually feeling that emotion. However, there is no reason to suspect that the individual is not actually feeling the emotion, and the concept of sham rage, i.e., the expression of rage behaviors during increased activation in the hypothalamus in the absence of the internal experience of rage, is likely a false concept, and an artifact of the politics of the period of science during which the concept was created. Stimuli encountered by a human during an outburst can cause physical reactions such as pupil dilation, exophthalmos, increased pulse rate, an increase in systolic pressure,",
"-27.058095577696804"
],
[
"some form of aggression is one possible outcome. Therefore, the re-formulated hypothesis stated that while frustration prompts a behavior that may or may not be aggressive, any aggressive behavior is the result of frustration, making frustration not sufficient, but a necessary condition for aggression.\nThe hypothesis attempts to explain why people scapegoat. It attempts to give an explanation as to the cause of violence. According to Dollard and colleagues, frustration is the \"condition which exists when a goal-response suffers interference,\" while aggression is defined as \"an act whose goal-response is injury to an organism (or an organism surrogate).\" The theory says",
"-27.01189276142395"
],
[
"the fact that laughter causes the dilatation of the inner lining of blood vessels, the endothelium, and increases blood flow. Drs. Michael Miller (University of Maryland) and William Fry (Stanford), theorize that beta-endorphin like compounds released by the hypothalamus activate receptors on the endothelial surface to release nitric oxide, thereby resulting in dilation of vessels. Other cardioprotective properties of nitric oxide include reduction of inflammation and decreased platelet aggregation.\nLaughter has proven beneficial effects on various other aspects of biochemistry. It has been shown to lead to reductions in stress hormones such as cortisol and epinephrine. When laughing the",
"-26.96005700682872"
],
[
"of brain ischemia range from mild to severe. Further, symptoms can last from a few seconds to a few minutes or extended periods of time. If the brain becomes damaged irreversibly and infarction occurs, the symptoms may be permanent.\nSimilar to cerebral hypoxia, severe or prolonged brain ischemia will result in unconsciousness, brain damage or death, mediated by the ischemic cascade.\nMultiple cerebral ischemic events may lead to subcortical ischemic depression, also known as vascular depression. This condition is most commonly seen in elderly depressed patients. Late onset depression is increasingly seen as a distinct sub-type of depression, and",
"-26.926818949941662"
],
[
"as depression and Posttraumatic stress disorder regularly present comorbidly with rage. Types of therapy Evidence has shown that behavioral and cognitive therapy techniques have assisted individuals that have difficulties controlling their anger or rage. Role playing and personal study are the two main techniques used to aid individuals with managing rage. Role playing is utilized by angering an individual to the point of rage and then showing them how to control it. Multi-modal cognitive therapy is another treatment used to help individuals cope with anger. This therapy teaches individuals relaxation techniques, problem solving skills, and techniques on response disruption. This",
"-26.840207338915206"
],
[
"is caused by even low levels of alcohol, is the tendency for people to become more animated in speech and movement. This is caused by increased metabolism in areas of the brain associated with movement, such as the nigrostriatal pathway. This causes reward systems in the brain to become more active, which may induce certain individuals to behave in an uncharacteristically loud and cheerful manner.\nAlcohol has been known to mitigate the production of antidiuretic hormone, which is a hormone that acts on the kidney to favor water reabsorption in the kidneys during filtration. This occurs because alcohol confuses osmoreceptors in",
"-26.79478386719711"
],
[
"and leading to the sustained negative affect that characterizes depressive episodes\". Anger is another important emotion affected by cognitive inhibition. \"Trait anger is a robust predictor of the angry and aggressive response to hostile situational input, but it is important to better understand the mechanisms underlying this personality...individuals low in trait anger systematically recruit cognitive control resources within hostile contexts\". When situations that may elicit anger leading to violence arise, cognitive inhibition is used extensively. Hostile stimuli magnitude are considered and ignored to avoid confrontation. Social context situations that may be interpreted as hostile are processed, and through cognitive inhibition,",
"-26.768246704275953"
],
[
"record of experiences in the hippocampus tells the amygdala that it is a fight, flight or freeze situation, then the amygdala triggers the HPA (hypothalmic-pituitary-adrenal) axis and hijacks the rational brain. This emotional brain activity processes information milliseconds earlier than the rational brain, so in case of a match, the amygdala acts before any possible direction from the neocortex can be received. If, however, the amygdala does not find any match to the stimulus received with its recorded threatening situations, then it acts according to the directions received from the neocortex. When the amygdala perceives a threat, it can lead",
"-26.75682955652519"
],
[
"from an inability to manage feelings of terror.\nSome psychologists, however, such as Bushman and Anderson, argue that the hostile/predatory dichotomy that is commonly employed in psychology fails to define rage fully, since it is possible for anger to motivate aggression, provoking vengeful behavior, without incorporating the impulsive thinking that is characteristic of rage. They point to individuals or groups such as Seung-Hui Cho in the Virginia Tech massacre or Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold of the Columbine High School massacre, all of whom clearly experienced intense anger and hate, but whose planning (sometimes over periods of years), forethought, and lack",
"-26.748172286810586"
],
[
"and panic disorder are disorders commonly reported by alcohol dependent people. Alcoholism is associated with dampened activation in brain networks responsible for emotional processing (e.g. the amygdala and hippocampus). Evidence that the mental health disorders are often induced by alcohol misuse via distortion of brain neurochemistry is indicated by the improvement or disappearance of symptoms that occurs after prolonged abstinence, although problems may worsen in early withdrawal and recovery periods. Psychosis is secondary to several alcohol-related conditions including acute intoxication and withdrawal after significant exposure. Chronic alcohol misuse can cause psychotic type symptoms to develop, more so than with other",
"-26.726083530462347"
],
[
"deficits in aversive conditioning, similar preferences in moral and economic decision making, and diminished empathy and social emotions like guilt or shame. These emotional and moral impairments may be especially severe when the brain injury occurs at a young age. Children with early damage in the prefrontal cortex may never fully develop social or moral reasoning and become \"psychopathic individuals ... characterized by high levels of aggression and antisocial behavior performed without guilt or empathy for their victims\". Additionally, damage to the amygdala may impair the ability of the prefrontal cortex to interpret feedback from the limbic system, which could result",
"-26.720591661258368"
],
[
" The theory asserts that the thalamic region is the brain area responsible for emotional responses to experienced stimuli.\nCannon summarises the observations that serve as the basis for his theory of emotion which claims the thalamic region is the coordinating center for emotional reactions. First, after the removal of the cerebrum anterior to the thalamus in animal test subjects, the animals continue to display rage-like emotional responses. These reactions cease when the thalamus is then removed. Secondly, a tumor on one side of the thalamus can result in unilateral laughter or grimace under the appropriate conditions, although cortical",
"-26.699203121112077"
],
[
"areas of the brain associated with emotional processing, particularly in amygdala-prefrontal cortex coupling. Damage in the limbic region prevents the amygdala from being able to correctly interpret emotional stimuli in individuals with schizophrenia by compromising the link between the amygdala and other brain regions associated with emotion. Brainstem Parts of the brainstem are responsible for passive emotional coping strategies that are characterized by disengagement or withdrawal from the external environment (quiescence, immobility, hyporeactivity), similar to what is seen in blunted affect. Individuals with schizophrenia with blunted affect show activation of the brainstem during fMRI scans, particularly the right medulla",
"-26.65437376248883"
],
[
"happiness as a result.\nFrom a medical standpoint, physical illnesses also improve from positive emotional and behavioral changes. Anger management style and overall level of anger has been associated with both acute and chronic pain sensitivity. Blood pressure is another physiological aspect effected by anger, with increased levels of anger being correlated with higher blood pressure. The implications of an effect on blood pressure for overall health is made evident by the link between high blood pressure and the increased risk of cardiovascular disease. An increase in the immune system's efficacy has also been observed as a result of the increased",
"-26.643360537913395"
],
[
"emotions often associated with events in the individual's past which had originally been repressed or ignored, and had never been adequately addressed or experienced.\nThere has been much debate about the use of catharsis in the reduction of anger. Some scholars believe that \"blowing off steam\" may reduce physiological stress in the short term, but this reduction may act as a reward mechanism, reinforcing the behavior and promoting future outbursts. However, other studies have suggested that using violent media may decrease hostility under periods of stress. Legal scholars have linked \"catharsis\" to \"closure\" (an individual's desire for a firm answer to",
"-26.534440455259755"
],
[
"cortex occurred either when a person's self-concept was threatened or when the person suffered embarrassment (social pain) caused by salient, upward social-comparison, by social-class snobbery. That social emotions, such as embarrassment, guilt, envy, and Schadenfreude (joy at the misfortune of another person) are correlated to reduced activity in the insular lobe, and with increased activity in the striate nucleus; those neural activities are associated with a reduced sense of empathy (social responsibility) and an increased propensity towards antisocial behavior (delinquency).",
"-26.509150776284514"
],
[
"anger at the outset leave residues that are not readily recognized but that operate as a lingering backdrop for focal provocations (of anger).\" According to Encyclopædia Britannica, an internal infection can cause pain which in turn can activate anger. Expressive strategies As with any emotion, the display of anger can be feigned or exaggerated. Studies by Hochschild and Sutton have shown that the show of anger is likely to be an effective manipulation strategy in order to change and design attitudes. Anger is a distinct strategy of social influence and its use (e.g. belligerent behaviors) as a goal achievement mechanism",
"-26.466665976753575"
],
[
"suffering associated with a traumatic event.\nIf the individual is shy or bashful and appears nervous when talking, they are likely to exhibit nervous laughter. Individuals who are shy and introverted who find themselves the center of conversational attention often become \"giddy\" with nervous laughter; this is a subconscious response caused by the brain over-thinking due to social anxiety or inexperience.",
"-26.4397143527749"
],
[
"years of age). The patients in the study were split into low migraine attack frequency (AF), intermediate AF, high frequency, and chronic migraine AF. The tendency for a participant to inhibit their anger and not lash out was found more in children with higher AF. Children that qualified for low migraine AF actually had more anger expression. Psychosocial causes Psychosocial factors such as stress, abuse, poor social or familial situations, and poverty can cause anger problems. Trauma A history of trauma, particularly sexual trauma, can result in anger management problems. Types of treatment Some effective anger management techniques",
"-26.414947941098944"
],
[
"of negative outcomes from workplace anger likely will occur in either of two situations. The first is when organizational members suppress rather than express their anger—that is, they fail to cross the \"expression threshold\". In this instance personnel who might be able to address or resolve the anger-provoking condition or event remain unaware of the problem, allowing it to continue, along with the affected individual's anger. The second is when organizational members cross both thresholds—\"double cross\"— displaying anger that is perceived as deviant. In such cases the angry person is seen as the problem—increasing chances of organizational sanctions against him",
"-26.332341395696858"
],
[
"on inhibitory neurons resulting in a decreased level of neurotransmission, and subsequent cognitive decline and disease. Injury Injury to the brain can manifest in many ways. Traumatic brain injury, for example received in contact sport, after a fall, or a traffic or work accident, can be associated with both immediate and longer-term problems. Immediate problems may include bleeding within the brain, this may compress the brain tissue or damage its blood supply. Bruising to the brain may occur. Bruising may cause widespread damage to the nerve tracts that can lead to a condition of diffuse axonal injury. A fractured skull,",
"-26.32271626277361"
],
[
"with bipolar disorder, their explosive rages were not being treated properly. Causes The causes of DMDD are poorly understood.\nYouth with DMDD have difficulty attending, processing, and responding to negative emotional stimuli and social experiences in their everyday lives. For example, some studies have shown youths with DMDD to have problems interpreting the social cues and emotional expressions of others. These youths may be especially bad at judging others' negative emotional displays, such as feelings of sadness, fearfulness, and anger. Functional MRI studies suggest that under-activity of the amygdala, the brain area that plays a role in the interpretation and",
"-26.297651423723437"
],
[
"brain also releases endorphins that can relieve some physical pain. Laughter also boosts the number of antibody-producing cells and enhances the effectiveness of T-cells, leading to a stronger immune system. A 2000 study found that people with heart disease were 40 percent less likely to laugh and be able to recognize humor in a variety of situations, compared to people of the same age without heart disease. In interaction A number of studies using methods of conversation analysis and discourse analysis have documented the systematic workings of laughter in a variety of interactions, from casual conversations to interviews, meetings, and",
"-26.214502233279745"
],
[
"the prior expression of anger by at least one of the participants. Displays of anger can be used as a manipulation strategy for social influence.\nPeople feel angry when they sense that they or someone they care about has been offended, when they are certain about the nature and cause of the angering event, when they are convinced someone else is responsible, and when they feel they can still influence the situation or cope with it. For instance, if a person's car is damaged, they will feel angry if someone else did it (e.g. another driver rear-ended it), but will feel",
"-26.214016072583036"
],
[
"tissue may swell, pressure inside the skull may increase and the swollen brain may herniate through the skull base. This may be noticed by a decreasing level of consciousness, loss of the pupillary light reflex, and abnormal posturing. The inflammation of the brain tissue may also obstruct the normal flow of CSF around the brain (hydrocephalus). Seizures may occur for various reasons; in children, seizures are common in the early stages of meningitis (in 30% of cases) and do not necessarily indicate an underlying cause. Seizures may result from increased pressure and from areas of inflammation in the brain tissue.",
"-26.209080747106782"
],
[
"not worth being kept safe which contributes to their feelings of low self-worth and depression. Anger Some children act out through anger and are more aggressive than other children. Even in situations that do not call for it, children will respond with anger. Children and young people particularly highlighted angry feelings as a consequence of experiencing domestic violence. Physical aggression can also manifest towards the victim from the children as the woman does not have the ability to develop authority and control over them. Post traumatic stress disorder Post traumatic stress disorder can result in children from exposure to domestic",
"-26.187111462728353"
],
[
"spectrum disorders. In such cases as borderline personality disorder and complex post-traumatic stress disorder, hypersensitivity to emotional stimuli causes a slower return to a normal emotional state. This is manifested biologically by deficits in the frontal cortices of the brain.\nPossible manifestations of emotional dysregulation include angry outbursts or behavior outbursts such as destroying or throwing objects, aggression towards self or others, and threats to kill oneself. These variations usually occur in seconds to minutes or hours. Emotional dysregulation can lead to behavioral problems and can interfere with a person's social interactions and relationships at home, in school, or at place",
"-26.132077781745465"
],
[
"them. When this area is damaged, the patient experiences damage to the auditory-motor integration system. This results in disruption to the delayed auditory feedback network, causing the individual to have difficulty correcting themselves on speech repetition tasks. Additionally, recent evidence suggests that conduction aphasia can also be caused by lesions in the left superior temporal gyrus and/or the left supramarginal gyrus.\nThe brain damage causing conduction aphasia is often from a stroke, which can produce both localized and widespread damage. Traumatic brain injury and tumors can also lead to localized lesions, with potential to cause conduction aphasia. Conduction aphasia can",
"-26.096077645459445"
],
[
"extreme and can cause extensive problems. They may have difficulty inhibiting many types of emotions such as anger, excitement, sadness, or frustration. Due to multiple impairments of cognitive functioning, there can be much more frustration when expressing certain feelings and understanding how to interpret every day situations. Individuals with DES may have higher levels of aggression or anger because they lack abilities that are related to behavioural control. They can also have difficulty understanding others' points of view, which can lead to anger and frustration. Behavioural symptoms Behavioural symptoms are evident through an individual's actions. People with DES often lose",
"-26.089672794158105"
],
[
"Causes Common causes for laughter are sensations of joy and humor; however, other situations may cause laughter as well.\nA general theory that explains laughter is called the relief theory. Sigmund Freud summarized it in his theory that laughter releases tension and \"psychic energy\". This theory is one of the justifications of the beliefs that laughter is beneficial for one's health. This theory explains why laughter can be used as a coping mechanism when one is upset, angry or sad.\nPhilosopher John Morreall theorizes that human laughter may have its biological origins as a kind of shared expression of relief at",
"-26.03731368901208"
],
[
"brain as physical pain, so emotional stress can be a significantly intolerable state for some people. Some of this is environmental and some of this is due to physiological differences in responding. The autonomic nervous system is composed of two components: the sympathetic nervous system controls arousal and physical activation (e.g., the fight-or-flight response) and the parasympathetic nervous system controls physical processes that are automatic (e.g., saliva production). The sympathetic nervous system innervates (e.g., is physically connected to and regulates) many parts of the body involved in stress responses. Studies of adolescents have shown that adolescents who self-injure have greater",
"-26.032499932611245"
],
[
"of muscle memory may also shed light on the beneficial impact of meditation and deep breathing as a method of managing and controlling one's rage. Health complications Some research suggests that an individual is more susceptible to having feelings of depression and anxiety if he or she experiences rage on a frequent basis. Health complications become much worse if an individual represses feelings of rage. John E. Sarno believes that repressed rage in the subconscious leads to physical ailments. Cardiac stress and hypertension are other health complications that will occur when rage is experienced on a regular basis. Psychopathologies such",
"-25.982991794633563"
],
[
"Hyperprosexia Cause People with traumatic brain injury experience profound disturbance of the basic functions of the cognitive, behavioral, emotional and intellectual systems. Such patients' ability to regulate interaction between the ego and the external world is greatly diminished and they typically exhibit inflexible, concrete and sometimes inappropriate behaviors.",
"-25.97635516608716"
],
[
"and neurogenesis.\nStress can cause depression and depression-like symptoms through monoaminergic changes in several key brain regions as well as suppression in hippocampal neurogenesis. This leads to alteration in emotion and cognition related brain regions as well as HPA axis dysfunction. Through the dysfunction, the effects of stress can be exacerbated including its effects on 5-HT. Furthermore, some of these effects are reversed by antidepressant action, which may act by increasing hippocampal neurogenesis. This leads to a restoration in HPA activity and stress reactivity, thus restoring the deleterious effects induced by stress on 5-HT.\nThe hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is a chain of endocrine",
"-25.94222059083404"
],
[
"determined that eyes moisten during laughter as a reflex from the tear glands. Negative aspects Laughter is not always a pleasant experience and is associated with several negative phenomena. Excessive laughter can lead to cataplexy, and unpleasant laughter spells, excessive elation, and fits of laughter can all be considered negative aspects of laughter. Unpleasant laughter spells, or \"sham mirth,\" usually occur in people who have a neurological condition, including patients with pseudobulbar palsy, multiple sclerosis and Parkinson's disease. These patients appear to be laughing out of amusement but report that they are feeling undesirable sensations \"at the time",
"-25.852298819634598"
],
[
"either inner-directed (depression/guilt) or outer-directed (anger/frustration), which depends on whether the individual blames themselves or their environment. Studies reveal that even though males and females are equally likely to react to a strain with anger, the origin of the anger and their means of coping with it can vary drastically. Males are likely to put the blame on others for adversity and therefore externalize feelings of anger. Females typically internalize their angers and tend to blame themselves instead. Female internalized anger is accompanied by feelings of guilt, fear, anxiety and depression. Women view anger as a sign that they've",
"-25.842536402320547"
],
[
"the pain-killing effect of the laughter wore off, we would switch on the motion picture projector again and not infrequently, it would lead to another pain-free interval.\"\nScientists have noted the similarity in forms of laughter induced by tickling among various primates, which suggests that laughter derives from a common origin among primate species.\nA very rare neurological condition has been observed whereby the sufferer is unable to laugh out loud, a condition known as aphonogelia. Health A link between laughter and healthy function of blood vessels was first reported in 2005 by researchers at the University of Maryland Medical Center with",
"-25.81277854272048"
],
[
"anger is severe and is shown most of the day, nearly every day in multiple settings, lasting for one or more years.\nThe DSM-5 includes several additional diagnostic criteria which describe the duration, setting, and onset of the disorder: the outbursts must be present for at least 12 months and occur in at least two settings (e.g. home and school), and it must be severe in at least one setting. Symptoms appear before the age of 10, and diagnosis must be made between ages 6 and 18. This new diagnosis was implemented to help children who, although may have been diagnosed",
"-25.7841804712225"
],
[
"harm. Some experts have suggested that venting frustrations on the computer may have some benefits, but other experts disagree. For example, yelling at the computer has been suggested as a way to moderate one's anger to avoid the ill effects of anger suppression, but new research has suggested that yelling can negatively affect health in itself. Alternatively, releasing anger on a computer has been viewed as advantageous as it directs this rage at an object as opposed to another person, and can make individuals feel better afterwards. Prevention and management In response to computer issues that invoke frustration, some experts",
"-25.783067376120016"
],
[
"a similar disorder resulting in childish euphoria and cheerful excitement.\nWitzelsucht is considered a disorder of mirth or humor, which is distinct from disorders of laughter. Patients with witzelsucht are essentially insensitive to humor, but are capable of producing it while other patients excessively laugh, often at things that are not funny. The most common disorders of laughter are associated with pseudobulbar palsy, which can be caused by severe brain trauma, most commonly in the right hemisphere. Pathological laughter in this can be triggered by trivial stimuli, which could be disconnected from the underlying mood, and be combined with crying. Pathological",
"-25.67460201188078"
],
[
"the cerebral cortex may play a facilitating part in this type of convulsive process. These physiological effects happen alongside the rage-like symptoms of hissing, clawing, biting, etc. Causes There are only a few known causes of sham rage in animals. Most of the experiments done on animals have been done on cats, dogs and rats. The actual symptoms of sham rage are normal anger and defense reactions in animals. It becomes sham rage only when this rage reaction is triggered by unthreatening stimuli. A study by Bard (1934) showed that the removal of the neocortex in cats and dogs produced",
"-25.670867465247284"
],
[
"distress. Link between inflammation and depression symptoms Compared to the link between external stressors and inflammation, the connection between peripheral inflammation and depression symptoms is better understood. This is due to cytokines being directly involved with inflammatory responses while also serving as a signal that can lead to changes in behavior.\nDespite cytokines often being too large to pass through the blood-brain barrier alone, their effect on the central nervous system (CNS) can happen with cytokines entering the CNS in areas where the blood-brain barrier is permeable, by being carried across the blood-brain barrier, or by binding with the cerebral vascular",
"-25.665673333845916"
],
[
"the amygdala produces rageful behavior and or accentuates in animals. Research has also revealed that lesions of the amygdala in both humans and animals produces a calming effect on aggressive behavior. Based on these findings, amygdalotomy was developed as a neurosurgical procedure to ameliorate aggression by reducing arousal levels in the amygdala. Medical use Since the early 1900s there has been an accumulation of experimental evidence to demonstrate the role of the limbic system, specifically the amygdala complex in mediating emotional expressions of fear and anger. Early primate studies have revealed that chemical and electrical stimulation of the amygdala region",
"-25.63192663155496"
],
[
"can influence increased experience of emotions. Another study published in 1943 that studied the fistulated man Tom discovered that if \"Tom was fearful or depressed his gastic activity decreased but when he was angry or hostile his gastric activity increased\". This finding is contrasted by an EGG study by Ercolani et al. who had subjects perform either difficult or easy mental arithmetic or puzzles. They found that new tasks slowed down the myoelectrical activity of the stomach, suggesting that stress tends to impede gastric activity and that this can be picked up on an EGG. While there is still",
"-25.586323205992812"
],
[
"positively related to anger, suspiciousness, and hostility while guilt was negatively related to anger. \nThis finding supports that guilt is the more pro-social emotional response and also opens new areas of interest in studies of anger and violence.\nShame scales in studies using the TOSCA and PFQ-2 have shown correlation to a multitude of aspects of psychopathology, but have also shown enough overlap with the guilt scales that there is potential for more research in this area.\nIn addition, recent research by Mintz, Etengoff & Grysman in the Journal of Child and Family Studies linked retrospective reports of parenting behaviors to emerging",
"-25.571520244324347"
],
[
"Alcohol-related brain damage Alcohol-related brain damage alters both the structure and function of the brain as a result of the direct neurotoxic effects of alcohol intoxication or acute alcohol withdrawal. Increased alcohol intake is associated with damage to brain regions including the frontal lobe, limbic system, and cerebellum, with widespread cerebral atrophy, or brain shrinkage caused by neuron degeneration. This damage can be seen on neuroimaging scans.\nFrontal lobe damage becomes the most prominent as alcoholics age and can lead to impaired neuropsychological performance in areas such as problem solving, good judgement, and goal-directed behaviors. Impaired emotional processing results from damage",
"-25.553126388113014"
],
[
"Fiero says, was the blaming of Jews for the economic ills of Germany by the Nazis.\nHowever, psychologists have also criticized the \"catharsis theory\" of aggression, which suggests that \"unleashing\" pent-up anger reduces aggression. On the other hand, there are experts who maintain that suppression does not eliminate anger since it merely forbids the expression of anger and this is also the case for repression, which merely hides anger from awareness. There are also studies that link suppressed anger and medical conditions such as hypertension, coronary artery disease, and cancer. Suppressed or repressed anger is found to cause irritable bowel syndrome,",
"-25.54369297926314"
],
[
"Major Depressive Disorder sufferers. This further implicates prodynorphin in the control of negative affect in humans and thus suggests that the periamygdaloid cortex is partially responsible for affect in humans. Negative Emotion Assessment The activity of various brain regions were assessed during exposure-recognition tasks of static and dynamic facial expressions of anger and happiness. Both the left and right periamygdaloid cortex voxels studied showed differential activation when the subject was tasked with recognizing dynamic expressions of anger compared to neutral, control expressions. This was not observed in static expressions of anger or in any expressions of happiness. These results suggest",
"-25.53823966269556"
],
[
"or public disorder, or civil penalties for tortious behavior, and may lead to a criminal sentence. An alcoholic's behavior and mental impairment while drunk can profoundly affect those surrounding him and lead to isolation from family and friends. This isolation can lead to marital conflict and divorce, or contribute to domestic violence. Alcoholism can also lead to child neglect, with subsequent lasting damage to the emotional development of the alcoholic's children. For this reason, children of alcoholic parents can develop a number of emotional problems. For example, they can become afraid of their parents, because of their unstable mood behaviors.",
"-25.532451049719384"
],
[
"produced increased serotonin receptors in the amygdala but females lost them. This led to the males being less affected by the stressful situation.\nThe clusters of the amygdala are activated when an individual expresses feelings of fear or aggression. This occurs because the amygdala is the primary structure of the brain responsible for fight or flight response. Anxiety and panic attacks can occur when the amygdala senses environmental stressors that stimulate fight or flight response.\nThe amygdala is directly associated with conditioned fear. Conditioned fear is the framework used to explain the behavior produced when an originally neutral stimulus is consistently paired",
"-25.51668550096656"
],
[
"declination of mental functioning, and involuntary shaking.\nNeuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis is a group of diseases that cause blindness, loss of mental abilities, and loss of movement. All diseases in this group are lysosomal-storage disorders that also lead to death roughly ten years after onset of the disease. Related disorders Lennox–Gastaut syndrome is often associated with intellectual deficits as well as a lack of response to anti-epileptic drugs. It usually begins in the first years of life.\nReticular reflex myoclonus is a generalized form of epilepsy originating from the brain stem. Jerks associated with the disorder can affect all muscles on the body",
"-25.488228530703054"
],
[
"on that person's perception of the rest of the conversation. If they were to become angry about a statement the speaker made early in the conversation, they would likely be averse to accepting arguments presented later in the discourse. \nTo combat this bias and its consequences, an individual must be aware of it and its effects. With this knowledge, an individual can learn to critically judge both sides of an argument before coming to a conclusion. Vividness effect The vividness effect explains how vivid or highly graphic and dramatic events affect an individual's perception of a situation. This phenomenon has",
"-25.4778061680845"
],
[
"mechanical knowledge critical. Headaches, occasional dizziness, and fatigue—all temporary symptoms of brain trauma—may become permanent, or may not disappear for a long time.\nThere are documented cases of lasting psychological effects as well, such as emotional swings often caused by damage to the various parts of the brain that control human emotions and behavior. Some who have experienced emotional changes related to brain damage may have emotions that come very quickly and are very intense, but have very little lasting effect. Emotional changes may not be triggered by a specific event, and can be a cause of stress to the injured",
"-25.469043361241347"
],
[
"frustration and, contrariwise, that the existence of frustration always lead to some form of aggression\". As it was, the second part of this hypothesis lead readers to think that frustration could only have aggression as a consequence, and it did not allow the possibility that other responses could arise and override the aggression response. The Yale group thus reformulated the hypothesis as following: \"frustration produces instigation to a number of different types of response, one of which is aggression\". With this new formulation, the researchers left more place for the idea that aggressive impulses are not the only kinds that",
"-25.466220541420626"
],
[
"and bruise brain tissue. The force of the blow causes either a tearing or twisting of the structure and blood vessels which hinders the ability of the receptors to send feedback to the brain. With the tearing or twisting of structure, the brain begins to swell and bleed. Since the brain cavity has no room to expand due to the swelling, bruises begin to form. Due to the nature of the injury, most of the contusive damage is found deeper in the brain.\nIn sports, most cerebral contusions are caused when the brain is either suddenly accelerated,",
"-25.46206917352538"
],
[
"the passing of danger. Friedrich Nietzsche, by contrast, suggested laughter to be a reaction to the sense of existential loneliness and mortality that only humans feel.\nFor example: a joke creates an inconsistency and the audience automatically tries to understand what the inconsistency means; if they are successful in solving this 'cognitive riddle' and they realize that the surprise was not dangerous, they laugh with relief. Otherwise, if the inconsistency is not resolved, there is no laugh, as Mack Sennett pointed out: \"when the audience is confused, it doesn't laugh.\" This is one of the basic laws of a comedian, referred",
"-25.454475159349386"
],
[
"negative cognitions or their consequences, such as stress, violence, or deprivation. Thus, negative cognitions can cause inflammation that can, in turn, lead to depression.\nIn addition there is increasing evidence that inflammation can cause depression because of the increase of cytokines, setting the brain into a \"sickness mode\". Classical symptoms of being physically sick like lethargy show a large overlap in behaviors that characterize depression. Levels of cytokines tend to increase sharply during the depressive episodes of people with bipolar disorder and drop off during remission. Furthermore, it has been shown in clinical trials that anti-inflammatory medicines taken in addition to",
"-25.430742811819073"
],
[
"emotion (the medial Prefrontal cortex, the posterior Cingulate cortex/Precuneus, the posterior Superior temporal sulcus/Inferior parietal lobule and the Amygdala), while when they responded to impersonal dilemmas, they displayed increased activity in regions of the brain associated with working memory (the Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the Parietal lobe). In recent work, Greene has stated that the Amygdala is primarily responsible for the emotional response, whilst the Ventromedial prefrontal cortex is responsible for weighing up the consequentialist response against the emotional response. Thus, three brain regions are primarily implicated in the making of moral judgements. This gives way to",
"-25.420029804547084"
],
[
"include rude gestures, verbal insults, deliberately driving in an unsafe or threatening manner, or making threats. Road rage can lead to altercations, assaults, and collisions which result in injuries and even deaths. It can be thought of as an extreme case of aggressive driving.\nThe term originated in the United States in 1987–1988 (specifically, from Newscasters at KTLA, a local television station), when a rash of freeway shootings occurred on the 405, 110 and 10 freeways in Los Angeles, California. These shooting sprees even spawned a response from the AAA Motor Club to its members on how to respond to drivers",
"-25.41578361223219"
],
[
"program\" but teaching people they can relieve anger through attacking or screaming at inanimate objects is bullshit, since this \"venting\" (as it's called in the industry) by an angry person in a social situation will lead to violence.\nProponents of the topic make their case in interviews; however, they often end up appearing fallacious or self-contradicting. For example, in \"Safety Hysteria\", a manufacturer of \"radiation guards\" for mobile phones admits that there is no proven link between mobile phone radiation and brain cancer, but assures viewers that \"you can't be too safe\" (mobile phones use conventional radio waves for communication, which",
"-25.39848325762432"
],
[
"deficits.\nUse of personal development (PD) led to higher views of themselves and more positive self-esteem. Aggression has been shown to be a result of poor self-worth as well as thinking that those around us do not care or support us, so this PD is vital in helping change a person's self-perception. Anger journaling Understanding one's own emotions can be a crucial piece of learning how to deal with anger. Children who wrote down their negative emotions in an \"anger diary\" actually ended up improving their emotional understanding, which in turn led to less aggression. When it comes",
"-25.390958281401254"
],
[
"accentuates aggressive behavior. Conversely, destruction of the amygdala nucleus results in a taming effect of normal anger and fearing responses in primate behavior. Similarly, clinical studies in humans have revealed the close etiological role of temporal lobe structures, particularly the limbic system and the amygdala in mediating fear and rageful behavior. These findings have been instrumental in the development of clinical amygdalotomy as a form of neurosurgery to produce placating effects on abnormal aggressive behaviors. Procedural amygdalotomy is used as a last recourse treatment for severe intractable aggression when other options including pharmacological treatments have been exhausted. The psychopathology of",
"-25.38420060244971"
],
[
"exposure to violence in the media may produce a number of aversive responses such as increased heart rate, fear, discomfort, perspiration and disgust. However, prolonged and repeated exposure to violence in the media may reduce or habituate the initial psychological impact until violent images do not elicit these negative responses. Eventually the observer may become emotionally and cognitively desensitized to media violence. In one experiment, participants who played violent video games showed lower heart rate and galvanic skin response readings, which the authors interpreted as displaying a physiological desensitization to violence. However, other studies have failed to replicate this finding.",
"-25.350449590201606"
],
[
"anger and help them to re-evaluate their position and take personal time to cool down instead of lashing out and doing aggressive actions in person. Other evidence-based approaches Anger management interventions are based in cognitive behavioral techniques and follow in a three-step process. First, the client learns to identify situations that can potentially trigger the feeling of anger. A situation that elicits anger is often referred to as an anger cue. If a potential trigger can be avoided, the individual can not only avoid unwanted outbursts, but also avoid internal conflict. Often anger occurs through automatic thought and irrational beliefs,",
"-25.342866333297025"
],
[
"a blow to the head or a stroke or other internal trauma.\nIt is important to note that frontal lobe damage is not the only cause of the syndrome. It has been shown that damage, such as lesions, in other areas of the brain may indirectly affect executive functions and lead to similar symptoms (such as ventral tegmental area, basal ganglia and thalamus). There is not one specific pattern of damage that leads to DES, as multiple affected brain structures and locations have led to the symptoms. This is one reason why the term frontal lobe syndrome is not preferred.",
"-25.333710076200077"
],
[
"Brain ischemia Symptoms The symptoms of brain ischemia reflect the anatomical region undergoing blood and oxygen deprivation. Ischemia within the arteries branching from the internal carotid artery may result in symptoms such as blindness in one eye, weakness in one arm or leg, or weakness in one entire side of the body. Ischemia within the arteries branching from the vertebral arteries in the back of the brain may result in symptoms such as dizziness, vertigo, double vision, or weakness on both sides of the body. Other symptoms include difficulty speaking, slurred speech, and the loss of coordination. The symptoms",
"-25.31828708669491"
],
[
"With a failure in emotional regulation there is a rise in psychosocial and emotional dysfunctions caused by traumatic experiences due to an inability to regulate emotions. These traumatic experiences typically happen in grade school and are sometimes associated with bullying. Children who can't properly self-regulate express their volatile emotions in a variety of ways, including screaming if they don't have their way, lashing out with their fists, throwing objects (such as chairs), or bullying other children. Such behaviors often elicit negative reactions from the social environment, which, in turn, can exacerbate or maintain the original regulation problems over time, a",
"-25.273622226828593"
],
[
"pair of elements relate to the management of cognitive and emotional aspects of the decision itself.\nBrain damage can cause changes in normal decision-making processes. The amygdala is an area in the brain involved in emotion. Studies have found that patients with bilateral amygdala damage, which is damage in both hemispheres of the amygdala region in the brain, are deficient in decision-making. When an initial choice is made in decision-making, the result of this choice has an emotional response, which is controlled by the amygdala.",
"-25.263505632203305"
],
[
"for young student anger have found that one common reason could be the inability to adjust socially. Students that were selected for this study received a daily one-hour session throughout one week of school. The researchers of the mentalization program educated children through group therapy in positive psychology and tried to do activities that put the child in a happy mood while interacting. At the end of the week, research showed that there was a negative correlation between anger and social adjustment. This process lowered the overall anger levels of the students involved in social adjustment",
"-25.24668881110847"
],
[
"or thing. It is possible to see this form of anger as a pro-social emotion.\nEmpathic anger has direct effects on both helping and punishing desires. Empathic anger can be divided into two sub-categories: trait empathic anger and state empathic anger.\nThe relationship between empathy and anger response towards another person has also been investigated, with two studies basically finding that the higher a person's perspective taking ability, the less angry they were in response to a provocation. Empathic concern did not, however, significantly predict anger response, and higher personal distress was associated with increased anger. Distress Empathic distress is feeling the",
"-25.239299605749693"
],
[
"and reappraisal by adding cognitive and behavioral techniques and supplementing them with affective techniques to deal with the feeling of anger. The techniques are sequenced contingently in three phases of treatment: prevention, intervention, and postvention. In this way, people can be trained to deal with the onset of anger, its progression, and the residual features of anger. Suppression Modern psychologists point out that suppression of anger may have harmful effects. The suppressed anger may find another outlet, such as a physical symptom, or become more extreme. John W. Fiero cites Los Angeles riots of 1992 as an example of sudden,",
"-25.23587599975872"
],
[
"property.\" This definition makes the distinction that aggressive driving is a traffic violation and road rage is a criminal offense. Effects on drivers A stressed driver’s behavior depends on that driver’s coping abilities. Generally, drivers who scored high on aggression tests used direct confrontation strategies when faced with stress while driving. Many drivers who experience road rage have admitted that they believe they commit more traffic violations. Driving presents many stresses any time a person is behind the wheel because of high speeds and other drivers making different decisions. As stress increases, the likelihood of a person having road rage",
"-25.222868711600313"
]
] |
1f2pgy | The Islam situation in Europe. | [
"Muslim immigrants to Europe aren't really assimilating very well. This makes a lot of native Europeans scared; they think that Muslims are going to stage some sort of cultural takeover.",
"Sikhs/Hindus/Poles/Chinese and almost all other immigrants all make an effort to integrate into the society they *chose* to move to and live in. A large number of Muslims don't, and want special laws and special treatment which rubs people the wrong way. Especially considering Islam has a certain \"Reputation\" in the west nowadays as violent & hate preaching. Oversimplified, but this is ELI5.",
"If I can just speak for the UK here, a guy killed a soldier in London the last week, killed him on a busy London street using a knife and a machete. He then, hands and knives covered in blood went over to a news camera and tries to justify why he had done. He apologised women had to see what they had seen but that 'women in our lands have to seen the same'. He went on to tell us to get rid of our government and such. This was broadcast on TV. It obviously got to a lot of people. As someone who still has a fair few college and high school aged friends I have noticed a massive increase in racist and derogatory comments towards Muslims and 'foreigners'. I will not quite but the things some people are posting are actually quite scary. Anyway this is escalating. The EDL (English defence league) is staging demonstrations and marches as well as, I believe in an unrelated way, the BNP (British national party) are too. In the news today, or yesterday it has been reported of people attacking mosques and helplines for victims of racial or religion based abuse have had a massive increase in incidents. There have been claims (of which I cannot find the source again) by the EDL I believe that there is a risk of a predicted civil war between different cultures breaking out over this. My personal opinion is that the problems in the UK are all down to a lot of people getting massively confused with Muslims and extremists. There's a lot of tension, anger and very inappropriate comments being made towards people who have had nothing to do with the murder. There's always been a lot of anger towards illegal immigrants and people again very wrongly assume just because someone is of a different descent, color or otherwise that they 'shouldn't be here'. The guy who appeared on national tv covered in blood made his claims with a thick south London accent. He is I believe not only legally allowed to be here but has a British passport. Again people are picking Islam, pointing the finger and just blaming everything and anything on a lot of innocent people. It's disgusting and it needs to stop, but a lot of people are so riled up they won't even listen to anyone but themselves.",
"Muslims, an extraordinarily large and diverse group of people, have been migrating to Europe, and a combination of the entirely normal problems that people have when two different cultures collide and post-9/11 islamophobia has lead to a growing fear among some that Muslim extremism will be the collapse of the Western World. I'm sure that when Catholic Irish or Italians migrated to the US they were treated with similar hate and forced into their own insular societies, and people would claim the 'Catholic tide' was going to overwhelm Protestantism. Personally, I don't think it's anything to be too worried about. /r/worldnews really is a cesspool - don't go there for an objective opinion on Islam in Europe.",
"Okay, many people seem to forget that there is also a political perspective in there. From what I can tell about Germany, immigrants are usually alienated by putting them somewhere in the outskirts and leaving them to themselves. They get little financial support but that's about it. \"Integrating\" isn't usually easy if you don't even get the chance to visit a language course as they can't pay for them themselves and the government doesn't really seem to care. Once the immigrants move into their new homes they are usually surrounded with other immigrants. They know little or nothing about the life in Europe and usually stick to the people with a similar cultural background and who speak a language they can communicate in. So the Muslims \"not willing to integrate\" don't even get a real chance and often Germans don't even want them to integrate because they don't want to have to deal with \"foreigners\" anyway. In Germany we even have something called \"Residenzpflicht\" for some immigrants which means that they are only allowed to move in a certain radius and if they leave that radius they commit a criminal offense. So even if they tried to get to know their new country they can't even get outside the town they live in. So all this then leads to districts where Muslim immigrants are kept to themselves and build up their own habitat, including things like Mosques. Of course they have it harder to learn the language because they don't really need to know German when they are surrounded by people who all speak Turkish or Arabic or some sort of mix between those two and German. It is basically a vicious circle for them because the conditions they have to live in are very poor and there are very few jobs and the educational system fails entirely. Getting out of those \"Ghettos\" isn't easy as well because they face institutionalized racism (from police and other government agencies to landlords who won't rent their apartments to immigrants) pretty much everywhere and just don't get the money to get out of these conditions. That of course leads to problems like criminality, drugs, prostitution etc. And although many people have been put in those situations politics and media did a great job making THEM the scapegoats. So what you now have is major parts of Europe blaming most of the national problems on Muslims and their unwillingness to adapt to a living in Europe. And since it is a popularizing issue some political parties of course jump the bandwagon more or less successfully (in the Netherlands for example [Geert Wilders]( URL_0 ) right-wing populist party PVV). What happens now is simply immigrants being fed up with their situation, tired of being treated as second class citizens and not been given a chance that their frustration can turn into violence. People too long didn't give a shit about those people's problems and needs and now they wonder that the immigrants are frustrated and won't adapt. Also, many people here don't seem to understand that \"integration\" is a reciprocal act and not just \"them\" living how \"we\" want them to. People are only fine with foreign culture if it benefits them directly (like Kebab houses, cheap kiosks or water pipes) but if they don't benefit they go crazy and think that the Muslims want to turn their country into a sharia state and everything that has got to to with Islam seems an imminent threat. Of course there are plenty more aspects but I think this should suffice for now. I just wanted to give you another perspective away from Muslim demonising.",
"So this opinion of mine may or may not be relevant--I'll let Reddit decide--but here goes: in NY we have this place called [Kiryas Joel, an insular Hasidic Jew community.]( URL_0 ) I work in construction, and very often have to do work for the Hasidics who live in this community because they're ALWAYS expanding. Whenever I go into KJ I pass the same sign (I should take a pic of it one day) and it explains that men who visit KJ should not wear shorts, tees, and that KJ maintains gender separation. Now they don't really say anything to a worker like myself because I'd just laugh at them and get back to swinging a hammer, but the point is the law is there and in their community they wholly abide by it. Anyway, the point I'm trying to make is this: for all the wackiness that KJ has going for it (can't work past 1PM on Friday, can't work there Saturday even though I'm not Jewish) it still manages to be a community that isn't destroying the fabric of the neighboring towns. Yeah, its customs are definitely foreign, its omnipresent apartments with TERRIBLE framing are ugly but life goes on. And if we're to assume the majority of Muslims are just normal people, I'd expect that to be the same too. Now I know people are going to say Sharia law is fundamentally disenfranchising women--I can't argue this because I know very little about it--but there can still be common ground when allowing these minority groups in, just as we here in NY have done.",
"I heard this summary: Muslims leave stirct, oppressive middle eastern countries to find a better life. End up making their neighborhoods as strict and oppressive as the lands they left. I'm not sure how entirely accurate it is, but at a glance it seems to be the popular opinion.",
"Sometimes the upvote/downvote comment ranking system is very good for sorting truth from ignorance, while other times it acts as a sort of \"filter bubble\" where the same ideas get promoted and dissenting ideas hidden. I suspect r/worldnews has fallen victim to the filter bubble effect and this is why we see a disproportionate amount of news about rapes in India and problems with Islam in Europe, etc. Personally I have unsubscribed from r/worldnews, but haven't really found a good alternative subreddit yet.",
"You're probably hearing a very reactionary viewpoint. The majority of Muslims integrate very well here in the U.K. Put it this way: my M.P (Member of Parliament — think like a State Representative on a small scale) is a Muslim woman. There are Muslims of both genders in all professional roles, and there is rarely any problem whatever. There is a significant minority portion, though, who would like to see their version of Sharia Law respected in the UK, and an extremely small portion who resort to violence to try to shake up the country. On the other hand, the right wing press and some right to far-right parties and groups (anyone in the U.K will know exactly who I'm talking about!) seem to blow the situation out of proportional, probably a lot like the right wing press in the U.S. The wider Muslim community has condemned the recent murder (the killer said ‘Allahu Akbar!’ after committing the murder), both online and in real-life demonstrations in the streets. That said, there are some areas which are considered high threat for Islamist terrorism, and some towns like Luton with significant communities with active Sharia Law advocates and ‘radical’ clerics."
] | [
[
"book While Europe Slept: How Radical Islam is Destroying the West from Within, about the threat that the rise of Islam in Europe, in his view, poses to liberal values, appeared in 2006. Once established in Western European nations, Bawer maintains, Muslims avoid integration and answer only to sharia law, while avoiding the legal systems of their host nations, allowing abuse of women and gays, as well as Jews and other non-Muslims. In his conclusion, Bawer states that rising birthrates among Muslims and their \"refusal\" to integrate will allow them to dominate European society within 30 years, and that the",
"-28.40951262030285"
],
[
"Islam in Europe History The Muslim population in Europe is extremely diverse with varied histories and origins. Today, the Muslim-majority regions of Europe are Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, Kosovo, parts of Macedonia and Montenegro, as well as some Russian regions in Northern Caucasus and the Volga region. The communities consist predominantly of indigenous Europeans of the Muslim faith whose religious tradition dates back several hundred years. The transcontinental countries of Turkey, Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan are also majority Muslim. Moors, Al-Andalus, Sicily and Crete Muslim forays into Europe began shortly after the religion's inception, with a short-lived invasion of Byzantine",
"-27.982900643866742"
],
[
"Stop Islamisation of Europe Ideology The group describes itself as an alliance \"with the single aim of preventing Islam becoming a dominant political force in Europe.\" The organisation calls for the total boycott of Muslim countries. The group advises boycotts of companies including Fisher-Price, Asda, Kentucky Fried Chicken and The Radisson Hotel chain because of their marketing of products to Muslims. History Stop the Islamisation of Europe was inspired by a Danish group of the same name who have held protests outside Danish mosques since the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy. The group has 6,600 supporters on its Facebook page. Social",
"-27.87178565643262"
],
[
"of Germany\" during a state visit of the Turkish prime minister Ahmet Davutoğlu in January 2015 induced criticism within her party. The parliamentary group leader Volker Kauder said that Islam is not part of Germany and that Muslims should deliberate on the question why so many violent people refer to the Quran.\nIn October 2015, Horst Seehofer, Bavarian State Premier and leader of CSU, the sister party of Merkel's CDU, criticised Merkel's policy of allowing in hundreds of thousands of migrants from the Middle East: \"We're now in a state of mind without rules, without system and without order because of",
"-27.843193670210894"
],
[
"Muslim community per se, or a Muslim majority in Europe is however out of the question. Eric Kaufman of University of London denied the claims of Eurabia. According to him, Muslims will be a significant minority rather than majority in Europe and as per their projections for 2050 in the Western Europe, there will be 10–15 per cent Muslim population in high immigration countries such as Germany, France and the UK. Eric Kaufman also argue that the main reason why Islam is expanding along with other religions, is not because of conversion to Islam, but primarily to the nature of",
"-27.78326785948593"
],
[
"Islamic terrorism in Europe Islamic terrorism in Europe has been carried out by the Islamic State (ISIL) or Al-Qaeda as well as Islamist lone wolves since the late 20th century.\nIn the early 2000s, most of the Islamic terrorist activity was linked to Al-Qaeda and the plots tended to involve groups carrying out co-ordinated bombings. The deadliest attacks of this period were the 2004 Madrid train bombings, which killed 193 civilians (the deadliest Islamist attack in Europe), and the 7 July 2005 London bombings, which killed 52.\nThere was a rise in Islamic terrorist activity in Europe after 2014. The years 2014–16",
"-27.572199214890134"
],
[
"Islam poses to Europe are actually fascists\", and \"[t]he only future devout Muslims can envisage — as Muslims — is one in which all infidels have been converted to Islam, politically subjugated, or killed.\"\nHarris has criticized the way the term Islamophobia is commonly used. \"My criticism of Islam is a criticism of beliefs and their consequences, but my fellow liberals reflexively view it as an expression of intolerance toward people\", he wrote following a disagreement with Ben Affleck in October 2014 on the show Real Time with Bill Maher. Affleck had described Harris' views on Muslims as \"gross\" and",
"-27.43150495341979"
],
[
"Islam was introduced to Europe mainly through the two major peninsulas, Iberia and the Balkans. With influences from Muslim Spain (Andalusia) from the west, the Mediterranean coast and Sicily from the south, and Muslim Pechengs of Hungary from the north-east, Islam penetrated easily even to the most inner parts of the Balkans.\nFurthermore, the well known Muslim geographer, historian, and cartographer Al Idrīsī during the 12th century (1154) provided valuable information on a journey inland from the Albanian port of Durrës towards Constantinople through Thessaloniki, offering some interesting references to the lakes on the Kosovo-Macedonia border as important crossing points, with",
"-26.964547735376982"
],
[
"of Europe, was founded by Anders Gravers Pedersen, who also sits on the board of the Stop Islamisation of Nations. There are numerous affiliated \"Stop the islamisation of...\" and \"Defense Leagues\" in several European countries, among them Stop Islamisation of Denmark, Stop Islamisation of Norway, and the English Defence League. Comparison with anti-communism The movement has been compared to the anti-communism of the Cold War. Geert Wilders, Dutch politician and speaker at counter-jihad events, argues that Islam is a political ideology that, like communism, is a totalitarian threat to a liberal social order. The Southern Poverty Law Center compares both",
"-26.813794062589295"
],
[
"hallmarks\" of an attack by ISIS,\nand occurred in a district in the Sinai where Islamic State intends to \"eradicate\" Sufis, according to an insurgent commander interviewed in a January 2017 issue of the Islamic State magazine Rumiyah. France France has the largest Muslim population in Western Europe, counting over 5–8% of French population, mainly the result of French colonization in Islamic countries. For many years, France was seen as a melting point of multiculturalism successes. However, in recent years, France has become a major target for Islamic extremists due to increasing Salafi worshippers in the country.\nIn France, in 2015 police",
"-26.65846010047244"
],
[
"connected to the religion have occurred in recent years, including: the murder of Theo van Gogh, the 2004 Madrid train bombings, the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy, and the 7 July 2005 London bombings. In response to extremism, some figures, such as Justice Freedom & Security Commissioner Franco Frattini, have suggested creating a \"European Islam\" – a branch of the Islamic faith that is compatible with European values.\nJudaism has had a long history in Europe going back to the Roman Empire. Prior to the Holocaust, the area of the European Union had a Jewish population of 5,375,000 but they were largely",
"-26.54997326554121"
],
[
"payments and funding to the German Federal Foreign Office (German: Auswärtigen Amt).\nIn December 2018, there were no official statistics on how much funding mosques in Germany received from abroad. Islamic organisations Only a minority of the Muslims residing in Germany are members of religious associations. Controversies As elsewhere in Western Europe, the rapid growth of the Muslim community in Germany has led to social tensions and political controversy, partly connected to Islamic extremism, and more generally due to the perceived difficulties of multiculturalism and fears of Überfremdung. In the education system One such issue concerns the wearing of the head-scarf",
"-26.52842047950253"
],
[
"Islam in Germany Demographics Islam is the largest minority religion in the country, with the Protestant and Roman Catholic confessions being the majority religions. There are between 2.1 and 4.7 million Muslims.\nThe large majority of Muslims in Germany are of Turkish origin (63.2%), followed by smaller groups from Pakistan, countries of the former Yugoslavia, Arab countries, Iran and Afghanistan. Most Muslims live in Berlin and the larger cities of former West Germany. However, unlike in most other European countries, sizeable Muslim communities exist in some rural regions of Germany, especially Baden-Württemberg, Hesse and parts of Bavaria and North Rhine-Westphalia. Owing",
"-26.49599605979165"
],
[
"policies towards Muslims and immigrants in general also had a relatively high level of fundamentalism. France and Germany which have restricitive policies had lower levels of fundamentalism.\nIn 2017, the EU Counter-terrorism Coordinator Gilles de Kerchove stated in an interview that there were more than 50000 radicals and jihadists in Europe. In 2016, French authorities stated that 15000 of the 20000 individuals on the list of security threats belong to Islamist movements. In the United Kingdom, authorities estimate that 23000 jihadists reside in the country, of which about 3000 are actively monitored. In 2017, German authorities estimated that there were more",
"-26.475999623187818"
],
[
"criticised the handling of Islam by member-states and called for a \"European Islam\".\nInterviewed by Reuters he declared his intention to promote online communications monitoring and censorship of \"dangerous words\" like \"bomb, kill, genocide or terrorism\".\nAs European Commissioner he promoted a \"visa facilitation agreement between the European Community and the Russian Federation\" (2007/340/EC: Council Decision of 19 April 2007), which however led to the expulsion of countless citizens Europeans domiciled for a long time in Russia on the basis of annual visas, which due to the introduction by the agreement of a limit of stay in the territory of maximum 90",
"-26.360110598732717"
],
[
"al-Islam. In 2010, the Swedish Security Service estimated that a total of 200 individuals were involved in the Swedish violent Islamist extremist milieu. According to the Swedish Defence University, most of these militants were affiliated with the Islamic State, with around 300 people traveling to Syria and Iraq to join the group and Al-Qaeda associated outfits like Jabhat al-nusra since 2012 (36 first-time travellers in 2012, 98 in 2013, 78 in 2014, 36 in 2015, and 5 in 2016).\nAccording to Göteborgs-Posten, 11% of the youths in the north-eastern suburbs of Gothenburg admit to being in favour of Islamic terrorism (non-Muslims",
"-25.99493263376644"
],
[
"of central Europe. Muslims have also been historically present in Ukraine (Crimea and vicinity, with the Crimean Tatars), as well as modern-day Russia, beginning with Volga Bulgaria in the 10th century and the conversion of the Golden Horde to Islam. In recent years, Muslims have migrated to Europe as residents and temporary workers.\nAccording to the Pew Forum, the total number of Muslims in Europe in 2010 was about 44 million (6%). While the total number of Muslims in the European Union in 2007 was about 16 million (3.2%).\nMuslims make up 99% of the population in Northern Cyprus, 96% in Kosovo,",
"-25.631627764261793"
],
[
"saw more people killed by Islamic terrorist attacks in Europe than all previous years combined, and the highest rate of attack plots per year. Most of this terrorist activity was inspired by ISIL, and many European states have had some involvement in the military intervention against it. A number of plots involved people who entered or re-entered Europe as asylum seekers during the European migrant crisis, and some attackers had returned to Europe after fighting in the Syrian Civil War. The Jewish Museum of Belgium shooting in May 2014 was the first attack in Europe by a returnee from the",
"-25.59962245951465"
],
[
"to Jihad posits that Islam, unlike other religions, positively commands its adherents to impose its religious law on all peoples, believers and unbelievers alike, whenever possible and by any means necessary.\nDespite being comparatively more tolerant than Christian Europe there were numerous incidents of massacres and ethnic cleansing of Jews and Christians in North Africa, especially in Morocco, Libya and Algeria where eventually Jews were forced to live in ghettos. Decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were enacted during the Middle Ages in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen. At certain times in Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad, Jews were forced to convert",
"-25.590567102080968"
],
[
"were preparing to travel to the conflict zone in Syria to fight for the Islamic State. According to the Federal Agency for Civic Education, these examples show that Salafist mosques not only concern themselves with religious matters, but also prepare serious crimes and terrorist activities. Islamist scene in Germany Turkish and Kurdish Islamist groups are also active in Germany, and Turkish and Kurdish Islamists have co-operated in Germany as in the case of the Sauerland terror cell. Political scientist Guido Steinberg stated that many top leaders of Islamist organizations in Turkey fled to Germany in the 2000s, and that the",
"-25.58972486149287"
],
[
"from around Europe came together in Brussels for a “Joint Day of Action against Anti-Semitism and Anti-Muslim Hatred and Discrimination,” organized by the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Office of Democratic Institutions and Human Rights and EU bodies on May 30. European Muslim and Jewish participants raised concerns about what they characterized as the stark rise of anti-Semitism and anti-Muslim sentiment in European societies, primarily fueled by political campaign rhetoric. Bosnia and Herzegovina The constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the constitutions of its two constituent entities, Republika Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina,",
"-25.586542322533205"
],
[
"and Islam in general, and in both writing and interviews warned that Europe was \"too tolerant of Muslims\". The first book was The Rage and the Pride (initially a four-page article in Corriere della Sera, the major national newspaper in Italy). She wrote that \"sons of Allah breed like rats\", and in a Wall Street Journal interview in 2005, she said that Europe was no longer Europe but \"Eurabia\". The Rage and the Pride and The Force of Reason both became bestsellers.\nHer writings have been translated into 21 languages, including English, Spanish, French, Dutch, German, Portuguese, Urdu, Greek, Swedish, Polish,",
"-25.579530181543305"
],
[
"many Muslims consider Europe, and especially the Scandinavian countries, as more friendly towards the Arab world than the USA, for example. United Kingdom Tariq Ramadan, a member of Tony Blair's committee to combat Islamic extremism, claims to see an \"unholy alliance\" between the anti-immigrant right wing in Europe and the dictatorial regimes in the Middle East. As the reasoning goes, some seek to portray Muslims as enemies of Western values and incapable of integration in European society. At the same time various dictatorial regimes in the Islamic world seek to unite their populations behind them by creating external enemies, which",
"-25.462728999889805"
],
[
"they influenced the movement. (5%-10% for France, 3.7% for Germany, 1.3% for Greece, according to the CIA World Factbook). There has been an organised Muslim component in many European anti-war rallies, reflecting widespread opposition to the American War on Terror campaign, often because of Arab/Muslim solidarity. In some groups, such as the British Stop the War Coalition, Muslims have taken leading positions. The presence of extremists and alleged Islamists has been cited by commentators such as Taheri in questioning the anti-war groups' commitment to human rights.\nAnti-Israeli slogans and acts, allegedly most often chanted and committed by Islamists, have caused some",
"-25.365027818479575"
],
[
"must be resolved in a civilized fashion, within the legal framework of each specific country. God judges them. Islam forbids violence, murders and lawlessness and, therefore, today’s crime has been a shock to the entire European Muslim community. We don’t know whether criminals were Muslims or not, these events are connected with caricatures or foreign policy of France, but this is disagreeable to us that Muslims and Islam are blamed in such situations. Even if it turns out that the criminals consider themselves Muslims, we - Muslims of Europe -condemn such actions.\nFurther, he as Mufti of the Muslims of Ukraine",
"-25.236678528308403"
],
[
"Islamic Community of Germany The Islamic Community of Germany (IGD; Islamische Gemeinschaft in Deutschland) is an Islamic organization headquartered in Munich, Germany and that consists of a network of mosques, centers and associations in all major West German cities. The German government says the IGD is the central organization for Muslim Brotherhood followers in Germany.\nIt is part of the umbrella organization Federation of Islamic Organizations in Europe which has its headquarters in Brussels. History The IGD had its origins in the Munich Mosque Construction Commission, a German organization established in the 1950s whose goal was the construction of a mosque",
"-25.20681085123215"
],
[
"that the Islamic world is portrayed as uncivilized; it is labeled as backward and failing. This justifies, in the view of those imagining, the military intervention that has been seen in Afghanistan and Iraq. Edward Said mentions that when Islam appeared in Europe in the Middle Ages, the response was conservative and defensive. Ó' Tuathail has argued that geopolitical knowledges are forms of imagined geography. Using the example of Halford Mackinder's Heartland Theory, he has shown how the presentation of Eastern Europe/Western Russia as a key geopolitical region after World War I influenced actions such as the recreation of Poland and",
"-25.190695887155016"
],
[
"own alternative network of social and economic institutions through which members could work, study, and receive medical treatment in an Islamic environment.\nIslamists rejected Marxism and Western capitalism. Indeed, they viewed atheistic communism, Jewish Zionism, and Western \"Crusader-minded\" Christianity as their main enemies, which were responsible for the decadence that led to foreign domination and defeat by Zionists. They were intolerant of people who did not share their worldview. Islamists tended to be hostile toward the orthodox ulama, especially the scholars at Al Azhar who frequently criticized the Islamists' extreme religious interpretations. Islamists believed that the established social and political order",
"-25.123927544802427"
],
[
"expected to reach 8% in 2030. There were approximately 19 million Muslims in the European Union in 2010 or about (3.8%).\nData for the rates of growth of Islam in Europe reveal that the growing number of Muslims is due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates. Eric Kaufman of University of London argue that the main reason why Islam is expanding, is not because of conversion to Islam, but primarily to the nature of the religion as he call it “pro-natal”, where Muslims tend to have more children. Muslim women today have an average of 2.2 children compared to an",
"-25.09231789689511"
],
[
"scene.\nIn 2016, 90 mosques were monitored by the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution for their islamist ideology. These were mostly Arabic-language \"backyard mosques\" where self-appointed imams exhorted their followers to wage jihad.\nSince the start of 2017 until April 2018, 80 Islamist extremists without German citizenship were deported to their home countries.\nIn March 2018, there were 760 islamists in Germany classified as dangerous by police authorities, of which more than half were on German territory and 153 of the latter were in prison.\nIn recent years, Mosques in Germany have been receiving larger quantities of hate mail as well",
"-25.061961400002474"
],
[
"of North Africa and Visigothic Spain, to invade much of modern France.\nOn the rise of Islam, two main theses prevail. On the one hand, there is the traditional view, as espoused by most historians prior to the second half of the twentieth century and by Muslim scholars. This view, the so-called \"out of Arabia\"-thesis, holds that Islam as a phenomenon was a new, alien element in the late antique world. Related to this is the Pirenne Thesis, according to which the Arab invasions marked—through conquest and the disruption of Mediterranean trade routes—the cataclysmic end of Late Antiquity and the beginning",
"-25.0291247581481"
],
[
"someone\". Europe On 26 September 2018, the European Parliament in Brussels launched the \"Counter-Islamophobia Toolkit\" (CIK), with the goal of combatting the growing Islamophobia across the EU and to be distributed to national governments and other policy makers, civil society and the media. Based on the most comprehensive research in Europe, it examines patterns of Islamophobia and effective strategies against it in eight member states. It lists ten dominant narratives and ten effective counter-narratives.\nOne of the authors of the CIK, Amina Easat-Daas, says that Muslim women are disproportionately affected by Islamophobia, based on both the \"threat to the west\" and",
"-24.93400803190889"
],
[
"für Sozialforschung (WZB) found that Islamic fundamentalism was widespread among Muslims in Europe. The study conducted a poll among Turkish immgrants to six European countries: Germany, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Austria and Sweden. In the first four countries also Moroccan immigrants were interviewed. Fundamentalism was defined as: the belief that believers should return to the eternal and unchangeable rules laid down in the past; that these rules allow only one interpretation and are binding for all believers; and that religious rules have priority over secular laws. Two thirds of Muslims the majority responded that religious rules are more important than",
"-24.896907309797825"
],
[
"many countries as possible, “at least” in the Eurozone. Later that year, he demanded that the EU not take in new members for the time being because of the European debt crisis and also expressed doubts that Croatia was ready to join; Croatia eventually joined the EU in 2013. Human rights Following the Charlie Hebdo shooting in 2015, Lammert criticized Saudi Arabia for condemning the Paris attacks as a violation of Islam, \"then two days later letting the blogger Raif Badawi be flogged in public in Jeddah for insulting Islam\". Ahead of Egyptian president Abdel Fattah el-Sisi's first official visit",
"-24.87017268611089"
],
[
"change of paradigm, in that returning European citizens were themselves the attackers. The Los Angeles Times reported that more than 3,000 Europeans have travelled to Syria and joined ISIL and other radical groups.\nOn 30 August 2016, jihadist Abu Mohammad al-Adnani was killed by an American missile and DGSI declared that his death ended the terrorist who had supervised the attacks on Brussels and Paris. Analysis of tactics Michael Leiter, former director of the United States National Counterterrorism Center, said the attacks demonstrated a sophistication not seen in a city attack since the 2008 Mumbai attacks and that it would change",
"-24.84750625272136"
],
[
"terror and in particular the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant\" and \"she did not say that political Islam should become Europe's new masterplan\".",
"-24.765420179464854"
],
[
"and contacts to conduct such activities within the EU.\nEuropean criminals are targeted by the Islamic State for recruiment, an estimated 50-80% of Europeans in IS have a criminal record. This is higher than al-Qaeda, where 25% of Europeans have a criminal record.\nThere were also Australians and citizens of the United States fighting for the Syrian opposition camp, despite possible prosecution by their government for terrorism amid fears they could return home and carry out attacks. Australian security agencies estimated about 200 Australians to be fighting in the country with dozens said to be part of the Nusra Front.\nThe first European",
"-24.707723101062584"
],
[
"European imperialism. Because it was seen as an Islamic state, it was regarded as an enemy by both other European states, as well as by the different national communities within its own borders. It was the Europeans, however, who ultimately caused the most damage to the \"sick man of Europe\"; as Justin McCarthy states the issue: \"The Ottoman Empire was not sick; it was wounded by its enemies, and finally murdered\"",
"-24.64053786295699"
],
[
"being challenged and called them attacks against fundamental secular, enlightenment and democratic values along with \"what makes us who we are\".\nIn 2016 French authorities reported that 120 of the 2500 Islamic prayer halls were disseminating salafist ideas and 20 mosques were closed due to findings of hate speech. In 2016, French authorities stated that 15000 of the 20000 individuals on the list of security threats belong to islamist movements.\nIn 2018, EU anti-terror coordinator Gilles de Kerchove estimated there to be 17 000 radicalized Muslims and jihadists living in France.\nIn 2018, French intelligence services monitored around 11000 individuals with suspected ties",
"-24.626677308464423"
],
[
"to the Muslim regime, and because the rapidity and the territorial scope of the Muslim conquests imposed upon them a reduction in persecution and a granting of better possibility for the survival of members of other faiths in their lands.\nAccording to the French historian Claude Cahen, Islam has \"shown more toleration than Europe towards the Jews who remained in Muslim lands.\"\nComparing the treatment of Jews in the medieval Islamic world and medieval Christian Europe, Mark R. Cohen notes that, in contrast to Jews in Christian Europe, the \"Jews in Islam were well integrated into the economic life of the larger",
"-24.57419216128619"
],
[
"defined themselves as \"Islamiyyoun/Islamists\" to differentiate themselves from \"Muslimun/Muslims\". Daniel Pipes describes Islamism as a modern ideology that owes more to European utopian political ideologies and \"isms\" than to the traditional Islamic religion. Influence Few observers contest the influence of Islamism within the Muslim world. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, political movements based on the liberal ideology of free expression and democratic rule have led the opposition in other parts of the world such as Latin America, Eastern Europe and many parts of Asia; however \"the simple fact is that political Islam currently reigns as the most powerful",
"-24.547434492385946"
],
[
"26 June 2015, ISIL militants blew up a Shiite mosque in Kuwait City killing dozens and injuring hundreds. France A campaign of Islamist attacks occurred in France, beginning with the Île-de-France attacks on 7 January 2015, between the French Government and ongoing terrorist acts committed by jihadist terror groups like AQAP and ISIL, or isolated individuals who sympathise with the jihadist movement. Since 2015 and until July 2016, eight Islamic terrorist incidents have occurred in France, including fatal attacks in Île-de-France, Saint-Quentin-Fallavier and Paris. The November 2015 attacks in Paris were motivated by ISIL as a \"retaliation\" for the French",
"-24.50465270515997"
],
[
"social backgrounds contributing to the democratic and pro-European editorial line of the newspaper. Controversies On March 11, 2004, Spain suffered Europe's first jihadist terror attack with a nearly simultaneous, coordinated bombings against the Cercanías commuter train system of Madrid, Spain, on the morning of 11 March 2004 – three days before Spain's general elections. The day of the attacks, then prime minister José María Aznar, from the ruling conservative party called El Pais editor in chief Jesús Ceberio and gave him assurances that the attacks had been planned and executed by the Basque terrorist group ETA. Despite having no other",
"-24.413155857590027"
],
[
"Islam in the Czech Republic History First documented visit of a person with knowledge of Islam was made (964-965) by Íbrahím ibn Jaqúb, a Jewish merchant from then-Muslim Spain. His memoirs were later published to become one of the first accounts about Central Europe in Islamic world.\nDuring both sieges of Vienna, reconnaissance groups of Ottoman armies reached Moravia. Strong trade links between Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Empire emerged during the 19th century.\nTraditionally, influence of Islam on culture of Czech lands has been small. Modern era A law 1912 by the Austro-Hungarian monarchy recognised Islam as a \"state religion\" and officially",
"-24.330848016717937"
],
[
"than 10000 militant salafists in the country. Employment According to a WZB report investigating Muslims in Germany, France, the Netherlands, United Kingdom, Belgium and Switzerland, Muslims in Europe generally have higher levels of unemployment which is to a great part caused by the lack of language skills, the lack of inter-ethnic social ties and a traditional view of gender roles where women are not to work outside the home. Discrimination from employers caused a small part of the unemployment.",
"-24.327657823014306"
],
[
"countries like Serbia, Croatia, Hungary, Lithuania, and Latvia. Farid Hafez is also editor of the German-English Islamophobia Studies Yearbook. Geographic trends An increase of Islamophobia in Russia follows the growing influence of the strongly conservative sect of Wahhabism, according to Nikolai Sintsov of the National Anti-Terrorist Committee.\nVarious translations of the Qur'an have been banned by the Russian government for promoting extremism and Muslim supremacy. Anti-Muslim rhetoric is on the rise in Georgia. In Greece, Islamophobia accompanies anti-immigrant sentiment, as immigrants are now 15% of the country's population and 90% of the EU's illegal entries are through Greece. In France Islamophobia",
"-24.317504476872273"
],
[
"of mosques in the UK, espousing a very hardline Wahhabist interpretation of Islam.\nPolitical scientist Olivier Roy argues that the majority of Islamic terrorists are radicals first and are drawn to fundamentalist Islam as a result, whereas fellow political scientist Gilles Kepel argues that terrorists are radicalized by Salafi ideology before choosing violence. Roy has also argued that the burkini bans and secularist policies of France provoked religious violence in France, to which Kepel responded that Britain has no such policies and still suffered several jihadist attacks in 2017 while there were no major attacks in France.\nSome preachers in London's mosques",
"-24.315448806635686"
],
[
"group al-Nusra Front among visitors to the Stockholm mosque. European Council for Fatwa and Research conference In July 2003 the Egyptian Islamist scholar Yusuf al-Qaradawi was invited to speak at the mosque in a conference arranged by the European Council for Fatwa and Research (founded by al-Qaradawi). Also present at the conference was Rashid Ghannouchi, leader of the then banned Tunisian Islamist party Ennahda. An article in Svenska Dagbladet said that critics of the European Council had stated that it had ties to the Sunni movement Muslim Brotherhood, and that the leadership of the mosque was influenced by it. Imam",
"-24.309055717778392"
],
[
"1985–86 Paris attacks Background In 1984, Hezbollah-linked Islamic Jihad Organization terrorists were arrested while plotting bombings against a plane from Zürich Airport, and against the United States embassy in Rome. In 1985 the group was responsible for attacks including the El Descanso bombing in Madrid that killed eighteen people and wounded 82, the hijacking of TWA Flight 847 from Athens, and bombings in Copenhagen that killed one person and wounded 22.\nFrance applied a policy in response to attacks from Middle Eastern terrorism in Europe called the \"sanctuary doctrine\" by analysts, in which French authorities would not interfere with the activities",
"-24.292057557351654"
],
[
"Liberal and progressive Islam in Europe This is a list of individual liberal and progressive Islamic movements in Europe, sorted by country. See also Islam in Europe and Euroislam. Democratic Muslims Democratic Muslims is a political organization in Denmark founded by Naser Khader, Yildiz Akdogan and other Muslims in February 2006 after the escalation of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy. Its goal is a peaceful co-existence of Islam and democracy. Naser Khader left his position as leader in 2007. In 2009 and 2011, it was reported that the organization had few members and little activity. Germany In June 2017, female",
"-24.196553178066097"
],
[
"look for Muslim boys who lack clear direction, and set them on the path to radicalisation and terror.\nAccording to Gilles de Kerchove in 2017, the UK had the highest number of Islamist radicals in the EU numbering between 20-25,000. Of those, 3000 were considered a direct threat by MI5 and 500 were under constant surveillance. Among those known to security services but not considered an immediate threat were the terrorists of three ISIS-linked attacks in 2017 which killed 35 victims in the UK. Henry Jackson Society report In July 2017, a report by the Henry Jackson Society, which was commissioned",
"-24.071675481449347"
],
[
"Islam by country Countries Most of the percentages of Muslim populations of each country, if not stated otherwise, were taken from the study by the Pew Research Center report of 5 facts about the muslim population in Europe, 2017.",
"-24.040322249755263"
],
[
"General Ján Kubis and representatives of the European Union and Council of Europe, adopted a declaration to combat \"genocide, ethnic cleansing, racism, antisemitism, Islamophobia and xenophobia, and to combat all forms of racial discrimination and intolerance related to it.\"\nThe Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, in its 5th report to Islamophobia Observatory of 2012, found an \"institutionalization and legitimization of the phenomenon of Islamophobia\" in the West over the previous five years.\nIn 2014 Integrationsverket (the Swedish National Integration Board) defined Islamophobia as \"racism and discrimination expressed towards Muslims.\"\nIn 2016, the European Islamophobia Report (EIR) presented the \"European Islamophobia Report 2015\" at European",
"-23.97043940948788"
],
[
"for jihadist terrorism related offences were delivered. In 2017 there were 27 verdicts.\nAlmost all known terrorist networks and individuals in Germany have links to Salafism, a conservative Islamic ideology. Terrorism in (or involving) West Germany and reunified Germany During the Cold War, especially in the 1970s, West Germany experienced severe terrorism, mostly perpetrated by far-left terrorist groups and culminating in the German Autumn of 1977, the country's most serious national crisis in postwar history. Terrorist incidents also took place in the 1980s and 1990s. Some of the terrorist groups had connections to international terrorism, notably Palestinian militant groups, and were",
"-23.943595022894442"
],
[
"even a \"conspiracy\", most commentators, even some pro-government ones, have come to conclude that \"the real reason for the loss of faith in Islam is not the West but Turkey itself: It is a reaction to all the corruption, arrogance, narrow-mindedness, bigotry, cruelty and crudeness displayed in the name of Islam.\" Especially when the AKP Islamists are in power to enforce Islam upon society, this is making citizens turn their back on it. United Arab Emirates Apostasy is a crime in the United Arab Emirates. In 1978, UAE began the process of Islamising the nation's law, after its council of",
"-23.928239251981722"
],
[
"control over Muslims in Europe, thus spreading the more extreme sect of Islam.\nSeveral articles have been written that list the Cork Islamic Cultural Center as an example of one of many properties throughout Europe, paid for by the Qatari government, in an effort to spread an extreme and intolerant form of Islam known as Wahhabism.\nThe Assalam Mosque is located in Nantes, France was also a source on some controversy. Construction on the mosque began in 2009 and was completed in 2012. It is the largest mosque in its region in France. The mosque is frequently listed among examples of Qatar's",
"-23.888444614844047"
],
[
"the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Islamic movements have emerged alongside ethnic and secular ones. Vitaly Naumkin gives the following assessment: \"Throughout the time of change, Islam has served as a symbol of identity, a force for mobilization, and a pressure for democracy. This is one of the few social disasters that the church has survived, in which it was not the cause. But if successful politically, it faces economic challenges beyond its grasp.\"\nThe Central Asian states (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) plus Azerbaijan from Southern Caucasus are Muslim, except for their dwindling Russian and other European minorities.",
"-23.87109504896216"
],
[
"\"we condemn in the strongest terms the attack by the PKK on October 21 which killed 12 Turkish soldiers. [...] For France and the European Union, the PKK is a terrorist organization which must be determinedly fought everywhere.\"\n Germany: Foreign Office minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier stated that \"the federal government condemns any kind of terror in the strongest terms.\" President of Germany Turkish Society Kenan Kolat declared that \"the attacks cannot have any right cause. But to state for our European friends, when it comes to Islamic terror you ask us to oppose but I think our European friends does not have",
"-23.868653094934416"
],
[
"Mustafa said in an interview, \"This is an attack on Sweden and on all Muslims in Sweden.\" Ben Mahmoud Rahmeh, imam and chairman of the Federation of Islamic Organizations in Europe, and the Islamic Federation of Sweden issued a press release condemning the attacks: \"Attacks like this have been carried out earlier in both Muslim and non-Muslim communities (such as in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Pakistan, Spain and the UK) and then the Muslim scholars and theologians' position has been unanimously against such attacks. Also, important Islamic institutions and Muslim inter-governmental organisations, such as Al-Azhar University, the European Council for Fatwa,",
"-23.843113724375144"
],
[
"to radical Islamism. France has sentenced a large number of individuals for terrorist-related offences which has increased the prison population. This in turn has created an issue with radicalization in French prisons.\nIn February 2019, authorities in Grenoble closed the Al-Kawthar mosque for six months due to it propagating a \"radical islamist ideology\". The Al-Kawthar mosque had about 400 regular visitors. In several of the sermons, the imam legitimised armed jihad, violence and hatred towards followers of other religions anti-republican values and promoted Sharia law. Islamic terrorism In the 2015–2018 timespan in France, 249 people been killed in terrorist attacks and",
"-23.84069931624981"
],
[
"in Eastern Europe by the Ottomans allowed Muslim missionaries to now operate in hitherto strictly Christian areas inside Europe. Some regions became entirely Muslim as a result, such as the modern day European states of Albania and Bosnia. In Western Europe With the Ottoman Caliphate in a seemingly constant military conflict with Western Europe at their mutual borders, missionary activity in Western Europe was virtually non-existent until the dramatic changing of the European political map in the 20th century. This along with the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the same time frame paved way for a subsequent mass immigration",
"-23.826979611912975"
],
[
"following the its proven recruitment of jihadists to fight in Syria and Iraq for the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, also known as ISIS. November 2016 raids and ban The arrest on 8 November 2016 of Abu Walaa, a 32 year old Iraqi-born Hildesheim-based Salafi preacher, heralded a nationwide police crack down in Germany the following week on Islamist organizations including Die Wahre Religion. Beginning on November 15, 2016, German authorities conducted raids on 190 locations across the nation, thought to be linked to extremism. The police raids spanned ten cities and regions, including Die Wahre Religion offices",
"-23.822855198348407"
],
[
"up of unbelievers who seek to destroy Islam, justifying attacks against other Muslims and non-Muslims alike.\" Global Jihadist Australian National Security informs that \"The Islamic State is an Iraq and Syria-based Sunni extremist group and former al‑Qa'ida affiliate that adheres to the global jihadist ideology.\" Khawarij Sunni critics, including Salafi and jihadist muftis such as Adnan al-Aroor and Abu Basir al-Tartusi, say that ISIL and related terrorist groups are not Sunnis, but modern-day Khawarij—Muslims who have stepped outside the mainstream of Islam—serving an imperial anti-Islamic agenda. Demands of the Caliphate Having declared itself to be a new Caliphate, and al-Baghdadi",
"-23.801594351127278"
],
[
"and Norsborg. Violent extremism According to the Swedish Defence University, since the 1970s, a number of residents of Sweden have been implicated in providing logistical and financial support to or joining various foreign-based transnational Islamic militant groups. Among these organizations are Hezbollah, Hamas, the GIA, Al-Qaeda, the Islamic State, Al-Shabaab, Ansar al-Sunna and Ansar al-Islam.\nIn the 2000s according to Europol, Islamists in Sweden were not primarily seeking to commit attacks in Sweden, but were rather using Sweden as a base of operations against other countries and for providing logistical support for groups abroad.\nIn 2010, the Swedish Security Service estimated that",
"-23.797860324324574"
],
[
"Muslim world. Islam is portrayed as oppressive (women in Hijab); outmoded (hanging, beheading and stoning to death); anti-intellectualist (book burning); restrictive (bans on post- and extramarital affairs, alcohol and gambling); extremist (focusing on Algeria, Lebanon and of course Egypt); backward (Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and the Sudan); the cause of worldwide conflict (Palestine, Kashmir and Indonesia); and dangerous (Turkey and Iran).\nThe modern Western media, says Said, does not want people to know that in Islam both men and women are equal; that Islam is tough on crime and the causes of crime; that Islam is a religion of knowledge par excellence;",
"-23.75514726684196"
],
[
"Muslim Council for Cooperation in Europe Historical background In 1996, in Strasbourg is constituted the Muslim Council for Cooperation in Europe, being among its members: The Strasbourg Mosque (France), Central Council of Muslims in Germany (ZMD), the Supreme Council of Muslims in Belgium (CSMB) of the Muslim Executive of Belgium, the Union of Islamic Communities of Spain (UCIDE) of the Islamic Commission of Spain, the mosque Adda'wa Paris (France) and the Italian Islamic Religious Community (COREIS). In 1997, the MCCE has joined the initiative \"A Soul for Europe\" in the framework of \"Dialogue with religions, churches and humanism\" as part",
"-23.746196791587863"
],
[
"number of residents of Sweden have been implicated in providing logistical and financial support to or joining various foreign-based transnational Islamic militant groups. Among these organizations are Hezbollah, Hamas, the GIA, Al-Qaeda, the Islamic State, Al-Shabaab, Ansar al-Sunna and Ansar al-Islam. In 2010, the Swedish Security Service estimated that a total of 200 individuals were involved in the Swedish violent Islamist extremist milieu. According to the Swedish Defence University, most of these militants were affiliated with the Islamic State, with around 300 people traveling to Syria and Iraq to join the group and Al-Qaeda associated outfits like Jabhat al-nusra in",
"-23.717200263636187"
],
[
"community centre.\nFinally, there are many Islamic congregations. Islam gained a foothold in Göttingen, as it did in other German cities, with the immigration of the Turks during the Wirtschaftswunder in the 1960s and 1970s. They constitute the majority of Muslims in Göttingen. Other Muslims are of Arab origin or come from West Asia. There are two mosques in the city.\nThere is a secular trend in Germany, especially in Eastern Germany, but also in the West, where a growing number of people are not baptised or leave the church. This trend is especially noticeable since the 1990s, percentagewise between 1990 and",
"-23.695485316216946"
],
[
"sharia in Muslim-majority countries.\nIn August 2005, the Wall Street Journal reported that although the Council's stated goal was to help Muslims integrate into European society, it is dominated by non-Europeans who have little grasp of what is acceptable in the West. A member of the Council cited the anti-Semitic forgery known as the Protocols of the Elders of Zion in a position paper arguing that Muslim families are under threat in Europe. It also reported that \"the council is part of a web of organizations that spread ideology close to the Muslim Brotherhood throughout Europe\".",
"-23.685483454130008"
],
[
"Speer, Hitler's Armaments Minister, described how Hitler expressed approval of Islam, saying that Hitler had been particularly impressed by what he had heard from a delegation of Arabs. When the Muslims had tried to penetrate Central Europe in the 8th century, they had been driven back at the Battle of Tours; if they had won that battle, the world would have become Muslim. Theirs was a religion, Hitler said, that believed in spreading the faith by the sword and subjugating all nations to that faith. Hitler considered that Islam was perfectly suited to the \"Germanic\" temperament and would have been",
"-23.62710933931521"
],
[
"a total of 200 individuals were involved in the Swedish violent Islamist extremist milieu. According to the Swedish Defence University, most of these militants were affiliated with the Islamic State, with around 300 people traveling to Syria and Iraq to join the group and Al-Qaeda associated outfits like Jabhat al-nusra in the 2012-2017 period.\nIn the Stockholm area, all networks involving jihadists are also involved in ordinary crime such as theft, burglary and blackmail whereby they acquire income. Income received from illegal narcotics trading are also used finance jihadist activity as sympathisers with an ideology which uses violence to reach a",
"-23.60745221209072"
],
[
"2005, the MCB saw them as reflecting \"the emergence of an increasingly xenophobic tone being adopted towards Muslims in parts of the Western media\" and argued, \"We should not allow our valued freedoms in Europe to be abused by those deliberately seeking to provoke hatred and division between communities\". At the same time, it said they regarded \"the violent threats made against Danish and EU citizens by some groups in the Muslim world as completely unacceptable.\" Istanbul Declaration controversy In March 2009, The Observer reported that individuals including Daud Abdullah, the Deputy Secretary General of the MCB, had signed what",
"-23.60548734967597"
],
[
"is a product of the clash of civilizations between Islam and the West, arguing that the first victims of Islamic terrorism are Muslims:\nWhy do the 200,000 slaughtered Muslims of Darfur not arouse even half a quarter of the fury caused by 200-times fewer dead in Lebanon? Must we deduce that Muslims killed by other Muslims don’t count – whether in the eyes of Muslim authorities or viewed through the bad conscience of the West? Later years Glucksmann supported military action by the West in Afghanistan and Iraq, and was highly critical of Russian foreign policy, supporting for example Chechen independence.",
"-23.598311959882267"
],
[
"Atlantic, called the book \"a sort of primer in how not to write about Islam\", describing it as \"replete with an obsessive interest in excrement, disease, sexual mania, and insectlike reproduction, insofar as these apply to Muslims in general and to Muslim immigrants in Europe in particular\".",
"-23.595565127987356"
],
[
"International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism by region Belgium According to Hind Fraihi, a Moroccan-Belgian journalist, Saudi-trained imams and literature from Saudi Arabia glorifying jihad and advocating Islam versus non-Muslims thinking was “part of the cocktail” (other factors being \"economic frustration, racism, a generation that feels it has no future”) leading to the ISIL terror cell in Belgium committing terrorist acts in Paris and Brussels in 2015 and 2016. (Altogether 162 people were killed in the attacks.) .\nIn the capital Brussels, as of 2016, 95 percent of the courses offered on Islam for Muslims used preachers trained in",
"-23.503079936024733"
],
[
"Religion in the European Union Religion in the European Union is diverse. The largest religion in the EU is Christianity, which accounts for 72.8% of EU population. Smaller groups include those of Islam, Buddhism, Judaism, Hinduism, and some East Asian religions, most concentrated in Germany, Britain and France. Also present are revival movements of pre-Christianity European folk religions including Heathenism, Rodnovery, Romuva, and Druidry.\nOver the last several decades, religious practice has been on the decline in a process of secularisation. Eurostat's Eurobarometer survey in 2010 showed that 20% of EU citizens don't believe there is any sort of spirit,",
"-23.499105327180587"
],
[
"for Religious Affairs (DITIB), which represents more than 70 percent of Muslims living in Germany, to make clear to its members that Germany's constitution and law were above religion.\nIn response to increasing numbers of people leaving organized religion, Kauder also criticized the churches in Germany for not proselytizing enough. In 2011, he condemned Turkey’s record on religious freedom and suggested that EU accession talks with Turkey should be suspended until the country supports the rights of Christians to ordain priests.\nKauder raised eyebrows in January 2005 when he compared draft anti-discrimination legislation to Nazi and Communist laws, arguing that the legislation",
"-23.48585269851901"
],
[
"Terrorism in Europe There is a long history of terrorism in Europe. This has often been linked to nationalist and separatist movements (separating countries), while other acts have been related to politics (including anarchism, far-right and far-left extremism), religious extremism, or organized crime. Terrorism in the European sections of the intercontinental countries of Turkey and Russia is not included in this list. Definitions Defining terrorism is difficult, and there are more than one hundred definitions of it in scholarly literature. The term is used in polemical contexts, thus it can become a move in a campaign rather than an aid",
"-23.46891953065642"
],
[
"foreigners living in the country, such as Arabs, Bengalis, Chechens etc. Liga Muzułmańska is also a branch of a worldwide Muslim Brotherhood organization. Islamophobia Despite the fact that Muslims in Poland constitute less than 0.1% of the total population, stereotypes, verbal, violent, and physical displays of anti-Islam are widespread and, mostly, socially acceptable. Vandalism and attacks on the very few existing mosques are reported, and women (especially converts) who cover themselves are seen as \"traitors\" to their own culture.\nFrom January 1, 2013, Poland's Muslims and Jews were both affected by a ban on ritual slaughter after lawmakers deemed halal and",
"-23.38523915602127"
],
[
"Islam in Sweden History Archaeological findings have shown Viking contact with Islam dating back to the 7th–10th centuries, when the Vikings were trading with the medieval Islamic world. Pre-Islamic Arabic coins originating from the Middle East have been found at Iron Age burial sites.\nThe Swedish census in 1930 listed 15 people as belonging to the group \"Muslims and other Asian faiths\". Although the number of Muslims themselves are not known, one estimate suggests a maximum of 11 but could have been as low as 2.\nIn modern Sweden, the first registered Muslim groups were Finnish Tatars who emigrated from Finland and",
"-23.34696524614992"
],
[
"that the West is out to destroy Islam (Christian respondents’ answers for comparison: As many as 9 percent are openly anti-Semitic; 13 percent do not want to have homosexuals as friends; and 23 percent think that Muslims aim to destroy Western culture).\nAccording to a 2012 poll, 25% of the Turks in Germany believe atheists are inferior human beings. Salafism Salafism is a part of the Sunni branch of Islam which is a revival of original Islamic ideals. Salafists strive to live exclusively according to the Quran. According to German authorities, Salafism is incompatible with the principles codified in the Constitution",
"-23.31126831343863"
],
[
"their newly conquered territories of what are today the modern-day European states of Spain and Portugal. Large numbers of local inhabitants converted to Islam as a result. During the Crusades The second phase covers the period of the Crusades from 1095 - 1291 along the eastern borders of Europe, whereby little or no Islamic missionary activity occurred in Europe due to the on-going conflict between Christian Europe and the adjoining Muslim Caliphates. In Eastern Europe The third phase covers the period of 1362 - 1926 in Eastern Europe following the establishment of the Ottoman Caliphate. The conquest of significant territories",
"-23.290464024525136"
],
[
"blamed or praised, so far as it is beneficial or hurtful to the true believers.\"\nThe commonly held view in Europe during the Enlightenment was that Islam, then synonymous with the Ottoman Empire, was a bloody, ruthless and intolerant religion. In the European view, Islam lacked divine authority and regarded the sword as the route to heaven. Hume appears to represent this view in his reference to the \"bloody principles\" of Islam, though he also makes similar critical comments about the \"bloody designs\" characterizing the conflict between Catholics and Protestants during the Reformation. Many contemporary works about Islam were available to",
"-23.28931416780688"
],
[
"ISIL-related terror attacks in France Background Prior to the attacks, the 2005 French riots occurred. They have been controversially interpreted, mostly by the foreign press, as an illustration of the difficulty of integrating Muslims in France, and smaller scale riots have been occurring throughout the 1980s and 1990s, first in Vaulx-en-Velin in 1979, and in Vénissieux in 1981, 1983, 1990 and 1999.\nAccording to The Guardian, eight attacks occurred in France during the eighteen months from January 2015 to July 2016, including the January 2015 Île-de-France attacks (which killed 17 people), the November 2015 Paris attacks (which killed 130), and the",
"-23.250801870482974"
],
[
"then, Islamic theological departments have been established at several universities, conducting research and teaching on Islam from a theological perspective. Islamic fundamentalism Concerns of Islamic fundamentalism came to the fore after September 11, 2001, especially with respect to Islamic fundamentalism among second- and third-generation Muslims in Germany - the Hamburg cell, which included Mohamed Atta, was prominent in the planning and execution of the September 11 attacks. Also the various confrontations between Islamic religious law (Sharia) and the norms of German Grundgesetz and culture are the subject of intense debate. German critics include both liberals and Christian groups. The former",
"-23.25052527774824"
],
[
"of American Muslims for Jerusalem in UFPJ or of the Muslim Student Association, American Muslims for Global Peace, and Atlanta Masjid of Al-Islam in ANSWER. These are Muslim groups, but they are not Islamist groups. Allegations of anti-Americanism and anti-Semitism within the European anti-war movement Some allege that anti-American sentiments were expressed at most of these anti-war protests in Europe. Some rallies even turned into violent events, with attacks on police, shops and passers-by, such as the March 24, 2003 rally in Hamburg, Germany.\nSome also allege that as Muslim minorities are bigger in many European countries than in the U.S.,",
"-23.24771736261755"
],
[
"demarcated the frontiers between Christendom and Islam for the next millennium. The following centuries saw the Muslims successful in conquering most of Sicily from the Christians by 902.\nThe Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin from around 895 and the following Hungarian invasions of Europe, and the Viking expansion from the late 8th century conventionally mark the last large movements of the period. Christianity gradually converted the non-Islamic newcomers and integrated them into the medieval Christian order. After that, the German eastward expansion (german: (Deutsche) Ostsiedlung) started in the 11th century in Eastern Europe. Climatic factors A number of contemporary historical",
"-23.197319220518693"
],
[
"Islam. It is significant that the only other European region under Ottoman control where a large segment of the population adopted Islam was Albania; also home to competing Christian sects. Some taxes on Muslims and orthodox Vlachs were also lighter than those on other rayah. The Hatt-ı Şerif attempted to eliminate this uneven taxation.\nThe growth of urban centers, the vast majority of which were Muslim. Cities that were founded at the time, such as Sarajevo and Mostar, grew rapidly with a specifically Islamic character and advanced living standards. It is understandable that many Christians in the outlying rural regions would",
"-23.17220488068415"
],
[
"Syrian war.\nWhile most earlier Islamic terrorist attacks in Europe were carried out by groups and involved bombs, most attacks since 2014 have been carried out by individuals using guns, knives and vehicles. A notable exception is the Brussels cell, which carried out two of the deadliest attacks of the period.\nThe deadliest attacks of this period have been the November 2015 Paris attacks (130 killed), the July 2016 Nice truck attack (86 killed), the June 2016 Atatürk Airport attack (45 killed), the March 2016 Brussels bombings (32 killed), and the May 2017 Manchester Arena bombing (22 killed). These attacks and threats",
"-23.14039106646669"
],
[
"article, O'Sullivan wrote:\n\"After all, radical Islamists have three advantages on their side: demography (the populations of Islamic nations are increasing while the West suffers a 'birth dearth'); rapidly growing Islamic diasporas in the West, fueled by illegal immigration; and official Western policies of multiculturalism (which not only encourage immigrants to retain their original cultural identity but even promote the 'de-assimilation' of previously assimilated minorities in the West)...the decline of Christian belief and social influence; and the habit of respecting other cultures as unities while treating the West as a kind of multi-cultural supermarket in which Western civilization is merely one",
"-23.110020800551865"
],
[
"mosques and a restaurant were attacked in acts deemed as right-wing terrorism by authorities. The acts included grenade throwing, shooting, and use of an improvised explosive device. Germany In 1980, a right-wing terrorist attack in Munich, Germany killed the attacker and 12 other people, injuring 215. Fears of an ongoing campaign of major right-wing terrorist attacks did not materialize.\nIn 1993, four neo-Nazi skinheads committed arson against a house of a Turkish German family in Solingen, Germany resulting in the deaths of 5 female Turks and injured 14 others including several children.\nIn addition to several bank robberies, the Nationalsozialitscher Untergrund/National Socialist",
"-23.10920743958559"
],
[
"Through Darkest Europe Plot In this alternate world, the dominating Muslim cultures of North Africa and the Middle East are \"liberal, tolerant, and above all rich\" while Europe is a hot spot of Christian fundamentalism, with assassinations, hijackings, and bombings committed by extremist groups including the Aquinists. Senior Investigator Khalid al-Zarzisi is sent to Rome with his partner Investigator Dawud ibn Musa with the mission of protecting the Grand Duke (monarch of all Italy), the impoverished Pope, and preventing European instability from affecting the First World.\nThe alternate history's point of departure, as detailed in the first chapter, occurred between the",
"-23.10869097363684"
],
[
"were still going on between Islam and Christianity. Europe, dominated by Christians, remained under threat from the Muslim Ottoman Turks. The Turks had migrated from central to western Asia and converted to Islam years earlier. Their capture of Constantinople in 1453, thus extinguishing the Eastern Roman Empire, was a crowning achievement for the new Ottoman Empire. They continued to expand across the Middle East, North Africa and the Balkans. Under the leadership of the Spanish, a Christian coalition destroyed the Ottoman navy at the battle of Lepanto in 1571 ending their naval control of the Mediterranean. However, the Ottoman threat",
"-23.092133369267685"
],
[
"of the Universal Caliphate are about the alleged relationship from the 1970s onwards between the European Union (previously the European Economic Community) and the Arab states. Ye'or argues that Islam, anti-americanism and antisemitism hold sway over European culture and politics as a result of collaboration between radical Arabs and Muslims on one hand and fascists, socialists, Nazis, and antisemitic rulers of Europe on the other. Bat Ye'or popularized the use of term \"Eurabia\" in the sense of:\n. . . a geo-political reality envisaged in 1973 through a system of informal alliances between, on the one hand, the nine countries of",
"-23.08845569746336"
],
[
"on “Islamism and European security” June 15–16, University of Aarhus, Denmark sponsored by the Danish Social Science Research Council and hosted by the Department of Political Science, University of Aarhus in 2006; a study trip program through the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office to study British Muslims in London and Manchester also in 2006; attended conference on “Religious Extremism vs. International Peace Efforts: Lessons learned and preventive strategies in the Middle East and West Balkans” National Defense Academy, Institute for Peace and Conflict Management, Vienna, Austria in 2007; was a featured speaker on transnational investigative journalism, SKUP investigative journalism conference,",
"-23.086697297228966"
],
[
"movements in Europe, this is not based on race or ethnicity because it has been revitalised with religion at its core. Recent developments Thomas Hegghammer of the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment has outlined the emergence of \"macro-nationalism\" in the late Cold War era, which kept a low profile until the September 11 attacks. Hegghammer traces the origins of modern macro-nationalism to both the Western counter-jihad movement and Islamic terrorist organisations such as al-Qaeda. In the aftermath of the 2011 Norway attacks, he described the ideologies of perpetrator Anders Behring Breivik as \"not fitting the established categories of right-wing ideology, like",
"-23.08476804557722"
],
[
"who describes Islam in one of his books as\na comprehensive system which envisages to annihilate all tyrannical and evil systems in the world and enforces its own programme of reform which it deems best for the well-being of mankind.\nMass conversion around the world of non-Muslims to Islam would greatly facilitate enforcing an Islamist program, and according to Olivier Roy, \"today's Islamist activists are obsessed with conversion: rumors that Western celebrities or entire groups are converting are hailed enthusiastically by the core militants.\"\nCritic Daniel Pipes has also notes Islamist contempt for, and ambitions to convert, other cultures and religions. One Islamist",
"-23.05435013450915"
],
[
"had been in Syria temporarily and had returned radicalized. \"We have changed the paradigm,\" Brisard said. \"Our own citizens come back to Europe to perpetrate attacks. Europe needs to take that into account.\" In fact, experts indicate that more than 3,000 Europeans have traveled to Syria and joined Islamic State and other radical groups, as reported by the Los Angeles Times. International Consultant In 2009 Jean-Charles Brisard founded JCB Consulting International, a company specialized in business intelligence, investigation, security & intelligence, international law and litigation support.\nHe also takes part in international-scale investigations about terrorism and terrorism financing that get international",
"-23.049534125908394"
],
[
"jihadist groups such as the Islamic State and Jabhat Al-Nusra, while others joined non-jihadist formations or the Free Syrian Army. Unlike in other Western European countries where most of the fighters were born in the country, only a few of those who went to the conflict zone were born in Italy. 14 had Italian citizenship and 10 had dual citizenship. It was noted that the number of Tunisian nationals living in Italy who went to the conflict zone (39) was far higher than the number of Italians. Slighly more than half (50.4%) of fighters linked to Italy came from countries",
"-23.035376176179852"
],
[
"2017 Barcelona attacks, even if their original plans were on a larger scale.\nIn April 2018 there were an estimated 5000 radicalized Muslims living on Spanish soil. Sweden In the 2000s, Islamists in Sweden were not primarily seeking to commit attacks in Sweden, but were rather using Sweden as a base of operations against other countries and for providing logistical support for groups abroad.\nIn 2010, Taimour Abdulwahab al-Abdaly, an Iraqi-born Swedish citizen, attempted to kill Christmas shoppers in Stockholm in the 2010 Stockholm bombings. According to investigations by FBI, the bombing would likely have killed between 30 and 40 people had",
"-23.007151224766858"
]
] |
2h0nlu | why do gravitational forces create rings on a single plane, rather than a globe? | [
"It's not gravitational forces that do this, it's collisions. Orbits at the same distance in anything *except* a single plane will collide. When that happens, the particles exchange momentum and tend to come out closer to an \"everage\" orbit, with a plane between the two incoming particles'. Repeat lots of times for millions of particles, and all of the particles end up in one plane. This also circularizes the orbits, for exactly the same reason: particles moving in will collide with particles moving out, and the radial motion will be averaged out.",
"The Minute Science guy explains it in an ELI5 URL_0 ",
"Basically, its like highlander. There can be only one 'plane.' Eliptical orbits that interesect each other will eventually result in objects (within those orbits) colliding into one another. These collisions will occur until one orbital plane wins out"
] | [
[
"Rings (gymnastics) The rings, also known as steady rings or still rings (in contrast to flying rings), is an artistic gymnastics apparatus and the event that uses it. It is traditionally used only by male gymnasts, due to its extreme upper body strength requirements. Gymnasts typically wear ring grips while performing on the rings. The apparatus The apparatus consists of two rings that hang freely from a rigid metal frame. Each ring is supported by a strap, which in turn connects to a steel cable that is suspended from the metal frame. The gymnast, who grips one ring with each",
"-31.24154466355685"
],
[
"Ring galaxy A ring galaxy is a galaxy with a circle-like appearance. Hoag's Object, discovered by Art Hoag in 1950, is an example of a ring galaxy. The ring contains many massive, relatively young blue stars, which are extremely bright. The central region contains relatively little luminous matter. Some astronomers believe that ring galaxies are formed when a smaller galaxy passes through the center of a larger galaxy. Because most of a galaxy consists of empty space, this \"collision\" rarely results in any actual collisions between stars. However, the gravitational disruptions caused by such an event could cause a wave",
"-31.2312173784303"
],
[
"the ring is stationary and the plane of the ring is also horizontal. If the motion of the bar is such that the center of the bar coincides with the center of the ring at some point in time, then the bar will be Lorentz-contracted due to the forward component of its motion, and it will pass through the ring. The paradox occurs when the problem is considered in the rest frame of the bar. The ring is now moving downward and to the left, and will be Lorentz-contracted along its horizontal length, while the bar will not be contracted",
"-31.17831504746846"
],
[
"that gives the ring frame its name. From here the thread is attached to the existing thread on the spindle.\nThe traveller, and the spindle share the same axis but rotate at different speeds. The spindle is driven and the traveller drags behind thus distributing the rotation between winding up on the spindle and twist into the yarn. The bobbin is fixed on the spindle. In a ring frames, the different speed was achieved by drag caused by air resistance and friction (lubrication of the contact surface between the traveller and the ring was a necessity). Spindles could rotate at speeds",
"-30.94763966993196"
],
[
"Polar-ring galaxy A polar-ring galaxy is a type of galaxy in which an outer ring of gas and stars rotates over the poles of the galaxy. These polar rings are thought to form when two galaxies gravitationally interact with each other. One possibility is that a material is tidally stripped from a passing galaxy to produce the polar ring seen in the polar-ring galaxy. The other possibility is that a smaller galaxy collides orthogonally with the plane of rotation of the larger galaxy, with the smaller galaxy effectively forming the polar-ring structure.\nThe best-known polar-ring galaxies are S0s (lenticular",
"-30.754508266225457"
],
[
"The ring gears time the spinning and orbit of the rollers about the screw axis by engaging gear teeth near the ends of the rollers. The spacer rings rotate on axis with the screw in unison with the orbit of the rollers. The spacer rings float relative to the nut, axially secured by retaining rings, because they spin around the screw at a lower frequency (angular velocity) than the nut. Inverted roller screw The inverted planetary roller screw is also known as the reverse roller screw. The lack of axial movement of the roller relative to the",
"-30.544523010146804"
],
[
"These rings are made from either flat or round wire. Spiral retaining rings Spiral retaining rings are axially installed into housings/bores (internal) or onto shafts (external), making 360° contact with the groove. Spiral retaining rings have no ears or lugs to interfere with the assembly. These rings are manufactured by coiling flat wire into the shape of the finished retaining ring. Spiral rings are provided with a removal notch to simplify the removal process. Spiral retaining rings can be economically produced in special alloys like stainless steel because the manufacturing process eliminates scrap.\nNo special tools are required for",
"-30.342450787799407"
],
[
"the nucleus and the ring have the same redshift, and because more advanced telescopes revealed the knotty structure of the ring, something that would not be visible if the ring were the product of gravitational lensing.\nMany of the details of the galaxy remain a mystery, foremost of which is how it formed. So-called \"classic\" ring galaxies are generally formed by the collision of a small galaxy with a larger disk-shaped galaxy. This collision produces a density wave in the disk that leads to a characteristic ring-like appearance. Such an event would have happened at least 2–3",
"-30.2369101542281"
],
[
"gravitational field of an unidirectional ring laser, it is predicted that a spinning neutral particle, when placed in the ring, is dragged around by the resulting gravitational field.\"\nIn a later paper, Mallett argued that at sufficient energies, the circulating laser might produce not just frame-dragging but also closed timelike curves (CTC), allowing time travel into the past:\nFor the strong gravitational field of a circulating cylinder of light, I have found new exact solutions of the Einstein field equations for the exterior and interior gravitational fields of the light cylinder. The exterior gravitational field is shown to contain closed timelike lines.\nThe",
"-30.20602502906695"
],
[
"the consequence that any pulsating star which remains spherically symmetric cannot generate gravitational waves (as the region exterior to the star must remain static).",
"-30.190251001615252"
],
[
"Ring laser Ring lasers are composed of two beams of light of the same polarization traveling in opposite directions (\"counter-rotating\") in a closed loop.\nCurrently ring lasers are used most frequently as gyroscopes (ring laser gyroscope; (figure 2)) in moving vessels like cars, ships, planes, and missiles. The world's largest ring lasers can detect details of the Earth's rotation. Such large rings are also capable of extending scientific research in many new directions, including the detection of gravitational waves, Fresnel drag, Lense-Thirring effect, and quantum-electrodynamic effects.\nIn a rotating ring laser gyroscope, the two counter-propagating waves are slightly shifted in",
"-30.04572452706634"
],
[
"gravitational lens, distorting light from a distant galaxy behind it to create an Einstein ring around its centre. By comparing the mass of ESO 325-G004 (from measurements of the motions of stars inside this galaxy) with the curvature of space around it, astronomers found that gravity behaves as predicted by general relativity on these astronomical length-scales.",
"-29.98171323155111"
],
[
"lens, and observer are in near-perfect alignment (now referred to as the Einstein ring), although he did not explicitly discuss the use of the ring as lens.\nThe concept of gravitational lenses, did not get much attention until 1936, when Albert Einstein wrote about the gravitational lens effect. The \"halo\" effect of a gravitational lens, where one source (sun or galaxy) produces a ring around another source is referred to as an Chwolson ring, or Einstein ring.\nHe became an honorary member of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labour. The crater Khvolson on the",
"-29.862601908869692"
],
[
"making smaller, more strained rings from larger rings. The impetus for making these rings comes from the difficulty associated with making a fully elaborated small ring when such a ring could more easily be made from an elaborated larger ring, from which an atom can be excised, or that the original larger scaffold is more accessible.\nRing contractions are easily characterized simply by the reactive intermediate which performs the contraction. The standard intermediates are anionic, cationic, and carbenoid. Anionic contractions The Favorskii rearrangement is the poster child of the anionic ring contractions. It proceeds through a carbanion which attacks an endocyclic",
"-29.64794768554566"
],
[
"Obturator ring Purpose The rotary aircraft engines of World War I (engines with the crankshaft fixed to the airframe and rotating cylinders) were notoriously difficult to keep cool when operating. Thus, their very thin walled steel cylinders would become distorted to an unacceptable level. Obturator rings, made of brass, were fitted to compensate for this out-of-roundness in much the same way as a leather washer does in a bicycle pump. Wear on the rings was considerable and they only lasted a matter of hours. By the time the war ended, technology and materials had advanced sufficiently to do away with",
"-29.492012237642484"
],
[
"to the gravitational field from each of these rings will yield the expression for the gravitational field due to a disc. This is equivalent to integrating this above expression from y=0 to y=R, resulting in:\nTo find the gravitational field at point P due to a sphere centered at the origin, an infinite amount of infinitely thin discs facing point P, each with a radius R, width of dx, and mass of dM may be placed together.\nThese discs' radii R follow the height of the cross section of a sphere (with constant radius \"a\") which is an equation of a semi-circle :",
"-29.432214984088205"
],
[
"Juggling ring Juggling rings, or simply \"rings\", are a popular prop used by jugglers, usually in sets of three or more, or in combination with other props such as balls or clubs. The rings used by jugglers are typically about 30 centimetres (12 in) in diameter and 3 millimetres (0.12 in) thick.\nJuggling rings are easier to juggle than clubs, but harder than balls due to size and throwing mechanics. Because of rings' impressive appearance for their level of difficulty, they remain a popular juggling item. Use in juggling When juggled, rings are typically spun about their central axis. The resulting gyroscopic motion",
"-29.297672058979515"
],
[
"on the particles is the lift force. The researchers discovered not only that the rods experienced stable lift, but that, depending on refractive index, the rod could have up to two stable angles of attack it rotated to when exposed to the laser light. Symmetrical spheres tested did not exhibit this same lift effect.\nIn optical lift, created by a \"lightfoil\", the lift is created within the transparent object as light shines through it and is refracted by its inner surfaces. In the lightfoil rods a greater proportion of light leaves in a direction perpendicular to the beam and this",
"-29.25400137795077"
],
[
"Optical force The optical force is a phenomenon whereby beams of light can attract and repel each other. The force acts along an axis which is perpendicular to the light beams. Because of this, parallel beams can be induced to converge or diverge. The optical force works on a microscopic scale, and cannot currently be detected at larger scales. It was discovered by a team of Yale researchers led by electrical engineer Hong Tang.",
"-29.007882179226726"
],
[
"the ring.\nTension rings are also manufactured using other metals, particularly those that are naturally strong, such as titanium or stainless steel. These materials do not require special alloying or manufacturing processes for the creation of a tension ring. In these cases, a stone can be set as-cast with relative ease. These materials are usually used for \"fashion\" jewelry, and are set with small diamonds or semi-precious gems such as topaz or tourmaline. However, there is a growing group of artists using titanium to produce high value handmade tension rings Tension setting security debate There are conflicting perspectives regarding the",
"-28.939307982072933"
],
[
"games, spectroscopic analysis of the ring's composition proved \"inconclusive\", implying that the Halos are constructed of an unknown material (unobtainium). Were a Halo to be constructed using conventional materials a light steel alloy would be most feasible. Assuming that the ring structure is 50% empty space, a 5000 km ring composed of steel alloy at an average density of 7.7 grams (0.27 oz) per 1 cubic centimeter (0.061 cu in) would result in a total mass of 1.7x10¹⁷ kg. The amount of material required to build such a ring would be akin to the total material available in the asteroid belt. Installation 03 Installation",
"-28.923618551227264"
],
[
"part of the ring below the liquid surface.\nWhen the ring's thickness is much smaller than its diameter, this equation can be simplified to:\nwhere R is the average of the inner and outer radius of the ring.\nThis technique was proposed by the French physicist Pierre Lecomte du Noüy (1883–1947) in a paper published in 1925.\nThe measurement is performed with a force tensiometer, which typically uses an electrobalance to measure the excess force caused by the liquid being pulled up and automatically calculates and displays the surface tension corresponding to the force. Earlier, torsion wire balances were commonly used. The maximum force",
"-28.919612665951718"
],
[
"such as rings, triangles, or straight bars. It has several sizes of gears and shapes, and all edges have teeth to engage any other piece. For instance, smaller gears fit inside the larger rings, but also can engage the outside of the rings in such a fashion that they rotate around the inside or along the outside edge of the rings. Kenner also introduced Spirotot, Magnetic Spirograph, Spiroman, and various refill sets.\nTo use it, a sheet of paper is placed on a heavy cardboard backing, and one of the plastic pieces—known as a stator—is secured via pins or reusable adhesive",
"-28.781156659242697"
],
[
"the wheel and the ringer adds enough pull to counteract friction and air resistance. The bell winds the rope back onto the other side of the wheel as it rises and the ringer can slow (or check) the rise of the bell if required.\nThe rope is attached to one side of the wheel so that a different amount of rope is wound on and off as it swings to and fro. The first stroke is the handstroke with a small amount of rope on the wheel. The ringer pulls on the sally and when the bell swings",
"-28.724292382215936"
],
[
"rings. The maximum size of a ring particle is determined by the specific strength of the material it is made of, its density, and the tidal force at its altitude. The tidal force is proportional to the average density inside the radius of the ring, or to the mass of the planet divided by the radius of the ring cubed. It is also inversely proportional to the square of the orbital period of the ring.\nSometimes rings will have \"shepherd\" moons, small moons that orbit near the inner or outer edges of rings or within gaps in the rings. The gravity",
"-28.63750272881589"
],
[
"these dipole sources arrayed around the periphery, that most likely are radiating at the same frequency, but incoherently. The second is that blade motion creates a steady, but rotating, pressure field at each blade. The rotating steady force creates a rotating dipole field, which has an influence in the geometric near field. The feedback is class I (hydrodynamic), and there is no indication that stages other than stage 1 occur. Ring tone The word \"ring\" here refers to the shape and not to the bell sound. The flow from a circular orifice impinging on a toroidal ring of the same diameter as",
"-28.56437347010069"
],
[
"long, narrow wings which can twist under load, they are the surface most prone to oscillate. If the centre of gravity is behind the hinge, the surface can move like a pendulum and undergo forced simple harmonic motion with increasing amplitude.\nAdding balancing weights which make the centre of gravity and hinge line coincident solves the problem. These weights may be in the nose of the surface, or lighter masses attached further ahead of the hinge externally.",
"-28.560110462654848"
],
[
"and civil or military uses. Design principles Early balloons were simple round spheres, with a payload hung beneath. The round shape uses the minimum material to accommodate a given volume of lifting gas, making it the lightest construction. However, in any significant wind the round shape is aerodynamically unstable and will bob about, risking damage or the balloon breaking free.\nTo avoid this problem, the kite balloon was developed. This form has an elongated shape to reduce wind resistance and some form of tail surface to stabilize it so that it always points into the wind. Like the powered airship, such",
"-28.486839989287546"
],
[
"ball bearing in each pair of divots. When the rings are rotated relative to each other, the balls roll up the ramp faces of the conical divots, pushing apart the two rings. Self Energizing The Ausco-Lambert brake is self-energizing. It holds one ring rigidly and lets the other rotate freely, without a stop. The rotation direction is arranged so the direction of free rotation is the same as the hollow brake \"disc\". Thus, the disc tends to pull the ring in the direction that further applies the brake. A shallower cone angle increases the amount of self-energizing effect. Self-energizing brakes",
"-28.416844773106277"
],
[
"the ring is sufficiently large that it can adopt conformations devoid of any negative interactions.\nTransannular strain can also be demonstrated in other cyclo-organic molecules, such as lactones, lactams, ethers, cycloalkenes, and cycloalkynes. These compounds are not without significance, since they are particularly useful in the study of transannular strain. Furthermore, transannular interactions are not relegated to only conflicts between hydrogen atoms, but can also arise from larger, more complicated substituents interacting across a ring. Thermodynamics By definition, strain implies discomfiture, so it should follow that molecules with large amounts of transannular strain should have higher energies than those without. Cyclohexane,",
"-28.29322132776724"
],
[
"Ring spinning Ring spinning is a method of spinning fibres, such as cotton, flax or wool, to make a yarn. The ring frame developed from the throstle frame, which in its turn was a descendant of Arkwright's water frame. Ring spinning is a continuous process, unlike mule spinning which uses an intermittent action. In ring spinning, the roving is first attenuated by using drawing rollers, then spun and wound around a rotating spindle which in its turn is contained within an independently rotating ring flyer. Traditionally ring frames could only be used for the coarser counts, but they could be",
"-28.275763370387722"
],
[
"has been working on plans for a time machine. This technology would be based upon a ring laser's properties in the context of Einstein's general theory of relativity. Mallett first argued that the ring laser would produce a limited amount of frame-dragging which might be measured experimentally, saying:\n\"In Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, both matter and energy can create a gravitational field. This means that the energy of a light beam can produce a gravitational field. My current research considers both the weak and strong gravitational fields produced by a single continuously circulating unidirectional beam of light. In the weak",
"-28.17299883015221"
],
[
"Fraser Stoddart, created ring-shaped molecules called rotaxanes which could be placed on an axle connecting two sites, A and B. Particles from either site would bump into the ring and move it from end to end. If a large collection of these devices were placed in a system, half of the devices had the ring at site A and half at B, at any given moment in time.\nLeigh made a minor change to the axle so that if a light is shone on the device, the center of the axle will thicken, restricting the motion of the ring. It only",
"-28.117305626161397"
],
[
"He also reported that because the rings in the experiment were accelerated pneumatically, and not with high acceleration, the earlier reported results could not be discounted. His further research suggests the anomaly may indeed be coming from liquid helium in the setup.",
"-28.095748708583415"
],
[
"Hill, North Carolina, and later addressed in his private letter:\n\"Feynman’s gravitational wave detector: It is simply two beads sliding freely (but with a small amount of friction) on a rigid rod. As the wave passes over the rod, atomic forces hold the length of the rod fixed, but the proper distance between the two beads oscillates. Thus, the beads rub against the rod, dissipating heat.\"\nAs the gravitational waves are mainly transverse, the rod has to be oriented perpendicular to the propagation direction of the wave. Einstein's double reversal The creator of the theory of general relativity, Albert Einstein, argued in",
"-28.054142635897733"
],
[
"estimated based on the radial perturbations it induces on the ring.",
"-28.032706235710066"
],
[
"3-ring release from the late 1970s is now known as large 3-rings. A version using smaller rings (mini rings) was introduced in the 1980s. The reasons for the development of the mini ring system and the associated smaller risers were mostly aesthetic; the mini rings do not increase safety but actually reduce the mechanical advantage inherent in the system thereby increasing the pull force a jumper must apply to cut-away. Tandem systems still use rings that are even larger than the original rings, and some tandem rigs even use four rings (e.g., Advance Tandem by Basik). Other variations have placed",
"-27.98859195775003"
],
[
"manifesting massive power. Auxiliary Rings cannot be created and have an assortment of generally passive effects, ranging from slowing time to increasing experience gain. Assist Magic Rings grant helpful abilities, such as protection or healing. \"Magic Rings\" can be found throughout the island in chests and scattered in random places. These rings are used in creating Attack, Summon, and Assist Magic Rings.\nAttribution Rings are created seemingly at random based on the gems used. They cannot be made into other rings as is possible with Magic Rings and cannot be discarded.\nCreating rings is an important part of Eternal Ring as",
"-27.92758864496136"
],
[
"gyro.\n2. If the fourth mirror is suspended such that it can rotate around a horizontal axis, the appearance of \n is extremely sensitive to the mirror’s rotation. In a reasonable arrangement, an angular sensitivity of \n±3 picoradian or 0.6 microarcsecond is estimated. With a mass suspended on the rotatable mirror, a simple gravitational wave detector can be constructed. Lock-in and pulling These are new phenomena in rings. The lock-in frequency fL, is the frequency at which the difference between the beam frequencies becomes so small that it collapses, synchronizing the two counterrotating beams. Generally, if the theoretical frequency difference is",
"-27.92229420528747"
],
[
"point of contact changes, and the swinging motion of the legs remains critical in generating momentum. Halos are performed much higher off the ground than the typical windmill, but lower than the air track/air flare, described below, which has a similar motion but has the hands contacting the ground rather than the head. Air Track The Air Track is more extreme still, and they are considered a separate move. An Air Track is basically a halo/headtrack in midair. You use only your hands and you hop from hand to hand in somewhat of a circular motion. There is dispute",
"-27.81525617686566"
],
[
"Stacked rings Stacked rings have been a popular way of obtaining limited with-height reproduction. Spatial resolution will be weak close to the zenith and nadir, but these are somewhat rare positions for sound sources.\nRings are generally easier to rig than (hemi-)spherical setups because they do not require overhead trussing, speaker stands can be shared unless the rings are twisted, and entrances, fire escape routes etc. can be more easily accommodated for.\nDouble hexagons and octagons are the most common variations.\nSince the introduction of #H#V mixed-order schemes by Travis (2009), stacked rings can be operated at their full horizontal resolution even for",
"-27.770753864955623"
],
[
"Einstein ring History The bending of light by a gravitational body was predicted by Albert Einstein in 1912, a few years before the publication of general relativity in 1916 (Renn et al. 1997). The ring effect was first mentioned in the academic literature by Orest Khvolson in a short article in 1924, in which he mentioned the “halo effect” of gravitation when the source, lens, and observer are in near-perfect alignment. Einstein remarked upon this effect in 1936 in a paper prompted by a letter by a Czech engineer, R W Mandl , but stated\nOf course, there is no hope",
"-27.766339786467142"
],
[
"ring-shaped trap divided into two by two moveable weak barriers, with the two separate parts of the ring acting as the drain and the source, and the barriers acting as the gate. As the barriers move, atoms flow from the source to the drain. It is now possible to coherently guide matterwaves over distances of up to 40cm in ring-shaped atomtronic matterwave guides .",
"-27.744525548042475"
],
[
"pendulum, but by swinging through a larger arc approaching a full circle, control of the strike interval can be exercised by the ringer. This culminated in the technique of full circle ringing, which enabled ringers to independently change the speeds of their individual bells accurately to combine in ringing different mathematical permutations, known as \"changes\".\nSpeed control of a tower bell is exerted by the ringer only when each bell is mouth upwards and moving slowly near the balance point; this constraint and the intricate rope manipulation involved normally requires that each bell has its own ringer. \nThe tower bells involved",
"-27.687218300823588"
],
[
"of the ring allows it to keep the same orientation after it is thrown. This property is utilized by performers to achieve various visual effects. For example, a performer might intentionally juggle some rings with the broad side to the audience and some others with the edge to the audience.\nAs with balls and clubs, the most basic patterns of ring juggling are the cascade and fountain. In these patterns, the left and right hands alternate throwing rings at approximately the same height. Some ball and club tricks can also be performed with rings, but their unique shape and spinning abilities",
"-27.655622630030848"
],
[
"from a celestial body besides Earth. Einstein ring As electromagnetic rays are somewhat bent by gravitation, when they pass by a heavy mass they are bent. Thus, the heavy mass acts as a form of gravitational lens. If the light source, the diffracting mass and the observer stand in a line, one sees what is termed as an Einstein ring. Tidal variation Syzygy causes the bimonthly phenomena of spring and neap tides. At the new and full moon, the Sun and Moon are in syzygy. Their tidal forces act to reinforce each other, and the ocean both rises higher and",
"-27.647786974457176"
],
[
"to each end. Two 12-inch (300 mm) 348-pound (158 kg) lead balls were located near the smaller balls, about 9 inches (230 mm) away, and held in place with a separate suspension system. The experiment measured the faint gravitational attraction between the small balls and the larger ones.\nThe two large balls were positioned on alternate sides of the horizontal wooden arm of the balance. Their mutual attraction to the small balls caused the arm to rotate, twisting the wire supporting the arm. The arm stopped rotating when it reached an angle where the twisting force of the wire balanced the combined gravitational force",
"-27.59055624413304"
],
[
"a groove machined into it. Self-locking rings with no lug holes are impossible to remove without either destroying the ring or warping it out of specified tolerances. Constant section retaining rings Constant section retaining rings (snap rings) feature a uniform, constant section. In other words, the material used to make the ring is the same width at any point along the circumference of the ring. When they are contracted or expanded, they take on an elliptical deformation. As a result, they contact the groove at three or more isolated points but never continuously around the periphery. ",
"-27.564040003635455"
],
[
"again free and the ringer is comfortably gripping the rope some way up, usually along a soft woolen thickening called a sally.\nNormally there is one ringer per bell, due to the bell weights and rope manipulation involved. Location in the tower The bells are usually arranged in an upper room called a bell loft in such a way that their ropes fall into the room below, called the ringing chamber, in a circle. Clockwise circles are most common, but there are a few anticlockwise rings. Unlike the norm among most musicians, the bells are numbered downwards, progressing from the treble",
"-27.550045938551193"
],
[
"of three steel rings joined together by a single span of specially-designed red PVC membrane. The two rings are positioned vertically, at each end of the space, while a third is suspended parallel with the bridge. Wedged into place, the geometry generated by these three rigid steel structures determines the sculpture’s overall form, a shiftform vertical to horizontal and back to vertical again. Using digital form-finding techniques that simulate the forces found in biological forms – i.e. surface tension, uniform and hydrostatic pressure, the design was inspired by multiple parallel and diverging concepts and processes.\nThe sculpture's title refers to Marsyas,",
"-27.49118239013478"
],
[
"circle techniques. \nThe bell is attached to a headstock, historically made of wood but now more often steel. This has to withstand the dynamic force of the bell as it swings, up to three times its static weight. At each end of the headstock are protruding trunnions or bearing pins which are located in bearings attached to the frame. The frame itself is rigidly attached to the fabric of the tower.\nWithin the bell is a clapper which consists of a solid shaft, (wood, iron or steel) a clapper ball (wrought iron or steel) and a flight. The size of",
"-27.461636254447512"
],
[
"gravitational field due to spiral density waves in the stellar disc of the galaxy. Since supersonic motions almost always involve shock waves, these play a crucial role. The galaxy also contains a dynamically significant magnetic field which means that the dynamics is governed by the equations of compressible magnetohydrodynamics.\nIn many cases the electrical conductivity is large enough for the ideal magnetohydrodynamics to be a good approximation, but this is not true in star forming regions where the gas density is high and the degree of ionization is low.\nOne of the most interesting problems is that of star formation. It is",
"-27.4313617956941"
],
[
"arc, the slower the rate of striking. \nThe bells are mounted within a bellframe of steel or wood. Each bell is suspended from a headstock fitted on trunnions (plain or non-friction bearings) mounted to the belfry framework so that the bell assembly can rotate. When stationary in the down position, the centre of mass of the bell and clapper is appreciably below the centreline of the trunnion supports, giving a pendulous effect to the assembly, and this dynamic is controlled by the ringer's rope. The headstock is fitted with a wooden stay, which, in conjunction with a slider, limits",
"-27.355386711162282"
],
[
"gravitational wave detection included the invention of the rotating cruciform gravity gradiometer or 'Forward Mass Detector', for Lunar Mascon (mass concentration) measurements. The gravity gradiometer is described in the well-known textbook Gravitation by Misner, Thorne & Wheeler. The principle behind it is quite simple; getting the implementation right is tricky. Essentially, two beams are crossed over and connected with an axle through their crossing point. They are held at right angles to each other by springs. They have heavy masses at the ends of the beams, and the whole assembly spun around the common axle at high",
"-27.336342486785725"
],
[
"induces a small difference between the time it takes light to traverse the ring in the two directions according to the Sagnac effect. This introduces a tiny separation between the frequencies of the counter-propagating beams, a motion of the standing wave pattern within the ring, and thus a beat pattern when those two beams are interfered outside the ring. Therefore, the net shift of that interference pattern follows the rotation of the unit in the plane of the ring.\nRLGs, while more accurate than mechanical gyroscopes, suffer from an effect known as \"lock-in\" at very slow rotation rates. When the ring",
"-27.303528706892394"
],
[
"angles would cause the signals to disappear at some point and create a gap in the return. With targets near the centre this was quite easy to see as the ring would develop a gap, allowing measurements as accurate as about one degree. However, targets further from the centre displayed much shorter arcs, making it more difficult to see small changes in their length. IFF use Mk. VIII was designed to work with IFF Mk. III, a transponder system that listened for pulses between 160 MHz and 190 MHz and responded with longer pulses on a slightly different frequency. Since the magnetron",
"-27.28309656321653"
],
[
" \nTo find the gravitational field at point P due to a disc, an infinite number of infinitely thin rings facing point P, each with a radius y, width of dy, and mass of dM may be placed inside each other to form a disc. The mass of any of the rings dM is the mass of the disc multiplied by the ratio of the area of the ring 2*pi*y*dy to the total area of the disc pi*R^2. So, dM=M*2*y*dy/R^2\n \nAdding up the contribution",
"-27.15226757666096"
],
[
"for the bell to swing right up and be left over-centre just beyond the balance point with the stay resting against the slider.\nBellringers typically stand in a circle around the ringing chamber, each managing one rope. Bells and their attendant ropes are so mounted that the ropes are pulled in a circular sequence, usually clockwise, starting with the lightest (treble) bell and descending to the heaviest (tenor). To ring the bell, the ringer first pulls the sally towards the floor, upsetting the bell's balance and swinging it on its bearings. As the bell swings downwards the rope unwinds from",
"-27.102823976951186"
],
[
"solution. The innumerable small crystals hereby generated will then, upon illumination with light, cause halos corresponding to the particular crystal geometry and the orientation / alignment. Several recipes exist and continue to be discovered. Rings are a common outcome of such experiments. But also Parry arcs have been artificially produced in this way. Single axis The earliest experimental studies on halo phenomena have been attributed to Auguste Bravais in 1847. Bravais used an equilateral glass prism which he spun around its vertical axis. When illuminated by parallel white light, this produced an artificial Parhelic circle and many of the embedded",
"-27.083523553374107"
],
[
"of three or more elongate compression struts within a network of tension tendons, the combined parts mutually supportive in such a way that the struts do not touch one another, but press outwardly against nodal points in the tension network to form a firm, triangulated, prestressed, tension and compression unit. Symbolism Much has been said about the geometric shapes seen in Snelson's works. Looking up from the inside of Needle Tower one may see the Star of David. According to Snelson, his works are not symbolic and it's common to see six-pointed stars in his work. In Needle Tower the",
"-27.06027382891625"
],
[
"the influence of gravity on the geometry of space. Gravitational waves Predicted in 1916 by Albert Einstein, there are gravitational waves: ripples in the metric of spacetime that propagate at the speed of light. These are one of several analogies between weak-field gravity and electromagnetism in that, they are analogous to electromagnetic waves. On February 11, 2016, the Advanced LIGO team announced that they had directly detected gravitational waves from a pair of black holes merging.\nThe simplest type of such a wave can be visualized by its action on a ring of freely floating particles. A sine wave propagating through",
"-27.05909260304179"
],
[
"a large amount of counter-balancing, so there is little net gravitation pull and the bell accelerates slowly and rotates gracefully. The small out-of-balance weight makes it much easier than English bells to stop the bells mouth upwards. However, English full-circle ringing is capable of much better control of bell speed, as it is independent of the counter-balance effect. The Bolognese style of bell hanging does not have any counter-balancing. \nIn English full circle ringing \"Mini-rings\" are used to demonstrate how full-circle ringing on large bells works. These rings can be assembled quickly, but the bells are light and the ringing",
"-27.03446569496009"
],
[
"all of them are ball shaped, however, and many have chipping marks all over or at least in one place. These stone balls likely would have served as mobile grinding stones.\nStone rings have also been found at Nok Culture sites. They are normally found as fragments, but can be identified as rings because of their flat, oval or triangular cross-sections and their shapes. These stone rings are very rare and their purpose is unknown. Another rare find is stone beads, which are typically found as if strung on strings. Beads tend to be carefully made out of hard siliceous rock",
"-27.00720678257494"
],
[
"the overall pattern. Precision of striking is important at all times. To ring quickly, the bell must not complete the full 360 degrees before swinging back in the opposite direction; while ringing slowly, the ringer waits with the bell held at the balance, before allowing it to swing back. To achieve this, the ringer must work with the bell's momentum, applying just the right amount of effort during the pull that the bell swings as far as required and no further. This allows two adjacent bells to reverse positions, the quicker bell passing the slower bell to establish a new",
"-26.997646567586344"
],
[
"Torque effect The torque effect experienced in helicopters and single propeller-powered aircraft is an example of Isaac Newton's third law of motion that \"for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.\"\nIn helicopters, the result of the torque effect is a tendency of the main rotor to want to turn the fuselage in the opposite direction from the rotor. A small tail rotor is the most common configuration to counter the torque effect.\nIn a single-propeller plane, the result of the torque effect is a tendency of the plane to want to turn upwards and left in response to the",
"-26.96251178556122"
],
[
"will implode under its own attractive gravitational force. After several months wrestling with the problem, he proved that it was impossible for cylindrical magnetic field lines to implode.\nWhy is it that a cylindrical bundle of magnetic field lines will not implode, while spherical stars will implode under their own gravitational force? Thorne tried to explore the theoretical ridge between the two phenomena. He found out eventually that the gravitational force can overcome all interior pressure only when an object has been compressed in all directions. To express this realization, Thorne proposed his hoop conjecture, which describes an",
"-26.943885066604707"
],
[
"of the other corners by a piece of, most commonly, fishing line, leaving it free to vibrate, or hooked over the hand. It is usually struck with a metal beater, giving a high-pitched, ringing tone.\nAlthough today the shape is generally in the form of an equilateral triangle, early instruments were often formed as non-equilateral isosceles triangles. In the early days the triangles did not have an opening and had jingling rings along the lower side.\nEarly examples of triangles include ornamental work at the open end, often in a scroll pattern. Historically, the triangle has been manufactured from a solid",
"-26.88847885024734"
],
[
"an angle, which puts less force on the rider. Physics/Mechanics Most roller coaster loops are not circular in shape. A commonly used shape is the clothoid loop, which resembles an inverted tear drop and allows for less intense G-forces throughout the element for the rider. The use of this shape was pioneered in 1976 on The New Revolution at Six Flags Magic Mountain, by Werner Stengel of leading coaster engineering firm Ing.-Büro Stengel GmbH.\nOn the way up, from the bottom to the top of the loop, gravity is in opposition to the direction of the cars and will slow the",
"-26.827926756697707"
],
[
"it strikes the side of a stationary bell) and never by swinging the bell. For the Russian tradition a special complex system of ropes is used, designed individually for each belltower. All the ropes are gathered at approximately one point, where the bell-ringer (zvonar) stands. Some ropes (the smaller ones) are played by hand. The bigger ropes are played by foot. The major part of the ropes (usually - all ropes) are not actually pulled, but rather pressed. Since one end of every rope is fixed, and the ropes are kept in tension, a press or even a punch",
"-26.815513224166352"
],
[
"torsion balance and two much larger stationary lead balls (350 pounds). Cavendish intended to measure the force of gravitational attraction between the two. He noticed that Michell's apparatus would be sensitive to temperature differences and induced air currents, so he made modifications by isolating the apparatus in a separate room with external controls and telescopes for making observations.\nUsing this equipment, Cavendish calculated the attraction between the balls from the period of oscillation of the torsion balance, and then he used this value to calculate the density of the Earth. Cavendish found that the Earth's average density is 5.48 times greater",
"-26.77693583368091"
],
[
"rings and were developed from the Raschig ring. Pall rings have similar cylindrical dimensions but has rows of windows which increase performance by increasing the surface area. They are suited for low pressure drop and high capacity applications. They have a degree of randomness and a relatively high liquid hold up, promoting a high absorption, especially when the rate of reaction is slow. The cross structure of the Pall ring makes it mechanically robust and suitable for use in deep packed beds. Dixon rings Dixon rings have a similar design to Lessing rings. They are made of stainless steel mesh,",
"-26.7505518621183"
],
[
"a true tension setting, it looks like one to the casual observer. This is also a good option for a mass produced ring. History The first tension ring, called the „Niessing Spannring®\", was created in 1979 by the German company Niessing. However, the general concept of tension settings has been around for over 40 years as it was developed in the late 1960s by a Niessing employee named Friedrich Becker.\nThe original Niessing tension ring was constructed out of 18 karat gold (75% pure gold and 25% other alloying metals) and weighed 35 grams. The alloys in the 18 karat blend",
"-26.737703911145218"
],
[
"Ring Stones. Although such creatures can work magic without intermediary tools, they are usually more powerful when they do use such tools.",
"-26.71135343797505"
],
[
"discussing the “halo effect” of gravitation when the source, lens, and observer are in near-perfect alignment, now referred to as the Einstein ring.\nIn 1936, after some urging by Rudi W. Mandl, Einstein reluctantly published the short article \"Lens-Like Action of a Star By the Deviation of Light In the Gravitational Field\" in the journal Science.\nIn 1937, Fritz Zwicky first considered the case where the newly discovered galaxies (which were called 'nebulae' at the time) could act as both source and lens, and that, because of the mass and sizes involved, the effect was much more likely to be observed.\nIn 1963",
"-26.696986418915913"
],
[
"circle ringing the bells in a church tower are hung so that on each stroke the bell swings through a complete circle; actually a little more than 360 degrees. Between strokes, it briefly sits poised 'upside-down', with the mouth pointed upwards; pulling on a rope connected to a large diameter wheel attached to the bell swings it down and the assembly's own momentum propels the bell back up again on the other side of the swing. Each alternate pull or stroke is identified as either handstroke or backstroke - handstroke where the \"sally\" (the fluffy area covered with wool) is",
"-26.67311988014262"
],
[
"requires a centripetal force of the same size, but opposite in direction. See Figure 2. These two forces are provided by the string, putting the string under tension, also shown in Figure 2. Rotating frame Adopt a rotating frame at the midpoint of the string. Suppose the frame rotates at the same angular rate as the balls, so the balls appear stationary in this rotating frame. Because the balls are not moving, observers say they are at rest. If they now apply Newton's law of inertia, they would say no force acts on the balls, so the string should be",
"-26.61021728947526"
],
[
"was normally limited to bands around the ring or other simple patterns. Often the extra thickness at the terminal, necessary to prevent the pin just falling off, is achieved simply by turning back the ends of the ring. In the late Roman period in Britain in the 3rd and 4th centuries, a type of penannular brooch with zoomorphic decoration to the terminals appeared, with human or animal heads, still not much wider than the rest of the ring. Some examples had enamel decoration, and the pin did not extend much beyond the ring. These are found especially in",
"-26.581806768779643"
],
[
"slightly larger than the single mode in the slot. Thus the force is attractive: it tends to make a slightly smaller, the plates attracting each other across the thin slot. More recent theory Casimir's analysis of idealized metal plates was generalized to arbitrary dielectric and realistic metal plates by Lifshitz and his students. Using this approach, complications of the bounding surfaces, such as the modifications to the Casimir force due to finite conductivity, can be calculated numerically using the tabulated complex dielectric functions of the bounding materials. Lifshitz's theory for two metal plates reduces to Casimir's idealized 1/a⁴ force law",
"-26.540364153450355"
],
[
"Balloon artists are entertainers who twist and tie inflated tubular balloons into sculptures such as animals (see balloon modelling). The balloons used for sculpture are made of extra-stretchy rubber so that they can be twisted and tied without bursting. Since the pressure required to inflate a balloon is inversely proportional to the diameter of the balloon, these tiny tubular balloons are extremely hard to inflate initially. A pump is usually used to inflate these balloons.\nDecorators may use helium balloons to create balloon sculptures. Usually the round shape of the balloon restricts these to simple arches or walls, but on occasion",
"-26.52329348301282"
],
[
"Tension ring A tension ring is a type of finger ring that holds a gemstone in place by pressure rather than prongs, a bezel or other mounting. The metal setting is actually spring-loaded to exert pressure onto the gemstone, and tiny etchings or grooves in the metal create a shelf that supports the gemstone's edges. The gemstone appears to be suspended in the air with nothing holding it in place. Characteristics A major difference between tension settings and other settings is that tension settings are only manufactured after they are sold while other settings are often manufactured first",
"-26.509112135594478"
],
[
"backspin that can exceed 120,000 revolutions per minute. This is usually adjustable so that the effect can be tuned to suit the weight or speed of the projectile and each player's preference.\nThe primary cause of the lift is the Magnus effect. There is a layer of non-moving air (the boundary layer) on its surface. In the case of a spinning ball, this layer gets thrown off at an angle. Newton's laws state that in order for air to be thrown in one direction, the ball has to move in the opposite direction. According to the Magnus explanation, the rotating ball",
"-26.47897248819936"
],
[
"swings up it draws up more rope onto the wheel and the sally rises to, or beyond, the ceiling. The ringer keeps hold of the tail-end of the rope to control the bell. After a controlled pause with the bell, on or close to its balancing point, the ringer rings the backstroke by pulling the tail-end, causing the bell to swing back towards its starting position. As the sally rises, the ringer catches it to pause the bell at its balance position.\nEach time it is pulled, a bell's motion begins in the mouth-upwards position. As the ringer pulls",
"-26.476085096393945"
],
[
"catch upon the curtain rail and so would go smoothly around curves and corners.\nSuch rings may be used as improvisations in other ways. For example, they may be used as a wedding ring to solemnise a marriage ceremony; or as a ligature to prevent nocturnal enuresis (bedwetting). Other uses include hanging a hammer from one's belt or attaching one's gloves or canteen to one's sleeping bag while camping when not using a backpack.\nThe 1987 film Planes, Trains and Automobiles has a character played by John Candy who is a curtain ring salesman. His ability to sell the rings",
"-26.47348729969235"
],
[
"the calvaria. No other part of the body touches the ground except the hands which are briefly employed at the point when the forehead is facing down. They may protect the face, stabilize the rotation, or push off to gain momentum.\nHalos are often launched from windmills because the two share many similarities, plus the windmill is easier. Halos can be performed with the legs swinging relatively near the floor, or they can become more and more vertical until they approximate a headspin. However, there are distinct differences in that halos employ the hands for a part of the rotation, the",
"-26.453878661995986"
],
[
"Lasers for Research.\nIn the past it was thought that only small ring lasers avoid multimode excitation. However, if signal bandwidth is sacrificed, there is no known limit to ring laser size, either theoretically or experimentally.\nOne of the major advantages of large rings is a quartic reduction of lock-in and pulling in large rings. Practical rings Figure 2 shows a practical gas laser gyro of the type that is used in vehicles.\nRing lasers are sometimes modified to allow only one direction of propagation by placing a device into the ring which leads to different losses for different propagation directions. For instance,",
"-26.41108383750543"
],
[
"These elements circulated around the ring at the speed of light c, but at frequency ν = c/2πR, which depended inversely on the radius R. The ring's inertial energy increased when compressed, like a spring, and was also inversely proportional to its radius, and therefore proportional to its frequency ν. The theory claimed that the proportionality constant was Planck's constant h, the conserved angular momentum of the ring.\nAccording to the model, electrons or protons could be viewed as bundles of \"fibers\" or \"plasmoids\" with total charge ±e. The electrostatic repulsion force between charge elements of the same sign was balanced by the",
"-26.348119666567072"
],
[
"maximum rotational movement to a little less than 370 degrees. To the headstock a large wooden wheel is fitted and to which a rope is attached. The rope wraps and unwraps as the bell rotates backwards and forwards. This is full circle ringing and quite different from fixed or limited motion bells, which chime. Within the bell the clapper is constrained to swing in the direction that the bell swings. The clapper is a rigid steel or wrought iron bar with a large ball to strike the bell. The thickest part of the mouth of bell is",
"-26.28968893961428"
],
[
"Ring saw A ring saw is a form of bandsaw where the band is rigid, rather than flexible. This requires the band to be circular, rather than the bandsaw's usual oblong of straight runs between two (or three) guide wheels.\nRingsaw blades are abrasive rather than toothed. The brittleness of this abrasive coating, and the need to avoid flexure, is why they are made as rings rather than oval bands. As the ring is a circle of constant radius, the blade is not flexed or bent in operation. The blades themselves are not usually rigid and may be bent slightly in",
"-26.287946315183945"
],
[
"circle flange around the circumference. Precision is required to ensure that the welded sides are perfectly aligned, as any misalignment will cause inconsistent flange shape, compromising its integrity.\nA circle is then cut from the sheet using a die cutter. The circle is shaped in a stamping press to create a downward countersink to fit snugly into the can body. The result can be compared to an upside down and very flat top hat. The outer edge is then curled down and around about 140 degrees using rollers to create the end curl.\nThe result is a steel tube",
"-26.286688700783998"
],
[
"large balls in a way found in many others, but here the ends of the ring are formed as the paws of a lion or similar beast, without making a logical connection to the balls, and on the outside of the ring two tiny winged horses sit on finely worked plaques. The effect is impressive but somewhat incongruous compared to an equally ostentatious British torc from the Snettisham Hoard that is made 400 years later and uses a style that has matured and harmonized the elements making it up. The 1st century BC Gundestrup cauldron, is the largest surviving",
"-26.285221225902205"
],
[
"returns. It is the descendant of a device invented in 1779 by Samuel Crompton, and produces a softer, less twisted thread that is favored for fines and for weft.\nThe ring was a descendant of the Arkwright water frame of 1769 and creates yarn in a continuous process. The yarn is coarser, has a greater twist, and is stronger, making it more suitable for warp. Ring spinning is slow due to the distance the thread must pass around the ring. Similar methods have improved on this including flyer and bobbin and cap spinning.\nThe pre-industrial techniques of hand spinning with spindle or",
"-26.284423419449013"
],
[
"radiometer was originally attributed to light pressure, this interpretation is incorrect; the characteristic Crookes rotation is the result of a partial vacuum. This should not be confused with the Nichols radiometer, in which the (slight) motion caused by torque (though not enough for full rotation against friction) is directly caused by light pressure.\nAs a consequence of light pressure, Einstein in 1909 predicted the existence of \"radiation friction\" which would oppose the movement of matter. He wrote, \"radiation will exert pressure on both sides of the plate. The forces of pressure exerted on the two sides are equal if the plate",
"-26.274945906945504"
],
[
"with pressurized fluids and gases. Extension garter springs act against forces from the center, so they may be placed on the outside of a circular object to maintain the object's circular shape. They act similar to a bracelet, which is extended to fit around the hand and then snaps back into shape on the wrist. Extension garter springs are more common than compression garter springs because they use less material (smaller circumference and thinner wire) and they respond to changes quicker and more efficiently. Materials Carbon steel wire is typically used for garter springs due to its affordable price and",
"-26.249930047546513"
],
[
"television camera, using a feather and hammer to demonstrate Galileo's theory that all objects in a given gravity field fall at the same rate, regardless of mass, in the absence of aerodynamic drag. He dropped the hammer and feather at the same time; because of the negligible lunar atmosphere, there was no drag on the feather, which hit the ground at the same time as the hammer. This was Joe Allen's idea (he also served as CAPCOM during it) and was part of an effort to find a memorable popular science experiment to do on the Moon along the lines",
"-26.24684522289317"
],
[
"the amount of lift at the tips as they become flatter to the airflow, or \"wash out\". This causes the same nose-up force as the low-speed case, and at high speeds, the forces involved can be very high and lead to structural problems. Again, as the crescent wing's tips are closer to the center of pressure, these forces are reduced.\nAilerons, located at the wing tips, also create a large torque force when actuated. This can cause a problem known as aileron reversal, where the twisting motion of the entire wing causes the opposite force to be applied. This problem was",
"-26.209265556717583"
],
[
"a thin fiber. A mirror attached to the rod, or fiber, reflected light into a small telescope. Even tiny changes in the rotation of the rod would cause the light beam to be deflected, which would in turn cause a noticeable change when magnified by the telescope.\nAs seen from the Earth's frame of reference (or \"lab frame\", which is not an inertial frame of reference), the primary forces acting on the balanced masses are the string tension, gravity, and the centrifugal force due to the rotation of the Earth. Gravity is calculated by Newton's law of universal gravitation, which depends",
"-26.203140827594325"
],
[
"gravity moves up and down more than a rolling hexagon).\nA Reuleaux triangle (along with all other curves of constant width) can roll but makes a poor wheel because it does not roll about a fixed center of rotation. An object on top of rollers that have Reuleaux triangle cross-sections would roll smoothly and flatly, but an axle attached to Reuleaux triangle wheels would bounce up and down three times per revolution. This concept was used in a science fiction short story by Poul Anderson titled \"Three-Cornered Wheel\". A bicycle with floating axles and a frame supported by the rim of",
"-26.183841386751737"
],
[
"The force involved in twisting the torsion balance was very small, 1.74×10⁻⁷ N, about ¹⁄₅₀ ₀₀₀ ₀₀₀ of the weight of the small balls. To prevent air currents and temperature changes from interfering with the measurements, Cavendish placed the entire apparatus in a wooden box about 2 feet (0.61 m) thick, 10 feet (3.0 m) tall, and 10 feet (3.0 m) wide, all in a closed shed on his estate. Through two holes in the walls of the shed, Cavendish used telescopes to observe the movement of the torsion balance's horizontal rod. The motion of the rod was only about 0.16 inches (4.1 mm). Cavendish",
"-26.178815759834833"
],
[
"the centre of mass of the bell and clapper is appreciably below the centreline of the trunnion supports, giving a pendulous effect to the assembly, and this dynamic is controlled by the ringer's rope. The headstock is fitted with a wooden stay, which, in conjunction with a slider, limits maximum rotational movement to a little less than 370 degrees. To the headstock a large wooden wheel is fitted and to which a rope is attached. The rope wraps and unwraps as the bell rotates backwards and forwards. This is full circle ringing and quite different from fixed or limited motion",
"-26.176792733662296"
],
[
"of attraction between the large and small lead spheres. By measuring the angle of the rod and knowing the twisting force (torque) of the wire for a given angle, Cavendish was able to determine the force between the pairs of masses. Since the gravitational force of the Earth on the small ball could be measured directly by weighing it, the ratio of the two forces allowed the density of the Earth to be calculated, using Newton's law of gravitation.\nCavendish found that the Earth's density was 5.448±0.033 times that of water (due to a simple arithmetic error, found in 1821 by",
"-26.173249427461997"
]
] |
1ilr3c | How can a computer that's been unplugged for a long time still know the time and date? | [
"There's a battery on the motherboard. A little flat round one.",
"There's a small battery inside the computer. Just like a watch has a battery and keeps time. That battery lasts a really long time, just like a watch battery. So, it's kind of like there's a watch inside of a computer, because that battery powers a tiny clock. When the computer boots back up again it just reads that clock and bam, time and date. Non-5-yo-version: Battery powers a Real Time Clock (RTC), typically running at 32.768 kHz, which in turn is connected to a tiny register of a few tens or so of bits that just keep incrementing once per second for all of eternity (until they eventually overflow, many years later). When the computer wakes back up, it reads that register value, converts that number of seconds into a date and time, generally based of Midnight, Jan 1, 1970 + number of seconds in register = current time or something equivalent. The computer can also reprogram that timer if it updates a more accurate time from the internet (using NTP).",
"Within the computer is a small battery. That battery contains enough power to maintain the part of the computer (BIOS) that maintains the date and time.",
"Hi there, new to ELI5. Hoping not to be to much of a problem here: But, I was wondering as a follow up question, Does the CMOS battery recharge when plugged in? Or is it replaceable on the motherboard?",
"There is an internal watch battery that keeps the BIOS(where the system Time and settings are stored) up to date just like a watch. Except the battery lasts for years"
] | [
[
"systems keep track of the times that files are created, modified, and/or accessed by storing timestamps in the file control block (or inode) of each file and directory. History Most first-generation personal computers did not keep track of dates and times. These included systems that ran the CP/M operating system, as well as early models of the Apple II, the BBC Micro, and the Commodore PET, among others. Add-on peripheral boards that included real-time clock chips with on-board battery back-up were available for the IBM PC and XT, but the IBM AT was the first widely available PC that came",
"-31.60034533974249"
],
[
"below), directly encoding the Unix time number as described in the preceding section. Being 32 bits means that it covers a range of about 136 years in total. The minimum representable date is Friday 1901-12-13, and the maximum representable date is Tuesday 2038-01-19. One second after 03:14:07 UTC 2038-01-19 this representation will overflow. This milestone is anticipated with a mixture of amusement and dread—see year 2038 problem.\nIn some newer operating systems, time_t has been widened to 64 bits. This expands the times representable by approximately 293 billion years in both directions, which is over twenty times the present age of the",
"-31.427323884840007"
],
[
"not restart when the time is changed to that date.\nDespite the modern 18–24 month generational update in computer systems technology, embedded systems are designed to last the lifetime of the machine in which they are a component. It is conceivable that some of these systems may still be in use in 2038. It may be impractical or, in some cases, impossible to upgrade the software running these systems, ultimately requiring replacement if 32-bit time_t limitations are to be corrected.\nMySQL database's built-in functions like UNIX_TIMESTAMP() will return 0 after 03:14:07 UTC on 19 January 2038.\nEarly versions of Mac OS X versions",
"-30.8623679431621"
],
[
"using the C functions time, but later iterations use rand instead. According to the ANSI C standard, time returns a value of type time t, which is implementation defined, but most commonly a 32-bit integer containing the current number of seconds since January 1, 1970 (see: Unix time). There are about 31 million seconds in a year, so an attacker who knows the year (a simple matter in situations where frequent password changes are mandated by password policy) and the process ID that the password was generated with, faces a relatively small number, by cryptographic standards, of choices to test.",
"-30.684637184254825"
],
[
"data bases.\nMany computer programs stored years with only two decimal digits; for example, 1980 was stored as 80. Some such programs could not distinguish between the year 2000 and the year 1900. Other programs tried to represent the year 2000 as 19100. This could cause a complete failure and cause date comparisons to produce incorrect results. Some embedded systems, making use of similar date logic, were expected to fail and cause utilities and other crucial infrastructure to fail.\nSome warnings of what would happen if nothing was done were particularly dire:\nThe Y2K problem is the electronic equivalent of the El Niño",
"-30.02666134177707"
],
[
"Time Machine (macOS) Overview Time Machine creates incremental backups of files that can be restored at a later date. It allows the user to restore the whole system or specific files from the Recovery HD or the macOS Install DVD. It works within Mail, iWork, iLife, and several other compatible programs, making it possible to restore individual objects (e.g. emails, photos, contacts, calendar events) without leaving the application. According to an Apple support statement:\n“Time Machine is a backup utility, not an archival utility, it is not intended as offline storage. Time Machine captures the most recent state of your data",
"-29.743149699119385"
],
[
"This would cause the date to incorrectly roll over from 2100-02-28 to 2100-02-29, instead of directly to 2100-03-01. Year 2106 Many existing file formats, communications protocols, and application interfaces employ a variant of the Unix time_t date format, storing the number of seconds since the Unix Epoch (midnight UTC, 1 January 1970) as an unsigned 32-bit binary integer. This value will roll over on 7 February 2106. (This storage representation problem is independent of programs that internally store and operate on system times as 64-bit signed integer values.) Year 2108 The date timestamps stored in FAT filesystems, originally introduced with",
"-29.249824943311978"
],
[
"time as a signed long integer (on 32-bit systems a 32-bit integer) representing the number of seconds since 1 January 1970. During and after 2038, this number will exceed 2³¹ − 1, the largest number representable by a signed long integer on 32-bit systems, causing the Year 2038 problem (also known as the Unix Millennium bug or Y2K38). As a long integer in 64-bit systems uses 64 bits, the problem does not realistically exist on 64-bit systems that use the LP64 model. On 31 December 2000 or 1 January 2001 Some software did not correctly recognise 2000 as a leap year, and",
"-28.95449667616049"
],
[
"equipped with date/time hardware built into the motherboard. Prior to the widespread availability of computer networks, most personal computer systems that did track system time did so only with respect to local time and did not make allowances for different time zones.\nWith current technology, most modern computers keep track of local civil time, as do many other household and personal devices such as VCRs, DVRs, cable TV receivers, PDAs, pagers, cell phones, fax machines, telephone answering machines, cameras, camcorders, central air conditioners, and microwave ovens.\nMicrocontrollers operating within embedded systems (such as the Raspberry Pi, Arduino, and other similar systems) do",
"-28.89491803292185"
],
[
"large numbers. Instead, each number stored by a computer is allotted a fixed amount of space. Therefore, when the number of time units that have elapsed since a system's epoch exceeds the largest number that can fit in the space allotted to the time representation, the time representation overflows, and problems can occur. While a system's behavior after overflow occurs is not necessarily predictable, in most systems the number representing the time will reset to zero, and the computer system will think that the current time is the epoch time again.\nMost famously, older systems which counted time as the number",
"-28.873014493728988"
],
[
"years have the potential for similar problems. Year 30,828 Beginning 14 September 30,828, Windows will not accept dates beyond this day and on startup, Windows will complain about \"invalid system time\". This is because the FILETIME value in Windows, which is a 64-bit value corresponding to the number of 100-nanosecond intervals since 1 January 1601 UTC [sic], will overflow its maximum possible value on that day at 02:48:05.4775808 UTC. Years 32,768 and 65,536 Programs that process years as 16-bit values may encounter problems dealing with either the year 32,768 or 65,536, depending on whether the value is treated as",
"-28.846938024100382"
],
[
"file to show the date/time in the past when that file was created or modified on that remote computer, rather than the date/time when that file was copied to the local computer. Standardization ISO 8601 standardizes the representation of dates and times. These standard representations are often used to construct timestamp values.",
"-28.826667486486258"
],
[
"disks—is different from conventional UNIX operating systems. As a result, tools like rsync cannot be used to replicate a Time Machine volume; replication can only reliably be done by imaging the entire filesystem.\nApple system events record when each directory is modified on the hard drive. This means that instead of examining every file's modification date when it is activated, Time Machine only needs to scan the directories that changed for files to copy (the remainder being hard-linked). This differs from the approach taken by similar backup utilities rsync and FlyBack, which examine modification dates of all files during backup.\nTime Machine",
"-28.782917071075644"
],
[
"in compatibility issues related to Time Machine's system restoration functionality. Time Machine backups created by Apple computers purchased as recently as late 2012 cannot be used for system restoration on 2013 or 2014 models. However, the data from the backup can still be recovered by directly accessing the files from the Time Machine Volume.",
"-28.746033117247862"
],
[
"Time formatting and storage bugs In computer science, time formatting and storage bugs are a class of software bugs which may cause time and date calculation or display to be improperly handled. These are most commonly manifestations of arithmetic overflow, but can also be the result of other issues. The most well-known consequence of bugs of this type is the Y2K problem, but many other milestone dates or times exist that have caused or will cause problems depending on various programming deficiencies. Year 1970 During the 1960s, some computer programs were written using just a single digit for the year,",
"-28.66040055375197"
],
[
"displays a time with accuracy to either 0.01 or 0.001 seconds, depending on the version of the timer. Generation 3 and newer timers can resolve milliseconds (three decimal digits) while older timers only resolve to hundredths of a second (two decimal digits). \nThe StackMat timer is sometimes included with a mat that is made of neoprene, the same material commonly used in mouse pads. Some timers also glow in the dark. Others have a data port that allow it to be connected to an external display to allow for an audience to watch the timer in real time. \nIn competitions",
"-28.52111464657355"
],
[
"precise timing; the clock may have to be re-adjusted for pauses as the user stops typing (for instance).\nUnfortunately this sort of clock decoding does not work unless there are at least some transitions between 1 and 0 in the data; a long stream of 0s or 1s has no transitions in it, making it impossible to know where the data for any particular byte starts. In order to avoid this problem, additional framing bits are added to either end of every byte, typically one bit on either side known as the \"start and stop bits\". This guarantees at least one",
"-28.470038059575018"
],
[
"145,315 cells long, and takes 63 billion timesteps to replicate. A simulator running at 1,000 timesteps per second would take over 2 years to make the first copy. In 1995, when the first implementation was published, the authors had not seen their own machine replicate. However, in 2008, the hashlife algorithm was extended to support the 29-state and 32-state rulesets in Golly. On a modern desktop PC, replication now takes only a few minutes, although a significant amount of memory is required. Evolvability It has been argued that the problem Von Neumann was trying to address was not self-reproduction per",
"-28.408493230992462"
],
[
"code ambiguity. Very often dates are now recorded with 4 digit years (10/04/1972). Assuming that the use of a 4-digit year field would continue, even in the far future, this would change the time code ambiguity from 100 years to 10 000 years.",
"-28.380349086015485"
],
[
"the data in specific points of time, so we could know the information of each snapshot, but we can know nothing between them. Information in database backups is discrete in time.\nUsing the log trigger the information we can know is not discrete but continuous, we can know the exact state of the information in any point of time, only limited to the granularity of time provided with the DATETIME data type of the RDBMS used. Getting the current version of a table SELECT Column1, Column2, ..., Columnn\n FROM HistoryTable\n WHERE EndDate IS NULL\nIt should return the same resultset of",
"-28.34905418101698"
],
[
"the Gregorian calendar) must use specialized timekeeping libraries.\nFinally, some software must maintain compatibility with older software that does not keep time in strict accordance with traditional timekeeping systems. For example, Microsoft Excel observes the fictional date of 29 February 1900 in order to maintain bug compatibility with older versions of Lotus 1-2-3. Lotus 1-2-3 observed the date due to an error; by the time the error was discovered, it was too late to fix it—\"a change now would disrupt formulas which were written to accommodate this anomaly\".",
"-28.27975586487446"
],
[
"gathered together and aggregated into a file that has meaning to the user. Additionally, each time an electronic file is accessed, it is changed. This new information, such as a \"last saved\" date or the temporary files created by a software's autosave function, is also stored in new places on the disk. Digital records are more likely to have multiple versions over the course of their lifetime than physical records—more, even, than the creator may be aware of—which can make identifying original order difficult. \nBased upon case studies of digitized and born-digital records, Jane Zhang described several key findings about",
"-28.2260785868566"
],
[
"for Windows servers. Some of the legacy support can be re-enabled by using hand-tuned configuration options, accessed through the Terminal. Apple's Time Capsule acts as a network storage device specifically for Time Machine backups, allowing both wired and wireless backups to the Time Capsule's internal hard drive. Time Machine may also be used with any external or internal volume.\nTime Machine saves hourly backups for the past 24 hours, daily backups for the past month, and weekly backups for everything older than a month until the volume runs out of space. At that point, Time Machine deletes the oldest weekly backup.",
"-28.08554551124689"
],
[
"Computer Laboratory at AERE 1948–61, said it \"could be left unattended for long periods; I think the record was over one Christmas-New Year holiday when it was all by itself, with miles of input data on punched tape to keep it happy, for at least ten days and was still ticking away when we came back.\" It was the machine's untiring durability, rather than its speed, that was its main feature. Human mathematicians (a job role called a \"hand-computer\") could make calculations at a similar speed, but not continuously for the same lengths of time. Dr Howlett commented:\nOne day EB",
"-28.009950683190254"
],
[
"television or telephone service), in order to process computer forms using CICS software. Somewhat similar to this is the end-of-file code 9999, used in older programming languages. While fears arose that some programs might unexpectedly terminate on that date, the bug was more likely to confuse computer operators than machines. Leap years Normally, a year is a leap year if it is evenly divisible by four. A year divisible by 100, however, is not a leap year in the Gregorian calendar unless it is also divisible by 400. For example, 1600 was a leap year, but 1700, 1800 and 1900",
"-28.000459884875454"
],
[
"(157 years), and will not return to zero until near the year 2137. Year 2040 Early Apple Macintosh computers store time in their real-time clocks (RTCs) and HFS filesystems as an unsigned 32-bit number of seconds since 00:00:00 on 1 January 1904. After 06:28:15 on 6 February 2040, this will wrap around to 1904. HFS+, the default format for all of Apple's recent Macintosh computers, is also affected. The replacement Apple File System resolves this issue. Year 2042 On 18 September 2042, the Time of Day Clock (TODC) on the S/370 IBM mainframe and its successors, including the current zSeries,",
"-27.974691652227193"
],
[
"last few years of the decade. In 1989, Erik Naggum was instrumental in ensuring that internet mail used four digit representations of years by including a strong recommendation to this effect in the internet host requirements document RFC 1123.\nSaving space on stored dates persisted into the Unix era, with most systems representing dates to a single 32-bit word, typically representing dates as elapsed seconds from some fixed date, which causes the similar Y2K38 problem. 4 January 1975 This date overflowed the 12-bit field that had been used in the Decsystem 10 operating systems. There were numerous problems and crashes related",
"-27.898357318073977"
],
[
"time stamp values can vary by one second. Entering \"2016-12-31 23:59:60\" in a POSIX converter will fail and XML will reject such date as \"invalid time\". This may explain many flaws in time-critical systems that occur when exchanging time-stamped values.\nA number of organizations reported problems caused by flawed software following the June 30, 2012, leap second. Among the sites which reported problems were Reddit (Apache Cassandra), Mozilla (Hadoop), Qantas, and various sites running Linux.\nOlder versions of Motorola Oncore VP, UT, GT, and M12 GPS receivers had a software bug that would cause a single timestamp to be off by a",
"-27.8755339520867"
],
[
"firmware. However, the device runs a POSIX standard platform. The Time Capsule up to the fourth generation runs on the ARM port of operating system NetBSD 4.0, while the fifth generation model runs NetBSD 6. It is possible to securely connect to the device via SSH and run statically-linked binaries on it.\nOne of the key features of Time Capsule is the ability to back up a system and files wirelessly and automatically, eliminating the need to attach an external backup drive. This feature requires OS X 10.5.2 Leopard or greater on the client computers. The backup software is Apple's Time",
"-27.860419890726916"
],
[
"read errors can cause a timecode to be unreadable even if a single bit is misread. A bit that has become unreadable due to a scratch can make an entire 40 bit long time code permanently unreadable. Dust can have a similar effect on the time code. The time code implements very little error checking, an attribute strong in a number of other vinyl control systems.",
"-27.846038060448336"
],
[
"are vulnerable to roll-over or wrap-around effects if the values are not wide enough to allow the date values to span a large enough time range expected for the application. Signed 16-bit binary values roll over after 32,768 (2¹⁵) days from the epoch date, producing negative values. Some mainframe systems experienced software failures because they had encoded dates as the number of days since 1 January 1900, which produced unexpected negative day numbers on the roll-over date of 18 September 1989. Similarly, unsigned 16-bit binary days counts overflow after 65,536 (2¹⁶) days, which are truncated to zero values. For software",
"-27.772224184824154"
],
[
"and encrypting data. The \"non-event\" triggering these can be almost anything, such as failing to log in for 7 consecutive days, not responding to an automated e-mail, ping, a GPS-enabled telephone not moving for a period of time, or merely failing to type a code within a few minutes of a computer's boot. An example of a software-based dead man's switch is one which starts when the computer boots up and can encrypt or delete user-specified data if an unauthorized user should ever gain access to the protected computer. Google's Inactive Account Manager allows the account holder to nominate someone",
"-27.72178926190827"
],
[
"Systems that implement the 32-bit and 64-bit versions of the Windows API, such as Windows 9x and Windows NT, provide the system time as both SYSTEMTIME, represented as a year/month/day/hour/minute/second/milliseconds value, and FILETIME, represented as a count of the number of 100-nanosecond ticks since 1 January 1601 00:00:00 UT as reckoned in the proleptic Gregorian calendar.\nSystem time can be converted into calendar time, which is a form more suitable for human comprehension. For example, the Unix system time 1000000000 seconds since the beginning of the epoch translates into the calendar time 9 September 2001 01:46:40 UT. Library subroutines that handle",
"-27.687039747659583"
],
[
"Dead time For detection systems that record discrete events, such as particle and nuclear detectors, the dead time is the time after each event during which the system is not able to record another event.\nAn everyday life example of this is what happens when someone takes a photo using a flash - another picture cannot be taken immediately afterward because the flash needs a few seconds to recharge. In addition to lowering the detection efficiency, dead times can have other effects, such as creating possible exploits in quantum cryptography. Overview The total dead time of a detection system is usually",
"-27.665445938357152"
],
[
"up to 65,535 (2¹⁶−1) bytes of data to occur at the end of the file after the central directory. Also, because the central directory specifies the offset of each file in the archive with respect to the start, it is possible for the first file entry to start at an offset other than zero, although some tools, for example gzip, will not process archive files that do not start with a file entry at offset zero.\nThis allows arbitrary data to occur in the file both before and after the ZIP archive data, and for the archive to still be read",
"-27.633946713700425"
],
[
"findstr \"Time:\"System Up Time: 0 Days, 8 Hours, 7 Minutes, 19 Seconds\nThe exact text and format is dependent on the language and locale. The time given by systeminfo is not reliable. It does not take into account time spent in sleep or hibernation. Thus, the boot time will drifts forward every time the computer sleeps or hibernates. NET command The NET command with its STATISTICS sub-command provides the date and time the computer started, for both the NET STATISTICS WORKSTATION and NET STATISTICS SERVER variants. ",
"-27.62156801841047"
],
[
"Time code ambiguity In telecommunication, time code ambiguity is the shortest interval between successive repetitions of the same time code value.\nFor example, in a time code in which year-of-century (the '72' in 10/04/72) is the most slowly changing field, the time code ambiguity would be 100 years; it is ambiguous whether this value refers to a date in 1872, 1972 or some other century. For a digital clock in which hours and minutes up to a maximum of 11:59 are displayed, the time code ambiguity would be 12 hours.\nThe Year 2000 problem is an example of the pitfalls of time",
"-27.605800898047164"
],
[
"SMPTE timecode Discontinuous timecode, and flywheel processing Timecodes are generated as a continuous stream of sequential data values. In some applications wall-clock time is used, in others the time encoded is a notional time with more arbitrary reference. After making a series of recordings, or after crude editing, recorded timecodes may consist of discontinuous segments.\nIn general it is not possible to know the linear timecode (LTC) of the current frame until the frame has already gone by, by which time it is too late to make an edit. Practical systems watch the ascending sequence of the timecode, and infer the",
"-27.39419904386159"
],
[
"six years. Duplicate records must also be kept within the same time frame at an off-site location.",
"-27.389986043988756"
],
[
"not always have internal hardware to keep track of time. Many such controller systems operate without knowledge of the external time. Those that require such information typically initialize their base time upon rebooting by obtaining the current time from an external source, such as from a time server or external clock, or by prompting the user to manually enter the current time. Implementation The system clock is typically implemented as a programmable interval timer that periodically interrupts the CPU, which then starts executing a timer interrupt service routine. This routine typically adds one tick to the system clock (a simple",
"-27.36699513788335"
],
[
"while an alternative format was developed. Year 1989 Some mainframe programs were written to encode dates as the number of days since a 'zero date' of 1 January 1900, storing them as signed 16-bit binary integers. On 18 September 1989, these programs began to fail, the date being exactly 32,768 (2¹⁵) days since the zero date. Values on and after this day do not fit into a signed 16-bit integer, but overflow and return negative values. Year 1997 The Domain/OS clock, which is based on the number of 4-microsecond units that has occurred since 1 January 1980, rolled past 47",
"-27.347786407524836"
],
[
"used in operating systems and file formats. In Unix-like operating systems, date is a command which will print or set the current time; by default, it prints or sets the time in the system time zone, but with the -u flag, it prints or sets the time in UTC and, with the TZ environment variable set to refer to a particular time zone, prints or sets the time in that time zone. Definition Two layers of encoding make up Unix time. The first layer encodes a point in time as a scalar real number which represents the number of seconds",
"-27.303515216859523"
],
[
"time information attached to digital data. For example, computer files contain timestamps that tell when the file was last modified, and digital cameras add timestamps to the pictures they take, recording the date and time the picture was taken. Digital timestamps This data is usually presented in a consistent format, allowing for easy comparison of two different records and tracking progress over time; the practice of recording timestamps in a consistent manner along with the actual data is called timestamping. The sequential numbering of events is sometimes called timestamping.\nTimestamps are typically used for logging events or in a",
"-27.27749165345449"
],
[
"on your disk. As snapshots age, they are prioritized progressively lower compared to your more recent ones.”\nFor backups to a network drive, Time Machine allows the user to back up Mac computers over the network, and supports backing up to certain network attached storage devices or servers, depending on the version of Time Machine. Earlier versions worked with a wide variety of NAS servers, but later versions require the server to support a recent version of Apple’s Apple Filing Protocol (AFP), and Time Machine no longer works with servers using earlier versions of the Server Message Block (SMB) protocol typical",
"-27.134453769176616"
],
[
"NOT work (due to certain optimizations in the implementation). Instead there was a button on the console called Modify which when pressed together with the Check Reset button, when the computer was in Manual mode, would set the computer in a mode that would clear all of memory in a tenth of one second regardless of how much memory you had; when you pressed Start. It also stopped automatically when memory was cleared, instead of requiring the operator to stop it.\nOther than typing machine code at the console, a program could be loaded via either the paper tape reader, the",
"-27.083433243300533"
],
[
"timing and for generating unique IDs for events.\nWhile IBM has defined and implemented a longer (128-bit) hardware format on recent machines, which extends the timer on both ends by at least 8 additional bits, many programs continue to rely on the 64-bit format which remains as an accessible subset of the longer timer. Year 2048 The ATSC system will have an issue similar to the DVB issue described above after 2048 due to its use of signed 32-bit GPS seconds that begin from 6 January 1980.\nThe capacity planning logic in the ERP system SAP S/4HANA supports only finish dates up",
"-27.078768057574052"
],
[
"is reset to zero.\nConsider the language of timed-words over the binary alphabet such that each is followed by a in the next time unit. The timed automaton recognizing this language, pictured nearby, recalls whether there was a which was not followed by a or not. If it is not the case, it accepts the run, otherwise it rejects it. Furthermore, when there is such a , it has a clock which recall the time elapsed since the first such was emitted. In this case, a can not be emitted",
"-27.018204347376013"
],
[
"are planned - e.g. lunchtime breaks – enabling devices to be routinely switched off. Safety-related functions are protected. On restart, the system restarts devices in a switch-on sequence and checks that they all have started up correctly. The production process is then restarted.\nLonger pauses (typically hours or days) – These are similar to the above but additional devices can be put into standby or switched off completely, or deeper ‘sleep’ modes can be initiated.\nUnscheduled pauses (typically breakdowns) – These are also similar, but the user does not know when they will happen or the duration. Initially, devices are put into",
"-26.99159074817726"
],
[
"are subject to a problem called metastability, which can happen when two inputs, such as data and clock or clock and reset, are changing at about the same time. When the order is not clear, within appropriate timing constraints, the result is that the output may behave unpredictably, taking many times longer than normal to settle to one state or the other, or even oscillating several times before settling. Theoretically, the time to settle down is not bounded. In a computer system, this metastability can cause corruption of data or a program crash if the state is not stable",
"-26.976923728562724"
],
[
"option to stop the worm from shutting down a computer is to change the time and/or date on its clock to earlier; the shutdown time will move as far into the future as the clock was set back.",
"-26.950348304941144"
],
[
"contents are retained even when the memory system is powered down (non-volatile memory). However, when the core is read, it is reset to a \"zero\" value. Circuits in the computer memory system then restore the information in an immediate re-write cycle. How core memory works The most common form of core memory, X/Y line coincident-current, used for the main memory of a computer, consists of a large number of small toroidal ferrimagnetic ceramic ferrites (cores) held together in a grid structure (organized as a \"stack\" of layers called planes), with wires woven through the holes in the cores' centers. In",
"-26.945673797803465"
],
[
"that have passed since 00:00:00 UTC Thursday, 1 January 1970. The second layer encodes that number as a sequence of bits or decimal digits.\nAs is standard with UTC, this article labels days using the Gregorian calendar, and counts times within each day in hours, minutes, and seconds. Some of the examples also show International Atomic Time (TAI), another time scheme which uses the same seconds and is displayed in the same format as UTC, but in which every day is exactly 86400 seconds long, gradually losing synchronization with the Earth's rotation at a rate of roughly one second per year. Encoding",
"-26.920468566357158"
],
[
"usage for longer running time, taking time and memory. On a computer with an unlimited number of processors, this can be reduced to total time, while still taking only memory.\nIn addition, algorithms have been developed to compute efficiently through online smoothing such as the fixed-lag smoothing (FLS) algorithm Russell & Norvig 2010 Figure 15.6 pp. 580. Pseudocode Backward(guessState, sequenceIndex):\n if sequenceIndex is past the end of the sequence, return 1\n if (guessState, sequenceIndex) has been seen before, return saved result\n result = 0\n ",
"-26.867972324835137"
],
[
"Tuesday, 19 January 2038 (corresponding to 2,147,483,647 seconds since the start of the epoch). This means that systems using a 32-bit time_t type are susceptible to the Year 2038 problem.",
"-26.83679360269889"
],
[
"Year 2038 problem The Year 2038 problem relates to representing time in many digital systems as the number of seconds passed since 1 January 1970 and storing it as a signed 32-bit binary integer. Such implementations cannot encode times after 03:14:07 UTC on 19 January 2038. Just like the Y2K problem, the Year 2038 problem is caused by insufficient capacity of the chosen storage unit. Technical cause The latest time that can be represented in Unix's signed 32-bit integer time format is 03:14:07 on Tuesday, 19 January 2038 (2³¹-1 = 2,147,483,647 seconds after 1 January 1970). \nTimes beyond that, on",
"-26.836183325503953"
],
[
"data in one barcode. For example, a product serial number (application identifier code 21), production date (code 11), and expiration date (code 17) together would look something like this:\n[FNC1] 21 12345 [FNC1] 11 090101 17 100101\nAn additional FNC1 is required before the production date, because the preceding product serial number is variable length. This is not required before the expiration date, because the production date is fixed length. Reordering the components to place a variable-length field last produces a more compact form:\n[FNC1] 11 090101 17 100101 21 12345 Mapping to EPC codes As EPC and EAN respectively",
"-26.711269565334078"
],
[
"Its capacity is immeasurable. For example, given a random seven-digit number, one may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in short-term memory. On the other hand, one can remember telephone numbers for many years through repetition; this information is said to be stored in long-term memory.\nWhile short-term memory encodes information acoustically, long-term memory encodes it semantically: Baddeley (1966) discovered that, after 20 minutes, test subjects had the most difficulty recalling a collection of words that had similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great, huge) long-term. Another part of long-term memory is episodic memory, \"which",
"-26.685247027722653"
],
[
"ability to preserve and accurately reproduce executable content across time periods of many decades (and eventually centuries). This problem also has analogs in industry. For example, a NASA space probe to the edge of the solar system may take 30 years to reach its destination; software maintenance over such an extended period requires precise re-creation of the probe's onboard software environment. By encapsulating the entire software environment in a VM (including, optionally, a software emulator for now-obsolete hardware), Olive preserves and dynamically reproduces the precise execution behavior of software. The Olive prototype demonstrated reliable archiving of software dating back to",
"-26.682775600609602"
],
[
"time the notifying thread gives up occupancy until the notified thread is selected to re-enter the monitor. Between these times there could be activity by other occupants. Thus it is common for Pc to simply be true.\nFor this reason, it is usually necessary to enclose each wait operation in a loop like this\n while not( P ) do wait c\nwhere P is some condition stronger than Pc. The operations notify c and notify all c are treated as \"hints\" that P may be true for some waiting thread.\nEvery iteration of such a loop past the first represents a lost",
"-26.670940506854095"
],
[
"8 hours. After the expiration of the user-defined time span, the information in the DHT is overwritten, thereby eliminating the key. While both the user and recipient may have copies of the original encrypted message, the key used to turn it back into plain text is now gone.\nAlthough this particular instance of the data has become inaccessible, it's important to note that the information can always be saved by other means before expiration (copied, or even via screen shots) and published again.",
"-26.6523062090273"
],
[
"for the segments of a population that pass, for example, a check-in desk at an airport. And the fact that passports are often not issued on all days of the week and during all weeks of a year. Therefore, not all theoretically possible expiration dates may get used. In addition, the fact that real existing dates are used further limits the number of possible combinations: The month makes up two of the digits used for generating the key. Usually, two digits would mean 100 (00−99) combinations in decimal code or (36×36=1296) combinations in alphanumeric code. But as there are only",
"-26.640296824887628"
],
[
"is available. The time to read a record from a disk drive involves a seek time and a rotational delay. The seek time may be 0 to 20 or more milliseconds, and the rotational delay averages about half the rotation period. For a 7200 RPM drive, the rotation period is 8.33 milliseconds. For a drive such as the Seagate ST3500320NS, the track-to-track seek time is 0.8 milliseconds and the average reading seek time is 8.5 milliseconds. For simplicity, assume reading from disk takes about 10 milliseconds.\nNaively, then, the time to locate one record out of a million would take 20",
"-26.558809562106035"
],
[
"least significant bits of the corresponding GPS week number. Note that each frame is entirely within one GPS week because GPS frames do not cross GPS week boundaries. Since rollover occurs every 1,024 GPS weeks (approximately every 19.6 years; 1,024 is 2¹⁰), a receiver that computes current calendar dates needs to deduce the upper week number bits or obtain them from a different source. One possible method is for the receiver to save its current date in memory when shut down, and when powered on, assume that the newly decoded truncated week number corresponds to the period of 1,024 weeks",
"-26.556449857438565"
],
[
"access to the online account. The website that the user is logging into would be made aware of that device's serial number and would know the computation and correct time built into the device to verify that the number given is indeed one of the handful of six-digit numbers that works in that given 30-60 second cycle. After 30–60 seconds the device will present a new random six-digit number which can log into the website. Background Email messages are composed, delivered, and stored in a multiple step process, which starts with the message's composition. When the user finishes",
"-26.535887544509023"
],
[
"One-time pad In cryptography, the one-time pad (OTP) is an encryption technique that cannot be cracked, but requires the use of a one-time pre-shared key the same size as, or longer than, the message being sent. In this technique, a plaintext is paired with a random secret key (also referred to as a one-time pad). Then, each bit or character of the plaintext is encrypted by combining it with the corresponding bit or character from the pad using modular addition. If the key is (1) truly random, (2) at least as long as the plaintext, (3) never reused in whole",
"-26.521593898592982"
],
[
"and further changes require replacement of the device. Data is stored by physically altering (burning) storage sites in the device. Read-mostly devices An EPROM is an erasable ROM that can be changed more than once. However, writing new data to an EPROM requires a special programmer circuit. EPROMs have a quartz window that allows them to be erased with ultraviolet light, but the whole device is cleared at one time. A one-time programmable (OTP) device may be implemented using an EPROM chip without the quartz window; this is less costly to manufacture. An electrically erasable programmable read-only memory EEPROM uses",
"-26.515315471129725"
],
[
"User interface Time Machine's user interface when retrieving a file uses Apple's Core Animation API. Upon its launch, Time Machine \"floats\" the active Finder or application window from the user's desktop to a backdrop depicting the user's blurred desktop wallpaper. Behind the current active window are stacked windows, with each window representing a snapshot of how that folder or application looked on the given date and time in the past. When toggling through the previous snapshots, the stacked windows extend backwards, giving the impression of flying through a \"time tunnel.\" While paging through these \"windows from the past,\" a previous",
"-26.508062800276093"
],
[
"time machine also allows the viewing of past events and a prediction of the future based on player knowledge. The time machine works by letting players go to the time they wish to have the order executed; they then play the game as if it were in the present. When the set amount of time has passed, the order will be carried out, even if the player is not present. Developer Ron Carmel said that he implemented this feature based on previous experience playing \"Neptune's Pride\", which lacked this feature, leading to inconvenience. While most players can only schedule four",
"-26.48781938572938"
],
[
"the time that the time for sleep has finished; they are sometimes called training clocks.\nA clock mechanism may be used to control a device according to time, e.g. a central heating system, a VCR, or a time bomb (see: digital counter). Such mechanisms are usually called timers. Clock mechanisms are also used to drive devices such as solar trackers and astronomical telescopes, which have to turn at accurately controlled speeds to counteract the rotation of the Earth.\nMost digital computers depend on an internal signal at constant frequency to synchronize processing; this is referred to as a clock signal. (A few",
"-26.487759265321074"
],
[
"sequence of events (SOE), in which case each event in the log or SOE is marked with a timestamp.\nPractically all computer file systems store one or more timestamps in the per-file metadata.\nIn particular, most modern operating systems support the POSIX stat (system call), so each file has three timestamps associated with it:\ntime of last access (atime: ls -lu),\ntime of last modification (mtime: ls -l), and\ntime of last status change (ctime: ls -lc).\nSome file archivers and some version control software, when they copy a file from some remote computer to the local computer, adjust the timestamps of the local",
"-26.451810304341052"
],
[
"if held down for a few seconds. When the OS hangs, the reset button is no longer \"integrated with the power button\".\nMany early microcomputers sported a reset button or key, such as the Apple II, TRS-80, and Atari 8-bit. Commodore did not include one on their computers until the CBM-II line.\nThe original IBM PC had no hardware reset button and IBM did not include one on any of their personal computers until the early 1990s, however many clones began sporting them early on. All PC compatibles can be rebooted by pressing Ctrl+Alt+Del, which triggers the BIOS startup routines and re-initializes",
"-26.442792109039146"
],
[
"seconds. On multi core systems (and some linux versions) the second number is the sum of the idle time accumulated by each CPU. Using uptime BSD-based operating systems such as FreeBSD, Mac OS X and SySVr4 have the uptime command (See uptime(1) – FreeBSD General Commands Manual).\n$ uptime\n3:01AM up 69 days, 7:53, 0 users, load averages: 0.08, 0.07, 0.05 Using sysctl There is also a method of using sysctl to call the system's last boot time:\n$ sysctl kern.boottime\nkern.boottime: { sec = 1271934886, usec = 667779 } Thu Apr 22 12:14:46 2010 OpenVMS On OpenVMS systems, the show system command can",
"-26.399633215973154"
],
[
"however, it is essential to subsequently read the tenths register. Otherwise, all TOD registers will remain \"frozen.\"\nSetting the time involves writing the appropriate BCD values into the registers. A write access to the hours register will completely halt the clock. The clock will not start again until a value has been written into the tenths register. Owing to the order in which the registers appear in the system's memory map, a simple loop is all that is required to write the registers in the correct order. It is permissible to write to only the tenths",
"-26.392168912949273"
],
[
"on a standard computer before it is written to a ROM chip for use in the embedded systems. Digital preservation The lifespan of digital media is rarely great. While black-and-white photographs may survive for a century or more, many digital media can become unreadable after only 10 years. This is beginning to become a problem as early computer systems may be presently fifty or sixty years old while early home video consoles may be almost thirty years old. Due to this aging, there is a significant worry that many early computer and video games may not survive without being transferred",
"-26.364839111833135"
],
[
"ability to use chunking. In one testing session, an American cross-country runner was able to recall a string of 79 digits after hearing them only once by chunking them into different running times (e.g., the first four numbers were 1518, a three-mile time). Factors affecting It is very difficult to demonstrate the exact capacity of short-term memory (STM) because it will vary depending on the nature of the material to be recalled. There is currently no way of defining the basic unit of information to be stored in the STM store. It is also possible that STM is not the",
"-26.337983628953225"
],
[
"capable, but eventually relents when the Machine identifies the memory-wiping program within its own system and asks how it can learn if it is unable to accumulate memories over time.\nDuring season two, the Machine moves itself, piece by piece, to an unknown location or locations; during season four it is shown to have distributed itself to control boxes on utility poles throughout the United States.\nA firm believer in privacy rights, Finch originally designed the Machine as a complete \"black box\", providing only the Social Security Number of people involved with a lethal crime for subsequent human investigation. While this meant",
"-26.325117162021343"
],
[
"numbered. Dates are given as a rule. All entries are with a permanent writing tool, e.g., a ballpoint pen (though a permanent marker may be undesirable, as the ink might bleed through multiple pages). The lab notebook is usually written as the experiments progress, rather than at a later date. In many laboratories, it is the original place of record of data (no copying is carried out from other notes) as well as any observations or insights. For data recorded by other means (e.g., on a computer), the lab notebook will record that the data was obtained and the identification",
"-26.31057177542243"
],
[
"clock signal) occur. The ultimate reason the problem is manageable is that the probability of a metastable state persisting longer than a given time interval t is an exponentially declining function of t. In electronic devices, the probability of such an \"undecided\" state lasting longer than a matter of nanoseconds, while always possible, can be made negligibly low.",
"-26.284718476003036"
],
[
"Computer Misuse Act 1990 Implications for industry practices Although the Act ostensibly targets those who wish to gain unauthorised access to computer systems for various purposes, its implications on previously relatively widespread or well-known industry practices such as the \"time-locking\" of software have been described in various computing industry publications. Time-locking is the practice of disabling functionality or whole programs in order to ensure that software, potentially delivered on condition of further payment, will \"expire\" and thus no longer function. Latest situation Schedule 1 Part II of the Criminal Justice (Terrorism and Conspiracy) Act 1998 ('Conspiracy') amended Section 8 (relevance",
"-26.275165366823785"
],
[
"this compiler suite. The problem is simply stated as, \"Most intrinsics returning, or computing values based on, date information are prone to Year-10,000 (Y10K) problems, due to supporting only 4 digits for the year.\" The failure mode suggested in all of the intrinsic functions is that, \"Programs making use of this intrinsic might not be Year 10000 (Y10K) compliant. For example, the date might appear, to such programs, to wrap around (change from a larger value to a smaller one) as of the Year 10000.\"\nPython's datetime module explicitly only supports one- to four-digit dates. Using a date containing a",
"-26.20132945459045"
],
[
"time is the length of time elapsed until the return. It is exceedingly long, likely longer than the life of the universe, and depends sensitively on the geometry of the wall that was removed by the thermodynamic operation. The recurrence theorem may be perceived as apparently contradicting the second law of thermodynamics. More obviously, however, it is simply a microscopic model of thermodynamic equilibrium in an isolated system formed by removal of a wall between two systems. For a typical thermodynamical system, the recurrence time is so large (many many times longer than the lifetime of the universe) that, for",
"-26.198631895007566"
],
[
"not know the transmission times, then we have to ask each computer to tell us its transmission-time. But, the computers have their own selfish interests so they might not tell us the truth. For example, a computer might tell us that its transmission time is very large, so that we will not bother it with our messages.\nThe VCG mechanism can be used to solve this problem. Here, is the set of all possible paths; the goal is to select a path with minimal total cost.\nThe value of an agent, , is minus the time it spent on the",
"-26.146568279818894"
],
[
"in the use of computers, most software had not been tested to ensure correct behavior on an era change. Furthermore, testing was complicated by the fact that the new era name was not revealed until April 1, 2019. Therefore, errors were expected from software that did not anticipate a new era. Classic Mac OS The control panel in Classic Mac OS version 7 only allows the date to be set as high as December 31, 2019, although the system is able to continue to advance time beyond that date. Year 2031 Palm OS uses both signed integers with the 1970",
"-26.12693967903033"
],
[
"analyser), implemented with mechanical wheels and levers instead of typical electronics. The computer has 32 bits of accuracy, with each bit represented by a mechanical lever or pin that can be in one of two positions. This binary logic can only keep track of elapsed time, like a stopwatch; to convert from elapsed to local solar time (that is, time of day), a cam subtracts from (or adds to) the cam slider, which the adders move.\nAnother advantage of the digital computer over the gear train is that it is more evolvable. For instance, the ratio of day to years depends",
"-26.09583533689147"
],
[
"limit on the amount of time that can be spent playing games, selectable from values starting at 00:00 and increasing in 30-minute increments until 08:00, with one more option for 24:00 (essentially removing the limit). The final item, \"密码过期时间\" (password expiration date), allows a date to be set for the password and other settings to expire, allowing the console to be used normally.\nOn older firmware versions, the player can also start the iQue Club application from the main menu, which allows them to set a username, phone number, date of birth, gender and address. Online services The iQue Player has",
"-26.07719383087897"
],
[
"next 0.4 seconds.\nThis algorithm cannot be implemented in a general purpose operating system because it is impossible to compute reliably how long it will be before a page is going to be used, except when all software that will run on a system is either known beforehand and is amenable to static analysis of its memory reference patterns, or only a class of applications allowing run-time analysis. Despite this limitation, algorithms exist that can offer near-optimal performance — the operating system keeps track of all pages referenced by the program, and it uses those data to decide which pages to",
"-26.076748250168748"
],
[
"computer codes and word-length is changed. The heterogeneous system is often not technically or economically feasible. In this system, a user at one location may be able to read but not update the data at another location.",
"-26.058195176243316"
],
[
"was designed to circumvent the trust warning that will appear in the case of an expired certificate. In effect, time-stamping extends the code trust beyond the validity period of a certificate. \nIn the event that a certificate has to be revoked due to a compromise, a specific date and time of the compromising event will become part of the revocation record. In this case, time-stamping helps establish whether the code was signed before or after the certificate was compromised. Code-Signing in Xcode Developers need to sign their iOS and tvOS apps before running them on any real device and",
"-26.050973093770153"
],
[
"1970, the Unix time epoch. It also includes transitions such as daylight saving time, and also records leap seconds.\nThe database, as well as some reference source code, is in the public domain. New editions of the database and code are published as changes warrant, usually several times per year. File formats The tz database is published as a set of text files which list the rules and zone transitions in a human-readable format. For use, these text files are compiled into a set of platform-independent binary files—one per time zone. The reference source code includes such a compiler",
"-26.03944724658504"
],
[
"question, and the number of days is all that is significant to Unix time.\nThe meaning of Unix time values below +63072000 (i.e., prior to 1 January 1972) is not precisely defined. The basis of such Unix times is best understood to be an unspecified approximation of UTC. Computers of that era rarely had clocks set sufficiently accurately to provide meaningful sub-second timestamps in any case. Unix time is not a suitable way to represent times prior to 1972 in applications requiring sub-second precision; such applications must, at least, define which form of UT or GMT they use.\nAs of 2009, the",
"-26.019509998965077"
],
[
"3-Apr-1975, 26-Aug-1994).\nPerson(John Doe, Bigtown, 26-Aug-1994, 1-Apr-2001). Using Two Axes : Valid Time and Transaction time Transaction time records the time period during which a database entry is accepted as correct. This enables queries that show the state of the database at a given time. Transaction time periods can only occur in the past or up to the current time. In a transaction time table, records are never deleted. Only new records can be inserted, and existing ones updated by setting their transaction end time to show that they are no longer current.\nTo enable transaction time in the example above, two",
"-25.991078782682962"
],
[
"later or earlier year results in a ValueError being raised.\nPHP's DateTime class can handle five-digit years, except for parsing date strings with e.g. new DateTime(...). Problems with data representation Unlike the Year 2000 problem, where significant digits were omitted from the stored values of years, fixing the Year 10,000 problem does not require updating old records (assuming they are already Y2K-compliant), since all four significant digits are present. It only requires that record storage in decimal be able to store five or more digits.\nThere is, however, a potential problem with record sets that make use of lexical sorting. For example,",
"-25.98029024458083"
],
[
"86-DOS 0.42 in 1981 and carried over into MS-DOS, PC DOS, DR-DOS etc., will overflow at the end of 2107-12-31. The last modification date stamp (and with DELWATCH 2.0+ also the file deletion date stamp, and since DOS 7.0+ optionally also the last access date stamp and creation date stamp), are stored in the directory entry with the year represented as an unsigned seven bit number (0–127), relative to 1980, and thereby unable to indicate any dates in the year 2108 and beyond. The API functions defined to retrieve these dates officially only support dates up to 2099-12-31.\nThis will also",
"-25.973656177586236"
],
[
"serial number. In banknote printing the unique serial number provides effective means for the monitoring and verification of the production volume.\nAnother method of protection is to create trap numbers within the serial number range. For example, the system may automatically invalidate numbers which are in a range of 200-300 (e.g. 210, 205 would be invalid). The system may even take single random numbers within a block (e.g. ending in 51, 37, 48 within a 200-300 range would be invalid). Anti-copying marks In the late twentieth century advances in computer and photocopy technology made it possible for people without sophisticated training",
"-25.970347205991857"
],
[
"need its access time updated once. In Windows, this is addressed by waiting for up to an hour to flush updated access dates to the disk.\nSome systems also provide options to disable access time updating altogether. In Windows, starting with Vista, file access time updating is disabled by default. Metadata issues As with all file system metadata, user expectations about MAC times can be violated by programs which are not metadata-aware. Some file-copying utilities will explicitly set MAC times of the new copy to match those of the original file, while programs that simply create a new file, read the",
"-25.95464145691949"
],
[
"the new data in a new location and update the logical mapping to point to the new physical location. The data in the old location is no longer valid, and will need to be erased before the location can be written again.\nFlash memory can be programmed and erased only a limited number of times. This is often referred to as the maximum number of program/erase cycles (P/E cycles) it can sustain over the life of the flash memory. Single-level cell (SLC) flash, designed for higher performance and longer endurance, can typically operate between 50,000 and 100,000 cycles. As of 2011, multi-level cell",
"-25.923388588620583"
],
[
"memory rehearsal) quickly suggests that its contents spontaneously decay over time. The decay assumption is part of many theories of short-term memory, the most notable one being Baddeley's model of working memory. The decay assumption is usually paired with the idea of rapid covert rehearsal: In order to overcome the limitation of short-term memory, and retain information for longer, information must be periodically repeated or rehearsed—either by articulating it out loud or by mentally simulating such articulation. In this way, the information is likely to re-enter the short-term store and be retained for a further period.\nSeveral researchers; however, dispute",
"-25.905783665453782"
],
[
"may not become valid until a number of machine cycles have elapsed following the write. The programmer could call an operating system delay function, but doing so may consume more time than would be expended in spinning for a few clock cycles waiting for the device to return its status.",
"-25.898861849389505"
],
[
"computers, and the files on it can be managed by another OS such as Windows.\nThe hard drive typically found in a Time Capsule is the Hitachi Deskstar, which is sold by Hitachi as a consumer-grade product—the Hitachi Ultrastar is the enterprise version. Apple labeled the drive as a server-grade drive in promotional material for Time Capsule, and also used this type of drive in its discontinued Xserve servers. Apple states that the Hitachi Deskstar meets or exceeds the 1 million hours mean time between failures (MTBF) recommendation for server-grade hard drives.\nThe 500 GB, first generation Time Capsule shipped with a Seagate",
"-25.879995509778382"
],
[
"clock and the last recorded year (stored on the system disk).\nThe 100 nanosecond granularity implemented within OpenVMS and the 63-bit absolute time representation (the sign bit indicates absolute time when clear and relative time when set) should allow OpenVMS trouble-free time computations up to 31-JUL-31086 02:48:05.47. At this instant, all clocks and time-keeping operations in OpenVMS will suddenly fail, since the counter will overflow and start from zero again.\nThough the native OpenVMS time format can range far into the future, applications based on the C runtime library will likely encounter timekeeping problems beyond January 19, 2038 due to the",
"-25.86951669002883"
]
] |
lm3is | How Credit Scores Are Determined | [
"The short answer is only the credit bureaus know exactly, but there's a few things that everyone knows play a role: *Length of credit history - longer is better *Payment history - no reported late payments, no reported defaults/delinquencies *Amount of available credit and ratio of used/unused credit - large amounts of available credit with a low usage ratio is best *Number of open lines - more are better, as long as they are paid on time",
"Is it really bad that I use 75% of my available credit line each month? I pay that shit off in full, but should I start using my debit more often?",
"Slightly offtopic, but I've always wondered what my credit score was but I am :raisedeyebrow: at all the credit score websites. What's the BEST way to go about checking, or shouldn't I unless I need to (does checking hurt your credit rating?)",
"Just a clarifying thing, but the actual range of credit score is 300-850. Please disregard if you are outside the U.S.",
"I work in a semi-related field, so I think I can answer this decently. There are these three places that keep track of everyone's ability to pay their bills on time. They are called [credit bureaus]( URL_0 ). In the US, they are called Equifax, Transunion and Experian. There are more, but these are the biggest three. Whenever you make a payment on time on your student loan, car loan, credit card, etc, that payment is reported to at least one of those bureaus. Each bureau will assign you a score based on how well you're doing. When you apply for a new credit card, the bank will ask those bureaus how good you are at paying your bills so they can decide if they want to take the chance that you'll pay them back. If your score is good, say 750, they will give you a credit card with a lower interest rate and a higher credit limit, because you have proven yourself to be trustworthy. However, if you've been late on payments to other banks or you've decided to no longer pay your debts, the credit bureaus will lower your score. Anything below 600 is considered very bad. If you apply for a credit card with a score in the low 600s or lower, they will approve you with a higher interest rate and a lower credit limit, because they are taking a risk by lending to you. They may even decide you're too risky to lend to, and decline you. There are ways to recover from a really low credit score, but it generally takes a lot of time. There are a lot of bad people out there who try to tell people with low scores that they can help, but they're really just trying to scam you. Generally, if you resume making regular payments on your debts, your score will start to slowly rise. If you get a credit card and pay the balance in full each month, that is also a good way to raise your credit score. There's obviously more too it, but it's explain like I'm five, so hopefully that helps."
] | [
[
"of the credit bureau must be provided. United States In the United States, a credit score is a number based on a statistical analysis of a person's credit files, that in theory represents the creditworthiness of that person, which is the likelihood that people will pay their bills. A credit score is primarily based on credit report information, typically from one of the three major credit bureaus: Experian, TransUnion, and Equifax. Income and employment history (or lack thereof) are not considered by the major credit bureaus when calculating credit scores.\nThere are different methods of calculating credit scores. FICO scores,",
"-33.89765479294874"
],
[
"reviewing a credit report, the credit score is considered. The credit score is an indicator of how well a borrower manages debt. Using a mathematical model, the data regarding each item on the credit report is used to produce a number between 350 and 850, known as the credit score. Higher scores represent those with less risk. When lenders refer to a representative credit score, they are referring to the median score. When multiple borrowers are involved typically the borrower with lowest median score is the one that is considered the representative credit score. ",
"-32.09835528608528"
],
[
"a timely and efficient manner. To address this issue, credit scoring was adopted. A benefit of scoring was that it made credit available to more consumers and at less cost.\nCredit scoring is the process of using a proprietary mathematical algorithm to create a numerical value that describes an applicant's overall creditworthiness. Scores, frequently based on numbers (ranging from 300–850 for consumers in the United States), statistically analyze a credit history, in comparison to other debtors, and gauge the magnitude of financial risk. Since lending money to a person or company is a risk, credit scoring offers a standardized way for",
"-31.679037856134528"
],
[
"the most widely used type of credit score, is a credit score developed by FICO, previously known as Fair Isaac Corporation. As of 2018, there are currently 29 different versions of FICO scores in use in the United States. Some of these versions are \"industry specific\" scores, that is, scores produced for particular market segments, including automotive lending and bankcard (credit card) lending. Industry-specific FICO scores produced for automotive lending are formulated differently than FICO scores produced for bankcard lending. Nearly every consumer will have different FICO scores depending upon which type of FICO score is ordered by a",
"-31.166488852672046"
],
[
"Credit scorecards Credit scorecards are mathematical models which attempt to provide a quantitative estimate of the probability that a customer will display a defined behavior (e.g. loan default, bankruptcy or a lower level of delinquency) with respect to their current or proposed credit position with a lender. Scorecards are built and optimized to evaluate the credit file of a homogeneous population (e.g. files with delinquencies, files that are very young, files that have very little information). Most empirically derived credit scoring systems have between 10 and 20 variables. Application scores tend to be dominated by credit bureau data which",
"-31.10754377936246"
],
[
"be used as data in their identity score. Credit scores Credit scores are compiled from information sources relating to credit, such as number of credit accounts held, balances on each account, dates of collection activity, and so on. Credit scores do not measure any financial or personal activity that is not related to credit, and identity fraud that does not involve credit will not appear on your credit report or affect your credit score. Credit scores and the credit scoring system are also very predictable—there are specific steps you follow to improve your credit score, dispute errors in credit reports,",
"-30.98610940601793"
],
[
"scores - one for individual consumer called Personal Credit score and another for businesses called Business Credit Score or Commercial Credit Score. The CRIF Credit score range is from 300-900, where a score close to 300 is considered to be poor while 900 is the best possible score. A score of over 700 is generally considered good. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has mandated credit bureaus in India to give a full credit report free of charge to each customer every year. A consumer can check its own credit score free once in a year from CRIF High Mark's",
"-30.447526943353296"
],
[
"range of 350 to 850. Educational credit scores A number of scores have been developed to help consumers understand and improve their credit score. Most were introduced before FICO began sharing details of their model and encouraging lenders to share scores with consumers. While these scores can help consumers monitor and improve their score, these scores do not replicate the FICO score and may be substantially less accurate if they use less complete data. They also assign different score ranges and rankings to consumers, which has created confusion among consumers who expect to have a single score number. Discussions on",
"-30.214644151466928"
],
[
"Credit score Australia In Australia, credit scoring is widely accepted as the primary method of assessing creditworthiness. Credit scoring is used not only to determine whether credit should be approved to an applicant, but for credit scoring in the setting of credit limits on credit or store cards, in behavioral modelling such as collections scoring, and also in the pre-approval of additional credit to a company's existing client base.\nAlthough logistic (or non-linear) probability modelling is still the most popular means by which to develop scorecards, various other methods offer powerful alternatives, including MARS, CART, CHAID, and random forests.\nPrior to March",
"-29.682665160482884"
],
[
"typically amounts to over 80% of the predictive power from closer to 60% in the late 1980s for UK scorecards. Indeed there has been an increasing trend to minimize applicant or non-verifiable variables from scorecards which has increased the contribution of the credit bureau data.\nCredit scoring typically uses observations or data from clients who defaulted on their loans plus observations on a large number of clients who have not defaulted. Statistically, estimation techniques such as logistic regression or probit are used to create estimates of the probability of default for observations based on this historical data. This model",
"-29.308490550636975"
],
[
"might be difficult to score. These scores may be added to the FICO score if they provide unique insights or used instead of the FICO score if they provide similar predictiveness. Most of these scores are based significantly on data not available through the national credit bureaus (alternative data), such as rental, utility, and telecom payment data or public record information such as property deeds and mortgages, liens, personal property titles, tax records, and licensing data.\nThe Credit Optics Score by SageStream blends traditional and alternative credit data with machine learning modeling techniques and ranges from 1 to 999. LexisNexis RiskView",
"-29.022488555408927"
],
[
"such as Credit Pass at G.C.E O/L or A/L Examination. The Credit rating gives a measure of the time expected to be spent on studying the course. At the OUSL, one credit is about 45 hours of study time. The time specified for a course involved, including reading and understanding course material, face-to-face sessions, continuous assessments, final examinations, consultation of reference materials, practical classes, etc.\nThe credit rating of a programme increases progressively, with Certificates usually being 36 credits, a Diploma 90 credits and Undergraduate Degrees comprising 150 0r 177 credits, depending on whether degree is a three or four-year",
"-28.40848700881179"
],
[
"\"default within the next 12 months\". The score given to a customer is usually a three or four digit integer, and in most cases is proportional to the natural logarithm of the odds (or logit) of the customer becoming \"bad\". In general, a low score indicates a low quality (a high chance of going \"bad\") and a high score indicates the opposite.\nOther scorecard types may include behavioural scorecards - which try to predict the probability of an existing account turning \"bad\"; propensity scorecards - which try to predict the probability that a customer would accept another product if offered one;",
"-28.229616342578083"
],
[
"be used, including data from an application form, from credit reference agencies or from products the customer already holds with the lender.\nThe most widespread type of scorecard in use is the application scorecard, which lenders employ when a customer applies for a new credit product. The scorecard tries to predict the probability that the customer, if given the product, would become \"bad\" within a given timeframe, incurring losses for the lender. The exact definition of what constitutes \"bad\" varies across different lenders, product types and target markets, however, examples may be \"missing three payments within the next 18 months\" or",
"-27.85973704488424"
],
[
"the experts at MyFico.com, credit scores are enhanced by having multiple credit cards, the use of credit cards, and having installment loans. However, financially secure individuals who do not use multiple credit cards and/or self-finance installment type expenses may be inaccurately assessed a lower credit score. Use in employment decisions Experian, Equifax, TransUnion and their trade association (the Consumer Data Industry Association or \"CDIA\") have all gone on record saying that employers do not receive credit scores on the credit reports sold for the purposes of employment screening. The use of credit reports for employment screening is allowed in all",
"-27.756668610236375"
],
[
"considered and finishing at the end node. Score card This is a statistical model that applies a numerical score to an object, such as a customer or an account. The same attributes are applied when calculating this score for each item.\n\nAn example of this is a Credit scorecards. Events If a specific change in state occurs then a message is emitted causing an event to occur. Example At a bank some customers are not allowed to become overdrawn and some are. A customer who has tried to take out a loan is refused by the system because their credit rating",
"-27.714337861132663"
],
[
"been seen as a discriminatory practice. Credit companies measure credit objectively, by looking at pertinent info like the number of accounts held, length of credit, ability to pay borrowed money back, punctuality of payment. They do not consider race, gender, class etc., However, some see said measures as ways to create inequity and reward consumers who belong to the higher class. In the 2009 National Financial Capability Study , 56% of the people surveyed with incomes above $75,000 had obtained a credit report, while 18% of those with incomes below $25,000 had not. This gap has been used as a",
"-26.939042166952277"
],
[
"score is also used as a factor in deciding such things as an overdraft or credit card limit. Lenders are generally happier to extend a larger limit to higher scoring customers than to lower scoring customers, because they are more likely to pay borrowings back.\nAlongside scorecards lie policy rules which apply regulatory requirements (such as making sure there is no lending to under 18s) and other lending policy (such as many lenders will not lend to customers who have a CCJ registered against them).\nCredit Strategy is also concerned with the ongoing management of a customer's account, especially with revolving credit",
"-26.86129934861674"
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[
"future. It is thought that the FICO score will remain the dominant score, but it will likely be used in conjunction with other alternative credit scores that offer other pictures of risk.\nUsage of credit histories in employment screenings has increased from 19% in 1996 to 42% in 2006. However, credit reports for employment screening purposes do not include credit scores.\nAmericans are entitled to one free credit report in every 12-month period from each of the three credit bureaus, but are not entitled to receive a free credit score. The three credit bureaus run Annualcreditreport.com, where users can get their",
"-26.714211219688877"
],
[
"to build up and usually it takes between 18 and 36 months or more of credit usage to obtain a satisfactory credit score. Norway In Norway, credit scoring services are provided by three credit scoring agencies: Dun & Bradstreet, Experian and Lindorff Decision. Credit scoring is based on publicly available information such as demographic data, tax returns, taxable income and any Betalingsanmerkning (non-payment records) that might be registered on the credit-scored individual. Upon being scored, an individual will receive a notice (written or by e-mail) from the scoring agency stating who performed the credit score as well as any information",
"-26.5595677717356"
],
[
"provided in the score. In addition, many credit institutions use custom scorecards based on any number of parameters. Credit scores range between 300 and 999. South Africa Credit scoring is used throughout the credit industry in South Africa, with the likes of banks, micro-lenders, clothing retailers, furniture retailers, specialized lenders and insurers all using credit scores. Currently all four retail credit bureau offer credit bureau scores. The data stored by the credit bureaus include both positive and negative data, increasing the predictive power of the individual scores. TransUnion (formerly ITC) offer the Empirica Score which is, as",
"-26.464429125961033"
],
[
"can be used to predict probability of default for new clients using the same observation characteristics (e.g. age, income, house owner). The default probabilities are then scaled to a \"credit score.\" This score ranks clients by riskiness without explicitly identifying their probability of default.\nThere are a number of credit scoring techniques such as: hazard rate modeling, reduced form credit models, weight of evidence models, linear or logistic regression. The primary differences involve the assumptions required about the explanatory variables and the ability to model continuous versus binary outcomes. Some of these techniques are superior to others in directly",
"-26.43885331317506"
],
[
"free credit reports. Credit scores are available as an add-on feature of the report for a fee. If the consumer disputes an item on a credit report obtained using the free system, under the Fair Credit Reporting Act (FCRA), the credit bureaus have 45 days to investigate, rather than 30 days for reports obtained otherwise.\nAlternatively, consumers wishing to obtain their credit scores can in some cases purchase them separately from the credit bureaus or can purchase their FICO score directly from FICO. Credit scores (including FICO scores) are also made available free by subscription to one of the many credit",
"-26.42946274043061"
],
[
"score, based on wide-ranging public records, ranges from 501 to 900. CoreLogic Credco reports on property related public records and its Anthem Credit Score ranges from 325 to 850. PRBC allows consumers to self-enroll and report their own non-debt payment history. The PRBC alternative credit score range is 100 to 850. There are also scores like ChexSystems designed for financial account verification services ranging from 100 to 899. The L2C (Link2Credit) score by L2C, Inc. ranges from 300 to 850. Scorelogix LLC offers the JSS Credit Score, which assesses credit risk based on job history, income, and the impact of",
"-26.38006494563888"
],
[
"and thus contributes differently towards the overall score: the \"General Average\" (Taken from the French Moyenne Générale). This weight is determined by the credit hours. For instance math (6hours/week) x 20 (the base grade) = 120 (weight)\nExample: Sample grades: (Maths 13.33/20, English 13.4/20, Biology 8.25/20)\nEnglish: 5 credits × 13.4 = 67 out of possible 100\nMath: 6 credits × 13.33 = 79.98 out of possible 120\nBiology: 2 credits × 8.25 = 16.5 out of possible 40\nTotal points earned = 163.48 out of possible 260\nGeneral Average / Moyenne Générale 12.575\n(Considered a good average, a B+ if not A- US Equivalent since",
"-26.228149304191902"
],
[
"statistical technique used is logistic regression to predict a binary outcome: bad debt or no bad debt. Some banks also build regression models that predict the amount of bad debt a customer may incur. Typically this is much harder to predict, and most banks focus only on the binary outcome.\nCredit scoring is closely regulated only by the Financial Conduct Authority when used for the purposes of the Advanced approach to Capital Adequacy under Basel II regulations.\nCredit scoring is closely regulated in the UK, with the industry regulator being the Information Commissioner's Office (ICO). Consumers can also send complaints to",
"-26.109169601597387"
],
[
"2009, TransUnion representatives testified before the Connecticut legislature about their practice of marketing credit score reports to employers for use in the hiring process. Legislators in at least twelve states introduced bills, and three states have passed laws, to limit the use of credit check during the hiring process. Criticism Credit scores are widely used because they are inexpensive and largely reliable, but they do have their failings. Credit scores are used as a judgment to allow or deny consumers the opportunity to take out loans, buy houses and cars and open credit cards. This practice of credit scoring has",
"-25.972952968757454"
],
[
"be a very precisely defined credit event, to make sure there can be no disagreement on whether the event has occurred or not..\nTypically the benchmark LIBOR is the three-month rate.",
"-25.950038343231427"
],
[
"college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Mifflin County High School 34.94% of students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam.\nIn 2013, Mifflin County School District provided 4 AP courses with just 13.86% achieving a",
"-25.737251641752664"
],
[
"the discipline's credits and is:\n and . CA (\"Coeficiente Acadêmico\", or Academic Coefficient) It is similar to the CR, however, if a student takes the same discipline multiple times, only the one with the higher grade will be accounted. It is calculated using the following formula:\nWhere is the number of different disciplines taken by the student, is the number of credits on that discipline is the greatest grade on that discipline. is:\n and . Ik (\"Coeficiente de Afinidade\", or Affinity Coefficient) It combines the , the and the number of periods a student has studied",
"-25.60343842466682"
],
[
"the assessment of student performance. Method of computation Typically, participation in extra credit can only improve one's grade. Points might be added to an existing activity, for example, if the student correctly answers a more difficult portion of a test that would be required to meet the objectives of a unit. Optional activities may also add points or marks used in overall grade computation. This may, for example, increase the numerator of the fraction used in computing an overall percentage, while leaving the denominator unchanged. This can lead to grade percentages that exceed 100% unless the policy used for grade",
"-25.49759018694749"
],
[
"times per week or more, and which are assigned a full credit, are used in determining rank. All members of the class are included in the rank list. Quality point values are A=4, B=3, C=2, D=1, F=0 in Regular courses; Q.P. values are A=4.5, B=3.5, C=2.5, D=1, F=0 in Honors courses; Q.P. values are A=5, B=4, C=3, D=1, F=0 in Advanced Placement courses. College matriculation Based on participation of the Senior Survey, 57% of the seniors reported they plan to attend a four year college or university, 24% plan to attend a two year college and 7% plan to attend",
"-25.270445611673495"
],
[
"column shows total owed, their sum being equal to the credit limit.\nEach check written, debit card transaction, cash withdrawal, and credit card charge is entered manually into the paper register daily or several times per week. Credit card register also refers to one transaction record for each credit card. In this case the booklets readily enable the location of a card's current available credit when ten or more cards are in use. Features As well as convenient credit, credit cards offer consumers an easy way to track expenses, which is necessary for both monitoring personal expenditures and the tracking of",
"-25.031998768383346"
],
[
"number of degrees on the Bonus/Malus scale on the anniversary of the contract. Generally, one degree corresponds to a 5% discount or surcharge. The starting class may depend on the driver's age, sex, place of residence, the car's horsepower. Each country has a different legislation, which rules how many degrees an insurer may increase or decrease, the maximum bonus or malus allowed and which statistics insurers can use to evaluate the starting class of a driver.\nA BMS usually has an effect on road safety statistics, as it stimulates drivers to be careful and avoid accidents that would lead to the",
"-24.998207500844728"
],
[
"Credit analyst Education Credit analysts often hold a bachelor's degree in finance, accounting, business administration or economics. Some companies may require a Credit Business Associate certification from the National Association of Credit Management(NACM). Employment In May 2015, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reported 70,840 people employed as credit analysts. The salary for this position ranged from $40,250 to $134,080 with a mean average wage of $79,720. Professional Organizations Credit analysts in the United States can obtain memberships, continuing education and certification through NACM. Certification levels include Credit Business Associate, Certified Credit and Risk Analyst, Credit Business Fellow, Certified Credit",
"-24.965698082669405"
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[
"the right to receive a free copy of all data held by credit bureaus once a year. Wrong or unlawfully collected data must be deleted or corrected. Brazil Credit scoring is relatively new in Brazil. Previously, credit reporting was done as a blacklist and each lender used to assess potential borrowers on their own criteria. Nowadays, the system of credit reports and scores in Brazil is very similar to that in the United States.\nA credit score is a number based on a statistical analysis of a person's credit information, which represents the creditworthiness of that person. It is the most",
"-24.91830459816265"
],
[
"of the month. The article stated that under the original grading scale, the minimum scores required to earn an A, B, C, D, or F, were, respectively, 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, and 0%. Under the new 5-point grading scale, the minimum scores required to earn an A, B, C, D, or F would be changed, respectively, to 4.0, 3.0, 2.0, 1.0, and 0. Ontario James Côté and Anton L. Allahar, both professors of sociology at the University of Western Ontario conducted a rigorous empirical study of grade inflation in Canada, particularly of the province of Ontario. Up until the",
"-24.897226823210076"
],
[
"scored by computer, with a correct answer receiving 1 point, with omitted and incorrect answers not affecting the raw score. This total is multiplied by 1.2 to calculate the adjusted multiple-choice score.\nThe free response section is hand-graded by hundreds of educators each June. The raw score is then added to the adjusted multiple choice score to receive a composite score. This total is compared to a composite-score scale for that year's exam and converted into an AP score of 1 to 5.\nFor the Calculus BC exam, an AB sub-score is included in the score report to reflect their proficiency in",
"-24.885398006124888"
],
[
"the exam, may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. Connellsville Area Senior High School awards credits towards graduation to students who pass the school's AP class. At Connellsville Area Senior High School 28.8% of the students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam given by the College",
"-24.884699739774078"
],
[
"assessment, whereby students may earn college credit through assessment of prior learning from their work and life experiences.\nThe college offers flexible programs, including distance education, extensive transfers of credits from other universities, prior-learning assessment for knowledge gained through independent studies, standardized evaluations, and the opportunity to design one's own degree with an academic advisor or mentor.",
"-24.721870354464045"
],
[
"of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Central Valley High School 11% of students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam.",
"-24.69788275990868"
],
[
"taken is at. That average is then multiplied by the number of credits a student earned and then divided by the total number of possible credits for the course. This result is the student's weighted GPA. This process is repeated for each class and then the sum of all class GPAs are averaged to result in an overall GPA. It is possible to get over a 4.0 GPA once weighting of the student's final grade has occurred. Track & field The indoor track team has won 3 straight Indoor Track State Championships, along with 11 straight Hockomock League Championships in",
"-24.59127351854113"
],
[
"its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education institutions award credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also award credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class.\nIn 2014, Halifx Area High School offered 2 Advanced Placement (AP) courses. Thirty seven percent of the Halifax Area pupils who took the exam after the calls scored a 3 or better. SAT Scores In 2014, Halifax Area School District students took the SAT exams. The District's",
"-24.581070959946373"
],
[
"Beneish M-Score The Beneish model is a statistical model that uses financial ratios calculated with accounting data of a specific company in order to check if it is likely (high probability) that the reported earnings of the company have been manipulated. How to calculate The Beneish M-Score is calculated using 8 financial ratios. Formula M-Score = −4.84 + 0.92 × DSRI + 0.528 × GMI + 0.404 × AQI + 0.892 × SGI + 0.115 × DEPI −0.172 × SGAI + 4.679 × TATA − 0.327 × LVGI How to interpret If M-Score is less than -2.22 - the company",
"-24.552456409055594"
],
[
"Other loan programs may consider the person that earns the most money, also known as the primary wage earner, that has the representative credit score. On many loan programs there are minimum score guidelines.\nThe most influential aspect of the credit report is quality of the credit on a person's current housing. For an example, if the borrower already has a mortgage, whether or not the borrower has paid that mortgage on time is indicative of how well they will pay in the future. This also holds true with people that rent. A lender will typically analyze",
"-24.527894075843506"
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[
"student pays the fee for the exam which was $89 per test per pupil in 2012. Students have the option of taking College Board approved courses and then taking the College Board's examination in the Spring. Students, who achieve a 3 or better on the exam, may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of",
"-24.470001562935067"
],
[
"regardless of whether the student got a merit minus or straight merit, they will be rewarded with merit level credits for the assessment. The minority of schools using other secondary school qualifications (usually CIE or IB) have different grades. Grading at tertiary institutions generally centers around a letter scale, with a corresponding nine-point GPA scale (C−=1, A+=9).",
"-24.469235486201796"
],
[
"may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Southern Columbia High School, less than 10 of the students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam. Wellness policy Southern Columbia Area School Board established",
"-24.400193424429744"
],
[
"pays the fee for the exam which was $89 per test per pupil in 2012. Students have the option of taking College Board approved courses and then taking the College Board's examination in the Spring. Students, who achieve a 3 or better on the exam, may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3.",
"-24.390383953767014"
],
[
"may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At United Junior Senior High School, just 12% of the students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam in 2014 making them eligible for college credits.",
"-24.36751356619061"
],
[
"fee for the exam which was $89 per test per pupil in 2012. Students, who achieve a 3 or better on the exam, may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Bloomsburg Area High School 63% of students",
"-24.359450040443335"
],
[
"surveyed: \n A. One of my favorites. B. Very Good C. Good D. Fair E. Poor F. Never heard of\nThe positive Q Score is calculated by counting how many respondents answered A divided by the number of respondents answering A-E, and calculating the percentage. (that is, multiplying the fraction by 100). Put another way, \nSimilarly, the negative Q Score is calculated by calculating the percentage of respondents who answered D or E relative to respondents who answered A to E.\nOther companies have created alternative measures and metrics related to the likability, popularity, and appeal of athletes, brands, celebrities, entertainment offerings,",
"-24.32885733200237"
],
[
"completion of certain relevant exams. Through this awarding of academic credit by examination, significant portions of a degree or even an entire degree can be completed by examination. In the USA, depending on the college or university, credit may be given for such examinations as the Advanced Placement (AP), International Baccalaureate (IB), College Level Examination Program (CLEP), Advanced International Certificate of Education or A-levels, DANTES or DSST, UExcel exams of Excelsior College, Excelsior College Examination (ECE) Program, Charter Oak State College (COSC) Examination, Thomas Edison College Examination Program (TECEP), Ohio University End-of-Course (EOC) Examinations, New York University (NYU) Language Exams,",
"-24.301785263145575"
],
[
" the exam, may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At New Oxford Senior High School less than 10 of the students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam. In 2016, New Oxford",
"-24.298172905388128"
],
[
"data (ranked data): the MiniTab online documentation gives an example. However, this document notes: \"When you have ordinal ratings, such as defect severity ratings on a scale of 1–5, Kendall's coefficients, which account for ordering, are usually more appropriate statistics to determine association than kappa alone.\" Data See table to the right.\nN = 10, n = 14, k = 5\nSum of all cells = 140\n\nSum of Pᵢ = 3.780 Tests of Significance Statistical packages can calculate a standard score (Z-score) for Cohen's kappa or Fleiss's Kappa, which can be converted into a P-value. However, even when the P value",
"-24.295416803099215"
],
[
"individuals’ student-loan applications to their subsequent tax returns, making it possible to compare pupils’ qualifications and demographic characteristics when they entered college with their salaries ten years later. That information offers the potential to disentangle student merit from university contributions, and thus to determine which colleges deliver the greatest return and why. The scorecard, makes reference numbers for 'expected earnings' easy accessible and in order to calculate 'median earnings' evaluation method used to run the scorecard’s earnings data through a multiple regression analysis, a common method of measuring the relationships between variables.\nThe Economist U.S. Colleges Rankings 2015",
"-24.278375554757076"
],
[
"good using statistical designs from numerical ratings that have no psychological theory to explain what the rating scale numbers mean. Deciding on what attributes and levels fully describe the good or service A good or service, for instance mobile (cell) phone, is typically described by a number of attributes (features). Phones are often described by shape, size, memory, brand, etc. The attributes to be varied in the DCE must be all those that are of interest to respondents. Omitting key attributes typically causes respondents to make inferences (guesses) about those missing from the DCE, leading to omitted variable problems. The",
"-24.270393784390762"
],
[
"a 3 or better on the exam may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded based on AP scores. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Fairfield Area High School just 27% of the students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam. Classrooms for the Future grant The Classroom",
"-24.26445741977659"
],
[
"of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Kane Area High School 23.94% of students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam. Special education In December 2012, Kane Area School District administration reported that 181 pupils or 14.9% of the district's pupils received Special Education services, with 40.9% of the identified students having a",
"-24.250828139367513"
],
[
"These marks are then used to determine an overall Grade Point Average (GPA) from 1.0 to 4.0, which is calculated using a formula. The average GPA is 3.3 at private institutions, and 3.0 at public ones. \nOver the past hundred years, various colleges, such as Evergreen State College and Hampshire College have begun to eschew grades. Ivy League university Brown University does not calculate grade-point averages, and all classes can be taken on a pass/fail basis. Additionally, several high schools have decided to forgo grades. A notable example is Saint Ann's School in Brooklyn, which was ranked by the Wall",
"-24.217752762167947"
],
[
"exam, may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Greater Johnstown High School 5% of students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam. Special education In December 2014, the district administration reported that",
"-24.208585735188535"
],
[
"top 50 female players.\nRating changes can be calculated manually by using the FIDE ratings change calculator. All top players have a K-factor of 10, which means that the maximum ratings change from a single game is a little less than 10 points. Theory Pairwise comparisons form the basis of the Elo rating methodology. Elo made references to the papers of Good, David, Trawinski and David, and Buhlman and Huber. Mathematical issues There are three main mathematical concerns relating to the original work of Elo, namely the correct curve, the correct K-factor, and the provisional period crude calculations. Most accurate distribution",
"-24.189088730461663"
],
[
"negative predictions by the number of positive and negative samples, respectively, and divides their sum into two. This is equivalent to the following formula:\nRegarding the previous example (95 negative and 5 positive samples), classifying all as negative gives 0.5 balanced accuracy score out of the maximum bACC one, which is equivalent to the expected value of a random guess of a balanced data. Balanced Accuracy is suggested to use to measure how accurate is the overall performance of a model is, considering both positive and negative classes without worrying about the imbalance of a data set. Since most of",
"-24.185691853941535"
],
[
"credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At West Greene High School 7% of students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam. Former schools Springhill-Freeport Elementary School and Graysville Elementary School were closed in December 2015",
"-24.171456527081318"
],
[
"may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Mahanoy Area High School 6% of the students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam. Gifted education Mahanoy Area School District Administration reported that",
"-24.130172726872843"
],
[
"Identity score An identity score is a system for detecting identity theft. Identity scores are increasingly being adopted as a means to prevent fraud in business and as a tool to verify and correct public records.\nIdentity scores incorporate a broad set of consumer data that gauges a person's legitimacy. Identity score components can include (but are not limited to) personal identifiers, public records, Internet data, government records, corporate data, predicted behavior patterns based on empirical data, self-assessed behavior patterns, and credit records. Business and consumer identity scores Identity scoring was originally developed for use by financial services firms, to",
"-24.12140617305704"
],
[
"while retaining ETS to design and score the tests. The exams were given nationally for the first time in May, 1956, and students could take whichever tests they wanted for a single $10 fee. In the United States and Elsewhere Some colleges and universities in the U.S. grant credits or advanced placement based on AP test scores; those in over twenty other countries do likewise. Policies vary by institution, but institutions that award credit usually require a score of 3 or higher on any given exam for credit to be granted or course prerequisites to be waived (and according to",
"-24.09364565150463"
],
[
"credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Bedford Senior High School 6% of students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam. Special education In December 2009, the district administration reported that 375 pupils or 16.1% of the district's pupils received Special Education services.\nThe district engages in identification procedures to ensure that eligible students receive",
"-24.072038383061226"
],
[
"about credit cards. Success is determined by the student successfully staying out of debt during the course.",
"-24.0640994663554"
],
[
"analysis brings this issue to the fore. \nIn either centroid or principal components analysis (PCA) the first factor scores are created by multiplying each rating by the correlation of the factor (usually the mean of all standardized ratings for each person) against each item’s ratings. This multiplication weights each item by the correlation of the pattern of individual differences on each item (the component scores). If consensus is unevenly distributed over these items, some items may be more focused on the overall issues of the common factor. If an item correlates highly with the pattern of overall",
"-24.051459155525663"
],
[
"which accounts and how many are impacted by a given transaction, the fundamental accounting equation of assets equal liabilities plus equity will hold. Approaches There are two different ways to memorize the effects of debits and credits on accounts in the double-entry system of bookkeeping. They are the Traditional Approach and the Accounting Equation Approach. Irrespective of the approach used, the effect on the books of accounts remains the same, with two aspects (debit and credit) in each of the transactions.",
"-24.025057296101295"
],
[
"Box score Background The box score data is derived from a statistics sheet, and is then summarized into a contingency table, also known as a cross tabulation or cross tab or as a basic set of averages. This is used to help determine the relationship between elements, and in sports, certain percentages often help define the success of a team. This information is then correlated to a player, or a team where it is read to obtain a general idea of how the game was played or how the player performed during the game, a season, or their career.",
"-24.016263099776552"
],
[
"be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class regardless of the student's score on the AP exam. At Upper Dauphin Area High School less than 10% of students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam.",
"-24.007783152046613"
],
[
"may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Greencastle-Antrim High School 19% of students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam. Franklin Virtual Academy Franklin Virtual Academy is a 9th through 12th",
"-23.992894060502294"
],
[
"will likely not to have effect in her final score, but Economics will be awarded with a 0.15 or 0.20 multiplier.\nThe mark in the Common Part lasts forever, but the one in the Specific Part needs to be renewed after two years if needed.\nGrade = (g.p.a in Bachillerato * 0.6) + (arithmetic mean of the grades obtained in the general part * 0.4) + (Specific part Exam I * a) + (Specific part Exam II * b)\nWhere a and b are the weight (0, 0.1 or 0.2) of that specific test for the course and university you are applying for.",
"-23.96305387445318"
],
[
"on the exam, may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. Stroudsburg High School gives credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Stroudsburg High School 15% of students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam. SAT scores In 2015, 304 Stroudsburg Area",
"-23.962109902320663"
],
[
"the exam, may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Montoursville Area Senior High School 82% of students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam. ACE Montoursville Area School District students have access",
"-23.91977721848525"
],
[
"standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At New Oxford Senior High School none of the students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam in 2014.\nIn 2015, New Oxford Senior High School offered one AP course. None of the students who took the course achieved a 3 or better on",
"-23.916531507129548"
],
[
"on the exam, may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Williams Valley High School none of the students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam. Special education In December 2015,",
"-23.86702959628019"
],
[
"Students, who achieve a 3 or better on the exam, may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some higher education institutions also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Capital Area School for the Arts, 22.32% of students who took an AP course earned a 3 or",
"-23.82331896951655"
],
[
"$89 per test per pupil. Students have the option of taking College Board approved courses and then taking the College Board's examination in the Spring. Students, who achieve a 3 or better on the exam, may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take",
"-23.80507865610707"
],
[
"US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Williamsport Area High School 20% of the students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam. Classrooms for the Future grant The Classroom for the Future state program provided districts with hundreds",
"-23.79041319753196"
],
[
"College Board's examination in the Spring. Students, who achieve a 3 or better on the exam, may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education award credits for AP exam scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP classes. At Louis E. Dieruff High School just 15% of the students who took",
"-23.790137407297152"
],
[
"US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Penn Hills Senior High School 20% of the students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam. In 2014, just 18% of pupils at Penn Hills Senior High School",
"-23.787556680545094"
],
[
"3 or better on the exam, may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. Students are not required to take a course in order to take an AP exam. Graduation requirements West Branch Area School Board has determined that a pupil must earn 25 credits to graduate, including: Mathematics 4 credits, English 4 credits,",
"-23.775617744162446"
],
[
"its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At North Allegheny Senior High School 100% of students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam. As of April 2007, North Allegheny Senior High School offered 14 AP courses. US News and World Report national ranking In 2013, US News and",
"-23.749277344410075"
],
[
"standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. Danville Area High School gives credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP classes. At Danville Area High School 76.8%% of students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam.\nIn 2014, DAHS offered 12 AP Courses. Of those students who took the courses, 68% achieved a 3 or better on the AP exam. ACE Danville Area",
"-23.738936591311358"
],
[
"a 3 or better on the exam, may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Forest Hills High School just 7% of students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam. In 2013,",
"-23.73347043886315"
],
[
"about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Central York High School just 39% of students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam. Stony Brook Elementary School Stony Brook Elementary School is located at 250 Silver Spur Drive, York. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, in 2010, the school",
"-23.72121696283284"
],
[
"about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Penns Valley Area High School 20% of the students who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the exam. In 2013, fewer than 10 of the pupils who took an AP course earned a 3 or better on the AP exam at the end of the",
"-23.70091609758674"
],
[
"$89 per test per pupil in 2012. Students have the option of taking College Board approved courses and then taking the College Board's examination in the Spring. Students, who achieve a 3 or better on the exam, may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education institution sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students",
"-23.674230702759814"
],
[
"Board approved courses and then taking the College Board's examination in the Spring. Students, who achieve a 3 or better on the exam, may be awarded college credits at US universities and colleges. Each higher education sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3.\nIn 2011, the Berwick Area School District achieved the College Board's AP District of the Year Award. This honor roll consists of the 388",
"-23.659333723298914"
],
[
"0-9, 9 being high. Scoring is holistic, meaning that specific elements of the essay are not assessed, but each essay is scored in its entirety.\nThe scores from the three essays are added and integrated with the adjusted multiple-choice score (using appropriate weights of each section) to generate a composite score. The composite is then converted into an AP score of 1-5 using a scale for that year's exam.\nStudents generally receive their scores by mail in mid-July of the year they took the test. Alternately, they can receive their scores by phone as early as July 1 for a fee. Sub-scores",
"-23.6346035175593"
],
[
"sets its own standards about what level of credits are awarded to a student based on their AP exam score. Most higher education give credits for scores of 4 or 5. Some schools also give credits for scores of 3. High schools give credits towards graduation to students who take the school's AP class. At Blue Mountain High School 17% of students who took an AP course at the school earned a 3 or better on the exam.\nIn 2015, Blue Mountain reported offering 19 AP courses, with just 29% of pupils earning a 3 or better on the AP exam",
"-23.608867814124096"
],
[
"AP Physics B, AP United States History, AP Computer Science, and AP Psychology. Students who pass the end of course exams have the potential to be awarded college credits when they score a 3 or better. The amount and type of credit awarded is at the discretion of each college or university. In 2015, 72% of the Exeter Township students who took the exams earned a 3 or better. Students who successfully complete the exam with a score of 3 or better have the exam fee refunded to them by the school district after the score reports are received. Students",
"-23.58992923173355"
],
[
"credit's include:",
"-23.579082125837886"
],
[
"Academic grading in Vietnam Credit hours Some universities in Vietnam employ a system of standardized credit hours, which can translate directly over to the U.S. system. Some instead simply note class hours of 15, 30, 45, 60 ... etc., in an arrangement which needs to be converted into credit hours by dividing class hours by 15. Thus a 15-hour class is equivalent to 1 credit hours, a 45-hour class is equivalent to 3 credit hours. Method of calculating GPAs Most universities convert GPAs class by class. Each class is evaluated for credit hour equivalency. Each class",
"-23.56224553094944"
],
[
"schools may offer the option for credit by examination, by which a student gains credit for select classes or exemption from certain requirements for graduation or progression onto more advanced grade levels through successful completion of an examination with a sufficiently high score to validate the student's knowledge of the subjects covered and readiness to progress forward onto the next level of study. In the USA, Texas Tech University Independent School District (TTUISD) offers such a programme for elementary, middle, and high school students.\nHigher education institutions may also award academic credit or higher placement for acceptable scores or successful",
"-23.558354365919513"
],
[
"value is generally higher than the predictive value given directly from the continuous value. In such cases, the designation of the test of being either positive or negative gives the appearance of an inappropriately high certainty, while the value is in fact in an interval of uncertainty. For example, with the urine concentration of hCG as a continuous value, a urine pregnancy test that measured 52 mIU/ml of hCG may show as \"positive\" with 50 mIU/ml as cutoff, but is in fact in an interval of uncertainty, which may be apparent only by knowing the original continuous value. On the",
"-23.555747045975295"
],
[
"\"credit mark\" to demonstrate a high score in an exam – sitting just below a \"distinction.\" The two-part diploma was introduced in June 1998. NEBOSH moved offices to Meridian Business Park, Leicester in 1999.\nStephen Vickers took up the position of NEBOSH chief executive in April 2000. Six months later the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) – now The Office of the Qualifications and Examinations Regulator (Ofqual) accredited NEBOSH as an awarding body. In March 2001, designatory letters were introduced for holders of NEBOSH higher level awards. In September 2001, almost 22 years after the formation of NEBOSH, Dolores Lavander of",
"-23.52632907485531"
]
] |
4sn954 | Why Are Hairdryers so Loud? | [
"We have, they just cost a lot more. Most people are willing to put up with the noise and pay a lot less for a perfectly functioning, if noisy, hair dryer for a few minutes a day.",
"First, let's bust a myth: **moving air is not intrinsically loud**. Drive down the road at 30 mph with the window down, and despite the fact that air is now moving past your vehicle at 30 mph, it should be fairly quiet. Stick your hand out the window, with your palm flat down, and it's still mostly quiet. Turn your hand and cup it and now you can feel the force of the wind blowing by and probably hear the turbulence. Same air speed, radically different sound levels. Moving air isn't loud, but it has the potential to create a lot of noise, especially when you put something it its path to create turbulence. Something like the inlet and outlet grates on a hair dryer. Or a curly heating element. All of these can be designed to reduce sound levels, but that requires research and design. It requires more complex manufacturing processes and more expensive materials. In addition to the moving air, the stuff that makes the air move can also create noise. A cheap little motor will cause vibrations, some of which you can hear. These vibrations can be minimized through balancing and damping, but that requires research and design. It requires more complex manufacturing processes and more expensive materials. A cheap little fan blade will create waste noise, which is noise that's just associated with spinning the fan, but doesn't contribute to moving air in the desired direction. This waste noise can also be reduced, but that requires research and design. It requires more complex manufacturing processes and more expensive materials. You can't buy a quiet hairdryer, yet. But you can buy a quieter hair dryer, they just cost less, weigh more, and may not dry as well.",
"So generations of husbands & boyfriends will know that their SO is nearing the end of her 90mins in the bathroom before heading out. Time to decide what to wear....",
"Same thing with Blenders, holy shit are they **loud**. I would love a quiet blender. At least with a Hair Dryer you can close the bathroom door.",
"Hairdryers have cheap motors in them that are loud. There are quiet motors available but they are expensive."
] | [
[
"the hair. Blowdryers allow to better control the shape and style of hair, by accelerating and controlling the formation of temporary hydrogen bonds inside each strand. These hydrogen bonds are very powerful (allowing for stronger hair shaping than even the sulfur bonds formed by permanent waving products), but are temporary and extremely vulnerable to humidity. They disappear with a single washing of the hair. Hairbrushes A brush is typically used on longer hair but can still be used for shorter hair, which is normally dealt with using a comb. A flat brush is normally used for detangling neat and tidy",
"-32.77799674810376"
],
[
"can be further improved with styling products and hairbrushes during drying to add tension, hold and lift.\nBlow dryers were invented in the late 19th century. The first model was created by Kieran McGonagle in his salon in France in 1902\n. The handheld, household hair dryer first appeared in 1920. Blow dryers are used in beauty salons by professional stylists and in the household by consumers. Types Today there are two major types of blow dryers (hair dryers): the handheld and the rigid-hood dryer.\nA hood dryer has a hard plastic dome that fits over a person's head to dry their hair.",
"-32.20099137967918"
],
[
"Hair dryer A hair dryer, hairdryer or blow dryer is an electromechanical device that blows ambient or hot air over damp hair to speed the evaporation of water to dry the hair. Blow dryers enable better control over the shape and style of hair, by accelerating and controlling the formation of temporary hydrogen bonds within each strand. These bonds are powerful (allowing stronger hair shaping than the sulfur bonds formed by permanent waving products) but are temporary and extremely vulnerable to humidity. They disappear with a single washing of the hair.\nHairstyles using blow dryers usually have volume and discipline, which",
"-31.462773950654082"
],
[
"Hot air is blown out through tiny openings around the inside of the dome so the hair is dried evenly. Hood dryers are mainly found in hair salons. History In 1890 the first hairdryer was invented by French stylist Alexander Godefroy. His invention was a large, seated version that consisted of a bonnet that attached to the chimney pipe of a gas stove. Godefroy invented it for use in his hair salon in France, and it was not portable or handheld. It could only be used by having the person sit underneath it.\nArmenian American inventor Gabriel Kazanjian was the first",
"-31.171836930443533"
],
[
"Hairstyling tool Types of hairstyling tools Hair styling equipment which helps in creating hairstyles includes: Hair irons A hair iron is a tool used to change the structure of the hair with the help of heat. There are three general kinds: curling tongs, used to make the hair curly; straighteners, used to straighten the hair; and crimpers, used to create small crimps in the hair. Hair dryers A hand dryer, hairdryer, or blowdryer is an electromechanical device designed to blow cool or hot air over wet or damp hair, in order to accelerate the evaporation of water particles and dry",
"-31.031822102610022"
],
[
"Buzz cut History Buzz cuts rose to popularity with the advent of manual hair clippers by the Serbian inventor, Nikola Bizumić, in the late 19th century. These clippers were widely used by barbers to chop hair close and fast. The clipper accumulates hair in locks to rapidly depilate the head. This type of haircut was normal where strict grooming conventions were in effect.",
"-28.561159985663835"
],
[
"Hair volumizer Hair volumizers are used to temporarily add volume, body, and shine to thin or flat hair. Hair volumizers are used by both men and women. Men turn to hair volumizers to make their hair look more dense. Volumizers come in many forms such as shampoos, conditioners, sprays, pomades and lotions.\nHair volumizers contain humectants, which work by attracting moisture from the surrounding areas to the hair strand, thereby swelling the hair and making it look thicker. Various polymers present in the volumizer coat the hair strand, making it look thicker and shiny.\nShampoo and conditioner forms of the volumizers are",
"-27.92427584521647"
],
[
"heated metal hair care implements such as hot combs to straighten hair. Madame C.J. Walker used combs with wider teeth and popularized their use together with her system of chemical scalp preparation and straightening lotions. Her mentor Annie Malone is sometimes said to have patented the hot comb. Heated metal implements slide more easily through the hair, reducing damage and dryness. Women in the 1960s sometimes used clothing irons to straighten their hair.\nIn 1909, Isaac K. Shero patented the first hair straightener composed of two flat irons that are heated and pressed together.\nCeramic and electrical straighteners were introduced later, allowing",
"-27.882831227994757"
],
[
"used just like ordinary shampoo or conditioners. The spray and lotion form of volumizers are used on damp hair near the roots of the hair. In order to use a hair volumizer, the person using the product must flip their head downward and gradually blow dry the hair, with the air being blown along the shaft of the hair until the hair is dry. Drying the hair in this position will increase volume and achieve the desired effect.\nWhile the hairstyling products listed above are the most commonly used, there are other types of products as well. Serums, leave-in conditioner, clays,",
"-27.86253561131889"
],
[
"having full rating impulse noise protection.\nSuch custom molded earplugs with low pass filter and mechanical valve typically have a +85 dB(A) mechanical clamp, in addition to having a lowpass filter response, thereby providing typically 30-31 dB attenuation to loud impulse noises, with only a 21 dB reduction under low noise conditions across the human voice audible frequency range (300–4000 Hz) (thereby providing low attenuation between shots being fired), to permit hearing range commands. Similar functions are also available in standardized earplugs that are not custom molded. Expected updates In 2007, the American National Standards Institute published a new standard for noise reduction ratings",
"-27.494221068685874"
],
[
"torque overload protection and axial slip between mating components. They are often used to isolate undesirable vibration in engines and electric motors, for noise-free mechanism operation in passenger vehicles and domestic appliances, where noise reduction has become a major trend in recent years. Modifications to tolerance rings can be made to tune the dynamic stiffness and, therefore, the frequencies that can be isolated.\nTolerance rings can be used to eliminate noise completely, simply by taking up clearance between mating components, which could otherwise lead to rattling in the system as the parts are not completely constrained. Automotive Tolerance rings are used",
"-27.446496644697618"
],
[
"open window so he could feel the wind against his face while he did his calculations. The piece was entitled \"Dirwyn\". The sound and action were the same. The Tools The most eventful phase in The Haters use of sound in performance came when, instead of amplifying common tools, they started having their own costume devices built that were made solely for the purpose of making noise. By the late 1990s The Haters became obsessed with the idea of a contrast between what the sound was and how the sound was made.\nWrestling has always been a source of inspiration for",
"-27.354127860977314"
],
[
"drywall designed to reduce noise. Also important are the construction details of the framing with steel studs, wider stud spacing, double studding, insulation, and other details reducing sound transmission. Sound transmission class (STC) ratings can be increased from 33 for an ordinary stud-wall to as high as 59 with double ¹⁄₂-inch (13 mm) drywall on both sides of a wood stud wall with resilient channels on one side and fiberglass batt insulation between the studs.\nSound transmission may be slightly reduced using regular ⁵⁄₈-inch (16 mm) panels (with or without light-gauge resilient metal channels and/or insulation), but it is more effective to use",
"-27.350972843298223"
],
[
"than the average iron (temperatures can range from 300–450 degrees). Heat protection sprays and hair-repairing shampoos and conditioners can protect hair from damage caused by the direct heat from the irons. Tools Styling tools may include hair irons (including flat, curling, and crimping irons), hair dryers, and hair rollers. Hair dressing might also include the use of hair product to add texture, shine, curl, volume or hold to a particular style. Hairpins are also used when creating particular hairstyles. Their uses and designs vary over different cultural backgrounds. Products Styling products aside from shampoo and conditioner are many",
"-27.290989636880113"
],
[
"sound coverage (off-axis response), since high frequency sound tends to leave the speaker in narrow beams. Soft-dome tweeters are widely found in home stereo systems, and horn-loaded compression drivers are common in professional sound reinforcement. Ribbon tweeters have gained popularity in recent years, as the output power of some designs has been increased to levels useful for professional sound reinforcement, and their output pattern is wide in the horizontal plane, a pattern that has convenient applications in concert sound. Coaxial drivers A coaxial driver is a loudspeaker driver with two or several combined concentric drivers. Coaxial drivers have been",
"-27.10849952296121"
],
[
"regard to impact. Aluminum foil can melt onto the top and cause permanent damage or cracking of the top. Surfaces can be scratched by sliding pans across the cooking surface. Noise Some noise is generated by an internal cooling fan. Also, audible electromagnetically-excited acoustic noise (a high pitched hum or buzz) may be produced by cookware, especially at high power, if the cookware has loose parts or if the multi-ply layers of the pot are not well bonded to each other; cookware with welded-in cladding layers and solid riveting is less likely to produce this type of noise. Some users",
"-27.055212224600837"
],
[
"the hair. Next, hair is blow dried straight in small sections at high heat, using a round brush to create tension and volume. A concentrator nozzle is attached to the end of the blow dryer to allow heat to be directed on the section being straightened. After blow drying, a small amount of serum is applied and hair is wrapped in a dubi or doobie, a method which wraps and pins the hair around the head, using it as a giant roller, to create additional straightening and movement. Finally, hair is taken down from the dubi and styled as desired.\nThe",
"-27.046075492165983"
],
[
"have a wider ribbon, using more hairs. White hair generally produces a smoother sound and black hair (used mainly for double bass bows) is coarser, producing a rougher sound. Lower quality (inexpensive) bows often use nylon or synthetic hair. Rosin, a hard, sticky substance made from resin (sometimes mixed with wax), is regularly applied to the bow hair to increase friction.\nIn making the stick of a bow, the initial part of the woodworking is done on a straight stick. According to James McKean, \"the bow maker graduates the stick in precise gradations so that it is evenly flexible throughout.\" These",
"-27.00691181552247"
],
[
"using 100 watts, which increased the amount of time needed to dry hair (the average dryer today can use up to 2000 watts of heat).\nSince the 1920s, development of the hair dryer has mainly focused on improving the wattage and superficial exterior and material changes. In fact, the mechanism of the dryer has not had any significant changes since its inception. One of the more important changes for the hair dryer is to be made of plastic, so that it is more lightweight. This really caught on in the 1960s with the introduction of better electrical motors and the improvement of plastics.",
"-26.963033952517435"
],
[
"cowbells had begun in an attempt to make noise louder than that which could be created through the mere use of the human voice. The invention of the compressed air horn gave fans another weapon in their arsenal. As fan sophistication increased, they learned to make noise in a way which distracted the visiting team to the assistance of their own. College football teams, especially, which had their own marching bands, came to depend upon the band to play loudly at strategic times, which, while hardly sportsmanlike, could be very effective.\nTwo developments more than any others led",
"-26.938274758096668"
],
[
"the microphone and protect its body as well. The latter is important because, given the extreme low frequency content of wind noise, vibration induced in the housing of the microphone can contribute substantially to the noise output.\nThe shielding material used – wire gauze, fabric or foam – is designed to have a significant acoustic impedance. The relatively low particle-velocity air pressure changes that constitute sound waves can pass through with minimal attenuation, but higher particle-velocity wind is impeded to a far greater extent. Increasing the thickness of the material improves wind attenuation but also begins to compromise high frequency audio",
"-26.856110041291686"
],
[
"argue that the slightly rougher black hair \"grabs\" the heavier, lower strings better. As well, some bassists and luthiers believe that it is easier to produce a smoother sound with the white variety. Red hair (chestnut) is also used by some bassists. Some of the lowest-quality, lowest cost student bows are made with synthetic hair. Synthetic hair does not have the tiny \"barbs\" that real horsehair has, so it does not \"grip\" the string well or take rosin well. Rosin String players apply rosin to the bow hair so it \"grips\" the string and makes it vibrate. Double bass rosin",
"-26.681482509549824"
],
[
"lightest may have a higher proportion of oils. Hair spray Hair spray is a common household aqueous solution which is used to stiffen hair into a certain style. It was first developed and manufactured in 1948 by Chase Products, based in Broadview, Illinois. Weaker than hair gel or hair wax, it is sprayed directly onto the hair to hold styles for long periods of time. It sprays evenly over the hair using a pump or aerosol spray nozzle. The product may leave hair feeling 'crunchy' unless brushed out.\nThe active ingredients in hair spray are called polymers, which keep the hair",
"-26.66967474090052"
],
[
"the product must flip their head downward and gradually blow dry the hair, with the air being blown along the shaft of the hair until the hair is dry. Drying the hair in this position will increase volume and achieve the desired effect.\nWhile the hairstyling products listed above are the most commonly used, there are other types of products as well. Serums, leave-in conditioner, clays, hair tonic, hair dry powder shampoo, and heat protection sprays are frequently used hairstyling products in salons and homes across the country. Disadvantages When applied properly, most styling products will not damage the hair. However,",
"-26.65926088762353"
],
[
"by businesses (described below) usually do not use the bellows, and instead require all small objects to be placed in a mesh bag to prevent loss near the basket opening.\nThe bellows assembly around the door is a potential source of problems for the consumer front-loader. The bellows has a large number of flexible folds to permit the tub to move separately from the door during the high speed extraction cycle. On many machines, these folds can collect lint, dirt, and moisture, resulting in mold and mildew growth, and a foul odor. Some front-loading washer operating instructions say the bellows should",
"-26.49084816686809"
],
[
"a wind chime produces. The sounds produced by recycling objects such as these are not tunable to specific notes and range from pleasant tinkling to dull thuds. The sounds produced by properly sized wind chime tubes are tunable to notes. As aluminum is the common metal with the lowest internal damping, wind chimes are often made from aluminum to achieve the longest and loudest sounding chime.\nThe tone depends on factors such as the material, the exact alloy, heat treatment, and whether a solid cylinder or a tube is used. If a tube is used, the wall thickness also affects",
"-26.480809934349963"
],
[
"foam style earplug protection is often worn by industrial workers who work within hearing distance of loud machinery for long periods of time, and is used by the British Ministry of Defence (MoD) for soldiers to use when firing weapons. Earplugs are rated for their ability to reduce noise.\nIn the United States, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency mandates that hearing protection is rated and labeled. To be rated, hearing protection is tested under ANSI S3.19-1974 to provide a range of attenuation values at each frequency that can then be used to calculate a Noise Reduction Rating (NRR). Under this standard",
"-26.423837612441275"
],
[
"cue for safety or other reasons, as when walking, driving, or riding near or in vehicular traffic.\nGeneric or custom-fitting ear canal plugs are made from silicone rubber, elastomer, or foam. Custom in-ear headphones use castings of the ear canal to create custom-molded plugs that provide added comfort and noise isolation. Mixed fitting pivoting earphones This type combines advantages of earbuds and in-ear headphones – depending on the environment and requirements of the user, they provide passive noise reduction for quality mode (conversation or active music listening) or they give control over the sound environment around user in comfort mode (stand",
"-26.408297508915894"
],
[
"each other rather than to copper traces.\nThese crossovers are wired by hand, in Montreal, by skilled and experienced technicians. Totem prefers to mechanically crimp wires rather than solder components into place because it simply sounds better. Solder affects micro dynamics and clarity but for the times when Totem must use it they use WBT Silver Solder, regarded as the purest and cleanest in the industry.\nCrossovers are connected to the drivers with wire so it is as important as any other part creating the synergy. The wiring inside every single Totem speaker is unique and requires us to",
"-26.39404275114066"
],
[
"mono microphone input, using the tip as the signal path and the ring to connect a standby switch on the microphone. Poor connections Connectors that are tarnished, or that were not manufactured within tight tolerances, are prone to cause poor connections. Depending upon the surface material of the connectors, tarnished ones can be cleaned with a burnishing agent (for solid brass contacts typical) or contact cleaner (for plated contacts).",
"-26.347234262568236"
],
[
"by Joerg Wuttke, which, for two-port (pressure gradient) microphones, allows the shield/microphone combination to act as a high-pass acoustic filter.\nSince turbulence at a surface is the source of wind noise, reducing gross turbulence can add to noise reduction. Both aerodynamically smooth surfaces, and ones that prevent powerful vortices being generated, have been used successfully. Historically, artificial fur has proved very useful for this purpose since the fibres produce micro-turbulence and absorb energy silently. If not matted by wind and rain, the fur fibres are very transparent acoustically, but the woven or knitted backing can give significant attenuation. As a material",
"-26.33184320163855"
],
[
"has several practical advantages: it can restrain hair from the top of the head that is too short to reach the nape of the neck, and it spreads the weight and tension of the braid across a larger portion of the scalp. Its sleeker appearance is also sometimes viewed as more elegant and sophisticated. However, a French braid is more difficult to construct than a simple braid because of its greater complexity; when performed on one's own hair, it also requires a more prolonged elevation of the hands above the back of the head, and leaves more tangled hair along",
"-26.319519862641755"
],
[
"rely upon for quality or performance comparisons. Audio engineers consider stiffness as perhaps the most important trait in a speaker cabinet because it minimizes distortion causing vibrations that negatively affect a speaker's sound. Totem cabinets are made to be inert but also harmonically expressive, which means creating synergy between veneers, stains, and lacquers.\nLock mitred, monocoque construction is an intricate woodworking method in which a zigzag pattern is cut into the ends of panels so they provide substantially more surface area on each joining piece and in turn have more area to grip and physically lock together in a",
"-26.28612303599948"
],
[
"too high setting of the sharpness control. Audio Ringing can affect audio equipment in a number of ways. Audio amplifiers can produce ringing depending on their design, although the transients that can produce such ringing rarely occur in audio signals.\nTransducers (i.e., microphones and loudspeakers) can also ring. Mechanical ringing is more of a problem with loudspeakers as the moving masses are larger and less easily damped, but unless extreme they are difficult to audibly identify.\nIn digital audio, ringing can occur as a result of filters such as brickwall filters. Here, the ringing occurs before the transient as well as after.",
"-26.254665705731895"
],
[
"upon by vibrations in air) and the fluid-filled inner ear.\nHorns are used like transformers, matching the impedance of the transducer to the impedance of the air. This principle is used in both horn loudspeakers and musical instruments. Most loudspeaker systems contain impedance matching mechanisms, especially for low frequencies. Because most driver impedances which are poorly matched to the impedance of free air at low frequencies (and because of out-of-phase cancellations between output from the front and rear of a speaker cone), loudspeaker enclosures both match impedances and prevent interference. Sound, coupling with air, from a loudspeaker is related to the",
"-26.22113684657961"
],
[
"users of firearms or heavy machinery often wear earmuffs or earplugs. Hair cell amplification Not only does the cochlea \"receive\" sound, it generates and amplifies sound when it is healthy. Where the organism needs a mechanism to hear very faint sounds, the cochlea amplifies by the reverse transduction of the OHCs, converting electrical signals back to mechanical in a positive-feedback configuration. The OHCs have a protein motor called prestin on their outer membranes; it generates additional movement that couples back to the fluid–membrane wave. This \"active amplifier\" is essential in the ear's ability to amplify weak sounds.\nThe active",
"-26.19718006439507"
],
[
"of sound at a distance of 10 ft (3.0 m) while in operation. It is much louder for the user and may exceed safety limits for children whose ears are at the height of the device. Some units, however, are designed to be quieter at the cost of drying speed. Reception Research conducted in 2008 indicated that European consumers much prefer hand towels over hand dryers in public washrooms. 63% of respondents said paper towels were their preferred drying method, while just 28% preferred a hand dryer. Respondents overwhelmingly considered paper towels to offer faster hand drying than electric hand dryers",
"-26.176284360975842"
],
[
"through four blades. In Music Science isn't the only unusual setting far removed from hygiene in which a Gillette razor blade has been used. Some music bands have also used Gillette razor blades in order to achieve a certain sound, most notably English rock band The Kinks. Kinks member Dave Davies became \"really bored with this guitar sound - or lack of an interesting sound\" so he purchased \"a little green amplifier ...an Elpico\" from a radio spares shop in Muswell Hiil, and \"twiddled around with it\", including \"taking the wires going to the speaker and putting a jack plug",
"-26.17164707632037"
],
[
"often as once a week.\nThe flattop has maintained a contingent of dedicated wearers since it was introduced. It was very popular in the 1950s, but faded in popularity with the emergence of longer hair styles in the late 1960s and 1970s. It had a brief reappearance in the 1980s and early 1990s, before dropping off again. Haircutting methods The haircut is usually done with electric clippers utilizing the clipper over comb technique, though it can also be cut shears over comb or freehand with a clipper. Some barbers utilize large combs designed for cutting flattops. Others use wide rotary",
"-26.122636256506667"
],
[
"rings, called slip rings, and no switching happens.\nModern devices using carbon brushes usually have a maintenance-free design that requires no adjustment throughout the life of the device, using a fixed-position brush holder slot and a combined brush-spring-cable assembly that fits into the slot. The worn brush is pulled out and a new brush inserted. Brush contact angle The different brush types make contact with the commutator in different ways. Because copper brushes have the same hardness as the commutator segments, the rotor cannot be spun backwards against the ends of copper brushes without the copper digging into the segments and",
"-26.11669664675719"
],
[
"Shower radio A shower radio is a battery-powered radio that is waterproofed to allow it to be used in a bathroom or other wet environment. Some versions also include a CD player and/or a clock. Shower radios generally lack headphone jacks and AC adapter ports, which could short out or electrocute the user. For the same reason, they also tend to lack external antennas.\nThe first mass-produced shower radio was patented in 1985 by Andrew R. Mark, of Stamford, Connecticut. The product was marketed by Salton Inc. under the brand name Wet Tunes.\nThere are varying designs; some are meant to be",
"-26.103271855856292"
],
[
"hair cells (responsible for amplification of lower frequency sounds) have higher stiffness and tension.\nTonotopy also manifests in the electrophysical properties of transduction. Sound energy is translated into neural signals through mechanoelectrical transduction. The magnitude of peak transduction current varies with tonotopic position. For example, currents are largest at high frequency positions such as the base of cochlea. As noted above, basal cochlear hair cells have more stereocilia, thus providing more channels and larger currents. Tonotopic position also determines the conductance of individual transduction channels. Individual channels at basal hair cells conduct more current than those at apical hair cells.\nFinally, sound",
"-26.041865400096867"
],
[
"to reborn artists, sold under several brand names. Many feel that repeated baking of vinyl can cause it to break down over time. In addition, there are fumes and chemicals released during the heating process.\nThe next step is to apply hair. The hair can either be done in one of two ways; wigging, rooting or microrooting. when rooting hair is added 1–4 hair strands per plug. When microrooting, hair is added strand by strand. This can take up to 30 or more hours per head. Once the hair is finished, the original vinyl body is weighted with a",
"-25.968248629185837"
],
[
"Waves (hairstyle) Waves are a hairstyle for curly hair in which the curls are brushed and/or combed and flattened out, creating a ripple-like pattern.\nThe hairstyle begins with a short-cropped haircut and frequent brushing and/or combing of the curls, which trains the curls to flatten out and wearing a do-rag. Wave pomades and moisturizers can help hold the hair in place while preventing the hair from getting too dry. A do-rag is worn to preserve moisture while compressing the hair and holding it in place.\nIn the early 20th century, as many African-American men sought to style their hair with texture-altering products,",
"-25.939911678957287"
],
[
"ones so that a wide range of sound pressures can be reduced to a much smaller range of hair displacements. This property of amplification is called the cochlear amplifier.\nThe molecular biology of hair cells has seen considerable progress in recent years, with the identification of the motor protein (prestin) that underlies somatic electromotility in the outer hair cells. Prestin's function has been shown to be dependent on chloride channel signaling and that it is compromised by the common marine pesticide tributyltin. Because this class of pollutant bioconcentrates up the food chain, the effect is pronounced in top",
"-25.938416707329452"
],
[
"Voigt pipe The Voigt pipe is a type of loudspeaker enclosure that embodies a combination of transmission line, ported enclosure and horn characteristics. It is highly regarded by some speaker designers, as evidenced by established manufacturers such as Castle. Due to its relatively high efficiency the design is frequently employed in full-range loudspeaker designs. The concept is that the sound emitted from the rear of the loudspeaker driver is progressively reflected and absorbed along the length of the tapering tube, almost completely preventing internally reflected sound being retransmitted through the cone of the loudspeaker. The lower part of the pipe",
"-25.927849176281597"
],
[
"location is unusually noisy or the listener has an exceptionally good ear.\nThe best way to reduce the inclusion of electrical noise is two twist the conductors together, use shielded cables, employ differential drive or a combination of all three methods. Also, the cable interconnect keep should always be kept as short as physically possible.\nElectrostatic and piezoelectric noise can also become an issue in exotic headphone systems, if the headphones have a relatively high input impedance compared to traditional speakers which have a nominal impedance of 8 Ohms. This is where a careful choice of insulating materials can make a difference.",
"-25.926562782900874"
],
[
"processing. Due to the high gains involved (around +50 dB, for a microphone), this stage is where most noise and interference is picked up. Balanced inputs and connectors, such as XLR or phone connectors, reduce interference problems.\nA microphone plugged directly into a power amplifier would not produce adequate signal to drive loudspeakers, because the microphone's signal is too weak; the microphone signal needs a preamplifier to strengthen the signal so that it is strong enough for the power amplifier. For some very strong line level signals, the signal that is plugged into the mixer may be too strong, and",
"-25.904509174404666"
],
[
"Stage wash (audio) Stage wash in professional audio is unwanted sound entering a microphone on stage during a concert. Stage wash can come from the main public address system, from monitor loudspeakers, from instrument amplifiers such as for guitars and keyboards, and from loud instruments such as drums. The effects of stage wash in an overall mix may include a sense of muddiness and lack of detail, as other sounds modulate the desired sound. High-pass filters on mixing consoles can help reduce problems with stage wash by greatly attenuating low frequencies. Other methods of combating stage wash include using hyper-cardioid",
"-25.86894294671947"
],
[
"the crafting of hair sticks, making home-made hair sticks has also become a popular trend. Many people enjoy making their own pieces using the blank sticks that can be found online, and buying pins, crystals and beads from various online suppliers. A large number of these kinds of pieces are also put up for auction online.",
"-25.83284978059237"
],
[
"is brazed, using a torch and smoothed using a hammer or file. A draw bench or arbor press equipped with expandable lead plug is used to shape and smooth the bell and bell neck over a mandrel. A lathe is used to spin the bell head and to form a bead at the edge of bell head. Previously shaped bell necks are annealed, using a hand torch to soften the metal for further bending. Scratches are removed from the bell using abrasive-coated cloth. Other materials A few specialty instruments are made from wood.\nInstruments made mostly from plastic emerged in the",
"-25.76981245778734"
],
[
"Old Norse, Swedish, and Danish, but the derivation is not certain. 'Bellows' appears not to be cognate with the apparently similar Latin follis. Double-acting piston bellows Double-acting piston bellows are a type of bellows used by blacksmiths and smelters to increase the air flow going into the forge, with the property that air is blown out on both strokes of the handle (in contrast to simpler and more common bellows that blow air when the stroke is in one direction and refill the bellows in the other direction). These bellows blow a more constant, and thus stronger, blast than",
"-25.723134112025946"
],
[
"hot. Hisco P450, developed in 1992 to address the softening issue in professional speakers, is a thermoset composite of thin glassfibre cloth, impregnated with polyimide resin, combining the best characteristics of polyimide with the temperature resistance and stiffness of glassfibre. It withstands brutal physical stresses and operating temperatures up to 300°C, while its stiffness helps maintain the speaker's 'cold' frequency response. \nThe actual wire employed in voice coil winding is almost always copper, with an electrical insulation coating, and in some cases, an adhesive overcoat. Copper wire provides an easily manufactured, general purpose voice coil, at a reasonable cost.",
"-25.698772261792328"
],
[
"conditions are managed with special devices which are designed to create certain sounds that treat such conditions at a mental level). A white noise machine has “white” as the color code given to that noise having a particular frequency spectrum. Design Most modern white noise generators are electronic, usually generating the sound in real-time with audio test equipment, or via electronic playback of a digital audio recording. Simple mechanical machines consist of a very basic setup, involving an enclosed fan and, optionally, a speed switch. This fan drives air through small slots in the machine's casing, producing the desired",
"-25.655853468633723"
],
[
"Rings films automatically.\nCoherent noise can be extremely important to procedural workflow in film. Simplex noise is often faster with fewer artifacts, though an older function called Perlin noise may be used as well. Coherent noise, in this case, refers to a function that generates smooth pseudo-randomness in n dimensions.",
"-25.640492503880523"
],
[
"Wahl Clipper History The company was founded due to Leo J. Wahl's patent for an electromagnetic hair clipper in 1919. In 1965 Wahl introduced the first vacuum clipper, which allowed a person's hair to be cut without use of a cape. Operations In 1967, Wahl produced the first cordless hair clipper using rechargeable battery technology. Four years later, it started an electronics division with the first cordless and rechargeable soldering iron. In 1975, Wahl released a line of back and foot massagers utilizing the vibrating motor technology used in their hair trimmers. In 1984, Wahl invented the first cordless consumer",
"-25.630108166413265"
],
[
"are the key elements of metal. She argues that the loudness is designed to \"sweep the listener into the sound\" and to provide a \"shot of youthful vitality\".",
"-25.616946539696073"
],
[
"the air that is being sucked in. Ducted Kitchen Hoods Ducted kitchen hoods are the most common and a primary type of kitchen hood. As the name suggests, a ducted kitchen hood has a duct that is used to process and expel any smoke that is generated on top of the kitchen hob.\nLarge sized duct hoods are widely used not just in homes but also in commercial restaurants and communal kitchens too. Ductless Kitchen Hoods Ductless Kitchen Hoods do not have a duct that is used to process the air. Instead, it makes use of strong air filtration and then",
"-25.605023941403488"
],
[
"cancellation of repetitive (or periodic) noise such as engine-, propeller- or rotor-induced noise. This is because an engine's cyclic nature makes fast Fourier transform analysis and the noise cancellation easier to apply.\nModern mobile phones use a multi-microphone design to cancel out ambient noise from the speech signal. Software is used to subtract the sound captured by the microphone(s) placed furthest from the mouth, from the microphone closest to the mouth, which produces a much clearer speech quality. Active vs. passive noise control Noise control is an active or passive means of reducing sound emissions, often for personal comfort, environmental",
"-25.5685954170076"
],
[
"with repeated braid styles. Curling and straightening Curling and straightening hair requires the stylist to use a curling rod or a flat iron to get a desired look. These irons use heat to manipulate the hair into a variety of waves, curls and reversing natural curls and temporarily straightening the hair. Straightening or even curling hair can damage it due to direct heat from the iron and applying chemicals afterwards to keep its shape.\nThere are irons that have a function to straighten or curl hair even when its damp (from showering or wetting the hair), but this requires more heat",
"-25.56710967537947"
],
[
"Earplug style hearing protection devices are designed to fit in the ear canal. Earplugs come in a variety of different subtypes. Some HPDs reduce the sound reaching the eardrum through a combination of electronic and structural components. Electronic HPDs are available in both earmuff and custom earplug styles. Electronic microphones, circuitry, and receivers perform active noise reduction, also known as noise-cancelling, in which a signal that is 180-degrees out-of-phase of the noise is presented, which in theory cancels the noise. Canal caps are similar to earplugs in that they consists of soft tip that is inserted into the opening of",
"-25.566706987272482"
],
[
"unwanted noise from the environment without affecting the desired sound source, which is not picked up and reversed by the microphone. They require a power source, usually a battery, to drive their circuitry. Active noise cancelling headphones can attenuate ambient noise by 20 dB or more, but the active circuitry is mainly effective on constant sounds and at lower frequencies, rather than sharp sounds and voices. Some noise cancelling headphones are designed mainly to reduce low-frequency engine and travel noise in aircraft, trains, and automobiles, and are less effective in environments with other types of noise. Transducer technology Headphones use various",
"-25.56566256225051"
],
[
"Hair stick A hair stick (also hairstick) is a straight, pointed device, usually between five and nine inches in length, used to hold a person's hair in place in a hair bun or similar hairstyle.\nUnlike many hair pins, which are usually small and quite simple, hair sticks are often more elaborate and decorative, and feature jeweled or carved designs that make them stand out as pieces of luxury jewelry. The price of hair sticks varies greatly depending on the style, materials, and craftsmanship - the cheapest pairs of plastic hair sticks can cost less than a dollar, while a single,",
"-25.561319795320742"
],
[
"Another important change happened in 1954 when GEC changed the design of the dryer to move the motor inside the casing.\nThe bonnet dryer was introduced to consumers in 1951. This type worked by having the dryer, usually in a small portable box, connected to a tube that went into a bonnet with holes in it that could be placed on top of a person's head. This worked by giving an even amount of heat to the whole head at once.\nThe 1950s also saw the introduction of the rigid-hood hair dryer which is the type most frequently seen in salons. It",
"-25.560341782678734"
],
[
"the employee adjusts the thermostat and hears the noise of hissing or a fan running and consequently physically feels more content. This is due to the countless trials involving the thermostat in their own home, which actually works. The employee has paired the sound of hissing or a fan running to being more physically content due to the actual temperature change and therefore when they experience the noise at work they feel the same way even though there is no change in temperature. As long as individuals get the result they are looking for (noise associated with temperature change) they",
"-25.55838980828412"
],
[
"Noise print A noise print is part of a technique used in noise reduction. A noise print is commonly used in audio mastering to help reduce the effects of unwanted noise from a piece of audio. In this case, the noise print would be a recording of the ambient noise in the room, which is then used in spectral subtraction to set multiple expanders, effectively gating out those frequencies whilst the signal level in that band is lower than that in the noise print. Many plugins for studio software can be used to apply noise reduction in this way.\nNoise reduction",
"-25.55272033746587"
],
[
"earspeakers have a 580 volt bias, referred to as “Pro” bias.\nThe Normal bias earspeakers use a 6 pin plug, while the Pro bias ones use a 5 pin plug, which is like the 6 pin plug with one pin not present.\nPro bias (5 pin) earspeakers can be plugged into a Normal bias (6 pin) socket, and will work with a limitation to maximum volume. Normal bias earspeakers cannot be plugged into Pro bias sockets since the bias voltage is too high.\nAll current Stax earspeakers are Pro bias, as the last Normal bias earspeaker went out of production around 1992.",
"-25.54937971031177"
],
[
"Hair roller Velcro hair roller A Velcro hair roller is made of a strip of hook and loop fasteners that is wrapped around cylinders. They are available in different sizes and can be used on dry or wet hair. The rollers are self-holding because they do not need pins or clips to be held in place and do not need heat to be applied to create the curls. Typically kept in the hair for about fifteen minutes. To clean Velcro hair rollers hair should be removed from them and then soaked in shampoo and water mixture followed by a vinegar",
"-25.539377361244988"
],
[
"high frequency signals with much lower losses from skin effect or to minimise proximity effect in transformers.\nFlat braids made of many copper wires can also be used for flexible electrical connections between large components. The numerous smaller wires comprising the braid are much more resistant to breaking under repeated motion and vibration than is a cable of larger wires. A common example of this may be found connecting a car battery's negative terminal to the metal chassis.\nSimilar braiding is used on pressurized rubber hoses, such as in plumbing and hydraulic brake systems in automobiles. Braiding is also used for fibres",
"-25.514288806327386"
],
[
"Hair-cutting shears Hair-cutting shears are scissors that are specifically designed for cutting hair. They are also known as barber shears, hairdressing shears, or hair shears. Hair-cutting shears are significantly sharper than scissors, and designed specifically for cutting hair. Shears range in size from about 5 to 7 inches (13 to 18 cm) long. They commonly have an appendage, known as a finger brace or tang, attached to one of the finger rings. This gives the user additional control when cutting. A swiveling thumb ring is new technology in shear design. The swivel shear offers increased flexibility and the",
"-25.486449390809867"
],
[
"of how the equipment sounds to each person. For example, some valve (vacuum tube) amplifiers produce greater amounts of total harmonic distortion, but this type of distortion (2nd harmonic) is not as disturbing to the ear as the higher order distortions produced by poorly designed transistor equipment.\nThe validity of certain products are often questioned by those outside the industry include accessories such as speaker wires utilizing exotic materials (such as Oxygen-Free Copper (OFC)) and construction geometries, cable stands for lifting them off the floor (as a way to control mechanically induced vibrations), connectors, sprays and other tweaks.",
"-25.457463204860687"
],
[
"they can be stiff and move differently from human hair. Synthetic fibers are much less expensive than human hair. Heating appliances such as curling irons, flat irons, and straightening combs generally should never be used on most types of synthetic hair. There are some newer versions of synthetic fibers that are more resistant, human-like fibers that can be heat processed allowing for heat styling. Futura Futura is a type of synthetic fiber that can withstand heat up to 400 °F (200 °C), and can actually outlast human hair. It is very similar to human hair given it is tangle-free and has a",
"-25.43395413419057"
],
[
"are also contained. The polymers are the most effective and important component of hair mousse, which acts as a conditioning agent. These resins are long chain molecules that form a film on the hair allowing a tighter grip on the hair strands, making it harder to brush off and form a resistant film. This allows users to comb or brush their hair, as well as apply heat from a blow dryer without the mousse leaving the hair stiff.\nCationic resin is often blended with another film former to give a firmer hold on the hair. In order for this to be",
"-25.426957732182927"
],
[
"styles of hair are easier to braid than others. The length of hair also plays a role in the ability to braid; shorter hair can be more of a challenge. Bobby pins can be useful when braiding shorter hair or hair with many different layers to keep all of the hair in the French braid in place. There are many different ways of French braiding that make it unique; a person can braid at a slant, braid into a bun and only braid the bangs are just a few examples.\nCompared to the simplest form of hair braid, a French braid",
"-25.425179416517494"
],
[
"and partitioning within the case to optimize airflow and to thermally isolate components. Vents and ducts may easily be added to regular cases.\nCase designed to be quiet typically have wire grills or honeycombed fan grills. Both are far superior to the older style of stamped grill.\nFeatures that facilitate neat cable management, such as brackets and space to run cables behind the motherboard tray, help increase cooling efficiency.\nAir filters can help to prevent dust from coating heat sinks and surfaces, which dust impedes heat transfer, making fans spin faster. However, the filter itself can increase noise if it restricts airflow too",
"-25.424179583231307"
],
[
"a strong influence on the sound experience. Loudspeaker output is influenced by interaction with room boundaries, particularly bass response, and high frequency transducers are directional, or \"beaming\". Accessories Audiophiles use a wide variety of accessories and fine-tuning techniques, sometimes referred to as \"tweaks\", to improve the sound of their systems. These include power conditioner filters to \"clean\" the electricity, equipment racks to isolate components from floor vibrations, specialty power and audio cables, loudspeaker stands (and footers to isolate speakers from stands), and room treatments.\nThere are several types of room treatment. Sound-absorbing materials may be placed strategically within a listening room",
"-25.391868757316843"
],
[
"this noise results from the use of power tools, which can produce dangerous levels of noise by themselves. Although the loudness of power tools may be quite apparent to those using them, the actual level of noise produced was mostly unreported and not available easily in an online reference. This database provides detailed information about these noise levels so that appropriate action may be taken to protect workers from them. Method of testing The information in the database originates from testing done on power tools by NIOSH researchers. Testing is conducted in accordance with ISO 3744 and ANSI S12.15. Calibration",
"-25.382627892366145"
],
[
"Black Gate (capacitor) Settling-in Period Many audiophiles believe it can take many hours before the maximum sonic benefits are heard in audio circuits that use Black Gates. This long settling-in procedure is often a controversial issue when auditioning such equipment, as the frequency response is said to tend to shift around greatly during this period, making the equipment sound different from one audition to another. Once completely 'burnt-in' however, the benefits are said to be heard clearly. This settling period or burn in period was most likely attributed to the aluminum layer completing its reaction to form a complete",
"-25.370662609433566"
],
[
"and Andis, replace some plastic parts in consumer grade units with metal parts on their professional grade units to extend the durability and useful lifespan of the product. Some companies, such as Wahl Clipper, produce specialty clippers, such as the Trim n Vac, which are designed for ease of use at home. Hair rollers Traditionally, a hair roller is a small roller with velcro used for styling and curling hair, and with a blowdryer. The damage that extensive heat application can cause to hair is well known however and so a number of alternative, heat-free hair rollers have been manufactured",
"-25.363200813677395"
],
[
"each church in Kent and Surrey in his two books about the bells of those counties. Half-muffled bells A modern tradition at funerals where there are full circle ring of bells is to use \"half-muffles\" when sounding one bell as a tolled bell, or to ring all the bells half-muffled in change ringing. Half-muffling means a leather muffle is placed on one side only of the clapper of each bell so that there is a loud \"open\" strike followed by a muffled strike, which has a very sonorous and mournful echo effect. Fully muffled bell ringing is very rare",
"-25.3629375149103"
],
[
"This type of noise is often perceived as snap, crackle and pop when mechanically manipulating or handling the headphone cord. It is often hard to tell, without actual measurements if the source of this noise is electronic or mechanical in nature.\n2) Impedance: Low impedance speaker systems (typically 4-8 Ohms) operating at high power draw heavy currents. A 100W RMS, 4 Ohm speaker operating at full power, for example requires a current of 5A RMS. Depending the length of the speaker cable, and the listener's budget, a minimum wire size of 16AWG is required, and stranded copper cables as heavy",
"-25.354584810964298"
],
[
"Bellows A bellows or pair of bellows is a device constructed to furnish a strong blast of air. The simplest type consists of a flexible bag comprising a pair of rigid boards with handles joined by flexible leather sides enclosing an approximately airtight cavity which can be expanded and contracted by operating the handles, and fitted with a valve allowing air to fill the cavity when expanded, and with a tube through which the air is forced out in a stream when the cavity is compressed. It has many applications, in particular blowing on a fire to supply it with",
"-25.349144939304097"
],
[
"the primary and the secondary greatly reduces the coupling of common-mode noise. This may be another winding or a metal strip surrounding a winding. \nDifferential noise can magnetically couple from the primary to the secondary of an isolation transformer, and must be filtered out if a problem occurs. Pulse transformers Some small transformers are used for isolation in pulse circuits. Electronics Testing In electronics testing and servicing, an isolation transformer is a 1:1 (under load) power transformer used for safety. Without it, exposed live metal in a device under test is at a hazardous voltage relative to grounded objects",
"-25.347482567522093"
],
[
"them by pulling the hair through the upright teeth of a brush-like tool called a \"hackle\" which also removes tangles and any short or broken strands. The hair is placed on one of a pair of short-bristled brushes called \"drawing brushes\" with the root ends extending over one edge; the edge facing the wigmaker (or properly called, boardworker), and the second brush is pressed down on top of it so that a few strands can be withdrawn at a time, leaving the rest undisturbed. Adding the hair Weft structured wigs can have the wefts sewn to the foundation by",
"-25.343271619465668"
],
[
"and college girls the bangs and thin headband combination remained popular in the US and Europe for much of the decade. Dutch braids, twin French braids, side ponytails, and a single chunky side braid were popular styles with longer hair throughout the mid and late 2010s. Side parting hair is popular in America, and since 2019 ponytails with scrunchies have been worn not only for sport and exercise, but also everyday. In the late 2010s middle veins were very popular especially in Britain, Ireland and the rest of Europe. The chin length bob cut, long hair with choppy side",
"-25.314945624035317"
],
[
"Scrunchie A scrunchie (or scrunchy) is a fabric covered elastic hair tie used to fasten medium to long hair types. Large, elaborate styles and diminutive, unassuming forms are available in many different colors, fabrics, and designs. Although scrunchies are most commonly used in hair, they can also be worn around the wrist or ankle as an accessory to enhance an outfit. \nThe Scrunchie was invented by Philips E. Meyers in 1963 but was not patented until 1987 by Ronny Revson, who named the decorative hair accessory the Scunci after her pet toy poodle. The name Scrunchie was a natural evolution,",
"-25.309840682544746"
],
[
"the need to avoid making higher-frequency noise (due to the sound of the spinning blades). Current models use an AC induction motor spinning at 800 RPM (13 Hz). The woofer is installed and carefully braced so that the blades lie in a circular opening, so that air can be moved between an external chamber, such as the attic of a house, and the main listening space; if the rotary woofer were not installed in such a \"baffle\" and placed directly in the main space instead, the generated sound pressure from the rear of the unit being 180 degrees out of",
"-25.307468257306027"
],
[
"about the same time, but different salons use different solutions and machines, so the time varies. Styling A cold perm makes the hair most wavy when it is wet, so to put the styling gel/foam when it is wet and air-drying it makes the wave most prominent. A digital perm makes the hair wavy when it is dry, so you just need to dry it with a blow dryer, and use your hand to make the curl. Styling is very easy, and if you set the curl in the morning, at the end of the day when the wave loosens,",
"-25.269564135442124"
],
[
"designed horns have the effect of making the speaker cone transfer more of the electrical energy in the voice coil into the air; in effect the driver appears to have higher efficiency. Horns can help control dispersion at higher frequencies which is useful in some applications such as sound reinforcement. The mathematical theory of horn coupling is well developed and understood, though implementation is sometimes difficult. Properly designed horns for high frequencies are small (above say 3 kHz or so, a few centimetres or inches), those for mid-range frequencies (perhaps 300 Hz to 2 kHz) much larger, perhaps 30 to 60 cm (1 or",
"-25.266840744647197"
],
[
"it suffers from being difficult to manufacture with consistency, and to keep in pristine condition on location. Thus there is an interest (DPA 5100, Rycote Cyclone) to move away from its use.\nIn the studio and on stage, pop-screens and foam shields can be useful for reasons of hygiene, and protecting microphones from spittle and sweat. They can also be useful coloured idents. On location the basket shield can contain a suspension system to isolate the microphone from shock and handling noise.\nStating the efficiency of wind noise reduction is an inexact science, since the effect varies enormously with frequency, and hence",
"-25.261309505309328"
],
[
"of these materials can act as both vibrators and inciters, felt and hair are the least effective vibrators due to the fact that they would be inaudible when vibrated. This then means that at least one of the two sound-generating bodies must be made of metal, wood, or leather, referred to as primary materials. In Penderecki’s timbre system, the three primary materials may (and do) interact with one another, whereas felt and hair can only interact with one of the primary materials and not themselves.\nThough he was inspired by Drobner, Penderecki’s timbre system goes another step further, in which “it",
"-25.261175685562193"
],
[
"heating. Making the gauze with electrical resistance wire causes it to glow red when a sufficiently large current is passed. With the heat being continuously supplied, the sound is also continuous and rather loud. Rijke seems to have received complaints from his university colleagues because he reports that the sound could be easily heard three rooms away from his laboratory. The electrical power required to achieve this is about 1 kW.\nLord Rayleigh, who wrote the definitive textbook on sound in 1877, recommends this as a very effective lecture demonstration. He used a cast iron pipe",
"-25.260115890283487"
],
[
"ein Ding müssen wir auch haben\" (We should also have one of those things) is even the title of a TV show about electronics. \nThe expression \"Det sker i de bedste familier\" (It happens in the best of families) is a crude translation of the German \"Es kommt in den besten Familien vor\". \nBundesliga-hår (\"Bundesliga hair\") is the Danish word for a mullet, because this type of haircut (as well as in Hungary) was regarded a characteristic of football Bundesliga players. Also the Italians saw this kind of connection and dubbed it capelli alla tedesca (German style haircut). Dutch The",
"-25.23993449547561"
],
[
"whistles have been developed.\nOne characteristic of a whistle is that it creates a pure, or nearly pure, tone. The conversion of flow energy to sound comes from an interaction between a solid material and a fluid stream. The forces in some whistles are sufficient to set the solid material in motion. Classic examples are Aeolian tones that result in galloping power lines, or the Tacoma Narrows Bridge (the so-called \"Galloping Gertie\" of popular media). Other examples are circular disks set into vibration.\nDepending on the geometry, there are two basic types of whistles: those that generate sound through oscillations of fluid",
"-25.20242412976222"
],
[
"used to create a flat braid. A grid of gears can be used to create solid-core braids, for example a square braid. Maypole braider Maypole braiders, also known as circular braiders, are a type of horn gear braider used to produce hollow circular braids. The movement and order of fibers mimics that of ribbons used to decorate a maypole. They were well suited to be driven by the steam engines of the industrial revolution and electric motor-powered machines were common by the beginning of the 20th century.\nCommon types of braiding machines work in much the same way as the process",
"-25.199696671043057"
],
[
"not be an issue. However, sub-harmonic vibrations, which can create annoying audible noise, may be caused in larger parts near the machine due to the ultrasonic welding frequency. This noise can be damped by clamping these large parts at one or more locations. Also, high-powered welders with frequencies of 15 kHz and 20 kHz typically emit a potentially damaging high-pitched squeal in the range of human hearing. Shielding this radiating sound can be done using an acoustic enclosure. There are hearing and safety concerns with ultrasonic welding that are important to consider, but generally they are comparable to",
"-25.185106970136985"
],
[
"the Wide Range System. It had a flatter audio response than the old style Wente condenser type and didn't require electronics installed in the microphone housing. Signals fed to the cutting head were pre-emphasized in the treble region to help override noise in playback. Groove cuts in the vertical plane were employed rather than the usual lateral cuts. The chief advantage claimed was more grooves per inch that could be crowded together, resulting in longer playback time. Additionally, the problem of inner groove distortion, which plagued lateral cuts, could be avoided with the vertical cut system. Wax masters were made",
"-25.184244134201435"
],
[
"other listeners. Receiver In the industrial or commercial setting, workers must comply with the appropriate Hearing conservation program. Administrative controls, such as the restriction of personnel in noisy areas, prevents unnecessary noise exposure. Personal protective equipment such as foam ear plugs or ear muffs to attenuate sound provide a last line of defense for the listener. Roadways Source control in roadway noise has provided little reduction in vehicle noise, except for the development of the hybrid vehicle; nevertheless, hybrid use will need to attain a market share of roughly fifty percent to have a major impact on noise source reduction",
"-25.182271797733847"
],
[
"\"cold soap\" waves became a popular hairstyle. Men produced waves by washing their hair with soap but not rinsing all of it out before putting on their do-rags.",
"-25.166157624713378"
],
[
"term still used for the practice of cutting horses' tails straight across. The term fringe refers to the resemblance of the short row of hair to ornamental fringe trim, such as that often found on shawls. History and development Bangs occur naturally in many styles of short hair-cuts.\nHairstyles that feature bangs have come and gone out of fashion as frequently as other hairstyles, and they can be worn in any number of ways. Influential people with bangs in modern times have included silent movie actress Louise Brooks, 1950s glamor model Bettie Page, the Beatles, and actress Elizabeth Taylor in",
"-25.15727144497214"
]
] |
1msi0q | Why is the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics Ignored/Dismissed in Regards to Evolution? | [
"The 2nd law of thermodynamics applies only to a closed system. Earth is not a closed system - it receives huge amounts of energy from the sun.",
" > The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated system never decreases We are not an isolated system, we have the sun blasting energy at us.",
"I assume you're speaking of the property of entropy, which describes how order always moves towards disorder, and never the other way around. You see, for the second law of thermodynamics to be applicable in the context of entropy, you need to have an *isolated* system. Earth, on the other hand, is an open system. In terms of evolution, which operates in the Earth environment, the second law of thermodynamics really isn't the property meant to describe it. Associating natural evolution with it just doesn't make sense.",
"Others have explained it, but I would like to comment on a potential implication that often goes ignored. The problem is that if the second law behaved in the manner that creationists describe, no 'orderly' system could ever exist in the first place, including the human body. In other words, if you were to accept the purported break between evolution and the second law, you'd have to also accept that there is something fundamentally supernatural about the human body or a tree, or a snowflake; which even Christians don't accept (note, they talk about the immateriality of the soul, not the physical body).",
"Yup. Overall, the total energy in the *universe* is decreasing. But the 2nd law of thermodynamics doesn't say that you can't boil water, only that after boiling water, there will be less energy in the world than before you did. But fortunately, there's lots of places we can get new energy: burning coal, the Sun, critical masses of radioactive elements, and so on and so forth. Evolution doesn't anywhere violate this principle. Evolution *does* imply that more complex *systems* come from less complex systems, but you can un-shuffle a deck of cards--can put the deck in the same order it was when you opened the box. But a more complex system isn't heat. Neither is a un-shuffled deck of cards more or less energy-related than a shuffled one. Evolution is more about information than energy. Energy comes into play in the life of an individual, but a species (or a single cell, or a mitochondrion) changes generationally by changes occurring in the information encoded in its genome. Going from a light-sensitive chunk of brain to something that's a little more eyeball like is like getting dealt a royal flush. The juggling of the genome from mutation is like the shuffling of a deck of cards, and the royal flush wins more often than 7-high, so, it has more offspring. Of course those offspring need energy to live, and they get it from the Sun, or from the local power company, and the overall level of energy in the Universe decreases exactly as the 2nd law requires.",
"This one is a bit of a double-edged sword, or perhaps a karmic landmine, if you will. As someone who cares little for Internet points, I will step through the minefield to try to shed some light on the complexity of the answer for you. Those who have a vested interest in advancing the claims against evolution are usually in a poor position to grasp the science of their arguments. The deck is stacked against them, unfortunately: they have probably had a lifetime of people espousing junk science to further religious indoctrination goals. By the time they've reached an age where they can reason for themselves, they are already looking for ways to stay in the dark, versus ways to help illuminate their understanding of complex concepts (incidentally, this is where you separate yourself from that pack, and congratulations on attempting to educate yourself). Without implying that better education correlates with atheism, I'll simply say that religious tenets do not survive the use of logic and reason, when an open mind is properly applying these tools. Sadly, the *actual* answers to some of these pseudo-scientific questions are above the heads of many who are asking them. If you were to go to Ask Science and post a similarly-worded inquiry, you might not understand the answer (I know that my brain would have some trouble wrapping around what they're going to spit back at you, and I've got an undergraduate physics education!). It ends up being a self-perpetuating cycle of parroting misunderstood concepts to people with an interest in accepting even tenuous tidbits that validate their belief systems. As a whole, the herd becomes weaker for it.",
"This question is a PRATT and is roughly equivalent to asking why airplanes don't get tickets for not ignoring the speed limits of roads that they fly over; asking this displays a fundamental misunderstanding of both the second law of thermodynamics and evolution and, if you don't want to google it for a billion answers, go to /r/askscience"
] | [
[
"do] not invoke divine intervention to explain the process [...] thermodynamics offers nothing to dampen our confidence in Darwinism. Moral implications Other common objections to evolution allege that evolution leads to objectionable results, including bad beliefs, behaviors, and events. It is argued that the teaching of evolution degrades values, undermines morals, and fosters irreligion or atheism. These may be considered appeals to consequences (a form of logical fallacy), as the potential ramifications of belief in evolutionary theory have nothing to do with its objective empirical reality. Humans as animals In biological classification humans are animals, a basic point which has",
"-32.15203291742364"
],
[
"could provide at least a partial answer to a question which had seemed to be out of the reach of normal science: \"why do the fundamental laws of physics take the particular form we observe and not another?\"\nSince Carter's 1973 paper, the term \"anthropic principle\" has been extended to cover a number of ideas which differ in important ways from those he espoused. Particular confusion was caused in 1986 by the book The Anthropic Cosmological Principle by John D. Barrow and Frank Tipler, published that year which distinguished between \"weak\" and \"strong\" anthropic principle in a way very different from",
"-31.027612213947577"
],
[
"the grounds that it cannot explain certain non-evolutionary processes, such as abiogenesis, the Big Bang, or the meaning of life. In such instances, evolution is being redefined to refer to the entire history of the universe, and it is argued that if one aspect of the universe is seemingly inexplicable, the entire body of scientific theories must be baseless. At this point, objections leave the arena of evolutionary biology and become general scientific or philosophical disputes.\nAstronomers Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe have argued in favor of cosmic ancestry, and against abiogenesis and evolution. Impossibility This class of objections is more",
"-30.421111534524243"
],
[
"a trajectory and its equal anti-trajectory are of identical magnitude but opposite sign, then, so the argument goes, one cannot prove that entropy production is positive.\nFor a long time, exact results in thermodynamics were only possible in linear systems capable of reaching equilibrium, leaving other questions like the Loschmidt paradox unsolved. During the last few decades fresh approaches have revealed general laws applicable to non-equilibrium system which are described by nonlinear equations, pushing the range of exact thermodynamic statements beyond the realm of traditional linear solutions. These exact results are particularly relevant for small systems where appreciable (typically non-Gaussian) fluctuations",
"-30.263010665163165"
],
[
"works of those such as Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson, two established principles of thermodynamics had evolved, the first principle and the second principle, later restated as thermodynamic laws. By 1873, for example, thermodynamicist Josiah Willard Gibbs, in his memoir Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids, clearly stated the first two absolute laws of thermodynamics. Some textbooks throughout the 20th century have numbered the laws differently. In some fields removed from chemistry, the second law was considered to deal with the efficiency of heat engines only, whereas what was called the third law dealt with entropy",
"-30.20886554174649"
],
[
"trial. He also wrote an article in The American Spectator. In these articles he reiterates the view that evolution violates the second law of thermodynamics. Mathematician Jason Rosenhouse wrote a response in The Mathematical Intelligencer entitled \"How Anti-evolutionists Abuse Mathematics\" and \"Does Evolution Have a Thermodynamics Problem?\". Physicist Mark Perakh called Sewell's thermodynamics work \"depressingly fallacious\".\nIn 2010, Sewell published a collection of essays on origins: In The Beginning And Other Essays on Intelligent Design The Discovery Institute lists as one of the \"Peer-Reviewed & Peer-Edited Scientific Publications Supporting the Theory of Intelligent Design\" is a postscript to his",
"-30.031795212591533"
],
[
"should not be confused or conflated with thermodynamic entropy properly defined for the second law. These other quantities indeed belong to statistical mechanics, not to thermodynamics, the primary realm of the second law.\nEven though the applicability of the second law of thermodynamics is limited for non-equilibrium systems, the laws governing such systems are still being discussed. One of the guiding principles for systems which are far from equilibrium is the maximum entropy production principle. It states that a system away from equilibrium evolves in such a way as to maximize entropy production, given present constraints.\nThe physics of macroscopically observable fluctuations",
"-30.01834501401754"
],
[
"Quantum thermodynamics Emergence of the second law The second law of thermodynamics is a statement on the irreversibility of dynamics or, the breakup of time reversal symmetry (T-symmetry). This should be consistent with the empirical direct definition: heat will flow spontaneously from a hot source to a cold sink.\nFrom a static viewpoint, for a closed quantum system, the II-law of thermodynamics is a consequence of the unitary evolution. In this approach, one accounts for the entropy change before and after a change in the entire system. A dynamical viewpoint is based on local accounting for the entropy changes\nin the subsystems",
"-30.008641071763122"
],
[
"requiring a decrease in entropy, or disorder, over time.\nThe claims have been criticized for ignoring that the second law only applies to isolated systems. Organisms are open systems as they constantly exchange energy and matter with their environment: for example animals eat food and excrete waste, and radiate and absorb heat. It is argued that the Sun-Earth-space system does not violate the second law because the enormous increase in entropy due to the Sun and Earth radiating into space dwarfs the local decrease in entropy caused by the existence and evolution of self-organizing life.\nSince the second law of thermodynamics has",
"-30.007642483353266"
],
[
"Second law of thermodynamics Various statements of the law The second law of thermodynamics may be expressed in many specific ways, the most prominent classical statements being the statement by Rudolf Clausius (1854), the statement by Lord Kelvin (1851), and the statement in axiomatic thermodynamics by Constantin Carathéodory (1909). These statements cast the law in general physical terms citing the impossibility of certain processes. The Clausius and the Kelvin statements have been shown to be equivalent. Clausius statement The German scientist Rudolf Clausius laid the foundation for the second law of thermodynamics in 1850 by examining the relation between heat",
"-30.000334093609126"
],
[
"ever made to realize the implications of the second law of thermodynamics; if so, he may well be upset. The law says that everything tends to uniformity and a dead level, diminishing (not increasing) heterogeneity'. The alleged contradiction between Spencer's theory and the second law of thermodynamics might arise from limiting the definition of homogeneity and heterogeneity to the homogeneity and heterogeneity of the spatial distribution of matter. For instance, according to the second law of thermodynamics, molecules of gas filling a room eventually fill the room at similar intervals. On the other hand, the directions of motion of the",
"-29.98305105380905"
],
[
"of molecular chaos. There are many versions of the second law, but they all have the same effect, which is to explain the phenomenon of irreversibility in nature. Third Law This law of thermodynamics is a statistical law of nature regarding entropy and the impossibility of reaching absolute zero of temperature. This law provides an absolute reference point for the determination of entropy. The entropy determined relative to this point is the absolute entropy. Alternate definitions include \"the entropy of all systems and of all states of a system is smallest at absolute zero,\" or equivalently \"it is impossible",
"-29.884070094121853"
],
[
"thermodynamics from the laws of mechanics. But many faulty arguments survived from the 19th century, when statistical mechanics was considered dubious. The lapses in intuition mostly stemmed from the fact that the limit of an infinite statistical system has many zero-one laws which are absent in finite systems: an infinitesimal change in a parameter can lead to big differences in the overall, aggregate behavior, as Democritus expected. Kramers–Wannier duality Kramers and Wannier were able to show that the high temperature expansion and the low temperature expansion of the model are equal up to an overall rescaling of the free energy.",
"-29.76387981775406"
],
[
"the Second Law (any of the two, Clausius' or Lord Kelvin's statement can be used since they are equivalent) and using the Clausius' Theorem (see Kerson Huang ISBN 978-0471815181). The later theory of statistical mechanics, however, is symmetric in time. Although it states that a system significantly below maximum entropy is very likely to evolve towards higher entropy, it also states that such a system is very likely to have evolved from higher entropy. Particle physics Symmetry is one of the most powerful tools in particle physics, because it has become evident that practically all laws of nature originate in symmetries.",
"-29.725552989402786"
],
[
"molecular level most evolutionary change is caused by random drift of gene mutants that are equivalent in the face of selection. Prigogine In his 1997 book, The End of Certainty, Prigogine contends that determinism is no longer a viable scientific belief. \"The more we know about our universe, the more difficult it becomes to believe in determinism.\" This is a major departure from the approach of Newton, Einstein and Schrödinger, all of whom expressed their theories in terms of deterministic equations. According to Prigogine, determinism loses its explanatory power in the face of irreversibility and instability.\nPrigogine traces the dispute over",
"-29.5995727503323"
],
[
"be the \"past\". Thus this law is about the boundary conditions rather than the equations of motion of our world.\nThe Second Law of Thermodynamics is statistical in nature, and therefore its reliability arises from the huge number of particles present in macroscopic systems. It is not impossible, in principle, for all 6 × 10²³ atoms in a mole of a gas to spontaneously migrate to one half of a container; it is only fantastically unlikely—so unlikely that no macroscopic violation of the Second Law has ever been observed. T Symmetry is the symmetry of physical laws under a time reversal",
"-29.57937068649335"
],
[
"evolutionary principle:\nThe action of this principle is exactly like that of the centrifugal governor of the steam engine, which checks and corrects any irregularities almost before they become evident; and in like manner no unbalanced deficiency in the animal kingdom can ever reach any conspicuous magnitude, because it would make itself felt at the very first step, by rendering existence difficult and extinction almost sure soon to follow.\nBateson revisited the topic in his 1979 book Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity, and other scholars have continued to explore the connection between natural selection and systems theory. Culture A centrifugal governor",
"-29.576661564962706"
],
[
"Zermelo advanced a theory that the Second Law of Thermodynamics was absolute rather than statistical. Zermelo bolstered his theory by pointing out that the Poincaré recurrence theorem shows statistical entropy in a closed system must eventually be a periodic function; therefore, the Second Law, which is always observed to increase entropy, is unlikely to be statistical. To counter Zermelo's argument, the Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann advanced two theories. The first theory, now believed to be the correct one, is that the Universe started for some unknown reason in a low-entropy state. The second and alternative theory, published in 1896 but",
"-29.56437991873827"
],
[
"raging between so-called \"creationism\" and evolutionism, presented as though they were mutually exclusive alternatives: those who believe in the Creator would not be able to conceive of evolution, and those who instead support evolution would have to exclude God. This antithesis is absurd because, on the one hand, there are so many scientific proofs in favour of evolution which appears to be a reality we can see and which enriches our knowledge of life and being as such. But on the other, the doctrine of evolution does not answer every query, especially the great philosophical question: where does",
"-29.5150823481963"
],
[
"state of a given system. This is partly, but not entirely, because all flows within and through the system are zero.\nR. Haase's presentation of thermodynamics does not start with a restriction to thermodynamic equilibrium because he intends to allow for non-equilibrium thermodynamics. He considers an arbitrary system with time invariant properties. He tests it for thermodynamic equilibrium by cutting it off from all external influences, except external force fields. If after insulation, nothing changes, he says that the system was in equilibrium.\nIn a section headed \"Thermodynamic equilibrium\", H.B. Callen defines equilibrium states in a paragraph. He points out that they",
"-29.44990908849286"
],
[
"evolution of the state variable imply optimal control laws that are linear.\nOther examples include the disproofs of the Seifert conjecture, the Pólya conjecture, the conjecture of Hilbert's fourteenth problem, Tait's conjecture, and the Ganea conjecture. In philosophy In philosophy, counterexamples are usually used to argue that a certain philosophical position is wrong by showing that it does not apply in certain cases. Unlike mathematicians, philosophers cannot prove their claims beyond any doubt, so other philosophers are free to disagree and try to find counterexamples in response. Of course, now the first philosopher can argue that the alleged counterexample does not",
"-29.437654363440743"
],
[
"mediating, rather than malevolent, connotation of the word. Original thought experiment The second law of thermodynamics ensures (through statistical probability) that two bodies of different temperature, when brought into contact with each other and isolated from the rest of the Universe, will evolve to a thermodynamic equilibrium in which both bodies have approximately the same temperature. The second law is also expressed as the assertion that in an isolated system, entropy never decreases.\nMaxwell conceived a thought experiment as a way of furthering the understanding of the second law. His description of the experiment is as follows:\n... if we conceive of",
"-29.429293933673762"
],
[
"beyond the scope of currently known macroscopic thermodynamic methods. Laws of thermodynamics Thermodynamics is principally based on a set of four laws which are universally valid when applied to systems that fall within the constraints implied by each. In the various theoretical descriptions of thermodynamics these laws may be expressed in seemingly differing forms, but the most prominent formulations are the following. Zeroth Law The zeroth law of thermodynamics states: If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.\nThis statement implies that thermal equilibrium is an equivalence relation on",
"-29.428530741366558"
],
[
"theory of evolution, which held that the embryological development of an organism repeats its evolutionary history. Critics of neo-Lamarckism, such as the German biologist August Weismann and Alfred Russel Wallace, pointed out that no one had ever produced solid evidence for the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Despite these criticisms, neo-Lamarckism remained the most popular alternative to natural selection at the end of the 19th century, and would remain the position of some naturalists well into the 20th century.\nOrthogenesis was the hypothesis that life has an innate tendency to change, in a unilinear fashion, towards ever-greater perfection. It had a significant",
"-29.410042452742346"
],
[
"separate law of thermodynamics, as its basis in thermodynamical equilibrium was implied in the other laws. The first, second, and third laws had been explicitly stated already, and found common acceptance in the physics community before the importance of the zeroth law for the definition of temperature was realized. As it was impractical to renumber the other laws, it was named the zeroth law. First Law The first law of thermodynamics states: The internal energy of an isolated system is constant.\nThis law is an expression of the principle of conservation of energy. It states that energy can be transformed",
"-29.258547194302082"
],
[
"complexity. His theory of natural selection provided a natural explanation of how species originated, but this only gained wide acceptance a century later.\nThe laws of conservation of energy, conservation of momentum and conservation of mass suggested a highly stable universe where there could be little loss of resources. With the advent of the steam engine and the industrial revolution, there was, however, an increased understanding that all forms of energy as defined in physics were not equally useful： they did not have the same energy quality. This realization led to the development of the laws of thermodynamics, in which the",
"-29.25232254920411"
],
[
"Evolution Without Selection Reception The idea of autoevolutionism has been described as a \"minority opinion at the fringes of official circles of thoughts and of the mainstream.\"\nA review by multiple authors in the Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres journal noted:\nThere are a few valid points in A. Lima-de-Faria's Evolution Without Selection Form and Function by Autoevolution but unfortunately they are embedded in the far-fetched examples, illogical progressions and disjointed lists with which the author attempts to demonstrate that evolution occurs not by natural selection but by autoevolution. Lima-de-Faria's major problem with natural selection seems to be that it",
"-29.16539911722066"
],
[
"some new findings lead us toward the recognition of evolution as more than a hypothesis. In fact it is remarkable that this theory has had progressively greater influence on the spirit of researchers, following a series of discoveries in different scholarly disciplines. The convergence in the results of these independent studies—which was neither planned nor sought—constitutes in itself a significant argument in favor of the theory.\nIn the same address, Pope John Paul II rejected any theory of evolution that provides a materialistic explanation for the human soul:\nTheories of evolution which, because of the philosophies which inspire them, regard the spirit",
"-28.89530593426025"
],
[
"physics and chemistry are designed in a way that supports organic life. On the other hand, skeptics point to evolutionary biology, claiming that if the Earth were perfectly designed by a perfect creator, the long and sometimes unsuccessful process of evolution would not have had to have taken place. Critics of this theory claim that evolutionary biology is in fact evidence of intelligent design and therefore God, pointing to the eventual development of the human brain, which could engineer society. Philosophy In this regard, eutaxiology can also be applied to ethics, especially concerning ends justifying means, and whether or not",
"-28.873315197997727"
],
[
"falsifiable predictions.\nFurther confusion arose in 1980–1981, when there was a long debate in the pages of Nature about the scientific status of the theory of evolution. Specifically, the argument was on the factors influencing and nature of the unit of selection in the genome, with one side positing natural selection, and the other, neutral mutation. Neither of the parties seriously doubted that the theory was both scientific and, according to current scientific knowledge, true. Some participants objected to statements that appeared to present the theory of evolution as an absolute dogma, however, rather than as a hypothesis that so far",
"-28.817117875209078"
],
[
"(which is certainly the case on smaller scales, giving rise to galactic clusters and voids).\nHowever, the anthropic principle has been criticised by many scientists. For example, in 1979 Bernard Carr and Martin Rees argued that the principle “is entirely post hoc: it has not yet been used to predict any feature of the Universe.” Others have taken objection to its philosophical basis, with Ernan McMullin writing in 1994 that \"the weak Anthropic principle is trivial ... and the strong Anthropic principle is indefensible.\" Since many physicists and philosophers of science do not consider the principle to be compatible with the",
"-28.796249433333287"
],
[
"of Law. The historian Edward J. Larson stated that the theory failed as an explanation in the minds of biologists from the late 19th century onwards as it broke the rules of methodological naturalism which they had grown to expect. Non-theistic evolution The major criticism of theistic evolution by non-theistic evolutionists focuses on its essential belief in a supernatural creator. These critics argue that by the application of Occam's razor, sufficient explanation of the phenomena of evolution is provided by natural processes (in particular, natural selection), and the intervention or direction of a supernatural entity is not required. The evolutionary",
"-28.786170980078168"
],
[
"Richard Dawkins, the law is \"really just a statement about the statistical improbability of following exactly the same evolutionary trajectory twice (or, indeed, any particular trajectory), in either direction\". Stephen Jay Gould suggested that irreversibility forecloses certain evolutionary pathways once broad forms have emerged: \"[For example], once you adopt the ordinary body plan of a reptile, hundreds of options are forever closed, and future possibilities must unfold within the limits of inherited design.\"\nThis principle is classically applied to morphology, particularly of fossils, but may also be used to describe molecular events, such as individual mutations or gene losses. Use in",
"-28.709887483993953"
],
[
"arguing that Eimer's criticism of natural selection was common amongst many evolutionists of his generation; they were searching for alternative mechanisms, as they had come to believe that natural selection could not create new species. Nineteenth and twentieth century Numerous versions of orthogenesis (see table) have been proposed. Debate centred on whether such theories were scientific, or whether orthogenesis was inherently vitalistic or essentially theological. For example, biologists such as Maynard M. Metcalf (1914), John Merle Coulter (1915), David Starr Jordan (1920) and Charles B. Lipman (1922) claimed evidence for orthogenesis in bacteria, fish populations and plants. \nIn 1950, the",
"-28.668769808391517"
],
[
"to be that there are certain laws of form built into the universe which somehow determine the development of organisms as well as a number of abiotic processes\", but the definition of autoevolution was never made clear. He criticized the book noting that \"many aspects of biology are discussed in the text, but these discussions are riddled with erroneous and unsupported statements\" and concluded that population biology has discredited any theory of orthogenesis.\nHistorian of biology Igor Popov who has written a book on the history of orthogenesis has commented that the Lima-de-Faria's treatise has \"all the drawbacks of theoretical biological",
"-28.630657721078023"
],
[
"Evolutionary argument against naturalism The evolutionary argument against naturalism (EAAN) is a philosophical argument asserting a problem with believing both evolution and philosophical naturalism simultaneously. The argument was first proposed by Alvin Plantinga in 1993 and \"raises issues of interest to epistemologists, philosophers of mind, evolutionary biologists, and philosophers of religion\". The EAAN argues that the combined belief in both evolutionary theory and naturalism is epistemically self-defeating. The argument for this is that if both evolution and naturalism are true, then the probability of having reliable cognitive faculties are low. Development of the idea The idea that \"naturalism\" undercuts its",
"-28.61011324787978"
],
[
"conclusion: lacking a natural explanation for certain specific aspects of evolution, we assume intelligent cause. They contend most scientists would reply that the unexplained is not unexplainable, and that \"we don't know yet\" is a more appropriate response than invoking a cause outside science. Particularly, Michael Behe's demands for ever more detailed explanations of the historical evolution of molecular systems seem to assume a false dichotomy, where either evolution or design is the proper explanation, and any perceived failure of evolution becomes a victory for design. Scott and Branch also contend that the supposedly novel contributions proposed by intelligent design",
"-28.542143033868342"
],
[
"word 'orthogenesis' .. since so many of the geneticists seem to be of the opinion that the use of the term implies some supernatural force.\" With the rise of evolutionary developmental biology in the late 20th-early 21st centuries, however, which is open to an expanded concept of heredity that incorporates the physics of self-organization, ideas of constraint and preferred directions of morphological change have made a reappearance in evolutionary theory.\nFor these and other reasons, belief in evolutionary progress has remained \"a persistent heresy\", among evolutionary biologists including E. O. Wilson and Simon Conway Morris, although often denied or veiled. The",
"-28.533769915637095"
],
[
"second law of thermodynamics) and organic evolution.\" This influential text explores \"irreversibility and direction in evolution and order, negentropy, and evolution.\" Blum argues that evolution followed specific patterns predetermined by the inorganic nature of the earth and its thermodynamic processes. Cosmological arrow of time The cosmological arrow of time points in the direction of the universe's expansion. It may be linked to the thermodynamic arrow, with the universe heading towards a heat death (Big Chill) as the amount of usable energy becomes negligible. Alternatively, it may be an artifact of our place in the universe's evolution",
"-28.517567763919942"
],
[
"the Kelvin-Planck statements, such is not the case. To get all the content of the second law, Carathéodory's principle needs to be supplemented by Planck's principle, that isochoric work always increases the internal energy of a closed system that was initially in its own internal thermodynamic equilibrium. Statement for a system that has a known expression of its internal energy as a function of its extensive state variables The second law has been shown to be equivalent to the internal energy U being a weakly convex function, when written as a function of extensive properties (mass, volume, entropy, ...). Perpetual",
"-28.45172925220686"
],
[
"this situation. Another proposed class of theories is that the fundamental time evolution equation is incomplete, and requires the addition of some type of fundamental Lindbladian, the reason for this addition and the form of the additional term varies from theory to theory. A popular theory is Continuous spontaneous localization, where the lindblad term is proportional to the spatial separation of the states, this too results in a quasi-classical probabilistic state.\nThe Heisenberg uncertainty principle declares that for any given instant of time, the position and momentum of an electron or another subatomic particle cannot both be exactly determined and that",
"-28.433156725674053"
],
[
"of the first two laws of thermodynamics to universal processes. Specifically, in 1851, William Thomson outlined the view, as based on recent experiments on the dynamical theory of heat: \"heat is not a substance, but a dynamical form of mechanical effect, we perceive that there must be an equivalence between mechanical work and heat, as between cause and effect.\"\nIn 1852, Thomson published On a Universal Tendency in Nature to the Dissipation of Mechanical Energy, in which he outlined the rudiments of the second law of thermodynamics summarized by the view that mechanical motion and the energy used to create that",
"-28.365369759678288"
],
[
"further discussion, see Exergy.\nStatistical mechanics demonstrates that entropy is governed by probability, thus allowing for a decrease in disorder even in an isolated system. Although this is possible, such an event has a small probability of occurring, making it unlikely.\nThe applicability of a second law of thermodynamics is limited to systems which are near or in equilibrium state. At the same time, laws governing systems which are far from equilibrium are still debatable. One of the guiding principles for such systems is the maximum entropy production principle. It claims that non-equilibrium systems evolve such as to maximize its entropy production.",
"-28.32831211516168"
],
[
"is called the eclipse of Darwinism by some historians of science. During that time many scientists and philosophers accepted the reality of evolution but doubted whether natural selection was the main evolutionary mechanism.\nAmong the most popular alternatives were theories involving the inheritance of characteristics acquired during an organism's lifetime. Scientists who felt that such Lamarckian mechanisms were the key to evolution were called neo-Lamarckians. They included the British botanist George Henslow (1835–1925), who studied the effects of environmental stress on the growth of plants, in the belief that such environmentally-induced variation might explain much of plant evolution, and the American",
"-28.32679991988698"
],
[
"claim was that naturalism and contemporary evolutionary theory are at serious odds with one another—and this despite the fact that the latter is ordinarily thought to be one of the main pillars supporting the edifice of the former. (Of course I am not attacking the theory of evolution, or anything in that neighborhood; I am instead attacking the conjunction of naturalism with the view that human beings have evolved in that way. I see no similar problems with the conjunction of theism and the idea that human beings have evolved in the way contemporary evolutionary science suggests.) More particularly, I",
"-28.314284857638995"
],
[
"existing states), then total energy spreads over all available degrees equally without distinction between \"new\" and \"old\" degrees. This mathematical result is called the second law of thermodynamics. The second law of thermodynamics is valid only for systems which are near or in equilibrium state. For non-equilibrium systems, the laws governing system's behavior are still debatable. One of the guiding principles for these systems is the principle of maximum entropy production. It states that nonequilibrium systems behave in such a way to maximize its entropy production.",
"-28.2944933209219"
],
[
"statistical deviations from that predicted by the second law. Classical thermodynamic theory does not deal with these statistical variations. Living organisms There are two principal ways of formulating thermodynamics, (a) through passages from one state of thermodynamic equilibrium to another, and (b) through cyclic processes, by which the system is left unchanged, while the total entropy of the surroundings is increased. These two ways help to understand the processes of life. This topic is mostly beyond the scope of this present article, but has been considered by several authors, such as Erwin Schrödinger, Léon Brillouin and Isaac Asimov. It is",
"-28.27957881463226"
],
[
"is a measure of how much this process has progressed. The entropy of an isolated system which is not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium. However, principles guiding systems that are far from equilibrium are still debatable. One of such principles is the maximum entropy production principle. It states that non-equilibrium systems behave such a way as to maximize its entropy production.\nIn classical thermodynamics, the second law is a basic postulate applicable to any system involving heat energy transfer; in statistical thermodynamics, the second law is a consequence of the assumed randomness",
"-28.271872648299905"
],
[
"failed to disprove Lamarckism as it did not address use and disuse. Later, Mendelian genetics supplanted the notion of inheritance of acquired traits, eventually leading to the development of the modern synthesis, and the general abandonment of Lamarckism in biology. Despite this, interest in Lamarckism has continued.\nStudies in the field of epigenetics, genetics and somatic hypermutation have highlighted the possible inheritance of traits acquired by the previous generation. The characterization of these findings as Lamarckism has been disputed. The inheritance of the hologenome, consisting of the genomes of all an organism's symbiotic microbes as well as its own genome, is",
"-28.267625080246944"
],
[
"organism. Some evolutionary biologists, on the other hand, view it as an undirected emergent property of the ecosystem: as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, their combined actions tend to have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. Proponents of this view sometimes point to examples of life's actions in the past that have resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a reducing environment to an oxygen-rich one.\nDepending on how strongly the case is stated, the hypothesis conflicts with mainstream neo-Darwinism. Most biologists would accept Daisyworld-style homeostasis as possible, but would",
"-28.224066410504747"
],
[
"became a popular compromise, and St. George Jackson Mivart was among those accepting evolution but attacking Darwin's naturalistic mechanism. Eventually it was realised that supernatural intervention could not be a scientific explanation, and naturalistic mechanisms such as neo-Lamarckism were favoured as being more compatible with purpose than natural selection.\nSome theists took the general view that, instead of faith being in opposition to biological evolution, some or all classical religious teachings about Christian God and creation are compatible with some or all of modern scientific theory, including specifically evolution; it is also known as \"evolutionary creation.\" In Evolution versus Creationism, Eugenie",
"-28.133925270143664"
],
[
"outlined a preliminary relationship, as based on his own work and that of William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), between his newly developed concept of entropy and life. Building on this, one of the first to speculate on a possible thermodynamic perspective of evolution was the Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann. In 1875, building on the works of Clausius and Kelvin, Boltzmann reasoned:\nThe general struggle for existence of animate beings is not a struggle for raw materials – these, for organisms, are air, water and soil, all abundantly available – nor for energy which exists in plenty in any body in",
"-28.063739072560566"
],
[
"If such changes can be triggered to occur in a system in which they are not already occurring, the system is said to be in a meta-stable equilibrium.\nThough not a widely named a \"law,\" it is an axiom of thermodynamics that there exist states of thermodynamic equilibrium. The second law of thermodynamics states that when a body of material starts from an equilibrium state, in which, portions of it are held at different states by more or less permeable or impermeable partitions, and a thermodynamic operation removes or makes the partitions more permeable and it is isolated, then it spontaneously",
"-28.059353654272854"
],
[
"encyclical, some new findings lead us toward the recognition of evolution as more than an hypothesis. In fact it is remarkable that this theory has had progressively greater influence on the spirit of researchers, following a series of discoveries in different scholarly disciplines.\" Islamic views on Evolution Classical figures have not discussed the subject as it has only come up in the 19th century. Contemporaries have come up with several distinct stances. One stance is that adaptation, or evolution on a micro scale, is accepted within a species, but cross-species evolution, that is evolution from one species into another species,",
"-28.059194802044658"
],
[
"religion\" (cf. humanism). This argument against evolution is also frequently generalized into a criticism of all science; it is argued that \"science is an atheistic religion,\" on the grounds that its methodological naturalism is as unproven, and thus as \"faith-based,\" as the supernatural and theistic beliefs of creationism. Tautological nature A related claim to the supposed unfalsifiability of evolution is that natural selection is tautological. Specifically, it is often argued that the phrase \"survival of the fittest\" is a tautology, in that fitness is defined as ability to survive and reproduce. This phrase was first used by Herbert Spencer",
"-28.045074612877215"
],
[
"biologists accept the idea that evolution is dependent on the geometry of the natural environment, and thus must be consistent with biological structure and morphology. However, the view that selection has shaped the mind to prefer certain shapes and configurations is more controversial. Geometrical fundamentalism The phrase \"geometrical fundamentalism\" in this book was coined by Michael Mehaffy and Salingaros as a provocative way of expressing the dominance of abstract, monolithic forms of Modern architecture. Being easy to build, those simple typologies are passed on globally and now dominate world architecture. “One of the strengths of the International Style was that",
"-28.037000113123213"
],
[
"the evolutionary principle:\nThe action of this principle is exactly like that of the centrifugal governor of the steam engine, which checks and corrects any irregularities almost before they become evident; and in like manner no unbalanced deficiency in the animal kingdom can ever reach any conspicuous magnitude, because it would make itself felt at the very first step, by rendering existence difficult and extinction almost sure soon to follow.\nThe cybernetician and anthropologist Gregory Bateson would observe in the 1970s that though seeing it only as an illustration, Wallace had \"probably said the most powerful thing that’d been said in the",
"-28.022839085497253"
],
[
"1860s, which states that the entropy, or disorder, of an isolated system tends to increase with time, there has been a debate as to how this law relates to the \"ordering\" process of evolution. The apparent paradox between the second law of thermodynamics and the high degree of order and complexity produced by living systems, according to Avery, has its resolution \"in the information content of the Gibbs free energy that enters the biosphere from outside sources.\" Activism Since 1990, Avery has been the Contact Person for Denmark the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs. In 1995,",
"-28.011277113604592"
],
[
"second law of thermodynamics is a statistical law. Hence, occasionally, single molecules may not obey the law. All molecules are subject to the molecular storm, i.e. the random movement of molecules in the cytoplasm and the extracellular fluid. Molecular demons or molecular machines either biological or artificially constructed are continuously pushed around by the random thermal motion in a direction that sometimes violates the law. When this happens and the gliding back of the macromolecule from the movement it had made or the conformational change it underwent to its original state can be prevented, as is the case with molecular",
"-28.00170928047737"
],
[
"opponents of evolution made a transition from the anti-evolution crusade of the 1920s to the creation science movement of the 1960s. Despite some similarities between these two causes, the creation science movement represented a shift from overtly religious to covertly religious objections to evolutionary theory – sometimes described as a Wedge Strategy – raising what it claimed was scientific evidence in support of a literal interpretation of the Bible. Creation science also differed in terms of popular leadership, rhetorical tone, and sectional focus. It lacked a prestigious leader like Bryan, utilized pseudoscientific rather than religious rhetoric, and was a product",
"-27.98630139378656"
],
[
"as opposed to taking their particular values at random. That is, these values should be uniquely consistent with underlying physical laws.\nThe number of theoretically allowed configurations has prompted suggestions that this is not the case, and that many different vacua are physically realized. The anthropic principle proposes that fundamental constants may have the values they have because such values are necessary for life (and hence intelligent observers to measure the constants). The anthropic landscape thus refers to the collection of those portions of the landscape that are suitable for supporting intelligent life.\nIn order to implement this idea in a concrete",
"-27.965755650850042"
],
[
"had rejected the theory of natural selection as the organizing mechanism in evolution for a rectilinear model of directed evolution. With the emergence of the modern synthesis, in which genetics was integrated with evolution, orthogenesis and other alternatives to Darwinism were largely abandoned by biologists, but the notion that evolution represents progress is still widely shared. The evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr made the term effectively taboo in the journal Nature in 1948, by stating that it implied \"some supernatural force\". The American paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson (1953) attacked orthogenesis, linking it with vitalism by describing it as \"the mysterious inner",
"-27.95520006562583"
],
[
"formulations of the principles of thermodynamics, each of which call for their respectively appropriate versions of the law.\nAlthough these concepts of temperature and of thermal equilibrium are fundamental to thermodynamics and were clearly stated in the nineteenth century, the desire to explicitly number the above law was not widely felt until Fowler and Guggenheim did so in the 1930s, long after the first, second, and third law were already widely understood and recognized. Hence it was numbered the zeroth law. The importance of the law as a foundation to the earlier laws is that it allows the definition of",
"-27.939542977837846"
],
[
"Adiabatic invariant A property of a physical system, such as the entropy of a gas, that stays approximately constant when changes occur slowly is called an adiabatic invariant. By this it is meant that if a system is varied between two end points, as the time for the variation between the end points is increased to infinity, the variation of an adiabatic invariant between the two end points goes to zero.\nIn thermodynamics, an adiabatic process is a change that occurs without heat flow; it may be slow or fast. A reversible adiabatic process is an adiabatic process that occurs slowly",
"-27.92402693920303"
],
[
"a selection mechanism for evolution, but not a trait transfer mechanism. Lamarckism was still a very popular candidate for this. As part of the disagreement about the mechanisms of evolution, Samuel Butler called the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace strongly opposition to Lamarckism, for Neo-Darwinism . Weismann and Wallace rejected the Lamarckian idea of inheritance of acquired characteristics that even Darwin took for granted . The basis for the complete rejection of Lamarckism was Weismann's germ plasm theory. Weismann realised that the cells that produce the germ plasm, or gametes (such as sperm and eggs in animals), separate from the",
"-27.920050039247144"
],
[
"with no adaptive significance that would be difficult to explain by natural selection. To supporters of orthogenesis, in some cases species could be led by such trends to extinction. Eimer linked orthogenesis to neo-Lamarckism in his 1890 book Organic Evolution as the Result of the Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics According to the Laws of Organic Growth. He used examples such as the evolution of the horse to argue that evolution had proceeded in a regular single direction that was difficult to explain by random variation. Gould described Eimer as a materialist who rejected any vitalist or teleological approach to orthogenesis,",
"-27.918993632949423"
],
[
"excludes science, or for an evolutionary theory that covers over its own gaps and does not want to see the questions that reach beyond the methodological possibilities of natural science\", and that \"I find it important to underline that the theory of evolution implies questions that must be assigned to philosophy and which themselves lead beyond the realms of science.\"\nIn July 2007 at a meeting with clergy Pope Benedict XVI noted that the conflict between \"creationism\" and evolution (as a finding of science) is \"absurd:\" \nCurrently, I see in Germany, but also in the United States, a somewhat fierce debate",
"-27.91232817358832"
],
[
"Lamarck's theory of evolution was the adaptation of organisms to their environment. This could move organisms upward from the ladder of progress into new and distinct forms with local adaptations. It could also drive organisms into evolutionary blind alleys, where the organism became so finely adapted that no further change could occur. Lamarck argued that this adaptive force was powered by the interaction of organisms with their environment, by the use and disuse of certain characteristics. Religious views In his book Philosophie Zoologique, Lamarck referred to God as the \"sublime author of nature\". Lamarck's religious views are examined in the",
"-27.89677472956828"
],
[
"has ever been found documenting the process.\nPopular arguments against evolution have changed since the publishing of Henry M. Morris' first book on the subject, Scientific Creationism (1974), but some consistent themes remain: that missing links or gaps in the fossil record are proof against evolution; that the increased complexity of organisms over time through evolution is not possible due to the law of increasing entropy; that it is impossible that the mechanism of natural selection could account for common ancestry; and that evolutionary theory is untestable. The origin of the human species is particularly hotly contested; the fossil remains of",
"-27.865897275099996"
],
[
"was gradual over a period of perhaps half a century or more, and some early studies were in terms of cyclic processes.\nThe following is an account in terms of changes of state of a closed system through compound processes that are not necessarily cyclic. This account first considers processes for which the first law is easily verified because of their simplicity, namely adiabatic processes (in which there is no transfer as heat) and adynamic processes (in which there is no transfer as work). Overview of the weight of evidence for the law The first law of thermodynamics is so general",
"-27.857828869447985"
],
[
"German paleontologist Otto Schindewolf argued that variation tends to move in a predetermined direction. He believed this was purely mechanistic, denying any kind of vitalism, but that evolution occurs due to a periodic cycle of evolutionary processes dictated by factors internal to the organism.\nIn 1964 George Gaylord Simpson argued that orthogenetic theories such as those promulgated by Du Noüy and Sinnott were essentially theology rather than biology.\nThough evolution is not progressive, it does sometimes proceed in a linear way, reinforcing characteristics in certain lineages, but such examples are entirely consistent with the modern neo-Darwinian theory of evolution. These examples have",
"-27.855955346225528"
],
[
"be based on his mechanics, but he could not prove mathematically that mechanics is deterministic. Rather, his determinism is based on general philosophical principles, specifically on the principle of sufficient reason and the law of continuity. In statistical physics Although the second law of thermodynamics can determine the equilibrium state that a system will evolve to, and steady states in dissipative systems can sometimes be predicted, there exists no general rule to predict the time evolution of systems distanced from equilibrium, e.g. chaotic systems, if they do not approach an equilibrium state. Their predictability usually deteriorates with time and",
"-27.831455832667416"
],
[
"has argued that the existence of a large number of vacua puts anthropic reasoning on firm ground: only universes whose properties are such as to allow observers to exist are observed, while a possibly much larger set of universes lacking such properties go unnoticed.\nSteven Weinberg believes the Anthropic Principle may be appropriated by cosmologists committed to nontheism, and refers to that Principle as a \"turning point\" in modern science because applying it to the string landscape \"may explain how the constants of nature that we observe can take values suitable for life without being fine-tuned by a benevolent creator\". Others—most",
"-27.814861227176152"
],
[
"select from and from which selection bias (our observance of only this universe, compatible with our life) could occur. Definition and basis The principle was formulated as a response to a series of observations that the laws of nature and parameters of the universe take on values that are consistent with conditions for life as we know it rather than a set of values that would not be consistent with life on Earth. The anthropic principle states that this is a necessity, because if life were impossible, no living entity would be there to observe it, and thus would",
"-27.81067912405706"
],
[
"overturned theories that were at the time considered near-certain. They thus claim that current evolutionary theory is likely to undergo such a revolution in the future, on the basis that it is a \"theory in crisis\" for one reason or another.\nCritics of evolution commonly appeal to past scientific hoaxes such as the Piltdown Man forgery. It is argued that because scientists have been mistaken and deceived in the past about evidence for various aspects of evolution, the current evidence for evolution is likely to also be based on fraud and error. Much of the evidence for evolution has been accused",
"-27.789525715692434"
],
[
"scientific community. Schlafly has defended the statement as presenting an alternative to evolution. Furthermore, the encyclopedia rejects the idea of creationist and evolutionary concepts being compatible with one another, as in theistic evolution (to which even Charles Darwin was open) or Old Earth creationism. Environmentalism According to Conservapedia, global warming is a \"liberal hoax\". An entry on the \"Pacific Northwest Arboreal Octopus\" has received particular attention, although Schlafly has asserted that this page was intended as a parody of environmentalism. As of March 4, 2007, the entry has been deleted. Abortion Conservapedia asserts that there is a proven link between",
"-27.776490835647564"
],
[
"real-world predictions or falsifiable hypotheses. Thus, the concept has fallen somewhat out of favor except in didactic settings (where it is commonly referenced), and has largely been replaced by more complex and inclusive theories. History In 1932, Georgii Gause created the competitive exclusion principle based on experiments with cultures of yeast and paramecium. The principle maintains that two species with the same ecological niches cannot stably coexist. That is to say, when two species compete for identical resource access, one will be competitively superior and it will ultimately supplant the other. Over the next half century, limiting similarity slowly",
"-27.757847601802496"
],
[
"and energy. This applies to the universe in large scale, and consequently it may be difficult or impossible to apply the second law to it. Beyond this, the thermodynamics of systems described by the general theory of relativity is beyond the scope of the present article. Non-equilibrium states The theory of classical or equilibrium thermodynamics is idealized. A main postulate or assumption, often not even explicitly stated, is the existence of systems in their own internal states of thermodynamic equilibrium. In general, a region of space containing a physical system at a given time, that may be found in nature,",
"-27.75530502863694"
],
[
"Cope and Alpheus Hyatt, and the American entomologist Alpheus Packard. They considered Lamarckism to be more progressive and thus philosophically superior to Darwin's idea of natural selection acting on random variation. Butler and Cope both believed that this allowed organisms to effectively drive their own evolution, since organisms that developed new behaviors would change the patterns of use of their organs and thus kick-start the evolutionary process. In addition, Cope and Haeckel both believed that evolution was a progressive process. The idea of linear progress was an important part of Haeckel's recapitulation theory of evolution, which held that the embryological",
"-27.701081615523435"
],
[
"used during the later part of what Trigger calls the Antiquarianism-Imperial Synthesis period (c1770-c1900). The term evolutionism subsequently came to be used for the now discredited theory that evolution contained a deliberate component, rather than the selection of beneficial traits from random variation by differential survival. Modern use by creationists The term evolution is widely used, but the term evolutionism is not used in the scientific community to refer to evolutionary biology as it is redundant and anachronistic.\nHowever, the term has been used by creationists in discussing the creation-evolution controversy. For example, the Institute for Creation Research, in order to",
"-27.691712617583107"
],
[
"the second law of thermodynamics and entropy. Fleming describes these two principles. \"Entropy is the measure of the randomness or disorder of a system. The law of increase of entropy states that as a whole, the universe is evolving from order to disorder. This relates to the second law of thermodynamics, which states that heat spontaneously flows in only one direction, from hotter to colder. Since these equations, unlike Newton's laws of motion, do not go backward and forward, there is an 'arrow of time' that points toward the eventual 'heat death' of the universe.\"\nIn Arcadia, Stoppard uses all these",
"-27.68032656685682"
],
[
"Devolution (biology) Devolution, de-evolution, or backward evolution is the notion that species can revert to supposedly more primitive forms over time. The concept relates to the idea that evolution has a purpose (teleology) and is progressive (orthogenesis), for example that feet might be better than hooves or lungs than gills. However, evolutionary biology makes no such assumptions, and natural selection shapes adaptations with no foreknowledge of any kind. It is possible for small changes (such as in the frequency of a single gene) to be reversed by chance or selection, but this is no different from the normal course",
"-27.676128993101884"
],
[
"by the quantum-mechanical uncertainty principle led physicists such as Albert Einstein to propose alternative theories that retained determinism. A.N. Whitehead is famous for creating a process philosophy metaphysics inspired by electromagnetism and special relativity.\nIn chemistry, Gilbert Newton Lewis addressed the nature of motion, arguing that an electron should not be said to move when it has none of the properties of motion.\nKatherine Hawley notes that the metaphysics even of a widely accepted scientific theory may be challenged if it can be argued that the metaphysical presuppositions of the theory make no contribution to its predictive success. Rejections of metaphysics A",
"-27.656353158003185"
],
[
"laid down by the flood in Noah's time\". Another chapter disputed evolutionary theory.\nIn the Creation Research Society Quarterly for September 1971 Morris introduced the \"two-model approach\" asserting that evolution and creation were both equally scientific and equally religious, and soon afterwards he said they were \"competing scientific hypotheses\". For the third printing of Biology: A Search for Order in Complexity in 1974, the editor John N. Moore added a preface setting out this approach as \"the two basic viewpoints of origins\", the \"evolution model\" and the \"creation model\". When an Indiana school decided to use the book as their biology",
"-27.64587414514972"
],
[
"another in ways that suitably resemble corresponding relations between equilibrium thermodynamic state variables. In reality, these requirements are very demanding, and it may be difficult or practically, or even theoretically, impossible to satisfy them. This is part of why non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a work in progress. Overview Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a work in progress, not an established edifice. This article will try to sketch some approaches to it and some concepts important for it.\nSome concepts of particular importance for non-equilibrium thermodynamics include time rate of dissipation of energy (Rayleigh 1873, Onsager 1931, also), time rate of entropy production (Onsager 1931),",
"-27.64503616952061"
],
[
"assert that nothing changes as a consequence of determinism, when clearly we have lost the life-hope of origination.\nA prominent criticism of compatibilism is Peter van Inwagen's consequence argument.",
"-27.6329135675187"
],
[
"Creation and evolution in public education Overview While many doctrines do not raise theological objections to the modern evolutionary synthesis as an explanation for the present form of life on Earth, various fundamentalist sects, including many churches within Christianity, have objected vehemently. Some adherents are passionately opposed to the consensus view of the scientific community. Literal interpretations of religious texts are the greatest cause of conflict with evolutionary and cosmological investigations and conclusions.\nInternationally, evolution is taught in science courses with limited controversy, with the exception of a few areas of the United States and several Islamic fundamentalist countries. In",
"-27.601733825082192"
],
[
"has been applied to several distinct ideas. All versions of the principle have been accused of discouraging the search for a deeper physical understanding of the universe. The anthropic principle is often criticized for lacking falsifiability and therefore critics of the anthropic principle may point out that the anthropic principle is a non-scientific concept, even though the weak anthropic principle, \"conditions that are observed in the universe must allow the observer to exist\", is \"easy\" to support in mathematics and philosophy, i.e. it is a tautology or truism. However, building a substantive argument based on a tautological foundation is",
"-27.594058300586767"
],
[
"determinism back to Darwin, whose attempt to explain individual variability according to evolving populations inspired Ludwig Boltzmann to explain the behavior of gases in terms of populations of particles rather than individual particles. This led to the field of statistical mechanics and the realization that gases undergo irreversible processes. In deterministic physics, all processes are time-reversible, meaning that they can proceed backward as well as forward through time. As Prigogine explains, determinism is fundamentally a denial of the arrow of time. With no arrow of time, there is no longer a privileged moment known as the \"present,\" which follows a",
"-27.57495073429891"
],
[
"that gravity can: under the scientific definition, evolution is an observable process that occurs whenever a population of organisms genetically changes over time. Under the colloquial definition, the theory of evolution can also be called a fact, referring to this theory's well-established nature. Thus, evolution is widely considered both a theory and a fact by scientists.\nSimilar confusion is involved in objections that evolution is \"unproven,\" since no theory in science is known to be absolutely true, only verified by empirical evidence. This distinction is an important one in philosophy of science, as it relates to the lack of absolute certainty",
"-27.571537702708156"
],
[
"far-from-thermodynamic equilibrium processes. The principle of minimum entropy production is not applicable to these cases.\nTo cover these cases, there is needed at least one further state variable, a non-equilibrium quantity, the so-called second entropy. This appears to be a step towards generalization beyond the classical second law of thermodynamics, to cover non-equilibrium states or processes. The classical law refers only to states of thermodynamic equilibrium, and local thermodynamic equilibrium theory is an approximation that relies upon it. Still it is invoked to deal with phenomena near but not at thermodynamic equilibrium, and has some uses then. But the classical law",
"-27.559755478287116"
],
[
"Onsager, but was \"not quoted in any of the books on the subject\". He notes the difference between this principle and \"Prigogine's theorem, which states, crudely speaking, that if not all the forces acting on a system are fixed the free forces will take such values as to make the entropy production a minimum.\" Prigogine was present when this paper was read and he is reported by the journal editor to have given \"notice that he doubted the validity of part of Ziman's thermodynamic interpretation\". Ziegler Hans Ziegler extended the Melan-Prager non-equilibrium theory of materials to the non-isothermal case. Gyarmati",
"-27.54937772860285"
],
[
"that may be too high.\nTesting this idea in living organisms or ecosystems is impossible for all practical purposes because of the large time scales and small exergy inputs involved for changes to take place. However, if this idea is correct, it would not be a new fundamental law of nature. It would simply be living systems and ecosystems maximizing their exergy efficiency by utilizing laws of thermodynamics developed in the 19th century. Philosophical and cosmological implications Some proponents of utilizing exergy concepts describe them as a biocentric or ecocentric alternative for terms like quality and value. The \"deep ecology\" movement",
"-27.527101282503622"
],
[
"compared to the time to reach equilibrium. In a reversible adiabatic process, the system is in equilibrium at all stages and the entropy is constant. In the 1st half of the 20th century the scientists that worked in quantum physics used the term \"adiabatic\" for reversible adiabatic processes and later for any gradually changing conditions which allow the system to adapt its configuration. The quantum mechanical definition is closer to the thermodynamical concept of a quasistatic process, and has no direct relation with adiabatic processes in thermodynamics.\nIn mechanics, an adiabatic change is a slow deformation of the Hamiltonian, where the",
"-27.518336470180657"
],
[
"consonant with Christian and theistic convictions\". The Discovery Institute portrays evolution as a \"theory in crisis\" with scientists criticizing evolution and that \"fairness\" and \"equal time\" requires educating students about \"the controversy.\"\nOne of the most reliable and empirically tested theories in science is that all forms of life on Earth are related by common descent with modification. Accordingly, any controversial aspects of evolution are a matter of religion and politics, not science. The 2005 ruling in the Dover trial, Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, where the claims of intelligent design proponents were considered by a United States federal",
"-27.47193918051198"
],
[
"is a primitive notion of the theory of thermodynamics. According to P.M. Morse: \"It should be emphasized that the fact that there are thermodynamic states, ..., and the fact that there are thermodynamic variables which are uniquely specified by the equilibrium state ... are not conclusions deduced logically from some philosophical first principles. They are conclusions ineluctably drawn from more than two centuries of experiments.\" This means that thermodynamic equilibrium is not to be defined solely in terms of other theoretical concepts of thermodynamics. M. Bailyn proposes a fundamental law of thermodynamics that defines and postulates the existence of states",
"-27.454021262470633"
],
[
"selection. However, acceptance of evolution remains low in the Muslim world, as prominent figures reject evolution's underpinning philosophy of materialism as unsound to human origins and a denial of Allah. Further objections by Muslim authors and writers largely reflect those put forward in the Western world.\nRegardless of acceptance from major religious hierarchies, early religious objections to Darwin's theory are still used in opposition to evolution. The ideas that species change over time through natural processes and that different species share common ancestors seemed to contradict the Genesis account of Creation. Believers in Biblical infallibility attacked Darwinism as heretical. The natural",
"-27.43650735045958"
],
[
"its precise mathematical form would not be known for another forty years, till it was discovered by Planck in 1900. The theoretical proof for Kirchhoff's universality principle was worked on and debated by various physicists over the same time, and later. Kirchhoff stated later in 1860 that his theoretical proof was better than Balfour Stewart's, and in some respects it was so. Kirchhoff's 1860 paper did not mention the second law of thermodynamics, and of course did not mention the concept of entropy which had not at that time been established. In a more considered account in a book in",
"-27.407179695088416"
],
[
"to forcefully stress the gradual nature of evolution in accordance with the gradualism promoted by his friend Charles Lyell. He privately expressed concern, noting in the margin of his 1844 Essay, \"Better begin with this: If species really, after catastrophes, created in showers world over, my theory false.\"\nIt is often incorrectly assumed that he insisted that the rate of change must be constant, or nearly so, but even the first edition of On the Origin of Species states that \"Species of different genera and classes have not changed at the same rate, or in the same degree. In the oldest",
"-27.40487570199184"
],
[
"second law is the statement of Hawking's area theorem. Analogously, the second law of thermodynamics states that the change in entropy in an isolated system will be greater than or equal to 0 for a spontaneous process, suggesting a link between entropy and the area of a black-hole horizon. However, this version violates the second law of thermodynamics by matter losing (its) entropy as it falls in, giving a decrease in entropy. However, generalizing the second law as the sum of black-hole entropy and outside entropy, shows that the second law of thermodynamics is not violated in a system",
"-27.376973310951144"
]
] |
29bawt | Why is scientology seemingly quite popular, despite its religion having been started by a science fiction writer? | [
"There isn't a lot of logic to how religions become popular. Mormonism was also pretty obviously made up relatively recently, but once these things pick up some momentum people get caught up in it. Once you're in a religion it's pretty difficult to acknowledge you might be wrong because you're so invested in it. In the case of scientology you may well have literally invested your whole life in it.",
"It promises money. The whole thing is essentially a pyramid scheme with celebrities in it to promise you money and fame and success (except you can't call it one because then they sue you). They also have really insidious brainwashing techniques and are trained on how to prey on people at their most weak and vulnerable points.",
"It isn't popular at all, really. It is generally believed that they've been hemorrhaging members for a couple of decades now, and the church is substantially less popular than once it was. The only reason it looks popular these days is that it still has a lot of money and a significant PR presence through the relatively few celebrities that belong to it, as well as media interest due to the various campaigns against it from time to time. They do claim to be one of the world's fastest growing religions, but there are good reasons to call BS on that claim. For one, they are closing orgs around the world due to apparent lack of membership. For another, they tend to claim everyone who has ever taken their personality test or attended a single auditing session as a member. Third, the church itself used to (until about a decade ago) publish their own stats on the number of people who had reached the level of 'clear'. You can easily see the clear downward trend over the years, with peak in the late 1970s and a steep decline since that time.",
"Exactly why belief systems appeal to people is an interesting one. The fact is we all have some form of belief system, for some that takes the form of a religion, for others it might be a political viewpoint or a set of assumptions about how the world works. So why does Scientology appeal to people? I should imagine that it appeals as it gives people answers. I guess we could look at some of the more prolific members. If we take, for example, film stars etc. we've got people who have suddenly experienced a massive shift in the rules and norms that they are expected to follow. They've gone from ordinary person to celebrity and what the world expects of them, and what they expect of the world has changed dramatically, their place in society has massively changed and it's hard to deal with. There's a term for this disconnect - anomie. Scientology, like a lot of belief systems offers answers and structure so I guess for some people it provides them with a way of dealing with that change. Similarly, a lot of uni students often find some sort of belief system. This is due in part to that removal and upheaval of social norms and what is expected of them.",
"Potentially because it was joined by a few celebrities who have a few screws loose, and others just jumped on the band wagon. That said, the latter day saints were created by a proven con artist who died via lynch mob... Just goes to show any religion is pretty nutty when you look at their origins.",
"It isn't popular. It is only popular with a very narrow set of people: celebrities. That is because Scientology targets them and fauns all over them and makes them feel even more important than they already feel.",
"It got people in through promises of healing and counseling, and kept them in with promises of money. The whole religion is just a scam, and explained pretty well in the South Park episode \"Trapped in the Closet.\""
] | [
[
"Jonathan Zittrain noted in The Future of the Internet – And How to Stop It, his 2009 book published by Yale University Press, that \"as Wikipedia grew it began to attract editors who had never crossed paths before, and who disagreed on articles they were simultaneously editing. One person would say that Scientology was a 'cult', the other would change that back to 'religion,' and the first would revert it back again.\" In a 2005 article about Wikipedia for The Guardian, Charles Arthur noted individuals debated online, \"whether Scientology should be classed as a cult\", and he compared the \"cultism\"",
"-28.04544545020326"
],
[
"Scientology: \"I did a lot of work on cults in college, and what I learned is that they sort of turn you into a child by appealing to that part of you that wants to be taken care of and given answers. And so it all began to make sense to me.\" He said Scientology would be \"an especially interesting topic for a theater piece\" because of its criticism of psychiatry, relative newness compared to Buddhism, Islam, Judaism, and Christianity, and practice of requiring \"that the follower take courses which cost significant amounts of money.\"\nJarrow's script was \"almost",
"-27.840577440802008"
],
[
"it because it's a great piece of science fiction. This is not about Hubbard. I'm very interested in Scientology, but that's personal. This is different.\" In a separate interview Travolta commented on the perceived similarities between Battlefield Earth and Scientology: \"Well, they are kind of synonymous ... L. Ron Hubbard is very famous for Scientology and Dianetics. On the other hand, he's equally as famous in the science fiction world. So for people to think that ... look, I don't want everybody to try Scientology. I don't really care if somebody thinks that. I'm not worried about it. You can't be. The",
"-27.612523833988234"
],
[
"type of self-legitimation through science which is also found in other religions such as Christian Science, Religious Science, and Moorish Science Temple of America.\nSociologist William Sims Bainbridge cites Scientology's origins in the subcultures of science fiction and \"harmony\" with scientific cosmology. Science fiction, viewed to work for and against the purposes of science, has contributed to the birth of new religions, including Scientology. While it promotes science, it distorts it as well. Science fiction writer A.E. van Vogt based the early development of Dianetics and Scientology on a novel based on General Semantics, a self-improvement and therapy program created by",
"-27.549662785953842"
],
[
"the physical universe and the Supreme Being. \" There have been many scholarly studies of Scientology and the books are freely available in bookshops, churches and most libraries.\nThe Church of Scientology believes that \"Man is basically good, that he is seeking to survive, (and) that his survival depends on himself and his attainment of brotherhood with the universe,\" as stated in the Creed of the Church of Scientology.\nRoy Wallis of Columbia University describes Scientology as \"a movement that straddles the boundaries between psychology and religion, [offering] a graded hierarchy of 'auditing' and training\" with the intention of releasing the individual's",
"-27.36352655099472"
],
[
"Scientology in popular culture Scientology has been referenced in popular culture in many different forms of media including fiction, film, music, television and theatre. In the 1960s, author William S. Burroughs wrote about Scientology in both fictional short stories and non-fictional essays. The topic was dealt with more directly in his book, Ali's Smile/Naked Scientology. The 2000 film Battlefield Earth was an adaptation of a novel by L. Ron Hubbard.\nMusicians and playwrights have made reference to Scientology on some of their work, with some pieces treating the topic in a negative light by their references, and others in",
"-26.971584795988747"
],
[
"literature generally) is related to the successful formation of a new spiritual movement.\" Comparing the fusion between the two genres of Hubbard's science fiction writing and Scientology creation myth, Grünschloß writes, \"Although the science fiction novels are of a different genre than other 'techno-logical' disclosures of Hubbard, they are highly appreciated by participants, and Hubbard's literary output in this realm (including the latest movie, Battlefield Earth) is also well promoted by the organization.\" Writing in the book UFO Religions edited by Christopher Partridge, Grünschloß observes, \"the enthusiasm for ufology and science fiction was cultivated in the formative phase of Scientology.",
"-26.903545989538543"
],
[
"with happiness and laughter.\" Scientology Scientology has been discussed in the context of UFO religions in UFO Religions by Christopher Partridge, The Encyclopedic Sourcebook of UFO Religions by James R. Lewis, and UFO Religion: Inside Flying Saucer Cults and Culture by Gregory Reece. Stories of extraterrestrial civilizations and interventions in past lives form a part of the belief system of Scientology. The most well-known story publicized and held up to ridicule by critics is that of Xenu, the ruler of the Galactic Confederacy who is said to have brought billions of frozen people to Earth 75 million years ago and",
"-26.789209946407937"
],
[
"Alfred Korzybski for the purpose of curing personal and social issues.\nMembers of the Church believe that Hubbard \"discovered the existential truths that form their doctrine through research,\" thus leading to the idea that Scientology is science. Hubbard created what the church would call a \"spiritual technology\" to advance the goals of Scientology. According to the church, \"Scientology works 100 percent of the time when it is properly applied to a person who sincerely desires to improve his life.\" The underlying claims are that Scientology is \"exact\" and \"certain.\" Michael Shermer, writing for Scientific American in 2011, said that Scientology's methods",
"-26.766058570472524"
],
[
"Cusack who argue that fandom, for instance, Star Trek fandom, is a form of religion. He draws an analytical distinction between religion and play, which he suggests makes it possible to distinguish between religious use of fiction (fiction-based religion) and playful engagement with fiction (fandom). Barker also questions whether there is a need to include these social manifestations as part of the concept of religion when perhaps they are examples of secular fiction, rather than religion, thus hyper-real religions blur the line between religion and non-religion, bringing more ideas and objects into the fold of ‘religion’.\nAuthors criticize the supposedly subjective",
"-26.680565019370988"
],
[
"books firmly within the category of science fiction, even in the books that do not have \"Terrans\", spaceships, or the \"Galactic Empire\". They can also be called fantasy, because psychic powers appear to be \"out and out magic.\" Other themes are feminism, sexism, the roles of women in society, the roles of men in society, racism, social division (the Comyn nobility and the non-Comyn \"commoners\"), xenophobia and the clash of cultures, sexual taboos, fate and the horrors of war. Feminism \"Though Bradley did not call herself a feminist, she was both criticized and applauded by those who have.\"",
"-26.600436358363368"
],
[
"people looking for answers – and science fiction offers to explain the inexplicable, the same as religion tends to do. Although 99 percent of the people that come to these conventions don’t realize it, they’re going through the rituals that religion and mythology provide.\nAccording to Michael Jindra of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, the show's fandom \"has strong affinities with a religious-type movement\", with \"an origin myth, a set of beliefs, an organization, and some of the most active and creative members to be found anywhere\". While he distinguishes between Star Trek fandom and the traditional definition of religion that requires",
"-26.5372745159857"
],
[
"lacked enough study to qualify as a science, but that the story of Xenu and Scientology's other creation myths were no less tenable than other religions.\nB. Hubbard, J. Hatfield and J. Santucci compare Scientology's view of humanity to the Yogachara school of Buddhism, saying that both have been described as \"the most scientific\" among new and traditional religions respectively. B. Hubbard et al. cite the use of technical language and the claim that teachings were developed through observation and experimentation. They also emphasize that many investigators and researchers consider Scientology to be a pseudoscience because of its absolute and meta-empirical",
"-26.413685066974722"
],
[
"Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements, within the context of a discussion on UFO religions. He characterizes the text as \"Scientology's secret mythology (contained especially in the OT III teachings)\". Grünschloß points out that L. Ron Hubbard, \"also wrote a science fiction story called Revolt in the Stars, where he displays this otherwise arcane story about the ancient ruler Xenu in the form of an ordinary science fiction novel\". Grünschloß posits, \"because of the connections between several motifs in Hubbard's novels and specific Scientology teachings, one might perceive Scientology as one of the rare instances where science fiction (or fantasy",
"-26.106240636203438"
],
[
"Scientology as a business The Church of Scientology publicly classifies itself as a religion, and some scholars consider it a new religious movement, but that claim has been challenged for decades on the grounds that the Church operates more like a for-profit business than a church. Overall, as stated by Stephen A. Kent, Scientology can be seen as a \"multi-faceted transnational corporation that has religion as only one of its many components. Other components include political aspirations, business ventures, cultural productions, pseudo-medical practices, pseudo-psychiatric claims, and (among its most devoted members who have joined the Sea Organization), an alternative",
"-26.022840383811854"
],
[
"some theologians critically approach Scientology's status as a religion, social scientists as a whole agree that it \"satisfies the abstract criteria for recognition as a religion\".",
"-25.822972350577402"
],
[
"with the implication that Scientology derives from Crowley's teachings, but Frenschkowski concludes, \"Nevertheless it remains quite obvious that Hubbard did not take much inspiration from Crowley and Parsons.\"\nWriting in Kingdom of the Cults, an overview of new religious movements written from a Christian perspective, Walter Ralston Martin commented that of the various books on Hubbard's life, \"none are so thoroughly damaging to his credentials\" as Bare-faced Messiah and Bent Corydon's book. The British science fiction author and critic David Langford rated Miller's book as \"altogether more even-toned and better-written\" and argued that it \"deserves to be a standard reference\" on",
"-25.74563675315585"
],
[
"believing in organised religion himself. He remarked, \"I was so yearning to be a part of something, I think that's why, obviously, religion is really powerful. All the ritualism and symbolism and I'm just really drawn by all of that stuff.\" He further observed that \"traditionally, the church has like very much shut out gay people\" and he has tried to subvert it \"a little bit\". Viewing songwriting as a cathartic and mysterious healing ritual, he noticed \"odd parallels between a church's sense of belonging, and the celebratory freedom that exists in a space filled with dancing, thrashing bodies, and",
"-25.548885328229517"
],
[
"Scientology and the occult Scientology is suspected or alleged by some observers of being inspired by, or sharing elements with, a number of esoteric or occult systems.\nScientology founder L. Ron Hubbard claimed to have had a near-death experience in 1938 that inspired him to write Excalibur, an unpublished manuscript based on the revelations from the experience. In 1945–46, Hubbard was briefly involved with and defrauded Jack Parsons, an American rocketry pioneer who was also a devoted Thelemite and member of the Agape Lodge of Aleister Crowley's magical order, Ordo Templi Orientis, in Pasadena, California. In 1950, Hubbard published Dianetics: The",
"-25.482366164564155"
],
[
"the branch which has had the most important influence on the UFO religion is that developed by Alice Bailey.\". Partridge also quoted Gordon Melton, who suggested that the first UFO religion was Guy Ballard's \"I Am\" Activity, (which Bailey described as a \"cheap comedy\".)\nProfessor Robert S. Ellwood of the University of Southern California investigated a wide range of religious and spiritual groups in the United States during the 1970s, including a nationwide group of UFO believers called Understanding, Inc., which had been founded by a contactee named Daniel Fry. He reported that, \"There is no particular religious practice connected with",
"-25.40768420731183"
],
[
"Miller puts it, \"an almost mystical power to reveal an individual's innermost thoughts\". He promulgated Scientology through a series of lectures, bulletins and books such as A History of Man (\"a cold-blooded and factual account of your last sixty trillion years\") and Scientology: 8-8008 (\"With this book, the ability to make one's body old or young at will, the ability to heal the ill without physical contact, the ability to cure the insane and the incapacitated, is set forth for the physician, the layman, the mathematician and the physicist.\")\nScientology was organized in a very different way from the decentralized Dianetics",
"-25.30438125343062"
],
[
"An Australian Government Inquiry into Charities in 2001 found that the 1983 High Court case which found Scientology to be a religion, and also defined religion for the Constitution, used as the standard to determine what organisations are charitable. L. Ron Hubbard and Scientology as a business Critics have claimed that L. Ron Hubbard, the founder of the Church of Scientology, decided to market the practice as a religion for practical reasons. Harlan Ellison reported being present when the idea for creating a new religion was first discussed: \"Lester del Rey then said half-jokingly, 'What you really ought to",
"-25.2162744612433"
],
[
"doctrine does differ in some respects. Scientology has promoted psychiatry-related conspiracy theories, including that psychiatrists were behind the Yugoslav Wars and that September 11 was caused by psychiatrists. Scientologists are religiously committed never to take psychiatric drugs and to reject psychology outright.\nThe socio-political roots of the movements have different origins. Advocates of the anti-psychiatric world view such as David Cooper, R. D. Laing and Michel Foucault had ties with the political left of the 1960s; Thomas Szasz, with the civil libertarians of the right, as well as an outspoken atheist. Many advocates of the anti-psychiatry movement have stated that they",
"-24.892557925079018"
],
[
"the internet.\nFormer Scientologists and members of the anti-cult movement often discuss Scientology's space opera teachings. They generally take a rationalistic approach to the narratives and see them as absurd, or even as drug-fueled delusions, using them as a source of humor. The doctrines have been satirized in popular culture, most notably in the South Park episode \"Trapped in the Closet\". The anti-Scientology website Operation Clambake prominently uses space opera doctrines in their criticisms of the church, casting the implausibility of the stories as a clear reason to reject the group. Anti-cult critics of Scientology argue that the content of these",
"-24.81210209809069"
],
[
"Scientology and other religions Buddhism The Church of Scientology has capitalized on the religion's similarity to Buddhism to win followers in historically Buddhist-influenced countries like Taiwan.\nScholar Frank K. Flinn called Scientology technological Buddhism, however, it can be differentiated from Buddhist asceticism as its aim is not the eradication of pain through the removal of desire or detaching oneself from the world. Furthermore, it has nothing in common with Buddhist prayer offerings; it is not contemplative, but action-oriented and practical. Church of England The Church of England complained in March 2003 to the Advertising Standards Authority about the Church's advertising poster",
"-24.764255934293033"
],
[
"to the Encyclopedia of American Religions, it is \"concerned with the isolation, description, handling and rehabilitation of the human spirit\". One purpose of Scientology, as stated by the Church of Scientology, is to become certain of one's spiritual existence and one's relationship to God, or the \"Supreme Being.\"\nOne of the major tenets of Scientology is that a human is an immortal alien spiritual being, termed a thetan, that is presently trapped on planet Earth in a physical \"meat body.\" Hubbard described these thetans in \"The Space Opera\" cosmogony. The thetan has had innumerable past lives and it is accepted in",
"-24.74021351396277"
],
[
"and science is incompatible and even hostile to religion. To these impressions, Giberson and Artigas note that the overwhelming majority of science articles in any journal in any field have nothing to with origins because most research is funded by taxpayers or private corporations so ultimately practical research that benefit people, the environment, health and technology are the core focus of science; significant portions of scientists are religious and spiritual; and the majority of scientists are not hostile to religion since no scientific organization has any stance that is critical to religion, the scientific community is diverse in terms of",
"-24.739822442352306"
],
[
"Christianity that needed further explication and interpretation. Thomas Aquinas, more than any other single person, was able to turn theology into a kind of science, in part because he was heavily influenced by Aristotle, whose works were returning to Europe in the 13th century. Islamic world The most well known fiction from the Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights), which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales told by the Persian Queen Scheherazade. The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number",
"-24.654138368932763"
],
[
"Scientology and Dianetics have been differentiated as follows: Dianetics is all about releasing the mind from the \"distorting influence of engrams\", and Scientology \"is the study and handling of the spirit in relation to itself, universes and other life\". Rise of Scientology The Church of Scientology attributes its genesis to Hubbard's discovery of \"a new line of research\"—\"that man is most fundamentally a spiritual being (a thetan)\". Non-Scientologist writers have suggested alternative motives: that he aimed \"to reassert control over his creation\", that he believed \"he was about to lose control of Dianetics\", or that he wanted to ensure \"he",
"-24.636754320737964"
],
[
"the spiritual essence has lost touch with its nature. \"The spirit, then, is not a thing,\" Hubbard writes. \"It is the creator of things.\"\nScientology describes itself as the study and handling of the spirit in relationship to itself, others, and all of life. Scientologists also believe that people have innate, yet suppressed, power and ability which can be regained if cleared of enforced and unwanted behaviour patterns and discomforts. Scientology is described as \"a religion to help people use scientific approaches to self-actualize their full potential.\" Believers reach their full potential \"when they understand themselves in their true relationship to",
"-24.5997771214752"
],
[
"of Scientology. Rejection of psychology and psychiatry Scientology is publicly, and often vehemently, opposed to both psychiatry and psychology. Scientologists view psychiatry as a barbaric and corrupt profession and encourage alternative care based on spiritual healing.\nThe psychiatric establishment rejected Hubbard's theories in the early 1950s. Ever since, Scientology has argued that psychiatry suffers from the fundamental flaw of ignoring humanity's spiritual dimension, and that it fails to take into account Hubbard's insights about the nature of the mind. Scientology holds psychiatry responsible for a great many wrongs in the world, saying it has at various times offered itself as a",
"-24.57430978573393"
],
[
"Hubbard's science-fiction works, e.g., Ole Doc Methusala, Slaves of Sleep, Death's Deputy, The Final Blackout, The Dangerous Dimension, The Tramp, Fear, King Slayer, and Typewriter in the Sky.\" In his 2011 work The Church of Scientology: A History of a New Religion, Hugh B. Urban compared Typewriter in the Sky character Horace Hackett's omnipotent abilities to Hubbard's subsequent ideas developed in the powerful spirit in Scientology doctrine, the Operating Thetan. Urban wrote: \"perhaps the most striking element in Hubbard's early fiction that reappears in his later Scientology writings is his emphasis on the unlimited, even godlike power of the writer",
"-24.562216054546298"
],
[
"and psychology. Scientologists view psychiatry as a barbaric and corrupt profession and encourage alternative care based on spiritual healing. According to the Church of Scientology, psychiatry has a long history of improper and abusive care. The group's views have been disputed, criticized and condemned by experts in the medical and scientific community and been a source of public controversy.\nThe Church of Scientology's objection to secular ideas about mental health are religious in nature, based on the conviction that humans are essentially divine beings who have been marred by negative experiences acquired over several lifetimes. Scientology also purports that the secular",
"-24.521540330817515"
],
[
"rejected.\nThe article has been cited as a reference used for background on Scientology in books which take a critical look at cults such as Larson's Book of World Religions and Alternative Spirituality and Insane Therapy: Portrait of a Psychotherapy Cult, those that analyze new religious movements including Understanding New Religious Movements and The Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements, and in a work that includes researchers from both schools of thought, Misunderstanding Cults: Searching for Objectivity in a Controversial Field.",
"-24.51098213007208"
],
[
"Modern Science of Mental Health, and in 1953 he organized the Church of Scientology.\nHugh B. Urban, a scholar on religion who has written much about Scientology, writes that while some writers, such as Jon Atack, assert that Crowley's ideas on magic are at the core of Scientology, others, including Roy Wallis and J. Gordon Melton, have dismissed the connection between occultism and the Church. He argues further that the occult elements are combined with concepts in Eastern religions, science fiction, popular psychology and Hubbard's own thoughts, while confirming that there is one element that is related to the occult in",
"-24.505316577560734"
],
[
"government has pointed to a 1995 decision by the Federal Labor Court of Germany. That court, noting Hubbard's instruction that Scientologists should \"make money, make more money – make other people produce so as to make more money\", came to the conclusion that \"Scientology purports to be a 'church' merely as a cover to pursue its economic interests\". In the same decision, the court also found that Scientology uses \"inhuman and totalitarian practices\". Given the lessons of Germany's 20th-century history, in which the country came to be dominated by a fascist movement that started from similarly small beginnings, Germany is very",
"-24.497011537081562"
],
[
"UFO religion A UFO religion is any religion in which the existence of extraterrestrial (ET) entities operating unidentified flying objects (UFOs) is an element of belief. Typically, adherents of such religions believe the ETs to be interested in the welfare of humanity which either already is, or eventually will become, part of a pre-existing ET civilization. Others may incorporate ETs into a more supernatural worldview in which the UFO occupants are more akin to angels than physical aliens; this distinction may be blurred within the overall subculture. These religions have their roots in the tropes of early science fiction (especially",
"-24.378527985420078"
],
[
"any religious philosophy. As a matter of fact, you could make a case that this could be ordinary science fiction or fantasy and not about the 'truth' of religion at all. But whatever it is, it gives me plenty of chances to play with theology, something I enjoy very much.\" In a video interview for his German publisher, Klett-Cotta, Williams discusses the use of theology in the books:\n\"One of the things a writer can do is find a way to focus a lens on something. Just as a photographer captures a moment in time, a writer can take a particular",
"-24.298634291626513"
],
[
"derived through scientific methods, that Hubbard found knowledge through studying and thinking, not through revelation. The \"science\" of Dianetics, however, was never accepted by the scientific community. Rothstein also writes that there is a possibility that Scientology partly owes its existence to the conflict with the conventional scientific community, which hindered Hubbard's original intention. Religious scholar Dorthe Refslund Christensen notes that Scientology differs from the scientific method in that Scientology has become increasingly self-referential, while true science normally compares competing theories and observed facts.\nHubbard originally claimed and insisted that Dianetics was based on the scientific method. He taught that \"the",
"-24.266847843020514"
],
[
"full potential.\nScientology does not require that their members must exclusively believe in Scientology, distinguishing it from biblical religions. Scientologists may profess belief in other religions, such as Protestantism and Catholicism, and may participate in their activities and sacred rites. Jacob Neusner emphasizes this in the section on Scientology in his book World Religions in America. According to J. Gordon Melton, \"Scientologists aim to utterly make the world instead of taking refuge from it,\" as they participate in culture instead of being isolated. Scientology is inherently nondenominational and open to individuals, regardless of religious background; according to Mary A. Mann, it",
"-24.250576320686378"
],
[
"Scientology and psychiatry Since the founding of the Church of Scientology in 1954 by L. Ron Hubbard, the relationship between Scientology and psychiatry has been dominated by strong opposition by the organization against the medical specialty of psychiatry, and psychology, with themes relating to this opposition occurring repeatedly throughout Scientology literature and doctrine. According to the Church of Scientology, psychiatry has a long history of improper and abusive care. The group's views have been disputed, criticized and condemned by experts in the medical and scientific community and been a source of public controversy.\nL. Ron Hubbard had a complex and changing",
"-24.164308660663664"
],
[
"reading and writing communities contributes to their success. At Times and Seasons, Nathaniel Givens states that Mormonism's lack of \"official\" theology or creeds leads members to a culture of \"amateur theology.\" This culture leads to theories that make good science fiction stories.\nIn a New York Times article, Shannon Hale theorized that LDS authors are drawn to genre fiction because they prefer happy endings to bleak or tragic stories. Hale also noted that strong writing communities for LDS authors in children's and YA genres draw budding authors to those genres. In the same article, Rachel Nunes explained that since many LDS",
"-24.02674184256466"
],
[
"makes science fiction an incisive tool to examine sexual bias. In science fiction, such estranging features include technologies that significantly alter sex or reproduction. In fantasy, such features include figures (for example, mythological deities and heroic archetypes) who are not limited by preconceptions of human sexuality and gender, allowing them to be reinterpreted. Science fiction has also depicted a plethora of alien methods of reproduction and sex.\nUranian Worlds, by Eric Garber and Lyn Paleo, is an authoritative guide to science fiction literature featuring gay, lesbian, transgender, and related themes. The book covers science fiction literature published before 1990 (2nd edition),",
"-24.015283747925423"
],
[
"people who read or prefer science fiction may think about or relate to science differently than other people. They also tend to support the space program and the idea of contacting extraterrestrial civilizations. Carl Sagan wrote: \"Many scientists deeply involved in the exploration of the solar system (myself among them) were first turned in that direction by science fiction.\"\nBrian Aldiss described science fiction as \"cultural wallpaper.\" Evidence for this widespread influence can be found in trends for writers to employ science fiction as a tool for advocacy and generating cultural insights, as well as for educators when teaching across a",
"-23.96366089535877"
],
[
"LGBT themes in speculative fiction Critical analysis As genres of popular literature, science fiction and fantasy often seem more constrained than non-genre literature by their conventions of characterisation and the effects that these conventions have on depictions of sexuality and gender. Science fiction in particular has traditionally been a puritanical genre oriented toward a male readership. Sex is often linked to disgust in SF and horror, and plots based on sexual relationships have mainly been avoided in genre fantasy narratives. On the other hand, science fiction and fantasy can also provide more freedom than realistic literature to imagine alternatives to",
"-23.918338389194105"
],
[
"religious motif, that religion is bound to seem vaguely Christian because that is the only religion I know anything about, even though it is not mine. An unsympathetic reader might think that I am \"burlesquing\" Christianity, but I am not. Then too, it is impossible to write science fiction and really ignore religion. Politics Asimov became a staunch supporter of the Democratic Party during the New Deal, and thereafter remained a political liberal. He was a vocal opponent of the Vietnam War in the 1960s and in a television interview during the early 1970s he publicly endorsed George McGovern. He",
"-23.911562617384334"
],
[
"to a form of blackmail' and 'brain-washing methods'. Dax described Scientology as 'a calculated money-raising scheme by false propaganda' and that 'Since 1961 he had been increasingly concerned by information reaching the Mental Health Authority about people paying large sums of money for \"Scientology\" courses'. The Report The Anderson Report concluded that \"Scientology is a delusional belief system, based on fiction and fallacies and propagated by falsehood and deception\" and that it \"is not, and does not claim to be, a religion\". He continues:\n\"Scientology is evil, its techniques evil, its practice a serious threat to the community, medically, morally and",
"-23.869749792094808"
],
[
"books, so I don't really see how they can co-exist.\" Christianity in the novels While many describe the books as secular or Satanic, many writers, including Rowling herself, have gone to great lengths to demonstrate that the books actively promote Christian values.\nRowling attended a Church of Scotland congregation while writing Harry Potter and her eldest daughter, Jessica, was baptised into that faith. \"I go to church myself\", she told MTV in 2007, \"I don't take any responsibility for the lunatic fringes of my own religion\". In 2000, when asked if she was a Christian by journalist Max Wyman of The",
"-23.858526779076783"
],
[
"Scientology Ethics, according to which the survival of the Church is all-important. In popular culture William S. Burroughs, who briefly dabbled with Scientology, wrote extensively about it during the late 1960s, weaving some of its jargon into his fictional works, as well as authoring nonfiction essays about it. He uses the term \"Disconnect\" in a Scientological context in Ali's Smile: Naked Scientology and other works. In the end, however, he abandoned Scientology and publicly criticized it in an editorial for the Los Angeles Free Press in 1970.",
"-23.831810266357934"
],
[
"Book for Students, author Hank Hanegraaff writes: \"Although the church claims to be compatible with Christianity, the two belief structures – one rooted in science fiction, the other in soteriological fact – are contradictory and can't be harmonized.\" Hanegraaff explains the nature of the Scientology concepts of auditing, engrams, and thetans, and concludes: \"Scientology is a rejection of the biblical doctrines of creation, original sin, and exclusive salvation through Jesus Christ.\"\nThe Church of Scientology claims that their belief system is different from Christianity because it is based “solely on reason” and that its members “possess a practical system of ethics",
"-23.82366994547192"
],
[
"understand a religion where you can be another religion but you can still practice Scientology. That’s why it’s completely progressive. It’s just tools for living. It’s about understanding one’s self and others and compassion and how to communicate better and how to live in this troubled society. It’s really basic, common sense stuff. It has nothing to do with all this funny folklore that surrounds it.",
"-23.816804583650082"
],
[
"the default assumptions of heterosexuality and masculinity that permeate many cultures. Homosexuality is now an accepted and common feature of science fiction and fantasy literature, its prevalence due to the influence of lesbian-feminist and gay liberation movements.\nIn speculative fiction, extrapolation allows writers to focus not on the way things are (or were), as non-genre literature does, but on the way things could be different. It provides science fiction with a quality that science fiction critic Darko Suvin has called \"cognitive estrangement\": the recognition that what we are reading is not the world as we know it, but a world whose",
"-23.809525761113036"
],
[
"Religion Inc. Cited by other works Religion Inc. is cited by other books and research reports on the subject matter, including: Journal of the American Academy of Religion, The State of the Discipline, Canadian Journal of Sociology, Marburg Journal of Religion, Shaking the World for Jesus, The Social Dimensions of Sectarianism, Alternative Religions: A Sociological Introduction, La Secte, and The Alms Trade. Synopsis The work includes twenty-seven photographs, taken by the author in the course of research for the book.\nLamont describes the difficulty authors often encounter in writing and publishing critical books on the Church of Scientology: ",
"-23.715339890521136"
],
[
"young writers who attached themselves to him.\nVentures into the genre by writers who were not devoted exclusively to science fiction also added respectability. Magazine covers of bug-eyed monsters and scantily clad women, however, preserved the image of a sensational genre appealing only to adolescents. There was a public desire for sensation, a desire of people to be taken out of their dull lives to the worlds of space travel and adventure.\nAn interesting footnote to Campbell's regime is his contribution to the rise of L. Ron Hubbard's religion Scientology. Hubbard was considered a promising science fiction writer and a protégé of",
"-23.706085838901345"
],
[
"readers of Lovecraft. Speculative realists, Mark Fisher and other contemporary philosophers, took Lovecraft seriously, mainly because Lovecraft's weird reality as presented in his novels, had nothing to do with the Gothic's insistence in the supernatural, but presented another reality incomprehensible to the human mind, but nonetheless real. According to scholar S. T. Joshi: \"There is never an entity in Lovecraft that is not in some fashion material.\" Forbidden knowledge Forbidden, dark, esoterically veiled knowledge is a central theme in many of Lovecraft's works. Many of his characters are driven by curiosity or scientific endeavor, and in many of his stories",
"-23.70475727628218"
],
[
"ideas as propagating atheism and that numerous contributors to evolutionary biology were Christians.\nOxford Professor of Mathematics John Lennox has written that the issues one hears about science and religion have nothing to do with science, but are merely about theism and atheism because top level scientists abound on both sides. Furthermore, he criticizes atheists who argue from scientism because sometimes it results in dismissals of things like philosophy based on ignorance of what philosophy entails and the limits of science. He also notes that atheist scientists in trying to avoid the visible evidence for God ascribe creative power to less",
"-23.65915665810462"
],
[
"Scientology beliefs and practices The Church of Scientology says that a human is an immortal, spiritual being (thetan) that is resident in a physical body. The thetan has had innumerable past lives and it is observed in advanced Scientology texts that lives preceding the thetan's arrival on Earth were lived in extraterrestrial cultures. Based on case studies at advanced levels, it is predicted that any Scientologist undergoing auditing will eventually come across and recount a common series of events.\nAccording to the Church, founder L. Ron Hubbard's discovery of the thetan places Scientology at the heart of the human quest for",
"-23.65022969218262"
],
[
"do is create a religion because it will be tax-free,' and at that point everyone in the room started chiming in with ideas for this new religion. So the idea was a Gestalt that Ron caught on to and assimilated the details. He then wrote it up as 'Dianetics: A New Science of the Mind' and sold it to John W. Campbell Jr., who published it in Astounding Science Fiction in 1950.\" Hubbard had a different origin story and stated that Dianetics had been researched during the years 1945-50 and it was initially presented as a science, however religious ideas",
"-23.644372375740204"
],
[
"compared with the Qur’án, and should be wholly subordinated to the authentic Sayings of Bahá’u’lláh.\"\nBahá'ís share some views with Christianity regarding moral and immoral behavior. Bahá'ís condemn polygamy, premarital sex, and homosexual acts while treating everyone, including homosexuals, with love, respect, and dignity. (See Homosexuality and Bahá'í Faith.) Relationship with Scientology Hubbard described Scientology as \"the Western Anglicized continuance of many earlier forms of wisdom.\" Hubbard includes the teachings of Jesus among belief systems cited as these \"earlier forms of wisdom\". Jesus is recognized in Scientology as part of its \"religious heritage\", though \"is seen as only one of many",
"-23.6419371246011"
],
[
"meaning, and proves that \"its origins are as ancient as religious thought itself.\" However, Scientology considers that its understanding of the thetan distinguishes it from other religious traditions, especially Judaism and Christianity, in three important ways. First, while many religions fuse the concept of the body and the soul, the thetan (spirit) is separate and independent. Second, unlike the three great world monotheisms, Scientologists believe in past lives and that the thetan has lived through many, perhaps thousands of lifetimes. Third, contrary to Christian concepts of original sin, Scientology holds to the intrinsic goodness of a being and believes that",
"-23.64133613370359"
],
[
"fiction has been described as important to the LGBT community and the formation of queer identities, as it represents a resistance to the expectation of compulsory heterosexuality, but has also been noted as being unrepresentative of the gay community, being more a medium to express feminist dissatisfactions with SF. According to polls, most of slash fandom is made up of heterosexual women with a college degree. These demographics are older than the yaoi fans and they tend to be more easily disturbed about slash depicting underage sexuality, but this is becoming less true due to the popularity of Harry Potter-inspired",
"-23.613742623943835"
],
[
"the novelists insists on the individual while science measures only categories, and from the latter because the novelist still believes in original sin. The Christian novelist in particular recognizes that the problem is not that Christianity is not relevant to modern society but that man's blind acceptance of \"the magical aura of science, whose credentials he accepts for all sectors of reality\" (113) is changing his consciousness to the point where he can no longer recognize the Gospel.\nThe novel about the end of the world, then, is an attempt to shock the complacent reader out of his scientism and into",
"-23.599665446439758"
],
[
"Christian science fiction Christian science fiction is a subgenre of both Christian literature and science fiction, in which there are strong Christian themes, or which are written from a Christian point of view. These themes may be subtle, expressed by way of analogy, or more explicit. Major influences include early science fiction authors such as C. S. Lewis, while more recent figures include Stephen Lawhead.\nThe term is not usually applied to works simply because most or all of the characters are Christian, or simply because the author is Christian. Influences While earlier works such as Victor Rousseau's The Messiah of",
"-23.59597873617895"
],
[
"Science & the Public. She says \"the overarching theme was science portrayed to the public – how the media delivers a message, how even scientists screw up and take missteps, how we can get better.\"\nMagician and author Richard Wiseman performing at the 2009 conference explained in answer to a question by an attendee, people believe in the paranormal for many reasons, they might need to believe and it's possible that they have had \"personal experiences\" that convinced them. '“It is not clear to me that by robbing people of their beliefs, we always make the world a better place.”'\nAccording to",
"-23.5956422892923"
],
[
"R. Tolkien, Robert E. Howard and, more recently, George R. R. Martin. As a result, the popularity of traditional \"hard\" science fiction relatively faded, and fantasy, with distinctive Western features, became the predominant genre. While the majority of fantasy writers, such as Nick Perumov, Vera Kamsha, Alexey Pekhov and Tony Vilgotsky, follow the Western tradition with its archetypal Norse or Anglo-Saxon settings, some others, most notably Maria Semenova and Yuri Nikitin, prefer Russian mythology as inspiration. Comic fantasy is also popular, with authors such as Max Frei, Andrey Belyanin and Olga Gromyko. Urban and gothic fantasy, virtually absent in the",
"-23.58511579054175"
],
[
"said Harney. The St. Petersburg Times noted Reverend Guterman's public discussion of Scientology in such a manner was \"virtually unheard of\" in Clearwater, Florida, due to the large presence of Scientology in the area.\nCalvin Miller comments in Miracles and Wonders (2003) that L. Ron Hubbard \"held to such odd notions, blending his Jesus with 'spacey theology.'\" Writing in Larson's Book of World Religions and Alternative Spirituality (2004), Bob Larson points out that \"In his 1952 book entitled Scientology: A History of Man Hubbard even adapted the words of Jesus as found in Matthew 11:5 to describe his new teaching.\" Author",
"-23.58020314038731"
],
[
"to science fiction.\" Author and editor Damon Knight summed up the difficulty, saying \"science fiction is what we point to when we say it.\" Mark C. Glassey described science fiction as U.S. Supreme Court Justice Potter Stewart described pornography: \"I know it when I see it.\" History Science fiction had its beginnings in ancient times when the line between myth and fact were blurred. Written in the 2nd century CE by the satirist Lucian, A True Story contains many themes and tropes characteristic of modern science fiction, including travel to other worlds, extraterrestrial lifeforms, interplanetary warfare, and artificial life. Some",
"-23.540295572718605"
],
[
"one of the benefits of Scientology: \"When you're a Scientologist and you drive by an accident, you know you have to do something about it, because you know you're the only one who can really help,\" said Cruise. \"We are the way to happiness. We can bring peace and unite cultures.\" Actor Miles Fisher parodies this quote by Cruise, in a scene in the 2008 film Superhero Movie. Fisher's character in the film states that he can \"eat planets\" and that he is \"the way to happiness\". Courses The Church of Scientology offers two courses based on The Way to",
"-23.53999715228565"
],
[
"because this attention followed so closely upon the receipt of my paper by the Church of Scientology organization, it did not seem too difficult to infer the source of these attempts to inconvenience me.\" According to Lamont, as of the publication of Religion Inc. in 1986, \"the book is now accepted by the Public Affairs office of the Church of Scientology as reasonable and fair\", and he was provided a copy of the book from the organization itself. Reception In his book The Social Dimensions of Sectarianism: Sects and New Religious Movements in Contemporary Society, Wallis' former mentor Bryan R.",
"-23.494253544253297"
],
[
"about [Scientology's] specific set of beliefs than about how humans rely on belief systems in general to try and lift themselves out of an elemental rage, and to assert, yes, that man is not an animal.\" Comparisons with Scientology Upon the release of the script, comparisons between \"The Cause\" and Scientology were quickly made. The press noted Hoffman's physical resemblance to Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard (1911–1986), who served in the U.S. Navy in World War II, and, after his release from the hospital, founded the belief system in 1950, the same year as the religion in the script. The",
"-23.48326087370515"
],
[
"Campbell, who published Hubbard's first articles about Dianetics and his new religion. As Campbell's reign as editor of Astounding progressed, Campbell gave more attention to ideas like Hubbard's, writing editorials in support of Dianetics. Though Astounding continued to have a loyal fanbase, readers started turning to other magazines to find science fiction stories. The Golden Age in other media With the new source material provided by the Golden Age writers, advances in special effects, and a public desire for material that treated with the advances in technology of the time, all the elements were in place to create significant works",
"-23.468996975163464"
],
[
"Burke, the president of the Kansas Psychiatric Association, said regarding Scientology, \"They aren't really able to support their position with any scientific data, which they tend to ignore. … the public seems to be able to look right past the Scientology hoopla.\"\nThe commercial motivation of Scientology in questioning psychiatry, with their alternative practice, dianetics, has been questioned by Peter W. Huber.\nAccording to Susan Raine in Scientology in Popular Culture (2017), The Church of Scientology's programs against psychiatry \"complicates the movement's quest for religious legitimacy.\" This is because of \"the way in which Hubbard tried to replace psychiatry, psychology and other",
"-23.465565361548215"
],
[
"therapist, explorer, navigator, philosopher, poet, artist, humanitarian, adventurer, soldier, scout, musician and many other fields of endeavor. The Church of Scientology portrays Hubbard's life and work as having proceeded seamlessly, \"as if they were a continuous set of predetermined events and discoveries that unfolded through his lifelong research\" even up to and beyond his death.\nAccording to Rothstein's assessment of Hubbard's legacy, Scientology consciously aims to transfer the charismatic authority of Hubbard to institutionalize his authority over the organization, even after his death. Hubbard is presented as a virtually superhuman religious ideal just as Scientology itself is presented as the most",
"-23.449835197417997"
],
[
"Religion, produced by Cambridge Journals, published its first volume in 2008.\nThe political science of religion is studied at almost all universities and political science departments in the United States. The American Political Science Association has a religion and politics section.",
"-23.43480774271302"
],
[
"integrity on his part is not incompatible with the religious character of the beliefs, practices and observances accepted by his followers.\"\nOther countries to have recognized Scientology as a religion include Spain, Portugal, Italy, Sweden, and New Zealand. The debate continues until today, with a new generation of critics continuing to question Scientology's legitimacy as a religion. Free Zone suppression The Church has taken steps to suppress the Free Zone, the term for a variety of groups and individuals who practice Scientology outside the strictures of the Church of Scientology proper, and shut down dissenters when possible. The CoS has",
"-23.42929918220034"
],
[
"been set up across the United States.\nDianetics was poorly received by the press and the scientific and medical professions. The American Psychological Association criticized Hubbard's claims as \"not supported by empirical evidence\". Scientific American said that Hubbard's book contained \"more promises and less evidence per page than any publication since the invention of printing\", while The New Republic called it a \"bold and immodest mixture of complete nonsense and perfectly reasonable common sense, taken from long acknowledged findings and disguised and distorted by a crazy, newly invented terminology\". Some of Hubbard's fellow science fiction writers also criticized it; Isaac Asimov",
"-23.39984182646731"
],
[
"from taking root and gaining influence in the community'. In Western Australia, Dr. A. S. Ellis, Director of Mental Health Services, described scientology as 'a dangerous pseudo-science which catered for emotional cripples'. He added that scientologists were 'credulous, insecure and neurotic people who were looking for a prop' and scientology gave this to them 'at a price' but raised 'false hopes' and delayed 'proper psychiatric treatment'. Scientology Response In October 1965, Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard was quoted as saying that the Board of Inquiry into Scientology was a 'kangaroo court' because 'They had their conclusions drawn long before they",
"-23.390197266708128"
],
[
"paper sources and interviews, and draws conclusions about the belief system of Scientology and its founder. The book also contains a preface by Russell Miller, author of Bare-faced Messiah. Legal action Scientology's publishing arm, New Era Publications, attempted to prevent publication by arguing that the manuscript's inclusion of material by Hubbard infringed on their copyright of Hubbard's work, and would harm sales of the original texts. The court ruled that the manuscript might discourage people from buying Hubbard's books by convincing them he was a swindler, and that copyright law protects rather than forbids this kind of criticism. Before the",
"-23.36955713084899"
],
[
"or exploration of varieties of sexual experience that deviate from the conventional.\nScience fiction and fantasy have traditionally been puritanical genres aimed at a male readership, and can be more restricted than non-genre literature by their conventions of characterisation and the effect that these conventions have on depictions of sexuality and gender. During the pulp magazine era (1920s-30s), explicit sexuality of any kind was rare in genre science fiction and fantasy. Then, according to Joanna Russ, in the more relaxed Golden Age of Science Fiction (1940s-50s) the genre \"resolutely ignored the whole subject\" of homosexuality. Some writers were able to introduce",
"-23.337005714216502"
],
[
"were made to develop services in the community.\nIn 1950, Scientology was founded by L. Ron Hubbard who publicly stated a goal of \"eradicating psychiatry from the face of this earth\". Instead through his book Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health the discredited use of introspection as treatment as well as auditing was promoted. \nIn the 1950s in the United States, a right-wing anti-mental health movement opposed psychiatry, seeing it as liberal, left-wing, subversive and anti-American or pro-Communist. There were widespread fears that it threatened individual rights and undermined moral responsibility. An early skirmish was over the Alaska Mental Health",
"-23.282785573304864"
],
[
"such as the Iliad which no-one calls \"Satanic\"; the difference between the books' magic and real occult practices; the presence of Christian values such as humility, love, sacrifice and choosing the right over the easy. He quotes other notable Orthodox priests and church officials such as M. Kozlov and S. Pravdoliubov as supporting his position.\nThe American academic and Orthodox Christian writer John Granger has analyzed the literature in a positive light. Granger, a Christian classicist, has defended the books in his book, Looking for God in Harry Potter. Granger argues that the books do not promote the occult because none",
"-23.2681811893126"
],
[
"Carl Sagan, and many other professors from various fields.\nThe modern dialogue between religion and science is rooted in Ian Barbour's 1966 book Issues in Science and Religion. Since that time it has grown into a serious academic field, with academic chairs in the subject area, and two dedicated academic journals, Zygon and Theology and Science. Articles are also sometimes found in mainstream science journals such as American Journal of Physics\nand Science.\nPhilosopher Alvin Plantinga has argued that there is superficial conflict but deep concord between science and religion, and that there is deep conflict between science and naturalism. Plantinga, in",
"-23.26578774425434"
],
[
"Noah Lottick, a Scientologist who had committed suicide, cooperated with Time and Reader's Digest. Synopsis The full title of the article is \"The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power: Ruined lives. Lost fortunes. Federal crimes. Scientology poses as a religion but is really a ruthless global scam — and aiming for the mainstream\". The article reported on the founding of the Church of Scientology by L. Ron Hubbard and controversies involving the Church and its affiliated business operations, as well as the suicide of a Scientologist. The article related the May 11, 1990, suicide of Dr. Edward Lottick's son Noah Antrim Lottick.",
"-23.175024530788505"
],
[
"friar. Hinduism has historically embraced reason and empiricism, holding that science brings legitimate, but incomplete knowledge of the world and universe. Confucian thought, whether religious or non-religious in nature, has held different views of science over time. Most 21st-century Buddhists view science as complementary to their beliefs. While the classification of the material world by the ancient Indians and Greeks into air, earth, fire and water was more philosophical, and proto-scientists like Anaxagoras impiously questioned certain popular views of Greek divinities, medieval Middle Eastern scholars used practical and experimental observation to classify materials.\nEvents in Europe such as the Galileo affair",
"-23.159151104278862"
],
[
"media have become popular and influential over much of the world. Besides providing entertainment, it can also criticize present-day society, and is often said to inspire a \"sense of wonder\". Definitions \"Science fiction\" is difficult to define precisely, as it includes a wide range of concepts and themes. James Blish wrote: \"Wells used the term originally to cover what we would today call \"hard\" science fiction, in which a conscientious attempt to be faithful to already known facts (as of the date of writing) was the substrate on which the story was to be built, and if the story",
"-23.15864175882598"
],
[
"is an amalgam of the name of the author Kurt Vonnegut, whom Short knew personally; the motion picture The Exorcist; and the play (and subsequent movie) Jesus Christ Superstar, commenting on their references to religion. Methodology The book looks into the ways in which popular culture at any particular time, tends to change the face of God and how people see Him. One of the arguments Short makes is that, because of organized religion giving God very harsh attributes, most of which are not supported by scripture, organized religion ironically tends to drive people away from God, seeing Him",
"-23.157517631654628"
],
[
"socially, and its adherents sadly deluded and often mentally ill.\"\nAnderson acknowledged the emotional tone of his report, justifying it as follows:\nIf there should be detected in this Report a note of unrelieved denunciation of scientology, it is because the evidence has shown its theories to be fantastic and impossible, its principles perverted and ill-founded, and its techniques debased and harmful. [...] While making an appeal to the public as a worthy system whereby ability, intelligence and personality may be improved, it employs techniques which further its real purpose of securing domination over and mental enslavement of its adherents. It involves",
"-23.14468363346532"
],
[
"of popular occult books, invent their own occult conspiracy, over which they lose control as it begins to supplant the truth. The popular 2003 novel The Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown draws on conspiracy theories involving the Roman Catholic Church, Opus Dei and the Priory of Sion. Other contemporary authors who have used elements of conspiracy theory in their work include Margaret Atwood, William S. Burroughs, Don DeLillo, James Ellroy, Joseph Heller, Robert Ludlum, David Morrell and James Clancy Phelan.\nOne of the first science fiction novels to deal with a full-blown conspiracy theory was Eric Frank Russell's Dreadful Sanctuary",
"-23.110490405728342"
],
[
"often have difficulty defining the Church. Most commentators have placed the Church in the category of \"joke religions\", which is usually seen as a pejorative description. Kirby sees this categorization as partially accurate because irony is an essential aspect of their faith. Other terms used to describe the Church include \"faux cult\", \"[post-modern] cult\", \"satirical pseudoreligion\", \"sophisticated joke religion\", \"anti-religion religion\", and \"high parody of cultdom\". Members of the Church, however, have consistently maintained that they practice a religion. Stang has described the group as both \"satire and a real stupid religion\", and he contends that it is more honest",
"-23.076268386561424"
],
[
"as \"the cosmic source and life force\". The thetan is the true human identity, rendering humans as \"pure spirit and godlike\". The religion's mythology holds the belief that \"in the primordial past, thetans applied their creative abilities to form the physical universe\". Contrary to the biblical narrative that shows that the universe was created by a divine, sole creator, Scientology holds that \"the universe was created by theta in the form of individualized expressions\".\nThe story of Xenu is part of Scientologist teachings about extraterrestrial civilizations and alien interventions in Earthly events, collectively described as space opera by Hubbard. Its method",
"-23.063031779252924"
],
[
"Tolkien fandom History Tolkien's The Hobbit, a children's book, was first published in 1937, and it proved popular. However, The Lord of the Rings, first published in 1954 through 1955, would give rise to the fandom as a cultural phenomenon from the early to mid-1960s. Fandom prior to the paperback publication of Lord of the Rings Serious admirers and fans of Tolkien came into existence within science fiction fandom soon after the publication of The Fellowship of the Ring. Tolkien was soon being discussed in various science fiction fanzines and apazines, both as continuing threads of comment (Robert Lichtman’s Psi",
"-23.06226243005949"
],
[
"of fan fiction posted in that community.\nIn the online article Once upon a time . . . What fragmentation in fandom means to you by LJC, media fandom in the mid to late 1990s is described as:\nIt was the age of The Gossamer Project, alt.startrek.creative, and LISTSERVs. It was a simple world, a happy world, a world before bandwidth and advertising revenues ruled the Internet. When it was easy for fans to find what they wanted, because there were huge glowing neon signs pointing them towards Mecca at every bend and fork in the road. We were all pilgrims on",
"-23.04740001578466"
],
[
"superstition by the intellectual elite. Because of their lengthy shared history, it sometimes happens that the two are confused with one another even today. Many contemporary astrologers, however, do not claim that astrology is a science, but think of it as a form of divination like the I-Ching, an art, or a part of a spiritual belief structure (influenced by trends such as Neoplatonism, Neopaganism, Theosophy, and Hinduism). Distinguishing characteristics The primary goal of astronomy is to understand the physics of the universe. Astrologers use astronomical calculations for the positions of celestial bodies along the ecliptic and attempt to correlate",
"-23.03836508889799"
],
[
"thoughts of Ralph Waldo Emerson and the transcendentalists as well as drawing on the main teachings of all the great world religions at the mystical level. The churches or centers are under an umbrella of \"Centers for Sprititual Living\". From its beginning Religious Science has advanced the social progressive edge by including all those regardless of sexual orientation fully into ministry, and blessing the marriages of same gender couples. Satanism The Church of Satan has always accepted gays, lesbians and bisexuals since its foundation in 1966. The church supports legalization of same-sex marriages. Unitarian Universalism Unitarian Universalism and",
"-23.0032302664913"
],
[
"has taken an at least partially supportive stance towards Scientology in relation to Germany. Richard Cohen for example, writing in The Washington Post, said in 1996: \"Scientology might be one weird religion, but the German reaction to it is weirder still – not to mention disturbing.\" Alan Cowell, writing in the New York Times, wrote in 1997 that the German response to Scientology – motivated by officials' fear that Scientology \"was a totalitarian movement growing, like the Nazi party, from inconsequential beginnings\" – was itself redolent of \"the Nazi era's authoritarianism\".\nThe U.S. Department of State has repeatedly claimed that Germany's actions constitute government",
"-22.982934425883286"
],
[
"Scientology that lives preceding the thetan's arrival on Earth lived in extraterrestrial cultures. Descriptions of space opera incidents are seen as true events by Scientologists.\nScientology claims that its practices provide methods by which a person can achieve greater spiritual awareness. Within Scientology, progression from level to level is often called The Bridge to Total Freedom. Scientologists progress from \"Preclear\", to \"Clear\", and ultimately \"Operating Thetan\".\nScientologists are taught that a series of events, or incidents, occurred before life on earth. Scientologists also believe that humans have hidden abilities which can be unlocked.\nHubbard's image and writing are ubiquitous in Scientology churches. Churches",
"-22.961716673133196"
],
[
"idea may not have been new; Hubbard has been quoted as telling a science fiction convention in 1948: \"Writing for a penny a word is ridiculous. If a man really wants to make a million dollars, the best way would be to start his own religion.\" Scholar J. Gordon Melton notes, \"There is no record of Hubbard having ever made this statement, though several of his science fiction colleagues have noted the broaching of the subject on one of their informal conversations.\"\nDespite objections, on December 18, 1953, Hubbard incorporated the Church of Scientology, Church of American Science and Church of",
"-22.958836477133445"
],
[
"of the world. However, some of these ideas continue beyond present-day secularism by implying that various occult forces are not supernatural, but rather thus far undiscovered by science. These forces are said to be manipulable by the practitioner of LaVeyan Satanism, a trait of the religion that has been compared with Christian Science and Scientology.\nJames Lewis argues that scientific themes are so prevalent in The Satanic Bible because LaVey was appealing to the authority of science to legitimize Satanism as a religion. Human nature and social Darwinism Social Darwinism and the concept of \"human nature\" are ideas that are prevalent",
"-22.942802215227857"
],
[
"for\" Protestant and Catholic reconciliation. Van Morrison had been linked to Scientology in the early 1980s and even thanked its founder L. Ron Hubbard in one of his songs. Later, he became wary of religion, saying: \"I wouldn't touch it with a 10-foot pole.\" He also said it is important to distinguish spirituality from religion: \"Spirituality is one thing, religion ... can mean anything from soup to nuts, you know? But it generally means an organisation, so I don't really like to use the word, because that's what it really means. It really means this church or that church ...",
"-22.934625812980812"
],
[
"In his 2013 book Evangelicals and the Arts in Fiction, writer John Weaver writes that science fiction writer Robert A. Heinlein wrote about evangelicals as being sexually repressed and eventually undergoing a sexual revolution. Weaver offers JC's Girls and XXXchurch.com as evidence that Heinlein's fiction is becoming a reality. By 2007, adherents of UFO religion Raëlism had responded to JC's Girls by forming \"Raël's Girls\", an organization with a similar outreach program but a very different message, encouraging sex workers to try to maximise their own sexual pleasure while serving clients.\nIn 2006, a Baptist minister from San Bernardino, California criticized",
"-22.92481242484064"
]
] |
56lcx8 | how did the United States fail when to trying establish a "democracy" in Iraq? | [
"Iraq has a severe religious and ethnic divide. The democracy that was established had no systems in place to prevent that from becoming a problem, so the majority party filled the government with people of the same ethnicity and religion (Shia) as the leader. Those of other ethnicities and religions (particularly Sunni) felt that they had zero representation in government, and rebelled. A democratic Iraq would require a pretty complex constitution that enshrines representation for minority sects and ethnicities, but that was never put into place.",
"According to some (admittedly subjective) first-hand accounts I read, another factor is that democracy is a really new concept to most of the people. The US didn't develop from a dictatorship to a democracy in a single day when they signed the Declaration of Independence. Britain was already a constitutional monarchy and most of the way to a representative democracy at the start of the American Revolution. Abrupt shifts in political stance are usually very difficult to make. The overthrow of fascism after WW2 was kind of an exception. So when the soldiers who were in charge started trying to help with establishing the new government, you had language and cultural barriers on top of ideological ones. Imagine that you were told \"I know you've spent your life being told that your voice counts, but that's not true. The only person who can decide things is this guy we call a King! Isn't that fantastic that now you don't have to worry about any of that stuff any more?\" Wouldn't that take some getting used to?",
"Listen to this. It's about an hour, super entertaining,and pretty informative: URL_0 Tldr: fuck putting competent people in charge. We'll put people who agree with us on everything instead. More than anything else, we put ideology before competence and did things that, at the time, were incredibly stupid, let alone with 20-20 hindsight. Tldr tldr: paul bremer is a fuckheaded chucklefuck who shouldn't have been put in charge of organizing a gangbang at a brothel, let alone a warzone/country.",
"Sadly enough it was a simple lack of oversight. The political climate in the US made it such that a hands-off policy was the most beneficial stance to take, and that resulted in a very unstable region finding itself with a power vacuum that was far too valuable to be ignored. The vultures did what they do and are still doing it to this day.",
"America's version of Democracy is pretty unstable and not a good model for nation building. And the US has a perfect lack of success in creating stable democracies. The Iraqi's gave it a good go but with the State department functionally complicit in ensuring US companies could thwart the peoples will at their whim, they were basically on a hiding to nothing.",
"The truth is the US administration believed that they would be welcomed with open arms and people would just go back to normal. However all of the infrastructure of Iraq was maintained by Saddams party. While they removed him from power, they also removed that infrastructure. For a point they had to hire back people to get stuff done. They also didn't realize when your country has gone to shit, people look out for themselves. In the case of rampant looting, sanctioned for a while by the US.",
"Technically, there is a democracy in Iraq. Currently there is a parliamentary system of government in place. They have issues controlling some parts of the country but for the most part it's working.",
"Having served in Iraq as a political and military intelligence analyst and focusing on the issue for over a decade, I can tell you that this is an immensely nuanced issue. But what it can be distilled down to is time. You cant stand up a functioning and healthy democracy in just a few years. Let alone in the midst of horrific violence, economic collapse, and sectarianism. For instance, the US constitution wasn't fully implemented until 1789, 13 years after the declaration of independence. And as messy as the revolution was, it paled in comparison to the crushingly complex socio-economic turmoil in Iraq. I can dilate further on anything regarding the issue if anyone is curious about specific things.",
"It was a lack of understanding of the region and the politics. It was a very inspirational goal to push for a democracy in Iraq. Islam is not like Christianity. Islam is a social, religious and political system. Changing the political system of any nation is a difficult task as it is, changing a political system that is tied to the religion of the nation is even harder.",
"Last I checked, Iraq's democracy was looking pretty good when we left. After we departed, the Shia in power immediately turned on the Sunnis and the whole thing went to hell. Most people forget that in 2009 and 2010, violence was at an all time low and Iraq was actually in pretty good shape."
] | [
[
"that the justification is extremely weak, because forcibly democratizing a country completely surrounded by non-democracies, most of which are full autocracies, as Iraq was, is at least as likely to increase the risk of war as it is to decrease it (some studies show that dyads formed by one democracy and one autocracy are the most warlike, and several find that the risk of war is greatly increased in democratizing countries surrounded by nondemocracies). According to Weede, if the United States and its allies wanted to adopt a rationale strategy of forced democratization based on democratic peace, which he still",
"-30.281128671136685"
],
[
"indicative of the expansion of democracy during the twentieth century. Democracy in the 21st century The 2003 US-led invasion of Iraq led to a toppling of Saddam Hussein and a new constitution with free and open elections. Later around 2011, the Arab Spring led to much upheavel, as well as the establishment of a democracy in Tunisia and some increased democratic rights in Morrocco. Egypt saw a temporary democracy before the re-establishment of military rule. The Palestinian Authority also took action to address democratic rights.\nIn Africa, out of 55 countries, the process of continental democratization seems almost stalled since 2005",
"-29.805413632366253"
],
[
"attacks of September 11, 2001, U.S. government officials questioned the lack of large-scale American democracy promotion mechanisms in the MENA region, viewing democracy as a means of promoting moderation and stability and preventing terrorism. This resulted in a ramping-up of diplomatic rhetoric on the necessity of democratization and political reform in the Middle East and an increase in funding for democracy promotion in the region. Spreading democracy was also one rationalization used by neo-conservatives and the Bush administration for undertaking the War in Iraq. Bottom-up initiatives The Bush administration initiated several large-scale DG projects, including the Middle East Partnership Initiative",
"-29.73961008428887"
],
[
"here at home.\nB) The United States must continue to push forward to promote democracy and freedom in other countries around the world because these efforts make our own country more secure.\nDemocrats chose A over B by 65% to 32%; Republicans chose A over B by 56% to 39%; and independents chose A over B by 67% to 29%. Iraq War In 2002, Congressional Democrats were divided on the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq: 147 voted against it (21 in the Senate and 126 in the House) and 110 voted for it (29 in the Senate and 81",
"-29.462780564048444"
],
[
"the invasions of those countries were partly for purposes of organising democratic governments.\nOpponents of the act have, however, criticised that democracy cannot be imposed from outside. The two countries have since had relatively successful elections, but have also experienced serious security and development problems.\nSome believe that democracy can be established \"only through force\" and the help of the United States. Writers such as Michele Dunne, when writing for the Carnegie Paper concurs with the rhetoric of the late Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin (at that time, referring to peace and terrorism) that the foreign policy position of the US should",
"-29.016621084640065"
],
[
"for withdrawals and surges). When the United States decided to invade and overthrow the Iraqi regime in 2003, it won considerable support in Europe, especially from Britain, but also intense opposition, led by Germany and France. Konrad Jarausch argues that there was still fundamental agreement on such basic issues of support for democracy and human rights. However, there emerged a growing gap between an American \"libertarian, individualistic, market outlook, and the more statist, collectivist, welfare mentality in Europe.\" U.S. computer technology A growing dimension of anti-Americanism is fear of the pervasiveness of U.S. Internet technology. This can be traced from",
"-28.78621193505387"
],
[
"society developed, democracy was sure to follow. It was hoped that democracy would be achieved by the end of 1990s or early twenty-first century at most. The Saddam Hussein-ordered Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and the subsequent Gulf War have formed a strong reaction against tyranny, which was seen as the main cause of the crisis. It also weakened authoritarian regimes and gave civil society more space to maneuver. The number of non-governmental organizations in the Arab world jumped from less than 20,000 in the mid-1960s to over 70,000 in the late 1980s to 300,000 in 2008. Despite all",
"-28.589228388233096"
],
[
"control after defeat against India in the Kargil war. He remained in power for 9 years until 2008. Democratization The global dynamics of democratization has been a central question for political scientists. The Third Wave Democracy was said to turn some dictatorships into democracies (see also the contrast between the two figures of the Democracy-Dictatorship Index in 1988 and 2008).\nOne of the rationales that the Bush Administration employed periodically during the run-up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq is that deposing Saddam Hussein and installing a democratic government in Iraq would promote democracy in other Middle Eastern countries. However, according",
"-28.347782425102196"
],
[
"later admitted was untrue. The widely discussed UN resolution was not brought up for formal vote after it became clear that it would not have passed due to opposition from France, Russia, and China. The United States invaded Iraq without UN support on March 20, 2003, initiating the Iraq War. The Bush Administration Critics of the war in Iraq argue the Bush Administration had ulterior motives for the UN resolution. Some argue the Bush administration sought to protect American economic interests and used the investigation and eventual invasion of Iraq to preserve control over massive oil preserves. In 2003",
"-28.209992593430798"
],
[
"the benefits of democracy at a time when democracy was fighting for its life. But the agency had made powerful enemies – particularly, Washington’s education establishment. Months after the NYA’s advisory committee heard Williams’ warning in the East Room of the White House, the United States Congress cut the agency’s budget and debated killing it altogether. Within two years, the NYA was ended.",
"-28.02591731332359"
],
[
"2008, after which there is no justification for foreign militaries to remain in the country. On June 6, 2008, the Independent reported that the United States was applying pressure to the government of Iraq to sign a \"strategic alliance\" (not a \"treaty\", which would require approval of the US senate), giving US forces broad freedom in continuing to operate in Iraq. Controversy Supporters of the Iraq war tend to agree with the view that Iraq regained its sovereignty in June 2004, and that the occupation has thus ended. These advocates regard the insurgents as rebels against the Iraqi authorities.",
"-28.00389012470623"
],
[
"War the United States and other western nations supported Ba'athist Iraq, fearing the spread of Iran's radical theocracy throughout the region. In the 2003 invasion of Iraq, some neoconservatives argued that when a democratic government is implemented, it would then help spread democracy and liberalism across the Middle East. This has been referred to as a \"reverse domino theory,\" or a \"democratic domino theory,\" so called because its effects are considered positive, not negative, by Western democratic states.",
"-27.9627139702352"
],
[
"action in support of human rights and democracy resulted in several conventions and treaties at the United Nations and other regional organizations of states, the Organization of American States held a series of diplomatic conferences on the issue of democracy. Democracy is one of the foundational principles of the OAS, and it was enshrined in its charter from the beginning. In 1985, the Protocol of Cartagena de Indias strengthened the charter's original language on democracy by asserting that \"representative democracy is an indispensable condition for the stability, peace and development of the region\" and \"[t]he solidarity of the American States",
"-27.913444511359558"
],
[
"a small number of inter-democratic wars would cancel out such evidence. Peace comes before democracy Douglas M. Gibler and Andrew Owsiak in their study argued peace almost always comes before democracy and that states do not develop democracy until all border disputes have been settled. These studies indicate that there is strong evidence that peace causes democracy but little evidence that democracy causes peace (Gibler & Owsiak 2017). Azar Gat (2017) argues that it is not democracy in itself that leads to peace but other aspects of modernization, such as economic prosperity and lower population growth.\nThe hypothesis that peace causes democracy",
"-27.712890440190677"
],
[
"of Iraq of 2003. Sticks and carrots The United States government strenuously lobbied governments represented on the UN Security Council, including the Soviet Union, China, Malaysia and Yemen, to support a resolution authorizing UN members states to use \"all necessary means\" for removing Iraqi forces from Kuwait. China, which had usually vetoed such resolutions authorizing action against a state, abstained in exchange for a promise from the US government that sanctions placed on China after its massacre of participants in the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 would be eased, and that the Chinese foreign minister would be received in",
"-27.125929190231545"
],
[
"UN Security Council refused to endorse the joint resolution and US-UK invasion and occupation in March 2003, the US and UK hoped to ignore the UN and operate without restriction in Iraq. However, Iraqi resistance, economic and political problems, and international criticism forced the US and UK to seek international partners, including assistance from the UN. Controversy ensued as some thought the UN could be the wedge for internationalization and would force US-UK withdrawal, while others thought a UN presence in the war would discredit the UN. Two months after the war, the UN Security Council adopted Security Council Resolution",
"-27.000285655245534"
],
[
"the emergence of a democratic government to replace that regime.\" It was passed 360 - 38 by the United States House of Representatives and 99–0 by the United States Senate in 1998.\nThe US urged the United Nations to take military action against Iraq. American president George W. Bush stated that Saddām had repeatedly violated 16 UN Security Council resolutions. The Iraqi government rejected Bush's assertions. A team of U.N. inspectors, led by Swedish diplomat Hans Blix was admitted, into the country; their final report stated that Iraqis capability in producing \"weapons of mass destruction\" was not significantly different from 1992",
"-26.98876647699217"
],
[
"with some calling for increased American democracy promotion as a means of encouraging more peaceful relations with Israel and moderating extremists, while not going so far as to destabilize friendly autocratic regimes. The assumption that a positive relationship exists between democratic governance and peace which was prominent in the 1990s faced some inconsistency in the Middle East, however, because regimes that engaged to some extent in the peace process with Israel (and in the case of Jordan successfully reached a peace agreement) at the same time slowly and half-heartedly pursued democratization and allowed little opening to opposition movements who resisted",
"-26.981992334363895"
],
[
"September 11, 2001, with many viewing democratic transition as essential to regional stability and international security.\nAmerican efforts to promote democracy in the region are generally characterized by top-down and bottom-up democratization strategies, which can be pursued simultaneously. The former top-down approach involves putting rhetorical and diplomatic pressure on regimes to reform and can go so far as to involve direct American military engagement installing democratic government (as is the case in Iraq following the 2003 invasion). The U.S. government generally pursues the latter bottom-up approach by funding international organizations that help strengthen the bases for gradual democratic transition (the rule",
"-26.97763739820948"
],
[
"consulting services via Quangos. United States involvement served to speed up and organize dissent through exposure, resources, moral and material encouragement, technological aid and professional advice. This campaign was one of the factors contributing to the Bulldozer Revolution and thus the overthrow of the long-standing president Slobodan Milošević on October 5, 2000. 2003: Iraq The Iraq War was a protracted armed conflict that began in March 2003. A United States-led military coalition invaded the country and overthrew the Iraqi government. 2005–present: Iran According to U.S. and Pakistani intelligence sources, beginning in 2005 the U.S. government secretly encouraged and advised a",
"-26.894436415441305"
],
[
"of 23 senators, and the only Republican, to vote against the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq, which provided the legal mechanism for the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq. When asked, in 2015, how the U.S. could most effectively deal with ISIS, Chafee said the U.S. should pursue a policy of containment through alliance-building with regional powers. Chafee has said the U.S. \"must make international decisions with brains and not biceps\", and at the first 2016 Democratic primary debate, stated that the U.S. must end its use of \"perpetual wars\", referring in part to the War on Terror.",
"-26.856945980118326"
],
[
"and economic infrastructures and funding state security apparatuses. This results in often contradictory U.S. positions on democracy, with officials praising Arab security structures that are used to crack down on activists and civil society while simultaneously funding technical assistance aimed at promoting democracy in Egypt and Palestine for example.\nWhile some U.S. policymakers, including Condoleezza Rice, have linked democracy promotion to achieving peace and security, the relationship may not be so clear, some scholars maintain, given that a level of instability is inherent in the democratization process in the short-run, even if a politically reformed Middle East in the long-term could",
"-26.777058337946073"
],
[
"said: \"The ultimate success of democracy in the world won't come because the United States dictates it; it will come because individual citizens demand a say in how they are governed.\"\nThere is some indication that the Obama administration may be pursuing a new approach to development, one moving away from military-led development projects and toward a more independent USAID that will include in its new strategy an effort to reduce poor governance.\nSome analysts stress that the Arab regimes have shown themselves to be increasingly intransigent with regards to reform in recent years, a trend that could require a re-evaluation of",
"-26.67426707195409"
],
[
"are withdrawn from Iraq.\nAlso in 2008, Democracy for America endorsed outspoken Iraq war critic Barack Obama, who later went on to become the 44th President. In February 2009, President Obama stated unequivocally that American combat operations in Iraq will end no later than August 31, 2010. 2016 U.S. presidential election DFA endorsed Bernie Sanders in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, after he earned a record-breaking 87.9% of the vote in their online poll. Training and scholarships DFA members at both the national and local levels have participated in numerous training programs, intended to instruct prospective candidates on running a successful",
"-26.64155539627245"
],
[
"the Bush administration's democracy agenda is that short-term strategic and diplomatic imperatives such as cooperation on counter-terrorism, assistance in creating stability in Iraq, and support for the peace process ultimately trumped or diluted the push for reform. Other critics, such as retired general and former presidential candidate Wesley Clark, doubted the effectiveness of American military engagement as a tactic for democracy promotion given that reformers in the region \"don't want to have their own hopes and dreams subordinated to the political agenda of the United States,\" and he attributed signs of progress in the MENA region to the National Endowment",
"-26.52710612406372"
],
[
"with steadfastness ... indeed, prolonging the war is in our interest.\" Bringing democracy to the Middle East One of the rationales that the Bush Administration employed periodically during the run-up to the Iraq war is that deposing Saddam Hussein and installing a democratic government in Iraq would promote democracy in other Middle Eastern countries. The United States also proclaims that monarchies Jordan, Saudi Arabia and the military ruled Pakistan are allies of America, despite the human rights abuses and subversion of democracy attributed to them respectively. As Vice President Dick Cheney argued in an August 2002 speech to the annual",
"-26.49241106370755"
],
[
"the Reagan and Bush administrations in its willingness to work with civil society organizations and promote democratic transition beyond formerly Soviet countries, democracy promotion still remained a relatively low priority and Arab regimes were largely able to resist increased pressure from foreign-funded international NGOs in the 1990s. Nonetheless, the United States spent $250 million on democracy programs in the region from 1991 to 2001, and political reform appeared as a goal in State Department and USAID literature, even if it did not figure prominently in high-level diplomatic discussions. September 11, 2001 and the George W. Bush administration After the terrorist",
"-26.448122622154187"
],
[
"3% of experts believed the U.S. would be able to rebuild Iraq into a \"beacon of democracy\" and 58% of experts believed that Sunni-Shiite tensions would dramatically increase in the Middle East.\nIn June 2008, the U.S. Department of Defense reported that \"the security, political and economic trends in Iraq continue to be positive; however, they remain fragile, reversible and uneven.\" In July 2008, the audit arm of the U.S. Congress recommended that the U.S. Government should \"develop an updated strategy for Iraq that defines U.S. goals and objectives after July 2008 and addresses the long-term goal of achieving an Iraq",
"-26.444268105362426"
],
[
"and cliques than a democracy in the Western sense. The absence of broadly based political institutions inhibited the early nationalist movement's ability to make deep inroads into Iraq's diverse social structure.\nThe Mandatory administration continued to operate until 1932.\nIn 1936 and 1937 protests and revolts broke out. The main issues centered around agarian issues and military conscription. Kedourie states that the British crushed protests against military conscription with the use of machine-gunning and bombing from the air. The \"killing, it seems, was indiscriminate, and old men, women and children were the victims.\" When in 1937 a revolt against agrarian and conscription",
"-26.400642251523095"
],
[
"tenth 'emergency special session', under the framework of the 'Uniting for Peace' resolution. The ICJ had previously found against the US for its actions in Nicaragua, a finding the US refused to comply with. Opposition view of the invasion Those who opposed the war in Iraq did not regard Iraq's violation of UN resolutions to be a valid case for the war, since no single nation has the authority, under the UN Charter, to judge Iraq's compliance to UN resolutions and to enforce them. Furthermore, critics argued that the US was applying double standards of justice, noting that other nations",
"-26.363049499021145"
],
[
"process of restoring democracy is easier in formerly authoritarian than in formerly totalitarian states, and that authoritarian states are more amenable to gradual reform in a democratic direction than are totalitarian states. Criticism The doctrine, while generally applauded by conservatives, has been strongly criticized by some historians and intellectuals such as Noam Chomsky, chiefly on the grounds that it was a cloak for protecting the interests of American corporations abroad and especially in Central America. He suggests that for this reason the Reagan Administration actually worked to undermine democratic government in Nicaragua and to suppress democratic movements in El Salvador",
"-26.309359718332416"
],
[
"Iraq. The King stressed to the United States and European Union that a diplomatic solution, in accordance with UN Security Council (UNSC) resolutions 1284 (1999) and 1409 (2002), was the only appropriate model for resolving the conflict between Iraq and the UN. In August 2002 he told the Washington Post that an attempt to invade Iraq would be a \"tremendous mistake\" and that it could \"throw the whole area into turmoil\". Programs Since 1952, the United States has provided Jordan with economic assistance totaling more than $14 billion ($1.3 billion in loans and $7.7 billion in grants), including funds for",
"-26.176834067649907"
],
[
"endorsing the transition from the U.S.-dominated occupation to complete autonomy for Iraq. Under this resolution, Coalition forces would remain in Iraq until the new government could establish security and stabilization: \"There is a deep desire by the Iraqis – don't get me wrong – to run their own affairs and to be in a position where they can handle their own security measures.\" On 8 June, Security Council resolution 1546 was adopted unanimously, calling for \"the end of the occupation and the assumption of full responsibility and authority by a fully sovereign and independent Interim Government of Iraq by 30 June",
"-26.16209484008141"
],
[
"Germany's sinking of American ships due to unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann telegram, but also stating that \"A steadfast concert for peace can never be maintained except by a partnership of democratic nations\" and \"The world must be made safe for democracy.\" (Wilson 1917) R. J. Rummel is a notable proponent of war for the purpose of spreading democracy, based on this theory.\nSome point out that the democratic peace theory has been used to justify the 2003 Iraq War, others argue that this justification was used only after the war had already started (Russett 2005). Furthermore, Weede (2004) has argued",
"-26.123201597336447"
],
[
"States for its unwillingness to address other human rights concerns. In 2002, the United States was voted off the commission by the other member states, many of whom have been criticized for their human rights violations, and in 2003 Syria put forward a proposal to discuss US war crimes in Iraq. But journalist Anne Applebaum wrote, \"the European Union and the United States aren't exempt from blame, either\", citing their hesitance in voting to criticize Russia's actions in Chechnya. Israel The Commission was also criticized by advocates of Israel for bias against Israel. In 2002 Anne Bayefsky, a professor of",
"-26.10447876494436"
],
[
"the Indian Ocean. Contemporary examples When in 2003 the United States led a coalition to oust Saddam Hussein in the Iraq War, the absence of an all-out Iraqi opposition force at war with government forces meant that once the Ba'ath Party was removed, no local figures were on hand to immediately assume the now-vacant administerial posts. For this reason, Paul Bremer was appointed by the United States government as the interim head of state to oversee the transition.\nIn other western-led interventions such as in Kosovo (1999) and Libya (2011) where the initial claim of justification in each case was a",
"-26.067098833445925"
],
[
"and the United States Congress for the President to fight anti-United States terrorism. Citing the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998, the resolution reiterated that it should be the policy of the United States to remove the Saddam Hussein regime and promote a democratic replacement. The resolution \"supported\" and \"encouraged\" diplomatic efforts by President George W. Bush to \"strictly enforce through the U.N. Security Council all relevant Security Council resolutions regarding Iraq\" and \"obtain prompt and decisive action by the Security Council to ensure that Iraq abandons its strategy of delay, evasion, and noncompliance and promptly and strictly complies with",
"-26.004577135448926"
],
[
"years at Stanford. Post-2003 Iraq In early 2004, Diamond was a senior adviser on governance to the Coalition Provisional Authority in Iraq.\nHis book Squandered Victory: The American Occupation and the Bungled Effort to Bring Democracy to Iraq, published in 2005, was one of the first public critical analyses of America's post-invasion of Iraq strategy.\nIn 2006, Professor Diamond was among the people interviewed by the Iraq Study Group which was chaired by James Baker and Lee H. Hamilton. Views on democracy Despite the surge of democracy throughout the world up until the 1990s, Diamond believes democracy must improve where it already",
"-25.931938679306768"
],
[
"invasion it was clear to many observers that insufficient planning had been made for the stability of post-war Iraq.\nCriticism also came from the governments of many countries, notably from many on the United Nations Security Council, who argued that the war broke international law. (Article VI of the U.S. Constitution states that \"...all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land...\" and that \"...all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to",
"-25.92694366149226"
],
[
"and Britain the power to govern Iraq and use its oil resources to rebuild the country. Resolution 1483 removed nearly 13 years of economic sanctions originally imposed after Iraq's 1990 invasion of Kuwait. The resolution allows UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan to appoint a special representative to work with U.S. and British administrators on reconstruction, humanitarian aid, and the creation of a new government.\nThe resolution also created the Development Fund for Iraq, which collected funds from oil sales. The fund was initially run by the United States and Britain to rebuild the country, and is overseen by a new advisory body",
"-25.908901877119206"
],
[
"United Action for Democracy The United Action for Democracy (UAD) was an opposition group formed in Nigeria during the military regime of General Sani Abacha in 1997, bringing together human rights, environmental rights and smaller pro-democracy organizations.\nIt was a component organization of the Joint Action Committee of Nigeria (JACON).\nA coalition of 26 pro-democracy groups, in April 1998 it called for \"mass action\".\nTwo people were killed and about 20 wounded at the Salami Sports Stadium, Ibadan in April 1998, when supporters of the United Action for Democracy disrupted a pro-Abacha rally that had earlier been addressed by the military administrator Colonel",
"-25.809353818491218"
],
[
"reduction in the force of gravity. Iraq War Sali has consistently voted to support the Iraq War and has opposed all legislation aimed at withdrawing the United States' troops from Iraq.\nSali said, \"None of us like war. We all wish that victory in Iraq had been swift, clear-cut and definitive and that a stable and free government would have been operating in Baghdad, able to stand on its own. Clearly great progress has been made, particularly in the past year, and the future of Iraq is now more promising than ever. Yet, we remain at war. At a minimum, we",
"-25.797167749435175"
],
[
"a new safe haven in a free Iraq. Response The substance of the debate that followed the speech reflected \"widespread disagreement with the Bush administration over its proposed solution, and growing skepticism that the United States made the right decision in going to war in the first place\". Some issues of contention were divisions over the advisability of committing more troops versus complete withdrawal, the 'winnability' of the Iraq War regardless of a surge, and framing of the issue. Supporters The New York Times reported that former Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney and former New York City Mayor Rudolph Giuliani backed",
"-25.78072769904975"
],
[
"power dynamics associated with democracy discourse can be influential. Walid Kazziha argues that despite the fact that Arab intellectual debate on democracy had been lively in the twentieth century and home-grown demands for political opening had been placed on regimes, Western discourse on democracy grew in influence in the region from the 1980s onwards, and by the beginning of the 21st century, the \"Arab drive for democratization, which emerged after the 1967 Arab defeat, had been diverted from its national course, due to the intervention of the West.\" Likewise, Sari Hanafi's analysis of the relationship between international donors and Palestinian",
"-25.77915614300582"
],
[
"never placed under IAEA safeguards. Attempts to write Israeli adherence to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) into contracts for the supply of U.S. weapons continued throughout 1968. Iraq Relations between the United States and Iraq became strained following the overthrow of the Iraqi monarchy on July 14, 1958, which resulted in the declaration of a republican government led by Brigadier Abd al-Karim Qasim. On June 25, 1961, Qasim mobilized troops along the border between Iraq and Kuwait, declaring the latter nation \"an indivisible part of Iraq\" and causing a short-lived \"Kuwait Crisis\". The United Kingdom—which had just granted Kuwait independence",
"-25.760305197247362"
],
[
"United States from its history of foreign interventions and policies like low intensity conflict or covert operations. Occupation The United States intervened in Iraq in the 2003 invasion of Iraq citing concerns for national security and adhering to the evolving Bush Doctrine based on neoconservatism and the democratic peace theory.\nDisputes from ethnic conflict and the question of self-determination and independence can lead to insurgency or military occupation.\nRussia intervened in the 2008 South Ossetia war, but has also voiced support for any of its citizens in places like Ukraine and elsewhere. Multilateral interventions that include territorial governance by foreign institutions",
"-25.697887779329903"
],
[
"much violence. These elections created the Iraqi National Assembly, which in April 2005 appointed a new administration, including President Jalal Talabani and Prime Minister Ibrahim al-Jaafari. The US administration has repeatedly claimed that they would leave the country if asked to do so by the Iraqi leadership. Talabani stated that improvements in the strength of Iraq's own army could enable US troop reductions of up to 50,000 by the end of 2005, though he later backtracked from that claim. \nUnder United Nations Security Council Resolution 1790, the mandate of the multinational force in Iraq was extended until December 31,",
"-25.678248141659424"
],
[
"composed of the United Nations and international financial institutions. In June 2004, the New York Times reported that American authorities spent $2.5 billion from Iraqi oil revenue despite agreements that the oil revenues should be set aside for use after the restoration of Iraq's sovereignty.\nOn 14 August 2003, the Security Council voted 14–0 to \"welcome\" the creation of the Iraqi Governing Council. Resolution 1500 stopped short of formally recognizing the governing council as Iraq's legitimate governing body but called it an \"important step\" towards creating a sovereign government. Elections For several months the United States maintained that it intended to",
"-25.627165692436392"
],
[
"that the U.S. wants to keep in Iraq.\"\nMcGovern testified at a Democratic National Headquarters forum in 2005 that had been convened by Rep. John Conyers (D-Mich.) of the House Judiciary Committee on the Downing Street memo.\nThe Washington Post reported in 2005 that, in his testimony, McGovern \"declared that the United States went to war in Iraq for oil, Israel and military bases craved by administration neocons so 'the United States and Israel could dominate that part of the world.'\" He said that Israel should not be considered an ally and that Bush was doing the bidding of Israeli Prime Minister",
"-25.609209592796105"
],
[
"peace treaty was not signed after the end of the Iraq War in 2003, and only the UN Security Council Resolution 1483, adopted on May 22, 2003, stipulated the postwar regime for the stability and security of Iraq exclusively. Post-conflict elections One of the UN's roles in peace processes is to conduct post-conflict elections but, on the whole, they are thought to have no effect, or even a negative effect, on peace after civil war.\nHowever, when peace agreements transform rebel groups into political parties, the effect on peace is positive, especially if international interveners use their moments of power distribution",
"-25.606382954487344"
],
[
"necessary to defend our liberty and to defend our lives.\nThe stance of the Bush administration was that the harsh measures to spread the democracy worldwide are inevitable and efficacious, in which for instance, liberating Iraq will plant democracy in the area and enable it to flourish in the rest of the Middle East.\nTwo distinct schools of thought arose in the Bush Administration regarding how to handle countries such as Iraq, Iran, and North Korea (the so-called \"Axis of Evil\" states). Secretary of State Colin Powell and National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice, as well as U.S. Department of State specialists, argued",
"-25.579244926786032"
],
[
"a republic. Relations between the two countries were formally established on August 25, 1958. During the 1960s relations between the two countries were strengthened as Iraq had purchased many Soviet and Chinese weapons during the Six-Day War and the Yom Kippur War with Israel. But also during this time there was chaos because the Iraqi government had gone through several military coups and attempted coups. In 1971 Iraq supported China's bid for a permanent seat in the United Nations and it voted in favour to admit Beijing and replace Taipei. During the Iran–Iraq War from 1980 to 1988 China was",
"-25.518813205810147"
],
[
"the ICC. The Obama Administration has subsequently re-established a working relationship with the court. [Broken Citation] Iraq War The Iraq War divided opinions within European nations and within the United States, with some states supporting of military action, and some against. The European public opinion was staunchly opposed to the war. This caused a major transatlantic rift, especially between the states led by France and Germany on the one hand, who were against military action, and the United States with United Kingdom, Italy, Spain and Poland, among others. Kyoto Protocol The European Union is one of the main backers of",
"-25.508258947473223"
],
[
"Public opinion polls since the 1990s consistently show that only about a quarter of Americans support democracy promotion. Academic research further suggests that Americans are not persuaded to support international democracy promotion either to spread American values abroad or to promote US national interest. History of American democracy promotion in MENA American foreign policy attitudes toward democracy promotion in the Middle East and North Africa have changed significantly from the twentieth to the twenty-first centuries, with the former largely dominated by nominal commitment to democratic change in the region and the latter witnessing intensified, even forceful, efforts at democratization. Post-WWII",
"-25.4595033616788"
],
[
"open dialogue between Iraq and the United States. The U.S. position included the option of receiving Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz and sending Secretary of State Baker, to Iraq. The main goal behind the extra mile for peace was to assure the American citizens that the government was doing everything possible to avoid a military conflict with Iraq.\nIraq welcomed the opportunity for direct talks with the U.S. From the beginning of the Kuwait invasion, Saddam had lobbied for direct negotiations with the United States. Iraq had been previously denied any face-to-face negotiations. Iraq’s Information Minister, Latif",
"-25.45705216206261"
],
[
"curb on state power.” Opposition to the Iraq War The Independent Institute promotes a U.S. foreign policy of free trade and non-interventionism, and this perspective was apparent in a host of publications and events it sponsored during the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan since 2001.\nEven before the United States led the 2003 airstrikes on Iraq, the Independent Institute’s fellows and speakers voiced opposition to a U.S.-Iraq War. That opposition continued for the duration of the conflict. In a Reason magazine symposium marking the 10th anniversary of war’s inception, Research Fellow Anthony Gregory called the Iraq war “the worst U.S. government",
"-25.4475363392703"
],
[
"numbers protesting in Seattle, San Francisco, Chicago, and other cities.\nConsistent with the anti-war sentiment of the protests, in the months leading up to the Iraq War, American public opinion heavily favored a diplomatic solution over immediate military intervention. A January 2003 CBS News/New York Times poll found that 63% of Americans wanted President Bush to find a diplomatic solution to the Iraq situation, compared with 31% who favored immediate military intervention. That poll also found, however, that if diplomacy failed, support for military action to remove Saddam Hussein was above 60 percent.\nDays before the March 20 invasion, a USA Today/CNN/Gallup",
"-25.43609442989691"
],
[
"question of whether democracy, far from advancing, may actually be under threat. In recent years, scholars have been pointing to a so-called democratic deficit in countries where democratic systems already exist, including Britain, the USA and the European Union.\nThe perceived challenge currently facing democracy around the world, both in countries where it is already at the core of the system of governance and in those where it is not, is encouraging academics and practitioners alike to re-evaluate what it means to promote, support or assist democracy in the post-Cold War situation. Definition The precise definition of democracy promotion has been",
"-25.429153912573383"
],
[
"be a matter of U.S. credibility in the MENA region, where America was sharply criticized for seemingly applying a double standard in the 2006 Palestinian parliamentary elections – encouraging free and fair elections, only to withdraw aid and diplomatically boycott the new government when Hamas emerged the victor.\nSome, such as Laurie Mylroie, suggest that democracy and Islamic tradition are incompatible, and illiberal Islamists may be worse than the current authoritarian regimes (although she suggests it may be useful for the United States to promote human rights and democracy in certain parts of the Middle East to oppose dictators such as",
"-25.413523581664776"
],
[
"reform in authoritarian regimes.\nThe money spent on these programs was minute compared with efforts led by the Pentagon. But as American officials and others look back at the uprisings of the Arab Spring, they are seeing that the United States' democracy-building campaigns played a bigger role in fomenting protests than was previously known, with key leaders of the movements having been trained by the Americans in campaigning, organizing through new media tools and monitoring elections. \nA number of the groups and individuals directly involved in the revolts and reforms sweeping the region, including the April 6 Youth Movement in Egypt,",
"-25.38093864412076"
],
[
"Resolution 687, which focused on weapons and weapons programs and made no mention of regime change. One month after the passage of the Iraq Liberation Act, the US and UK launched a bombardment campaign of Iraq called Operation Desert Fox. The campaign's express rationale was to hamper Saddam Hussein's government's ability to produce chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons, but U.S. intelligence personnel also hoped it would help weaken Saddam's grip on power.\nFollowing the election of George W. Bush as president in 2000, the US moved towards a more aggressive Iraq policy. The Republican Party's campaign platform in the 2000 election",
"-25.37296194252849"
],
[
"Council unanimously passed Resolution 1441 demanding that Iraq \"comply with its disarmament obligations\" and allow weapons inspections. Iraq war critics such as former weapons inspector Scott Ritter claimed that these sanctions and weapons inspections policies, supported by both the Bush and Clinton administrations, were actually intended to foster regime change in Iraq.\nU.S. policy shifted in 1998 when the United States Congress passed and President Bill Clinton signed the \"Iraq Liberation Act\" after Iraq terminated its cooperation with U.N. weapons inspectors the preceding August. The act made it official U.S. policy to \"support efforts to remove the regime headed by Saddam",
"-25.36469904574915"
],
[
"National Strategy for Victory in Iraq The National Strategy for Victory in Iraq is a document by the United States National Security Council which articulated the strategy of the United States President, in 2003, and provided an update on progress in various challenges and conflicts, notably Iraq.\nOn February 26, 2003, President George W. Bush stated,\nThe United States has no intention of determining the precise form of Iraq's new government. That choice belongs to the Iraqi people. Yet, we will ensure that one brutal dictator is not replaced by another. All Iraqis must have a voice in the new government, and",
"-25.36374865169637"
],
[
"the United States and its allies might fashion a \"containment\" strategy for Iraq, which offered some chance of preventing all-out civil war in Iraq from destabilizing the wider Persian Gulf region in the event that American efforts to stabilize the country failed. While Pollack and Byman argued that such a containment strategy would be very difficult to make work given the historical problems of doing so and the specific problems created by previous American actions in Iraq, they also concluded that containment would likely prove America's least bad option because U.S. interests in the Persian Gulf were so important that",
"-25.34968687723449"
],
[
"from both major parties have expressed support for the theory. In his 1994 State of the Union address, then-President Bill Clinton, a member of the Democratic Party, said: \"Ultimately, the best strategy to ensure our security and to build a durable peace is to support the advance of democracy elsewhere. Democracies don't attack each other\" (Clinton 2000). In a 2004 press conference, then-President George W. Bush, a member of the Republican Party, said: \"And the reason why I'm so strong on democracy is democracies don't go to war with each other. And the reason why is the people of most",
"-25.32654654030921"
],
[
"Project on Middle East Democracy History In 2004, a small group of graduate students at Georgetown University began meeting regularly to discuss the need for a stronger voice in Washington in support of democratic principles in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). The group was driven by a firm belief that the advancement of democratic values is not only in the interest of the region's citizens, but also very much in the strategic interests of the United States.\nIn 2006, this group formally established the Project on Middle East Democracy (POMED) to help fill gaps it had identified: to inform",
"-25.32413763475779"
],
[
"In an interview in 2009, he put forward a case that in the long run the Iraq War will prove to have been a positive decision, saying that it will be ultimately \"beneficial to the war of ideas in the sense that a functioning democracy that we hope will be stable and prosperous now exists in the Middle East, and is showing other nations and other people what a democracy looks like.\"\nNewsweek said about him: \"James K. Glassman, as they say in Washington, gets it. The under secretary of state for public diplomacy has been on the job for only",
"-25.31755337272989"
],
[
"Iraqi Interim Government Organization It was recognized by the U.S., the United Nations, the Arab League and several other countries as being the sovereign government of Iraq (see Iraqi sovereignty for more information). The U.S. retained significant de facto power in the country and critics contend that the government existed only at the pleasure of the United States and other coalition countries, whose military forces still remain in Iraq. The coalition did promise that its troops would leave if the new sovereign government requested it, but no such request was made. The law and the head of government The government's",
"-25.306957386244903"
],
[
"the Iraq united,\" said Hadi Jalo, a Baghdad-based political analyst. \"For the Iranians, it is easier to dominate one country instead of three separate states.\"\nIran's attempts at a non-sectarian and inclusive policy in Iraq are also evident in its programmes of arming & training Sunni and more recently Christian militias in the effort to fight ISIL both militarily & politically by de-legitimising the militant groups sectarian philosophy. US reactions United States:\nFollowing the introduction of Iranian troops into Iraq in June 2014, President Barack Obama said that \"Iran can play a constructive role if it is helping to send the same",
"-25.303343469400716"
],
[
"only because American democracy could not underwrite an imperial order that required constant, costly applications of military power,\" Haass concluded (Haass 2000).\nIn a May 2015 interview with BBC's HARDtalk, speaking as President of the Council on Foreign Relations, Haass predicted a new era in world history, in part due to the muting of U.S. dominance by the more diffuse power wielded by states and non-state entities as a result of the proliferation of nuclear arms and cyberterrorism, and several policy failures, which may bring about an \"era of disorder\" in the absence of any clear superpower. The failures in",
"-25.29608742567507"
],
[
"negotiation with Israel.\nTraditional promotion of free market economics also spurred new calls for democratization in the MENA region. The first democracy aid programs in the Arab world, including the creation of a modest $3 million Middle East Democracy Fund, were introduced by the George H.W. Bush administration as a means of encouraging economic liberalization via political liberalization, though the projects were primarily focused on improving management and efficiency in government institutions, as opposed to addressing contentious issues such as human rights abuses, government structures preserving authoritarian power, and laws and practices suppressive of democracy. While the Clinton administration broke with",
"-25.285999253279442"
],
[
"in Iraq. Among lawmakers, Democrats are the most vocal opponents of Operation Iraqi Freedom and campaigned on a platform of withdrawal ahead of the 2006 mid-term elections.\nA March 2003 CBS News poll taken a few days before the invasion of Iraq found that 34% of Democrats nationwide would support it without United Nations backing, 51% would support it only with its backing, and 14% would not support it at all. The Los Angeles Times stated in early April 2003 that 70% of Democrats supported the decision to invade while 27% opposed it. The Pew Research Center stated in August 2007",
"-25.28291372016247"
],
[
"Postwar Iraq\". This volume of the report includes seven pages of conclusions regarding assessments provided by the intelligence community to U.S. government leaders prior to the Iraq war. The report concludes that the intelligence community had assessed that establishing a stable government in Iraq would be a \"long, difficult, and probably turbulent challenge,\" that Iraqi society was deeply divided and would engage in violent conflict unless an occupying power took steps to prevent it, and that the war would increase the threat of terrorism, at least temporarily. The intelligence community also assessed that a U.S. defeat and occupation of Iraq",
"-25.237314487441836"
],
[
"studies have also controlled for the possibility of reverse causality from peace to democracy. For example, one study (Reuveny & Li 2003) supports the theory of simultaneous causation, finding that dyads involved in wars are likely to experience a decrease in joint democracy, which in turn increases the probability of further war. So they argue that disputes between democratizing or democratic states should be resolved externally at a very early stage, in order to stabilize the system. Another study (Reiter 2001) finds that peace does not spread democracy, but spreading democracy is likely to spread peace. A different kind of",
"-25.19876059019589"
],
[
"Strong Democracy Background Advocates for strengthening democratic institutions and practices in the United States were convened beginning in 2008 under the title of Strengthening Our Nation’s Democracy (SOND). The convenings brought together advocates of electoral reform, campaign finance reform, civic engagement, deliberative democracy, open government, civil rights, collaborative governance, media reform, service and immigrant civic inclusion to identify how they could better collaborate with one another. Among the convening organizations of Strengthening Our Nation's Democracy were AmericaSpeaks, Demos, Everyday Democracy, and faculty from Harvard's Ash Center for Democratic Innovation and Governance. As a result of the convenings, the groups formed",
"-25.18878931531799"
],
[
"Numerous works by novelists and film makers criticized the American efforts to transform the disaster into a justification for war. Iraq War In March 2003 France, along with Germany, China, and Russia, opposed the proposed UN resolution that would have authorized a U.S. invasion of Iraq. During the run-up to the war, French foreign minister Dominique de Villepin emerged as a prominent critic of the American Iraq policies. Despite the recurring rifts, the often ambivalent relationship remained formally intact. The United States did not need French help, and instead worked closely with Britain and its other allies.\nAngry American talk about",
"-25.168015130871026"
],
[
"members amassed their vast economic, diplomatic and military resources, captured and brazenly subjugated Iraq to an unprecedented condominial regime serving their economic interest under Iraq Reconstruction Programme\" (Eke, 2007). In addition, lack of geographical spread of members in Security Council causes an inbalance in the role of maintenance global peace and security. The voices of small countries can be heard, but policies are not adopted in response to them unless they serves the great powers' interests. \nHowever, collective security in the UN has not completely failed. The role of the UN and collective security in general is evolving with",
"-25.16560716308595"
],
[
"American national interests in the Middle East that the group posed, an editorial by the editorial board of the Los Angeles Times argued that congressional authorization should override Obama's legal authority as the ultimate legal basis for the usage of military force in Iraq.\nHowever, support for the intervention in the media was not unanimous. A Washington Post editorial criticized the American strategy of creating a unity government in order to fight ISIL was a mirage due to the country's political-religious cleavages and ISIS's numerical and technological superiority. William Hartung, writing in Stars and Stripes argued that the intervention would result",
"-25.115590154280653"
],
[
"eyes of war protesters. However, speaking before an audience in Peterborough, New Hampshire, John Kerry said, \"We need a regime change not just in Iraq. We need a regime change here in the United States.\" Republicans criticized Kerry for speaking out against a wartime president.\nThe invasion was swift, with the collapse of the Iraq government and the military of Iraq in about three weeks. The oil infrastructure of Iraq was rapidly secured with limited damage in that time. On May 1, George W. Bush landed on the aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln in a Lockheed S-3 Viking, where",
"-25.101392609081813"
],
[
"conflicting definitions of \"war\" and \"mature democracy\". Part of the difficulty in assessing the theory is that democracy as a widespread global phenomenon emerged only very recently in human history, which makes generalizing about it difficult. (See also list of wars between democracies.)\nOther major empirical evidence includes the elimination of interstate warfare in South America, Southeast Asia, and Eastern Europe among countries that moved from military dictatorships to liberal democracies.\nAccording to several studies, the end of the Cold War and the subsequent increase in the number of liberal democratic states were accompanied by a sudden and dramatic decline in total",
"-25.079356382062542"
],
[
"Iraq–European Union relations Background Differences in the European and U.S. approaches to the issue of Iraq began to emerge in the 1990s. This period, following the expulsion of Iraq from Kuwait in 1991, was characterized by a policy of containment. Alongside this policy, however, the United States became progressively more involved in advocating democracy for Arab states, a process which had no parallel in Europe. The slow movement in Washington from a policy of containment to one of regime change reached a significant milestone in 1998, with the Clinton Administration passing the Iraq Liberation Act. No parallel movement took place",
"-25.072486344019126"
],
[
"Economic reform of Iraq Economic reform in Iraq describes decisions by the Coalition Provisional Authority to dramatically change the economy of Iraq in the aftermath of the 2003 U.S.-led invasion.\nPrior to US occupation, Iraq had a centrally planned economy. Among other things, it prohibited foreign ownership of Iraqi businesses, ran most large industries as state-owned enterprises, and imposed large tariffs to keep out foreign goods. After the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, the Coalition Provisional Authority quickly began issuing many binding orders privatizing Iraq's economy and opening it up to foreign investment.\nEconomic reform was implemented alongside reform of government institutions, the",
"-25.060913923945918"
],
[
"down the road of complete independence. They slowly accepted responsibility for organizing their own security once the Americans decide to withdraw, whenever that may be. He also talks about how democracy is slowly taking shape in Iraq thanks to Americans always having a desire to do what is considered \"right\". At one point during the speech, the President gave thanks to the troops and families of troops stationed all across the world and assured that they would have every resource necessary to succeed overseas. He also reaffirmed that as long as the Middle East continued to be a place where",
"-25.04044399454142"
],
[
"cooperate with the inspections on several counts. The U.S. replied by saying that the responsibility of proof of disarmament was upon Iraq, not on the UN or the U.S.\nIn November 2002, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1441, giving Iraq an ultimatum to co-operate in disarmament within an unstated timeframe of a few months. However, in March 2003, the U.S., supported by fifty countries (including the United Kingdom, Spain, Australia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, the Netherlands and Poland) which the Bush administration referred to as the \"coalition of the willing\" launched military operations against Iraq. On April 9, Saddam",
"-25.037026351026725"
],
[
"\"Iraq is a failed state and in need of a revolution\" further lamenting “Sorrow fills my heart that the Arab Spring has skipped Iraq. The wind of change that toppled regimes and rulers didn’t reach the country.\" He went on to blame the US invasion for the current state of the country and rampant sectarianism within it, stating \"The Americans allowed a sectarian-based political system due to their beliefs that Iraqis are divided by their sectarian and ethnic background and that the political assembly must represent this truth. What the Americans did not understand was that Iraq long witnessed intermarriage",
"-25.024037920025876"
],
[
"States as being involved in a \"Clash of Civilizations\" and describes the Iraqi Insurgency as being engaged in \"brave resistance to liberate Iraq\".\nSenator Clinton said:\nI believe that education is one of the keys to lasting peace in the Middle East... Ever since we first raised this issue some years ago there still has not been an adequate repudiation of incitement by the Palestinian Authority. It is even more disturbing that the problem appears to have gotten worse. These textbooks don't give Palestinian children an education, they give them an indoctrination.\nSenator Clinton joined with Elie Wiesel to speak out about anti-Israel",
"-25.01175436207268"
],
[
"not reactionary ones, dominate post-occupation Iraq would be for progressives to take the lead in fighting the occupation, Ketabchi argues that this is not possible due to the present situation in Iraq. Nevertheless, he claims, \"We do not have to choose between the US and Iraqi reactionary forces. Opposition to the US is not a progressive stand per se. What matters is the kind of future that this opposition represents and objectives it pursues.\" A third alternative is represented by what Kazuyoshi calls the \"Civil Resistance.\"",
"-24.987865261588013"
],
[
"their own resources, having painfully to repair the devastation war leaves behind, and, to fill up the measure of evils, load themselves with a heavy national debt that would embitter peace itself and that can never be liquidated on account of constant wars in the future.\nDemocracy thus gives influence to those most likely to be killed or wounded in wars, and their relatives and friends (and to those who pay the bulk of the war taxes; Russett 1993, p. 30). This monadic theory must, however, explain why democracies do attack non-democratic states. One explanation is that these democracies were threatened or",
"-24.981112218902126"
],
[
"underpinning the transition to democracy by creating the climate for negotiations to end the Armed Struggle. This saw the concept of \"national security\" dominate the intelligence community, at least during the transition to democracy and the decade thereafter. It was only when the state started to perceive that it was under threat, that the old thinking about \"state security\" again emerged. This drove the creation of the State Security Agency (with the security of the state as its primary objective) out of the remnants of what had evolved from the NIS (with the security of the nation as its primary",
"-24.97397008218104"
],
[
"UN would continue to respond to such crisis with inept improvization. In 2004, the UN faced accusations that its recently ended Oil-for-Food Programme—in which Iraq had been allowed to trade oil for basic needs to relieve the pressure of sanctions—had suffered from widespread corruption, including billions of dollars of kickbacks. An independent inquiry created by the UN found that many of its officials had been involved, as well as raising \"significant\" questions about the role of Kojo Annan, the son of Kofi Annan.\nIn evaluating the UN as a whole, Jacques Fomerand writes that the \"accomplishments of the United Nations in",
"-24.95143244702922"
],
[
"military action in Iraq was designed \"to deny the president the possibility of victory while making sure Democrats don't have to share the blame for the defeat. ... [Murtha] doesn't support them in the mission, but he'd like them to continue failing at it for a couple more years\".\nIn 2013 Steyn blamed the United States' lack of success in Iraq on \"geopolitical ADHD,\" writing \"the unceasing drumbeat of 'quagmire' and 'exit strategy' communicated to the world an emptiness at the heart of American power...An awareness that America lacks \"credibility\" and \"will\" is what caused crowds to attack U.S. embassies and the",
"-24.943516892322805"
],
[
"Opposition to the Iraq War Significant opposition to the Iraq War occurred worldwide, both before and during the initial 2003 invasion of Iraq by the United States, United Kingdom, and smaller contingents from other nations, and throughout the subsequent occupation. People and groups opposing the war include the governments of many nations which did not take part in the invasion, and significant sections of the populace in those that did.\nRationales for opposition include the belief that the war is illegal according to the United Nations Charter, or would contribute to instability both within Iraq and the wider Middle East. Critics",
"-24.934175897704336"
],
[
"US pressure the UN agreed to send a mission to Iraq to help construct a new government. Curveball Much of the United States’ justification for starting the war was the claim that the Iraqi government was hiding a biological weapon mobile laboratory program. This came from an informant known as “Curveball”, who has since admitted made up the story because he saw an opportunity to topple Saddam Hussein's regime. Curveball was first discovered to be an unreliable source in 2005, and admitted to his false statements in February 2011, revealing himself to be Rafid Ahmed Alwan al-Janabi, an Iraqi defector",
"-24.928224430332193"
],
[
"resolution that authorized the use of force against Iraq. However, he later began expressing doubts about the war. On March 17, 2004, when Republicans offered a \"War in Iraq Anniversary Resolution\" that \"affirms that the United States and the world have been made safer with the removal of Saddam Hussein and his regime from power in Iraq,\" when J. D. Hayworth called for a recorded vote, Murtha voted against it.\nStill, in early 2005 Murtha argued against the withdrawal of American troops from Iraq. \"A premature withdrawal of our troops based on a political timetable could rapidly devolve into a civil",
"-24.83476682502078"
],
[
"efforts to shed all the remnants of Western colonialism and to establish Iraq as an autonomous member of the world order of nation states.\" At the same time, however, the Iraqi \"ruling elite had shown stubborn resistance towards anything which could be regarded as an intrusion into the country's internal affairs or as an infringement upon Iraq's sovereignty over its international policies.\"\nStarting in the 1970s, in order to maintain an independent foreign policy, the Iraqi government began to diversify its relationship with military arms suppliers. By purchasing arms from France, China, Brazil, South Africa and the United States, Iraq",
"-24.834660064621858"
],
[
"in the 2004 Guinness World Records as the largest mass protest movement in history. Support for Iraqi resistance and insurgency There has been a debate among those opposed to the U.S. invasion and subsequent occupation of Iraq in developed countries about how to relate to forces within Iraq. It is possible that Iraq paid the USA in dinars for their efforts in the war.\nPrior to the invasion, while it was common to accuse opponents of providing objective, if not intentional, support to Saddam, none of the major antiwar organizations declared any support for him, however limited. After the invasion and",
"-24.832501286975457"
],
[
"For this reason, questioning the selective use of intelligence to justify the war in Iraq is neither idle sniping nor \"revisionist history\", as Mr. Bush has suggested. The act of war is the last option of a democracy, taken when there is a grave threat to our national security. More than 200 American soldiers have lost their lives in Iraq already. We have a duty to ensure that their sacrifice came for the right reasons. Administration reactions to disclosure At a press conference on Monday, July 7, 2003, the day after the publication of the op-ed, Colin Powell said: \"There",
"-24.810370164728738"
],
[
"be to 'pursue peace as though there were no democratization, and pursue democratization as though there were no peace. In other words, the U.S. government should pursue reform and democratization as policy goals in the first instance without worrying excessively about tradeoffs with other goals.\" The U.S. pressure behind the calling of the 2006 Palestinian legislative election backfired, resulting in the democratically sound victory of Hamas, rather than the US supported Fatah. Drawing upon the ideas of Middle East scholar Nicola Pratt it can be argued that:\n…the outcome of democratization efforts is [in reality]…contingent upon the degree to",
"-24.803126728103962"
],
[
"of democracy and why they were lost from our \"democratic archive for citizenship\" and probes possible alternatives for today.",
"-24.78879014517588"
],
[
"had strongly condemned the invasion and occupation and had called for a withdrawal of all forces from the country. All four countries united against the United States and the United Kingdom and had refused to contribute any troops to Iraq unless there was a United Nations mandate. Despite the opposition to the U.S. invasion and occupation of the country China emerged as one of the biggest winners of Iraq's oil contracts. Chinese and Russian companies had emerged as the biggest winners in the bid for Iraq's oil. Chinese companies were willing to operate on 20 year fee based contracts, which",
"-24.779871490536607"
]
] |
6grj1e | How would Puerto Rico becoming a US State work? Would the powers that be of USA want this to happen? What would the impact be to the country as a whole to gain a new state? | [
" > > How would Puerto Rico becoming a US State work? Puerto Rico would have a referendum and decide if they want to be a state. Congress would vote if they want to start the statehood process for Puerto Rico Congress and Puerto Rico's territorial congress would work together to create a state constitution. Once that constitution is agreeable to both Congress and Puerto Rico a final vote in Congress happens to admit Puerto Rico as a state. The President signs that bill and The US has 51 states > > Would the powers that be of USA want this to happen? The biggest hurdle the powers that be would have is adding Puerto Rice adds 2 senators and 4 or 5 congressmen, along with the 6 or 7 electoral votes that go along with those. This would concern one party if the other was more heavily represented in PR also this would diminish the voting power of smaller states especially the 3 vote states. Puerto Rico would also probably be a net taker of federal taxes but that depends on a lot of things. > > What would the impact be to the country as a whole to gain a new state? Day to day nothing really changes, Puerto Rico is basically a state now. There is free travel to and from the territory and free work access. it would really only effect election time. Taxes would increase for Puerto Ricans as they don't pay Federal Income Tax, but their tax burden may shift around to even that out, it depends on the exact way they are admitted as a state.",
" > What would the impact be to the country as a whole to gain a new state? I can't speak for the rest of your questions, but I would imagine it would be a very lucrative time to be a flag manufacturer. Imagine needing to change every American flag in the country? Probably big business to be had.",
"Puerto Rico is likely Democrat-heavy, so there's a chance the current Republican-heavy government might slow-walk the process, or ignore it altogether",
"Exactly. PR is trying to access US bankruptcy laws via an upgrade to statehood. The vote there was \"nonbinding\" meaning it was basically a popularity contest. Only the United States Congress has the power to admit a new state. I doubt we'll be adding a new star anytime soon.",
"There are many powers pushing for Puerto Rico to become a state. One of the biggest I'd say is Big Flag, the huge corporate flag companies with hundreds of flag lobbyists in Washington.",
"Side note. This has been the longest time in our history between adding states. It was very common in the early 1900s through 1959.",
"Upgrading colonies to full states is a standard procedure in the US. Last time this happened were in 1959 with Alaska and Hawaii. There are both advantages and disadvantages to adding new states for everyone involved.",
"1. Congress would have to agree. 2. The current ones, probably not, although the current president previously said he supported the idea. However, those Congresspeople with significant Latino constituents would probably be pressured to vote in favor. 3. ~~The House would gain 7 members and grow to 442 representatives~~. The Senate would grow to 102. Also, ~~9~~ 2 more members of the Electoral College that elects the President. In addition, I would likely expect that such an addition would only be done at the same time as adding *another* state, one perceived to have the opposite political leaning, so as to balance out the possible political impact. Q. V. Missouri Compromise. Edit: Thanks to those who pointed out that the number of Representatives would not change. That means 7 states will lose one of their representatives in order to make room for 7 new ones for PR. Which sucks because that's a disincentive for those states to approve statehood.",
"This video explains things pretty well. Basically. there are a bunch of people in power have screwed over Puerto Rico over and over again to make a lot of money. The last thing they want is to have to give up that cash cow and start treating those people like real human beings. URL_0 ",
"Isn't Puerto Rico broke? Like in 'we can't afford schools and hospitals' broke? I vaguely remember John Oliver's show on it a year ago.",
" > What would the impact be to the country as a whole to gain a new state? Updated flag maybe?",
"Puerto Rico is still unlikely to become a state. In the most recent vote, only 23% of the people voted. Of those, 3% voted \"no\". So we have a situation where 77% didn't vote (because of apathy or protest) and where only .23 * .97 = .22 = 22% (a little over 1/5) may want to become a state. That leaves a LOT of PR citizens that don't care or don't want statehood.",
"Isn't PR basically bankrupt and this is them trying to get on dat welfur?"
] | [
[
"Since the transfer of sovereignty of Puerto Rico from Spain to the United States, the relationship between Puerto Rico and the US has been evolving. On April 11, 1899, the peace treaty between Spain and the USA (the 1898 Treaty of Paris) became effective, and established a military government in Puerto Rico. This was short lived, since the following year (April 2, 1900) Congress enacted the Foraker Act, which established a civil government and free trade between Puerto Rico and the USA. Puerto Ricans, although incapable of electing members of the territory's executive branch, but were now able to",
"-38.339558784500696"
],
[
"State under the administrations of various presidents, among them Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses Grant, had stressed that a canal be built either in Honduras, Nicaragua or Panama and that the United States annex the Dominican Republic and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba. The idea of annexing the Dominican Republic failed to receive the approval of the U.S. Senate and Spain did not accept the 160 million dollars which the U.S. offered for Puerto Rico and Cuba. Mahan made the following statement to the War Department: \"Having therefore no foreign establishments either colonial or military, the ships of war of the",
"-37.940969948336715"
],
[
"with independence but with a \"free and voluntary political association\" between Puerto Rico and the United States.\nGovernor Ricardo Rosselló is strongly in favor of statehood to help develop the economy and help to \"solve our 500-year-old colonial dilemma ... Colonialism is not an option .... It’s a civil rights issue ... 3.5 million citizens seeking an absolute democracy,\" he told the news media. Benefits of statehood include an additional $10 billion per year in federal funds, the right to vote in presidential elections, higher Social Security and Medicare benefits, and a right for its government agencies and municipalities to",
"-37.858625912689604"
],
[
"progress in Congress, and Puerto Rico did not receive its political independence from the U.S.\nIn 1950, the 81st United States Congress passed legislation to enable the people of Puerto Rico to organize a local government pursuant to a constitution of their own, comparable to those of other territories and states of the United States. From its enactment until this day, the act has served as the organic law for the government of Puerto Rico and its relation with the United States. Muñoz Marín, as Governor of Puerto Rico, supported the measure. Muñoz Marín became the first native-born elected governor of",
"-37.73181203144486"
],
[
"terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898 which was ratified on December 10, 1898, Puerto Rico was annexed by the United States after the 1898 Spanish–American War. Spain had lost its last colony in the Western Hemisphere. The United States established a military government which acted as both head of the army of occupation and administrator of civil affairs. Almost immediately, the United States began the \"Americanization\" process of Puerto Rico. The U.S. occupation brought about a total change in Puerto Rico's economy and polity and did not apply democratic principles in their colony. Puerto Rico was classified",
"-37.58471465902403"
],
[
"Congress was not really granting Puerto Rico the complete sovereignty required to vanquish its colonial status. On the other hand, Fernós felt that if Congress could return full sovereignty to the Philippines, they could grant the partial sovereignty that his original proposal pursued to Puerto Rico, which in turn would voluntarily delegate the remainder. He conceded that in the heavily amended version, the majority of Puerto Rico's sovereignty would remain in Congress as established in the Treaty of Paris. However, he still believed that the sovereignty gained by the United States through the Treaty of Paris was still limited, since",
"-37.54253863723716"
],
[
"into the future. Local arguments Supporters of independence for Puerto Rico argue that the U.S. favored the establishment of the present Commonwealth status to create a perpetual consumer base for U.S. and foreign products and services. Foreign products and services are redirected to Puerto Rico and other \"unincorporated\" lands of the United States to satisfy a portion of foreign trade agreements, while allowing domestic products and services a greater \"home\" market share. Another argument by the independence movement is that the Macheteros are continuing the historical rebellion that Puerto Ricans such as Pedro Albizu Campos and the Nationalist Party have",
"-37.30721189477481"
],
[
"of becoming new states on equal footing with already existing states. These islands, however, were acquired as colonies rather than prospective states. The process was validated by the Insular Cases. The Supreme Court ruled that full constitutional rights did not automatically extend to all areas under American control. Nevertheless, in 1917, Puerto Ricans were all made full American citizens via the Jones Act. This also provided for a popularly elected legislature and a bill of rights, and authorized the election of a Resident Commissioner who has a voice (but no vote) in Congress.\nAccording to Frederick Merk, these colonial acquisitions marked",
"-37.25270236322103"
],
[
"1898. The United States established a military government and appointed Major General Nelson A. Miles, the first head of the military government, established on the island, acting as both head of the army of occupation and administrator of civil affairs. Many Puerto Ricans, among them Maldonado, believed that Puerto Rico would gain its independence however, almost immediately, the United States began the \"Americanization\" process of Puerto Rico. The U.S. occupation brought about a total change in Puerto Rico's economy and polity and did not apply democratic principles to the colony. Puerto Rico was classified as an \"unincorporated territory\" which meant",
"-37.219881117518526"
],
[
"first acquire the sovereignty from Congress and would later employ it in a referendum, which would also include independence and statehood. After more changes were done to the language of the draft, the Puerto Rican delegation appeared ready to defend its initiative. The subsequent reunions led to a profound discussion, where the ambiguity of the territorial Commonwealth was noted by Harold R. Reis who was the American in charge of overseeing defense and economic relations.\nThe Puerto Rican delegation made it clear that their intention was to gain the sovereignty of Puerto Rico and employ it to enter into an association",
"-37.197194381733425"
],
[
"state. U.S. corporations that currently operate there as controlled foreign corporations may relocate if Puerto Rico became a state and federal corporate taxes applied.\nArguments against admitting Puerto Rico as a state include the failure of the Puerto Rican people to express unequivocally the desire to become a state, as opposed to some other alternative to the current territorial status, language and cultural differences between Puerto Rico and most of the United States, the current migration of Puerto Ricans away from Puerto Rico, and Puerto Rico's poor economic conditions and its consequent need to be supported by the federal government. History",
"-36.830496140173636"
],
[
"annex Puerto Rico to the United States and that, by using that as an excuse, McKinley had consented. In other words, Burgos established the theory of Puerto Rico being \"invaded by invitation\" by American troops.\nAccording to historical record, the United States had been considering establishing a military base in the Caribbean as early as 1867. There is some evidence that Puerto Rico (or parts of it) had been considered as a candidate for such a base (through either invasion or purchase) as early as 1891. Historians claim that, even considering Henna's petition as an actual request for invasion, the timing",
"-36.8177887427737"
],
[
"Commonwealth. It was to be the first referendum not to offer the choice of retaining the current status as a Commonwealth until early 2017. Regardless of the outcome of this fifth referendum, action by the United States Congress would be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution. Statehood If this status were granted, Puerto Rico would become the 51st state of the United States. The state would have due representation in the United States Congress with full voting rights; Puerto Rico would be represented in the Senate by",
"-36.761888952270965"
],
[
"Act. The Office of the President is responsible for policy relations between the United States and Puerto Rico, although according to the Territorial Clause of Constitution of the United States of America \"The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States...\". Potential benefits of statehood Puerto Rico is, by a considerable margin, the largest U.S. territory in terms of both population and geographical area, being similar to Connecticut with respect to population size and geographical area. Puerto Rican residents do not participate",
"-36.75202160625486"
],
[
"Denmark and Puerto Ricans became full U.S. citizens that same year. The US government declared Puerto Rico the territory was no longer a colony and stopped transmitting information about it to the United Nations Decolonization Committee. As a result, the UN General Assembly removed Puerto Rico from the U.N. list of non-self-governing territories. Four referenda showed little support for independence, but much interest in statehood such as Hawaii and Alaska received in 1959.\nThe Monroe Doctrine was expanded by the Roosevelt Corollary in 1904, providing that the United States had a right and obligation to intervene \"in flagrant cases of",
"-36.55715999947279"
],
[
"complicated matters with the United States military, which was now focusing on reinforcing its presence in Puerto Rico. The United States Department of Defense became involved, requesting that even if Puerto Rico acquired the sovereignty desired, the military was to retain the capability of expropriating terrains that they considered strategic granted by the pre-existing eminent domain. Furthermore, there were plans to expand the United States Navy's presence in the municipalities of Vieques and Culebra. Despite attempts by the Puerto Rican government to moderate this, the Navy's plan went ahead unaltered. The process to launch the informal Presidential Commission was underway",
"-36.47782447253121"
],
[
"and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory… belonging to the United States.\". Puerto Rico does not have the right to unilaterally declare independence, and at the last referendum (1998) the narrow majority voted for \"none of the above\", which was a formally undefined alternative used by commonwealth supporters to express their desire for an \"enhanced commonwealth\" option.\nThis kind of relationship also can be found in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which is termed a federacy. The European continental part is organized like a unitary state; however, the status of its Caribbean countries (Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten)",
"-36.433987237047404"
],
[
"After four hundred years of colonial rule by the Spanish Empire, Puerto Rico finally received its sovereignty in 1897 through a Carta de Autonomía (Charter of Autonomy). It was signed by Spanish Prime Minister Práxedes Mateo Sagasta and ratified by the Spanish Cortes. Seeking independence from the United States A few months later, the United States claimed ownership of the island as part of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, which concluded the Spanish–American War, which they had won that year. On 19 February 1904, the Union of Puerto Rico party became the first mass party to advocate for independence",
"-36.379723339749034"
],
[
"independent nation. Independence Should Puerto Rico become fully independent, it would be a sovereign nation, with an independent judiciary and full control over domestic and foreign policy. Relations with the U.S. would be a matter of foreign policy. The U.S. would have no formal obligations to Puerto Rico and its citizens (and vice versa), other than those agreed by bilateral agreements of both nations. United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization Since 1953, the UN has been considering the Political status of Puerto Rico and how to assist it in achieving \"independence\" or \"decolonization\". In 1978, the Special Committee determined that",
"-36.36985283077229"
],
[
"the economy of the island by prohibiting Puerto Rico from negotiating commercial treaties with other nations, from determining tariffs, and from shipping goods to the mainland on other than U.S. carriers. Opposition to U.S. citizenship for Puerto Ricans There were various factors which contributed to the opposition of giving United States citizenship to Puerto Ricans by the Government of the United States. The U.S. Congress was reluctant to fully incorporate Puerto Rico because its population was deemed racially and socially inferior to that of the mainland. In 1899, a letter published in the New York Times described Puerto Ricans as:",
"-36.354127933351265"
],
[
"crucial ones in the direction of the country. Luis Muñoz Marín shifted his goals from independence to state-like autonomy to accommodate better economic circumstances. This led to the U.S. Congress to enact the Public Law 81-600 which led to the Congressional approval of a local constitution drafted by a constitutional assembly elected by Puerto Rico and the renaming of the United States unincorporated territory of Puerto Rico as the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, using the same official name as the commonwealths of the U.S. states of Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania and Virginia, as well as that of other sovereign nation countries",
"-36.34292937142891"
],
[
"United States is not a Compact of Free Association (which is the case for the Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, and the Marshall Islands). As sovereign states, these islands have full right to conduct their own foreign relations, while the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico is part of the United States as a territory.\nThe territory was organized by the Foraker Act in 1900, which was amended by the Jones–Shafroth Act in 1917. The drafting of the Constitution of Puerto Rico by its residents was authorized by Congress in 1951, and the result approved in 1952. The government of Puerto Rico has",
"-36.340995883510914"
],
[
"Rico's legislature resolved to request that the President and the U.S. Congress act on the results, end the current form of territorial status and begin the process of admitting Puerto Rico to the Union as a state. On January 4, 2017, Puerto Rico's new representative to Congress pushed a bill that would ratify statehood by 2025.\nOn June 11, 2017, another non-binding referendum was held where 97.7 percent voted and favored the statehood option. The turnout for this vote was a low 23 percent, but some leaders of the New Progressive Party say this is because of migration of Puerto Ricans",
"-36.310598911193665"
],
[
"Bills in U.S. Congress regarding the political status of Puerto Rico The Territories Clause of the United States Constitution (Art. IV, Sec. 3, cl. 2) allows for Congress to \"dispose of\" Puerto Rico and allow it to become independent of the U.S. (in the same way as the Philippines did in 1945) or, under the authority of the Admissions Clause (Art. IV, Sec. 3, cl. 1) for it to be admitted as a state of the United States (with a vote of Congress in the same way that Alaska and Hawaii were admitted in 1958 and 1959 respectively).\nSince Congress must",
"-36.29016518907156"
],
[
"Statehood movement in Puerto Rico Background Following the Spanish–American War, Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States in 1898, through the signing of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Rico became an unincorporated, organized territory of the US with Commonwealth status through a series of judicial decisions by the Supreme Court of the United States, collectively known as \"The Insular Cases\" and the enactment of several statutes by Congress.\nIn 1900, the US Congress enacted the Foraker Act, establishing a civil government in the territory and then in 1917, Puerto Ricans were granted US citizenship, by the enactment of the Jones-Shafroth",
"-36.28990742067981"
],
[
"on the mainland. Justice Edward Douglass White introduced the concept of unincorporated territories and reasoned that, unlike prior territories, Puerto Rico had not been incorporated by Congress or by treaty into the U.S. union. It was thus \"foreign to the United States in a domestic sense\", that is, foreign for domestic law purposes, yet also part of the United States under international law. The decision permitted the establishment of unequal, undemocratic polities in such territories, did not demand that those territories eventually be incorporated, and granted wide latitude to Congress and the executive in structuring those polities. González travels",
"-36.288231545549934"
],
[
"and Puerto Rico) did not produce immediate economic expansion \"because investment, regional markets, credit and transport systems were disrupted\" during the independence conflicts. Some regions faced greater continuity from colonial era economic patterns, mainly ones that were not involved in silver extraction and peripheral to the colonial economy. Newly independent Spanish American republics did see the need to replace Spanish colonial commercial law, but they did not put in place a new code until after the mid nineteenth century due to political instability and the lack of legal expertise. Until constitutions were put in place for the new sovereign nations,",
"-36.28277612826787"
],
[
"Congress with voting powers even though the federal government of the United States has jurisdiction on the island. In addition, due to its political status, the United States has full authority over Puerto Rico's foreign policy.\nLegislation approving the referendum was passed in the Senate of Puerto Rico on January 26, 2017, by a senate controlled by the New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico (PNP In Spanish) which advocates for Puerto Rico to become a state of the United States. The measure was then passed with amendments by the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico on January 31 by a house which is",
"-36.26937081865253"
],
[
"achieving \"independence\" or \"decolonization\". In 1978, the Special Committee determined that a \"colonial relationship\" existed between the US and Puerto Rico.\nThe UN's Special Committee has often referred to Puerto Rico as a nation in its reports, because, internationally, the people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity. Most recently, in a June 2016 report, the Special Committee called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self-determination in Puerto Rico. More specifically, the group called on the United States to expedite a process that would allow the people of",
"-36.2593676969409"
],
[
"to grant the island its independence. However, this did not concur with the Monroe Doctrine, or the geopolitical interests of the United States. Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898 ratified on December 10, 1898, Puerto Rico was annexed by the United States. Spain had lost its last colony in the western hemisphere, and the United States gained imperial strength and global presence.\nWhen he was 14 years old, he began participating in the political activities of the \"Puerto Rican Federal Party\", a party which supported greater self-rule for the island founded by Muñoz Rivera. His interest in",
"-36.23326732881833"
],
[
"of the outcome of either vote, action by the United States Congress would be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution.\nIf the majority of Puerto Ricans were to choose the Free Association option - and only 33% voted for it in 2012 - and if it were granted by the US Congress, Puerto Rico would become a Free Associated State, a virtually independent nation. It would have a political and economical treaty of association with the U.S. that would stipulate all delegated agreements. This could give Puerto Rico",
"-36.2115818121747"
],
[
"politically belonging to the United States but culturally to Latin America. Its location in the Caribbean converted it in the American response to Cuba, directly affecting the development of its political status. Puerto Rico was allowed to enact a heavily revised local Constitution, but its attempts to employ its sovereignty and use it to remove the application of the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution ended in failure. The United States military played a key role in perpetuating the status quo, not wanting to risk the possibility that a change in status could affect their presence in the Caribbean.",
"-36.172417791589396"
],
[
"government for the island. The second was the inclusion of a Bill of Rights.\nThe constitution was approved overwhelmingly by nearly 82% of the voters in a popular referendum and ratified by the United States Congress with a few amendments. The United States maintains ultimate sovereignty over Puerto Rico while giving Puerto Ricans a high degree of autonomy. Under this Constitution, Puerto Rico officially identifies as the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.\nA continuing debate has dealt with the legal status of Puerto Rico under the Federal Government of the United States. Certain decisions by the Supreme Court of the United States appeared",
"-36.136709138867445"
],
[
"the majority of Puerto Ricans were to choose this option - and only 33% voted for it in 2012 - and if it were granted by the US Congress, Puerto Rico would become a Free Associated State. This could give Puerto Rico a similar status to Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, countries which currently have a Compact of Free Association with the United States.\nThe White House Task Force on Puerto Rico offers the following specifics:\n\"Free Association is a type of independence. A compact of Free Association would establish a mutual agreement that would recognize that the United States and",
"-36.13286633824464"
],
[
"States. While exercising substantial internal self-government, Puerto Rico is subordinated to the U.S. Constitution in areas such as foreign affairs or defense. For this reason, it is not considered to be a full-fledged associated state under international law. Former associated states A formal association existed under the Associated Statehood Act 1967 between the United Kingdom and the six West Indies Associated States. These were former British colonies in the Caribbean: Antigua (1967–1981), Dominica (1967–1978), Grenada (1967–1974), Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla (1967–1983), Saint Lucia (1967–1979), and Saint Vincent (1969–1979). Under this arrangement, each state had internal self-government, but the UK retained responsibility for",
"-36.126086660064175"
],
[
"The island provided an ideal naval base for defense of the Panama Canal, and it also served as an economic and political link to the rest of Latin America. Prevailing racist attitudes made Puerto Rican statehood unlikely, so the U.S. carved out a new political status for the island. The Foraker Act and subsequent Supreme Court cases established Puerto Rico as the first unincorporated territory, meaning that the United States Constitution would not fully apply to Puerto Rico. Though the U.S. imposed tariffs on most Puerto Rican imports, it also invested in the island's infrastructure and education system. Nationalist sentiment",
"-36.07969402929302"
],
[
"arose among opponents to this action, who said that, as a matter of international law, the Treaty of Paris could not empower the Spanish to give what was no longer theirs. The US administered Puerto Rico as a territory, initially with a military government.\nIn 1901, the first civilian U.S. governor of Puerto Rico, Charles Herbert Allen, became the president of the largest sugar-refining company in the world, the American Sugar Refining Company, which also dominated Puerto Rico's economy. This company was later renamed as the Domino Sugar company. In effect, Charles Allen leveraged his governorship of Puerto Rico into a",
"-36.056578708055895"
],
[
"the United States and Puerto Rico are closely linked in specific ways as detailed in the compact. Compacts of this sort are based on the national sovereignty of each country, and either nation can unilaterally terminate the association.\n \nThe Compact of Free Association would have covered topics such as the role of the U.S. military in Puerto Rico, the use of the U.S. currency, free trade between the two entities, and whether Puerto Ricans would be U.S. citizens.\nGovernor Ricardo Rosselló was strongly in favor of statehood to help develop the economy and help to \"solve our 500-year-old colonial dilemma ...",
"-36.05484248144785"
],
[
"Fernós was the last member involved in the status revision to be informed of this change in strategy, which had been idealized by Arturo Morales Carrión, a Puerto Rican that belonged to the United States delegation in the United Nations. This new initiative moved the focus away from Congress, the holder of Puerto Rico's sovereignty, to the executive power. The intention was to exploit the relation between Muñoz and the newly elected president John F. Kennedy, positioning Puerto Rico as a link between the United States and Latin America.\nThis was a reactive measure taken only six days after Prime Minister",
"-36.03642390324967"
],
[
"sovereignty However, this campaign did no go as expected, the Legal Adviser of the Department of State did not support the notion that the Commonwealth could be an \"inalterable pact\" that could only be modified by mutual consent, recognizing the fact that Congress -as the holder of Puerto Rico's sovereignty- was capable of doing so unilaterally. This development triggered a sharp turn in Muñoz's ideology and strategy, which would lead to efforts to ensure that the Commonwealth's development was to be through its full sovereignty. This placed him in the same line of Fernós for the first time in years.",
"-36.03576093961601"
],
[
"billion per year in federal funds, the right to vote in presidential elections, higher Social Security and Medicare benefits, and a right for its government agencies and municipalities to file for bankruptcy. The latter is currently prohibited.\nEven with the Puerto Ricans' vote for statehood, action by the United States Congress would be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution.",
"-36.034590168655996"
],
[
"Puerto Rico Democracy Act Background Puerto Rico is a self-governing unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeastern Caribbean Sea, east of the Dominican Republic and west of the Virgin Islands. It was ceded to the United States as part of the Treaty of Paris during the Spanish–American War. In 1952, the U.S. Congress ratified the Constitution of Puerto Rico, proclaiming Puerto Rico as an insular commonwealth. However, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has territorial status subject to United States congressional authority under the Territorial Clause of the U.S. Constitution, \"to dispose of and make all needful Rules",
"-36.03007825446548"
],
[
"Puerto Ricans in Holyoke Colonialism and early cultural exchange Following the passage of the Foraker Act, a United States designated colonial government was formed, as the island had been annexed by the Americans following the Spanish–American War. Soon after this government was instituted, several delegations were sent from Puerto Rico to various cities in the United States that were seen as potential trading partners on the mainland. Among the first of these delegations of legislature members and trade representatives, was one which would visit Springfield in 1901. In the following year the newly formed Puerto Rican government would offer to",
"-36.01611430419143"
],
[
"2017 Puerto Rican status referendum Background Spain ceded Puerto Rico to the United States in 1898 as part of the Treaty of Paris after the end of the Spanish–American War. Since then, the island has been an unincorporated territory of the United States. Because of this territorial status, the island is neither a state of the United States nor a sovereign one. Although Puerto Ricans were granted United States citizenship with the 1917 Jones–Shafroth Act, the American citizens residing on the island cannot vote for the President of the United States (their head of government) nor for a legislator in",
"-36.00471115630353"
],
[
"in order to be implemented, the Senate was to renounce to all of the Commonwealth's sovereignty, resulting in the momentary creation of a Republic of Puerto Rico, which would then negotiate with Congress directly. This concept, known then as the \"culminated\" or \"perfected Estado Libre Asociado\" was consistent with the definition of free association approved by the United Nations on December 14, 1960, through UN General Assembly Resolution 1514 (XV). However, the inclusion of statehood as an option in the referendum contemplated in the project did not sit well with Fernós.\nThe failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion further",
"-35.914861965808086"
],
[
"monumental constitutional evolution based on continued and repeated congressional annexation has taken place. Given the same, the territory has evolved from an unincorporated to an incorporated one. Congress today, thus, must afford Puerto Rico and the 4,000,000 United States citizens residing therein all constitutional guarantees. To hold otherwise, would amount to the court blindfolding itself to continue permitting Congress per secula seculorum to switch on and off the Constitution.\nIn Balzac, the court defined \"implied\":\nHad Congress intended to take the important step of changing the treaty status of Puerto Rico by incorporating it into the Union, it is reasonable to suppose",
"-35.869440302834846"
],
[
"Gag Law (Puerto Rico) Prelude After the United States invaded Puerto Rico in 1898 during the Spanish–American War, some leaders, such as José de Diego and Eugenio María de Hostos, expected the United States to grant the island its independence. \nThe United States had other ideas. Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898 ratified on December 10, 1898, the U.S. annexed Puerto Rico. Spain had lost its last colony in the western hemisphere, and the United States gained imperial strength and global presence.\nIn the early 20th century, the Puerto Rican independence movement was strong, growing, and embraced",
"-35.857560639618896"
],
[
"Proposed political status for Puerto Rico Prior to Jones Act Puerto Rico became an American territory in 1898 when, as per the terms of the Treaty of Paris which concluded the Spanish–American War, Spain ceded the island (and several other possessions) to the United States.\nThe U.S. Congress enacted the Foraker Act (also known as the Organic Act of 1900) sponsored by Senator Joseph B. Foraker, signed by President McKinley on April 2, 1900. This act established a civil government and free commerce between Puerto Rico and the United States. The structure of the insular government included a governor appointed by",
"-35.85742667654995"
],
[
"States began the 'Americanization\" process of Puerto Rico. The U.S. occupation brought about a total change in Puerto Rico's economy and polity and did not apply democratic principles to the colony. Puerto Rico was classified as an 'unincorporated territory\" which meant that the protections of the United States Constitution did not automatically apply because the island belonged to the U.S., but was not part of the U.S.\nIn 1899, U.S. Senator George Frisbie Hoar described Puerto Ricans as \"uneducated, simple-minded and harmless people who were only interested in wine, women, music and dancing\" and recommended that Spanish should be abolished in",
"-35.85138606495457"
],
[
"held several referenda with the options of U.S. statehood, independence, and commonwealth; the commonwealth option won on multiple plebiscites held in 1967, 1993, and 1998. In 2012, 54% of the voters did not wish to continue the present territorial status. Of the non-territorial statuses, becoming a U.S. state got 61.16% of the votes, Sovereign Free Associate State got 33.34% and Independence got 5.49%.\nPuerto Ricans have United States citizenship and vote for a Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, with voice but without vote, in the United States House of Representatives. With the exception of federal employees (such as employees of the",
"-35.85043355576636"
],
[
"Congress hold the sovereignty of Puerto Rico when it wasn't the sovereign of the United States or its people and only served as a representative of the popular vote. He ultimately condemned the idea of a status where sovereignty was forfeit in favor of autonomy, comparing such an arrangement to a monarchy. The following year, Fernós analyzed the complications of directly transitioning from the colonial economic model established by the United States and listed what he considered could be possible steps for a prosperous sovereignty. On July 21, 1940, the founding assembly for the new party was held with the",
"-35.81593747439547"
],
[
"2012 Puerto Rican status referendum Background Puerto Rico has been an unincorporated territory of the United States since the end of the Spanish–American War in 1898. Although Puerto Ricans were granted United States citizenship with the 1917 Jones–Shafroth Act, they cannot vote for the President of the United States unless registered to vote in one of the United States. In addition, the US retains the exclusive right to create and manage foreign policy, including any that affects the island.\nIn June 2011 the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization asked the United States to expedite the process for political status self-determination",
"-35.81275196670322"
],
[
"Constitution.\"\n\"Sovereignty in association with the United States\" is not a term of art typically used in status discussions. The proposed ballot language suggests that Puerto Rico would become an independent nation but maintain a close relationship with the U.S., perhaps akin to a concept known as \"free association.\" Free association generally implies negotiated legal, economic, or defense ties between two independent nations. Three former territories – the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Republic of Palau – are currently engaged in free association with the United States. (Following World War II, the U.S. administered",
"-35.70991346100345"
],
[
"Since 1953, the UN has been considering the Political status of Puerto Rico and how to assist it in achieving \"independence\" or \"decolonization\". In 1978, the Special Committee determined that a \"colonial relationship\" existed between the US and Puerto Rico.\nNote that the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization has often referred to Puerto Rico as a nation in its reports, because, internationally, the people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity. Most recently, in a June 2016 report, the Special Committee called for the United States to expedite the process to",
"-35.60683110258833"
],
[
"politically and economically, with no intention of giving Puerto Ricans citizenship. In 1910, the American government grew fearful of an uprising. In order to keep Puerto Rico under control from being independent, the United States imposed U.S. citizenship, never consulting the actual people who resided. Since the United States only allowed or the production of sugarcane the people started to go hungry, leaving them with no choice but to leave the island in search for a better life in the United States. Puerto Ricans began migrate to places like New York City, specifically to Puerto Rican enclaves, such as",
"-35.57037128403317"
],
[
"the U.S. and Puerto Rico. That document might cover topics such as the role of the US military in Puerto Rico, the use of the US currency, free trade between the two entities, and whether Puerto Ricans would be U.S. citizens.\nGovernor Ricardo Rosselló was strongly in favor of statehood to help develop the economy and help to \"solve our 500-year-old colonial dilemma ... Colonialism is not an option .... It’s a civil rights issue ... 3.5 million citizens seeking an absolute democracy,\" he told the news media.\nBenefits of statehood include an additional $10 billion per year in federal funds, the",
"-35.540978426346555"
],
[
"as a non-federal autonomy, which is officially an unincorporated territory belonging to the federal political system that is the USA, and subject to the plenary powers of the U.S. Congress under the Territorial Clause of the U.S. Constitution and states that it is not a \"free-associated\" state. Similar conclusions were made by three Presidential Task Forces on Puerto Rico's Status in 2005, 2007 and 2011. In particular, Lluch notes that contrary to Elazar's assertions in his 1987 and 1991 works, the power to terminate or modify the Puerto Rico-USA relationship rests squarely on the U.S. Congress and that the US",
"-35.45789950306062"
],
[
"Congress to admit Puerto Rico as the 51st State. June 2017 plebiscite The previous plebiscites provided voters with three options: statehood, free association, and independence. The Puerto Rican status referendum, 2017 will offer only two options: Statehood and Independence/Free Association. If the majority vote for the latter, a second vote will be held to determine the preference: full independence as a nation or associated free state status with independence but with a \"free and voluntary political association\" between Puerto Rico and the United States. The specifics of the association agreement would be detailed in the Compact of Free Association that",
"-35.450241383732646"
],
[
"Spaniards in 1493, Puerto Rico opened up to both the New and the Old World, establishing trading routes with North, Central and South America, as well as routes with Spain, Portugal and Africa. Trading of vegetables, fruits, slaves, and minerals became an integral part of Puerto Rico's international development afterwards.\nAfter Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States as part of the Treaty of Paris, the United States and Puerto Rico began a long-standing metropolis-colony relationship. It is at this time that Puerto Rico became subject to the Commercial and Territory Clause of the U.S. Constitution, clauses that restrict how",
"-35.43553497274115"
],
[
"Camp Las Casas Prelude After the Spanish–American War ended, Puerto Rico was annexed by the United States as a result of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, ratified on December 10, 1898. Spain had lost its last colony in the western hemisphere and the United States gained imperial strength and global presence. The United States established a military government and appointed Major General Nelson A. Miles the first head of the military government established on the island, acting as both head of the army of occupation and administrator of civil affairs.\nOn January 15, 1899, the military government changed the name",
"-35.42869146695011"
],
[
"of America hereby relinquishes its sovereign rights in and to Puerto Rico and the adjacent islands and waters referred to in Article II of the Treaty of Peace signed at Paris on December 10, 1898, and proffers the following Articles of Compact as the basis of the association between the United States and Puerto Rico.\" No longer were the ambiguous term \"permanent union\" or the possibility of a presidential vote present. A stage-bases process reminiscent of the one once proposed by Fernós was also suggested in a note. However, Muñoz had another plan and requested the creation of other drafts,",
"-35.42106468207203"
],
[
"with the federal government, Puerto Rico–based corporations that intend to send funds to the U.S. and others do pay federal income taxes. Puerto Ricans may enlist in the U.S. military. Puerto Ricans have participated in all American wars since 1898; 52 Puerto Ricans had been killed in the Iraq War and War in Afghanistan by November 2012.\nPuerto Rico has been under U.S. sovereignty for over a century after it was ceded to the U.S. by Spain following the end of the Spanish–American War, and Puerto Ricans have been U.S. citizens since 1917. The island's ultimate status has not been",
"-35.38304514501942"
],
[
"the annexation of Puerto Rico for the defense and protection of the newly independent Cuba from any possible foreign attack. The government also negotiated with Nicaragua and Colombia for the right to build an isthmian canal, eventually through Panama.\nDue to the new, vast expansion of territory, the Navy began to assume strategic duties unimagined before 1898. In 1900, the \"General Board of the Navy\" was established to foresee and make recommendations on naval policy, assuming the tasks of the nation's naval expeditionary and strategic challenges.\nThe General Board developed some potential war plans for possible events that might occur if attacks",
"-35.31868259247858"
],
[
"in Puerto Rico to determine the Island's ultimate political status.\nThe bill would provide for a referendum giving Puerto Ricans the choice between the options of (1) retaining their present political status, or (2) choosing a new status. If the latter option (2) were to win, then a separate referendum would be held where Puerto Ricans would be given the option of being admitted as a US State \"on equal footing with the other states\", or becoming a \"sovereign nation, either fully independent from or in free association with the United States.\" If the first option garnished the most votes, a",
"-35.30673810612643"
],
[
"a separate referendum would be held where Puerto Ricans would have been given the option of being admitted as a US State \"on equal footing with the other states\", or becoming a \"sovereign nation, either fully independent from or in free association with the United States.\" The bill enjoys bi-partisan support in the House of Representatives, with 182 co-sponsors and was reported out of the House Resources Committee on a 30–8 vote. The measure was passed by the House on April 29, 2010.\nOn March 16, 2011, the President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status issued a third report that reaffirned",
"-35.21885301877046"
],
[
"Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico History The United States Congress had seated non-voting \"delegates\" from various territories since 1794 as the country expanded across North America; these territories were all eventually admitted as states. The position of delegate was a legislative position with a two-year term, just like a member of Congress.\nThe United States acquired several overseas possessions as a result of the Spanish–American War. While the House of Representatives voted in 1900 for Puerto Rico to select a delegate, Congress instead devised a new form of territorial representative in the Resident Commissioner. United States Senator John Coit Spooner argued",
"-35.20941816538107"
],
[
"bill of rights. The constitution, approved by the U.S. congress, went into effect in 1952. In addition, like the States, Puerto Rico lacks \"the full sovereignty of an independent nation,\" for example, the power to manage its \"external relations with other nations,\" which was retained by the Federal Government.\n\nConstitutionally, Puerto Rico is subject to the Congress' plenary powers under the territorial clause of Article IV, sec. 3, of the U.S. Constitution. U.S. federal law applies to Puerto Rico, even though Puerto Rico is not a state of the American Union and their residents have no voting representation in the U.S. Congress.",
"-35.20686410444614"
],
[
"that granting a territory a delegate implied that it was on the path to statehood, which he asserted was not guaranteed for the new possessions acquired in the war, such as Puerto Rico and the Philippines. In fact, more than a century later, neither has become a state. (Puerto Rico remains a U.S. territory, while The Philippines became an independent republic in 1946.)\nThe original Resident Commissioner positions served a two-year term, though it was later extended to four years. The position also had executive responsibility in addition to legislative ones. The term had previously been used in the British Empire",
"-35.16749086609343"
],
[
"opted to annex Hawaii by way of the Newlands Resolution in July 1898.\nAfter its victory in the Spanish–American War of 1898 and the subsequent acquisition of Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam, the United States had gained a colonial empire. By ejecting Spain from the Americas, the United States shifted its position to an uncontested regional power, and extended its influence into Southeast Asia and Oceania. Although U.S. capital investments within the Philippines and Puerto Rico were relatively small, these colonies were strategic outposts for expanding trade with Latin America and Asia, particularly China. In the Caribbean area, the",
"-35.16054713484482"
],
[
"the United States Congress would be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution. Options for political status As defined by Puerto Rico itself, the following are the options to resolve its status. Commonwealth (current status) This is the status for Puerto Rico in June 2017 and the next referendum was not originally to offer this as an option for voters.\nAs a Commonwealth, Puerto Rico receives less in federal funding than the states. They receive lower Social Security and Medicare benefits. Neither the Commonwealth or municipal governments of Puerto",
"-35.159187832039606"
],
[
"Puerto Rico was invaded during the Spanish–American War in 1898, Manuel Zeno Gandía traveled to Washington, D.C. where, together with Eugenio María de Hostos, he proposed the idea of independence for Puerto Rico. The men were disappointed when their ideas were rejected by the US government and the island was organized as a US territory. Zeno Gandia returned to the island and continued as an activist.\nA number of leaders, including a well-known intellectual and legislator called José de Diego, sought independence from the United States via political accommodation. On June 5, 1900, President William McKinley named De",
"-35.12205653919955"
],
[
"a \"colonial relationship\" existed between the US and Puerto Rico.\nNote that the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization has referred to Puerto Rico as a nation in its reports, because, internationally, the people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity. Most recently, in a June 2016 report, the Special Committee called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self-determination in Puerto Rico. More specifically, the group called on the United States to expedite a process that would allow the people of Puerto Rico to exercise fully their right",
"-35.10638346103951"
],
[
"the referendum and the vote on the bill, action by the United States Congress would be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution.",
"-35.10038667632034"
],
[
"the autonomy of Puerto Rico. Aspects of enhanced commonwealth considered but rejected by Congress in 1991 and 2001 included providing the government of Puerto Rico authority to certify that certain federal laws would not be applicable to the commonwealth, mandating that the President consult with the governor on appointments to federal offices in Puerto Rico that require Senate approval, recognizing a permanent relationship between Puerto Rico and the United States that cannot be unilaterally changed, and establishing economic relationships with other nations. Concepts associated with enhanced or new commonwealth have not been published in 2005, but the former governor has",
"-35.096840655081905"
],
[
"States to expedite a process that would allow the people of Puerto Rico to exercise fully their right to self-determination and independence. ... [and] allow the Puerto Rican people to take decisions in a sovereign manner, and to address their urgent economic and social needs, including unemployment, marginalization, insolvency and poverty\".",
"-35.05836010409985"
],
[
"American victory, the nation of Spain ceded Puerto Rico as well as the territories of Guam and the Philippines held under Spanish sovereignty to the U.S., the 1898 Treaty of Paris establishing the peace. Spain gave up all rights to Cuba as well.\nThe Americanization of Puerto Rico started after this abrupt, violent change in government, with initial chaos holding back the military-led reorganization of civil society. Major General Guy V. Henry, who served as military governor of the island from 1898 to 1899, publicly remarked on the changing situation, \"It was an entirely new duty for American Army officers.\" He",
"-35.02568102859368"
],
[
"and with whom can Puerto Rico engage internationally. The territory also became, as a byproduct, subject to the different treaties and trade agreements ratified by the United States.\nIn 1920, after the enactment of the Merchant Marine Act of 1920 (also known as the Jones Act), Puerto Rico became restricted on which merchant marine it can use to import and export products. This is because the Jones Act prevents foreign-flagged ships from carrying cargo between two American ports (a practice known as cabotage). Under the Jones Act, foreign ships inbound with goods from Central and South America, Western Europe, and Africa",
"-35.01394058990991"
],
[
"all three of those territories on behalf of the United Nations, although they were never U.S. territories per se but United Nations Trust Territories.) Based on current compact agreements with the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Republic of Palau, the U.S. provides those countries with defense protection and various forms of economic aid. If the \"sovereign association\" language proposed in H.R. 2499 is viewed as something akin to free association, the future relationship between the U.S. and an independent Puerto Rico could resemble the current relationships between the United States and the Marshall",
"-34.96347443059494"
],
[
"subject to the plenary powers of the United States Congress, a notion also historically rejected by the PPD. Likewise, under the 'independence/free association' option, the ballot asserted that Puerto Rico must be a sovereign nation in order to enter into a compact of free association with the United States. Supporters of the free association movement reject this notion. Had these parties participated in the referendum, they claim it would mean they had accepted those assertions implicitly, regardless of whether the assertions were correct.",
"-34.95633652282413"
],
[
"would be negotiated between the U.S. and Puerto Rico. That document might cover topics such as the role of the US military in Puerto Rico, the use of the US currency, free trade between the two entities, and whether Puerto Ricans would be U.S. citizens.\nGovernor Ricardo Rosselló is strongly in favor of statehood to help develop the economy and help to \"solve our 500-year-old colonial dilemma ... Colonialism is not an option .... It’s a civil rights issue ... 3.5 million citizens seeking an absolute democracy,\" he told the news media. Benefits of statehood include an additional $10 billion",
"-34.95546608441509"
],
[
"called his vision commonwealth soberano (lit. \"sovereign commonwealth\"), a midpoint status that he expected would \"liquidate\" the colonial regimen and perfect the economic relation between Puerto Rico and the United States. The Constitution drafted by the Puerto Ricans would be considered an \"Organic Pact\" that could only be modified via mutual consent. On August 15, 1948, the PPD officially adopted the organization of a Constituent Assembly as part of its government program. Shortly afterwards, Fernós appeared in a radio broadcast explaining his proposal, claiming that full independence was not possible at the moment due to opposition in Congress and that",
"-34.94779983069748"
],
[
"was signed by Spanish Prime Minister Práxedes Mateo Sagasta and ratified by the Spanish Cortes.\nDespite this, just a few months later, the United States claimed ownership of the island as part of the Treaty of Paris, which concluded the Spanish–American War. Persons opposed to the takeover over the years joined together in what became the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. Their position was that, as a matter of international law, the Treaty of Paris could not empower the Spanish to \"give\" to the United States what was no longer theirs.\nSeveral years after leaving Puerto Rico, in 1913 Charles Herbert Allen, the",
"-34.88420403537748"
],
[
"with foreign nations.\nUnder this status, the laws of Puerto Rico would continue to be subject to the approval of the Federal government of the United States. The status of Estado Libre Associado displeased many advocates of Puerto Rican independence, as well as those who favored the island's being admitted as a state of the U.S. Passage In 1948, the Senate passed a bill that restricted expressions of ideas related to the nationalist movement. The Senate at the time was controlled by the PPD and presided over by Luis Muñoz Marín.\nThe bill, known as Law 53 and the Ley de la",
"-34.85473023963277"
],
[
"for sovereign nationhood. We support the federally sponsored political status referendum authorized and funded by an Act of Congress in 2014 to ascertain the aspirations of the people of Puerto Rico. Once the 2012 local vote for statehood is ratified, Congress should approve an enabling act with terms for Puerto Rico's future admission as the 51st state of the Union\". Foreign policy and national defense Republicans supported Woodrow Wilson's call for American entry into World War I in 1917, complaining only that he was too slow to go to war. Republicans in 1919 opposed his call for entry into the",
"-34.8284111643934"
],
[
"acquired in the Spanish–American War. The act created the Senate of Puerto Rico, established a bill of rights, and authorized the election of a Resident Commissioner (previously appointed by the president) to a four-year term. The act also granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship and exempted Puerto Rican bonds from federal, state, and local taxes. In 1916, Wilson signed the Treaty of the Danish West Indies, in which the United States acquired the Danish West Indies for $25 million. After the purchase, the islands were renamed as the United States Virgin Islands.\nImmigration was a high priority topic in American politics during",
"-34.819451444607694"
],
[
"a United States Commonwealth in 1898, traditional economics, social structure, nationalism, and culture has been affected in Puerto Rico.\nBefore the United States captured Puerto Rico from Spain in 1898, the colony was agriculture based. Most worked on sugar cane, tobacco, or coffee plantations. Through the beginning of the 20th century, Puerto Ricans remained agricultural. Operation Bootstrap, an operation of the United States and the Puerto Rico Economic Development Administration, began in 1942 and was put in place to transform Puerto Rico into an industrial colony. Government owned factories were built to shift development to industrial factory work and, eventually, education",
"-34.811075467732735"
],
[
"\"uneducated, simple-minded and harmless people who were only interested in wine, women, music and dancing.\"\nPrior to 1898, the United States had organized new acquisitions from non-tribal governments into largely self-governing territories as a prelude to statehood and had generally extended broad constitutional protections and U.S. citizenship to free, non-tribal residents. After 1898, this process changed and in Puerto Rico, Congress established a centrally controlled administration and declined to recognize Puerto Ricans as U.S. citizens.\nIn the Downes v. Bidwell case of 1901, the U.S. Supreme Court acknowledged that the U.S. Constitution functioned differently in Puerto Rico from the way it did",
"-34.80234472185839"
],
[
"de Puerto Rico can trace its roots to 1893, when Puerto Rico was still a Spanish colony. That year, fifty-two stockholders provided the initial capital to establish the Sociedad Anonima de Economias y Prestamos ( The Anonymous Savings & Loan Society), a savings bank for the poor. However the United States invaded Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War in 1898, and the island was annexed by the U.S. under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898 which was ratified on December 10, 1898. Almost immediately, the United States began the \"Americanization\" process of Puerto Rico. The U.S. occupation",
"-34.80208513676189"
],
[
"in the Senate.\nIn 2005, the U.S. House Committee on Resources concluded that Puerto Rico is still an unincorporated territory of the United States under the Territorial Clause, that the establishment of local self-government with the consent of the people can be unilaterally revoked by U.S. Congress, and Congress can withdraw, at any time, the American citizenship now enjoyed by the residents of Puerto Rico as long as it achieves a legitimate Federal purpose, in a manner reasonably related to that purpose.\nIn 2006, Resident Commissioner Luis Fortuño (R-PR) and Rep. Jose E. Serrano (D-NY) introduced a bipartisan House bill to implement",
"-34.79628712934209"
],
[
"Latin American News Dispatch, wrote as an editor in the Huffington Post:\nSimilarly, as reported by the New York Daily News, Juan Gonzalez, journalist and a co-host of the TV show Democracy Now! said:\nIn October 2013, The Economist reported on the island economy's \"dire financial straits.\" Referring to the 2012 referendum, it said that \"Puerto Rico is unlikely to become a state any time soon. Because the island remains a territory, the decision is ultimately out of boricuas' hands ... the legislature is highly unlikely to prioritise a Puerto Rican statehood bill ... the Republican Party would surely use every tactic",
"-34.791725178132765"
],
[
"DeLima v. Bidwell Decision The Supreme Court ruled 5-4 that Puerto Rico, since its cession to the United States in 1898 following the Treaty of Paris, was not a foreign country for purposes of the tariff laws of the United States, which required payment of duties on goods moving into the United States from a foreign country. In the absence of congressional legislation, the US government could not collect customs duties on sugar from Puerto Rico shipped to other parts of the United States by classifying Puerto Rico as a foreign country.\nThe majority opinion was authored by Justice Henry Billings",
"-34.788406994892284"
],
[
"and its dependencies share the same Governor-General and constitute one monarchic realm. The Cook Islands and Niue are officially termed associated states.\nPuerto Rico (since 1952) and the Northern Mariana Islands (since 1986) are non-independent states freely associated with the United States. The mutually negotiated Covenant to Establish a Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) in Political Union with the United States was approved in 1976. The Covenant was fully implemented November 3, 1986, pursuant to Presidential Proclamation no. 5564, which conferred United States citizenship on legally qualified CNMI residents. Under the Constitution of Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico is described",
"-34.75174188040546"
],
[
"the Senate offered Puerto Ricans these options for their political future: Statehood, Independence, Associated Republic, or the current Commonwealth status. The bill proposed to carry out a referendum in Puerto Rico in which the people of Puerto Rico could choose the option they preferred.\nThe proposal, however, was controversial in Puerto Rican politics for two reasons: 1) the legislation was encouraged by two avid statehood supporters, and seemed to favor unchangeable status choices over Commonwealth; and 2) the Commonwealth option in the bill defined Puerto Rico as a \"territory subject to the supreme powers of the U.S Congress\". The Popular Democratic",
"-34.747743926011026"
],
[
"to have interpreted the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution as still controlling over Puerto Rico. Under this clause, the United States Congress is the recognized sovereign of the island.\nIn 1976, the U.S. Supreme Court clarified that the purpose of Congress in the 1950 and 1952 legislation was to accord to Puerto Rico the degree of autonomy and independence normally associated with a State of the Union. However, on June 9, 2016, as an outcome of the case known as 'Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle', the U.S. Supreme Court incited a debate regarding the nature of the relationship established",
"-34.720726276165806"
],
[
"of government for the island. Puerto Rico's political relationship with the U.S. has been a continuing source of debate in Puerto Rico, the United States Congress, and the United Nations. The issue revolves around whether Puerto Rico should remain a U.S. territory, become a U.S. state, or become an independent country. The debate has spawned several referenda, presidential executive orders and bills in the U.S. Congress. Ultimately the U.S. Congress is the only body empowered to decide the political status of Puerto Rico, as stated under the Territorial Clause.\nDespite the Spanish translation of the term \"commonwealth\", Puerto Rico's relationship with",
"-34.63544132426614"
],
[
"people of Puerto Rico, who had neither asked for nor wanted it, made it clear that the United States had no intentions of granting Puerto Rico independence. His doubts lead him to embrace the idea that Puerto Rico would eventually become a \"state\" of the United States of America. He then began to associate himself with political organizations whose ideals were pro-statehood.\nHe then decided to study law at the University of Puerto Rico and in 1927, he earned his degree. The Alliance Party did not last long, as a united political organization and was soon divided into two factions, one",
"-34.61955372340162"
],
[
"any time by either nation. Negotiations over free association would likely decide issues of trade, defense, currency, and economic aid.\" 2012 \"Puerto Rico should adopt a status outside of the Territory Clause of the Constitution of the United States that recognizes the sovereignty of the People of Puerto Rico. The Sovereign Free Associated State would be based on a free and voluntary political association, the specific terms of which shall be agreed upon between the United States and Puerto Rico as sovereign nations. Such agreement would provide the scope of the jurisdictional powers that the People of Puerto Rico agree",
"-34.60222928415169"
],
[
"Task Force Report on Puerto Rico, which the United States is politically committed to fulfilling. Republican Party 2012 Platform We support the right of the United States citizens of Puerto Rico to be admitted to the Union as a fully sovereign state after they freely so determine. We recognize that Congress has the final authority to define the constitutionally valid options for Puerto Rico to achieve a permanent non-territorial status with government by consent and full enfranchisement. As long as Puerto Rico is not a state, however, the will of its people regarding their political status should be ascertained by",
"-34.59390940098092"
],
[
"American Samoa, has its own constitution. The remaining 13 unorganized territories have no permanent populations and are either under direct control of the U.S. Government or operate as military bases.\nThe commonwealths of Puerto Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) do not have organic acts but operate under local constitutions. Pursuant to the acquisition of Puerto Rico under the Treaty of Paris, 1898, the relationship between Puerto Rico and the United States is controlled by Article IV of the United States Constitution. Constitutional law in the CNMI is based upon a series of constitutional documents, the most important of which",
"-34.59260457131313"
],
[
"Puerto Ricans the choice between the options of retaining their present political status, or choosing a new status. If the former option were to win, the referendum would have been held again every 8 years. If the latter option were to win, a separate referendum would have been held no later than December 31, 2011. In this referendum, Puerto Ricans would have been given the option of being admitted as a U.S. State \"on equal footing with the other states,\" or becoming a \"sovereign nation, either fully independent from or in free association with the United States.\"",
"-34.58555645160595"
]
] |
1ihljt | Why does the word 'liberal' refer to the left in the US? | [
"The word liberal originally meant something like \"people should have liberty.\" That meant stuff like elected government, rule of law, that kind of stuff. No one is really against that anymore so anyone can call them selves \"liberals\" by this old meaning. In the 20th century, one group of liberals became important in the US and a different one in Europe. They both came out of the old meaning of liberal so they both called themselves liberal. In the US the thinking was something like, \"To give people more liberty the government needs to help them out when they are down.\" In Europe it was something like, \"To give people more liberty the government needs to get out of the way.\" Both are still about liberty but how to get it was very different. An important note: Conservative's aren't against liberty. Of course not, By the old definition, conservatives are also liberals. The opposite of a conservative isn't a liberal by that meaning, it's a progressive.",
"Liberal was originally used in the US in a similar context to what is used in Europe. This is often called \"Classical Liberalism\". The modern sense of the word came into major use under FDR. Where FDR's policies were very \"Progressive\", that word was practically banned in American politics during his era. Wilson (a known progressive) getting the US involved in WWI and many other things lead to the word \"progressive\" being blighted. Roosevelt started to use the word \"Liberal\" to describe his policies and from then on \"Liberal\" has been associated with the Left in American politics. Interestingly enough, the use of \"Liberal\" in the left forced another switch. The word \"Libertarian\", which once described various groups of communists and anarchists, was adopted by the right, for the most part, in the United States. Many US libertarians are quite close in ideology to \"Classical Liberals\"",
"In the U.S. the \"liberal\" politicians are actually centrists, and sometimes even fiscal conservatives (and sometimes not), just as they are in Europe. the difference here is that in Europe there is usually an actual political party to the left of liberal politicians. there are actual Marxists, socialists, communists, etc. In the U.S. there is no political party to the left of liberal politicians. the entire political spectrum in this country is shifted rightward so our \"left\" isn't really the left, its the center.",
"You assume correctly. The lack of a real socialist movement in the US means that the only opposition to the right-wing movement is liberalism, and politics in the US are so skewed to the right that people mistakenly just throw liberalism and socialism together when they're really two very different ideologies. A quick example would be gun control: Leftist revolutionary thought would suggest freer access to guns, indeed the Republicans even passed gun control laws as a reaction to the Black Panther movement, but liberals and (whatever measure of) socialists alike are now on the pro-gun-control side of the debate. The two-party system of the US also plays a part in this. The Democratic party is a mishmash (not intended to be pejorative) coalition of progressives, neoliberals, hold-out socialists, moderates and not-far-right-enough-conservatives. These factions all have to band together under a \"Not Republicans\" banner because they can't get any national play otherwise. And then people start considering \"Democrats\", \"liberals\", \"progressives\", and \"socialists\" as interchangeable terms and it gets even more confusing.",
"I disagree with a few here. I mostly see it as definitions being flipped every once in awhile as opinions change and the parties with liberal/conservative/progressive labeling change with them. The lack of a real socialist movement caused a lot of that in the early 1900's and later in the 50s. But, for example, the Democratic part held the south for a LONG time and for awhile was the party of segregation; the longest serving Democrat in the house up until 2010 was in the freaking Clan. All the major democrats of the era were stalwart segregationists : Strom Thurmond, John C. Stennis, Carl Vinson. And then the party was led in a new direction in the 60s/70s by a different sect of the party aka Kennedy, LBJ, Carter. That's how we got to our current definition today. Republicans today are a big difference between the Republican party of Teddy Roosevelt or Abraham Lincoln or even before that Thomas Jefferson and the Democratic-Republican party. That party, in a weird irony, lines itself with what would be considered modern Republican ideals (less government), but is the forerunner to the Democratic Party. US history has a lot of big moments where the two party system basically flip flopped their ideals to stay relevant in whatever was going on at the time. The civil war was one, communism's rise was another, and the Cold war caused another. The segregation issue with the Democratic party is the best example of one party doing a complete 180 simply to appease changing opinions. In actuality all are some form of what would be, in the rest of the world, a centrist or liberal viewpoint with neither aligning with a \"right\" or \"left\" political stance. But Democrats can be very very conservative on certain issues. For example, gun rights are an extremely liberal viewpoint historically. But the Republicans' support of the patriot act is horrifying to anyone against big government. If we were to have a two part system divided equally on issues purely on right leaning values (more government = more problems) and left values (more government to help) it would be the Libertarian party and the progressive element of the Democratic party."
] | [
[
"and began to find expression partly through trade unionist, socialist, anarchist and communist politics rather than being confined to the capitalist policies expressed by the original \"left\". This evolution has often pulled parliamentary politicians away from laissez-faire economic policies, although this has happened to different degrees in different countries, especially those with a history of issues with more authoritarian-left countries, such as the Soviet Union or China under Mao Zedong. Thus, the word \"Left\" in American political parlance may refer to \"liberalism\" and be identified with the Democratic Party, whereas in a country such as France these positions would be",
"-38.61968757364957"
],
[
"Politics of the United States Political culture Scholars from Alexis de Tocqueville to the present have found a strong continuity in core American political values since the time of the American Revolution in the late 18th century. Usage of \"left–right\" politics The modern American political spectrum and the usage of the terms \"left–right politics\", \"liberalism\", and \"conservatism\" in the United States differs from that of the rest of the world. According to American historian Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. (writing in 1956), \"Liberalism in the American usage has little in common with the word as used in the politics of any European",
"-38.57240395509871"
],
[
"Such labels are also commonly used in the political playground to frame certain ideas and traits to specific labels for political agendas. Labels of primary potency are now used as insults such that talks between the left and right-wing parties are no longer conducive.\nCurrently in the United States of America, the Left is branded as socialist, baby-killing anti-Semites by the Right, while the Right are called hypocrites, pro-life anti-vaxxers. These ideas are further encouraged by politically-motivated news outlets contributing to media bias in the United States. \"Left\" and \"right\" are now labels that are used to disparage the other political",
"-38.19380126794567"
],
[
"and the Extreme Left (1876) and Radical Left (1881). The beliefs of the group called the Radical Left were actually closer to the Centre Left than the beliefs of those called the Extreme Left. Beginning in the early twentieth century, the terms \"left\" and \"right\" came to be associated with specific political ideologies and were used to describe citizens' political beliefs, gradually replacing the terms \"reds\" and \"the reaction\". Those on the Left often called themselves \"republicans\", while those on the Right often called themselves \"conservatives\". The words Left and Right were at first used by their opponents as slurs.\n\nBy",
"-37.16855756691075"
],
[
"terms extreme right and extreme left as well as centre-right and centre-left came to be used to describe the nuances of ideology of different sections of the assembly.\nThe terms \"left\" and \"right\" were not used to refer to political ideology per se, but only to seating in the legislature. After 1848, the main opposing camps were the \"democratic socialists\" and the \"reactionaries\" who used red and white flags to identify their party affiliation. With the establishment of the Third Republic in 1871, the terms were adopted by political parties: the Republican Left, the Centre Right and the Centre Left (1871)",
"-37.13286109778301"
],
[
"of church and state); and government intervention on behalf of racial, ethnic and sexual minorities and the working class. Discussion of whether the terms are useful or meaningful Libertarian writer David Boaz argued that terms left and right are used to spin a particular point of view rather than as simple descriptors, with those on the \"left\" typically emphasizing their support for working people and accusing the right of supporting the interests of the upper class; and those on the \"right\" usually emphasizing their support for individualism and accusing the Left of supporting collectivism. Boaz asserts that arguments about the",
"-37.09118350694189"
],
[
"Left–right paradigm The left–right paradigm as political criticism Used in another context, the phrase refers to a political theory that alleges that members of opposing major political parties such as the Republican and Democratic parties in the United States share common interests and goals, as well as a covertly unified ruling authority over the political issues of the masses. The two major political entities act in concert to create divisiveness among the population while keeping control of the political spectrum.\nThis \"left–right paradigm\" concept theorizes that the two opposing political parties utilize their tremendous hold over mainstream media to dramatize political",
"-36.67154185846448"
],
[
"conservative respectively, although the meanings of the two sets of terms do not entirely coincide. Depending on the political affiliation of the individual using them, these terms can be spoken with varying implications. A 2005 poll of 2,209 American adults showed that \"respondents generally viewed the paired concepts liberals and left-wingers and conservatives and right-wingers as possessing, respectively, generally similar political beliefs\", but also showed that around ten percent fewer respondents understood the terms left and right than understood the terms liberal and conservative.\nThe contemporary left in the United States is usually understood as a category that includes New Deal",
"-36.41045059170574"
],
[
"to unity. However, the Left, seeking to change society, promoted the distinction. As Alain observed in 1931: \"When people ask me if the division between parties of the Right and parties of the Left, men of the Right and men of the Left, still makes sense, the first thing that comes to mind is that the person asking the question is certainly not a man of the Left.\" In British politics, the terms \"right\" and \"left\" came into common use for the first time in the late 1930s in debates over the Spanish Civil War. The Scottish sociologist Robert M.",
"-36.2916768983705"
],
[
"as \"far left\", \"liberal\", \"moderate/middle of the road\", \"conservative\", or \"far right\". Between 1989 and 1998, the survey showed negligible change in the number of professors who described themselves as far left or liberal, approximately 45%. As of 2014, surveying 16,112 professors, the percentage of liberal/far left had increased to 60%. When asked in 2012 about the significance of the findings on political views, the director of HERI, Sylvia Hurtado, said that the numbers on political views attract a lot of attention, but that this attention may be misplaced because there may be trivial reasons for the shifts. North American",
"-35.944102342939004"
],
[
"became \"New Left\" ...\nActually, people like myself have always been reluctant to accept this label, pinned on us by our adversaries. Partly this is because we have no wish to be associated with the Cultural Revolution, or for that matter with what might be called the \"Old Left\" of the reform-era CCP. But it is also because the term New Left is a Western one, with a very distinct set of connotations – generational and political – in Europe and America. Our historical context is Chinese, not Western, and it is doubtful whether a category imported so explicitly from the West",
"-35.67557562924776"
],
[
"within the Left. Liberal feminism is closely connected with social liberalism, and in America, with the left wing of mainstream politics (e.g., National Organization for Women).\nThe connection between left-leaning ideologies and LGBT rights struggles also has an important history. Prominent socialists who were involved in early struggles for LGBT rights include Edward Carpenter, Oscar Wilde, Harry Hay, Bayard Rustin, and Daniel Guérin, among others. Varieties The spectrum of left-wing politics ranges from center-left to far-left (or ultra-left). The term center-left describes a position within the political mainstream. The terms far-left and ultra-left refer to positions that are more radical. The",
"-35.645362403916806"
],
[
"main, by their own children, the white \"New Left\". This new element, says Kazin, worked to \"topple the corrupted liberal order\". As Maurice Isserman notes, the New Left \"came to use the word 'liberal' as a political epithet\". Slack (2013) argues that the New Left was more broadly speaking the political component of a break with liberalism that took place across several academic fields, namely philosophy, psychology and sociology. In philosophy, existentialism and neo-Marxism rejected the instrumentalism of John Dewey; in psychology, Wilhelm Reich, Paul Goodman, Herbert Marcuse and Norman O. Brown rejected Sigmund Freud's teaching of repression and sublimation;",
"-35.63707174747833"
],
[
"of freedom and democracy.\nSome organizations have embraced Americanism but have taken its ideals further, i.e., the Ku Klux Klan believes that Americanism includes aspects of race (purity of white American) and of American Protestantism.\n\nProfessor of political science at Clemson University C. Bradley Thompson stated that, \nThe meaning of Americanism today, however, is very different. To the extent that the term is even still used, its meaning has been hijacked by both the Left and the Right. The Left most often identifies Americanism with multiculturalism, relativism, environmentalism, regulation, and welfarism — in other words, with progressivism. The Right typically identifies",
"-35.420244149980135"
],
[
"center-left includes social democrats, social liberals, progressives and also some democratic socialists and greens (including some eco-socialists). Center-left supporters accept market allocation of resources in a mixed economy with a significant public sector and a thriving private sector. Center-left policies tend to favour limited state intervention in matters pertaining to the public interest.\nIn several countries, the terms far-left and radical left have been associated with varieties of communism, autonomism and anarchism. They have been used to describe groups that advocate anti-capitalism or eco-terrorism. In France, a distinction is made between the left (Socialist Party and Communist Party) and the far-left",
"-35.283938749693334"
],
[
"between the right and left. This classification is comparatively recent (it was not used by Aristotle or Hobbes, for instance), and dates from the French Revolution era, when those members of the National Assembly who supported the republic, the common people and a secular society sat on the left and supporters of the monarchy, aristocratic privilege and the Church sat on the right.\nThe meanings behind the labels have become more complicated over the years. A particularly influential event was the publication of the Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1848. The Manifesto suggested a course of action",
"-35.10505721962545"
],
[
"social-liberals (in contrast to traditions of social democracy more common to Western Europe), Rawlsian liberals and civil libertarians, who are often identified with the Democratic Party. There are also leftists who reject many of the platforms of the Democratic Party in favor of more socialist policies. In general, the term left-wing is understood to imply a commitment to egalitarianism, support for social policies that appeal to the working class and multiculturalism. The contemporary center-left usually defines itself as promoting government regulation of business, commerce and industry; protection of fundamental rights such as freedom of speech and freedom of religion (separation",
"-35.07977616565768"
],
[
"social liberals. Movements for racial equality and trade unionism have also been associated with the left.\nPolitical scientists and other analysts regard the right as including conservatives, right-libertarians, neoconservatives, imperialists, monarchists, fascists, reactionaries and traditionalists.\nA number of significant political movements do not fit precisely into the left-right spectrum, including Christian democracy, feminism, and regionalism. Though nationalism is often regarded as a right-wing doctrine, many nationalists favor egalitarian distributions of resources. There are also \"liberal nationalists\". Populism is regarded as having both left-wing and right-wing manifestations (see left-wing populism and right-wing populism). Green politics is often regarded as a movement of the",
"-34.85154507913103"
],
[
"Uses L-Word\".\nConservative activists since the 1970s have employed liberal as an epithet, giving it an ominous or sinister connotation while invoking phrases like \"free enterprise\", \"individual rights\", \"patriotic\" and \"the American way\" to describe opponents of liberalism. Historian John Lukacs noted in 2004 that then-President George W. Bush, confident that many Americans regarded liberal as a pejorative term, used it to label his political opponents during campaign speeches while his opponents subsequently avoided identifying themselves as liberal. During the presidency of Gerald Ford, First Lady Betty Ford became known for her candid and outspoken liberal views in regard to the",
"-34.74639565625694"
],
[
"oppose socialism and communism. By contrast, the phrase \"far-right\" is used to describe those who favor an absolutist government, which uses the power of the state to support the dominant ethnic group or religion and often to criminalize other ethnic groups or religions. Typical examples of leaders to whom the far-right label is often applied are: Francisco Franco in Spain, Benito Mussolini in Italy, Adolf Hitler in Nazi Germany and Augusto Pinochet in Chile.\nThe United States Department of Homeland Security defines right-wing extremism in the United States as \"broadly divided into those groups, movements, and adherents that are primarily hate-oriented",
"-34.50666354235727"
],
[
"extreme right, given the fact that many parties that were originally labeled right-wing extremist tended to advance neoliberal and free market agendas as late as the 1980s, but now advocate economic policies which are more traditionally associated with the left, such as anti-globalisation, nationalization and protectionism. One approach, drawing on the writings of Norberto Bobbio, argues that attitudes towards political equality are what distinguish the left from the right and they therefore allow these parties to be positioned on the right of the political spectrum. \nRight-wing populism, a political ideology that often combines laissez-faire capitalism, nationalism, ethnocentrism and anti-elitism, is",
"-34.50298781180754"
],
[
"party groups to develop. They have mostly rejected socialism and are very liberal on social issues.\nThese categories can be applied to many parties outside Europe. Ware (1996) asserted that in the United States both major parties were liberal, even though there are left–right policy differences between them. Usage in Western Europe In the 2001 book The Government and Politics of France, Andrew Knapp and Vincent Wright say that the main factor dividing the left and right wings in Western Europe is class. The left seeks social justice through redistributive social and economic policies, while the Right defends private property and",
"-34.428875964003964"
],
[
"what he identifies as the six chief claims of the contemporary European and American left. Liberalism is not merely the free market, it is also about democracy and human rights. Europe is about more than capitalism. America is not a fascist nation. Humanitarian intervention is humanitarian, not an imperialist ploy. Israel is not the cause of anti-Semitism. Islamism is homegrown, not caused by the West, and it threatens the West just as seriously as fascism once did.\nThe contemporary left, according to Levy, believes that any opponent of America or capitalism is good by definition. It is this",
"-34.27753869720618"
],
[
"long way from the far-left to the centre-right of the political spectrum), and Act to Stop the Decline (a party which is the standard-bearer of a more classical- and libertarian-oriented form of liberalism). Also the centrist-populist Italy of Values was a member of the ALDE Party, but it is hardly a liberal party.\nFrom 1994 on, most Liberals and several Republicans joined Forza Italia and the other parties of the House of Freedoms coalition. This is the reason why the term \"liberal\" is more often used when speaking of the centre-right than the centre-left. A new Italian Liberal Party was launched",
"-34.20015368377062"
],
[
"the United States and are thus considered conservative. In other countries where liberal conservative movements have entered the political mainstream, such as Italy and Spain, the terms liberal and conservative may be synonymous. The liberal conservative tradition in the United States combines the economic individualism of the classical liberals with a Burkean form of conservatism (which has also become part of the American conservative tradition, such as in the writings of Russell Kirk).\nA secondary meaning for the term liberal conservatism that has developed in Europe is a combination of more modern conservative (less traditionalist) views with those of social liberalism.",
"-34.00386813754449"
],
[
"Left and right (algebra) In category theory In category theory the usage of \"left\" is \"right\" has some algebraic resemblance, but refers to left and right sides of morphisms. See adjoint functors.",
"-33.92208925879095"
],
[
"(Trotskyists, Maoists and anarchists). The United States Department of Homeland Security defines left-wing extremism as groups that want \"to bring about change through violent revolution rather than through established political processes\".\nIn China, the term \"Chinese New Left\" denotes those who oppose the current economic reforms and favour the restoration of more socialist policies. In the Western world, the term New Left refers to cultural politics. In the United Kingdom in the 1980s, the term \"hard left\" was applied to supporters of Tony Benn, such as the Campaign Group and those involved in the London Labour Briefing newspaper, as well as",
"-33.73910079180496"
],
[
"right includes right-wing populism and various other subtypes. Eatwell argues that the extreme right' has four traits: \"1) anti-democracy; 2) nationalism; 3) racism; and 4) the strong state\". The New Right consists of the liberal conservatives, who stress small government, free markets and individual initiative.\nOther authors make a distinction between the centre-right and the far-right. Parties of the centre-right generally support liberal democracy, capitalism, the market economy (though they may accept government regulation to control monopolies), private property rights and a limited welfare state (for example, government provision of education and medical care). They support conservatism and economic liberalism and",
"-33.70574900577776"
],
[
"the continental United States consisting of California, Oregon, and the state of Washington is also sometimes referred to as the Left Coast, indicating its left-leaning political orientation and tendency towards liberal norms, folkways and values.\nStrong cultural differences have a long history in the US with the southern slave society in the antebellum period serving as a prime example. Not only social, but also economic tensions between the Northern and Southern states were so severe that they eventually caused the South to declare itself an independent nation, the Confederate States of America; thus provoking the American Civil War. One example of",
"-33.64826638903469"
],
[
"and the Katter's Australian Party.\nThe second largest party in the country is the Australian Labor Party and its dominant faction is Labor Right, a socially conservative element. Australia undertook significant economic reform under the Labor Party in the mid-1980s. Consequently, issues like protectionism, welfare reform, privatization and deregulation are no longer debated in the political space as they are in Europe or North America. Moser and Catley explain: \"In America, 'liberal' means left-of-center, and it is a pejorative term when used by conservatives in adversarial political debate. In Australia, of course, the conservatives are in the Liberal Party\". Jupp points",
"-33.59010245962418"
],
[
"the welfare state, and also advocated reforms to improve the position of smallholders, an important early group of supporters. The party's social-liberal ideals are said to have been inspired by the political economists Henry George and John Stuart Mill.\nThe literal translation \"radical left\" refers to its origin as the historically radical wing of its parent party Venstre (\"left\") In a modern context, this literal translation is somewhat misleading, as the party is in fact at the very centre of the Danish political spectrum. The use of the word for \"left\" in the name of the party (as with Venstre and",
"-33.46952591417357"
],
[
"an opposition party. Thus it refers to an old left/right division of the political scale, in modern terms Venstre is usually considered a right wing party and Det Radikale Venstre as a centre party. History Below is a timeline listing the name changing and history of the political parties centred on the idea of liberalism in Denmark. Confusingly the term 'left' is used in the name of some liberal parties in Denmark for historic reasons. It does by no means mean 'left' as in modern 'left wing' or socialist, but merely that they were on the contemporary left-wing at the",
"-33.24234782240819"
],
[
"began with text originating from Schlafly personally: \"A liberal (also leftist) is someone who rejects logical and biblical standards, often for self-centered reasons. There are no coherent liberal standards; often a liberal is merely someone who craves attention, and who uses many words to say nothing.\" Leonard Pitts quoted it in a critical comment saying \"You may judge Conservapedia's own bias by reading its definition of liberal\". The opening text has since been changed and now features claims that all politically liberal Americans favor increased government intervention, oppose religion, support same-sex marriage and a welfare state, and believe in conspiracy",
"-33.18776345497463"
],
[
"the core tenets of capitalism. As a result, the United States no longer perceived leftist governments as a security threat, creating a political opening for the left.\nIn the 1990s, the left exploited this opportunity to solidify their base, run for local offices and gain experience governing on the local level. At the end of the 1990s and early 2000s, the region's initial unsuccessful attempts with the neoliberal policies of privatization, cuts in social spending and foreign investment left many countries with high levels of unemployment, inflation and persistent inequality. The left's social platforms, which were centered on economic change and",
"-33.011825425113784"
],
[
"country, save possibly Britain\". Liberalism in Canada also has a similar usage as in the United States. Schlesinger noted that American liberalism does not support classical liberalism's commitment to limited government and laissez-faire economics. Because those two positions are instead generally supported by American conservatives, historian Leo P. Ribuffo noted in 2011, \"what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism.\"\nIn American politics, the Democratic Party is commonly known as the dominant center-left liberal national party, while the smaller Green Party is known for being closer to the progressive anti-capitalist left-wing of modern American politics.",
"-33.00803069243557"
],
[
"adopted social activism. The US \"New Left\" is associated with college campus mass protests and radical leftist movements. The British \"New Left\" was an intellectually driven movement which attempted to correct the perceived errors of \"Old Left\" parties in the post–World War II period. The movements began to wind down in the 1970s, when activists either committed themselves to party projects, developed social justice organizations, moved into identity politics or alternative lifestyles, or became politically inactive.\nThe emergence of the New Left in the 1950s and 1960s led to a revival of interest in libertarian socialism. The New Left's critique of",
"-32.98027817602269"
],
[
"them.\nA number of post-World War II fascist movements described themselves as a \"third position\" outside the traditional political spectrum. Spanish Falangist leader José Antonio Primo de Rivera said: \"[B]asically the Right stands for the maintenance of an economic structure, albeit an unjust one, while the Left stands for the attempt to subvert that economic structure, even though the subversion thereof would entail the destruction of much that was worthwhile\". \"Fascist\" as a pejorative The term \"fascist\" has been used as a pejorative, regarding varying movements across the far right of the political spectrum. George Orwell wrote in 1944 that \"the",
"-32.882253737497194"
],
[
"is what they mean by a \"Liberal\", then I'm proud to say I'm a \"Liberal\".\n\nIn 1941, Franklin D. Roosevelt defined a liberal party as such: \nThe liberal party believes that, as new conditions and problems arise beyond the power of men and women to meet as individuals, it becomes the duty of Government itself to find new remedies with which to meet them. The liberal party insists that the Government has the definite duty to use all its power and resources to meet new social problems with new social controls—to ensure to the average person the right to his own",
"-32.85500143561512"
],
[
"Political ideologies in the United States Prominent ideologies Beyond the simple left–right analysis, liberalism, conservatism, libertarianism and populism are the four most common ideologies in the United States, apart from those who identify as moderate. Individuals embrace each ideology to widely varying extents. Liberals and progressives traditionally advocate strong civil liberties, social progressivism, cultural pluralism and a mixed economy featuring more government intervention in the economy and social life (such as education and health care.) than supported by most other Americans. Conservatives commonly defend the notional status quo of some point in the past, believing that the United States has",
"-32.85197682143189"
],
[
"liberals. Democrats themselves run a mile from the 'L word' for fear of being seen as dangerously outside the mainstream. Conservative politicians and publicists, by dint of associating liberals with all manner of absurdity so that many sensible people hesitated to risk being tagged with the label of liberalism, succeeded in persuading the country that it was more conservative than it actually was\". Labels vs. beliefs Liberal historian Eric Alterman notes that barely 20% of Americans are willing to accept the word liberal as a political label, but that supermajorities of Americans actually favor liberal positions time and again. Alterman points",
"-32.76221295961295"
],
[
"sometimes described as far-right. Right-wing populism often involves appeals to the \"common man\" and opposition to immigration. Far-right politics sometimes involves anti-immigration and anti-integration stances towards groups that are deemed inferior and undesirable. Concerning the socio-cultural dimension of nationality, culture and migration, one far-right position is the view that certain ethnic, racial or religious groups should stay separate and it is based on the belief that the interests of one's own group should be prioritised. \nProponents of the horseshoe theory interpretation of the left-right spectrum identify the far-left and the far-right as having more in common with each other as",
"-32.64601239236072"
],
[
"and John Stuart Mill as examples of the radical centre that preceded the Liberal Democrats' establishment in 1988. He pointed to liberalism as an ideology of people and described the political spectrum and his party's position as follows: \"For the left, an obsession with the state. For the right, a worship of the market. But as liberals, we place our faith in people. People with power and opportunity in their hands. Our opponents try to divide us with their outdated labels of left and right. But we are not on the left and we are not on the right. We",
"-32.64057118591154"
],
[
"with fascism, while studies of the American radical right have stressed American exceptionalism. The U.S. studies have paid attention to the consequences of slavery, the profusion of religious denominations and a history of immigration, and saw fascism as uniquely European.\nAlthough the term \"radical right\" was American in origin, the term has been consciously adopted by some European social scientists. Conversely the term \"right-wing extremism\", which is European in origin, has been adopted by some American social scientists. Since the European right-wing groups in existence immediately following the war had roots in fascism they were normally called \"neo-fascist\". However, as new",
"-32.610496520814195"
],
[
"populist and centrist parties in the 2010s.\nNorberto Bobbio saw the polarization of the Italian Chamber of Deputies in the 1990s as evidence that the linear left–right axis remained valid. Bobbio thought that the argument that the spectrum had disappeared occurred when either the Left or Right were weak. The dominant side would claim that its ideology was the only possible one, while the weaker side would minimize its differences. He saw the Left and Right not in absolute terms, but as relative concepts that would vary over time. In his view, the left–right axis could be applied to any time",
"-32.59952442557551"
],
[
"a liberal, and I'm proud of it\". Liberals often point to the widespread prosperity enjoyed under a mixed economy in the years since World War II. They believe liberty exists when access to necessities like health care and economic opportunity are available to all and they champion the protection of the environment.\nModern American liberalism is typically associated with the Democratic Party as modern American conservatism is typically associated with the Republican Party. American versus European usage of the term liberalism Today, the word liberalism is used differently in different countries. One of the greatest contrasts is between the usage in the",
"-32.427642775466666"
],
[
"\"left\" than that of the central Maoist leaders at the height of the GPCR (\"Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution\"). The terms are also used retroactively to describe some early 20th century Chinese anarchist orientations. As a slur, the Communist Party of China (CPC) has used the term \"ultra-left\" more broadly to denounce any orientation it considers further \"left\" than the party line. According to the latter usage, in 1978 the CPC Central Committee denounced as \"ultra-left\" the line of Mao Zedong from 1956 until his death in 1976. Ultra-left refers to those GPCR rebel positions that diverged from the central Maoist",
"-32.425743421074"
],
[
"Left Coast Left Coast is a political expression that implies that the West Coast of the United States leans politically to the left or the expression can refer to states that lean politically left. The implication is that with the exception of Alaska, the states of California, Oregon, and Washington tend to vote for the Democratic Party, particularly in Coastal California, the Eugene and Portland metropolitan areas in Oregon, and the Puget Sound region in Washington. Also, it means that most people who live in the West Coast region have a generally more liberal or progressive attitude than the rest",
"-32.41637300583534"
],
[
"same political beliefs as self-identifying liberals, but instead rejected the world liberal because of the vilification heaped on the word itself by conservatives. Alterman acknowledges political scientist Drew Westen's observation that for most Americans the word liberal now carries meanings such as \"elite\", \"tax and spend\" and \"out of touch\". Free speech American liberals describe themselves as open to change and receptive to new ideas. For example, liberals typically accept scientific ideas that some conservatives reject, such as evolution and global warming.\nLiberals tend to oppose the Supreme Court's Citizens United ruling in 2010 that a corporation's First Amendment right to",
"-32.34859681170201"
],
[
"Christian left The Christian left is a range of centre-left and left-wing Christian political and social movements that largely embrace social justice viewpoints and uphold a social gospel. Given the inherent diversity in international political thought, the term can have different meanings and applications in different countries. Although there is some overlap, the Christian left is distinct from liberal Christianity, meaning not all Christian leftists are liberal Christians, and vice versa. Some Christian leftists have socially conservative views on social issues but lean left on economic issues. Alliance of the left and Christianity Starting in the late 19th century and",
"-32.26811900030589"
],
[
"way the words should be used often displaces arguments about policy by raising emotional prejudice against a preconceived notion of what the terms mean.\nIn 2006, British Prime Minister Tony Blair described the main cleavage in politics as not left versus right, but open versus closed. In this model, attitudes towards social issues and globalism are more important than the conventional economic left–right issues: \"open\" voters tend to be socially liberal, multicultural and in favour of globalism, while \"closed\" voters are culturally conservative, opposed to immigration and in favour of protectionism. This model has seen increased support following the rise of",
"-32.140940347009746"
],
[
"from the word liberal, in some cases identifying instead with terms such as progressive or moderate. George W. Bush and former Vice President Dick Cheney accused their opponents of liberal elitism, softness and pro-terrorism. Conservative political commentators such as Rush Limbaugh consistently used the word liberal as a pejorative label. When liberals shifted to the word progressive to describe their beliefs, conservative radio host Glenn Beck used progressive as an abusive label. Historian Godfrey Hodgson notes the following: \"The word liberal itself has fallen into disrepute. Nothing is too bad for conservative bloggers and columnists—let alone radio hosts—to say about",
"-32.094544548075646"
],
[
"regarded as relatively more right-wing, or centrist overall, and \"left\" is more likely to refer to \"socialist\" or \"social-democratic\" positions rather than \"liberal\" ones. Academic investigation For almost a century, social scientists have considered the problem of how best to describe political variation. Leonard W. Ferguson In 1950, Leonard W. Ferguson analyzed political values using ten scales measuring attitudes toward: birth control, capital punishment, censorship, communism, evolution, law, patriotism, theism, treatment of criminals and war. Submitting the results to factor analysis, he was able to identify three factors, which he named religionism, humanitarianism and nationalism. He defined religionism as belief",
"-32.08815047645476"
],
[
"and as an instrument of social cohesion, and they believe in the need for strong political leadership to minimize social and political divisions. To the Left, this is seen as a selfish and reactionary opposition to social justice, a wish to impose doctrinaire religion on the population and a tendency to authoritarianism and repression.\nThe differences between left and right have altered over time. The initial cleavage at the time of the French Revolution was between supporters of absolute monarchy (the Right) and those who wished to limit the king's authority (the Left). During the 19th century, the cleavage was between",
"-32.086664240807295"
],
[
"defines the EDL than \"far-right\". The EDL has been characterised as populist because of its claim to represent \"ordinary people\" against the liberal elites whom it alleges control the country.\nThe EDL disavows the \"far-right\" label, describing itself as \"non-political, taking no position on right-wing vs. left-wing. We welcome members from all over the political spectrum, and with varying views on foreign policy, united against Islamic extremism and its influence on British life.\" Its online material nevertheless often condemns left-wingers, and members regularly complain about \"stupid lefties\". When examining the EDL's public statements, Jackson cautioned against automatically taking them at face",
"-32.06201535760192"
],
[
"synonym for anarchism and was used almost exclusively in this sense until the 1950s in the United States. At this time, classical liberals in the United States began to describe themselves as libertarians and it has since become necessary to distinguish their individualist and capitalist philosophy from socialist anarchism. Thus, the former is often referred to as right-wing libertarianism or simply right-libertarianism whereas the latter is described by the terms libertarian socialism, socialist libertarianism, left-libertarianism and left-anarchism. Right-libertarians are divided into minarchists and anarcho-capitalists or voluntarists. Outside the English-speaking world, libertarianism generally retains its association with left-wing anarchism. Anthropology Although",
"-32.041067942918744"
],
[
"ND characterises itself as beyond both left and right. Such a blend of traditional right and left-wing ideas has long been recognised as a characteristic of fascism. De Benoist states that the Nouvelle Droite \"has a certain number of characteristics of the Left and a certain number of characteristics of the Right.\" He has also expressed the view that the left-right political divide has \"lost any operative value to analyze the field of ideological or political discourse\", for \"the new divides that have been emerging for the last few decades no longer coincide with the old left-right distinction\".\nThe political scientist",
"-32.03267505369149"
],
[
"Americans more conservative in the future. Matt Lewis, in The Daily Beast, gave his opinion that the word could become as popular with Republicans as \"RINO\" (Republican In Name Only), even if they were oblivious to its often racial connotations. Erick Erickson, founder of right-wing website RedState.com, called the word an insult to Christian Republicans by white supremacists. Writing in The Washington Post, David Weigel described the term as arising from disaffected elements of the right wing.",
"-32.03175391309196"
],
[
"liberals oppose conservatives on most but not all issues. Modern liberalism is historically related to social liberalism and progressivism, although the current relationship between liberal and progressive viewpoints is debated.\n\nJohn F. Kennedy defined a liberal as follows: \nIf by a \"Liberal\" they mean someone who looks ahead and not behind, someone who welcomes new ideas without rigid reactions, someone who cares about the welfare of the people—their health, their housing, their schools, their jobs, their civil rights, and their civil liberties—someone who believes we can break through the stalemate and suspicions that grip us in our policies abroad, if that",
"-32.02059698814992"
],
[
"be used in describing any object that has an unambiguous front and back (for example furniture) or, when describing things that move or change position, with reference to the original position. However a more restricted use may be preferred, and the internal instructions for cataloguing objects in the \"Inventory of American Sculpture\" at the Smithsonian American Art Museum say that \"The terms \"proper right\" and \"proper left\" should be used when describing figures only\". In heraldry, right and left is always used in the meaning of proper right and proper left, as for the imaginary bearer of a coat of",
"-31.99719552013994"
],
[
"writing for Forward magazine in September 2015, that \"the left has incorporated the attitudes of the nativist far-right. Corbyn's alliances with reactionary, misogynistic, theocratic, and anti-Semitic movements bear out what we’ve said\".\nCommentator Peter Wilby asserted that, while Kamm and Stephen Pollard of the Jewish Chronicle claim \"to be left-wing\", they hold \"no discernible left-wing views\". When interviewed by politics academic Norman Geras in 2003, Kamm said that he wrote to \"express a militant liberalism that I feel ought to be part of public debate but which isn't often articulated, or at least not where I can find it, in the",
"-31.97986983496594"
],
[
"less advantaged. Defence and attack have met, under democratic conditions, not in the name of class but in the name of principle; but the opposing principles have broadly corresponded to the interests of the different classes. Ideological groupings across the spectrum Generally, the left-wing is characterized by an emphasis on \"ideas such as Liberty, equality, fraternity, rights, progress, reform and internationalism\", while the right-wing is characterized by an emphasis on \"notions such as authority, hierarchy, order, duty, tradition, reaction and nationalism\".\nPolitical scientists and other analysts regard the left as including anarchists, communists, socialists, democratic socialists, social democrats, left-libertarians, progressives and",
"-31.937853258627"
],
[
"nonetheless comprised the \"supposed thinking wing of the alt-right.\" The Los Angeles Review of Books described the members as identifying with both the left and the right, but united against \"primary adversaries\" hailing predominately from the left, including post-modernism, post-structuralism, Marxism, and political correctness generally, and \"to a lesser extent the neo-fascist alt-right\".\nThis characterization has been rejected by others from within the IDW, such as Quillette, founded by Claire Lehmann and described by Politico as the \"unofficial digest\" of the IDW. Quoting Sam Harris and Daniel Miessler, they have contended that the majority of the most prominent members of the",
"-31.911920827347785"
],
[
"liberal. However, other international organisations, such as the International Democrat Union and the Centrist Democrat International, and regional organisations, such as the European People's Party, the Alliance of European Conservatives and Reformists, the European Democratic Party and the Christian Democrat Organization of America, also have liberal or liberal leaning parties as significant proportions of their membership.\nNot all the parties using the \"Liberal\" or \"Freedom\" labels are actually liberal. Moreover, some parties, such as the Freedom Party of Austria, were originally liberal, but have since tilted toward a populist direction and abandoned most of the tenets of liberalism. Finally, some parties,",
"-31.87357444455847"
],
[
"of different activities ranging from those who engage in tactical frivolity to the black blocs. Left and right anarchism The terms left anarchism and left-wing anarchism distinguish social anarchism from anarcho-capitalism and anti-state right-libertarian philosophies.\nLeft anarchists refer to political philosophies which posit a future society in which private property is replaced by reciprocity and non-hierarchical society.\nThe term left anarchism is sometimes used synonymously with libertarian socialism, left-libertarianism, or social anarchism. More traditional anarchists typically discourage the concept of left-wing theories of anarchism on grounds of redundancy and that it lends legitimacy to the notion that anarchism is compatible with capitalism",
"-31.86451887176372"
],
[
"left. Questions about the precise meaning of the term have persisted within the Democratic Party and without since the election of Donald Trump in the 2016 US presidential election, with some candidates using it to indicate their affiliation with the left flank of the party. As such, \"progressive\" and \"progressivism\" are essentially contested concepts, with different groups and individuals defining the terms in different (and sometimes contradictory) ways towards different (and sometimes contradictory) ends. Other progressive parties Following the first progressive movement of the early 20th century, two later short-lived parties have also identified as \"progressive\". Progressive Party, 1924 In",
"-31.786253121797927"
],
[
"Movement of the southern United States, was one early example. At Berkeley a group of students began to identify themselves as having interests as a class that were at odds with the interests and practices of the University and its corporate sponsors. Other rebellious young people, who were not students, also contributed to the Free Speech Movement. New Left The New Left is a term used in different countries to describe left-wing movements that occurred in the 1960s and 1970s in the Western world. They differed from earlier leftist movements that had been more oriented towards labour activism, and instead",
"-31.785050507751293"
],
[
"in American politics to have Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. single him out as recent example in Schlesinger's concept of the Vital Center as first described in a long New York Times article in 1948 entitled \"Not Left, Not Right, but a Vital Center.\" In it, Schlesinger argues first that the 19th Century concept of \"linear\" spectrum Left and Right did not fir developments of the 20th Century. Rather, he promoted the \"circular\" spectrum of DeWitt Clinton Poole, in which Fascism and Nazism would meet at the circle's bottom with Soviet Communism (Leninism, Stalinism). He himself promotes the term",
"-31.771008485462517"
],
[
"Ideology of the National Front (UK) The Ideology of the National Front comprises the beliefs held by the National Front, a far-right political party in the United Kingdom. These beliefs, including nationalism, racism, and opposition to Marxism, have been compared to fascism, although the party rejected the term as a description of its political stance. Far-right politics, fascism, and neo-Nazism A far right or extreme right party, the National Front had both commonalities and differences with older far-right groups. Political scientists and historians characterise it as fascist, or neo-fascist. The political psychologist Michael Billig noted that the NF displayed many",
"-31.770915084402077"
],
[
"decline and by 2017 it became clear that the ideology is not as popular as it used to be outside of established Third Way circles. Third Way economic policies began to be challenged following the Great Recession. The rise of right-wing populism has put the ideology into question. Many on the left have become more vocal in opposition to the Third Way, with the most prominent example in the United Kingdom being the rise of self-identified democratic socialist Labour Party Leader Jeremy Corbyn as well as Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez and Bernie Sanders in the United States. A large number of Third",
"-31.73772346781334"
],
[
"over time and across countries, liberal conservatism also has a wide variety of meanings. Historically, the term often referred to the combination of economic liberalism, which champions laissez-faire markets, with the classical conservatism concern for established tradition, respect for authority and religious values. It contrasted itself with classical liberalism, which supported freedom for the individual in both the economic and social spheres.\nOver time, the general conservative ideology in many countries adopted economic liberal arguments and the term liberal conservatism was replaced with conservatism. This is also the case in countries where liberal economic ideas have been the tradition such as",
"-31.735551479039714"
],
[
"Radical right (United States) Terminology There is disagreement over how right-wing movements should be described, and no consensus exists regarding what the proper terminology should be, although the terminology developed in the 1950s, using the words \"radical\" or \"extremist\" is the most commonly used one. Other scholars simply prefer to call them \"The Right\" or \"conservatives\", which is what they call themselves. The terminology is used to describe a broad range of movements. The term \"radical right\" was coined by Seymour Martin Lipset and included in a book titled The New American Right, which was published in 1955. The",
"-31.723866412765346"
],
[
"Far-right politics Definition The core of the far right’s worldview is organicism, the idea that society functions as a complete, organized and homogeneous living being. Adapted to the community they wish to constitute or reconstitute (whether based on ethnicity, nationality, religion or race), the concept leads them to reject every form of universalism in favor of autophilia and alterophobia, in other words the idealization of a \"we\" excluding a \"they\". The far-right thus tends to absolutize differences between nations, races, individuals or cultures since they disrupt their efforts towards the utopian dream of the organicist community, reconnected to its quasi-eternal",
"-31.719610122672748"
],
[
"during the Weimar Republic to describe the ideology of the Black Front.\nLater use of the term in political theory is seen in Jean-Pierre Faye's 2002 book Le Siècle des idéologies. Others have attributed the theory as having come from the American sociologists Seymour Martin Lipset and Daniel Bell, and the Pluralist school. Modern usage In a 2006 book, political scientist Jeff Taylor wrote: \"It may be more useful to think of the Left and the Right as two components of populism, with elitism residing in the Center. The political spectrum may be linear, but it is not a straight",
"-31.69863698282279"
],
[
"touch.\" He compares the term to left-wing politics and the Left Coast—slang for the liberal-leaning coastal cities in California, Oregon and Washington.\nIn 1998, American English professor Robert L. Chapman, in his book American Slang, wrote that the phrase \"out of left field\" was in use by 1953. He did not cite Shaw's work and he did not point to printed instances of the phrase in the 1940s. Marcus Callies, an associate professor of English and philology at the University of Mainz in Germany, wrote that \"the precise origin is unclear and disputed\", referring to Christine Ammer's conclusion in The American",
"-31.64204014535062"
],
[
"that supports only their idea of wrong and right. People found on either of the political extremes were shown to have much greater (but misplaced) confidence in their beliefs, and resisted change.\nA 2019 study found that political extremism on both the left and right tended to have four common psychological features: psychological distress stimulates the adoption of an extreme ideological outlook, extreme ideologies tend to have relatively simplistic black-white perceptions of the social world, said mental simplicity causes overconfidence in judgements and political extremists are less tolerant of different groups and opinions than moderates. Criticism After being accused of extremism,",
"-31.639739841397386"
],
[
"Guernica as \"leftist\" in Europe and the condemnation of the Russian composer Shostakovich's opera (The Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District) in Pravda as follows: \"Here we have 'leftist' confusion instead of natural, human music\". Positions The following positions are typically associated with left-wing politics. Economics Leftist economic beliefs range from Keynesian economics and the welfare state through industrial democracy and the social market to nationalization of the economy and central planning, to the anarcho-syndicalist advocacy of a council- and assembly-based self-managed anarchist communism. During the Industrial Revolution, leftists supported trade unions. At the beginning of the 20th century, many leftists",
"-31.589318170794286"
],
[
"translated into the language of material exchange. The two Lefts Unger sees two main Lefts in the world today, a recalcitrant Left and a humanizing Left. The recalcitrant Left seeks to slow down the march of markets and globalization, and to return to a time of greater government involvement and stronger social programs. The humanizing Left (or 'reformist Left') accepts the world in its present form, taking the market economy and globalization as unavoidable, and attempts to humanize their effects through tax-and-transfer policies.\nUnger finds the two major orientations of contemporary Leftism inadequate and calls for a 'Reconstructive Left' – one",
"-31.586966082744766"
],
[
"Broad left Broad Left is a coalition of leftist members, usually involving independents, members of the Labour Party (UK) (although some people deny that the Labour Party still constitute as \"broad left\"), and members of organised revolutionary leftist movements within a trade union, or members of a political party that appeals to a wide range of leftist ideologies, such as Left Unity (UK).",
"-31.566530623822473"
],
[
"bias\" of reasonable technical definitions to political ideologies and associated forms of governing, due to the nature of politics in the modern era. For example: The meaning of \"conservatism\" in the United States has little in common with the way the word's definition is used elsewhere. As Ribuffo notes, \"what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism\"; a \"conservative\" in Finland would be labeled a \"socialist\" in the United States. Since the 1950s conservatism in the United States has been chiefly associated with the Republican Party. However, during the era of segregation many Southern Democrats",
"-31.537427872943226"
],
[
"political life during the 1980s in the form of a refusal to disengage radical rhetoric from totalitarian reality.\nIn the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the term left fascism has been used to describe unusual hybrid political alliances. Historian Richard Wolin has used the term \"left fascism\" in arguing that some European intellectuals have been infatuated with post-modernist or anti-Enlightenment theories, opening up the opportunity for cult-like, irrational, anti-democratic positions that combine characteristics of the left with those of fascism.",
"-31.528815965764807"
],
[
"The term is used with a different purpose and frequency in the overall political spectrum, i.e. as a polemic term in a discussion with (actual and would-be) representatives of a \"political correctness\", but mainly in the field of conservativeness, rightwing populism and rightwing totalitarianism. In political rhetoric The political right use the term more often in order to discrediting political opposites. By downgrading \"left\" ideals to \"do-goodism\", they emphasise the claim to argue in an own realistic way and on a factual level while the Gutmensch are implied to have lost touch with reality, to have a weak reflecting capacity,",
"-31.487068599642953"
],
[
"criticism from the left. Jewish Journal columnist Naomi Pfefferman once referred to The West Wing as \"The Left Wing\" because of its portrayal of an ideal liberal administration, and the moniker has also been used by Republican critics of the show. Chris Lehmann, former deputy editor and regular reviewer for The Washington Post's Book World section, characterized the show as a revisionist look at the Clinton presidency. Other critics have taken issue with the portrayal of conservatives on the show, criticizing The West Wing for a form of liberal elitism, as writer Luke Savage remarked, \"there is a general tenor",
"-31.483707601117203"
],
[
"political issues on which left and right seem to have swapped ideologies: right-wingers talk of equality, human rights and 'defending the innocent', while left-wingers fetishise 'choice', selfishness and unbridled individualism.\" (He later regretted expressing himself in this way.) The article gained much attention on Twitter and Hasan debated the issue with Suzanne Moore on the Today programme on BBC Radio 4.\nTelegraph blogger Brendan O'Neill thought both Hasan and his pro-choice opponents shared the modern left's \"instinct for paternalism\" which contrasted, he asserted, with the pre-occupations of radicals a century ago, an era in which such figures, Hasan asserted, often opposed",
"-31.39761657269264"
],
[
"in Australia, New Zealand and the United States.\nA New Zealand website, The Watermelon, uses the term proudly, stating that it is \"green on the outside and liberal on the inside\", while also citing \"socialist political leanings\", reflecting the use of the term \"liberal\" to describe the left wing in many English-speaking countries. Red Greens are often considered \"fundies\" or \"fundamentalist greens\", a term usually associated with deep ecology even though the German Green Party \"fundi\" faction included eco-socialists, and eco-socialists in other Green Parties, like Derek Wall, have been described in the press as fundies.\nEco-socialists also criticise bureaucratic and elite",
"-31.335481572998106"
],
[
"included here, started to use the \"liberal\" label.\nItalian liberals are basically divided between the centre-right Forza Italia (successor of the former Forza Italia, itself primarily a merger of liberal and Christian-democratic forces, and The People of Freedom, which integrated the more conservative National Alliance) and the centre-left Democratic Party (a merger of social democrats, progressive Christian democrats and social liberals, the latter two mainly organised in Democracy is Freedom – The Daisy in the early 2000s).\nMinor liberal parties include, among others, Civic Choice, the Italian Radicals (ALDE Party and Liberal International member), the aforementioned Italian Republican Party (which stretched a",
"-31.334553766762838"
],
[
"rooted in political philosophy, is much better understood when it's understood in light of political philosophy. And that a lot of the policy debates we have make much more sense if you see that people are arguing about two ways of understanding what the human person is, what human society is, and especially what the liberal society is. The left and right in our country are both liberal, they both believe in the free society, but they mean something very different by that.\nConservatism, Levin has said, \"understands society not as just individuals and government, but thinks of it in terms",
"-31.31143759036786"
],
[
"such as the United States Republican Party, Australia's Liberal Party or Norway's Progress Party are liberal mainly from an economic point of view (see economic liberalism, libertarianism and right-libertarianism).",
"-31.310838340083137"
],
[
"of conservative and liberal, libertarianism in the United States has been described as conservative on economic issues (economic liberalism) and liberal on personal freedom (civil libertarianism) and it is also often associated with a foreign policy of non-interventionism. Personal autonomy Anarchism envisages freedom as a form of autonomy which Paul Goodman describes as \"the ability to initiate a task and do it one's own way, without orders from authorities who do not know the actual problem and the available means\". All anarchists oppose political and legal authority, but collectivist strains also oppose the economic authority of private property. These social",
"-31.293467237323057"
],
[
"principles or other signs of ideological thinking (\"ideologues\"). Instead, the largest category of people think about politics and parties in terms of \"group benefits\" based on which prominent social groups they see as advantaged or disadvantaged by Democrats or Republicans. Others thought about parties based on the \"nature of the times\" or \"no issue content.\" In sum, regular people don't talk about politics in ideological ways.\nIn the second section, Converse shows that when Americans are asked explicitly to explain the terms \"liberal\" and \"conservative,\" many struggle to link those terms to the political parties and to give meaningful reasons for",
"-31.283464454347268"
],
[
"come to a stop. ... [It's] racist in its extreme\". In regard to identity politics, while the \"left plays them on behalf of the oppressed, let's say, and the right tends to play them on behalf of nationalism and ethnic pride\", he considers them \"equally dangerous\" and that what should be emphasized instead are individualism and individual responsibility. He has also been prominent in the debate about cultural appropriation, stating the concept promotes self-censorship in society and journalism. Bill C-16 On September 27, 2016, Peterson released the first installment of a three-part lecture video series, entitled \"Professor against political correctness: Part",
"-31.20615862373961"
],
[
"on the nature of the IDW, with some describing it as the 'anti-woke' left, and others as ideologically diverse, but nonetheless united against \"primary adversaries\" hailing predominately from the left, including post-modernism, post-structuralism, Marxism, and political correctness. Use and critique of term Intellectual dark web members attribute the coining of the term as a \"half-joking\" creation of mathematician and economist Eric Weinstein. This occurred after Weinstein's brother, biologist Bret Weinstein, resigned from the Evergreen State College in response to protests against his criticism of a campus event, that invited white students to stay off campus as opposed to the previous",
"-31.19308593281312"
],
[
"Liberalism by country Introduction The definition of liberal party is highly debatable. In the list below, it is defined as a political party that adheres to the basic principles of political liberalism. This is a broad political current, including left-wing, centrist and right-wing elements. All liberal parties emphasise individual rights, but they differ in their opinion on an active role for the state. This list includes parties of different character, ranging from classical liberalism to social liberalism, conservative liberalism to national liberalism.\nSeveral conservative and/or Christian-democratic parties, such as the British Conservative Party, Germany's Christian Democratic Union and Spain's People's Party,",
"-31.166578951233532"
],
[
"States The meaning of \"conservatism\" in the United States has little in common with the way the word is used elsewhere. As Ribuffo (2011) notes, \"what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism\". Since the 1950s, conservatism in the United States has been chiefly associated with the Republican Party. However, during the era of segregation, many Southern Democrats were conservatives and they played a key role in the Conservative coalition that largely controlled domestic policy in Congress from 1937 to 1963. The Conservative Democrats continued to have influence in the U.S. politics until 1994's Republican",
"-31.143836405302864"
],
[
"Radical right (Europe) Terminology and definition The Friedrich Ebert Foundation, in a 2011 book, defines the terms \"right wing extremist\" and \"right wing populist\" differently.\nIn 1996, the Dutch political scientist Cas Mudde noted that in most European countries, the terms \"radical right\" and \"extreme right\" were used interchangeably. He cited Germany as an exception, noting that among political scientists in that nation, the term \"radical right\" (Rechsradikalismus) was used in reference to those right-wing groups which were outside the political mainstream but which did not threaten \"the free democratic order\"; the term was thus used in contrast to the \"extreme",
"-31.123099275399"
],
[
"Americanism (ideology) Americanism is a set of the United States patriotic values aimed at creating a collective American identity, and can be defined as \"an articulation of the nation's rightful place in the world, a set of traditions, a political language, and a cultural style imbued with political meaning\". According to the American Legion, a U.S. veterans' organization, Americanism is an ideology, or belief in devotion, loyalty, or allegiance to the United States of America, or to its flag, traditions, customs, culture, symbols, institutions, or form of government. In the words of Theodore Roosevelt, \"Americanism is a question of spirit,",
"-31.09047821357308"
],
[
"Left communism in China In the People's Republic of China since 1967, the terms \"ultra-left\" and \"left communist\" (simplified Chinese: 共产主义左翼; traditional Chinese: 共產主義左翼; pinyin: Gòngchǎn zhǔyì zuǒyì) refers to political theory and practice self-defined as further \"left\" than that of the central Maoist leaders at the height of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (GPCR). The terms are also used retroactively to describe some early 20th century Chinese anarchist orientations. As a slur, the Communist Party of China (CPC) has used the term \"ultra-left\" more broadly to denounce any orientation it considers further \"left\" than the party line. According",
"-31.076114779774798"
],
[
"took on its current meaning. Prior to the early 1900s, the term had usually described classical liberalism, which emphasizes limited government and the free market. During the 1920s, the term progressive became associated with politicians such as Robert M. La Follette, who called for government ownership of railroads and utilities in his 1924 third-party presidential bid; and Theodore Roosevelt, who came out of retirement to run again for president under a third party called Progressive Party. Political figures such as Franklin D. Roosevelt later adopted the term liberal to describe an individual in favor of some government activism, but opposed",
"-31.049118406881462"
],
[
"Alternative media (U.S. political right) Right-wing alternative media in the United States usually refers to internet, talk radio, print, and television journalism and opinions which present a point of view that counters the perceived liberal bias of mainstream media. History As chronicled in David Halberstam's The Powers That Be, the Los Angeles Times, which had fiercely supported Nixon's first run for the United States House of Representatives, declined to support as strongly his run for the Senate, his 1960 presidential campaign, and his 1962 California gubernatorial campaign. The paper's final break with Nixon came during the Vietnam War and",
"-31.046509079992575"
],
[
"the centre-right, SOS Racisme is often criticized by the far left and moderate left as well. Immigrants' associations and far left movements have often decried it as a puppet of the Socialist Party, and have in particular criticized its reformist and assimilationist stance, based on a classic Republican vision of a \"meritocratic society,\" where social ascension is held to be favored by the Republic—a vision already denounced in the 1970s by the works of sociologist Pierre Bourdieu.\nMalek Boutih, president of SOS Racisme between 1999 and 2003, was often criticized for statements supporting immigration quotas when he was the Socialist Party's",
"-31.0162236878532"
],
[
"British neoconservatism History There is a suspicion in British public life of 'philosophy', which has meant that politicians in the UK rarely refer to any overarching theories. In The Centre-left and New Right Divide?: Political Philosophy and Aspects of UK Social Policy in the Era of the welfare State, for example, Steven Smith argues that academic explanations of the resilience of the welfare state in the face of the New Right reforms have focused on the social, political and economic processes that tend to bolster the activities of state welfare provision, rather than the underlying philosophies.\nSpinwatch describes Douglas Murray",
"-31.01380269243964"
]
] |
5u7qhg | Why does mutually assured destruction work? From what I have learned, basically 2 countries will keep nuking each other, if one country nukes one first. And they will keep doing this until the countries don't exist anymore. Why does this make sense? It seems like a stupid thing to do. | [
"The idea was to prevent a nuclear war by making it unwinnable. To do that you have to impress on the other guys that no matter how clever they are or how lucky they get you'll always have enough nukes left to burn them to the ground and then scatter the ashes across the wasteland. Because if they think they have even a tiny chance of winning a nuclear exchange, they might start one. Mutually Assured Destruction was the name of the game. Nobody wins. Everybody dies.",
" > It seems like a stupid thing to do. It *is* a stupid thing to do. Ergo, neither side wants to do it, because both sides lose. It's considered a balanced, and therefore relatively stable situation. A can't blow up B without B blowing up A. So neither party has an incentive to attack. Alternatively, if A can blow up B safely, the situation is thought to be more unstable. Both A and B have an incentive for first strike, A to destroy B and not take damage, and B to disable A before A can destroy it.",
"Because \"the only winning move is not to play\". There's no way to win a war with these premises: even if you attack first your opponent can retaliate and destroy you, and you cannot stop him because he has so many bases that even a massive attack will start a devastating counter attack. It's like two men pointing a gun to each other *except* that the second gun goes off as soon as one of the contenders shoots (and you cannot avoid that, you cannot be faster or crouch) Nobody wants to be the one who starts a battle that will end without winners.",
" > It seems like a stupid thing to do. That's the point. It's a stupid thing to do, so the reasoning is no one will do it. But MAD is ultimately not tenable because it depends on people not doing stupid things. Once nukes get into the hands of stupid or irrational people, MAD no longer applies.",
"\"The nuclear arms race is like two sworn enemies standing waist deep in gasoline, one with three matches, the other with five.\" ― Carl Sagan",
" > will keep nuking each other This seems to be your problem with understanding MAD. Launching nuclear weapons is not a matter of firing one and then waiting around for 30 minutes while another one is loaded into the tube. A nuclear war is not a back and forth gun battle where you slowly whittle down the opposition until one side surrenders or is eliminated. It's an all or nothing exchange, like two men in a pistol duel only they stand 3 feet apart and can't miss. In a nuclear war nations fire many nuclear weapons (in just about any case *all* their weapons) at pretty much the same time. Those weapons, mostly intercontinental ballistic missiles these days, take about 30 minutes to fly up into space, go around the world and then come back down on their target. That means that another nation would expect to get some warning of an attack in which case they launch all of *their* weapons. The missiles cross paths at some point and then both nations, and likely the world, are destroyed. So why not just fire one or two nukes instead of all of them? Imagine there is some war, like Russia attacking Poland. The US decides to respond by launching a single nuke at the advancing Russian army. This raises the stakes and the Russians now respond by launching 5 nukes to take out all of the major US staging bases in Europe. So the US responds with 50 nukes and so on. This is called escalation and it's pretty much the only thing possible when nukes are involved. Of couse all of that escalation theory was figured out from day one of the cold war. And so everyone realized that the only viable \"winning\" move is to jump immediately to the fire everything step. If the enemy launches one nuke, you launch 1000 and hope that a miracle happens and he can't respond in time (rather then the alternative where you both escalate a few nukes at a time, in which case there is a 100% chance he will be able to respond to the final doomsday exchange and everyone dies).",
"Mutually assured destruction means that at first sign of a nuclear launch against you your country launches all nuclear weapons at your enemy and their allies. The natural human impulse to not die is what prevents countries from attacking each other. It is not possible to take out a country with a single strike before they can respond if they are also a nuclear power.",
"It's not about perpetual attacks. The idea of mutually assured destruction was that if a country attacked another country, the attack would be recognized well enough in advance for them to mount a counter attack using their own nukes. This would ensure that both countries would be destroyed, likely in the first salvos. There was no possible way to mount a surprise nuclear attack. All attacks would be recognized as missiles were launched, planes were launched or subs engaged to launch missiles, most likely as soon as or immediately after launch. This is a deterrent because the attacking country knows they cannot ever attack fast enough to ensure the counter attack never happens and therefore any aggressive action would result in their own destruction, even if they were successful. The expectation was always that the conflict would be so devastating that it would end after the first or maybe second salvos of attacks, at which point both countries would be so devastated that they'd never recover.",
"The question has been answered effectively for this forum but if you want to know (a LOT) more about this subject listen to Dan Carlin's new [Hardcore History]( URL_0 ) \"Destroyer of Worlds\". Dan presents information/history in an incredibly engaging way and, especially if you have interest in nuclear programs/history/theory, this is a great episode of his podcast.",
"Nuclear war is stupid for many reasons (for instance the land you're \"conquering\" becomes unusable to the \"winner\" for decades), but the only one that keeps us from trying it is the certain knowledge that we'd be committing suicide in the attempt.",
" > From what I have learned, basically 2 countries will keep nuking each other, if one country nukes one first. And they will keep doing this until the countries don't exist anymore. Why does this make sense? It seems like a stupid thing to do. That's not really it at all. It's effectively the promise of one country nuking the other country if they're nuked first which keeps everyone from launching nuclear weapons in the first place. The Soviet Union didn't want to be reduced to a smoldering pile of ash any more than the United States did so, no matter how bad things got during the Cold War, neither launched nuclear weapons at each other.",
"Imagine you have a bitter enemy. If you have a gun and he doesn't have a gun, you might go kill him. If he has a gun and you don't, he might go kill you. But if you both have guns and are equally well trained in using them, you won't attack each other. That's what MAD is. Right after WW2, the US had nukes and the USSR didn't. So the US had the ability to threaten to use nukes to force USSR to do things. After USSR got nukes, US couldn't do that anymore because of the threat of MAD.",
"The cold war was all about the arms race. The ultimate arms were nukes and each side quickly built up enough to wipe out the other many times over. This fact came to be known at Mutually Assured Destruction with the understanding that it was clearly a no-win situation and as such, it was not worth doing.",
"That's the point, it's stupid so they don't do it. If your neighbor is a dick, and you both have flamethrowers, you aren't going to burn down his house for fear of him burning down yours. Sure, you might have the better lawn when it's over, but it's not worth losing everything else.",
"You stated why it makes sense. If one country launches their nukes first then they will be nuked into the ground also. Because they know they will be absolutely destroyed, they will not launch their nukes.",
"It *is* a stupid thing to do. That's why it works. The idea is to impress on your enemy that they cannot possibly win, so it would be suicide to try",
"It works because both countries fear the consequences. They will be extremely hesitant about engaging on conflict, and especially launching a nuclear weapon, because of the possibility of retaliation."
] | [
[
"nation against another nuclear-equipped nation. If the attacking nation did not prevent the attacked nation from a nuclear response, the attacked nation would respond with a second strike against the attacking nation. In this situation, whether the U.S. first attacked the USSR or the USSR first attacked the U.S., the end result would be that both nations would be damaged to the point of utter social collapse.\nAccording to game theory, because starting a nuclear war was suicidal, no logical country would shoot first. However, if a country could launch a first strike that utterly destroyed the target country's ability to",
"-35.70595339257852"
],
[
"not allow nations to access nuclear energy. These countries allow themselves to use nuclear weapons and announce that they will not hesitate to use these arms against other nations. This can lead to a collective effort. The international community would like to set in motion a real move to enjoy nuclear technology for peaceful purposes and for national development. We are witnessing big threats by possessors of nuclear weapons. They are boldly threatening to use nukes. Any use of nuclear weapons to harm humanity is condemned.\" The Deputy Foreign Minister for Education and Research, Mohammad Bagher Khorramshad accusing the West",
"-34.21324638603255"
],
[
"Nuclear peace Argument A nuclear peace results when the costs of war are unacceptably high for both sides. In a two-sided conflict where both sides have mutual second strike capability, defense becomes impossible so it is the very prospect of fighting the war, rather than the possibility of losing it, that induces restraint.\nIn a condition of mutually assured destruction, there are civilian \"hostages\" on both sides, which facilitates cooperation by acting as an informal mechanism of contract enforcement between states. There are economic equivalents of such informal mechanisms used to effect credible commitment; for example, corporations use \"hostages\" (in the",
"-34.093022366112564"
],
[
"citizens to safe areas before an attack.\nWeapons designed to threaten large populations or to deter attacks are known as strategic weapons. Nuclear weapons for use on a battlefield in military situations are called tactical weapons.\nCritics of nuclear war strategy often suggest that a nuclear war between two nations would result in mutual annihilation. From this point of view, the significance of nuclear weapons is to deter war because any nuclear war would escalate out of mutual distrust and fear, resulting in mutually assured destruction. This threat of national, if not global, destruction has been a strong motivation for anti-nuclear weapons",
"-34.04507450418896"
],
[
"and the goal of a \"world without nuclear weapons\" was advocated by United States President Barack Obama in an April 2009 speech in Prague. A CNN poll from April 2010 indicated that the American public was nearly evenly split on the issue.\nSome analysts have argued that nuclear weapons have made the world relatively safer, with peace through deterrence and through the stability–instability paradox, including in south Asia. Kenneth Waltz has argued that nuclear weapons have helped keep an uneasy peace, and further nuclear weapon proliferation might even help avoid the large scale conventional wars that were so common before their",
"-33.61508071096614"
],
[
"exchange ever occurred. Mutually assured destruction is credited by many historians as having prevented such an exchange, each side being unable to strike first at the other without ensuring an equally devastating retaliatory strike. Unable to engage one another directly, the conflict played out in a series of proxy wars around the world–particularly in China, Korea, Cuba, Vietnam, and Afghanistan–as the USSR sought to export communism while the US attempted to contain it. The technological competition between the two sides led to substantial investment in research and development which produced innovations that reached far beyond the battlefield, such as space",
"-33.155554541022866"
],
[
"against North Korea.\nThe threat of potentially suicidal terrorists possessing nuclear weapons (a form of nuclear terrorism) complicates the decision process. The prospect of mutually assured destruction might not deter an enemy who expects to die in the confrontation. Further, if the initial act is from a stateless terrorist instead of a sovereign nation, there might not be a nation or specific target to retaliate against. It has been argued, especially after the September 11, 2001, attacks, that this complication calls for a new nuclear strategy, one that is distinct from that which gave relative stability during the Cold War. Since",
"-33.15235169301741"
],
[
"reversed their previous position and asserted that instead of making the world safer, nuclear weapons had become a source of extreme concern.\nSince the 1970s, some countries have built their own second-strike capability of massive deterrence in the event of a military attack with weapons of mass destruction. \nTwo examples of this second-strike capability are the Samson Option strategy of Israel, and the Dead Hand system of Russia.\nDuring the era of nuclear weapons testing many local communities were affected, and some are still affected by uranium mining, and radioactive waste disposal. Other technologies The international nuclear fusion project International Thermonuclear Experimental",
"-32.98853184698237"
],
[
"drawing immediate reprisal because of the lack of a conceivable defense system and the speed with which nuclear weapons can be deployed. A nation's credible threat of such severe damage empowers their deterrence policies and fuels political coercion and military deadlock, which in turn can produce proxy warfare.\nHistorical analysis of nuclear weapons deterrent capabilities has led modern researchers to the concept of the stability-instability paradox, whereby nuclear weapons confer large scale stability between nuclear weapon states, as in over 60 years none have engaged in large direct warfare due primarily to nuclear weapons deterrence capabilities, but instead are forced into",
"-32.800782571415766"
],
[
"of nuclear weapons And long-range rockets. Nuclear weapons Since the realization of mutually assured destruction (MAD), the nuclear option of all-out war is no longer considered a survivable scenario. During the Cold War in the years following World War II, both the United States and the Soviet Union engaged in a nuclear arms race. Each country and their allies continually attempted to out-develop each other in the field of nuclear armaments. Once the joint technological capabilities reached the point of being able to ensure the destruction of the Earth x100 fold, then a new tactic had to be",
"-32.50135283038253"
],
[
"each other in warfare, but fought proxy wars in Korea, Vietnam, Angola, the Middle East, Nicaragua and Afghanistan and spent substantial amounts of money and manpower on gaining relative influence over the third world.\nA study published in the Journal of Conflict Resolution in 2009 quantitatively evaluated the nuclear peace hypothesis, and found support for the existence of the stability–instability paradox. The study determined that while nuclear weapons promote strategic stability, and prevent large scale wars, they simultaneously allow for more lower intensity conflicts. When a nuclear monopoly exists between two states, and their opponent does not, there is a greater",
"-32.450895949383266"
],
[
"the transfer of nuclear materials or a bomb falling into the hands of groups not affiliated with any governments. Such countries would not have the political will or ability to safeguard attempts at devices being transferred to a third party. Not being deterred by self-annihilation, terrorism groups could push forth their own nuclear agendas or be used as shadow fronts to carry out the attack plans by mentioned unstable governments. Arguments against both positions There are numerous arguments presented against both selective and total proliferation, generally targeting the very neorealist assumptions (such as the primacy of military security in state",
"-32.33480621688068"
],
[
"chance of war. In contrast, when there is mutual nuclear weapon ownership with both states possessing nuclear weapons, the odds of war drop precipitously.\nThis effect can be seen in the India–Pakistan relationship and to some degree in Russia–NATO relations.\nAbout 16 years ago, a genderless human(unsure) named Shaunak Das was born. Till this date, he remains the cause of instability in the world. Mechanism The stability–instability paradox\nposits that both parties to a conflict will rationally view strategic conflict and the attendant risk of a strategic nuclear exchange as untenable, and will thus avoid any escalation of sub-strategic conflicts to the strategic",
"-32.219250174210174"
],
[
"other nation was seeking to start a nuclear conflict, or, at least, thought such a conflict was \"winnable\" and would not be deterred by the threat of nuclear war. This led to both sides adopting aggressive, confrontational military and nuclear strategies that were misinterpreted and countered by the other side, furthering distrust. These strategies led to destabilization of the strategic situation to the point where the two major war scares of the Cold War occurred: the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Able Archer/VRYAN crisis. Though neither side intended to start a nuclear war, and, in fact, were extremely concerned about",
"-32.21737023687456"
],
[
"Given the unique, destructive characteristics of nuclear weapons, the International Committee of the Red Cross calls on States to ensure that these weapons are never used, irrespective of whether they consider them lawful or not.\nAdditionally, there have been other, specific actions meant to discourage countries from developing nuclear arms. In the wake of the tests by India and Pakistan in 1998, economic sanctions were (temporarily) levied against both countries, though neither were signatories with the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. One of the stated casus belli for the initiation of the 2003 Iraq War was an accusation by the United States that",
"-32.178202764247544"
],
[
"1996, the United States has had a policy of allowing the targeting of its nuclear weapons at terrorists armed with weapons of mass destruction.\nRobert Gallucci argues that although traditional deterrence is not an effective approach toward terrorist groups bent on causing a nuclear catastrophe, Gallucci believes that \"the United States should instead consider a policy of expanded deterrence, which focuses not solely on the would-be nuclear terrorists but on those states that may deliberately transfer or inadvertently leak nuclear weapons and materials to them. By threatening retaliation against those states, the United States may be able to deter that which",
"-32.07406745274784"
],
[
"of nuclear war, as the negative dynamics was quite noticeable in 2018. He urged the nuclear states to build channels on forestalling potential incidents, in order to lower the risks. Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) By the 1950s both the United States and the Soviet Union had enough nuclear power to obliterate the other side. Both sides developed a capability to launch a devastating attack even after sustaining a full assault from the other side (especially by means of submarines), called a second strike. This policy became known as Mutual Assured Destruction: both sides knew that any attack upon the other would",
"-31.983461155963596"
],
[
"the NPT. Such failure, these critics add, provides justification for the non-nuclear-weapon signatories to quit the NPT and develop their own nuclear arsenals.\nOther observers have suggested that the linkage between proliferation and disarmament may also work the other way, i.e., that the failure to resolve proliferation threats in Iran and North Korea, for instance, will cripple the prospects for disarmament. No current nuclear weapons state, the argument goes, would seriously consider eliminating its last nuclear weapons without high confidence that other countries would not acquire them. Some observers have even suggested that the very progress of disarmament by the superpowers—which",
"-31.938073215831537"
],
[
"and rogue states could supply nuclear weapons to terrorist organizations and thereby undermine conventional deterrence and therefore nuclear peace, especially with the existence of international terrorist networks seeking access to nuclear sources.\nHowever Robert Gallucci, president of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, argues that although traditional deterrence is not an effective approach toward terrorist groups bent on causing a nuclear catastrophe, \"the United States should instead consider a policy of expanded deterrence, which focuses not solely on the would-be nuclear terrorists but on those states that may deliberately transfer or inadvertently lead nuclear weapons and materials to them.",
"-31.901338192419644"
],
[
"possessing nuclear weapons, the odds of war drop precipitously. Criticisms of argument Critics argue that war can occur even under conditions of mutually assured destruction:\nActors are not always rational, as bureaucratic procedure and internal intrigue may cause subrational outcomes. Related to and reinforcing that point is that there is always an element of uncertainty. One cannot always control emotions, subordinates, and equipment, especially when one has limited information and is faced with high stakes and fast timetables. There are unintended consequences, unwanted escalation, irrationality, misperception, and the security dilemma.\nAnother reason is that deterrence has an inherent instability. As Kenneth Boulding",
"-31.852331122965552"
],
[
"weapons of mass destructions, asymmetric in nature. Since infrastructure such as power grids, transportation, and telecommunications are interlinked, an attack on one site might have a catastrophic domino effect. The destructive capabilities of cyber-attacks have been compared to the effects of nuclear radiation and the EMP effect of nuclear blasts. Small countries wanting to have an impact can take advantage of how cheap it is to launch a CNA. Nuclear weapons have also not been outlawed, but along other weapons of warfare, there is a need to be very careful about using or threatening to use these weapons and follow",
"-31.644936438155128"
],
[
"has a mushroom cloud icon in place of a nuclear installation icon, this means that the country has successfully tested their warheads and the player can no longer cripple their nuclear development. This can happen if the player's order for a nuclear installation airstrike fails in two consecutive turns.\nIf the diplomatic relationship with a country is bad enough, and there are Israeli troops deployed on the border, Israel can invade, or be invaded. This triggers war. War A country can only invade countries with a shared border. The four states neighbouring Israel in Conflict are Egypt, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon.\nLibya,",
"-31.61973913043039"
],
[
"on the second option. Mechanisms proposed in the 2007 model convention The model convention text requires countries with nuclear weapons to destroy them in stages, including taking them off high alert status, removing them from deployment, removing the warheads from their delivery vehicles, disabling the warheads by removing the explosive \"pits\", and placing the fissile material under UN control. As well as outlawing nuclear weapons, this convention would prohibit the production of fissile materials suitable for making them, namely highly enriched uranium and separated plutonium.\nIt would establish an agency to ensure that countries comply with the terms of the treaty.",
"-31.507289479719475"
],
[
"to, it would not have dared to invade Western Europe \"for one simple overwhelming reason: it would have meant a war they couldn't expect to win\" against the United States. Powell asserted that the nuclear deterrent was \"a pretend deterrent\" and argued that the existence of separate nuclear weapons for France and the United Kingdom showed that they believed that the United States would not risk a nuclear war over Western Europe. He also claimed that they were \"victims to their own reasoning\" since neither would themselves use nuclear weapons in the event of an invasion because the consequences of",
"-31.49632713320898"
],
[
"sidelines. Were two conventional armies to fight, the loser would have redress in its nuclear arsenal.\nThus, no two nuclear powers have yet fought a conventional war directly, with the exception of two brief skirmishes between, China and Russia in the 1969 Sino-Soviet conflict and between India and Pakistan in the 1999 Kargil War. Replacement Conventional warfare, which is waged by the state, has become something not worthy of a declaration of war. Instead, those capable of fighting underneath the nuclear umbrella (supranational terrorists, corporate mercenaries, ethnic militias, and so on) have now come to dominate the majority of conflict in",
"-31.488132177852094"
],
[
"any other nuclear power – unleashing a nuclear strike against Israel, which has nuclear capabilities itself, strike me as close to zero.\"\nWalter Pincus of the Washington Post has written that Israel's stance on nuclear arms complicates efforts against Iran. Gawdat Bahgat of the National Defense University believes Iran's nuclear program is partially formed on the potential threat of a nuclear Israel. Iran and the Arab League have proposed that the Middle East be established as a Nuclear Weapon Free Zone. Israel said in May 2010 it would not consider taking part in nuclear weapon-free zone discussions or joining the Nuclear",
"-31.47594791231677"
],
[
"Option threat to \"support conventional preemptions\" against enemy nuclear and non-nuclear assets because \"without such weapons, Israel, having to rely entirely upon non-nuclear forces, might not be able to deter enemy retaliations for the Israeli preemptive strike.\" Authors' opinions Ari Shavit writes of Israel's nuclear strategy: \"Concerning anything and everything nuclear, Israel would be much, much more cautious than the United States and NATO. Concerning anything and everything nuclear, Israel would be the responsible adult of the international community. It would well understand the formidable nature of the demon and keep it locked in the basement\".\nSome have written about the",
"-31.471540963626467"
],
[
"to an attack by conventional forces; for example, the doctrine of massive retaliation threatened to launch US nuclear weapons in response to Soviet attacks.\nA successful nuclear deterrent requires that a country preserve its ability to retaliate, either by responding before its own weapons are destroyed or by ensuring a second strike capability. A nuclear deterrent is sometimes composed of a nuclear triad, as in the case of the nuclear weapons owned by the United States, Russia, the People's Republic of China and India. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom and France, have only sea- and air-based nuclear weapons. Proportionality",
"-31.46210236393381"
],
[
"catastrophe. Henry Kissinger, stating the wide availability of nuclear weapons makes deterrence “decreasingly effective and increasingly hazardous.” Preventive strategies, which advocate the elimination of an enemy before it is able to mount an attack, are risky and controversial, therefore difficult to implement. Gallucci believes that “the United States should instead consider a policy of expanded deterrence, which focuses not on the would-be nuclear terrorists but on those states that may deliberately transfer or inadvertently lead nuclear weapons and materials to them. By threatening retaliation against those states, the United States may be able to deter that which it cannot",
"-31.440918159438297"
],
[
"have previously warned that any attempt to enact sanctions will be seen as an act of war.\nThe United Nations Security Council condemned the launches expressing \"grave concern\" and urged all countries in the region to refrain from any action that could escalate tensions.",
"-31.43765398771211"
],
[
"strike; this may be due to the U.S. missile defense system (it may not be, however). In general, it appears that the PRC's leaders do not greatly fear a first strike (due to their posture of merely inflicting unacceptable losses upon an adversary as opposed to the U.S./Russian policy of trying to \"win\" a nuclear war); in any event, the Chinese arsenal is considered sufficient to ensure that such a first strike would not go unavenged.\nThe United Kingdom and France possess sophisticated nuclear weapons platforms; however their nuclear strategies are minimum credible deterrent-based. Each possesses ballistic missile submarines armed with",
"-31.385179867102124"
],
[
"conflict could lead Pakistan to use \"any weapon\" in its arsenal. This was immediately interpreted as a threat of nuclear retaliation by Pakistan in the event of an extended war, and the belief was reinforced when the leader of Pakistan's senate noted, \"The purpose\nof developing weapons becomes meaningless if they are not used when they are needed\". Many such ambiguous statements from officials of both countries were viewed as warnings of an impending nuclear crisis where the combatants would consider use of their limited nuclear arsenals in \"tactical\" nuclear warfare in the belief that it would not have ended in",
"-31.362489716266282"
],
[
"signs of aggression until war is declared. Relations will not improve if Israel has troops stationed at the border. Some countries will stop acting aggressively toward Israel if the player stations a brigade at the border, but this rarely occurs during gameplay. If Israel successfully bombs Egypt or Syria's nuclear facilities, relations will drop one level on the next turn.\nSome countries will not improve relations with Israel if they are unhappy that the player has at least a Favourable relation with an enemy state or one they do not agree with. For example, if Egypt and Libya are at war,",
"-31.263637742347782"
],
[
"relations at a much faster rate at this point and lead to war (unless their governments collapse first).\nDuring a war, the player may attempt to offer a ceasefire with the enemy state, or vice versa. Once a ceasefire is signed between the warring states, diplomatic relations will be restored to Satisfactory, but often with the opposing country's diplomats acting aggressively toward Israel. This will once again plunge both countries into war within the next couple of turns. Espionage Each country's government has a stability rating. If that rating falls to the lowest value, the government collapses and the country is",
"-31.239468746382045"
],
[
"a terrorist group getting an atomic weapon, but real progress depends on countries keeping the promises they made\". Organizational reactions Sam Nunn, a former U.S. senator who tutored Mr. Obama on nuclear proliferation issues said he believed \"we are now closer to cooperation than catastrophe.\" Graham Allison, an expert on nuclear terrorism at Harvard University, made the case that if countries \"lock down all nuclear weapons and bomb-usable material as securely as gold in Fort Knox, they can reduce the likelihood of a nuclear 9/11 to nearly zero.\"\nPaul Stares, Director of the Center for Preventive Action at the Council on",
"-31.234604259370826"
],
[
"Pakistan, and to prevent a regional nuclear exchange Russia and China invades Pakistan to try to neutralize the rest of the countries nuclear weapons. The invasion is unsuccessful as Pakistan launches 6 nuclear missiles and India retaliates with a massive nuclear strike which completely destroys Pakistan. United Kingdom in collaboration with US strikes North Korea with the intend of destroying all the underground bunkers, but fails to neutralize the North Korean leadership. New York is hit by a suicide bomber who has infected himself with the new engineered virus and prior to detonating himself spreads the virus from aerosol containers.",
"-30.96495517581934"
],
[
"nuclear response would destroy every enemy city and thus every potential hostage that could be used to influence the attacker's behavior. This would free up the attacker to launch further attacks and remove any chance for the attacked nation to bargain. A country adhering to a NUTS-style war plan would likely respond to such an attack with a limited attack on one or several enemy cities. Missile defense Since NUTS theory assumes the possibility of a winnable nuclear war, the contention of many MAD theorists that missile defense systems should be abandoned as a destabilizing influence is generally not accepted",
"-30.951757619914133"
],
[
"country, because nuclear weapons are the ultimate destruction of humankind. But I have never said that Israel is like Nazi Germany, and I don't know why I am quoted like that in Israel. I also never compared Gaza to an extermination camp. I visited the death camps in Austria, with Nobel Prize laureate Elie Wiesel, and I think it is terrible that people did not try to stop the genocide of the Jewish people\". Palestinian activism Maguire said in a 2007 speech that Israel's separation wall \"is a monument to fear and failed politics\" and that \"for many Palestinians daily",
"-30.94081814191304"
],
[
"years threatened to use weapons of mass destruction against world countries in order to gain the upper hand...such countries should be stripped of their membership to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). They have no place [in the UN nuclear watchdog] or its Board of Governors.\" Iran's ambassador to the IAEA said he had offered proposals to better the body in the future.\nOn 18 April, Iran's Foreign Minister indicated that \"Iran plans to hold talks with all 15 members of the UN Security Council in an effort to break a deadlock over a nuclear fuel deal.\" Mottaki said \"The talks",
"-30.899957585905213"
],
[
"on the Iranian coast. In July, two Israeli missile boats were also deployed.\nSome in Israel are worried that Iran may achieve a latent capability to produce nuclear weapons without taking any overt steps that would expose it to further international action. But Foreign Minister Avigdor Lieberman hopes that sanctions and negotiations can resolve the problem.\nIn April 2012, former Israeli foreign minister Shlomo Ben-Ami warned that \"if the path of war is finally taken, and, in its aftermath, the international community fails once again to pacify the world's most dysfunctional region, the Middle East would devolve into an unruly chaos far",
"-30.89876803936204"
],
[
"with the increasingly preemptive nuclear policies of the United States, as revealed in the Doctrine for Joint Nuclear Operations. Maintaining nuclear superiority Alone or with other nations, Israel has used diplomatic and military efforts as well as covert action to prevent other Middle Eastern countries from acquiring nuclear weapons. Iraq Mossad agents triggered explosions in April 1979 at a French production plant near Toulon, damaging two reactor cores destined for Iraqi reactors. Mossad agents may also have been behind the assassinations of an Egyptian nuclear engineer in Paris as well as two Iraqi engineers, all working for the Iraqi nuclear",
"-30.875484187388793"
],
[
"US nuclear bombs, and non-US warplanes have been adapted to deliver US nuclear bombs which involved the transfer of some technical nuclear weapons information. Even if the US argument is considered legally correct, some argue such peacetime operations appear to contravene both the objective and the spirit of the NPT. Essentially, all preparations for waging nuclear war have already been made by supposedly non-nuclear weapon states.\nThere are concerns that this arrangement undermines, and possibly contravenes, Articles I and II of the NPT. According to US lawyers, the transfer of control is legal because, on the outbreak of \"general war\", the",
"-30.874574575052975"
],
[
"by rogue states to gain access to nuclear materials and technologies. At present, close attention is paid to nuclear weapons non-proliferation in the Middle East region and on the Korean Peninsula;\n— Promoting international peace and security through new approaches and by presenting recommendations to decision-makers, diplomats and experts on nuclear security and non-proliferation critical issues.",
"-30.85926806430507"
],
[
"of a country's resources such as in World War II logistically impractical and strategically irrelevant. Such weapons are developed and maintained with relatively modest peacetime defense budgets.\nBy the end of the 1950s, the ideological stand-off of the Cold War between the Western World and the Soviet Union had resulted in thousands of nuclear weapons being aimed by each side at the other. Strategically, the equal balance of destructive power possessed by each side situation came to be known as Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD), considering that a nuclear attack by one superpower would result in nuclear counter-strike by the other. This",
"-30.830419395235367"
],
[
"\"nuclear threat and blackmail\" unparalleled elsewhere..... (...)... If the world's community failed to provide political insurance to Pakistan and other countries against the nuclear blackmail, these countries would be constraint to launch atomic bomb programs of their own!... [A]ssurances provided by the United Nations were not \"Enough!...\n— Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, statement written in \"Eating Grass\", source\nIf Pakistan restricts or suspends her nuclear deterrence, it would not only enable India to blackmail Pakistan with her nuclear advantage, but would impose a crippling limitation on the development of Pakistan's science and technology....\n— Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, 1969, source\nPakistan's strategy of \"minimum credible deterrence\" guarantees \"peace",
"-30.767449375940487"
],
[
"explains that while relations with Russia continue to follow the traditional characteristics of Mutual Nuclear Deterrence, due to both nations continuing MAD, U.S. policy of deterrence towards nations with minor nuclear capabilities should ensure through threats of immense retaliation (or even preemptive action) that they do not threaten the United States, its interests, or allies. The document explains that such threats must also be used to ensure that nations without nuclear technology refrain from developing nuclear weapons and that a universal ban precludes any nation from maintaining chemical or biological weapons. The current tensions with Iran and North Korea over",
"-30.74975916411495"
],
[
"reaching control which would eliminate the rivalry between nations in this field, which would prevent the surreptitious arming of one nation against another, which would provide some cushion of time before atomic attack, and presumably therefore before any attack with weapons of mass destruction, and which would go a long way toward removing atomic energy at least as a source of conflict between the powers.\nThe term was also used in the introduction to the hugely influential U.S. government document known as NSC 68 written in 1950.\nDuring a speech at Rice University on 12 September 1962, President John F. Kennedy spoke",
"-30.748570254421793"
],
[
"think the world forgets the Sabra and Shatila massacre? He did not explain why the regime, despite its arsenal of conventional weapons, does it have chemical, biological and nuclear weapons. Why is it not a party to end weapons of mass destruction, in particular the NPT. Why does it reject the establish of a nuclear-free Middle East despite repeated calls by the UN, the international community and this Assembly over the past 30 years? One question he was expected to answer is why his regime which is the only nuclear weapons possessor in the Middle East, hides behind the doctrine",
"-30.742256450117566"
],
[
"of both nations at war. Against Iran, the same situation happens leading to multiple turns of war, usually ending in an Iranian victory unless Iraq orders a nuclear attack. Due to Iraq's position neighbouring two of Israel's border nations, Iraq can be a useful ally in defeating Syria and Jordan if used correctly. However, the player must take measures to topple the Iraqi government if the country has a nuclear installation present, as Iraq may trigger a nuclear holocaust during war and end the game. Jordan Jordan is bordered by Israel, Syria, and Iraq. It is diplomatically stable and takes",
"-30.73573185224086"
],
[
"states that they will \"uphold the principles of counterattack in self-defense and limited development of nuclear weapons\", but \"has never entered, and will never enter into a nuclear arms race with any country\". It goes on to describe that China will never undertake a first strike, or use nuclear weapons against a non-nuclear state or zone. US strategists, however, suggest that the Chinese position may be ambiguous, and nuclear weapons may be used both to deter conventional strikes/invasions on the Chinese mainland, or as an international political tool – limiting the extent to which other nations can coerce China politically,",
"-30.7095899215783"
],
[
"must have involved the transfer of some technical nuclear weapons information. NATO believes its \"nuclear forces continue to play an essential role in war prevention, but their role is now more fundamentally political\".\nU.S. nuclear sharing policies were originally designed to help prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons—not least by persuading the then West Germany not to develop an independent nuclear capability by assuring it that West Germany would be able, in the event of war with the Warsaw Pact, to wield (U.S.) nuclear weapons in self-defense. (Until that point of all-out war, however, the weapons themselves would remain in U.S.",
"-30.681368854129687"
],
[
"conflicts such as the Syrian Civil War via proxy actors, after a series of costly, drawn-out direct engagements in the Middle East spurred a recurrence of war weariness, a so-called \"War on Terror syndrome\".\nNations may also resort to proxy warfare to avoid potential negative international reactions from allied nations, profitable trading partners, or intergovernmental organizations such as the United Nations. This is especially significant when standing peace treaties, acts of alliance, or other international agreements ostensibly forbid direct warfare: breaking such agreements could lead to a variety of negative consequences due to either negative international reaction (see above), punitive provisions",
"-30.679796803859062"
],
[
"Post has written that Israel's stance on nuclear arms complicates efforts against Iran. Gawdat Bahgat of the National Defense University believes Iran's nuclear program is partially formed on the potential threat of a nuclear Israel. Iran and the Arab League have proposed that the Middle East be established as a Nuclear Weapon Free Zone. Israel said in May 2010 it would not consider taking part in nuclear weapon-free zone discussions or joining the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty until a lasting peace was achieved with its neighbors.\nIsrael has repeatedly warned that it will strike Iran's nuclear facilities if its nuclear program is",
"-30.637268064703676"
],
[
"of the nuclear-armed countries are parties to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). Article VI of the NPT requires that parties \"pursue negotiations in good faith\" aimed at \"complete disarmament.\" The lawsuits contend that the other four countries, while not bound to the NPT, are obligated by customary international law to pursue nuclear disarmament.\nPresenting evidence that all nine nuclear-armed countries continue to update and enhance their nuclear arsenals while failing to take disarmament negotiations seriously, the lawsuits allege that each nuclear-armed country is in breach of its international obligations. The case filed in the U.S. Federal District Court is particularly historic,",
"-30.631625402718782"
],
[
"mentally retarded. We think they are stupid because the era of nuclear bombs is over. [Why] for example, should Iran continue its efforts and tolerate all international treasures only to build a nuclear bomb, or a few nuclear bombs that are useless? They can never be used!\"\n\nOn 22 February 2012, in a meeting in Tehran with the director and officials of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran (AEOI) and nuclear scientists, Leader of the Islamic Revolution Ayatollah Seyyed Ali Khamenei said: \n \"The Iranian nation has never pursued and will never pursue nuclear weapons. There is no doubt that the",
"-30.608305549714714"
],
[
"of MAD was fully declared in the early 1960s, primarily by United States Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara. In McNamara's formulation, there was the very real danger that a nation with nuclear weapons could attempt to eliminate another nation's retaliatory forces with a surprise, devastating the first strike and theoretically \"win\" a nuclear war relatively unharmed. The true second-strike capability could be achieved only when a nation had a guaranteed ability to fully retaliate after a first-strike attack.\nThe United States had achieved an early form of second-strike capability by fielding continual patrols of strategic nuclear bombers, with a large number",
"-30.6006120252423"
],
[
"G-6 (5 permanent Security council members plus Germany.)\nIn December 2006, the Gulf Cooperation Council called for a nuclear weapons free Middle East and recognition of the right of a country to expertise in the field of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. Non-Aligned Movement The Non-Aligned Movement has said that the present situation whereby Nuclear Weapon States monopolise the right to possess nuclear weapons is \"highly discriminatory\", and they have pushed for steps to accelerate the process of nuclear disarmament.\nOn 16 September 2006 in Havana, Cuba, all of the 118 Non-Aligned Movement member countries, at the summit level, declared supporting Iran's",
"-30.580529743339866"
],
[
"a war. Had the US left the weapons where they were they would have been a threat to the majority of the American population, in the case of a Cuban missile strike. In either of the cases, retaliation could have led to a full-scale nuclear war. Had any of the two superpowers been pushed over the brink the lives of millions of people would have been at stake.\nSuccessful brinkmanship, however, is when you push your enemy to the brink of war, but not over it, getting him to back down under the pressure. Considering this, Brinkmanship during the Cuban Missile",
"-30.557089416362942"
],
[
"negotiators have done their job to win a strong nuclear deal that prevents an Iranian nuclear weapon, all the while avoiding a catastrophic war. Now is the time for Congress to do theirs. Make no mistake: if Congress rejects this good deal with Iran, there will be no better deal forthcoming and Congress will be left owning an unnecessary war.\" NIAC created a new group, NIAC Action, to run advertisements supporting the agreement. NIAC also organized an open letter from 73 Middle East and foreign affairs scholars stating, \"reactivating diplomatic channels between the United States and Iran is a necessary",
"-30.51312995806802"
],
[
"to expand on what essentially constitutes an unverified lead. Furthermore, if Pakistan were to transfer nuclear warheads onto Saudi soil, it is highly unlikely that either nation would face any international repercussions if both nations were to follow strict nuclear sharing guidelines like those of NATO. A research paper produced by the British House of Commons Defence Select Committee states that as long as current NATO nuclear sharing arrangements remain in place, the NATO states would have few valid grounds for complaint if such a transfer were to occur. Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty considerations Both the Non-Aligned Movement and critics within",
"-30.512323789822403"
],
[
"when their atomic bomb project was politicised for [absolute] political gain. Without a comprehensive [nuclear and political] policy, things do not work, and no country can go developed its nuclear project without having some kind of framework in which to operate. We had to develop a political strategy to launch our project without arousing great deal of suspicion and opposition at the international level, because no body in the world wanted to see Pakistan to become nuclear power. But we had no choice [as mentioned by Bhutto in 1965]. I can tell you...... that it is not only the Western",
"-30.427618395304307"
],
[
"if we hope to escape self-destruction, nuclear weapons should have no place in our collective conscience and no role in our security.\nUnited Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan said that he was delighted that the 2005 Nobel Peace Prize had been awarded to the UN nuclear watchdog and its head, ElBaradei. \"The secretary general congratulates him and the entire staff of the agency, past and present, on their contributions to global peace,\" a spokesman for Annan said. Postage issues Egypt Post on 8 October 2005 commemorated this award by issuing a set of two postage stamps. On 1 June 2009, to",
"-30.425169313093647"
],
[
"launch precision air strikes against bordering countries. These strikes can be performed on military, civilian, industrial, or nuclear targets. Military, industrial, and civilian targets can only be attacked if the diplomatic relationship with a country is very bad. Military strikes may destroy a very few army units (five main battle tanks, for example). Civilian and industrial strikes are done particularly to reduce diplomatic relationships.\nNuclear targets can be attacked at any time, and doing so retards or even eliminates the development of that country's nuclear program (which then continues as before, but from its reduced development level). However, if the country",
"-30.421925877250032"
],
[
"respond, that might give that country the confidence to initiate a nuclear war. The object of a country operating by the MAD doctrine is to deny the opposing country this first strike capability.\nMAD played on two seemingly opposed modes of thought: cold logic and emotional fear. The English phrase MAD was often known by, \"nuclear deterrence,\" was translated by the French as \"dissuasion,\" and \"terrorization\" by the Soviets. This apparent paradox of nuclear war was summed up by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill as \"the worse things get, the better they are\"—the greater the threat of mutual destruction, the safer",
"-30.409625137224793"
],
[
"of useful accomplishment is low. Israel's strike increased the determination of Arabs to produce nuclear weapons. Arab states that may attempt to do so will now be all the more secretive and circumspect. Israel's strike, far from foreclosing Iraq's nuclear future, gained her the support of some other Arab states in pursuing it. And despite Prime Minister Begin's vow to strike as often as need be, the risks in doing so would rise with each occasion.\nCharles R. H. Tripp, in an interview for the 25th anniversary of the attack, described the bombing of Osirak as a variation of Israeli military",
"-30.398188850842416"
],
[
"fear of nuclear war grows, the United States and its allies must never allow themselves to get into the position where they must choose between (a) not responding to local aggression and (b) applying force in a way which our own people or our allies would consider entails undue risk of nuclear devastation. However, the United States cannot afford to preclude itself from using nuclear weapons even in a local situation, if such use ... will best advance U.S. security interests. In the last analysis, if confronted by the choice of (a) acquiescing in Communist aggression or (b) taking measures",
"-30.39131172839552"
],
[
"in North Korea, diplomacy can make even the most advanced nuclear weapons program a reversible one.\nIn general, Gonzalez plays down the risk of Iranian nuclear weapons. In a speech before the World Affairs Council of Sacramento, he said: \"A lot of anti-Semitic claims that have been made by Iranian President Ahmadinejad scare the crap out of some people. Understandable… But we have to understand that Israel has a nuclear deterrent and Israel sits on Muslim holy ground... no fanatic is going to try to destroy Jerusalem with nuclear weapons. Certainly no ‘fanatic’ from the Islamic Republic of Iran, who has",
"-30.368103450908166"
],
[
"hands.) The point was to limit the spread of countries having their own nuclear weapons programs, helping ensure that NATO allies would not choose to go down the proliferation route. (West Germany was discussed in U.S. intelligence estimates for a number of years as being a country with the potential to develop nuclear weapons capabilities of its own if officials in Bonn were not convinced that their defense against the Soviet Union and its allies could otherwise be met.) Non-signatories Four states—India, Israel, Pakistan, and South Sudan—have never signed the treaty. India and Pakistan have publicly disclosed their nuclear weapon",
"-30.36203855544227"
],
[
"when the leaders on both sides will be capable of overcoming the fanatical minorities that torpedo each attempt to arrive at a peace agreement.\nThe Bomb in the Basement – How Israel Went Nuclear and What That Means to the World (Simon & Schuster, NY, 2006) tells how Israel became the Middle East's only nuclear power and how it succeeded in keeping its atomic program secret.\nMurder in the Name of God (co-author Ina Friedman) depicts the setting up of the incitement campaign against Yitzhak Rabin's firm decision to negotiate peace-for-territories with the Palestinian Authority and portraits the individuals responsible for the",
"-30.331721667200327"
],
[
"\"We don't believe they will attack. We do not see they have the capacity on the ground.\" He also called the conference a success because the participants achieved the goal of highlighting the necessity of nuclear disarmament.\nUnofficial reaction came from such places as the academics at the University of Tehran, one of whom suggested that \"Most countries in the world do feel that the UN Security Council as well as the IAEA board of governors is not democratic, so it is something that most people in the south have a great deal of sympathy with. The problem that Iran is",
"-30.284792855440173"
],
[
"asked all countries to no longer carry out nuclear weapons tests. India and Pakistan were also asked to show restraint, refrain from provocative moves and to resume dialogue. Both countries were also called upon to cease their nuclear weapons programmes, cease developing ballistic missiles and fissile material. All countries were urged to prohibit the export of equipment, materials or technology that could in any way assist programmes in either country. The resolution recognised that the tests constituted a serious threat towards global non-proliferation and disarmament.\nIn return for ending their nuclear programmes, the Security Council had offered to help in the",
"-30.244943842699286"
],
[
"with German help and Chinese mercenaries, is preparing the takeover of Western Europe.\nReferences to nuclear destruction often speak of \"atomic holocaust\" or \"nuclear holocaust.” For instance, U.S. President Bush stated in August 2007: \"Iran's active pursuit of technology that could lead to nuclear weapons threatens to put a region already known for instability and violence under the shadow of a nuclear holocaust\". Likelihood of nuclear war As of 2016, humanity has about 15,000 nuclear weapons, thousands of which are on hair-trigger alert. While stockpiles have been on the decline following the end of the Cold War, every nuclear country is",
"-30.19554985628929"
],
[
"the United States (after the Bay of Pigs) would be justifiable grounds for a nuclear war. In Guevara's view, the capitalist bloc was composed of \"hyenas and jackals\" that \"fed on unarmed peoples\". Use in modern diplomacy More recently, the phrase has gained currency beyond its usage in communist phraseology and has been adopted by the broader diplomatic world. For instance, in his 2004 Christmas address, Pope John Paul II called for \"peaceful coexistence\" in the Middle East.",
"-30.131372502772138"
],
[
"America and in our country there are nuclear weapons — terrible weapons that can kill millions of people in an instant. But we do not want them to be ever used. That's precisely why the Soviet Union solemnly declared throughout the entire world that never will it use nuclear weapons first against any country. In general we propose to discontinue further production of them and to proceed to the abolition of all the stockpiles on Earth.\nIt seems to me that this is a sufficient answer to your second question: 'Why do you want to wage war against the whole world",
"-30.114511041581864"
],
[
"Nuclear sharing Nuclear sharing is a concept in NATO's policy of nuclear deterrence, which involves member countries without nuclear weapons of their own in the planning for the use of nuclear weapons by NATO. In particular, it provides for the armed forces of those countries to be involved in delivering nuclear weapons in the event of their use.\nAs part of nuclear sharing, the participating countries carry out consultations and make common decisions on nuclear weapons policy, maintain technical equipment (e.g., nuclear-capable airplanes) required for the use of nuclear weapons and store nuclear weapons on their territory. In case of war,",
"-30.105788701679558"
],
[
"to Iran and its proxy militia Hezbollah. In a more likely scenario, Israel feels Iran will continue to abide by its nuclear deal but threaten the country with a conventional arms buildup on Israel's northern border. Because US and international attention will be focused on Pacific instability, Israel feels less western attention will be given to this issue.\n\nIn a 2017 interview with Hebrew language news site Walla, Israeli defense minister Avigdor Liberman called Kim Jong-Un a madman and said his nation is one of a few extremely bad actors who are attempting to undermine international stability. North Korean state media",
"-30.083273822208866"
],
[
"an excuse by China, Pakistan or any other nuclear-armed nation to establish a similar arrangement. Imagine if China were to offer such an arrangement to persuade North Korea to give up its nuclear ambitions. Or if Pakistan were to undertake nuclear sharing with Saudi Arabia or Iran. Such developments would be perceived as a threat to security in North Asia or the Middle East, and even as a direct threat to NATO. Yet, while the NATO arrangements remain in place, NATO members would have few valid grounds for complaint. The Committee should recommend the immediate termination of NATO nuclear sharing",
"-30.059019152831752"
],
[
"with other countries without the consent of the others, an early attempt at nonproliferation. After the development of the first nuclear weapons during World War II, though, there was much debate within the political circles and public sphere of the United States about whether or not the country should attempt to maintain a monopoly on nuclear technology, or whether it should undertake a program of information sharing with other nations (especially its former ally and likely competitor, the Soviet Union), or submit control of its weapons to some sort of international organization (such as the United Nations) who would use",
"-30.022465464600828"
],
[
"Nuclear doctrine of Pakistan The Nuclear doctrine of Pakistan is a theoretical concept of military strategy that promotes deterrence by guaranteeing an immediate \"massive retaliation\" to an aggressive attack against the state.\nPakistan's foreign minister Shamshad Ahmad had warned that if Pakistan is ever invaded or attacked, it will use \"any weapon in its arsenal\" to defend itself.",
"-30.001759523525834"
],
[
"used in the making of the weapon.\nMost likely a terrorist group or rogue nation would eventually step forward to claim responsibility. However, a nation doing so would face an incredible backlash in the form of an invasion or even a nuclear counter response from the US or its allies. In essence, the country responsible would become a sitting target. The more likely suspect would be a terrorist group. A terrorist cell or group would be much more difficult to track and could be spread across many countries. A criticism would be if the US were to blame the wrong country",
"-29.981368913897313"
],
[
"Casus belli Reasons for use Countries need a public justification for attacking another country, both to galvanize internal support for the war and to gain the support of potential allies.\nIn the post–World War II era, the UN Charter prohibits signatory countries from engaging in war except: 1) as a means of defending themselves—or an ally where treaty obligations require it—against aggression; 2) unless the UN as a body has given prior approval to the operation. The UN also reserves the right to ask member nations to intervene against non-signatory countries that embark on wars of aggression. Historical examples This",
"-29.97417377459351"
],
[
"building an international consensus and a sustained global movement of leaders and citizens for the elimination of nuclear weapons. Goals include the initiation of United States-Russia bilateral negotiations for reductions to 1,000 total warheads each and commitments from the other key nuclear weapons countries to participate in multilateral negotiations for phased reductions of nuclear arsenals. Global Zero works to expand the diplomatic dialogue with key governments and continue to develop policy proposals on the critical issues related to the elimination of nuclear weapons.\nThe International Conference on Nuclear Disarmament took place in Oslo in February, 2008, and was organized by The",
"-29.96736283795326"
],
[
"of multiple nuclear powers with the assured capacity to destroy their enemies called mutually assured destruction (MAD). Mearsheimer disagrees with the assertions that states are content to live in a MAD world and that they would avoid developing defenses against nuclear weapons. Instead, he argues that great powers would not be content to live in a MAD world and would try to search for ways to gain superiority over their nuclear rivals. Rise of American power; 1800–1900 The United States was a strongly expansionist power in the Americas. Mearsheimer points to the comment made by Henry Cabot Lodge that the",
"-29.95061930164229"
],
[
"it the status of a threshold nuclear state. They argue that rivals such as Saudi Arabia would likely counter by becoming threshold nuclear states themselves, leading to an inherently unstable situation with multiple rival near-nuclear powers. They argue that such a situation would heighten the risk of war and even the risk of nuclear war. Debate over whether an agreement would promote cooperation Iran's foreign minister Mohammad Javad Zarif argued in The New York Times that the framework agreed on in April, 2015 would end any doubt that Iran's nuclear program is peaceful. Zarif also argued that a deal would",
"-29.94931397063192"
],
[
"support. 2009 International Day of Peace: WMD – We Must Disarm \"Take Action for a World Free of Nuclear Weapons ... Disarmament and non-proliferation ... to raise awareness of the dangers and costs of nuclear weapons, and on why nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation are so crucial.\" Global survey of celebration The Culture of Peace Initiative published an annual report for the International Day of Peace in 2009 describing events in 77 countries: Africa 14; East Asia and Pacific 20; Latin America and Caribbean 11; Europe 23; Middle East 7; North America 2 countries (48 states, provinces). 2010 – Youth for",
"-29.941560642357217"
],
[
"force in national planning and policy with respect to nuclear weapons, even while they ask other states to plan for their security without nuclear weapons.\nThe United States responds to criticism of its disarmament record by pointing out that since the end of the Cold War it has eliminated over 13,000 nuclear weapons and eliminated over 80% of its deployed strategic warheads and 90% of non-strategic warheads deployed to NATO, in the process eliminating whole categories of warheads and delivery systems and reducing its reliance on nuclear weapons. U.S. officials have also pointed out the ongoing U.S. work to dismantle nuclear",
"-29.940783180107246"
],
[
"at the Johns Hopkins University, School of Advanced International Studies, wrote that nuclear nonproliferation in the Middle East ultimately depended \"not on the details of the Vienna agreement but on the familiar Cold-War policy of deterrence\". Mandelbaum added that if Obama left office without Iran building the bomb, \"the responsibility for conducting a policy of effective deterrence will fall on his successor.\" Harvard law professor Alan Dershowitz said, \"Nothing currently on the table will deter Iran. Sanctions are paper protests to an oil-rich nation. Diplomacy has already failed because Russia and China are playing both sides.\" Aftermath In May 2019",
"-29.88624368647288"
],
[
"could resolve the nuclear issues. The group added that the 2011-2012 Syrian uprising could also only be resolved through dialogue. They warned against any military intervention in Syria by the West or by Israel in Iran. They added that a war with Iran would have \"disastrous consequences.\" China's Trade Minister Chen Deming said that the \"rise [in the price] of crude oil has impacted all countries. The Iran issue has become an issue for all. We need to continue with normal relations with Iran, but, at the same time, we respect UN resolution. We hope that unilateral movement by one",
"-29.884872898925096"
],
[
"that Israel's security relies not on the attainment of a nuclear bomb but rather on the nuclear proliferation of the entire region. It was also argued that attaining a nuclear bomb would cause an intensified Arab effort to attain one as well, thus resulting in a balance of terror that might jeopardize the Zionist enterprise. The committee acted behind the scenes and led to a quiet discussion on the issue among several of the members of the big parties, including Levi Eshkol, who replaced Ben-Gurion in 1963, and other party leaders such as Haim-Moshe Shapira of the National Religious Party,",
"-29.878050834289752"
],
[
"successes or make substantial advances this side of the Iron Curtain, the United States would initiate the suicidal duel of strategic nuclear exchanges with the Soviet Union. One can only greet this idea with an even more emphatic 'One must be mad to think of it'. That a nation staring ultimate military defeat in the face would choose self-extermination is unbelievable enough; but that the United States, separated from Europe by the Atlantic Ocean, would regard the loss of the first pawn in the long game as necessitating harakiri is not describable by the ordinary resources of language\". The reason",
"-29.83984654652886"
],
[
"had nuclear weapons and a policy of \"massive retaliation\" was carried out, it was reasoned, then any Soviet forces not killed in the initial attack, or launched while the attack was ongoing, would be able to serve their own form of nuclear retaliation against the U.S. Recognizing that this was an undesirable outcome, military officers and game theorists at the RAND think tank developed a nuclear warfare strategy that was eventually called Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD).\nMAD divided potential nuclear war into two stages: first strike and second strike. First strike meant the first use of nuclear weapons by one nuclear-equipped",
"-29.805734009831212"
],
[
"pushed dangerous situations to the brink, with the intention of making the other back down in matters of international politics and foreign policy, to obtain concessions. Nevertheless, in the Cold War both parties were confronted with devastating consequences since the threats of nuclear war were unmanageable in any situation. By escalating threats of nuclear war and massive retaliation, both parties were forced to respond with more force. The principle of this tactic was that each party would prefer not to yield to the other; however, one would simply have to yield since if neither of the parties yielded, the outcome",
"-29.778833395335823"
],
[
"remove itself from active participation in international politics in order to maintain its national security. It holds that because there are no threats to the American homeland, the United States does not need to intervene abroad. Stressing a particular understanding of nuclear weapons, the authors describe how proponents believe the destructive power of nuclear weapons and retaliatory potential of the United States assure the political sovereignty and territorial integrity of the United States, while the proliferation of such weapons to countries like Britain, France, China and Russia prevents the emergence of any competing hegemon on the Eurasian landmass. The United",
"-29.761728850542568"
],
[
"problems: if two countries wish to settle a dispute via peaceful means, but each wishes to go back on the terms of that settlement, they may have no choice but to resort to warfare. Finally, war may result from issue indivisibilities.\nGame theory could also help predict a nation's responses when there is a new rule or law to be applied to that nation. One example would be Peter John Wood's (2013) research when he looked into what nations could do to help reduce climate change. Wood thought this could be accomplished by making treaties with other nations to reduce greenhouse",
"-29.747247399762273"
],
[
"preferable to war.\nThe question is why two rational states cannot find an X that satisfies both sides, even though one must always exist and war is the worst feasible payoff for both sides. Information problems One obvious reason is that each state simply believes it is more powerful than it really is. For example, two states that each believe they are infinitely powerful would have a difficult time bargaining with each other. War, then, can erupt with incomplete information regarding the distribution of power.\nBut Fearon points out that this is not a completely rational explanation for war. Recall that war",
"-29.74106838199077"
],
[
"Very Solid, while the other is downgraded to Good or below.\nIf a country's stability rating is Weak or below or if the insurgency in the country is at Guerilla Force or better, Israel can opt to consider extreme measures, which are to attempt assassination of the country's leader or start a coup. If this attempt succeeds, the country collapses and is out of the game.\nThere are two ways an assassination attempt can fail. If the failure results in the assassins being arrested, Israel is detected and relations with that country and the West sour. The failure can also result from",
"-29.718596035032533"
],
[
"against which we have to guard ourselves. We do not think you can do it by national defence. We think you can only do it by moving forward to a new world. A world of law, the abolition of national armaments with a world force and a world economic system. I shall be told that that is quite impossible.\" Shortly after those comments, Adolf Hitler proclaimed that German rearmament offered no threat to world peace. Attlee responded the next day noting that Hitler's speech, although containing unfavourable references to the Soviet Union, created \"A chance to call a halt in",
"-29.715804304229096"
],
[
"Nuclear blackmail Effectiveness It is generally regarded as ineffective against a rational opponent who has or is an ally of someone who has assured destruction capability. If both states have nuclear weapons, the form of nuclear blackmail becomes a threat of escalation. In this situation if the opponent refuses to respond, then one's choices are either surrender or suicide. During the Cold War, the explicit threat of nuclear warfare to force an opponent to perform an action was rare in that most nations were allies of either the Soviet Union or the United States. In fiction Nuclear blackmail, typically by",
"-29.694626018579584"
],
[
"and resort to soft balancing against the unipole since it proved not simply a strategy aimed at stopping proliferation of nuclear weapons by rogue states but rather a challenge to the norm of territorial integrity – an aggressive U.S. intervention into a region outside of its own that demonstrated the U.S. commitment to taking any necessary actions to ensure that their superiority and primacy is not challenged by anyone. Future The notion of soft-balancing, while relatively new and not universally accepted, is shaping up to be the way in which states will engage in balancing in the future. Even though",
"-29.691337444859528"
],
[
"view to enter into a \"nuclear race\", but to follow a policy of \"peaceful co-existence\" in the region, it cannot remain oblivious to the developments in South Asia.\" The Pakistan Government officials and strategists have consistently emphasised that nuclear deterrence is intended by maintaining a balance to safeguard its sovereignty and ensure peace in the region.\nPakistan's motive for pursuing a nuclear weapons development program is never to allow another invasion of Pakistan. President Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq allegedly told the Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in 1987 that, \"If your forces cross our borders by an inch, we are going to annihilate",
"-29.684954400348943"
]
] |
4mpjf1 | Why do we crave sweet foods after a regular meal? Why is the idea of desserts quite universal among cultures? | [
"I don't think it's necessarily that we crave sweets after a meal, so much as most people enjoy sweets, period. But since we need nutrients to be healthy, it's better to eat the stuff that's good for you first, before indulging. That way you've at least eaten the \"real\" food, and won't fill up just on sweets. At home, this is just part of being responsible for your own well-being. When you're at a restaurant, they understand that people enjoy sweets and may still order them even if they're full, so they're eager to offer dessert to make more money. Addendum, just for clarity: we enjoy sugar so much because it's more scarce in the wild, so we've evolved to hunt it out. We obviously haven't evolved out of that part yet, since now most people get too much of it.",
"Who told you it was universal? It's not at all universal. It's not even universal among european countries where plenty of cultures did savory cheeses and stuff after meals instead of sweets, let alone universal among nonwestern cultures.",
"We crave sweet foods during the meal. Sweet foods in nature are very nutrient and calorie dense and so we evolved to seek them out as they are the best reward for effort.",
"The physiological basis for this revolves around insulin, as some others have mentioned. When the carbs in your meal are broken down to sugar (glucose) by your digestive tract, they flow through the blood to the pancreas. Insulin is a hormone that is secreted from the pancreas when this sugar is detected in the blood. The main function of insulin is this: it tells CELLS in your body \"HEY THERES SUGAR EAT IT ALL UP.\" This is different from the cravings you feel, and happens on a cellular level. What happens when a 'regular meal' is eaten depends on the meal and the person, but I'll take an extreme case to demonstrate the point: a low carb meal and an obese or overweight person. In such a situation, the body is already conditioned to expect certain chemical contents, most importantly high carbohydrate content. When the amount of sugar in the meal is less than the body is conditioned to expect, the amount of insulin secreted for that one meal is higher than is necessary. This is because when the pancreas begins to detect sugar (from digestion of carbs) in the blood, it releases the same amount of insulin. This can be thought of like a peer pressure situation involving the other hormones. One hormone that responds to the stomach being stretched after ingestion, along with some others that detect protein content, induce stomach emptying, etc all work together to create a holistic \"digestion response.\" The pancreas jumps on board and secretes its usual amount. So, what happens when theres too much insulin released and not enough sugar? your cells are like \"wtf bro you lied theres no sugar here\" and the overwhelming response to your brain goes something like this: \"eat something really sugary\" Another key to this pathway is that if the pancreas continually releases more insulin than is needed (as in, you start habitually eating less carbs), eventually your cravings will reduce. Your body will adjust to expect 'healthier' things and wont be secreting high levels of insulin that correspond to high carbohydrate meals. This is generally a good idea because overworking your pancreas with high insulin secretion for years and years can lead to diabetes. So all the anecdotal evidence that suggests that some people dont respond this way is interesting. Genetic differences of course play a role, however, if you are raised with 'regular meals' all your life, then your pancreas releases insulin accordingly, and there is minimal excess that tells your brain to eat something sugary. Whats particularly interesting to me is the comment about cheese following dinner. Cheese is particularly high in another type of sugar, lactose. This would be worthy of investigation to see if these people have cravings for dairy after a 'regular meal' as discussed here.",
"Your blood sugar is raised quickly by sweet stuff, the hormone leptin makes you feel full when you get to a certain point.",
"It is not universal, continental or national and varies from one family to another. If your Mom always made desert part of everyday eating then you might be in the habit of having it. If she did not you know it is not universal at all. It varies from one person to another. My brother has a sweet toot and I could not care less for candy or other sugar based food. Ever. Are you a robot or an alien trying to fit into society? If not I have no doubt you are likely in the USA! since those people frequently think the laws of their village are the laws of the multiverse. In any case you cannot have traveled far or be an adult since many cultures have never even thought of desert. For an explanation of sugar cravings /u/CommanderBear explains it quite well."
] | [
[
"desserts, became very popular starting in the 1920s when freezing emerged. These processed foods became a large part of diets in many industrialized nations. Many countries have desserts and foods distinctive to their nations or region. Ingredients Sweet desserts usually contain cane sugar, palm sugar, honey or some types of syrup such as molasses, maple syrup, treacle, or corn syrup. Other common ingredients in Western-style desserts are flour or other starches, Cooking fats such as butter or lard, dairy, eggs, salt, acidic ingredients such as lemon juice, and spices and other flavoring agents such as chocolate, peanut butter,",
"-32.82904177714954"
],
[
"the main Persian meal was simple, but they would eat many desserts afterwards.\nEuropeans began to manufacture sugar in the Middle Ages, and more sweet desserts became available. Even then sugar was so expensive usually only the wealthy could indulge on special occasions. The first apple pie recipe was published in 1381. The earliest documentation of the term cupcake was in \"Seventy-five Receipts for Pastry, Cakes, and Sweetmeats\" in 1828 in Eliza Leslie's Receipts cookbook.\nThe Industrial Revolution in Europe and later America caused desserts (and food in general) to be mass-produced, processed, preserved, canned, and packaged. Frozen foods, including",
"-32.37847961026273"
],
[
"Sweetness Sweetness is a basic taste most commonly perceived when eating foods rich in sugars. Sweet tastes are generally regarded as pleasurable, except when in excess. In addition to sugars like sucrose, many other chemical compounds are sweet, including aldehydes, ketones, and sugar alcohols. Some are sweet at very low concentrations, allowing their use as non-caloric sugar substitutes. Such non-sugar sweeteners include saccharin and aspartame. Other compounds, such as miraculin, may alter perception of sweetness itself.\nThe perceived intensity of sugars and high-potency sweeteners, such as aspartame and neohesperidin dihydrochalcone, are heritable, with gene effect accounting for approximately 30% of the",
"-32.37271649760078"
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[
"a meal she had cooked for him. Mashood attempts to eat it but the food tastes bad, as it has been cooked without salt or sugar. Mastura explains that this is the meaning behind their present, for although salt and sugar are simple things, without them even the most delicious dish tastes bad. Mashood reluctantly accepts Mastura's explanation, but warns them that they won't be able to pull this trick the following year.\nThe three couples part ways. During this time, Mastura has a baby boy. Although at first Syawal and Mastura are overjoyed, their baby refuses to stop crying for",
"-31.997681538690813"
],
[
"but hearty meal, rich in calories and carbohydrates, meant to provide one with enough energy to start the day well. Bread is frequently eaten, served with butter, jam, yogurt, sour cream or cheese, accompanied by bacon, sausages, salami, eggs or kajmak. Many people would stop by a bakery in the morning to enjoy fresh pastries, such as pogačice, paštete, kifle (which in Serbian usage may or may not be crescent-shaped and may be sweet, but may also be sprinkled with salt crystals), kiflice, perece, buhtle, pletenice, štapići, zemičke, djevreci, mekike and uštipci. Other common breakfast dishes include burek, kačamak",
"-31.896984874132613"
],
[
"same time) was replaced with \"service à la russe\" (presenting a meal in courses.)\" Usage The word \"dessert\" is most commonly used for this course in Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, and the United States, while \"pudding\", \"sweet\", or more colloquially, \"afters\" are also used in the United Kingdom and some other Commonwealth countries, including Hong Kong and India. History Sweets were fed to the gods in ancient Mesopotamia and ancient India and other ancient civilizations. Dried fruit and honey were probably the first sweeteners used in most of the world, but the spread of sugarcane around the world was",
"-31.72051413997542"
],
[
"of food, can refer to dessert, pastries. Later to avoid the disambiguation, tian dian (甜點) and gao dian (糕點) are used to describe desserts and pastries.\nChinese desserts are sweet foods and dishes that are served with tea, usually during the meal, or at the end of meals in Chinese cuisine.\nBesides served as a dim sum along with tea, pastries are used for celebration of traditional festivals. The most famous one is moon cake, used to celebrate the Mid-Autumn Festival.\nA wide variety of Chinese desserts are available, mainly including steamed and boiled sweet snacks. Bing is an umbrella term for all",
"-31.718131730798632"
],
[
"churned butter, ancient Rome had an abundance of desserts to serve after they had completed their meals served with wine. The most renowned were large platters of various fruits picked fresh; some of the more exotic fruits that were not able to grown in Rome were even shipped in from distant continents for the wealthy. Due to the lack of a sweetener such as sugar there was always a desire for the sweetest fruits that were available. Spria's were a type of sweet pastry that were readily available during this time that were always spent with a thin cake-like crust",
"-31.564468510718143"
],
[
"to be higher in protein and lower in fibre and poisons than mature leaves. The 'sweet tooth' thus has an ancient evolutionary heritage, and while food processing has changed consumption patterns, human physiology remains largely unchanged. Sweetness modifiers A few substances alter the way sweet taste is perceived. One class of these inhibits the perception of sweet tastes, whether from sugars or from highly potent sweeteners. Commercially, the most important of these is lactisole, a compound produced by Domino Sugar. It is used in some jellies and other fruit preserves to bring out their fruit flavors by suppressing",
"-31.15754285256844"
],
[
"especially saturated fats, are thicker and rich and are thus considered more enjoyable to eat. Sweet Generally regarded as the most pleasant taste, sweetness is almost always caused by a type of simple sugar such as glucose or fructose, or disaccharides such as sucrose, a molecule combining glucose and fructose. Complex carbohydrates are long chains and thus do not have the sweet taste. Artificial sweeteners such as sucralose are used to mimic the sugar molecule, creating the sensation of sweet, without the calories. Other types of sugar include raw sugar, which is known for its amber color, as it is",
"-31.122677448904142"
],
[
"syrup of sugar, such as Jilapi, are mostly bought from shops. Pan, a digestive made out of betel nuts, spices, tobacco, and certain other ingredients are eaten by many people, some of which consume it with aromatic Dzorda. For dinner or lunch, a simple formula is to prepare \"khichuri\", the broth of rice and lentils, seasoned with spices, and served with chutney or pickles. Ghee (butter) may be spread just before eating. The meal may end with sweet curd. Muri (puffed rice), chira (flattened rice) and khoi (popped rice) are substitutes for rice. They are eaten with gur (jaggery) which",
"-31.03717585587583"
],
[
"alcoholic desserts. Varieties Dessert consist of variations of flavors, textures, and appearances. Desserts can be defined as a usually sweeter course that concludes a meal. This definition includes a range of courses ranging from fruits or dried nuts to multi-ingredient cakes and pies. Many cultures have different variations of dessert. In modern times the variations of desserts have usually been passed down or come from geographical regions. This is one cause for the variation of desserts. These are some major categories in which desserts can be placed. Biscuits or cookies Biscuits, (from the Old French",
"-31.015898200683296"
],
[
"this when it says, \"Sweet is the sleep of a serving man, whether he eat little or much.\" Rav Adda bar Ahavah taught that Ecclesiastes 5:10 provided a Scriptural proof for this when it says, \"When goods increase, they are increased who eat them; and what advantage is there to the owner thereof.\" Rabbi Simeon ben Azzai taught that Scripture says of a large ox, \"An offering made by fire of a sweet savor\"; of a small bird, \"An offering made by fire of a sweet savor\"; and of a meal-offering, \"An offering made by fire of a sweet savor.\"",
"-30.95562228304334"
],
[
"drink is made by distilling tuak over a fire. \nTraditional cake delicacies are prepared from glutinous rice flour mixed with sugar. The cakes include sarang semut (ant nest cake), cuwan (molded cake) and kuih sepit (twisted cake). The cakes can last well whilst kept inside a jar because they are deep-fried until hardened. Penganan iri (a discus-shaped cake) are made just prior to the festival day because they do not keep well. This is because the cake is lifted from the hot frying oil while not fully hardened. The sugar used can be the brown nipah sugar or cane",
"-30.929607799931546"
],
[
"fructose and glucose, and has about the same relative sweetness as sucrose (table sugar). It has attractive chemical properties for baking and a distinctive flavor when used as a sweetener. Most microorganisms do not grow in honey, so sealed honey does not spoil, even after thousands of years.\nOne tablespoonful (15 ml) of honey provides 46 calories (kcal) of energy. Honey is regarded as safe when not taken in excessive amounts.\nHoney use and production have a long and varied history as an ancient activity. Several cave paintings in Cuevas de la Araña in Spain depict humans foraging for honey at least",
"-30.90067939549772"
],
[
"snacks rather than as a concluding course. There is widespread use of rice flour in East Asian desserts, which often include local ingredients such as coconut milk, palm sugar, and tropical fruit. In India, where sugarcane has been grown and refined since before 500 BCE, desserts have been an important part of the diet for thousands of years; types of desserts include burfis, halvahs, jalebis, and laddus.\nDessert nowadays are made into drinks as well, such as Bubble Tea. It is originated in Taiwan, which locates in East Asia. Bubble tea is a kind of dessert made with flavor tea or",
"-30.89642951794667"
],
[
"confections. The words candy (US and Canada), sweets (UK and Ireland), and lollies (Australia and New Zealand) are common words for the most common varieties of sugar confectionery.\nThe confectionery industry also includes specialized training schools and extensive historical records. Traditional confectionery goes back to ancient times and continued to be eaten through the Middle Ages into the modern era. History Before sugar was readily available in the ancient western world, confectionery was based on honey. Honey was used in Ancient China, Ancient India, Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome to coat fruits and flowers to preserve them or",
"-30.754654580377974"
],
[
"Candied fruit History Food preservation methods using sugar (palm syrup and honey) were known to the ancient cultures of China and Mesopotamia. However, the precursors of modern candying were the Arabs, who served candied citrus and roses at the important moments of their banquets. With the Arab domination of parts of southern Europe, candied fruit made its way to the West. In Italy, they became a key ingredient of some of the most famous sweets of its culinary tradition: among these, the Milanese panettone and Cassata Siciliana. Uses Candied fruits such as cherries are commonly used in fruitcakes or",
"-30.742974303022493"
],
[
"common dessert was yogurt and fresh fruits, while traditional pastry based on honey had been consumed a few times a week.",
"-30.68349353755184"
],
[
"the food; however, there is a very wide variety of drinks such as shineena (or laban), karakaden, Naqe'e Al Zabib, Irq Soos, Tamr Hindi, and fruit juice, as well as other traditional Arabic drinks. During the 20th century, carbonated soda and fruit-based drinks have also become very popular. Dinner Dinner is traditionally the lightest meal, although in modern times, dinner has become more important with regards to entertaining guests due to the hours of the workday. Desserts and Ramadan meals In addition to the two meals eaten during Ramadan (one for dinner and one for Suhur before dawn), sweets are",
"-30.675590521655977"
],
[
"but can also be made with spinach or arugula, with parsley, cilantro, lemon, olive oil and olives. Desserts Usually, seasonal fruits rather than cooked desserts are served at the close of a meal. A common dessert is kaab el ghzal (\"gazelle's horns\"), a pastry stuffed with almond paste and topped with sugar. Another is \"Halwa chebakia\", pretzel-shaped dough deep-fried, soaked in honey and sprinkled with sesame seeds; it is eaten during the month of Ramadan. Coconut fudge cakes, 'Zucre Coco', are popular also. Seafood Morocco is endowed with over 3000 km of coastline. There is an abundance of fish in these",
"-30.62404554267414"
],
[
"due to the diversity of Peruvian cuisine. People usually eat pan de piso and pan serrano. There are also some kinds of bread made of potatoes; these are currently popular in the Andes. Bizcochos are sweet bread usually eaten with some butter and hot chocolate. A dough made with cooked pumpkin or squash, often shaped and fried into doughnuts and served with a sweet fruity dipping sauce, is a traditional favorite. Bread is an ingredient of sopas de ajo, gazpacho, and salmorejo.\nIn Venezuela and Colombia arepa is a common type of bread made with corn flour, arepas are usually filled",
"-30.623083554120967"
],
[
"Dessert Etymology The word \"dessert\" originated from the French word desservir, meaning \"to clear the table.\" Its first known use was in 1600, in a health education manual entitled Naturall and artificial Directions for Health, written by William Vaughan. In his A History of Dessert (2013), Michael Krondl explains it refers to the fact dessert was served after the table had been cleared of other dishes. The term dates from the 14th century but attained its current meaning around the beginning of the 20th century when \"service à la française\" (setting a variety of dishes on the table at the",
"-30.622471925860737"
],
[
"a simple flour dough with only a little salt and/or sugar for flavoring. These include españolas, bolos, pan de agua, violines, estribos, cuernos, pan de mesa, virotes, juiles, pambazos and teleras.\nThe most variety comes in sweet breads because of the wide variety of flavorings and fillings. Vanilla and cinnamon are important ingredients in many of the sweet breads. Other important flavorings include almonds, coconut, sesame, peanuts, walnuts, chocolate, tequila, rum, orange peel, strawberry preserves, quince jelly, apricot preserves, apple and pineapple. In some breads, which need to puff greatly, finely ground tequesquite (saltpeter or potassium/sodium nitrate) is used. The use",
"-30.6061939598585"
],
[
"and social changes. Eventually, table sugar became sufficiently cheap and common enough to influence standard cuisine and flavored drinks.\nSucrose forms a major element in confectionery and desserts. Cooks use it for sweetening — its fructose component, which has almost double the sweetness of glucose, makes sucrose distinctively sweet in comparison to other carbohydrates. It can also act as a food preservative when used in sufficient concentrations. Sucrose is important to the structure of many foods, including biscuits and cookies, cakes and pies, candy, and ice cream and sorbets. It is a common ingredient in many processed and so-called \"junk foods\". Metabolism",
"-30.598452626960352"
],
[
"baked in. Found in bakeries, the cakes are typically eaten during breakfast, or teatime. Because of the cakes’ light flavouring, it is possible to eat much of the cake without getting sick because of an overly sugary taste.",
"-30.52947174856672"
],
[
"eaten right away, it is dried into cakes and stored for future use. Sometimes berry juice is mixed with the wila before it is dried. These dried cakes can be stored for many years. Before being eaten, they are usually boiled in water or soup to rehydrate them. Alternately, instead of boiling the cakes, some people just soak the cakes overnight in cold water or dip them into soup like crackers. They can also be powdered and boiled in water to make a porridge. Other ways to eat wila It is always preferable to cook",
"-30.518140588887036"
],
[
"batter with fruit-based filling poured over the top before baking. Sweet soups Tong sui, literally translated as \"sugar water\" and also known as tim tong, is a collective term for any sweet, warm soup or custard served as a dessert at the end of a meal in Cantonese cuisine. Tong sui are a Cantonese specialty and are rarely found in other regional cuisines of China. Outside of Cantonese-speaking communities, soupy desserts generally are not recognized as a distinct category, and the term tong sui is not used. Dessert wines Dessert wines are sweet wines typically served with dessert. There",
"-30.452597253584827"
],
[
"of this ingredient has been documented since the 1700s. Most sweet breads are baked but some are fried, usually using beef or pork fat, sometimes butter. The most popular of these are churros and buñuelos. Specialty breads There are a number of events and festivals that are traditionally celebrated with specific kinds of breads and pastry, which include patron saints’ days. They may be sweet or white breads and are often served with drinks such as atole and hot chocolate. Breads made with picón dough, made with rich ingredients such as eggs, milk, cream or canned milk are common for",
"-30.399317845294718"
],
[
"are generally made with wheat flour (farine de froment). When sweet, they can be eaten as part of breakfast or as a dessert. Common fillings include Nutella spread, preserves, sugar (granulated or powdered), maple syrup, golden syrup, lemon juice, whipped cream, fruit spreads, custard, and sliced soft fruits or confiture.\nSavory crêpes are made with non-wheat flours such as buckwheat. Batter made from buckwheat flour is gluten-free, which makes it possible for people who have a gluten allergy or intolerance to eat this type of crêpe. Common savoury fillings for crêpes served for lunch or dinner are cheese, ham, and eggs,",
"-30.394625806249678"
],
[
"butter in the Stollen fruitcakes. \nStarting in the 16th century, sugar from the American Colonies (and the discovery that high concentrations of sugar could preserve fruits) created an excess of candied fruit, thus making fruitcakes more affordable and popular. Australia In Australia, fruitcake is consumed throughout the year, and is available at most major retail outlets. The cake is rarely eaten with icing or condiments. Bahamas In the Bahamas, not only is the fruitcake drenched with rum, but the ingredients are as well. All of the candied fruits, walnuts, and raisins are placed in an enclosed container and are soaked",
"-30.32681948854588"
],
[
"that was used as an aid to digestive problems. Digestive problems were very common during this time due to the constant consumption of food that was neither fresh nor well balanced. Banquet hosts would typically serve these types of 'candies' at banquets for their guests. One of these candies, sometimes called chamber spice, was made with cloves, ginger, aniseed, juniper berries, almonds and pine kernels dipped in melted sugar.\nThe Middle English word candy began to be used in the late 13th century.\nThe first candy came to America in the early 18th century from Britain and France. Only a few of",
"-30.183158848976746"
],
[
"The philosophy behind it was rooted in the I Ching and Chinese traditional medicine: food was judged for color, aroma, taste, and texture and a good meal was expected to balance the Four Natures ('hot', warm, cool, and 'cold') and the Five Tastes (pungent, sweet, sour, bitter, and salty). \nSalt was used as a preservative from early times, but in cooking was added in the form of soy sauce, and not at the table. The predominance of chopsticks and spoons as eating utensils also necessitated that most food be prepared in bite-sized pieces or (as with fish) be so tender",
"-30.17285476211873"
],
[
"Thus, the low levels of satiety provided by sugar-sweetened soft drinks may explain their association with obesity. That is, people who consume calories in sugar-sweetened drinks may fail to adequately reduce their intake of calories from other sources. Indeed, people consume more total calories in meals and on days when they are given sugar-sweetened drinks than when they are given artificially sweetened drinks or water. However, these results are contradicted by a study by Adam Drewnowski published in 2004, in which \"32 subjects consumed a 300-calorie snack of fat-free raspberry cookies or regular cola on two occasions each – either",
"-30.16548905344098"
],
[
"to describe its flavor. In fact, sweetness is one of the four basic taste qualities and only comprises part of a food's flavor.\nUnlike flavor, aftertaste is a solely gustatory event that is not considered to involve any of the other major senses. The distinction of being based on one (aftertaste) versus multiple (flavor) sensory inputs is what separates the two phenomena. Artificial sweeteners Low-calorie artificial sweeteners like saccharin and acesulfame-K are known for their bitter aftertastes. Recently, GIV3727 (4-(2,2,3-trimethylcyclopentyl) butanoic acid), a chemical that blocks saccharin and acesulfame-K activation of multiple bitter taste receptors has been developed. In the study,",
"-30.098555495453184"
],
[
"\"dessert\", the last thing eaten at a meal. The Jerusalem Talmud, however, derives the word afikoman from epikomion, meaning \"after-dinner revelry\" or \"entertainment\". It was the custom of Romans and Greeks to move from one party or banquet to another. The halakha prohibiting anything else being eaten after the afikoman therefore enjoins Jews to distinguish their Passover Seder from the pagan rituals of other nations.",
"-30.09484154265374"
],
[
"are ubiquitous in supermarkets, roast meal takeaway shops and hāngi. Other Among the Urapmin people of Papua New Guinea, taro (known in Urap as ima) and the sweet potato (Urap: wan) are the main sources of sustenance, and in fact the word for \"food\" in Urap is a compound of these two words.\nIn Spain, sweet potato is called boniato. On the evening of All Souls' Day, in Catalonia (northeastern Spain) it is traditional to serve roasted sweet potato and chestnuts, panellets and sweet wine. The occasion is called La Castanyada. Sweet potato is also appreciated to make cakes or to",
"-30.078703309991397"
],
[
"pudding in many parts of India. In western India, cassava pearls are used to make a salted and lightly spiced khichadi or deep-fried patties known as vada. These are considered pure foods by Hindus in Maharashtra which can be eaten during fasts, when other foods cannot be partaken. Indonesia In Indonesia, singkong or ketela (cassava) is an important food. It can be cooked by frying or boiling, or processed by fermentation to make tapai and getuk cake, while the starch is made into krupuk crackers. In time of famine or food shortage, cassava is used to replace rice. In 2011,",
"-30.04340369876445"
],
[
"are usually sweet: vanilla cream, taro, pandan cream, various fruit jams, shredded coconut, cocoa powder etc. Often fillings are kind of salty but always mixed with something sweet as quail eggs or small sausages.",
"-29.97432337992359"
],
[
"by partaking of dinner, but not to excess - for being filled to excess, even with bread on its own, gives rise to dissipation - rather, everyone receives a meal according to the varying condition of their bodies or their age. They do not serve dishes of different flavours, nor richer types of food, but feeding on bread and herbs seasoned with salt, they quench their burning thirst with a temperate kind of drink. Then, for either the sick, those advanced in age, or likewise those tired by a long journey, they provide some other pleasures of tastier food, for",
"-29.96497457526857"
],
[
"and was described in colors ranging from black to green. Expensive salt, on the other hand, looked like the standard commercial salt common today. Sweets and desserts The term \"dessert\" comes from the Old French desservir, \"to clear a table\", literally \"to un-serve\", and originated during the Middle Ages. It would typically consist of dragées and mulled wine accompanied by aged cheese, and by the Late Middle Ages could also include fresh fruit covered in sugar, honey or syrup and boiled-down fruit pastes. Sugar, from its first appearance in Europe, was viewed as much as a drug as a sweetener;",
"-29.922045120307303"
],
[
"then poaching in milk, after which the outer membrane is removed. Once dried and chilled, they are often breaded and fried. They are also used for stuffing or in pâtés. They are grilled in many Latin American cuisines, such as in the Argentine asado, and served in bread in Turkish cuisine.\nThe word \"sweetbread\" is first attested in the 16th century, but the etymology of the name is unclear. \"Sweet\" is perhaps used since the thymus is sweet and rich-tasting, as opposed to savory-tasting muscle flesh. \"Bread\" may come from brede, \"roasted meat\" or from the Old English brǣd (\"flesh\" or",
"-29.81157859051018"
],
[
"upset one's stomach\", which is why chocolate without vanilla was sometimes referred to as \"healthy chocolate\". By 1602, chocolate had made its way from Spain to Austria. By 1662, Pope Alexander VII had declared that religious fasts were not broken by consuming chocolate drinks. Within about a hundred years, chocolate established a foothold throughout Europe.\nThe new craze for chocolate brought with it a thriving slave market, as between the early 1600s and late 1800s, the laborious and slow processing of the cacao bean was manual. Cacao plantations spread, as the English, Dutch, and French colonized and planted. With the depletion",
"-29.75384173495695"
],
[
"a strength of about 20% ABV; they were usually consumed warmed and frequently flavored with additives as part of traditional Chinese medicine. They considered it spiritual food and extensive documentary evidence attests to the important role it played in religious life. \"In ancient times people always drank when holding a memorial ceremony, offering sacrifices to gods or their ancestors, pledging resolution before going into battle, celebrating victory, before feuding and official executions, for taking an oath of allegiance, while attending the ceremonies of birth, marriage, reunions, departures, death, and festival banquets.\" Marco Polo's 14th century record indicates grain and rice",
"-29.745379509346094"
],
[
"to chew on as a candy. Through chewing and suckling, the intensely sweet flavour is released. The sweetness is 30 to 50 times as strong as sucrose, without causing damage to teeth. Since about the 1970s, zoethout has become rarer and been replaced by easier to consume candies (including 'drop').\nPontefract in Yorkshire, England, was the first place where liquorice mixed with sugar began to be used as a sweet in the same way it is today. Pontefract cakes were originally made there. In County Durham, Yorkshire and Lancashire, it is colloquially known as 'Spanish', supposedly because Spanish monks grew",
"-29.734949130448513"
],
[
"dessert sauces (like pastry cream), iced with buttercream or other icings, and decorated with marzipan, piped borders, or candied fruit. Cake is often served as a celebratory dish on ceremonial occasions, for example weddings, anniversaries, and birthdays. Small-sized cakes have become popular, in the form of cupcakes and petits fours. Chocolates and candies Chocolate is a typically sweet, usually brown, food preparation of Theobroma cacao seeds, roasted, ground, and often flavored. Pure, unsweetened chocolate contains primarily cocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying proportions. Much of the chocolate currently consumed is in the form of sweet chocolate, combining chocolate with",
"-29.731695970695"
],
[
"more palatable and easily digestible, was prepared, which was sweetened with honey or, later, white sugar.",
"-29.701037200167775"
],
[
"of cooking and desserts. Europe Nearchus, admiral of Alexander of Macedonia, knew of sugar during the year 325 B.C., because of his participation in the campaign of India led by Alexander (Arrian, Anabasis). The Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides in the 1st century CE described sugar in his medical treatise De Materia Medica, and Pliny the Elder, a 1st-century CE Roman, described sugar in his Natural History: \"Sugar is made in Arabia as well, but Indian sugar is better. It is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps",
"-29.690817805181723"
],
[
"Sweetened beverage A sweetened beverage is any beverage with added sugar. It has been described as \"liquid candy\". Consumption of sweetened beverages has been linked to weight gain, obesity, and associated health risks. According to the CDC, consumption of sweetened beverages is also associated with unhealthy behaviors like smoking, not getting enough sleep and exercise, and eating fast food often and not enough fruits regularly. Sugar-related health concerns A number of studies suggest that there is a significant correlation between increased consumption of sweetened beverages and weight gain leading to obesity. There has also been an association between consumption of",
"-29.67609842773527"
],
[
"and processed food based on cereal flour, such as bread, pizza or pasta. Sugars appear in human diet mainly as table sugar (sucrose, extracted from sugarcane or sugar beets), lactose (abundant in milk), glucose and fructose, both of which occur naturally in honey, many fruits, and some vegetables. Table sugar, milk, or honey are often added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes.\nCellulose, a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of all plants, is one of the main components of insoluble dietary fiber. Although it is not digestible, insoluble dietary fiber helps to maintain a",
"-29.642208953620866"
],
[
"corporeal food and drink will not be necessary for the sustaining of your body, nor will you hunger for bread or any other food... because after you have once tasted the celestial bread and drunk of the living fountain you will remain fattened for eternity...\" And so it was… But in order that the tumult of gossip be quieted, since some said she had a devil –she who neither ate nor drank- two or three times a week she was accustomed to accept some morsel... and then spit it back…around for a time in her mouth... and then spit",
"-29.618797094910406"
],
[
"a cheese or dessert course. While French cuisine is often associated with rich desserts, in most homes dessert consists of only fruit or yogurt.\nFood shopping in France was formerly done almost daily in small local shops and markets, but the arrival of the supermarket and the even larger \"hypermarchés\" (large-surface distributors) in France have disrupted this tradition. With depopulation of the countryside, many towns have been forced to close shops and markets.\nRates of obesity and heart disease in France have traditionally been lower than in other north-western European countries. This is sometimes called the French paradox (see, for example, Mireille",
"-29.60706990060862"
],
[
"the time of day. This is believed to be the consequence of oscillating leptin levels in blood that may impact the overall sweetness of food. Scientists hypothesize that this is an evolutionary relict of diurnal animals like humans.\nSweetness perception may differ between species significantly. For example, even amongst the primates sweetness is quite variable. New World monkeys do not find aspartame sweet, while Old World monkeys and apes (including humans) all do. Felids like domestic cats cannot perceive sweetness at all.\nThe ability to taste sweetness often atrophies genetically in species of carnivores who do not eat sweet foods like",
"-29.522039005125407"
],
[
"in would only need a few drops to get the fish taste. Due to new foods arriving from Europe in the 16th century, food preservation increased. Ketchup originated from Europe as an oriental fish brine and when it made it to America, sugar was added. Pickling sauces were soon part of many recipes such as chutneys, relish, piccalilli, mustard, and ketchup when different spices were added to them. Curing The beginning of curing was done through dehydration. Salting was used by early cultures to help desiccate foods. Many different salts were used from different places such as rock salt, sea",
"-29.517618446348934"
],
[
"za'atar, and garlic, and common dishes include a wide array of mezze or bread dips, stuffings, and side dishes such as hummus, falafel, ful, tabouleh, labaneh, and baba ghanoush.\nIt also includes copious amounts of garlic and olive oil, often seasoned with lemon juice—almost no meal goes by without including these ingredients. Most often foods are either grilled, baked, fried, or sautéed in olive oil; butter and cream are rarely used, other than in a few desserts. Vegetables are often eaten raw or pickled, as well as cooked. While the cuisine does not boast a multitude of sauces, it focuses on",
"-29.49394645728171"
],
[
"are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and the other few to be chewed and digested.'\"\nIn 2011, the British newspaper Metro ran a story that they would begin producing the newspaper on an edible \"Sweet tasting paper\" claiming to bring customers \"news in the best possible taste\". The newspaper later clarified this was nothing more than an April Fools' joke.",
"-29.484497279168863"
],
[
"Poire à la Beaujolaise Characteristics This dessert offers a way of consuming fruits which are not ripening satisfactorily on the tree: their flesh becoming grainy, they have to be picked when they are barely ripe, in order to allow the starch to turn into sugar. History This dessert with old connotations, somewhat out of fashion has undergone considerable evolution. In the early 19th century, a recipe already existed, known as \"housewife pear compote\". The pears were cooked in a pan with red wine, sugar, a piece of cinnamon and cloves. Once they were cooked, the pears developed wrinkles, thus the",
"-29.46009262705047"
],
[
"catarrh.\nAfter the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs, chocolate was imported to Europe. At the beginning Spaniards would use it as a medicine to treat illnesses such as abdominal pain because it had a bitterness to it. Once sweetened, it transformed. It quickly became a court favorite. It was still served as a beverage, but the addition of sugar or honey counteracted the natural bitterness. The Spaniards initially intended to recreate the original taste of the Mesoamerican chocolate by adding similar spices, but this habit had faded away by the end of the eighteenth century. Within about a hundred years, chocolate",
"-29.43755831249291"
],
[
"and desserts Canarian desserts often use simple ingredients, such as cane sugar, honey, matalahuga or matalauva (anise), almonds and traditional miel de palma (specially in the island of La Palma). Among the desserts we find bienmesabe (literally, a contraction of the Spanish phrase that means tastes good to me), which is a paste of almonds, honey and sugar often served with ice cream or cream. Frangollo is a mix of corn flour, sugar, almonds and raisins, while truchas are pastries (filled with sweet potatoes paste or cabell d'angel, for instance) that are cooked specially at Christmas time. Bienmesabe is a",
"-29.40161052637268"
],
[
"dense and moist, and its flavor may improve a day or more after preparation, because the ingredients intermingle and coalesce to enhance its flavor as it ages. After being cooked, the cake may be delicate and can fall if it is wiggled too much. After preparation, it can be frozen to preserve it. History Clementine cake is probably related to a Sephardic orange cake. Sephardic Jews popularized citrus cultivation in the Mediterranean region in the 15th century and popularized the use of orange in baked goods. In addition to its Iberian flavors, the cake also has North African and",
"-29.385983542044414"
],
[
"has become a ridiculed dessert, in part due to the mass-produced inexpensive cakes of questionable age. Some attribute the beginning of this trend with The Tonight Show host Johnny Carson. He would joke that there really is only one fruitcake in the world, passed from family to family. After Carson's death, the tradition continued with \"The Fruitcake Lady\" (Marie Rudisill), who made appearances on the show and offered her \"fruitcake\" opinions. In fact, the fruitcake had been a butt of jokes on television programs such as Father Knows Best and The Donna Reed Show years before The Tonight Show",
"-29.385371770360507"
],
[
"known collectively in the language as ices. Many jelly desserts are traditionally set with agar and are flavored with fruits, though gelatin based jellies are also common in contemporary desserts.\nChinese dessert soups are typically sweet and served hot.\nThere are also western pastries in China, like mille-feuille, crème brûlée and cheesecake, but they are generally not as popular because the Chinese preference of dessert is mildly sweet and less oily.\nMany types of street foods, which vary from region to region, can be eaten as snacks or light dinner. Prawn crackers are an often-consumed snack in Southeast China. Dairy products Chinese in",
"-29.374480266254977"
],
[
"several legends behind the dessert's origins; one holds that a confectioner named his concoction after Lady Canning in honour of her birthday, while another says the sweetmeat was prepared to commemorate her visit to India in 1856. It is said that it became more famous because of its name than its taste. It became fashionable among the Bengali elite to eat ledikeni in the decades after her death.",
"-29.365194868849358"
],
[
"how they interacted with the humors of the body. Galen had also noted that some foods had drug characteristics and for that reason during food preparation it was not uncommon to boil those foods two or three times.",
"-29.295805782443495"
],
[
"is one of the “five flavors” of Chinese herbology and Chinese cuisine which Chinese see as the basis of good food. Salt is not generally sprinkled on a dish at the last moment or at the table, as is often the case in western cooking, but is more often one of the ingredients.\n The ancient Chinese found that salt, because it inhibits bacteria, was useful both in preserving foods and in controlling fermentation; without salt, the yeasts and sugars produced by vegetable decay would rot and turn to alcohol. From early times, pickles, sauces, and special dishes featured salt",
"-29.276384894728835"
],
[
"essential to the development of dessert.\nSugarcane was grown and refined in India before 500 BC and was crystallized, making it easy to transport, by AD 500. Sugar and sugarcane were traded, making sugar available to Macedonia by 300 BC and China by AD 600. In the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, and China, sugar has been a staple of cooking and desserts for over a thousand years. Sugarcane and sugar were little known and rare in Europe until the twelfth century or later, when the Crusades and then colonization spread its use.\nHerodotus mentions that, as opposed to the Greeks,",
"-29.276382591953734"
],
[
"Heartiness Kokumi (k/uˈkuːmi/, Japanese: 濃く味) is translated as \"heartiness\" or \"full flavor\" and describes compounds in food that do not have their own taste, but enhance the characteristics when combined.\nThere are four basic tastes: sweet, sour, salt, and bitter. Two additional tastes for some people are umami (which enhances the original four and has been described as fatty or \"deliciousness\" associated with Asian foods), and kokumi which may enhance the other five tastes by magnifying and lengthening the other tastes. This sensation has also been described as \"mouthfulness\". Garlic is a common ingredient to add flavor used to help define",
"-29.2741960613057"
],
[
"repertory typical of upper-class medieval food included verjuice, wine and vinegar in combination with spices such as black pepper, saffron and ginger. These, along with the widespread use of sugar or honey, gave many dishes a sweet-sour flavor. Almonds were very popular as a thickener in soups, stews, and sauces, particularly as almond milk. Dietary norms The cuisines of the cultures of the Mediterranean Basin since antiquity had been based on cereals, particularly various types of wheat. Porridge, gruel and later, bread, became the basic food staple that made up the majority of calorie intake for most of the population.",
"-29.270961569156498"
],
[
"of the ingredients instead of masking them as had been the practice previously. Finally, a rigorous separation between salted and sweet dishes was introduced, the former served before the latter, banishing the Italian Renaissance taste for mixing sweet and salted ingredients in the same dish or in the same part of the meal. Le Cuisinier françois (1651) La Varenne's work was the first to set down in writing the considerable culinary innovations achieved in France in the seventeenth century, while codifying food preparation in a systematic manner, according to rules and principles. He introduced the first bisque and Béchamel sauce.",
"-29.248952022055164"
],
[
"it was common to include many types of fruit in dishes that called for sweeteners of some sort. The fruits of choice in the south were lemons, citrons, bitter oranges (the sweet type was not introduced until several hundred years later), pomegranates, quinces, and grapes. Farther north, apples, pears, plums, and wild strawberries were more common. Figs and dates were eaten all over Europe, but remained rather expensive imports in the north.\nCommon and often basic ingredients in many modern European cuisines like potatoes, kidney beans, cacao, vanilla, tomatoes, chili peppers and maize were not available to Europeans until after 1492,",
"-29.241077197308186"
],
[
"immense and sweets are relished as much as the spicy curries. Some of the popular sweet dishes are Daadi ru Hiru, vasaniyu, mootichur, boondi and Kharmoo ra Ladoo, Sutarfini. Bharundaites don't savour everything for themselves but also for their guests. \"Athithi Devo Bhava\", Inhabitants believe in that and as the old Sanskrit saying goes, guests are fed with lot of affection, also termed manuhar or manvar. It is considered extremely rude to just lay the food on the table and expect guests to serve themselves. Sweet dishes Sweet dishes are never referred to as 'dessert' in Bharunda, because unlike desserts",
"-29.231685252161697"
],
[
"added sugars were found between non-Hispanic white and Mexican-American men or women.\nSugar-sweetened beverages raise concern because they are calorie-dense and yet produce low satiety. There exists a strong correlation between the consumption of liquid calories and total energy intake. Individuals do not tend to decrease solid calories in compensation for increased liquid calories. For example, if there were no compensation for liquid calories, the 40-50g of sugar in each 12 oz. can of soda drunk on a daily basis could lead to a 15-pound weight gain per year. On the national scale, the American Heart Association estimates that approximately",
"-29.20810154947685"
],
[
"offal in the form of roulades and pig's trotters. Sweets Apulia is not known for its sweet treats because its inhabitants generally prefer savoury foods. Sweets are traditionally reserved for festivals and religious holidays and share the plain character of its cuisine in general. The ingredients for sweets are influenced by the Middle East and include almonds, figs, hazelnuts, pistachios and spices. The traditional sweetener is honey, which is still frequently used. Fresh soft ricotta is used as well. Wine In 2017 Apulia overtook Veneto as the largest wine producing region in Italy, with a total production of 9.070.112 hectoliters.",
"-29.15031060729234"
],
[
"with fish). Sweet items are made from flour, sugar, and essence. It includes fonibaokibaa (cake made of flour), githeyo boakibaa (made of flour, onions and butter), and huni hakuru folhi (made of grated coconut, sugar and flour). Usual option is served to be a cup of black tea (kalhu sai) within the short eats.\nUkulhas cafés and restaurants are opened each and every day from early morning to 1 am.\nTraditional meal consists of rice, garudhiya (fish soup) and side dishes consists of chili, lemon and onion. Instead of garudhiya, fish paste known as rihaakuru and curries are also used. (These meals",
"-29.149870132125216"
],
[
"enjoyment of eating foods. Contrasts in textures, such as something crunchy in an otherwise smooth dish, may increase the appeal of eating it. Common examples include adding granola to yogurt, adding croutons to a salad or soup, and toasting bread to enhance its crunchiness for a smooth topping, such as jam or butter. Contrast in taste Another universal phenomenon regarding food is the appeal of contrast in taste and presentation. For example, such opposite flavors as sweetness and saltiness tend to go well together, as in kettle corn and nuts. Food preparation While many foods can be eaten raw, many",
"-29.141893825377338"
],
[
"sweet potato, in hundreds of varieties. Slightly over 4,000 types are known to Peru. There was also oca, which came in two varieties, sweet and bitter. The sweet variety could be eaten raw or preserved and was used as a sweetener before the arrival of sugar. The insipid, starchy root ullucu, and arracacha, something like a cross between carrot and celery were, like potatoes, used in stews and soup. Achira, a species of Canna, was a sweet, starchy root that was baked in earth ovens. Since it had to be transported up to the power center of Cuzco, it is",
"-29.140694325964432"
],
[
"food is known for its enthusiastic use of fresh (rather than dried) herbs and spices. Common flavors in Thai food come from garlic, galangal, coriander/cilantro, lemon grass, shallots, pepper, kaffir lime leaves, shrimp paste, fish sauce, and chilies. Palm sugar, made from the sap of certain Borassus palms, is used to sweeten dishes while lime and tamarind contribute sour notes. Meats used in Thai cuisine are usually pork and chicken, and also duck, beef, and water buffalo. Goat and mutton are rarely eaten except by Muslim Thais. Game, such as wild boar, deer and wild birds, are now less common",
"-29.120187213178724"
],
[
"Lowering the drinking of beverages sweetened with sugar is recommended as a measure to address obesity. A diet low in fruits and vegetables and high in red meat has been implicated but not confirmed, and the effect may be small for well-nourished people who maintain a healthy weight.\nSome specific foods are linked to specific cancers. Studies have linked eating red or processed meat to an increased risk of breast cancer, colon cancer, prostate cancer, and pancreatic cancer, which may be partially explained by the presence of carcinogens in foods cooked at high temperatures. Aflatoxin B1, a frequent food contaminate,",
"-29.10722745768726"
],
[
"fish or seafood in broth and/or bread). Sweet desserts, such as suspiros (meringues), melindres (honey cakes), biscoitos encanelados, tigeladas (a pudding), biscoitos de orelha, biscoitos brancos, biscoitos de aguardente and cavacas (sugar-coated biscuits), are also popular.\nSimilarly, the wines of the São Lourenço foothills, as well as other wines and sweet liqueurs, have been commercialized. These include vinho abafadinho and vinho abafado (both fortified wine liqueurs), licor de amora (mulberry liqueur), licor de leito (milk liqueur) and aguardente, which are made using traditional techniques and favoured following a dinner. Tourism Tourists generally favor the white sand beaches and rock",
"-29.09510495723225"
],
[
"Food craving Causes There is no single explanation for food cravings, and explanations range from low serotonin levels affecting the brain centers for appetite to production of endorphins as a result of consuming fats and carbohydrates.\nFoods with high levels of sugar glucose, such as chocolate, are more frequently craved than foods with lower sugar glucose, such as broccoli, because when glucose interacts with the opioid receptor system in the brain an addictive triggering effect occurs. The consumer of the glucose feels the urge to consume more glucose, much like an alcoholic, because the brain has become conditioned to release \"happy",
"-29.092384069546824"
],
[
"or عيش وملح) but not in the context of welcoming, but as an expression of alliance by eating together, symbolizing the rapprochement between two persons. Eating bread and salt with a friend is considered to create a moral obligation which requires gratitude. This attitude is also expressed by Arab phrases such as \"there are bread and salt between us\" (بيننا خبز وملح or بيننا عيش وملح), and \"salt between them\" (بينهما ملح) which are terms of alliance. Jewish culture The practice exists also among Jews in the Diaspora and in Israel. The ceremony of Kiddush includes dipping a piece of",
"-29.087838005798403"
],
[
"is no simple definition of a dessert wine. In the UK, a dessert wine is considered to be any sweet wine drunk with a meal, as opposed to the white fortified wines (fino and amontillado sherry) drunk before the meal, and the red fortified wines (port and madeira) drunk after it. Thus, most fortified wines are regarded as distinct from dessert wines, but some of the less strong fortified white wines, such as Pedro Ximénez sherry and Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise, are regarded as honorary dessert wines. In the United States, by contrast, a dessert wine is legally defined as any",
"-29.05702139541245"
],
[
"Kirschenmichel Description The dessert consists of bread that is a few days old which is kneaded into a dough with butter, milk, egg and sugar. Sour cherries or sweet cherries are folded into the dough and the mixture is baked in a casserole dish. Prior to serving the dessert is topped with vanilla, cinnamon, almonds and clove and is then served hot with vanilla sauce.\nAlthough traditionally a dessert, it can also be found as main dish after an appetizer soup.\nA similar dish popular in the south of Germany is Ofenschlupfer which consists of layers of aged bread and apple slices",
"-29.055556187289767"
],
[
"affecting only non-crystalline amorphous candies, is the glass transition process. This can cause amorphous candies to lose their intended texture. Cultural roles Both bakers' and sugar confections are used to offer hospitality to guests.\nConfections are used to mark celebrations or events, such as a wedding cake, birthday cake or Halloween.\nTourists commonly eat confections as part of their travels. The indulgence in rich, sugary foods is seen as a special treat, and choosing local specialties is popular. For example, visitors to Vienna eat Sachertorte and visitors to seaside resorts in the UK eat Blackpool rock candy. Transportable confections",
"-29.04220878900378"
],
[
"dough and a meat or vegetable sauce. The dough can be ripped into bite-sized pieces and dipped into the sauce. This dish uses essential ingredients such as garlic and oil. Other dishes like Couscous are more well known around the world and adopted by other cultures. One common dessert that can be found in Benghazi is deep fried dates. These are often served with milk.",
"-29.03597888404329"
],
[
"vegetables, and coarse grains are disappearing in all regions and countries. Taking their place are diets characterized by fat-rich edible and vegetable oils, cheap animal-source foods high in fat and protein, and artificially sweetened foods high in sugar and refined carbohydrates. Consumption of caloric beverages such as soda represented 21% of all calorie intake in Mexico from 1996 to 2002. Processes of globalization that have influenced food markets have made these products much cheaper, flavorful, and easier to produce which has in turn driven up their demand. So while globalization and the accompanying economic development has created higher levels of",
"-29.0245328390738"
],
[
"fruits, and nuts. The proportions of these ingredients, along with the preparation methods, play a major part in the consistency, texture, and flavor of the end product.\nSugars contribute moisture and tenderness to baked goods. Flour or starch components serves as a protein and gives the dessert structure. Fats contribute moisture and can enable the development of flaky layers in pastries and pie crusts. The dairy products in baked goods keep the desserts moist. Many desserts also contain eggs, in order to form custard or to aid in the rising and thickening of a cake-like substance. Egg yolks specifically contribute",
"-29.019172703148797"
],
[
"to target children. The rise of companies like Food Network has marketed many shows which feature dessert and their creation. Shows like these have displayed extreme desserts and made a game show atmosphere which made desserts a more competitive field.\nDesserts are a standard staple in restaurant menus, with different degrees of variety. Pie and cheesecake were among the most popular dessert courses ordered in U.S. restaurants in 2012. Nutrition Dessert foods often contain relatively high amounts of sugar and fats and, as a result, higher calorie counts per gram than other foods. Fresh or cooked fruit with minimal added",
"-29.01010865578428"
],
[
"cakes are typically rich and moist when stored at room temperature, but they tend to stiffen, dry out, and lose flavor when refrigerated, making them unsuitable for filling or frosting in advance with ingredients that must be refrigerated, such as cream cheese frosting and pastry cream.",
"-28.988460782216862"
],
[
"of expensive Spanish saffron, as well as other local ingredients. Sugar cane was brought to the country and grew as well, leading to the creation of many kinds of sweets, especially local fruits in syrup. A sugar-based candy craft called alfeñique was adapted, but often with indigenous themes, especially today for Day of the Dead.\nDuring the 19th century, Mexico experienced an influx of various immigrants, including French, Lebanese, German, Chinese and Italian, which have had some effect on the food. During the French intervention in Mexico, French food became popular with the upper classes. An influence on these new trends",
"-28.973584993742406"
],
[
"an occasional indulgence. Foods such as sweet biscuits, cakes, deserts, fast food as well as pastries and fruit juices are high in saturated fats as well as added sugars. Saturated fats are responsible for raising blood cholesterol levels and in turn could put children at a much higher risk of contracting heart disease or inducing a heart attack. Thus five or fewer servings of sweet indulgences should be consumed in a week, as a maximum.\nNutrition Australia ultimately seeks to help children \"eat a rainbow\" by encouraging them to consume a fruit and a vegetable of a different colour every",
"-28.93247816755502"
],
[
"throughout Europe. In modern French, the term refers to usually unsweetened fruit purée without fruit chunks, such as applesauce. Variations The dessert may be topped with whipped cream, cinnamon, or vanilla sugar. The syrup may be made with wine, as in one early 15th century recipe for pear compote. Other preparations consist of using dried fruits which have been soaked in water in which alcohol can be added, for example kirsch, rum, or Frontignan.",
"-28.920261564286193"
],
[
"also undergo some form of preparation for reasons of safety, palatability, texture, or flavor. At the simplest level this may involve washing, cutting, trimming, or adding other foods or ingredients, such as spices. It may also involve mixing, heating or cooling, pressure cooking, fermentation, or combination with other food. In a home, most food preparation takes place in a kitchen. Some preparation is done to enhance the taste or aesthetic appeal; other preparation may help to preserve the food; others may be involved in cultural identity. A meal is made up of food which is prepared to be eaten at",
"-28.88645766855916"
],
[
"still served at special occasions like Eid and weddings. Due to the high class of the food, using an excess amount of expensive ingredients like ghee, and making the food melt in one's mouth were essential to the feel of the food. Specialities of Kolkata and suburbs In Kolkata, many local street vendors own small shops from which they sell their own homemade goods. Items like cheeses (paneer) can be eaten as is, or can be made into sweet sandesh, rosogolla, or chanar payesh. Milk is especially used in Kolkata's various types of payesh, differing in use of different grains",
"-28.87743251028587"
],
[
"When the food was not prepared with the right sauce, man would not eat. Although there are plenty of meats, they should not be cooked more than staple food. There is no limit for alcohol, before a man gets drunk.\" During Shi Huangdi's Qin dynasty, the empire expanded into the south. By the time of the Han dynasty, the different regions and cuisines of China's people were linked by major canals and leading to a greater complexity in the different regional cuisines. Not only is food seen as giving \"qi\", energy, but food is also about maintaining yin and yang.",
"-28.853440262013464"
],
[
"English cuisine since the Middle Ages, with recipes for sweet and sour meat and fish in the 1390 cookery book The Forme of Cury. Filipino cuisine In Filipino cuisine, sweet and sour sauces are known as agre dulce. It is made by mixing cornstarch with water, salt, sugar, and a tangy ingredient; typically tomato ketchup, banana ketchup, or pineapples. The mixture is brought to a boil then simmered until it thickens. Labuyo chilis may also be added. The name means \"sour-sweet\" in Philippine Spanish, from Spanish agrio (\"sour\") and dulce (\"sweet\"). It is also known as agri dulci in Chavacano",
"-28.851659260340966"
],
[
"the bread was gilded. Among the spices that have now fallen into obscurity are grains of paradise, a relative of cardamom which almost entirely replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, long pepper, mace, spikenard, galangal and cubeb. Sugar, unlike today, was considered to be a type of spice due to its high cost and humoral qualities. Few dishes employed just one type of spice or herb, but rather a combination of several different ones. Even when a dish was dominated by a single flavor it was usually combined with another to produce a compound taste, for example parsley",
"-28.84393173109129"
],
[
"during periods of early Christianity to the 19th century, though some interesting examples exist in bread assizes and sotelties. Sweet Most forms of escagraphs today are sweet, either molded into or drawn onto the surface of the food. Cakes with \"Happy Birthday\" are extremely common. Heart-shaped candies with mottoes on them have been produced since about 1901 and are often shared at Valentine's Day. Many chocolate bars bear the name of their maker imprinted on their surface. Lawful Only a few lawful examples remain, since the bread assizes of the 15th century. However, the United",
"-28.843585428083315"
],
[
"honey. Honey was used in Ancient China, Middle East, Egypt, Greece and the Roman Empire to coat fruits and flowers to preserve them or to create forms of candy. Candy is still served in this form today, though now it is more typically seen as a type of garnish.\nBefore the Industrial Revolution, candy was often considered a form of medicine, either used to calm the digestive system or cool a sore throat. In the Middle Ages candy appeared on the tables of only the most wealthy at first. At that time, it began as a combination of spices and sugar",
"-28.830304509261623"
],
[
"Prayers are often said before breakfast in order to bless the meal. Netherlands and Belgium For breakfast, the Dutch and Belgians typically eat sliced bread with butter or margarine and various choices of toppings: dairy products (numerous variations of cheese), a variety of cured and sliced meats, or sweet or semi-sweet products such as jam, syrup (from sugar beets or fruit), honey, Kokosbrood (a coconut product that is served thinly sliced like sliced cheese) or peanut butter. Another type of sweet toppings are the chocolate toppings; the Dutch have chocolate toppings in all variations: hagelslag (chocolate sprinkles), chocoladevlokken (chocolate flakes)",
"-28.809490113868378"
]
] |
2kgu9w | why is it so much easier to fall asleep on the couch than it is in my bed? | [
"for me I think it's the fact that dozing off on your couch whilst watching a TV show or reading a book is super nice, but also natural and sorta involuntary... whereas when you're in bed, you're so conscious of 'having to sleep now' that the awareness itself prevents you from going to sleep...",
"It's a psychological pressure you have put on your mind, in your bed you HAVE to sleep, in the couch you can really relax, and then sleep.",
"Falling asleep in bed is easy, when are you folks going to learn, DRINK YOURSELF TO SLEEP.",
"You put yourself to bed at a socially accepted time, you fall asleep on the sofa because it is a much more natural way of doing it - sleeping when and if your body wants to",
"I found that when I watched TV from bed I would get sleepy just the same as a sofa. Then you can just flip off the set (or not) and snooze.",
"Can confirm. .. my couch sleeps better than my bed."
] | [
[
"pillows are usually soft, injuries rarely occur. The heft of a pillow can still knock a young person off balance, especially on a soft surface such as a bed, which is a common venue. In earlier eras, pillows would often break, shedding feathers throughout a room. Modern pillows tend to be stronger and are often filled with a solid block of artificial filling, so breakage occurs far less frequently. Pillow talk Pillow talk refers to the relaxed, intimate conversation that often occurs between two sexual partners after sexual activity, usually accompanied by cuddling, caresses, and other physical intimacy. It is",
"-27.220293957434478"
],
[
"Couch A couch (U.S. English, Irish English, Australian English and South African English), also known as a sofa, futon, or settee (British English) is a piece of furniture for seating two or three people in the form of a bench, with armrests, which is partially or entirely upholstered, and often fitted with springs and tailored cushions. Although a couch is used primarily for seating, it may be used for sleeping. In homes, couches are normally found in the family room, living room, den, or the lounge. They are sometimes also found in non-residential settings such as hotels, lobbies of",
"-27.038910869596293"
],
[
"Sleeping with a Friend Background According to Tyler Glenn, \"Sleeping with a Friend\" was inspired from the album So by Peter Gabriel. Glenn stated \"Sonically speaking it's our biggest-sounding song to date\". Reception Heather Allen at Mind Equals Blown describes it as a catchy song, stating \"The keyboard and drums thrown into the spotlight with the guitars subtle in the background is truly what makes gives \"Sleeping With a Friend\" its old-school feel.\"",
"-26.524808980586386"
],
[
"in Europe than in North America; thus there is greater use of freestanding wardrobes or armoires in Europe.\nAn individual’s bedroom is a reflection of their personality, as well as social class and socioeconomic status, and is unique to each person. However, there are certain items that are common in most bedrooms. Mattresses usually have a bed set to raise the mattress off the floor and the bed often provides some decoration. There are many different types of mattresses.\nNight stands are also popular. They are used to put various items on, such as an alarm clock or a small lamp. In",
"-25.76219582807971"
],
[
"into an uncomfortable and possibly harmful position during sleep. However, U-shaped pillows can sometimes force the head forward, creating neck stiffness.\nDoughnut pillows are firm pillows shaped like a torus, with a space in the middle to alleviate pressure on the tailbone area while sitting. These pillows are used primarily by individuals who have suffered an injury to the tailbone area, or who suffer pain from hemorrhoids or another ailment of the colon.\nLumbar pillows are designed to support the inward curve of the lower back, filling the space created between the lower back and the back of the chair when in",
"-25.741549045938882"
],
[
"element of daily life. A hammock is used for sleeping during the daytime and is the most relaxing and comfortable piece of furniture. On the upper floor the same type of table-like furniture is used as a bed. In more urban surroundings, people may have a simple type of sideboard on which they place items of importance: a television, a Buddha shrine, a battery operated light, mobile phones, as well as photographs of their grandparents and members of the family who have died. Because of the spatial organisation of the basic Khmer house, furniture is placed alongside the walls within",
"-25.71450451273995"
],
[
"The Bed You Made for Me Critical reception Kip Kirby, of Billboard magazine reviewed the song favorably, calling it \"dynamic\" and saying that it is \"apologetically country in instrumentation and vocal, with energy and outrage that are almost palpable.\"",
"-24.95766766682209"
],
[
"a sitting position. These pillows are generally used to support the lower back while driving or sitting, such as in an office chair. Orthopedic pillows are similar to memory foam pillows. Decorative Decorative pillows serve a dual purpose. They often have fancy cover material which serves to decorate the room where they are found. Since decorative textiles are commonly 54 inches in width, many decorative pillows finish about 17x17 inches. (54/3 = 18 less seam allowance) When used to decorate a fully made up bed, decorative pillows are likely thrown aside at bedtime, since they are not covered with a washable",
"-24.819967889401596"
],
[
"sleeping on it because, for me, my emotions get very heightened in the evening [...].\" Based on the interview, HuffPost's Brittany Wong called the singer a \"breakup coach\" and jokingly advised her to write a self-help book in the future.\nIn a review of \"Save as Draft\", Bobby Finger of Jezebel speculated that the song was about blogging, with Perry \"describ[ing] the pain of desperately wanting to provide satisfying content for an impassioned, unpredictable audience that is incapable of ever being satisfied\" and \"explain[ing] the frustrating act of writing a blog you never publish out of fear that it will only",
"-24.638243613459053"
],
[
"degrees or slightly greater, used to wrap around walls or other furniture.\nOther variants include the divan, the fainting couch (backless or partial-backed) and the canapé (an ornamental three-seater). To conserve space, some sofas double as beds in the form of sofa beds, daybeds, or futons.\nA furniture set consisting of a sofa with two matching chairs is known as a \"chesterfield suite\" or \"living-room suite\". Also in the UK, the word chesterfield meant any couch in the 1900s, but now describes a deep buttoned sofa, usually made from leather, with arms and back of the same height. The first leather chesterfield",
"-24.62629798495618"
],
[
"firm mattress. A bedroom may have bunk beds if two or more people share a room. A chamber pot kept under the bed or in a nightstand was usual in the period before modern domestic plumbing and bathrooms in dwellings. Furnishings Furniture and other items in bedrooms vary greatly, depending on taste, local traditions and the socioeconomic status of an individual. For instance, a master bedroom may include a bed of a specific size (double, king or queen-sized); one or more dressers (or perhaps, a wardrobe armoire); a nightstand; one or more closets; and carpeting. Built-in closets are less common",
"-24.60142892284057"
],
[
"floor is meager with no beds or real seating.",
"-24.338228694992722"
],
[
"hammock when sleeping is very high. This style is generally considered less stable and less comfortable for sleeping than other styles. A subset of this style is the single-spreader bar hammock, which uses a spreader bar on only one end and is much more stable. A variation of the single-spreader bar hammock has three attachment points, one at each corner of the spreader bar and one at the non-spreader bar end and is nearly untippable.\nWhile the various styles of hammocks available today are similar in form, they differ significantly in materials, purpose, and construction.\nMayan and Nicaraguan hammocks are made",
"-23.669559097703313"
],
[
"American English, the word bedding generally does not include the mattress, bed frame, or bed base (such as box-spring), while in British English it does. In Australian, South African and New Zealand English, bedding is often called manchester, especially in shops.\nA set of bedding usually consists of a flat or fitted bed sheet that covers the mattress; a flat top sheet; either a blanket, quilt, or duvet, sometimes with a duvet cover, which can replace or be used in addition to the top sheet; and a number of pillows with pillowcases, also referred to as pillow shams. (See § Terminology for",
"-23.62358098135155"
],
[
"mid-1860s. Since the basic definition of a platform bed is \"a bed which uses only a mattress\", all incarnations of the bed up to that point would necessarily functionally be considered platform beds. While we generally think of the modern platform bed as having a solid surface for sleeping; rope, leather and wooden or bone slat bases were all used as supports for early mattresses.\nPlatform bed development was closely intertwined with the evolution of the modern bed. The earliest humans most probably slept on the ground. It would have been cold, hard and offered no protection from crawling insects or",
"-23.55574104686093"
],
[
"and hence \"mat, cushion\". During the Crusades Europeans adopted the Arabic method of sleeping on cushions on the floor, and the word materas eventually descended into Middle English through the Romance languages. The oldest known mattress dates to around 77,000 years ago.\nEarly mattresses contained a variety of natural materials including straw, feathers or horse hair. In the first half of the 20th century, a typical mattress sold in North America had an innerspring core and cotton batting or fiberfill. Modern mattresses usually contain either an inner spring core or materials such as latex, viscoelastic or other flexible polyurethane foams. Other",
"-23.5063111759373"
],
[
"upstairs.\nIt was the main furniture of rural houses in Brittany until the 20th century. Often carved and decorated, it was the pride of its owners.\nClosed-beds were 1.60 to 1.70 m length, long enough for people of that region who were rather small. And because they slept in an almost sitting position, they leaned on three or four pillows. It was the tradition of the Middle Ages not to sleep lying down, because that is the position of the dead and of effigies.\nLater out of fashion and because they were expensive to make, box-beds were gradually abandoned in the 19th and",
"-23.46857763247681"
],
[
"(\"ledge/bench\"), cognates with the Aramaic word sippa (\"mat\"). Joseph Pubillones in A Little Shimmer Goes a Long Way specifies that the main difference between the couch and the sofa is that \"couches can be used for reclining or laying upon\" so a couch would \"best be used to describe an upholstered piece in a family room\", while the term sofa \"used predominantly in England and Ireland denotes a tone of formality, hence a sofa is more appropriate word for the upholstered piece in the living room\".\nThe word settee or setee comes from the Old English word setl, which was used",
"-23.345250333251897"
],
[
"the knees (\"popliteal fold\"). It may also result in no weight on the feet which means more weight elsewhere. A lower seat may shift too much weight to the \"seat bones\" (\"ischial tuberosities\").\nA reclining seat and back will shift weight to the occupant's back. This may be more comfortable for some in reducing weight on the seat area, but may be problematic for others who have bad backs. In general, if the occupant is supposed to sit for a long time, weight needs to be taken off the seat area and thus \"easy\" chairs intended for long periods of sitting",
"-23.209075137463515"
],
[
"of the 18 pillows on the floor are usually occupied.\"",
"-23.16372700581269"
],
[
"in the lyrics of Moody Blues song, \"Are You Sitting Comfortably?\" from the 1969 album, On the Threshold of a Dream. It was also used at the beginning of the Slade song \"Did Your Mama Ever Tell Ya?\", which appeared on the band's 1976 album, Nobody's Fools.",
"-23.148897996288724"
],
[
"Andrew Burgess of MusicOMH referred to it as a \"fever dream\", citing it as a \"standout moment\" while Clover Hopes of Vibe magazine praised the song as \"instantly timeless\" and described it as a \"gorgeous drum-powered exercise in vocal discipline (with its whispered huffs and puffs) that deals with the loss of a man's mere presence\". Dan Weiss of Popmatters, gave the song a seven out of ten rating and thought that \"\"Sleeping\" is proof that Keys can find the warmth inside of a song even when she pushes away from the piano and the arrangement drifts into something colder",
"-23.088584096636623"
],
[
"up cold, hard-backed chairs as well as cold, shiny surfaces. However, it is easy to add cushions and upholstery to make the furniture comfortable, as well as attractive. Also, adding some simple curves also adds to comfort as many types of metal furniture manufacturers have done.",
"-23.02299416277674"
],
[
"ugliness in the world, but the night is quiet and calm and peaceful, and the ugliness is shadowed.\" He further stated that when he wrote the song, he realized that his sleeping pattern had \"taken its toll on me, I felt so far removed from the rest of the human race that I could hardly imagine what happened during the daytime.\" However, he said that he \"still sleep[s] during the day, but I've learned that too much alienation can be damaging to your mental health, so I try to be careful.\"\nThe title of track 5, \"R.D.C.\", came from an abandoned",
"-23.003484791130177"
],
[
"Sit Down, I Think I Love You \"Sit Down, I Think I Love You\" is a 1966 song composed by American singer-songwriter Stephen Stills and originally recorded by American-Canadian rock band Buffalo Springfield. A cover version by The Mojo Men was released as a single in 1967 and reached the U.S. Top 40. Also that year, Australian band The Executives charted in their home country with their version of the song. The Executives version Australian pop group The Executives released their cover of \"Sit Down, I Love You\" as a single in 1967. It peaked at number 4 in Sydney,",
"-22.998181848037348"
],
[
"Fainting couch A fainting couch is a couch with a back that is traditionally raised at one end. The back may be situated completely at one side of the couch, or may wrap around and extend the entire length of the piece much like a traditional couch. However, fainting couches are easily differentiated from more traditional couches, having one end of the back raised.\nFainting couches were popular in the 19th century, and were particularly used by women.\nSome houses would take this to the level of having separate fainting rooms, where these couches would be the featured furniture.",
"-22.989002884249203"
],
[
"to that song. It’s just a simple song, man. We just try to be very transparent in the way we write and the way we live. There’s nothing better than just kicking back . . . whatever ‘Sun Daze’ is for that person—staying home, making a drink, playing basketball, whatever it may be.”\nIn an article for The Washington Post, Emily Yahr cited the presence of the term \"getting laid\" and the double entendre lyric \"I'll sit you up on a kitchen sink / Stick a pink umbrella in your drink\" as examples of increasingly prominent sexual content in country music",
"-22.948122667410644"
],
[
"I swear it’s gonna be for everybody who feels like me. Once I found my comfortable place as a human being, I wanted to find a name that equated that comfort. When are you most comfortable, Joell? Sitting on my couch, in my house slippers, with the remote in my hand, just doing what I want to do.\" Singles On June 17, 2014, the album's first single \"House Slippers\" was released. On June 17, 2014, the music video was released for \"House Slippers\". On July 22, 2014, the album's second single \"Music Saved My Life\" featuring B.o.B and Mally Stakz",
"-22.83447807169432"
],
[
"body. A sit-stand chair distributes most of the weight of the occupant to the feet. Many chairs are padded or have cushions. Padding can be on the seat of the chair only, on the seat and back, or also on any arm rests or foot rest the chair may have. Padding will not shift the weight to different parts of the body (unless the chair is so soft that the shape is altered). However, padding does distribute the weight by increasing the area of contact between the chair and the body. A hard wood chair feels hard because the contact",
"-22.79264699439227"
],
[
"Contour leg pillow A contour leg pillow is a pillow that is placed between the legs, usually at knee level, during sleep. These pillows have been shown in studies to relieve lower back pain.\nThe contoured pillow serves two purposes: to provide alignment for the pelvis, and to prevent friction between the legs while sleeping.",
"-22.79195784285548"
],
[
"and often more efficient because it is easier to make full use of the floor.",
"-22.768733602504653"
],
[
"raised platform distinguishes the players, with a series of upholstered chairs for observers. An ingle-nook also provides a comfortable corner for non-players. Master bedroom Increasing awareness of hygiene has had an influence on the design of the bedroom. Typically white paint or wood paneling is used on the walls, as it is the colour of immaculate cleanliness. Wooden boards or blocks, in combination with small rugs, are desirable flooring options as they are easily cleaned; Muthesius suggests that the only reason carpet remains the most common flooring option is because people are used to it. Built-in cupboards are common as",
"-22.691832926648203"
],
[
"Trundle bed A trundle bed (or truckle bed) is a low, wheeled bed that is stored under a normal bed and can be rolled out for use by visitors or as just another bed.\nA pop-up trundle bed can be raised to meet the height of the normal bed, effectively creating a wider sleeping surface when positioned side-by-side.",
"-22.580151411617408"
],
[
"small animals. Readily available piles of leaves and branches could be covered with animal pelts which provided superior warmth and comfort to sleeping on the ground probably inspiring the first thoughts of a raised dedicated sleeping space. The basic platform bed concept was born from this and has developed ever since in numerous styles and materials but always on the basic principle of raising one's sleeping surface off the ground developed by early humans.\n\nSome of the earliest existing platform beds were created by the early Egyptians who created a wooden framework glued and lashed together which have been found in",
"-22.568500981367833"
],
[
"When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go? Background and production Billie Eilish and her brother Finneas O'Connell began working on When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go? in March 2016 with the track \"Listen Before I Go\". Eilish intended the album to contain material \"that's so fun to be in the moment at a show to\" as well as \"shit that's crazy and also depressing.\" She further wished to \"do everything in this album\" due to her hatred for genre restrictions. The album was recorded in O'Connell's small bedroom studio in Highland Park, California using production",
"-22.508986822504085"
],
[
"on the bed's borders giving beds a more European, home furnishings look. Quality Many parameters determine the quality of a mattress. Laboratory test methods have been established for some of these parameters, such as pressure distribution, skin microclimate, hygiene, edge support, and long-term stability. Some of these have been developed by Duncan Bain, working on behalf of the UK's Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency.\nOther parameters, such as firmness, are more specific to the sleeper. In general, firm mattresses are recommended for stomach and some back sleepers, soft mattresses are recommended for side sleepers, and medium mattresses are recommended for",
"-22.506098811980337"
],
[
"wild stage until he was [almost 30]. So that's why when I go to bed at night I'm like, 'You know what? I still might be struggling with mechanics. I still might not be able to consistently get the corner I want or get the result of the pitch that I want. But if I keep working it will come to me and eventually I'll get it. Some guys get it really early. Some guys get it later. That's just how it works.\n— Aumont, February 21, 2014",
"-22.49927365357871"
],
[
"to good effect [in the former]. He concluded that the song should have been included on the standard version of 4. Alexandra Boisvert of Musiqtone wrote, \"'Lay Up Under Me' is a song about exactly what it sounds like. The fact that the song is so catchy and upbeat almost distracts from the message, but it enhances the emotions portrayed.\" Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media likened it to Michael Jackson's work from Off the Wall (1979). Charts For the week ending July 30, 2011, \"Lay Up Under Me\" debuted at the top of the South Korean International Singles Chart, selling",
"-22.423901690955972"
],
[
"for sleeping in, evolved during the second half of the seventeenth century, developing the medieval tradition of receiving visitors in the bedroom, which had become the last and most private room of the standard suite of rooms in a Baroque apartment. Louis XIV developed the rituals of receptions in his state bedchamber, the petit lever to which only a handful of his court élite might expect to be invited. The other monarchs of Europe soon imitated his practice; even his staunchest enemy, William III of England, had his \"grooms of the bedchamber\", a signal honour.\nThe state bed, a lit à",
"-22.402897971831408"
],
[
"to describe long benches with high backs and arms, but is now generally used to describe upholstered seating.\nOther terms which can be synonymous with the above definition are chesterfield (Canada), divan, davenport, lounge, and canapé. Types The most common types of couches are the two-seater, sometimes referred to as a loveseat, designed for seating two persons, and the sofa, which has two or more cushion seats. A sectional sofa, often just referred to as a \"sectional\", is formed from multiple sections (typically two, three, and four) and usually includes at least two pieces which join at an angle of 90",
"-22.353826890175696"
],
[
"not to sag when in a closed position. The mattress is attached to the bed frame, often with elastic straps to hold the mattress in position when the unit is folded upright. Piston-lifts or torsion springs make modern Murphy beds easy to lower and raise.\nSince the first model several other variations and designs have been created, including: sideways-mounted Murphy beds, Murphy bunk beds, and solutions that include other functions. Murphy beds with tables or desks that fold down when the bed is folded up are popular, and there are also models with sofas and shelving solutions.\nIf not secured or used",
"-22.296971706527984"
],
[
"Another Sleepless Night (Anne Murray song) Content The song, light and uptempo, was a bit of a departure for Murray, whose previous few singles had all been slower-tempo ballads. The narrator notes how it had been hard to sleep during recent nights, as her lover had been away, but then speculates that, with his return, it will yet be \"another sleepless night\", but this time because they'll be up all night \"making romance\".",
"-22.246984241442988"
],
[
"Divan (furniture) A divan (Turkish divan, originally from Persian devan) is a piece of couch-like sitting furniture or, in some countries, a box-spring based bed.\nPrimarily, in the Middle East (especially the Ottoman Empire), a divan was a long seat formed of a mattress laid against the side of the room, upon the floor or upon a raised structure or frame, with cushions to lean against.\nDivans received this name because they were generally found along the walls in Middle Eastern council chambers of a bureau called divan or diwan (from Persian, meaning a government council or office, from the bundles of",
"-22.166967474622652"
],
[
"comfortable in a place where you just feel that you're not living up to your full potential it's time to flip the script and move.\" Title and artwork About the title of the album Aguilera explained, \"I wanted to have a title that meant freeing myself from anything that wasn't my truth. That's a constant I think in everyone's life: every time you feel stifled in a current situation where you feel you're not quite yourself or being bogged down by other people's opinions. Or when you feel like you're stuck in a stagnant place.\"\nOn the May 2018 cover of",
"-22.16078777934308"
],
[
"I'm Only Sleeping Background and inspiration The first draft of Lennon's lyrics for \"I'm Only Sleeping\", written on the back of a letter from 1966, suggests that he was writing about the joys of staying in bed rather than any drug euphoria sometimes read into the lyrics. While not on tour, Lennon would usually spend his time sleeping, reading, writing or watching television, often under the influence of drugs, and would have to be woken by McCartney for their songwriting sessions. In a London Evening Standard article published on 4 March 1966, Maureen Cleave, a friend of Lennon's, wrote: \"He",
"-22.1297700649975"
],
[
"that are intended for guest use or as permanent beds in the bedroom. Bed sizes for temporary air beds range from twin to king size, but few guest bed manufacturers offer king size as most guest air beds are sold outside the United States where king-size mattresses are not standard. Most permanent air beds use easy-to-find conventional sheets and bedding. California King (or Western King) sheets and bedding may be more difficult to find as this size was originally conceived for the waterbed industry.\nRaised guest or temporary beds are typically raised off the ground to keep users away from the",
"-22.06927834189264"
],
[
"Under the Bed (album) Critical response In an April, 2009, Daily Vault review of Under the Bed, Duke Egbert wrote \"Under The Bed is tight, melodic, layered, harmony-drenched rock/pop, and one of the better new CDs I've heard this year. ... Besides the aforementioned 'Fall Right Now' and 'Freedom To Me,' I particularly liked the wordplay of 'Missteps,' 'Side Effects,' and 'Monsters,' all of which are both great pop songs and lyrical tours-de-force. Josh and the Empty Pockets have a bright future. They play intelligent, well-crafted pop/rock with substance that still manages to not get bogged down in",
"-22.045955826375575"
],
[
"developed for several practical reasons. Bedrooms often had draughts and could be cold at night: the curtains could be closed to help keep the occupant of the bed warm. The curtains also helped to give privacy to the sleepers, since servants and bodyguards often slept in the same room, especially in the case of royalty, served by a special group of servants of the bedchamber (usually noble courtiers), lords and ladies of the bedchamber, esquires of the body, etc. In the mediaeval era and up to the 18th century beds were items of furniture on which great personages and royalty",
"-22.038504258351168"
],
[
"them in the oven and bake them, that all falls off, because they're so old.\"\nBassist Simonon highlighted a guitar line on \"Safe European Home\", from the band's second album Give 'Em Enough Rope, saying he'd never even heard it before. \"It's probably some session musician, while I was asleep,\" Jones joked.",
"-21.899365207027586"
],
[
"\"I like that romantic idea of living an entire life for yourself while you’re asleep\". Album title The title of the album is from a line in lyrics from a song on the album called \"Rapid Eye Movement\" – \"Give me one more quiet night, 'fore this loud morning gets it right and does me in.\" Reception AllMusic gave the album 3 out of 5 stars stating that 'This Loud Morning winds up as an album that’s primarily textural mood music for the morning, and one that’s not all that loud either'. American Songwriter also gave the album 3",
"-21.888966603582958"
],
[
"Porch sitting Porch sitting, i.e., sitting on a front porch or stoop, usually of a private residence is a leisure activity which can be a direct or indirect form of social interaction. This activity is a staple of most urban areas in the United States, and helps contribute to a lively atmosphere, for those sitting and also those passing by. This activity is most common during good weather, especially on warm summer nights and weekends.\nPorch sitting was once considered to be a status symbol.\nAs well as being a good way to connect with neighbors, it also is an important form",
"-21.828031832526904"
],
[
"the arms to place the palms on the front of the shoulders and extending the arms down to the sides with palms on the floor. The 'arms on shoulders' variation is also used to make the incline sit-up easier.\nMore intense movement is achieved by doing weighted sit-ups, incline sit-ups with arms behind neck and even harder by doing the weighted incline sit-up. Health risks With improper form, full sit-ups may cause back pain and arching of the lower back, increasing the risk of back injury.",
"-21.760268274638292"
],
[
"16th and 17th century, closet-beds were much smaller. Lying down was associated with death, and therefore sleeping was done in a half-upright position. These closet-beds held two people, and beneath them were often drawers \"rolkoetsen\" that pulled out and provided beds for the children.",
"-21.667112952214666"
],
[
"as \"charming,\" and Rolling Stone critic Bob Palmer describes it as \"beautiful.\" Reception Music critic Johnny Rogan regards \"Sitting in My Hotel\" one of the two or three indispensable songs on Everybody's in Show-Biz, describing the lyrics as \"thoughtful,\" \"self-deprecating\" and \"self-analytical.\" Rolling Stone critic Bob Palmer calls the song \"a bona fide Kinks Klassic, dreamily wistful with a beautiful melody and featuring 'the exquisite Mr. John Gosling at the pianoforte.'\" Ole Jacob Hoel of Adresseavisen described it and \"Celluloid Heroes,\" also from Everybody's in Show-Biz as \"two of history's finest pop songs.\" However, music critic John",
"-21.651614160247846"
],
[
"arrangement from George Martin, \"Good Night\" – like all lullabies – might put you to sleep.\" Covers and other uses The song has been covered by several artists, including Jarvis Cocker, Pedro Aznar, the Carpenters, Ramsey Lewis, Kenny Loggins, Kidsongs, Linda Ronstadt, Cyril Stapleton, the Manhattan Transfer, Matthew Sweet, and Monkees drummer Micky Dolenz and the \"Forces Sweetheart\" Vera Lynn who released it as a single and performed it on a BBC TV variety show. Barbra Streisand recorded it in 1969 for her album What About Today? It was also chosen by the British band Coldplay to play out",
"-21.55437906671432"
],
[
"Sleep Tonight The song \"Sleep Tonight\" is a piano-driven ballad, with a restrained string arrangement, a heavy drum beat and a gospel-like vocal arrangement. The song shows a maturing musician and songwriter, and is a bridge between the younger Richards \"outlaw\" songs and the soulful ballads he became known for on later Rolling Stones records like \"Slipping Away\" (Steel Wheels), \"The Worst\" and \"Thru and Thru\" (Voodoo Lounge), \"How Can I Stop\" (Bridges to Babylon) and \"Losing My Touch\" (Forty Licks).",
"-21.553056199016282"
],
[
"Don't Get Comfortable (song) Background This song was produced by Dan Muckala. Composition \"Don't Get Comfortable\" was written by Brandon Heath and Phillip LaRue. Release The song \"Don't Get Comfortable\" was digitally released as the third and final single from Don't Get Comfortable in 2007.",
"-21.502268668671604"
],
[
"for supporting the head or neck, even though they may not be covered with a pillow case, as are bed pillows.\nThere are five common synonyms for decorative pillows which are descriptive of their use in the home. \"Accent\" pillows emphasize or accent some other part of the home decor. The terms \"sofa pillow\" and \"couch pillow\" refer to the place these decorative pillows are likely found. The terms \"toss pillow\" and \"throw pillow\" may refer to the way they generally arrive in their places.\nNovelty pillows are shaped like humorous objects (a banana, tweety bird, a human leg, a chainsaw, a",
"-21.499378696283202"
],
[
"I Can Sleep When I'm Dead Content The song is an up-tempo accompanied largely by electric guitar, in which the central character is kept awake due to a lifestyle of constant nighttime partying. As a result, he does not have any time set aside for sleeping, thus claiming that he can \"sleep when [he's] dead\". The song's title was inspired by a comment which Carroll made to a friend, describing his own attempts to maintain his career in country music while raising four children at the same time. Reception Engine 145 reviewer Matt C. gave the song a \"thumbs up\"",
"-21.490030649671098"
],
[
"complete sheet set, blanket and pillow. I slept without a pillow for many months.\nAll of the furniture was very old and decrepit. For light, we had bare bulbs hanging from the ceiling. The kitchens had also been ripped out to make more room for people so there were exposed pipes everywhere ... This building was in an unsafe area of Los Angeles and I often heard gunshots at night. It was a very frightening place for me to live.\nThe bathrooms .... were also not fully functional and we often had no warm water, the tiles in the shower were moldy",
"-21.462300172926916"
],
[
"a car gracefully takes practice. When sitting, the legs need to be close together. Activities such as climbing ladders and riding bicycles can be very difficult in a pencil skirt. Due to reduced ventilation, the pencil skirt is warmer than other styles, and it is less likely to be blown up by gusts of wind.",
"-21.41426919717378"
],
[
"traditional way of sitting while doing other arts such as shodō (calligraphy) and ikebana (flower arranging), though with the increasing use of western-style furniture it is not always necessary nowadays.\nMany theatres for traditional performing arts such as kabuki and sumo still have audience seating sections where the spectators sit in seiza style. Shikkō Walking on the feet and knees while in the seiza posture, known as shikkō (膝行, knee-movement), is considered more polite than standing up and walking regularly. Shikkō is today quite rare, but is found in some traditional formal restaurants and ryokan, and is practiced in the martial",
"-21.40590122019057"
],
[
"How Do You Sleep at Night Critical reception Deborah Evans Price of Billboard gave the song a favorable review, writing that \"with each successive release [Hayes] seems to grow more confident in his smoky baritone, and he imbuses this taut single with a tense passion that perfectly suits the lyric.\"",
"-21.348530974515597"
],
[
"retro-styled ballad\", and The Boombox's Amber McKynzie described it as \"sultry ode to 60s soul\". The Tampa Bay Times' Jay Cridlin equated the single to \"five minutes of slow-burning flame\". Elias Leight of Vogue felt that \"Sleeping with the One I Love\" was \"one of the more unusual songs on radio at the moment\" as it did not contain strong hip hop elements, and compared it to Shirley Bassey's music.\n\"Sleeping with the One I Love\" revolves around Fantasia feeling torn between the stability of her boyfriend and the sensual pleasures of her lover. According to Wanda J. Coppage of",
"-21.296365986025194"
],
[
"furniture is made from exotic woods such as osage orange. Usage Log furniture is often featured in country and holiday houses. It is a popular choice for cottage houses and mountain homes. It is most commonly favored in mountainous regions of America (Rocky Mountains) and Europe (Alps). It is often classified as premium furniture because its cost is higher than the cost of what is considered regular furniture. Because of its nature, log furniture can be a good choice for outdoor use. With the right impregnation, it can last decades without the need of refurbishing. It rose to popularity again",
"-21.264214750612155"
],
[
"from the ground. The space under the house is utilized in various ways. The floor is ordinarily of split bamboo or palma brava. The floor of the living room is sometimes, in the humbler dwellings, all on one level. Usually, platforms about 2 to 2.5 meters wide are built against one, two, three, or fourwalls. Mats may cover these platforms, which then become lounging places by day, and beds by night.\nThere is no ceiling in the house, and the exposed beams of the roof serve as convenient places from which to hang a multitude of things. In the house of",
"-21.25407039435231"
],
[
"'corded' bed has three mattresses, a sign of high status as well as comfort. The bed is equipped with 'bedstaffs', which prevented piled bedclothes from falling off the bed. The Hall Gallery One of the most striking features of the house is the gallery which runs along two sides of the hall. The wood of the gallery has been dated to around the late 17th century and it is thought that the heraldic panels set into it, were added at a later date, most likely by the Wynne family. The main balustrades indicate a date of c. 1680-90, but the",
"-21.245077656880312"
],
[
"We Should Be Sleeping Context The song follows the story behind Eddie Money and his band's lack of sleep because of extensive and exhausting touring. In the lyrics, Eddie Money uses several references towards staying awake, yet having no energy.",
"-21.230220526311314"
],
[
"extra 'bracing' and 'blocking' joist-to-joist intended spread the weight to have as little sagging on any joist as possible when there is a live load on the floor above.\nIn Europe and North America only a few rare floors will be seen to have no separate floor covering on top, and those are normally because of a temporary condition pending sales or occupancy; in semi-custom new construction and some rental markets, such floors are provided for the new home buyer (renter) to select their own preferred floor coverings usually a wall to wall carpet, or one piece vinyl floor covering. Wood",
"-21.212405999132898"
],
[
"Bedroom History In larger Victorian houses it was common to have accessible from the bedroom a boudoir for the lady of the house and a dressing room for the gentleman. Attic bedrooms exist in some houses; since they are only separated from the outside air by the roof they are typically cold in winter and may be too hot in summer. The slope of the rafters supporting a pitched roof also makes them inconvenient. In houses where servants were living in they often used attic bedrooms.\nIn the 14th century the lower class slept on mattresses that were stuffed with hay",
"-21.195956577353172"
],
[
"Platform bed A platform bed, also known as a cabin bed, is a bed with a base consisting of a raised, level, usually rectangular horizontal solid frame, often with rows of flexible wooden slats or latticed structure meant to support just a mattress. This platform alone provides adequate, flexible support and ventilation for a mattress, eliminating the need for a box-spring or separate bed base (foundation). History The actual date for the invention of the first platform bed is impossible to pinpoint, as the modern box-spring was not invented until the",
"-21.175546936625324"
],
[
"in 1766. Purpose Rocking chairs are often seen as evocative of parenting, as the gentle rocking motion can soothe infants.\nMany adults find rocking chairs soothing because of the gentle motion. Gentle rocking motion has been shown to provide faster onset of sleep than remaining stationary, mimicking the process of a parent rocking a child to sleep.\nRocking chairs are also comfortable because, when a user sits in one without rocking, the chair automatically rocks backward until the sitter's center of gravity is met, thus granting an ergonomic benefit with the occupant kept at an un-stressed position and angle.\nVarieties of rockers include",
"-21.172844520064245"
],
[
"Occasional furniture Occasional furniture refers to small pieces of furniture that can be put to varied uses as the occasion demands. Items such as small tables, nightstands, chests, commodes, and easily moved chairs are usually included in this category.\nThe term occasional furniture is very generic. For example, occasional tables include end tables, lamp tables, sofa tables, coffee tables, and so forth.\nIn contrast to occasional furniture, accent furniture tends to be smaller in size, and to serve a more decorative than functional purpose.",
"-21.1504761275246"
],
[
"Fainting room A fainting room was a private room, of which its main furniture were fainting couches, used during the Victorian era, to make women more comfortable during the home treatment of female hysteria. Fainting rooms were used for more privacy during home treatment pelvic massages. Such couches or sofas typically had an arm on one side only to permit easy access to a reclining position, similar to its cousin the Chaise longue, although the sofa style most typically featured a back at one end (usually the side with the arm) so that the resulting position was not purely supine.\nThere",
"-21.14955052260484"
],
[
"Fragile (Dead or Alive album) Album title \"Because during the first few weeks of that, that's what I felt. Because suddenly...I'd be getting ready to go to the studio, and I'd be asleep on the sofa, like a narcoleptic. I would get to the studio, and we'd be programming stuff. And then I'd be asleep and be woken up at 11 o'clock at night to go home. And I thought 'Is this stress induced, or is this genuine fatigue?' And it was fatigue. And gradually through doing certain things, the energy levels built and built and built. Not to the",
"-21.14685860807367"
],
[
"middle casts iron chains, and low casts coiled rope. The legs are also provided in order that the bed may be lowered down in case of illness, when the swinging motion to which it is liable would be social danger or annoyance to the patient. The furniture of the bed is a matter of great importance; high castes use a mattress and pillows of red silk; middle castes are content with cotton stuff; while low casts sleep on straw. The mattress on straw is covered with a mat, the pattern and quality of which are regulated by the caste of",
"-21.106762157112826"
],
[
"\"Can I Sleep in Your Arms\". The song was well liked by Country radio, and peaked in the top 10 at No. 6, just missing the Top 5 spot. \"Can I Sleep in Your Arms\" was originally derived from an old hobo lament titled, \"May I Sleep In Your Barn Tonight, Mister?\". The follow-up to the top 10 came with \"Lucky Ladies\" in 1974, which came close to hitting the top 10, peaking in the top 15. \"Lucky Ladies\" was also derived from another song. Seely transformed an old Appalachian ballad titled \"Come All You Fair and Tender Ladies\" to",
"-21.04446456363803"
],
[
"My Bed My Bed is a work by the English artist Tracey Emin. First created in 1998, it was exhibited at the Tate Gallery in 1999 as one of the shortlisted works for the Turner Prize. It consisted of her bed with bedroom objects in an abject state, and gained much media attention. Although it did not win the prize, its notoriety has persisted. Inspiration The idea for My Bed was inspired by a sexual yet depressive phase in the artist's life when she had remained in bed for four days without eating or drinking anything but alcohol. When she",
"-21.01975223791669"
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[
"a couch while people interact around him.\" Reception Scandipop described the song as \"A super-catchy, summer-ready, radio-friendly, bop of a tune that sort of meets in the middle of what he delivered with both his debut EP and his Avicii collabs. It's got his own soulful sound, with the slightest of country influences.\"",
"-20.997661497043737"
],
[
"against each other trying to not collapse to the floor with exhaustion.",
"-20.944426685331564"
],
[
"Bed frame A bed frame or bedstead is the part of a bed used to position the mattress and base (foundation), and may include means of supporting a canopy above. Bed frames are typically made of wood or metal. A bed frame includes head, foot, and side rails. It may also include slats to support the mattress, in which case a separate base is not necessary, as in a platform bed. Most double (full) sized beds, along with all queen and king size beds, require some type of center support rail, typically also with extra feet extending down to the",
"-20.865115513646742"
],
[
"sharing a similar perspective on music, stating: \"The primary attraction with No Sleep for us was that it was obvious through talking to Chris [Hansen] that his intentions with the label were in line with ours as a band.\" To fill in the gap between their debut release Vancouver and their upcoming album the band released an exclusive vinyl record, Untitled 7\", consisting of two tracks which were extra songs from the writing sessions of their debut album. Also in May, the EP Here, Hear. was released, which would soon follow sequels, with Dreyer stating: \"Here Hear we did as",
"-20.84639327104378"
],
[
"a pillow can also help the woman arch her back and avoid backache.\nIn one variant, the woman may lift and slightly bend her legs, resting her feet flat on the mattress. This shortens the distance between the vagina and cervix, and may apply more friction to the area termed the G-Spot. The woman may find this more comfortable than the standard position, and it can allow her to push against the man's thrust, giving her some control over the rhythm.\nPlacing the woman's legs on or over the man's shoulders provides the deepest possible penetration. This variant is sometimes called the",
"-20.836096540821018"
],
[
"Sleeping porch A sleeping porch is a deck or balcony, sometimes screened or otherwise enclosed with screened windows, and furnished for sleeping in the warmer months. Sleeping porches can be on ground level or on a higher storey and in either the front or back of a home. The idea of a sleeping porch dates back nearly a hundred years when people would sleep on a screened-in porch to get the coolness of the night air during summer without being bothered by bugs. Before the advent of air conditioning, families often created sleeping areas on outdoor porches, where children would",
"-20.81413831654936"
],
[
"Bedding Bedding, also known as bedclothes or bed linen, is the materials laid above the mattress of a bed for hygiene, warmth, protection of the mattress, and decorative effect. Bedding is the removable and washable portion of a human sleeping environment. Multiple sets of bedding for each bed are often washed in rotation and/or changed seasonally to improve sleep comfort at varying room temperatures. Most standardised measurements for bedding are rectangular, but there are also some square-shaped sizes, which allows the user to put on bedding without having to consider its lengthwise orientation (i.e. a 220 cm × 220 cm (87 in × 87 in) duvet).\nIn",
"-20.802640721027274"
],
[
"described Sleeping in the Aviary's music as \"energetic pop-rock\". A Punknews.org reviewer described the band's debut album, Oh, This Old Thing?, as \"snotty, fuck-all lo-fi power-pop,\" while Wisconsin Public Television described their style as \"country-punk-rock.\" Reviewers have also noted that Sleeping in the Aviary's music resembles that of the 1950s and 60's, and have compared the music on their fourth album, \"You and Me, Ghost,\" to The Clean, the Knack, and Guided by Voices. A Minnesota Daily review of You and Me, Ghost wrote that \"Perhaps Sleeping in the Aviary’s most commendable feat is their ability to take some of",
"-20.71959689434152"
],
[
"after being put up, so we could with little effort, see what was going on in the next room, and as the floor was the same, I used to see the chickens scratching the ground under the floor between the short wooden piles on which the little Hotel!!! was built. The walls had coloured and uncoloured illustrations from different newspapers stuck on them in places, which made one's room a little more private. There was only one bedroom and a sort of press with a bed in it. We had only one very small basin between us for our ablutions.",
"-20.71280386528815"
],
[
"I Can't Sleep (song) Background In an interview with Country Weekly, Walker said, \"It's an R&B kind of song I started one day at the beach. Not long after that, Chely Wright and Lonestar's Richie McDonald came on my bus at a show in Colorado and we played songs we'd each started writing. When I played a piece of 'I Can't Sleep,' Chely said she could help me finish it. And when we played it at Chely's annual charity fundraiser during Fan Fair last June, it got a standing ovation.\"\nWright told Jam!, \"The most creative thing happened the other night",
"-20.70410970181547"
],
[
"from the final eleven contestants of the ninth installment of Popstars, credited as \"Popstars\". Reception Upon its release, No Sleep was met with mixed response from music critics.\nJosef Gasteiger of German magazine Laut criticized the album's content and its lyrics as \"boring\", while pointing out the lack of profundity and stating that the songs sounded like demo versions. He further suggested that \"Keep On\" and \"Hurtful\" would have sounded better as ballads, and picked \"I Swear\" as the highlight on the album. Christopher Polusik, writing for T-Online, negatively commented on how the short recording impacted on the album's production. He",
"-20.68657721398631"
],
[
"the underlying surface.\nTypically, a stair carpet will become more hard-worn, since it gets a more forceful and 'sliding sole' footfall than flat floor carpets in rooms and hallways. Attachment A stair carpet may be held in place and fixed to the staircase by means of carpet tacks or a floor adhesive; and/or stair rods used at the base of the risers.\nIt is important that it is fixed securely to avoid accidental trips and slips.",
"-20.65216690687521"
],
[
"lords and noblemen in medieval Europe for warmth and privacy, as their attendants often slept in the same room. Until the 16th century, these beds, even those of the nobles, were fairly plain and understated. During this period, carved work on the headboard and posts became popular and more ornate canopy beds followed.\nIn pre-Republican China, until 1911, the family's canopy bed was the most important piece of household furniture, and often part of the bride's dowry. As signifiers of status, these beds were often intricately decorated with auspicious motifs, particularly relating to fertility, longevity and a happy marital",
"-20.631576378742466"
],
[
"SIT share a basic assumption - that one can study existing creative ideas in a field, identify common logical patterns in these ideas, translate the patterns into a set of Thinking Tools, and then apply these Thinking Tools to generate new creative ideas. In spite of the commonalties, SIT strongly differs from TRIZ in several important respects, having to do mainly with its practical application. From TRIZ to SIT The move from TRIZ to SIT was motivated by the desire to create a method that is easier to learn and retain (achieved through a smaller number of rules and tools),",
"-20.572647121705813"
],
[
"spring or a slatted foundation. Popular in Europe, a divan incorporates both mattress and foundation in a single upholstered, footed unit. Divans have at least one innerspring layer as well as cushioning materials. They may be supplied with a secondary mattress and/or a removable \"topper.\" Mattresses may also be filled with air or water, or a variety of natural fibers, such as in futons. Kapok is a common mattress material in Southeast Asia, and coir in South Asia. History The word mattress derives from the Arabic مَطْرَحٌ (maṭraḥ) which means \"something thrown down\" or \"place where something is thrown down\"",
"-20.569531781995465"
],
[
"use in mattresses.",
"-20.55396937666228"
],
[
"Song about the Towel English lyrics by Stepan Ludwig Pasicznyk (United Kingdom)\nDearest mother of mine,\n\nTell me why you aren't sleeping?\n\nWhy you woke me to gaze \n\nAt the stars up above?\n\nDid you know I was leaving?\n\nTell me why ... was that why you were grieving,\n\nWas the cloth that you gave me\n\nAs a sign of your love?",
"-20.501164617424365"
],
[
"... For me, Sleep is an attempt to see how that space when your conscious mind is on holiday can be a place for music to live.\" Live performance The album was performed in its entirety as one compositional piece at the Reading Room at Wellcome Collection in London, England, on September 27, 2015 from midnight to 8:00 AM as the climax of the BBC Radio 3 \"Science and Music\" weekend.\nThe performance broke several records, including the longest live broadcast of a single piece of music in BBC Radio 3's station's history. The performance also set Guinness World Records for",
"-20.494530512289202"
],
[
"back-up vocals to \"Why Are We Sleeping?\", a track on The Soft Machine, the 1968 debut album by the British psychedelic rock band of the same name.\nFollowing the break-up of The Cake in 1968, Jacobs and Barooshian toured with Dr John, who was one of the session musicians on their albums, and subsequently moved to the UK, where they became part of Ginger Baker's Air Force. Barooshian also recorded an album in Japan with Tetsu Yamauchi.\nJacobs married Chris Wood of the English group Traffic in 1969. Jeanette Jacobs Wood died on January 1, 1982, aged 32.\nThe Kevin Ayers song",
"-20.4786388270295"
],
[
"from CDstarts.de found that it was the only song above \"sophisticated average.\" Music magazine Musikwoche called \"Let's Go to Bed\" a \"racy but modern R&B track\" with a quality distinctly above the songs on previous album Elle'ments. Less enthusiastic, Abini Zöllner from Berliner Zeitung wrote that the track felt like \"no surprise.\"\nThe song marked one of Mousse T. und Errol Rennalls's first collaborations with Universal Music Publishing (UMPG) and their Merge Music company. Released on CD maxi single on November 4, 2002, \"Let's go to Bed\" debuted and peaked at number twelve on the German Singles Chart on November 18,",
"-20.468298550855252"
],
[
"Canapé (furniture) A canapé is a piece of furniture similar to a couch, and is meant to describe an elegant sofa made out of elaborately carved wood with wooden legs, and upholstered seats, back, and armrests that seats three, that emerged from France in the 18th century. A style created during the Louis XV and Louis XVI periods, similar yet different from designs used by Thomas Chippendale, it later became popular in the United States during the 19th century.\nIts shape is distinct from other sofas of the period, including the divan and chaise longue, but does include several forms. Frequently",
"-20.457848041514808"
],
[
"calling it \"excellent.\" Critical reception \"One More Sleep\" garnered acclaim from music critics. Writing for Digital Spy, Lewis Corner wrote that \"One More Sleep\" is more \"heart-warming\" and \"sweet\" than a Christmas pudding, and that is likely to become an annual Christmas staple song. He awarded the song four out of a possible five stars. Sam Lanksy of Idolator wrote that the song is \"wonderfully old-fashioned\", with \"ooh-oohs\" sung in the background and \"twinkly\" production. Lanksy continued to write that if \"One More Sleep\" fails to get listeners in the mood for Christmas, then \"nothing\" else would. Popjustice wrote that",
"-20.44951532469713"
]
] |
4omquy | why green laser pointers cost only a few dollars more than red laser pointer but green self-leveling laser levels cost hundreds of dollars more than their red counterparts | [
"Not my answer but an answer I found on a forum from 2004. > In a 640nm red laser pointer, there's a red-emitting diode and a lens to collimate (focus) the beam. > In a 532nm green laser (pointer or larger size), there's a BIG infrared laser diode that generates laser light at 808nm, this is fired into a crystal containing the rare-earth element \"neodymium\". This crystal takes the 808nm infrared light and lases at 1064nm (yes, deeper in the infrared!). This 1064nm laser light comes out of the NdYV04 (neodymium yttrium vanadium oxide) crystal and is then shot into a second crystal (containing potassium, titanium, & amp; phosphorus, usually called KTP) that doubles the frequency to 532nm - the bright green color you see. This light is then collimated (focused) by a lens and emerges out the laser's \"business end\". Just before the lens, there's a filter that removes any stray IR (infrared) rays from the pump diode and the neodymium crystal. Basically, with green diode laser pointers there are lots of itty bitty parts, and they all need to be aligned by hand. If the polarisation is \"off\", one or both crystals need to be turned. The overall process of making and the parts make the green one more expensive. With red diode lasers, you just slap in the diode and slap a lens in front of it, which makes it cheaper. You can also see an image [here]( URL_0 ) which more or less shows how the green laser pointer is more complex.",
"Hand held pointers are less precise, you dont have to worry too much about accuracy and overall beam thickness Leveling lasers require a high degree of accuracy, they must be straight, and the beam must stay focused and the same thickness over a long distance without fault. Green lasers have a lot more going on inside them, they have a lot of tiny parts that all must be aligned properly or they will not correctly for the job of a leveling laser. Red lasers are fairly simple compared to a green laser, so there is less to go wrong when making one, and thus less effort is required to make one.",
"Because green lasers (532nm at least) are DPSS or diode pumped solid state, which means that they produce the laser beam by passing the original (1064nm) beam produced through a frequency doubling crystal, which, of course, hales the wavelength. This adds an additional component which must be in perfect alignment in any kind of precision equipment, which increases manufacturing costs.",
"Well, because green lasers are more visible than red lasers, three or four times more visible. On the one hand, it's good to have a laser line that is more visible. But on the other hand, it requires much more expensive optics. It's because of beam spread. Even laser beams spread over a distance. The greater the distance, the wider the spread. This is not a concern with laser pointers, but it is a serious concern with laser levels. Because a green laser is more visible, it is visible at a greater distance, and so the optics must be designed to minimize the beam spread. With a red laser, it's not so crucial because the line won't be visible out at the distance where the beam spread could cause problems.",
"The real answer is because the green laser is easier to see and you need the leveller to make money. Has nothing to do with wavelength or whatever other theorycrafting other people in this thread are coming up with. I knew a commercial and industrial painter once. Ran a small one or two man shop. A small proprietary washer for his paint spray machine was 50 dollars instead of 50 cents. Why? Because he needs the professional spray machine to make money. That simple. Just a small steel washer. And you know what? He bought it. A small piece of machined metal for 50 bucks. Because he needs it to make money, and he doesn't make money sitting at home. So he bought it.",
"For reference, purple(Blu-ray) lasers are 405nm, common blue lasers are 445nm, direct diode green lasers are 520nm(First produced around 5 years ago), Diode pumped solid state(dpss) green lasers, the ones that use crystals, are 532nm, red lasers are 650nm and infrared lasers are 808nm. A diode pumped solid state green laser uses an 808nm laser diode and two different crystals to produce coherent green light. The first Crystal pushes the light further into the infrared too to produce light at 1064nm wavelength. The 2nd Crystal is a frequency doubling medium which cuts the wavelength in half, resulting in green light with a wavelength of 532nm. Self levelling green lasers have been around much longer than direct diode green lasers have been around. So to answer OPs question, the more expensive self levelling green lasers that likely used dpss(crystals) green lasers are very difficult and time consuming to produce with any precision. A cheap green dpss laser pointer like this one: URL_0 is thrown together as quickly as possible and the laser beam being emitted may be \"off\" by as much as 20°, and depending on the quality control of the manufacturer, could be the size of a tennis ball at 100 feet. This is called poor divergence. For a high quality and precise green dpss laser, it would take higher quality lenses and crystals, and it would have to be tuned and calibrated manually by the manufacturer in order to produce a laser beam that is aligned properly and doesn't expand(diverge) too much. Direct diode green lasers are coming down in price, so the price of red versus green self levelling lasers could even out in the next few years, but likely won't because of greed.",
"While other answers are correct in explaining the difference between red and green laser modules, it doesn't really have much to do with what you are asking. Since the price difference between modules can be really low (about a dollar) it really boils down to marketing and availability of parts. While you can indeed buy a complete green laser pointer for not much more than a dollar from China, finding a reliable supplier of cheap green laser modules can still be quite difficult. Try finding a line laser module and it becomes much more difficult already. For such products it usually takes quite a long time for the price of cheap parts to reflect in the prices of end products.",
"Maybe I can piggyback off the question. How come the only light blue laser I've seen had to be plugged into the wall unit? What makes the baby blue laser so much more powerful? Or should I say why does it need to be plugged into a wall. Note: my professor said he'd lose his job if he let anyone of us operate it. Said if he pointed it at a sheet of paper long enough it would ignite.",
"While everyone seems focused on the cost of the laser itself, really it's because of their accuracy. Even the cheapest green laser level will out perform a high end red. To level a 1000' diameter plane to within hundredths of inch is where most of the costs are. Source: worked as a surveyor",
"Which specific models are you looking at? For example, the DeWalt 12V MAX line has a red and a green variant that look identical, but the green model comes with a 12V lithium ion battery and the red one doesn't.",
"Your standard green laser is DPSS So you hit a crystal with Infrared and it lases to about 1000nm due to electronic transition. The crystal has Neodymium ions which are fluorescent. Something like your standard glow in the dark. You hit it with light, and it glows green. This one glows even deeper infrared. But you do not want infrared. So this is sent to Potassium titanyl phosphate crystal, which is a frequency doubler The problem is that this setup is useful only for low power stuff. So this is used in cheap pointers. In 2012 the true green laser was commercially sold by Nichia and Osram. They can be high power, but cost much more than the older method.",
"The cheapest red laser pointer I can find on ebay is $0.99, the cheapest green is $3.29. The dewalt DW088LR red laser level is $199.00 The dewalt DW088LG green level is $349.00 What OP is likely seeing is actually overpriced red laser pointers.",
"IDK but here's a nice one on AliExpress for $25 bucks. URL_0 "
] | [
[
"For the same optical power, green laser light will seem brighter than other colors because the human eye is most sensitive at low light levels in the green region of the spectrum (wavelength 520–570 nm). Sensitivity decreases for longer (redder) and shorter (bluer) wavelengths.\nThe output power of a laser pointer is usually stated in milliwatts (mW). In the U.S. lasers are classified by the American National Standards Institute and Food and Drug Administration (FDA)—see Laser safety#Classification for details. Visible laser pointers (400–700 nm) operating at less than 1 mW power are Class 2 or II, and visible laser pointers operating with 1–5 mW power",
"-31.582934492937056"
],
[
"Slightly more expensive ones use a red-orange 635 nm diode, more easily visible because of the greater sensitivity of the human eye at 635 nm. Other colors are possible too, with the 532 nm green laser being the most common alternative. Yellow-orange laser pointers, at 593.5 nm, later became available. In September 2005 handheld blue laser pointers at 473 nm became available. In early 2010 \"Blu-ray\" (actually violet) laser pointers at 405 nm went on sale.\nThe apparent brightness of a spot from a laser beam depends on the optical power of the laser, the reflectivity of the surface, and the chromatic response of the human eye.",
"-30.814569563888654"
],
[
"green lasers is particularly serious, as the wavelength (532 nm) is near peak sensitivity of the dark-adapted eye and may appear to be 35 times brighter than a red laser of identical power output.\nIrresponsible use of laser pointers is often frowned upon by members of the laser projector community who fear that their misuse may result in legislation affecting lasers designed to be placed within projectors and used within the entertainment industry. Others involved in activities where dazzling or distraction are dangerous are also a concern.\nAnother distressing and potentially dangerous misuse of laser pointers is to use them when the dot",
"-30.35594565944848"
],
[
"green laser pointers (classes II and IIIa) are the safest to use, and anything more powerful is usually not necessary for pointing purposes, since the beam is still visible in dark lighting conditions.\nThe United States Coast Guard requires their aircrews to return to base if a green laser is pointed at them, and have their eyes examined for eye damage. People have been given up to five years in jail for aiming a green laser at an aircraft. Blue Blue laser pointers in specific wavelengths such as 473 nm usually have the same basic construction as DPSS green lasers. In",
"-29.564199994842056"
],
[
"(QCW) mode to reduce cooling problems and prolong battery life.\nAn announcement in 2009 of a direct green laser (which does not require doubling) promises much higher efficiencies and could foster the development of new color video projectors.\nIn 2012, Nichia and OSRAM developed and manufactured merchant high-power green laser diodes (515/520 nm), which can emit green laser directly.\nBecause even a low-powered green laser is visible at night through Rayleigh scattering from air molecules, this type of pointer is used by astronomers to easily point out stars and constellations. Green laser pointers can come in a variety of different output powers. The 5 mW",
"-29.37787741649663"
],
[
"593.5 nm, appears more gold in colour compared to the more amber appearance of the 593.5 nm wavelength. Astronomical observatories use a specially tuned dye laser at 589.2 nm (yellow) to create a laser guide star for use with astronomical adaptive optics. Green Green laser pointers appeared on the market around 2000 and are the most common type of DPSS lasers (also called diode-pumped solid-state frequency-doubled, DPSSFD). They are more complex than standard red laser pointers, because laser diodes are not commonly available in this wavelength range. The green light is generated through a multi-step process, usually beginning with a high-power (typically 100–300 mW)",
"-29.227024900363176"
],
[
"for 10 or more seconds, can cause damage.\nThe UK Health Protection Agency warns against the higher-power typically green laser pointers available over the Internet, with power output of up to a few hundred milliwatts, as \"extremely dangerous and not suitable for sale to the public.\" Regulations and misuse Since laser pointers became readily available, they have been misused, leading to the development of laws and regulations specifically addressing use of such lasers. Their very long range makes it difficult to find the source of a laser spot. In some circumstances they make people fear they are being targeted by weapons,",
"-28.519888920665835"
],
[
"Lasers emitting in the green part of the spectrum are widely available to the general public in a wide range of output powers. Green laser pointers outputting at 532 nm (563.5 THz) are relatively inexpensive compared to other wavelengths of the same power, and are very popular due to their good beam quality and very high apparent brightness. The most common green lasers use diode pumped solid state (DPSS) technology to create the green light. An infrared laser diode at 808 nm is used to pump a crystal of neodymium-doped yttrium vanadium oxide (Nd:YVO4) or neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG) and induces",
"-28.508740759782086"
],
[
"players. The use of red laser diodes became widespread with the commercial success of modern DVD players, which use a 660 nm laser diode technology. Today, red and red-orange laser diodes are widely available to the public in the form of extremely inexpensive laser pointers. Portable, high-powered versions are also available for various applications. More recently, 671 nm diode-pumped solid state (DPSS) lasers have been introduced to the market for all-DPSS laser display systems, particle image velocimetry, Raman spectroscopy, and holography.\nRed's wavelength has been an important factor in laser technologies; red lasers, used in early compact disc technologies, are being replaced by",
"-28.40612309303833"
],
[
"a lower-cost alternative for many such applications). A consumer application of the red HeNe laser is the LaserDisc player, made by Pioneer. The laser is used in the device to read the optical disc.",
"-28.065809065534268"
],
[
"like laser projectors have driven down prices. Recent popularity of the high-power version of these 447 nm pointers, which also have improved optics for better collimation and lower divergence, rivals the hazards associated with the use of these portable devices by persons of questionable intention and cost has diminished to be competitive with DPSS green lasers wavelengths. Violet Lasers emitting a violet light beam at 405 nm may be constructed with GaN (gallium nitride) semiconductors. This is close to ultraviolet, bordering on the very extreme of human vision, and can cause bright blue fluorescence, and thus a blue rather than violet spot,",
"-28.0553521928814"
],
[
"are Class 3A or IIIa. Class 3B or IIIb lasers generate between 5 and 500 mW; Class 4 or IV lasers generate more than 500 mW. The US FDA Code of Federal Regulations stipulates that \"demonstration laser products\" such as pointers must comply with applicable requirements for Class I, IIa, II, or IIIa devices. Red and red-orange These are the simplest pointers, as laser diodes are available in these wavelengths. The pointer is nothing more than a battery-powered laser diode. The first red laser pointers released in the early 1980s were large, unwieldy devices that sold for hundreds of dollars. Today, they",
"-27.985073041549185"
],
[
"of applications, including pointing, illumination, surgery, laser light shows, spectroscopy, interferometry, fluorescence, holography, machine vision, non-lethal weapons and bird control.\nAs of mid-2011, direct green laser diodes at 510 nm and 500 nm have become generally available, although the price remains relatively prohibitive for widespread public use. The efficiency of these lasers (peak 3%) compared to that of DPSS green lasers (peak 35%) may also be limiting adoption of the diodes to niche uses. Pigments, food coloring and fireworks Many minerals provide pigments which have been used in green paints and dyes over the centuries. Pigments, in this case, are minerals which reflect",
"-27.721801686936487"
],
[
"but distinctly violet). In mid-to-late 2011, 405 nm blue-violet laser diode modules with an optical power of 250 mW, based on GaN violet laser diodes made for Blu-ray disc readers, had reached the market from Chinese sources for prices of about US$60 including delivery.\nAt the same time, a few higher-powered (120 mW) 404–405 nm \"violet\" laser pointers have become available that are not based on GaN, but use DPSS frequency-doubler technology from 1-watt 808 nm GaAlAs infrared diode lasers. As with infrared-driven green laser pointers above, such devices are able to pop balloons and light matches, but this is as a result of an unfiltered",
"-27.56464452893124"
],
[
"far less common, due to the cost and potential dangers involved. Due to the cost of lasers, some hobbyists use inexpensive means to obtain lasers, such as salvaging laser diodes from broken DVD players (red), Blu-ray players (violet), or even higher power laser diodes from CD or DVD burners.\nHobbyists also have been taking surplus pulsed lasers from retired military applications and modifying them for pulsed holography. Pulsed Ruby and pulsed YAG lasers have been used.",
"-27.539955976681085"
],
[
"are much smaller and generally cost very little. In the 21st century, diode-pumped solid-state (DPSS) red laser pointers emitting at 671 nm became available. Although this wavelength can be obtained directly with an inexpensive laser diode, higher beam quality and narrower spectral bandwidth are achieved through DPSS versions. Orange Orange laser pointers emitting at 593.5 nm became available in the last few years. Although they are based on the DPSS process, in this case two lasing lines of the ND:YVO4, 1064 nm and 1342 nm, are summed together with a nonlinear crystal. The complexity of this process makes these laser pointers inherently unstable and",
"-27.53859893840854"
],
[
"typically 10–13%, about half that typical for green lasers (20–30%).\nBlue lasers can also be fabricated directly with InGaN semiconductors, which produce blue light without frequency doubling. 450 nm (447 nm plus/minus 5 nm) blue laser diodes are currently available on the open market. Some blue diodes are capable of very high power; such as Nichia's NDB7K75 diode, which can continuously output over 5 watts of energy if overdriven. The devices are brighter for the same power than 405 nm violet laser diodes, since the longer wavelength is closer to the peak sensitivity of the human eye. Mass production of laser diodes for commercial devices",
"-27.531651754714403"
],
[
"A laser can be classified as Class 1M if the power that can pass through the pupil of the naked eye is less than the AEL for Class 1, but the power that can be collected into the eye by typical magnifying optics (as defined in the standard) is higher than the AEL for Class 1 and lower than the AEL for Class 3B. Class 2 A Class 2 laser is considered to be safe because the blink reflex (glare aversion response to bright lights) will limit the exposure to no more than 0.25 seconds. It only applies to visible-light lasers (400–700 nm). Class-2 lasers are",
"-27.423109452589415"
],
[
"the 946 nm transition used in blue-laser applications. For high output power BBO crystals are used as frequency doublers; for lower powers, KTP is used. Output powers available are up to 5000 mW. Conversion efficiency for producing 473 nm laser radiation is inefficient with some of the best lab produced results coming in at 10-15% efficient at converting 946 nm laser radiation to 473 nm laser radiation. In practical applications, one can expect this to be even lower. Due to this low conversion efficiency, use of a 1000 mW IR diode results in at most 150 mW of visible blue light.\nBlue lasers can also be fabricated directly",
"-26.853776319898316"
],
[
"be a particular problem with some less expensive frequency-doubled lasers, such as 532 nm \"green laser pointers\" which are commonly pumped by 808 nm infrared laser diodes, and also generate the fundamental 1064 nm laser beam which is used to produce the final 532 nm output. If the IR radiation is allowed into the beam, which happens in some green laser pointers, it will in general not be blocked by regular red or orange colored protective eyewear designed for pure green or already IR-filtered beam. Special YAG laser and dual-frequency eyewear is available for work with frequency-doubled YAG and other IR lasers which have",
"-26.744881647158763"
],
[
"controlled 80% of the blue-laser-diode market in 2006.\nSome vendors are now selling collimated diode blue laser pointers with measured powers exceeding 1,500 mW. However, since the claimed power of \"laser pointer\" products also includes the IR power (in DPSS technology only) still present in the beam (for reasons discussed below), comparisons on the basis of strictly visual-blue component from DPSS-type lasers remain problematic, and the information is often not available. Because of the higher neodymium harmonic used, and the lower efficiency of frequency-doubling conversion, the fraction of IR power converted to 473 nm blue laser light in optimally configured DPSS modules is",
"-26.698449534684187"
],
[
"the same general fashion as a ruby laser, but at much higher energy levels. The main problem in producing such a device is that the probability of any given transition between energy states depends on the cube of the energy. Comparing a ruby laser that operates at 694.3 nm to a hypothetical soft X-ray laser that might operate at 1 nm, this means the X-ray transition is 694³, or a little over 334 million times less likely. To provide the same total output energy, one needs a similar increase in input energy.\nAnother problem is that the excited states are extremely short-lived: for",
"-26.50216100353282"
],
[
"with InGaN semiconductors, which produce blue light without frequency-doubling. 445 nm through 465 nm blue laser diodes are currently available on the open market. The devices are significantly brighter than 405 nm laser diodes, since the longer wavelength is closer to the peak sensitivity of the human eye. Commercial devices like laser projectors have driven down the prices on these diodes. Appearance The violet 405 nm laser (whether constructed from GaN or frequency-doubled GaAs laser diodes) is not in fact blue, but appears to the eye as violet, a color for which a human eye has a very limited sensitivity. When pointed at many",
"-26.386529601280927"
],
[
"is used by Japanese company Nichia, which has an agreement with Sony), and blue semiconductor lasers use a gallium nitride mono-crystal surface (Polish company TopGaN).\nAfter 10 years, Japanese manufacturers mastered the production of a blue laser with 60 mW of power, making them applicable for devices that read a dense high-speed stream of data from Blu-ray, BD-R, and BD-RE. Polish technology is cheaper than Japanese but has a smaller share of the market. There is one more Polish high-tech company which creates gallium nitride crystal – Ammono, but this company does not produce blue lasers.\nFor his work, Nakamura received the Millennium",
"-26.241840611066436"
],
[
"molecular structure of the disc surface. Laser and optics UDO systems use a blue-violet laser operating at a wavelength of 405 nm, similar to the one used in Blu-ray Disc, to read and write data. Conventional MOs use red lasers at 660 nm.\nThe blue-violet laser's shorter wavelength makes it possible to store more information on a 13 cm sized UDO disc. The minimum \"spot size\" on which a laser can be focused is limited by diffraction, and depends on the wavelength of the light and the numerical aperture of the lens used to focus it. By decreasing the wavelength, using a higher numerical",
"-26.203423699596897"
],
[
"a red-orange light with a wavelength of 632.8 nm, while later solid-state players used infrared semiconductor laser diodes with a wavelength of 780 nm.\nIn March 1984, Pioneer introduced the first consumer player with a solid-state laser, the LD-700. It was also the first LD player to load from the front and not the top. One year earlier Hitachi introduced an expensive industrial player with a laser diode, but the player, which had poor picture quality due to an inadequate dropout compensator, was made only in limited quantities. After Pioneer released the LD-700, gas lasers were no longer used in consumer players, despite",
"-26.07024359686693"
],
[
"special hazard to the human eyes. Furthermore, some laser safety eyewear intended for argon or other green lasers may filter out the green component (giving a false sense of safety), but transmit the infrared. Nevertheless, some \"green laser pointer\" products have become available on the market which omit the expensive infrared filter, often without warning. Second harmonic generation is also used for measuring ultra short pulse width by means of intensity auto-correlation.",
"-26.041353877983056"
],
[
"for laser brightness modulation (so 100 steps instead of 255), the total of available colours at disposal is 1'000'000.\nFurthermore, usual laser sources start lasing at a voltage between 1-2 volts and reach their full brightness at voltages between 3.5-4V, and the power/voltage curve between these points are usually not perfectly linear. Consequently, the dynamics of the color palette in a real lasershow use is decreased to only a few thousands of different colors. TTL Modulation TTL modulation indicates that the laser does not support analog modulation of the output but only ON / OFF control. See blanking. With an RGB",
"-25.99431740801083"
],
[
"of discs.\nAlthough its high price and the general worldwide disinterest in LaserDisc kept the player from becoming a major success, it is today often lauded by those who continue to enjoy the now defunct LD format. Its advanced noise-reduction circuitry and red-diode laser help provide a very appealing picture, while their very low pricing (usually around $50 USD) make them easily affordable. However, the age of the players means that they are often in need of service or repairs, something that has become difficult both because of the dearth of repair shops capable of working on them and because Pioneer",
"-25.898006758885458"
],
[
"be a major annoyance in some circumstances. In rare cases a dot of light from a red laser pointer may be thought to be due to a laser gunsight. When pointed at aircraft at night, laser pointers may dazzle and distract pilots, and increasingly strict laws have been passed to ban this. Colors and wavelengths Early laser pointers were helium–neon (HeNe) gas lasers and generated laser radiation at 633 nanometers (nm), usually designed to produce a laser beam with an output power under 1 milliwatt (mW). The least expensive laser pointers use a deep-red laser diode near the 650 nm wavelength.",
"-25.875947675202042"
],
[
"Trading of Class 3 and higher laser pointers is not allowed. Sweden The use of pointers with output power > 1 mW is regulated in public areas and school yards. From 1 January 2014 it is necessary to have a special permit in order to own a laser pointer with a classification of 3R, 3B or 4, i.e. over 1 mW. Switzerland In Switzerland, the use of laser pointers is prohibited since 1 June 2019, except for class 1 laser pointers, which may be used only indoors. United Kingdom UK and most of Europe are now harmonized on Class 2 (<1 mW) for",
"-25.87033367343247"
],
[
"of radiant energy white-light is made from equal portions of all colors (i.e.: a 5 mw green laser appears brighter than a 5 mw red laser, yet the red laser stands-out better against a white background). Therefore, the radiant intensity of a light source may be much greater than its luminous intensity, meaning that the source emits more energy than the eye can use. Likewise, the lamp's wall-plug efficiency is usually greater than its luminous efficiency. The effectiveness of a light source to convert electrical energy into wavelengths of visible light, in proportion to the sensitivity of the human eye,",
"-25.843054809549358"
],
[
"for longer distances.\nLaser pointers are used in a wide range of applications. Green laser pointers can also be used for amateur astronomy. Green laser is visible at night due to Rayleigh scattering and airborne dust, allowing someone to point out individual stars to others nearby. Also, these green laser pointers are commonly used by astronomers worldwide at star parties or for conducting lectures in astronomy. Astronomy laser pointers are also commonly mounted on telescopes in order to align the telescope to a specific star or location. Laser alignment is much easier than aligning through using the eyepiece. Industrial and research",
"-25.798145991298952"
],
[
"white objects (such as white paper or white clothes which have been washed in certain washing powders) the visual appearance of the laser dot changes from violet to blue, due to fluorescence of brightening dyes.\nFor display applications which must appear \"true blue\", a wavelength of 445–450 nm is required. With advances in production, and commercial sales of low-cost laser projectors, 445 nm InGaN laser diodes have dropped in price.",
"-25.562624330043036"
],
[
"of IR-pumped, frequency doubled, green, blue, and violet diode-pumped solid-state laser pointers with visible power up to 300 mW. Because the invisible IR component in the beams of these visible lasers is difficult to filter out, and also because filtering it contributes extra heat which is difficult to dissipate in a small pocket \"laser pointer\" package, it is often left as a beam component in cheaper high-power pointers. This invisible IR component causes a degree of extra potential hazard in these devices when pointed at nearby objects and people.\nLaser pointers make a potent signaling tool, even in daylight, and are able",
"-25.488245526095852"
],
[
"5 mW.\nStudies have found that even low-power laser beams of not more than 5 mW can cause permanent retinal damage if gazed at for several seconds; however, the eye's blink reflex makes this highly unlikely. Such laser pointers have reportedly caused afterimages, flash blindness and glare, but not permanent damage, and are generally safe when used as intended.\nA high-powered green laser pointer bought over the Internet was reported in 2010 to have caused a decrease of visual acuity from 6/6 to 6/12 (20/20 to 20/40); after two months acuity recovered to 6/6, but some retinal damage remained. The US FDA issued a",
"-25.40074771476793"
],
[
"a focused laser light through optical fiber to a solar cell-like receiver, this technology allows for power to be provided over hundreds of meters in environments where electric transmission by copper wire is not optimal, either due to the higher weight of wire compared to glass fiber, or due to operational constraints imposed by electromagnetic fields generated by electrical transmission by wire. Uses include ground, air, and underwater applications. \nThe electrical-to-optical conversion efficiency of modern laser technology can be as high as 85%, and off-the-shelf semiconductor diode lasers can have an output efficiency of around 50%. The optical-to-electrical conversion efficiency",
"-25.32909703545738"
],
[
"systems for the automotive sector and industry 4.0 Widely discussed in the LiDAR arena is the wavelength of the signal. While some players have opted for 830-to-940-nm wavelengths to take advantage of available optical components, companies (including Blackmore, Neptec, Aeye, and Luminar) are increasingly turning to longer wavelengths in the also-well-served 1550-nm wavelength band, as those wavelengths allow laser powers roughly 100 times higher to be employed without compromising public safety. Lasers with emission wavelengths longer than ≈ 1.4 μm are often called “eye-safe” because light in that wavelength range is strongly absorbed in the eye's cornea, lens and vitreous",
"-25.3284424849262"
],
[
"in parallel to become 593.5 nm. Due to their complexity, most yellow DPSSLs are only around 1% efficient, and usually more expensive per unit of power.\nAnother method is to generate 1,064 and 1,319 nm light, which are summed to 589 nm. This process is more efficient, with about 3% of the pump diode's power being converted to yellow light. Comparison to diode lasers DPSSLs and diode lasers are two of the most common types of solid-state lasers. However, both types have their advantages and disadvantages.\nDPSSLs generally have a higher beam quality and can reach very high powers while maintaining a relatively good beam",
"-25.224177904019598"
],
[
"Superradiant laser A superradiant laser is a laser that does not rely on a large population of photons within the laser cavity to maintain coherence.\nRather than relying on photons to store phase coherence, it relies on collective effects in an atomic medium to store coherence. Such a laser uses repumped Dicke superradiance (or superfluorescence) to sustain emission of light that can have a substantially narrower linewidth than a conventional laser.",
"-25.162494562304346"
],
[
"or held in another hand) are used to illuminate dark areas and/or to blind opponents.\nEven though in certain countries lasers are illegal, they are popular attachments in the U.S. and Europe. Laser sights are more for their appearance than any practical effect, largely because they must be weak enough not to carry a risk of damaging another player's eyesight, which rules out using any laser powerful enough to produce a visible dot on the target in sunlight (although lasers can be useful for night games).\nAlso available are \"mock suppressors/silencers\". These resemble the actual firearm accessory that dampens sound. Since",
"-25.09065837142043"
],
[
"General presentation use laser pointers or laser pens. Anything above 1 mW is illegal for sale in the UK (import is unrestricted). Health and Safety regulation insists on use of Class 2 anywhere the public can come in contact with indoor laser light, and the DTI have urged Trading Standards authorities to use their existing powers under the General Product Safety Regulations 2005 to remove lasers above class 2 from the general market.\nSince 2010, it is an offence in the UK to shine a light at an aircraft in flight so as to dazzle the pilot, whether intentionally or not, with",
"-25.07332617783686"
],
[
"reflect red and blue. Dichroic mirrors are required for combining laser beams of different colors, e.g. to combine the red, green and blue beams into a single white-light beam. The individual red, blue and green lasers are then controlled in brightness (modulated) to produce any desired color in the final beam. A typical analog-modulated RGB projector has 256 brightness levels for each laser. This gives (256 x 256 x 256) 16,777,216 different available colors (the same as a modern computer monitor). Blanking Blanking is a state in which the laser beam turns off while the mirrors change position while creating",
"-25.065489690052345"
],
[
"is the most widely used active laser medium in solid-state lasers, being used for everything from low-power continuous-wave lasers to high-power Q-switched (pulsed) lasers with power levels measured in the kilowatts. The thermal conductivity of Nd:YAG is higher and its fluorescence lifetime is about twice as long as that of Nd:YVO₄ crystals, however it is not as efficient and is less stable, requiring more precisely controlled temperatures. The best absorption band of Nd:YAG for pumping the laser is centered at 807.5 nm, and is 1 nm wide.\nMost Nd:YAG lasers produce infrared light at a wavelength of 1064 nm. Light at this wavelength",
"-24.97200353827793"
],
[
"of a laser, thereby making it a cheaper solution, and able to be scaled down to desktop sizes.",
"-24.936466291954275"
],
[
"considered safe if handled carefully, with restricted beam viewing. With a class 3R laser, the MPE can be exceeded, but with a low risk of injury. Visible continuous lasers in Class 3R are limited to 5 mW. For other wavelengths and for pulsed lasers, other limits apply. Class 3B A Class 3B laser is hazardous if the eye is exposed directly, but diffuse reflections such as those from paper or other matte surfaces are not harmful. The AEL for continuous lasers in the wavelength range from 315 nm to far infrared is 0.5 W. For pulsed lasers between 400 and 700 nm, the limit is 30 mJ.",
"-24.900202865333995"
],
[
"Laser 110 The Laser 100 and 110 were released just prior to the Laser 210 / VZ200.\nThese computers were a near identical clone to that of the TRS-80 Model 1.\nBoth computers were released with the same orange coloured keyboard 'chicklet' style keyboard on a black background.\nBoth computers also had the same BASIC in ROM, of which, there are at least three versions: 1.0, 1.1 and 1.2.\nThe laser 100 was released with 2K RAM + 2K Video RAM, whilst the laser 110 was released with 4K RAM + 2K Video RAM.\nBoth computers supported colour within the internal language interpreters (BASIC, Assembler),",
"-24.89507938559109"
],
[
"by laser light to provide the largest polarization possible (Figure 7). The laser can be anywhere between tens of watts to hundreds of watts, where higher the power yields larger polarization but is more costly. In order to further increase polarization, a retro-reflective mirror is placed behind the cell in order to pass the laser light through the cell twice. Additionally, an IR iris is placed behind the mirror, providing information of laser light absorption by the alkali metal atoms. When the laser is illuminating the cell, but the cell is at room temperature, the IR iris is used to",
"-24.849669293296756"
],
[
"ban. After some debate, the government voted to ban importation of lasers that emit a beam stronger than 1 mW, effective from 1 July 2008. Those whose professions require the use of a laser can apply for an exemption. In Victoria and the Australian Capital Territory a laser pointer with an accessible emission limit greater than 1 mW is classified as a prohibited weapon and any sale of such items must be recorded. In Western Australia, regulatory changes have classified laser pointers as controlled weapons and demonstration of a lawful reason for possession is required. The WA state government has also banned",
"-24.803014327888377"
],
[
"by the end of the 1980s, average disc-pressing prices were over $5.00 per two-sided disc, due to the large amount of plastic material and the costly glass-mastering process needed to make the metal stamper mechanisms. Due to the larger volume of demand, videocassettes quickly became much cheaper to duplicate, costing as little as $1.00 by the beginning of the 1990s.\nLaserDiscs potentially had a much longer lifespan than videocassettes. Because the discs were read optically instead of magnetically, no physical contact needs to be made between the player and the disc, except for the player's clamp that holds the disc at",
"-24.77156118446146"
],
[
"in the visible. Because visible transitions have somewhat lower gain, these lasers generally have lower output efficiencies and are more costly. The 3.39 μm transition has a very high gain but is prevented from use in an ordinary HeNe laser (of a different intended wavelength) because the cavity and mirrors are lossy at that wavelength. However in high power HeNe lasers having a particularly long cavity, superluminescence at 3.39 μm can become a nuisance, robbing power from the stimulated emission medium, often requiring additional suppression. The best-known and most widely used HeNe laser operates at a wavelength of 632.8 nm, in",
"-24.738879264943535"
],
[
"500-meter range, which is roughly twice the distance of LED high beams. Lasers are expensive though. Lasers are smaller, brighter and more energy efficient than LED headlamps. Their laser headlamps use less than half the energy of LEDs. Laser diodes can emit 170 lumens per watt, while LEDs generate only 100 lumens. Lasers are sensitive to heat but that has not stopped their production for vehicles. Laser technology is not as advanced compared with LEDs, which have been around for decades. 2015 The 2015 International CES was held during the week January 6–9, 2015, in the Las Vegas Convention Center,",
"-24.62244274961995"
],
[
"richer colors that come closer than previous products to the vast range of colors human eyes can process. Other benefits include fast (up to instant) on/off and increased longevity: One manufacturer, for example, claims 30,000 hours for the lasers in one of their mainstream models. Compared to the roughly 3,000 hours most home projectors achieve with their UHP lamps. Costing around $250 to $400 per lamp, considerable savings can be achieved over the lifetime of the projector. Galvanometer scanners Galvanometers (also called \"scanners\" or \"galvos\")are computer-controlled electromagnetic devices that move mirrors mounted on the end of rotary shafts. The mirror",
"-24.58788643212756"
],
[
"laser and TTL blanking you have seven colours at your disposal. Red, Green, Blue, Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, White. ILDA The International Laser Display Association. A trade association dedicated to promoting the use of laser displays. Scan angle Scan angle is the optical angle that a set of scanners normally achieves at a given rate of points per second. The wider the angle, the larger the area the scan covers—but the more difficult it is for the scanner accurately track due to physical limitations of the scanner mechanism. For example, a 20 degree angle provides a 3.5 metre scanned area at",
"-24.580166440311586"
],
[
"are also commonly frequency doubled, tripled or quadrupled to produce 532 nm (green, visible), 355 nm and 266 nm (UV) beams, respectively. Frequency-doubled diode-pumped solid-state (DPSS) lasers are used to make bright green laser pointers.\nYtterbium, holmium, thulium, and erbium are other common \"dopants\" in solid-state lasers. Ytterbium is used in crystals such as Yb:YAG, Yb:KGW, Yb:KYW, Yb:SYS, Yb:BOYS, Yb:CaF₂, typically operating around 1020–1050 nm. They are potentially very efficient and high powered due to a small quantum defect. Extremely high powers in ultrashort pulses can be achieved with Yb:YAG. Holmium-doped YAG crystals emit at 2097 nm and form an efficient laser operating at infrared wavelengths",
"-24.549815339683846"
],
[
"high, thus also keeping pricing for those units comparably high: in the 1990s, notable players sold for anywhere from US$200 to well over $1,000, while older and less desirable players could be purchased in working condition for as little as $25.\nMany early LDs were not manufactured properly; the adhesive used contained impurities that were able to penetrate the lacquer seal layer and chemically attack the metalized reflective aluminium layer, causing it to oxidize and lose its reflective characteristics. This was a problem that was termed \"laser rot\" among LD enthusiasts, also called \"color flash\" internally by LaserDisc-pressing plants. Some forms",
"-24.51047191719408"
],
[
"limited to 1 mW continuous wave, or more if the emission time is less than 0.25 seconds or if the light is not spatially coherent. Intentional suppression of the blink reflex could lead to eye injury. Some laser pointers and measuring instruments are class 2. Class 2M A Class 2M laser is safe because of the blink reflex if not viewed through optical instruments. As with class 1M, this applies to laser beams with a large diameter or large divergence, for which the amount of light passing through the pupil cannot exceed the limits for class 2. Class 3R A Class 3R laser is",
"-24.458707891280937"
],
[
"works well at room temperature, and has high slope efficiency. Er:YAG is pale green. Yb:YAG Ytterbium-doped YAG (Yb:YAG) is an active laser medium lasing at 1030 nm, with a broad, 18 nm wide absorption band at 940 nm. It is one of the most useful media for high-power diode-pumped solid state lasers. The dopant levels used range between 0.2% and 30% of replaced yttrium atoms. Yb:YAG has very low fractional heating, very high slope efficiency, and no excited-state absorption or up-conversion, high mechanical strength and high thermal conductivity. Yb:YAG can be pumped by reliable InGaAs laser diodes at 940 or 970 nm.\nYb:YAG is a",
"-24.45596006134292"
],
[
"different color wheels, painters traditionally regard the complement of yellow as the color indigo or blue-violet. Lasers Lasers emitting in the yellow part of the spectrum are less common and more expensive than most other colors. In commercial products diode pumped solid state (DPSS) technology is employed to create the yellow light. An infrared laser diode at 808 nm is used to pump a crystal of neodymium-doped yttrium vanadium oxide (Nd:YVO4) or neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG) and induces it to emit at two frequencies (281.76 THz and 223.39 THz: 1064 nm and 1342 nm wavelengths) simultaneously. This deeper infrared light is then passed through",
"-24.41832846550824"
],
[
"Semiconductor lasers Red lasers can be built on gallium arsenide (GaAs) semiconductors, upon which a dozen layers of atoms are placed to form the part of the laser that generates light from quantum wells. Using methods similar to those developed for silicon, the substrate can be built free of the defects called dislocations, and the atoms laid down so the distance between the ones making up the ground and those of the quantum wells are the same.\nHowever, the best semiconductor for blue lasers is gallium nitride (GaN) crystals, which are much harder to manufacture, requiring higher pressures and temperatures, similar",
"-24.402367883798433"
],
[
"players were also capable of playing standard NTSC format discs and are superior in performance to non-MUSE players even with these NTSC discs. The MUSE-capable players had several noteworthy advantages over standard LaserDisc players, including a red laser with a much narrower wavelength than the lasers found in standard players. The red laser was capable of reading through disc defects such as scratches and even mild disc rot that would cause most other players to stop, stutter or drop-out. Crosstalk was not an issue with MUSE discs, and the narrow wavelength of the laser allowed for the virtual elimination of",
"-24.389141563355224"
],
[
"red light is only about 0.4% as efficient as 555 nm green light. Thus, one watt of 700 nm red light is \"worth\" only 2.7 lumens.\nBecause of the summation over the visual portion of the EM spectrum that is part of this weighting, the unit of \"lumen\" is color-blind: there is no way to tell what color a lumen will appear. This is equivalent to evaluating groceries by number of bags: there is no information about the specific content, just a number that refers to the total weighted quantity. Photometric measurement techniques Photometric measurement is based on photodetectors, devices (of several",
"-24.309664037569746"
],
[
"the discovery of better lasing media. They are still used in a number of applications where short pulses of red light are required. Holographers around the world produce holographic portraits with ruby lasers, in sizes up to a meter square. Because of its high pulsed power and good coherence length, the red 694 nm laser light is preferred to the 532 nm green light of frequency-doubled Nd:YAG, which often requires multiple pulses for large holograms. Many non-destructive testing labs use ruby lasers to create holograms of large objects such as aircraft tires to look for weaknesses in the lining. Ruby lasers were",
"-24.295943645236548"
],
[
"Ruby laser A ruby laser is a solid-state laser that uses a synthetic ruby crystal as its gain medium. The first working laser was a ruby laser made by Theodore H. \"Ted\" Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories on May 16, 1960.\nRuby lasers produce pulses of coherent visible light at a wavelength of 694.3 nm, which is a deep red color. Typical ruby laser pulse lengths are on the order of a millisecond. Design A ruby laser most often consists of a ruby rod that must be pumped with very high energy, usually from a flashtube, to achieve a population inversion. The",
"-24.28374474872544"
],
[
"since decades, for instance as pump source for telecom or solid state lasers. These can be frequency-doubled to the blue range using standard nonlinear crystals. \nViolet lasers may be constructed directly with GaN (gallium nitride) semiconductors, as noted. However, a few higher-powered (120 mW) 404–405 nm \"violet\" laser pointers have become available which are not based on GaN, but also use frequency-doubler technology starting from 1 watt 808 nm gallium arsenide infrared diode lasers being directly doubled, without a longer-wave diode-pumped solid state laser interposed between diode laser and doubler-crystal.\nHighest powers and wavelength tunability can be reached when the frequency doubling process is",
"-24.24594069062732"
],
[
"theoretically have an overall efficiency of 48%.\nIn the realm of very high output powers, the KTP crystal becomes susceptible to optical damage. Thus, high-power DPSSLs generally have a larger beam diameter, as the 1064 nm laser is expanded before it reaches the KTP crystal, reducing the irradiance from the infrared light. In order to maintain a lower beam diameter, a crystal with a higher damage threshold, such as LBO, is used instead.\nBlue DPSSLs use a nearly identical process, except that the 808 nm light is being converted by an Nd:YAG crystal to 946 nm light (selecting this non-principal spectral line of neodymium in",
"-24.231318861217005"
],
[
"a visible beam, but it is more expensive, and IR-pumped green laser products do not always specify whether such extra protection is needed.\nEyewear is rated for optical density (OD), which is the base-10 logarithm of the attenuation factor by which the optical filter reduces beam power. For example, eyewear with OD 3 will reduce the beam power in the specified wavelength range by a factor of 1000. In addition to an optical density sufficient to reduce beam power to below the maximum permissible exposure (see above), laser eyewear used where direct beam exposure is possible should be able to withstand",
"-24.212385107995942"
],
[
"unsafe power level may be collected by a magnifying optic with larger aperture. - Class 1 laser diodes are often used in optical disc drives. Class 1M A Class 1M laser is safe for all conditions of use except when passed through magnifying optics such as microscopes and telescopes. Class 1M lasers produce large-diameter beams, or beams that are divergent. The MPE for a Class 1M laser cannot normally be exceeded unless focusing or imaging optics are used to narrow the beam. If the beam is refocused, the hazard of Class 1M lasers may be increased and the product class may be changed.",
"-24.16252204153716"
],
[
"different uses.\n4)The cost of maintaining lasers is moderately low due to the low rate of wear and tear, as there is no physical contact between the tool and the workpiece.\n5)The machining provided by laser beams is high precision, and most of these processes do not require additional finishing.\n6)Laser beams can be paired with gases to help the cutting process be more efficient, help minimize oxidization of surfaces, and/or keep the workpiece surface free from melted or vaporized material. Disadvantages 1)The initial cost of acquiring a laser beam is moderately high. There are many accessories that aid in the machining process,",
"-24.147118913821032"
],
[
"Aperture Back-scatter (FABS) diagnostic at the National Ignition Facility. A new front-end for the laser employs a 2nd order cleaning technique, dubbed SPOPA (for Short-Pulse Optical Parametric Amplification) cleaning, which reduces the contrast to better than 10⁻⁹ ASE intensity ratio, making it one of the cleanest ultra high-intensity high-power laser in the world.\nThe laser is currently being used for Fast Ignition ICF research, warm dense matter experiments, materials dynamics studies, and laser-matter interaction research, including particle acceleration, x-ray backlighting and laser-plasma instabilities (LPI).\nFor more information see the Trident User Facility Website: Trident User Facility, Los Alamos National Laboratory, see",
"-24.103453768766485"
],
[
"light sources for scanning (input) of images and for very high-speed and high-resolution printing plate (output) manufacturing. Infrared and red laser diodes are common in CD players, CD-ROMs and DVD technology. Violet lasers are used in HD DVD and Blu-ray technology. Diode lasers have also found many applications in laser absorption spectrometry (LAS) for high-speed, low-cost assessment or monitoring of the concentration of various species in gas phase. High-power laser diodes are used in industrial applications such as heat treating, cladding, seam welding and for pumping other lasers, such as diode-pumped solid-state lasers.\nUses of laser diodes can be categorized in",
"-24.096964047421352"
],
[
"the red part of the visible spectrum. It was developed at Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1962, 18 months after the pioneering demonstration at the same laboratory of the first continuous infrared HeNe gas laser in December 1960. Applications Red HeNe lasers have many industrial and scientific uses. They are widely used in laboratory demonstrations in the field of optics because of their relatively low cost and ease of operation compared to other visible lasers producing beams of similar quality in terms of spatial coherence (a single-mode Gaussian beam) and long coherence length (however since about 1990 semiconductor lasers have offered",
"-24.088935066814884"
],
[
"laser pointers project a visible beam via scattering from dust particles or water droplets along the beam path. Higher-power and higher-frequency green or blue lasers may produce a beam visible even in clean air because of Rayleigh scattering from air molecules, especially when viewed in moderately-to-dimly lit conditions. The intensity of such scattering increases when these beams are viewed from angles near the beam axis. Such pointers, particularly in the green-light output range, are used as astronomical-object pointers for teaching purposes.\nThe low-cost availability of infrared (IR) diode laser modules of up to 1000 mW (1 watt) output has created a generation",
"-24.082900250446983"
],
[
"homogeneity of the light source when reflected off of the glass.\nMany sources for monochromatic light can be used. Most lasers emit light of a very narrow bandwidth, and often provide a suitable light source. A helium–neon laser emits light at 632 nanometers (red), while a frequency doubled Nd:YAG laser emits light at 532 nm (green). Various laser diodes and diode-pumped solid-state lasers emit light in red, yellow, green, blue or violet. Dye lasers can be tuned to emit nearly any color. However, lasers also experience a phenomenon called laser speckle, which shows up in the fringes.\nSeveral gas or metal-vapor lamps can",
"-24.075842970632948"
],
[
"synthetic ruby to produce red laser light at a wavelength of 694 nanometers (nm). Ruby lasers are still in use. Rubies are also used in applications where high hardness is required such as at wear exposed locations in modern mechanical clockworks, or as scanning probe tips in a coordinate measuring machine.\nImitation rubies are also marketed. Red spinels, red garnets, and colored glass have been falsely claimed to be rubies. Imitations go back to Roman times and already in the 17th century techniques were developed to color foil red—by burning scarlet wool in the bottom part of the furnace—which was then",
"-24.02699481486343"
],
[
"warning after two anecdotal reports it received of eye injury from laser pointers.\nLaser pointers available for purchase online can be capable of significantly higher power output than the pointers typically available in stores. Dubbed \"Burning Lasers\", these are designed to burn through light plastics and paper, and can have very similar external appearances to their low-power counterparts.\nStudies in the early twenty-first century found that the risk to the human eye from accidental exposure to light from commercially available class IIIa laser pointers having powers up to 5 mW seemed rather small; however, prolonged viewing, such as deliberate staring into the beam",
"-23.959982746579044"
],
[
"run upwards of $400,000 per carat, but a pure red diamond can cost significantly more per carat. Few colors of fancy color diamonds are characterized by having a singular color intensity. This phenomenon only exists with three colors: black diamonds, white diamonds, and red diamonds. Since the source of the red in red diamonds is considered to be a hyper-concentrated occurrence of pink, this would actually make red the darkest shade of pink possible, which is why it is only able to appear in one intensity. Red diamonds will only be graded Fancy Red, Fancy Brownish Red, Fancy Purplish Red,",
"-23.954865607607644"
],
[
"Other limits apply to other wavelengths and to ultrashort pulsed lasers. Protective eyewear is typically required where direct viewing of a class 3B laser beam may occur. Class-3B lasers must be equipped with a key switch and a safety interlock. Class 3B lasers are used inside CD and DVD writers, although the writer unit itself is class 1 because the laser light cannot leave the unit. Class 4 Class 4 is the highest and most dangerous class of laser, including all lasers that exceed the Class 3B AEL. By definition, a class 4 laser can burn the skin, or cause devastating and permanent eye damage",
"-23.872227733168984"
],
[
"beam width is shorter when burning to a disc than a red-laser for MO, a blue-violet laser allows more information to be stored digitally in the same amount of space.\nCurrent generations of UDO2 media store up to 60 GB. According to Plasmon, desktop UDO2 drives are priced at around US $5400.\nA 30 GB UDO2 Write Once is US $75. History UDO optical disc storage media was developed as a replacement for the 9.1 GB Magneto-optical digital storage medium. The Ultra Density Optical was first announced by Sony on November 1, 2000. It was later adopted with heavy investment by Plasmon,",
"-23.871567279609735"
],
[
"energy level of pink ruby could at least be partially depleted by pumping with a very intense light source, and, since ruby was readily available, he decided to try it anyway.\nAlso attending the conference was Gordon Gould. Gould suggested that, by pulsing the laser, peak outputs as high as a megawatt could be produced. \nAs time went on, many scientists began to doubt the usefulness of any color ruby as a laser medium. Maiman, too, felt his own doubts, but, being a very \"single-minded person,\" he kept working on his project in secret. He searched to find a light source",
"-23.7606017680082"
],
[
"released. Because the Blu-ray Disc format is upgradable it poses challenges to the adoption of the HVD format. 4K Blu-ray discs and players became available in the first quarter of 2016, having a storage capacity of up to 100 GB. Laser and optics While a DVD uses a 650 nm red laser, Blu-ray Disc uses a 405 nm \"blue\" laser diode. Although the laser is called \"blue\", its color is actually in the violet range. The shorter wavelength can be focused to a smaller area, thus enabling it to read information recorded in pits that are less than half the size of those",
"-23.737182853845297"
],
[
"and low lasing threshold. Usually 1.1–1.4% of Y atoms are replaced with Nd, and 0.05–0.1% with Ce. Ho:Cr:Tm:YAG Holmium-chromium-thulium triple-doped YAG (Ho:Cr:Tm:YAG, or Ho,Cr,Tm:YAG) is an active laser medium material with high efficiency. It lases at 2080 nm and can be pumped by a flashlamp or a laser diode. It is widely used in military, medicine, and meteorology. It works well at room temperature, has high slope efficiency, and operates at a wavelength where the threshold for eye damage is relatively high. When pumped by a diode, the 785 nm band for Tm³⁺ ion can be used. Other major pump bands are",
"-23.72367680275056"
],
[
"light at 445 nm are becoming popular as handheld lasers. Lasers emitting wavelengths below 445 nm appear violet (but are sometimes called blue lasers). Some of the most commercially common blue lasers are the diode lasers used in Blu-ray applications which emit 405 nm \"violet\" light, which is a short enough wavelength to cause fluorescence in some chemicals, in the same way as radiation further into the ultraviolet (\"black light\") does. Light of a shorter wavelength than 400 nm is classified as ultraviolet.\nDevices that employ blue laser light have applications in many areas ranging from optoelectronic data storage at high density to medical applications.",
"-23.707590698089916"
],
[
"value of 95 was black and 685 was white, the amplified signal tended to reduce the lifetime of the CRT. Linear color space and floating point More bits also encouraged the storage of light as linear values, where the number directly corresponds to the amount of light emitted. Linear levels makes calculation of light (in the context of computer graphics) much easier. However, linear color results in disproportionately more samples near white and fewer near black, so the quality of 16-bit linear is about equal to 12-bit sRGB.\nFloating point numbers can represent linear light levels spacing the samples semi-logarithmically. Floating",
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"be paid the full price of the item. Photons depleted over time, so a user that did not use them fast would slowly lose them.",
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"LaserActive LaserActive 3-D Goggles The LaserActive 3-D Goggles (model GOL-1) employ an active shutter 3D system compatible with at least six 3D-ready LD-ROM software titles: 3-D Museum (1994), Vajra 2 (1994), Virtual Cameraman 2 (1994), Dr. Paolo No Totteoki Video (1994), Goku (1995), and 3D Virtual Australia (1996), the last software title published for the LaserActive.\nThe goggles are also compatible with the Sega Master System, and are interchangeable with the SegaScope 3-D Glasses. They can also be used to view 3-D images from autostereograms.\nA goggle adapter (model ADP-1), packaged and sold separately from the 3-D Goggles, enables the user to",
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[
"disk lasers overcome these issues by having a gain medium that is much thinner than the diameter of the pump beam. This allows for a more uniform temperature in the material. Thin disk lasers have been shown to produce beams of up to one kilowatt. Fiber lasers Solid-state lasers or laser amplifiers where the light is guided due to the total internal reflection in a single mode optical fiber are instead called fiber lasers. Guiding of light allows extremely long gain regions providing good cooling conditions; fibers have high surface area to volume ratio which allows efficient cooling. In addition,",
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[
"low-cost color laser printers and inkjet printers: the printers are sold cheaply while replacement toners and inks are relatively expensive. A color laser printer's average running cost per page is usually slightly less, even though both the laser printer and laser toner cartridge have higher upfront prices, as laser toners print much more sheets relative to their cost than inkjet cartridges.\nThe print quality of color lasers is limited by their resolution (typically 600–1200 dpi) and their use of just four color toners. They often have trouble printing large areas of the same or subtle gradations of color. Inkjet printers designed",
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[
"in grazing-incidence configuration and multiple-prism grating configurations. Applications Laser diodes are numerically the most common laser type, with 2004 sales of approximately 733 million units,\nas compared to 131,000 of other types of lasers. Telecommunications, scanning and spectrometry Laser diodes find wide use in telecommunication as easily modulated and easily coupled light sources for fiber optics communication. They are used in various measuring instruments, such as rangefinders. Another common use is in barcode readers. Visible lasers, typically red but later also green, are common as laser pointers. Both low and high-power diodes are used extensively in the printing industry both as",
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[
"Michelson (1918) criticized the Twyman–Green configuration as being unsuitable for the testing of large optical components, since the light sources available at the time had limited coherence length. Michelson pointed out that constraints on geometry forced by limited coherence length required the use of a reference mirror of equal size to the test mirror, making the Twyman–Green impractical for many purposes. Decades later, the advent of laser light sources answered Michelson's objections. (A Twyman–reen interferometer using a laser light source and unequal path length is known as a Laser Unequal Path Interferometer, or LUPI.) Fig. 14 illustrates a Twyman–Green interferometer set",
"-23.522044187629945"
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[
"Technology Prize awarded in 2006, and a Nobel Prize for Physics awarded in 2014.\nUntil the late 1990s, when blue semiconductor lasers were developed, blue lasers were large and expensive gas laser instruments which relied on population inversion in rare gas mixtures and needed high currents and strong cooling.\nThanks to prior development of many groups, including, most notably, Professor Isamu Akasaki's group, Shuji Nakamura at Nichia Corporation and Sony Corporation in Anan (Tokushima-ken, Japan) made a series of inventions and developed commercially viable blue and violet semiconductor lasers. The active layer of the Nichia devices was formed from InGaN quantum wells",
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[
"shorter wavelength than the lasing wavelength, often from a flashtube or from another laser. The usage of the term \"solid-state\" in laser physics is narrower than in typical use. Semiconductor lasers (laser diodes) are typically not referred to as solid-state lasers.\nNeodymium is a common dopant in various solid-state laser crystals, including yttrium orthovanadate (Nd:YVO₄), yttrium lithium fluoride (Nd:YLF) and yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG). All these lasers can produce high powers in the infrared spectrum at 1064 nm. They are used for cutting, welding and marking of metals and other materials, and also in spectroscopy and for pumping dye lasers. These lasers",
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[
"at Columbia University, Arthur Schawlow at Bell Labs, and Gould at TRG (Technical Research Group). Maiman used a solid-state light-pumped synthetic ruby to produce red laser light at a wavelength of 694 nanometers (nm). Synthethic ruby lasers are still in use. Both sapphires and rubies are corundum, a crystalline form of aluminium oxide (Al2O3). Crystals Ruby lasers consist of single-crystal sapphire alumina (Al₂O₃) rods doped with a small concentration of chromium Cr, typically in the range of 0.05%. The end faces are highly polished with a planar and parallel configuration. Neodymium-doped YAG (Nd:YAG) has proven to be one of the",
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[
"very standard; Players start with a single laser beam that can be held on at close range for dealing minimal damage against enemies when not firing and other weapons can be acquired by destroying incoming carriers, ranging from homing lasers to a lightning beam, which can be distinguished by their color. If a weapon module of the same color is picked up, a 5000 point bonus is granted.\nA unique gameplay feature is the \"Unit Beam\" system; players have the ability to combine the two ships into one and increase their firepower much further than normal but this can also prove",
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[
"the image. Blanking typically happens hundreds of times per second. New solid state lasers use direct electronic control of the laser source to provide blanking. With gas lasers, such as argon or krypton, this was not possible, and blanking was carried out using a third galvanometer that mechanically interrupted the beam. New technology brought a Poly-Chromatic Acousto-Optic Modulator, or PCAOM, which provided high-speed electronic blanking, intensity control, and color selection of a multi-color laser beam. Modulation Most DPSS lasers used in laser projectors support modulation. Modulation has to do with blanking but is a slightly broader term. A DPSS laser",
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[
"high-power infrared component in the beam. Pointing Laser pointers are often used in educational and business presentations and visual demonstrations as an eye-catching pointing device. Laser pointers enhance verbal guidance given to students during surgery. The suggested mechanism of explanation is that the technology enables more precise guidance of location and identification of anatomic structures.\nRed laser pointers can be used in almost any indoor or low-light situation where pointing out details by hand may be inconvenient, such as in construction work or interior decorating. Green laser pointers can be used for similar purposes as well as outdoors in daylight or",
"-23.400600236898754"
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[
"higher the frequency, the greater the resolution of the image. KrF lasers are able to function at a frequency of 4 kHz . In addition to running at a higher frequency, excimer lasers are compatible with more advanced machines than mercury arc lamps are. They are also able to operate from greater distances (up to 25 meters) and are able to maintain their accuracy with a series of mirrors and antireflective-coated lenses. By setting up multiple lasers and mirrors, the amount of energy loss is minimized, also since the lenses are coated with antireflective material, the light intensity remains relatively the",
"-23.370541010575835"
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[
"or a neodymium-doped yttrium orthovanadate (Nd:YVO₄) crystal which produces 1064 nm wavelength light from the main spectral transition of neodymium ion. This light is then frequency doubled using a nonlinear optical process in a KTP crystal, producing 532 nm light. Green DPSSLs are usually around 20% efficient, although some lasers can reach up to 35% efficiency. In other words, a green DPSSL using a 2.5 W pump diode would be expected to output around 500-900 mW of 532 nm light.\nIn optimal conditions, Nd:YVO₄ has a conversion efficiency of 60%, while KTP has a conversion efficiency of 80%. In other words, a green DPSSL can",
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[
"2006 many factories began production of blue laser modules for mass-storage devices, and these were used in laser pointers too. These were DPSS-type frequency-doubled devices. They most commonly emit a beam at 473 nm, which is produced by frequency doubling of 946 nm laser radiation from a diode-pumped Nd:YAG or Nd:YVO4 crystal (Nd-doped crystals usually produce a principal wavelength of 1064 nm, but with the proper reflective coating mirrors can be also made to lase at other \"higher harmonic\" non-principal neodymium wavelengths). For high output power, BBO crystals are used as frequency doublers; for lower powers, KTP is used. The Japanese company Nichia",
"-23.349299240893743"
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[
"RLV disc and a regular factory-pressed LaserDiscs is their reflective Red (showing up in photos as a purple-violet or blue with some RLV discs) color resulting from the dye embedded in the reflective layer of the disc to make it recordable, as opposed to the silver mirror appearance of regular LDs. The redish color of RLVs is very similar to DVD-R and DVD+R discs. RLVs were popular for making short-run quantities of LaserDiscs for specialized applications such as interactive kiosks and flight simulators. Another, 'single sided' form of RLV exists with the silver side being covered in small bumps. Blank",
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] |
3rhat2 | Why do Most Heisman trophy winners not do well in the NFL? | [
"Quarterbacks at the college level deal with a whole different type of defense and game then the NFL. That's why a lot of those quarterbacks who can scramble for big games in college turn out to be a bust. Players in the NFL are too quick and the defenses are too much for a scrambling quarterback to do very well, especially right after college.",
"In college everyone is good ( d1 ) but in the NFL everyone is the best of the best. So tim tebow who could outsmart and pretty much man handle 90% of college players can't just brute strength his way through the NFL. That's why you see an occasional glimpse from a guy like him, or the hundreds of others, but they just can't rely on the same strengths that let them dominate the college setting",
"The Heisman rarely goes to the best player in college football. It usually goes to a player who: (A) plays a skill position (basically, not offensive or defensive line) (B) plays on offense (C) plays on a top 5 team (D) racks up eye-popping stats Basically, the Heisman goes to the most successful (stat-wise) player on a team within the top ten, not the most talented player or the player with the best shot at succeeding in the nfl.",
"This is more of a misconception than anything else. No player can dominate in the NFL the same way they did in college because of the level of competition, obviously. However, to say that most Heisman winners do bad is just false. 4 of the last 5 Heisman winners will be starting quarterbacks in the NFL this upcoming Sunday. That is an accomplishment in itself, but now look at the teams they play for. Tampa Bay, Tennessee, Cleveland, Washington, and Carolina. What do those first 4 have in common? They are flaming piles of garbage. The reason those teams have high picks is because of how poorly they performed. As a result, the \"best\" players will be high picks going to poor teams. It takes time for players to develop within a system, look at Carolina now that Newton has a few years in the system. They built a team around him, and they are 7-0. Marcus Mariota and Jameis Winston are both rookies. Trying to judge them now is just idiotic and a waste of time, both seem to be starting on the right foot. Johnny Manziel has been in and out of rehab and fighting for a starting job. Johnny, while electric and exciting to watch, has a playstyle more suited to the college game. That is why he wasn't an early first rounder like most other heisman winning QB's. Most experts knew he would not be overwhelmingly successful in the NFL. RG3 will definitely support your argument. I will chalk that up to the incompetence of the Redskins organization, as well as an overhyped player coming out of a spread offense. I could go into why playing in a spread offense is a disadvantage translating to the NFL, but I have already seen that covered in another comment. Perhaps the recency bias is playing into your mind when you posted this, but let me list some more Heisman trophy winners for you: Carson Palmer Ricky Williams Charles Woodson Charlie Ward (Bball) Eddie George Barry Sanders Vinny Testeverde Bo Jackson Doug Flutie Herschel Walker",
"Looking at the last 15 winners: 2014: Mariota (off to great start) 2013: Winston (off to solid start) 2012: Manziel (too early to tell) 2011: RGIII (injuries/coaching destroyed his career) 2010: Cam Newton (Franchise QB) 2009: Mark Ingram (Average starter) 2008: Sam Bradford (looking like a bust/injuries) 2007: Tim Tebow (quintessential college QB/Bust in NFL) 2006: Troy Smith (mid round draft pick/solid back up) 2005: Reggie Bush (solid starter/didn't meet expectations) 2004: Matt Leinart (Bust) 2003: Jason White (undrafted) 2002: Carson Palmer (Franchise QB) 2001: Eric Crouch (run first QB with no real passing ability) 2000: Chris Weinke (roughly 45 years old when drafted) From 2000-2008, only Palmer and Bush turned into quality NFL starters, though arguably neither lived up to expectations fully. But four winners were QBs that had skills better suited for college than the NFL and only of those four only Tebow was a 1st round pick. From 2009-2014, all the winners have shown an ability to play and start in the NFL--RGIII is the only player not starting next week I think. I don't really see much evidence that Heisman winners are more likely to not succeed in the NFL than other players.",
"I can't remember who said it but \"college isn't there to prepare you for the NFL, to make you into a good or great football player. College exists to win games.\"",
"They get drafted early and go to bad teams. Edit: The first teams to draft every year are the teams that had the worst records the year before, meaning they were the worst teams. They go first meaning they get to draft the most attractive options, and most of the time, that's a Heisman winner or candidate. And one player doesn't make an entire team.",
"The simple answer is that college football and NFL football are almost completely different games. Therefore, having success in college football is not a great predictor of one's success in pro football. You might be wondering, why are college football and NFL football completely different games? This answer is more complex, but basically it boils down to player talent. Let's start with the numbers. There are something like 250 Division I college football programs, each with ~100 players - That's 25,000 division 1 college football players. The NFL only drafts 256 players every year - roughly 1% of active division 1 college football players. So the players in the NFL are at least the top 1% of college football players (a lot of the players who get drafted never see the field or get relegated to the practice squad for their entire careers). Therefore, most of the people playing college football are physically closer to you and me than they are to anyone in the NFL. This lack of physical skills gives way to a certain style of football. If a team is lucky enough (or has recruited well enough) to have players with NFL skillsets, then that team can simply overpower their opposition. I hypothesize that this is why the running game has become so prevalent at the college level. Certain teams and certain programs that can recruit really well don't put really any emphasis on skill players and just get big bodied guys who can run the read option. This practice has become so commonplace that college football more closely resembles track and field with tackling than it does pro football. Obviously you still have programs that have stuck with pro-style offenses, but they are getting fewer and further between. Some examples are Michigan State, UCLA, Memphis (this year with Paxton Lynch) and Michigan. As coaches face firing, pressure builds to \"win now.\" In college football, \"winning now\" often involves switching over to the read option - see USC under Sarkisian (now fired) this year. The move to read option works because the offense is simple and there is basically no learning curve - most high schools run the read option these days. The only issue is recruiting. So if college football has turned into track and field with tackling and the Heisman trophy winner is the best college football player, then what is he good at? He's most likely good at running the read option and hasn't learned any plays more complex than a zone read. If he's a quarterback, he probably never learned how to read a complex defense or even a quarter of the plays he's going to need to know at the pro level. Generally speaking, the guys who win the Heisman are often naturally more gifted than most of their competition and they rely heavily on that to win games. You see it every Saturday: Houston QB (an example) fumbles the handoff, but he jukes 6 guys who are 5'9\" 180 lbs and runs for 25 yards. In the NFL that play never happens. When these Heisman guys get to the NFL it's a big shock. No longer are they the biggest, fastest guy on the field who can run around and buy time to throw downfield (or just run for 20 every play). Instead they have to learn the playbook, diagnose the defense, understand a pro style offense, allow themselves to check down on plays, etc. Sadly, they have to learn how to play football for the first time in their careers. Examples: Reggie Bush - At USC was always faster than everyone else, could just run around them. Took him 5 years to learn how to really play football and be an effective RB in New Orleans. Tebow - A spread offense QB who was surrounded by 10 other NFL caliber athletes at Florida. RG3 - Another Spread Offense QB who was always faster than everyone else. It worked in the NFL for about 10 games. One knee injury later, he's done. Manziel - Should have stayed in College Station one more year to really learn the offense. The running around and \"extending the play\" thing hasn't worked very well in the NFL. Also it invites injury.",
"Also pressure. College, they have 4 years (5 if they redshirt) to get a feel for the system. If they get picked the first round, they have the four preseason games to play amazing (among salty pro monsters trying to make the squad). If not first round they get everything scrutinized to pin point weaknesses and then those weaknesses are exploited to see how they adapt—this is also how newbie QB's get picked apart, since he opposition Def Coach has studied you since you left high school they will play on the weakness—and if they fail its practice squad, where maybe one or two get a second chance if the main squad gets plagued by injuries, and I hope they learned something while in college. Then it's getting hit the first time by a Ray Lewis, who does not get tired...actually hits harder and comes faster as the game goes on. Your coach is looking down and shaking his head, and it's only the start of your second quarter playing with the cameras rolling. Every game will be like this and there are 15 more to play.",
"The \"best player in college football\" usually carries their team, often by being a better raw athlete than most of the other players. No one player entering the draft today can simply overwhelm the rest of the NFL's great athletes, and they get injured trying.",
"The biggest challenge for top tier college quarterbacks transitioning to the NFL is that now they are playing against a team composed of the very best college players. These are players that are not only the best physically but they understand the game extremely well. People think that football is quite simple but at the NFL level the quarterback is essentially playing a game of chess every play. They are positioning and moving players or calling changes in the play because the defense has predicted what play the offense will run. Not a lot of players are able to do this.",
"Generally, the Heisman is given to a skill player. Most often this has been quarterbacks and running backs, but with a heavy dominance by QBs in recent years. If there's one position that vastly different between the college and pro game, it's quarterback. Many colleges run offenses that include shotgun formations, options, zone-reads, and other types of attacks that are predicated on having a dual-threat (runner and passer) at quarterback. Contrast that to the NFL where there are a few true \"dual-threat\" guys like Russell Wilson or Colin Kaepernick, but they are STILL very much a pass-first league. The NFL values QBs who play under center, stay inside the pocket and make quick, decisive throws (either Manning, Tom Brady, etc). By contrast, you can have a college QB who makes big plays by letting the WRs run off the secondary and then burning the defense with his legs. The last FIVE Heisman winners (Mariota, Winston, Manziel, Griffin III, Newton) have all been the prototypical college dual threat. Some have done well in the NFL and others have crashed and burned. Also, the QB dominance trend is somewhat recent as in the past running backs, wide receivers and even players who lined up on defense have won the award. Ndamukong Suh was a Heisman finalist for Nebraska at Defensive Tackle (did not win) and he's continued to dominate at the NFL level as well. That's partly because a position like DT is much more synonymous since the goal (hit the ball carrier) is somewhat simpler than a QB's duties (no offense to NFL DTs).",
"Most likely because if their positions. As a lineman, linebacker, even cornerback or receiver you can have an \"average\" career, be left alone, play for a few teams, and retire. Heisman winners are almost always either RBs or QBs, probably the two highest profile positions. So, expectations are enormous, so \"average\" becomes disappointing. Also, in the NFL you play against other great players every week. A Heisman winning RB that played for a big, division 1 SEC team still plays at least a handful of games every year against teams that largely have no shot of competing with them. Even when they play against other good teams, most of the players on the defense they are playing against are not NFL caliber players. In the NFL, they play against NFL caliber players every single snap.",
"Is there any evidence that they perform worse than the average performance of players picked at the spot they were taken?",
"What I have seen is just the overall talent pool of people changes and only the best make it. Division 1 schools have about 12650 players in a given year. The Heisman is given to the best player playing against a subset of those 12650 players. Now think about the NFL draft, 256 players were taken this year in the draft and you know not all of them make it. But even still let's say they do. 256 divided by 12650 players. This doesn't even count offense vs defense where you could avoid even more players. The best player of that year is not playing NFL players, they are playing college players. Many quarterbacks could have a great Wide Receiver to make them look better or an awesome offense line to protect them. Then they get to the NFL and lose those, and then they play a front 7 that will sack you in 2.5 seconds instead of the normal 3.5. Look at Johnny Manziel, you take away Mike Evans and put him where he doesn't get the same protection and the players can catch him. He's not the same because he's playing NFL players. And this is because the top college player of the year is playing against the best players now. This isn't even factoring in that he has to learn an NFL system, has to throw the ball to certain spots instead of improvising which is what he was famous for. Little change of subject since this guy didn't win the Heisman, but look at Colin Kaepernick, you take away his line, his weapons, his coach, and he is still throwing the ball at 100 mph. There is no touch on his throws, you need to do that as a NFL QB. He isn't adapting, he's regressing. Tom Brady and Peyton Manning are still adapting every game because the NFL changes week to week. Even a player who could take the NFL by storm can be adjusted to, and can fade away quickly. Colin's story isn't done, but there's a high chance it will be. Looking across the Bay Area, you see a different quarterback, learning, adapting, making 3rd down conversions. Derek Carr is adapting. We don't know if he will continue to adapt, but you see what a difference of work ethic, adapting and changing you need to survive in the NFL. And lastly, look at Andrew Luck, touted as the next Pocket Passer, the next Manning/Brady/Rodgers/Brees. In the AFC championship game last year, was coveted by every single team, the \"Suck for Luck\" year because he was worth it. Even someone like him, prototypical quarterback with success, he isn't adjusting, his decisions are BAD, especially Monday. You could blame the lack of weapons, the lack of the offense line, but seriously, it starts with the player, and even him has to be judged with his decisions.",
"In my opinion, it's due to supporting cast. Look at the heisman winners from the past 10 years: Marcos Mariota - QB - Oregon (top 5 team) Jameis Winston - QB - Florida St. (top 5 team) Johnny Manziel - QB - Texas A & M (top 10 team) Robert Griffin III - QB - Baylor (top 10 team) Cam Newton - QB - Auburn (top 5 team) Mark Ingram Jr. - RB - Alabama (top 5 team) Sam Bradford - QB - Oklahoma (top 5 team) Tim Tebow - QB - Florida (top 5 team) Troy Smith - QB - Ohio State (top 5 team) Matt Leinart - QB - USC (top 5 team) I'm going to pick on Manziel, but the same can be said about everyone with the exception of Cam Newton and maybe Mark Ingram. These guys are the MVPs of their teams, and their teams were always one of the best in the country. The QBs are throwing to elite wide receivers that were guaranteed locks to go to the NFL while standing behind a line of 5 future NFL starters. The running backs were finding holes behind guards and tackles that were all NFL stars in the making. Of course Johnny Manziel went bananas at A & M. He was throwing the ball to 6'5\" Mike Evans (1st round) while standing behind 5 future NFL starters, 3 of which were drafted in the first round. it wouldn't take much to succeed in that scenario. Is Manziel a gifted athlete? Absolutely. But everyone in the NFL is a gifted athlete. What makes a star in the NFL? Making something out of nothing. Being able to find that hole that doesn't exist or hit that receiver downfield because you saw the corner cheat up on the same play 6 weeks ago when you last faced him. Knowing that if you don't get the ball out downfield in under 2 seconds, you are going to get hit from behind, and if that happens, you might be able to roll out to the left because the End has a thumb injury and his grip isn't 100% on his right hand. So why do the skill players (QB/RB/WR/CB) come from lesser schools as often as the power schools? Because Matt Ryan and Joe Flacco didn't have a single teammate in college get drafted. They were playing behind no name linemen and throwing the ball to no name receivers and still putting up numbers. Any college running back can step onto the field at Alabama or Ohio State and run for 800 yards. Do it at Toledo and we'll talk.",
"Most are quarterbacks. The quarterbacks who do best in college may rely on skills that are not as important in the NFL (running the ball). They are also usually at a good school that completely outclasses the other team 60-70% of the time. So, they will be throwing to other NFL quality players, protected by NFL quality linemen, and have an NFL quality running back to draw heat away. For example, the dropoff from a top 10 football program to a bottom 50 program would be roughly the equivalent of an average MLB baseball player taking on AA players. Once they get to the NFL, they will have about 3 seconds to release a pass, instead of maybe 4-5 in college. Their receivers will fight to get a half to a full step of separation, instead of 2-3 steps of separation they would see in college. The throwing windows are smaller. The defense has much better awareness, so they will pick off telegraphed throws more easily. The defensive backs, and especially linebackers are much faster, so a slightly errant pass will get picked off more frequently. Opposing defenses are FULL TIME players, who sit around and watch film for 20 hours on each game, instead of college students who may have a total of 20 hours of practice time in total in a week. Most importantly, there are skills that college football rewards that are unimportant or even negative in the NFL. Being pretty fast (4.7 speed) and running the ball is a huge asset when you're faster than the linebackers. It can be a liability when the linebackers are as fast as you are, and your inclination to run makes you miss an open receiver downfield, or get hit and injured, or fumble the ball. Good \"sit-in-the-pocket\" quarterbacks, who sit in the pocket and pick apart a defense do well in the NFL (Brady, Manning, Brees, Marino, Young, Montana, etc.) Some also do quite well in college, but not always. A good analogy would be an undersized basketball player. A 5'10 guard who is an excellent outside shooter, and drives hard to the rim can make you a superstar in college with a 6'1 guy guarding you, and a 6'10 guy blocking the paint. When you get to the NBA, you can't shoot over a 6'5 shooting guard, and you can't drive the lane past a 7'2 center who knows how to block your shots. Such a college superstar would be nearly worthless, while a 6'4 roleplayer shooting specialist can easily have a 15 year career and receive mid level contracts.",
"The simple answer is this: Speed of the game. In college you are the best of the high school kids. However one thing you must realize is that there is a shit ton of high schools and colleges. There are 32ish NFL teams. So when you get to college, if your the \"best\" player. You are better than literally 99% of the players. The only other players you have to worry about are the other \"star\" players on the other teams. These guys are usually QB, RB, WR. Basically people that get the ball and move it down the field. They can do so because they are faster, and stronger than 99%. Enter the NFL. Remember those other 1% players that were just as good as you? Now you have a full roster of 1%'ers on your team. Everyone is fast. Everyone is strong. You know that 350 pound lineman that in college couldnt make it down a 40 yard dash? In the NFL they make it in 4.5-4.7 seconds. THAT. IS. FUCKING. INSANE. Considering the fastest time ever is a 4.19-4.23 or something like that. That is a lot of mass to be moving that quick. No one ever talks about that. No one ever says, \"Hey Johney Manziel, you know that big fat guy over there that weighs 340 pounds? He can actually run faster than you. Good luck kiddo.\" Because thats literally what happens. Not only is the speed of players faster, the speed of the game is faster. You are expected to keep up with that pace. Then there is learning defense/offense for your team and the other team in 1 week flat. Thats how long you get. Which in reality is more like 2 days if you include all the practices and lifting you have to do.",
"Not researched, just a thought. College Heisman winners are usually those who are outstanding in a given scheme - quarterbacks are on heavy pass teams, running backs on heavy running teams. Such strategies are not as common in the NFL, where a team that gets 75% of its yards from the run, or has an extremely fast downfield passing attack, doesn't do very well. So those exceptional college players aren't as well prepared for the NFL style offense. Most popular example is probably Tim Tebow, whose offensive scheme at Florida is great for him, but a poor match for any NFL team. A top college player, no doubt, but a mediocre (and maybe undersized?) running back combined with questionable passing skills in the NFL.",
"I have been hearing a lot through sports media lately that there is a big concern about NFL ready quarterbacks coming out of the NCAA system. Since college is a win now league most coaches tend to put the best athlete at the QB position instead of finding the best QB prospect. So when these QBs get drafted more often than not they thrive in a spread system but can't read a defense to save their lives. After a season or two of open field hits they tend to migrate to a traditional pro system, and this is their first time exposed to it",
"the only thing i know about the heisman trophy is that OJ won it, and he possibly murdered his wife and some dude and then definitely was involved in a low speed chase in his white ford bronco, which sucks because i fuckin love the bronco, especially in white.",
"eli5: imagine the best tecmo bowl players (for nintendo) being forced to play the best xbox players in Madden. Sure, the game (of football) might be the same, but the controls are so different and the game so much complicated that only the best make the transition.",
"Because NCAA and NFL have vastly different talent levels, which leads them to be rather different (yet highly similar) games. Talent Levels - At the NCAA Division 1-A level, there are 128 teams, each with up to 85 players. That's 10,880 players in Division 1A. Of those, roughly [300]( URL_0 ) will make it onto an NFL's 53 man squad (32 teams, 1,696 players). Only half of those players will play more than a single contract. So that means that out of 10,880 players, only about 600 (4 years@150) are \"truly\" \"NFL Caliber\" players. That means 5.5% of players, or on average you're only going to play against 4-5 people who are capable of opposing you at your level per game, and roughly half of them are going to be sitting on the bench (because they, too, are on offense). That means that there is a pretty decent chance that a Heisman winner won't be opposing someone capable of exposing their weaknesses with any regularity. Indeed, depending on what team you're on, you might well end up never facing someone with your raw ability. What's more, even those who are your equals in terms of ability are still also college students, who cannot afford the time to make defeating you their full time job. They don't have the *time* for both film study and book study. This leads to NCAA and NFL football being different games - The above means that you can \"cheat.\" You can be sloppy. You can do things that would *never* work against a full team of people who are as good as you are. Wildcat offenses work in the NCAA, but not very often in the NFL. Likewise with the Spread Offense. NFL coaches are currently lamenting the fact that they can't find good quality Offensive Linemen, because the ones coming out of colleges these days tend to be used to playing a type of offense that works wonderfully against a bunch of amateurs, but can't hold up to Pros. It's not an indictment of the NCAA, simply that it isn't the same game, and what lets you excel in the NCAA, what makes you the best player in the NCAA doesn't necessarily translate to NFL.",
"It's like a senior in college would play against a senior in high school. They might be good in their own league, but it's basically a kid who just reached his prime playing against a grown ass man who trains in his free time most of the day, eats like a monster, and has all sorts of certain ways of life style imposed on them by their coaches. However, If you took that same college player and put him against a NFL player, it would be a man who is going against a monster who eats sleeps and breaths football. They don't have a job or school to consume their time to force them to have free time for football. The NFL is their job and say of life, so it would be putting a radroach against a behemoth, in fallout terms.",
"most college players don't do well in the NFL. (it's really hard) most heisman winners tend to be backs and NFL QB is arguably the hardest job on the planet (non-POTUS version). We also have very little ability to predict greatness at the position. Perhaps most importantly, EVERYONE on a football team is the beneficiary of (or subjected to) the system they play in. This is especially true at the prolevel. For example, as happened quite a few times over the past 10 years, you have a college RB who kills it in a zone read offense get drafted by a (dumbass) GM to play in a team that isn't a zone read, its not that surprising he doesn't flourish.",
"There are some good answers here however I feel like a lot of them make a good point but miss a few other points that need to be made. To start, the Heisman is generally awarded to a player on a top ten team. By that standard, a player is going to be surrounded by a higher level of talent than others and will have a greater chance of succeeding in their position. Matt Leinart is a *very* good example of this when he was at USC. He had two elite running backs (one was a fellow Heisman winner) with him in the backfield and amazing receivers to throw the ball to. Add in the fact that his offensive line had 4 future NFL players (including a first round draft pick, and two second rounders) and it's pretty easy to see how his path to success was easier than a player who may be the only NFL bound prospect on their team. When a player like this goes to the NFL, they are not surrounded by the cream of the crop in the league on their team because the league is filled with the cream of the crop. Suddenly the individual can't rely on others as much as they did before and have to rely on their own skills even more and can't take a moment off. Heisman winners like Leinart, Chris Weinke, and Gino Torretta suffered from this. Some suffer a different fate which is that their team employed a system that works in college because players are smaller and slower than in the NFL. Whether it's the spread style pass first offense (Andre Ware, Ty Detmer, Danny Wuerffel, Sam Bradford) or the option-style offense (Eric Crouch, Tim Tebow, Robert Griffin II), players in these styles of offense (QB's especially) have major catching up to do and often can't. They generally win the Heisman because their systems put the ball in their hands a lot and lead to inflated numbers that give people the impression that their skills are better than they actually are. Cam Newton is one Heisman winner from an offense like this that seems to be doing OK but he's a physical freak who seems to put in the work to do well. Which gets me to my final point. To succeed in the NFL takes a buttload of work on and off the field. Whether it's because they were allowed to sit back every now and then because they were on amazing teams or they just never put the work in in the first place, some Heisman winners can't take the challenge of constant film room sessions and the bruising practices at the NFL level. The league is incredibly competitive which means that you need to work on your craft to always stay ahead of the game. Some guys just can't do that.",
"Tl;dr: Heisman winners often have stats that can only be achieved in college... many of them are reliant on a system of speed and strength, not individual talent. If you are a top tier college program you very often are running non-nfl plays. This is because of a whole variety of peculiarities of collegiate football, quality of coaching, the value of individual players, the lack of awareness by defensive players etc. Historically this was compounded by huge discrepencies in athletic training. For instance, the University of florida could have nfl quality conditioning, training and medical staff. A coach could use this to build offenses that were so much faster and well groomed that most teams couldnt compete. This has more or less come to an end with the proliferation of quality training staff throughout the country. The speed/strength differential compounds super quick. If you have 3 skills position players with both the speed and strength to dominate whoever they line up against you are almost always going to lose. Interestingly this occassionally happens in the nfl, the 1998 vikings had most of the moving parts. ______________________ EDIT: Just to clarify: many Heisman winners are offensive players. Most of them have relied on their physical prowess relative to their opponent and their coach's system. Usually a coach will get the best QB he can find but a college coach just needs an arm- he can usually design a system with superior recievers where the QB litterally goes into the play knowing who he will throw to - he doesn't even have to see the Defense. Meaning the QB isn't really an NFL qb he is just an arm with eyes. The system is to spread the defense out and be able to tell before the play - usually before the day of the game, where the defense will fail. In the NFL this is impossible, there is just too much experience and athletic talent on the field. A QB like Miami's Brock Berlin can go into a play knowing he is throwing to Andre Johnson, this is good enough to really excel in college football. But in the NFL they will adjust before the play, and usually there is at least 1 defensive player who is Defensive Coordinator smart - this is rarely the case in college ball.",
"Several reasons really. College coaches are paid to win games, not groom NFL players. In some cases you get both, but most great college QBs play in a system designed to maximize their strengths and minimize their weaknesses and since the players in the NFL are bigger, faster, stronger and smarter, often times the players weaknesses are too much to mask or their strengths just aren't strong enough to overcome their weaknesses or any combination of those 2 factors. There's also the fact that there is more for an NFL QB to do in the mental aspect of the game, mostly before the snap, like audibles and defense/coverage recognition that college coaches do for the QB. This is why you see college teams look to the sideline before they snap the ball; the coach reads the defense for the QB and tells the offense whether or not to check out of a play from the sideline. In the NFL, with the exception of Philly it seems, these duties fall on the QB and many lack the football intelligence to handle it. More generally, the skills needed to be a great college QB are quite different from those needed to be a great NFL QB and there isn't a while lot of overlap between them.",
"In the NFL you are essentially playing against the equivalent of a college super-star team every week. In college you are playing against teams that are 90% or greater composed of guys who will never see the field in the NFL. Every guy who plays in the NFL was one of the best if not THE best player on his college team. In college, your opponent's defense may have 1 guy who will be good in the NFL and 2-3 guys who might see the field. Guys who can adjust to the superior oppositions make it in the NFL. Guys who can't adjust don't. Lastly, the Heisman is awarded to the guy who has the best performance, not the guy with the best potential. If a player is able to bulldoze the weaklings at Shit State U who is last in their conference, he stands a chance at the Heisman. But what is he going to do when he faces the Ray Lewis Ravens?",
"Lots of reasons.... 1. Award not always given to best player in CFB. If a team is undefeated the QB of the team is always a finalist. 2. Sometimes a great CFB player doesn't translate to the NFL. Different tactics and talent level. 3. First pick in NFL draft typically goes to worst team. This is usually detrimental to a QB that ends up as first pick as a bad team may not be able to protect him or coach him. There are exceptions like Jameis Winston who played in a pro-style offense in college. Winston had a couple of rough games but is now tearing up the stats despite being on one of the worst teams. Mariotta on the other hand came from a college style offense and has severely struggled despite having great athletic qualities.",
"The success rate for ANY college player to make it in the NFL is low. Incredibly low. I have a strong hunch that if you calculated the following: * A = % All D1 college athletes who made it in the NFL * B = % All D1 college athletes from elite schools who made it in the NFL * C = % Heisman college athletes who made it in the NFL C might well be the highest percentage out of all of them, despite still being a low percentage. Kinda like if someone told you they could shoot a basketball from half court with a 25% success rate. Sounds low on its own until you realize how goddamn hard that shot is and you stare at that person like they're a freak of nature.",
"To be good at College Football, you only need to be really good at one thing. Some QB's are good at running but not throwing. Most Pass-Rushers have one good move. Etc. In NFL football, you have to be able to make every throw, use a secondary pass-rush move, etc. Being really good at one thing isn't enough for the NFL. In the same light, the Heisman trophy isn't awarded to the player people think will be the best NFL player. It is a college football trophy. RG3 made more exciting plays than Luck in college; however, almost everyone thought Luck would be the better NFL QB. Tebow won the award despite most people thinking he would never be an NFL QB.",
"Because most Heisman winners tend to be QBs and the ones who aren't tend to be RBs. Being a great college QB won't necessarily translate to being a great pro QB. RBs just have no longevity in the NFL, and the difference for an NFL team in having a great versus good enough RB is almost negligible.",
"Most players period do not make it in the NFL, even highly regarded picks. Heisman candidates might be further predisposed to being busts because they often play in college offenses which inflate their stats and make them appealing to heisman voters, but are not systems which prepare them for the pro game.",
"Quarterbacks in college play against 18-20 year olds who spend their time studying, partying, going to class, chasing women and enjoying being young adults. QBs into the NFL play against grown men aged 22 - 40 who are paid millions of dollars to play at the position they play.",
"The NFL is full of players that have seen and competed at a much more competitive level against players better than anybody a fresh Heisman winner will have ever faced before. Some of these veterans will have done it for a decade or more in some cases.",
"Like most are saying it is drastically faster than college. Take the fastest and strongest guy from a college team that will make the NFL. Next you do the same thing 21 more times and that will make up an NFL team.",
"Every team that a college player faces includes from 0 to 10 players who will make it to the NFL. Fewer than 2% make it. Every team that an NFL player faces includes ONLY players who made it to the NFL.",
"The way I see it: Most Heisman winners have a high enough skill level compared to their peers to play their own game in college. When they go to the NFL, they have to play football.",
"Heisman winners are drafted by the worst teams in the NFL.. it has to deflate the winning ego to go 2-14 after winning the highest honor in all of college football",
"They get drafted by shitty teams, also their speed and agility that came as a bonus in college is often cancelled out by their relatively small size in the pros",
"Most people who don't win the Heisman trophy don't do well in the NFL either. Only so many people can be in the top 10%, you know?",
"Cam Newton is recently the most successful Heisman winner in the NFL in my opinion. Even harder for a scrambling QB up against NFL defenses.",
"Most of them are too busy planning for the opening their family-friendly sports bars and interviewing for various used car and mattress dealer commercials.",
"Most college players in general never do well in the NFL. Heisman winners are more likely to get a chance to fail.",
"The NFL game is a different beast than College. Generalization incoming: It's why people who follow College don't follow the NFL."
] | [
[
"teams into the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) National Championship Game as favorites (Heisman Trophy winners, including Reggie Bush, who gave back his Heisman Trophy, are 4–8 overall in the BCS National Championship Game and College Football Playoff National Championship, although prior to 2009 they were 1–6). Additionally, the Heisman curse asserts that in most cases a Heisman winner will have either a poor career in the National Football League (NFL), or in fact not even see such a football career at all. Although many Heisman winners have not enjoyed success at the professional level, including players like Matt Leinart, Andre",
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[
"the professional ranks, and wide receivers have had mixed results. The only primarily defensive Heisman winner, Charles Woodson, had a successful NFL career and final collegiate bowl game appearance.\nThe \"curse\" does not imply that only Heisman winners have failed careers, only the irony behind college football's best underperforming after the award is given. However, while there are numerous counts of players who underperformed after winning the award, an equal number of players have gone on to see great success, evidence that the \"curse\" is more of an amusement than a reality.\nWhile there is no statistical or empirical evidence that",
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"- Carson Palmer in 2002, Matt Leinart in 2004 and Reggie Bush in 2005. Four other Trojans tailbacks have won the coveted Heisman Trophy as college football's outstanding player: Mike Garrett in 1965, O.J. Simpson in 1968, Charles White in 1979 and Marcus Allen in 1981. Also notable, USC has 12 players in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, more than any other university. USC's record against opponents from the old Pac-10 is 367–153–29 (.695), and the Trojans have winning records against all nine other members. As of 2017, 501 Trojans have been taken in the NFL Draft, more than",
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"winner is 2016 recipient Lamar Jackson of Louisville at the age of 19 years, 338 days, four days younger than Jameis Winston was when he won in 2013. Position The Heisman is usually awarded to a running back or a quarterback; very few players have won the trophy playing at a different position. Two tight ends have won the trophy, Larry Kelley and Leon Hart. Also, Desmond Howard and Tim Brown won as wide receivers. Charles Woodson is the only primarily defensive player to win the award, doing so as a defensive back, kick returner, and occasional wide receiver for Michigan in",
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[
"Theismann's leg and ended his career, as the team is demoted to Division 3. As the game progresses, the player learns that the veteran captain has returned to the game as a result of financial troubles, while the rookie is portrayed as a naive yet talented individual whom Sands has targeted as the next player whose career he'll end on the field.\nThe story of the \"Campaign\" mode was partially written by former writers of Playmakers, a controversial show on the ESPN network that was canceled due to the NFL's objections to its portrayal of professional football players. Like in the",
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[
"the winning team every year except 1971, when Dallas Cowboys linebacker Chuck Howley won the award despite the Cowboys' loss in Super Bowl V to the Baltimore Colts. Harvey Martin and Randy White were named co-MVPs of Super Bowl XII, the only time co-MVPs have been chosen. Including the Super Bowl XII co-MVPs, seven Cowboys players have won Super Bowl MVP awards, the most of any NFL team. Quarterbacks have earned the honor 29 times in 53 games (and 54 awards).",
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"suggests Heisman winners underperform compared to other high-profile collegiate players, some try to explain the perception of the curse by reference to trends regarding voter selections. Some see the trend going back decades to other players, but it has most famously been observed since the 1990s. The accepted logical explanation for the discrepancy between success and failure of Heisman winners is that the people who pick the Heisman are sportswriters and former Heisman winners. This might mean that they vote for a winner based on reputation, without seeing him or really studying him, basically a qualitative approach. On",
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"never won a Heisman: Clint Castleberry, Marshall Faulk, Michael Vick, Rex Grossman, Larry Fitzgerald, Adrian Peterson, Deshaun Watson, and Christian McCaffrey. Four players have specifically finished second in consecutive years: Glenn Davis (second in 1944 and 1945, winner in 1946), Charlie Justice (second 1948 and 1949), Darren McFadden (second 2006 and 2007), and Andrew Luck (second 2010 and 2011).\nThe oldest and youngest Heisman winners ever both played for Atlantic Coast Conference schools. The oldest, Chris Weinke, was 28 years old when he won in 2000; he spent six years in minor league baseball before enrolling at Florida State. The youngest",
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"behind by running back Reggie Bush, nicknamed the \"Bush Push\". The year climaxed with a 66–19 USC defeat of cross-town rival UCLA. Running back Reggie Bush finished his stellar year by winning the Heisman Trophy (later returned by USC and reclaimed by the Heisman Trophy Trust considering Bush accepted improper benefits while at USC and was ineligible during the 2005 season), while Leinart finished third in the Heisman voting. Several other players also earned accolades, being named All-Americans (AP, Football Coaches, Football Writers, Walter Camp, ESPN.com, SI.com, CBS Sportsline.com, Rivals.com, Collegefootballnews.com). These include QB Matt Leinart, RB Reggie Bush, RB",
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"football's most outstanding player, several have received votes by the award's selection committee. Quarterbacks Jack Scarbath and Bernie Faloney finished second and fourth in the voting in 1952 and 1953, respectively. Additionally, Bob Pellegrini, Gary Collins, Randy White, and Boomer Esiason all finished in the top-ten of the voting for a Heisman. Six Maryland players and four coaches have been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. Bear Bryant, Jerry Claiborne, Clark Shaughnessy, and Jim Tatum were inducted as coaches. The players included Dick Modzelewski, Bob Pellegrini, Jack Scarbath, and Bob Ward. Stan Jones and Randy White were also",
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"Heisman Trophy winner) and Reggie Bush (2005 Heisman Trophy winner) and would finish his career with a 30–2 record as a starter, the best of any Texas quarterback at the time. The wins and awards accumulated by USC during the Reggie Bush era that seemed to justify such attention have been vacated due to NCAA violations. Colt McCoy (2006–2009) The 2006 Texas Longhorns football team hoped to repeat as national champions even though quarterback Vince Young elected to go to the NFL early which left freshman Colt McCoy as the starting quarterback. After an early loss to Ohio State, the",
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"had a surprisingly small number of Pro Bowl selections despite distinguished careers. Hall of Fame running back John Riggins was selected only once in his career from 1971 to 1985. He was not selected in the year after which he set the record for rushing touchdowns in a season and his team made it to the Super Bowl (although he did make the All-Pro team). Hall of Fame linebacker Ray Nitschke only made the Pro Bowl once, despite being named All-Pro seven times and being the MVP of the 1962 NFL Championship Game. Defensive back Ken Riley never made the",
"-26.00392088969238"
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"contention for the national championship or a major conference championship at some point in that season.\nThe closest that a player outside the modern Division I FBS came to winning the Heisman is third place; in both cases, the players involved played for schools in what was at the time Division I-AA, now Division I FCS. The first was Gordie Lockbaum from Holy Cross in 1987, followed by Steve McNair, from Alcorn State in 1993. Armanti Edwards, from Appalachian State University, was also briefly mentioned as a candidate for the award following Appalachian's upset of No. 5-ranked Michigan in 2007.\nBesides Griffin",
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"The Heisman Trust decided to leave the award vacated with no new winner to be announced. The San Diego Hall of Champions sports museum returned the copy of the award it possessed back to Bush's parents in 2011. Bush eventually returned his trophy to the Heisman Trust in 2012. 2006 season Bush's selection by the New Orleans Saints in the NFL Draft generated excitement and celebration among Saints fans. By the end of the week after the draft, Reebok reported receiving over 15,000 orders for Bush's Saints jersey, even though his jersey number with the Saints had not yet been",
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"All four teams in the division are in the top ten of most valuable NFL franchises (Cowboys #1; Giants #3; Redskins #4; Eagles #10). The next closest division is the AFC North, which is not completed until the 26th ranked Cincinnati Bengals.",
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"Pro Bowl in his 15 seasons, even though he recorded 65 interceptions, the fourth-highest total in NFL history at the time of his retirement. Former Jacksonville Jaguars halfback Fred Taylor, who is 15th in all-time rushing yards, was elected to his only Pro Bowl in 2007, despite averaging 4.6 yards per carry for his career, better than all but five running backs ranked in the top 30 in all-time rushing. Aaron Smith made it to the Pro Bowl once in 13 years (2004) despite winning two Super Bowl rings with the Pittsburgh Steelers and being named to the Sports Illustrated",
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"from that era—John Heisman and John Outland—are remembered each year with the presentation of the Heisman Trophy to the most outstanding college football player of the year, and the Outland Trophy to the most outstanding college football interior lineman of the year.\nIn addition, each year the Bednarik Award is given to college football's best defensive player. Chuck Bednarik (Class of 1949) was a three-time All-American center/linebacker who starred on the 1947 team and is generally regarded as Penn's all-time finest. In addition to Bednarik, the 1947 squad boasted four-time All-American tackle George Savitsky and three-time All-American halfback Skip Minisi. All",
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[
"control. Both Dwight Clark and Freddie Solomon had excellent years receiving; Clark as the possession receiver, and Solomon as more of a deep threat. The 49ers running game, however, was among the weakest for any champion in NFL history. Ricky Patton led the 49ers with only 543 yards rushing. The 49ers' most valuable running back, however, might have been Earl Cooper, whose strength was as a pass-catching back (he had 51 catches during the season.)\nThe 49ers faced the New York Giants in the divisional playoffs and won, 38–24, in a game that was not as close as the score suggests. This",
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[
"not make it past the first round. This failure was greatly frustrating to many Eagles fans, as the team was commonly acknowledged as among the most talented in the NFL. On offense, the Eagles were led by quarterback Cunningham, one of the most exciting players of his generation; tight end Keith Jackson; and running back Keith Byars. The defense is commonly acknowledged as among the greatest in league history, and as the best never to win a championship.\nThe two 1989 matches with Dallas were known as the Bounty Bowls. Both were won easily by the Eagles (the Cowboys finished 1-15",
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[
"the New England Patriots to six 21st century Super Bowl victories, considered Carson the best all-around linebacker he ever coached. Professional Football Hall of Fame Carson was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2006. His selection came after years of outspoken criticism of the Hall of Fame selection process, where his principal criticism was that the vote is done by the media, not players and coaches. In 2004, Carson asked to have his name taken off the ballot.\nDespite previously stating that due to his frustration at not being elected he wanted his name removed from the ballot,",
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[
"linebacker on ESPN.com. \"Nobody in the NFL plays their position better than Patrick Willis, and that is saying a lot,\" said Matt Williamson of Scouts Inc. \"He is as good a linebacker as Peyton Manning is a quarterback, as Andre Johnson is a receiver, as Adrian Peterson is a running back. He has no weaknesses.\" Even 12-time Pro Bowler Ray Lewis, the dominant linebacker of his era, pointed to Willis as a worthy successor to his undisputed reign. ESPN's Dana Jacobson asked Lewis which young linebacker reminded him of himself. \"I just love the way he plays the game,\" Lewis",
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[
"presenting the Vince Lombardi Trophy to the winning team in its locker room after the game, the NFL began the tradition of presenting the trophy on the field.\nThe outcome of the game had rather large ramifications for two soon-to-be free agents after their performances. Larry Brown, who was named Super Bowl MVP for his two interceptions, parlayed his performance into a lucrative free agent contract with the Oakland Raiders. However, he was not very effective and was cut from the team after two injury-plagued seasons. Neil O'Donnell left the Steelers in the offseason and signed a long-term free agent contract",
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"strident and varied. CBSSports.com producer J. Darin Darst opined that Bush \"should never have been pressured to return the award.\" Kalani Simpson of Fox Sports wrote, \"Nice try Heisman Trust...It's a slick move to try to wipe the slate clean.\" Former Football Writers Association of America president Dennis Dodd, on the other hand, decided to fictitiously award Bush's vacated 2005 award to Vince Young, the original runner-up that year. He wrote, \"Since the Heisman folks won't re-vote, we did. Vince Young is the new winner of the 2005 Heisman.\" A Los Angeles Times piece argued that Bush's Heisman was \"tainted\"",
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[
"as part of the 2014 class for the Hall of Fame. There has also been criticism that certain players get overlooked because their team underproduced during their careers.\nThe Pro Football Hall of Fame is unique among North American major league sports halls of fame in that officials have generally been excluded from the Hall. Only one official, 1966 inductee Hugh \"Shorty\" Ray, has been enshrined. The National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum, Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame and Hockey Hall of Fame have each inducted game officials as members. In part to rectify the lack of officials and",
"-25.583973727712873"
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[
"the sixth seed. Such an instance has never occurred in the NFL. Lamar Hunt Trophy Beginning with 1984–85 season, the winner of the AFC Championship Game has received the Lamar Hunt Trophy, named after the founder of the AFL. The original trophy consisted of a wooden base with a sculpted AFC logo in the front and a sculpture of various football players in the back.\nFor the 2010–11 NFL playoffs, the Lamar Hunt Trophy and the George Halas Trophy, which is awarded to the NFC Champion, were redesigned by Tiffany & Co. at the request of the NFL, in an attempt",
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[
"winning consecutive Heismans at Ohio State, four other programs had two different players win the Heisman Trophy in consecutive years: Yale (1936–37), Army (1945–46), Southern California (USC) (2004–05, though Reggie Bush voluntarily forfeited his 2005 award in September 2010 and sent the trophy back to the Heisman Trust), and Oklahoma (2017-2018). With an earlier win in 2002, the USC program actually had three different winners within four years.\nOnly three high schools have produced multiple Heisman trophy winners. The first was Woodrow Wilson High School in Dallas, Texas (Davey O'Brien in 1938 and Tim Brown in 1987) (Woodrow remains the only",
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[
"don’t win because of running backs. You win because of the quarterback. We have to get that position stabilized. We’re fixated on that.” 2009 In March 2009, Angelo, along with several other NFL teams, expressed interest in acquiring Pro Bowl quarterback Jay Cutler from the Denver Broncos. Cutler, who had spent three years with Denver, requested to be traded after head coach Josh McDaniels considered replacing him with Matt Cassel. On April 2, Angelo made one of the biggest trades in the franchise's history by trading Kyle Orton, the Bears' first and third-round selections in 2009, and first-round",
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[
"Heisman Trophy candidate as a junior, and an experienced defense paved the way for Playboy and The Sporting News to rank A&M No. 1 in the preseason.\nThe Aggies began the season with impressive wins over LSU (in which McElroy ran for 229 yards, 5th in Aggie history for a single game) and Tulsa, and took a #3 ranking to Boulder to face the #5 Colorado with A&M mounting a \"'Lectric Leeland\" Heisman marketing campaign. McElroy played poorly and the Aggies lost a disappointing game. A&M tipped passes for interceptions, receiver Chris Sanders dropped a sure touchdown on a screen pass",
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[
"the voting for the Heisman Trophy. Karras and Ohio State tackle John Hicks (in 1973) are two of only three linemen ever finishing so high in the Heisman Trophy voting. (Leon Hart, a Notre Dame end, was the only lineman ever to win the Heisman Trophy in 1949.) In addition, Karras was a consensus first team All-American in 1957. Hawkeye teammate Randy Duncan said,\nKarras hated Evashevski, and he still does. I think Karras hated Evy for a lot of reasons. Evy was on everybody's back, and he was on Karras' back big time. Karras was a great football player, but",
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[
"ago.\"\nHarbaugh is the only head coach in NFL history to win a playoff game in each of his first five seasons, according to NFL Network.\nIn each of Harbaugh's first four seasons and again in 2014, every AFC Champion defeated the Ravens in the playoffs (although only the 2008 Pittsburgh Steelers and 2014 New England Patriots were able to actually win the Super Bowl).\nIn the 2014 AFC Wild Card round of the NFL playoffs, Harbaugh's Ravens beat the Pittsburgh Steelers in Heinz Field in a dominant 30–17 victory, which was the Ravens' first playoff victory against the Steelers in the history",
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[
"the NFL when none of the 3 teams won a Super Bowl. Even after those teams moved away from the run & shoot as their base sets, the influence of Mouse Davis and Jim Kelly left a lasting impact on the league. In the 1970s most teams ran the 2 back \"pro-set\" as their base offense with fixed routes. Today, almost all NFL teams incorporate extensive packages of 4 WR sets and option routes for WRs depending on coverages faced, innovations that are the basis of the run & shoot. The playoffs, 1985, and beyond The Gamblers appeared in",
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],
[
"one of the most exciting players of his generation; tight end Keith Jackson; and running back Keith Byars. The defense is commonly acknowledged as among the greatest in league history, and as the best to never win a championship.\nThe two 1989 matches with Dallas were known as the Bounty Bowls. Both were won easily by the Eagles (the Cowboys finished 1–15 that year), and were marked by Ryan insulting new Cowboys coach Jimmy Johnson, putting a \"bounty\" on their kicker, and for Eagles fans throwing snowballs.\nOn November 12, 1990, during a Monday Night Football game at the Vet, the Eagles",
"-25.248494028986897"
],
[
"the national championship. (Eleven appeared in the year that they won). Two Heisman Trophy winners have appeared in two BCS bowl games (Jason White in 2004 and 2005, and Matt Leinart in 2005 and 2006). Their teams have gone 6-8 in those games. BCS Regular Season Record Statistics While numerous teams have gone undefeated and appeared in a BCS bowl game, the 1999 Florida State team was the first team ranked No. 1 in the preseason Associated Press Poll to go undefeated and win the National Championship. USC was also ranked No.1 in preseason and went on to win the",
"-25.194711676216684"
],
[
"players to the Pro Bowl: Troy Aikman, Emmitt Smith, Michael Irvin, Thomas Everett, Daryl Johnston, Russell Maryland, Nate Newton, Ken Norton Jr, Jay Novacek, Mark Stepnoski and Erik Williams. Emmitt Smith won his third rushing title despite missing the first two games of the season, which the Cowboys went 0–2 in, over a contract dispute, and was named both NFL and Super Bowl MVP. Smith is one of only six players to win both the NFL MVP award and Super Bowl MVP award in the same season, and is the only one of those six players who was not",
"-25.189452172722667"
],
[
"Bowl win (in which Warner was named MVP), while also winning two NFL MVP Awards. But in 2002, Warner's production was drastically reduced by injuries and he soon lost his starting job to Marc Bulger. He eventually left the team to join the New York Giants, but once again he lost his starting job (replaced by Eli Manning) and signed on with the Cardinals in 2005. For the third time, Warner lost his starting job due to mediocre performances and injuries. After the season, Arizona selected Heisman Trophy winning quarterback Matt Leinart with their first round draft pick. This, combined",
"-25.134287107852288"
],
[
"Football Player of the Year, which is bestowed upon the most outstanding college football player of that season by Sporting News. While no Texas Tech player has ever received the Heisman Trophy, seven Red Raiders have received votes by the award's selection committee. Donny Anderson and Graham Harrell both finished fourth in the voting in 1965 and 2008, respectively, the highest ranking a Red Raider has received from voters. Additionally, Michael Crabtree, Byron Hanspard, E. J. Holub, Kliff Kingsbury, and B. J. Symons were Heisman candidates, receiving enough votes to finish in the top 10.\nTexas Tech football players have won",
"-25.106795651721768"
],
[
"NFL. After initially being given Heisman Trophy consideration to start the season, those hopes would fade as the season progressed and ended with a sprained ankle versus Tennessee. Alexander still played a key role in leading the Tide to the SEC Championship in 1999, as Alabama trampled #3 Florida with a 34-7 victory. In the fourth quarter of the 1999 Iron Bowl versus rivals Auburn, Alexander led a comeback as he scored three rushing touchdowns in the 28–17 victory, finishing the game with 199 total yards. He left the school holding 15 records, including 3,565 career rushing yards. 2000–2004 seasons",
"-25.096478303312324"
],
[
"famous athletes is John Heisman, namesake of the Heisman Trophy. Before finishing college at the University of Pennsylvania, Heisman played college football at Brown as a lineman.",
"-25.03729862405453"
],
[
"Ware, Jason White, Rashaan Salaam, Eric Crouch, Ty Detmer, Troy Smith and Gino Torretta, proponents of the \"curse\" rarely cite highly successful players such as Barry Sanders, Charles Woodson, Eddie George, Tim Brown, Bo Jackson, Marcus Allen, Earl Campbell, OJ Simpson, and Tony Dorsett among the notables.\nInsofar as there is a \"curse\" of underperforming Heisman winners, it seems to affect quarterbacks disproportionately. Although certain Heisman winners have gone on to win Super Bowl championships (such as Roger Staubach and Jim Plunkett), comparatively few have had successful NFL careers. Conversely, running backs seem generally to have fared better in",
"-24.99715090356767"
],
[
"and would remain so until Carl Pickens had 99 in 1995.\nRoss had an outstanding performance in the Super Bowl, with a record 11 receptions for 104 yards and two touchdowns. His receptions, receiving yards, and receiving touchdowns were all the most by a tight end in Super Bowl history. However, the Bengals lost to the San Francisco 49ers, 26-21, preventing Ross from being the likely winner of the Super Bowl MVP award.\nIn addition to his impressive Super Bowl performance, Ross was the Bengals' leading receiver in both playoff wins that year, with six receptions for 71 yards in their 28-21",
"-24.996777726482833"
],
[
"as possible when 2017 Heisman Trophy winner Baker Mayfield, who starred for the University of Oklahoma, became the team's starting quarterback. The networks complied, except in cases when the Browns and Dallas Cowboys were playing at the same time on the same network; the Cowboys have enjoyed a large base of support in neighboring Oklahoma since their founding in 1960. Previously, the Minnesota Vikings were requested as much as possible by Oklahoma stations due to the presence of former OU star running back Adrian Peterson. \nSince 2015, when 2014 Heisman winner Marcus Mariota from the University of Oregon was drafted",
"-24.986598082934506"
],
[
"that he was \"still looking for the million.\"\nFor three seasons, the backfield challenged opposing defenses with Tittle's arm, Johnson's power, the speed of Perry, and the elusiveness of McElhenny. \"There was no greater running backs than Hugh McElhenny, John Henry Johnson and Joe Perry in the same backfield,\" Tittle reminisced. \"It made quarterbacking so easy because I just get in the huddle and call anything and you have three Hall of Fame running backs ready to carry the ball.\" They achieved their greatest success during their first year together, in 1954, in which they shattered the team record for rushing",
"-24.974919157335535"
],
[
"1997. Legendary linebacker Dick Butkus only placed sixth in 1963 and third in 1964 and could qualify as an interior lineman, as he played center on offense during these two-way player days. The highest finish ever for any individual who played exclusively on defense is second, by defensive end Hugh Green of Pittsburgh in 1980 and linebacker Manti Te'o of Notre Dame in 2012. Although the Heisman is named in honor of an interior lineman, no interior lineman on either side of the ball has ever won the award. Offensive guard Tom Brown of Minnesota and the offensive tackle John",
"-24.969231008784845"
],
[
"the Super Bowl MVP award for Super Bowl XXVIII, becoming the only Cowboys running back ever to win the award. He also scored two touchdowns in Super Bowl XXX.\nSmith is one of only five NFL players who have amassed over 10,000 career-rushing yards and 400 career receptions. Smith and Jerry Rice are the only two non-kickers in NFL history to score 1,000 points in a career. Playing style As a runner, Smith was consistently effective, though not dazzling in style. \"(Smith) darted, slithered and followed his blockers, and squeezed yard after yard out of plays that didn't have any yards",
"-24.961715660407208"
],
[
"his second NFL championship, and his final NFL game. The back-to-back victories heralded a change in momentum in which AFC teams would win nine out of 12 Super Bowls. In the years between 1995 and 2018, five teams – the Steelers, New England Patriots, Broncos, Baltimore Ravens, and Indianapolis Colts – accounted for 22 of the 24 AFC Super Bowl appearances (including the last 16), with those same teams often meeting each other earlier in the playoffs. In contrast, the NFC saw a different representative in the Super Bowl every season from 2001 through 2010.\nThe New England Patriots became the dominant",
"-24.93781373859383"
],
[
"the single season touchdown record at 28, and tied Priest Holmes's record of 27 rushing touchdowns in a season. Alexander also won his first NFL rushing title with 1,880 rushing yards, while leading the NFC for the second consecutive year. In 2005, he joined Emmitt Smith, Priest Holmes, and Marshall Faulk as the only running backs to record consecutive seasons of 20 or more touchdowns. Combined with quarterback Matt Hasselbeck, Alexander aided the Seahawks in producing the league's top ranked offense, and the team scoring title.\nFour days later, on January 5, he was awarded the 2005 NFL MVP Award, becoming",
"-24.93261496978812"
],
[
"ranked first in the NFL in fewest passing yards, rushing yards, and total yards allowed. As such, the Eagles became only the fifth club in NFL history and the first since 1975 to accomplish this rare triple. Five members of that defensive unit represented the Eagles in the Pro Bowl – DEs Reggie White and Clyde Simmons, DT Jerome Brown, and LB Seth Joyner were selected as starters while CB Eric Allen also made the NFC squad. The selection of White, Simmons, and Brown marked only the sixth time in NFL history that three defensive linemen from one team were",
"-24.929862874560058"
],
[
"The Sporting News' list of the 100 Greatest Football Players. This made him the highest-ranking player to have spent his entire career with the Eagles, the highest-ranking offensive center and the eighth-ranked linebacker in all of professional football.\nIn 2010, Bednarik was ranked number 35 on the NFL Network's \"The Top 100: NFL's Greatest Players\". Ranked one spot ahead of Bednarik at #34 was Deion Sanders, a player for whom Bednarik has held open contempt in regards to being a two-way player. Bednarik was not the highest placed Eagle on the NFL Network's list. That distinction was held by Reggie",
"-24.92225806841452"
],
[
"from other conferences, but a random sample over a long period of time might suggest that Pac-10/12 players might win somewhere close to 18% of the Heisman awards. In the 20 seasons between 1981 (Marcus Allen) and 2002 (Carson Palmer), not a single Pacific-10 Conference or other West Coast player won the Heisman Trophy. Three Southern California (USC) players have won the trophy in the early years of the 21st century and two won it subsequent to Palmer. Although Terry Baker, quarterback from Oregon State, won the trophy in 1962, and Gary Beban from UCLA won in 1967, no non-USC",
"-24.91636175884196"
],
[
"Pro Bowl became one of only 11 players in NFL history to make it their first seven seasons. The list of other players who have done it and gone on to make the Hall of Fame includes Dick Butkus, Joe Greene, Franco Harris, Merlin Olsen, Mel Renfro, Barry Sanders, Lawrence Taylor and Derrick Thomas. He earned First Team All-Pro honors for the fourth time in his career. He was ranked 18th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2014. 2014 season In the 2014 season, Thomas started all 16 games of the Browns' 7–9 campaign. On",
"-24.903181993795442"
],
[
"straight Heisman Trophy winner to sign with a USFL team–and WR Greg Anderson, who caught 63 passes. Carano had his moments but he struggled overall, completing only 53.7% of his passes with 13 touchdowns and 19 interceptions. Backup Tom Rozantz was expected to mostly carry a clipboard, but he ended up playing a lot and he struggled as well. However, either would have been a disappointment, as most fans expected the Maulers to pick Steve Young rather than Mike Rozier. Even bringing in former Arizona Wranglers star WR Jackie Flowers did not turn around the offense.",
"-24.8928287550807"
],
[
"the teams with the top 3 Heisman vote-getters for that season (having played against 3rd-place finisher Collin Klein from Kansas State, runner-up Manti Te'o from Notre Dame, and Heisman winner Manziel from Texas A&M); they lost to all three. Texas A&M The Aggies' first season as members of the SEC was led by freshman quarterback and 2012 Heisman Trophy winner Manziel, the Aggies posted a 6–2 conference record (10–2 overall), good for a second-place tie in the SEC West Division (tied with the LSU Tigers). In perhaps their biggest game of the season, the Aggies defeated defending national champions and",
"-24.888649337750394"
],
[
"Clark and Freddie Solomon had excellent years receiving; Clark as the possession receiver, and Solomon as more of a deep threat. The 49ers running game, however, was among the weakest in the league. Ricky Patton led the 49ers with only 543 yards rushing. The 49ers' most valuable running back, however, might have been Earl Cooper, whose strength was as a pass-catching back. The 49ers faced the New York Giants in the divisional playoffs and won, 38–24. This set up an NFC championship game match-up with the Dallas Cowboys, whom the 49ers historically could not beat during their playoff runs in",
"-24.88552626874298"
],
[
"the Giants teams that won Super Bowls XXI and XXV and a member of the NFL's 1980's All-Decade Team; twenty-one year veteran quarterback Earl Morrall, defensive end and actor Bubba Smith, former Detroit Lions head coach Wayne Fontes, NFL games-played leader Morten Andersen, Plaxico Burress, Andre Rison, Derrick Mason, Muhsin Muhammad, T. J. Duckett, Flozell Adams, Julian Peterson, Charles Rogers, and Jim Miller.\nThe American Football League's All-Time Team includes tight-end Fred Arbanas and safety George Saimes.\nFormer Michigan State players in the National Hockey League include All Star Defensemen Duncan Keith, Rod Brind'Amour, Anson Carter, Donald McSween, Adam Hall,",
"-24.8550273355213"
],
[
"by any pro franchise ever, as Pittsburgh selected four future Hall of Famers, the most for any team in any sport in a single draft. The Steelers were the first team to win three and then four Super Bowls and appeared in six AFC Championship Games during the decade, making the playoffs in eight straight seasons. Nine players and three coaches and administrators on the team have been inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Pittsburgh still remains the only team to win back-to-back Super Bowls twice and four Super Bowls in a six-year period.\nThe Steelers' dynasty was interrupted",
"-24.80272717808839"
],
[
"dozens of minor league football teams since to be able to do the same.\nThe Raiders have won nine National Championships and have had nearly a dozen players with National Football League (NFL) experience. They also have 31 players, coaches or staff in the American Football Association (AFA) Semi Pro Hall of Fame, more than any other team.",
"-24.78864789288491"
],
[
"Hall of Fame in 2006. As part of a series of articles written for The Gainesville Sun in 2006, he was recognized as the No. 3 all-time player among the top 100 from the first 100 years of the Gators football program. Dallas Cowboys In the 1990 NFL Draft the Dallas Cowboys considered drafting linebacker James Francis with their first round selection, but after he was taken by the Cincinnati Bengals, the Cowboys focused on improving their running game when Smith started dropping, because despite his collegiate success, some NFL teams still felt that Smith was too small and",
"-24.771665465435944"
],
[
"to the start of the 2009 season, analysts of both the NFL Network and ESPN unanimously named Peterson the best running back in the NFL today. However, the arrival of quarterback Brett Favre, one of the greatest quarterbacks in NFL history, coming out of retirement brought both expectation and speculation about Peterson's new role in the offense. Head coach Brad Childress, however, stated that he wanted to continue leaning on Peterson, giving him a large number of carries. Favre worked well into the offense through the first half of the season, re-establishing Peterson's ability with a passing attack. Peterson had",
"-24.729043477214873"
],
[
"and competitive franchises in their sports, sending a number of players to their respective Halls of Fame. Following the stunning win of their first championship in what became known as \"The Greatest Game to be Played\" versus the New York Giants in the 1958 title game in New York City, the Colts later repeated the accomplishment in the next year's NFL championship game of 1959, which the \"Hosses\" won, playing at the stadium before a home crowd. It was the enthusiasm of Colts fans in particular that led to the stadium being dubbed \"The World's Largest Outdoor Insane Asylum\" by",
"-24.71126251766691"
],
[
"1965 Heisman Trophy race. He is part of the Texas Tech Hall of Fame and the College Football Hall of Fame.\nBecause of a redshirt year due to academic issues, Anderson was eligible as underclassman for the 1965 NFL Draft, then known as a \"future\" pick. In 1964, he ran for 966 yards with three touchdowns (TDs) and had 32 catches for 396 yards and four TDs; Despite being selected by the Packers, he returned for his senior season at Texas Tech in 1965 and led the Red Raiders to an 8-2 regular season and a berth in the Gator Bowl",
"-24.63378911316977"
],
[
"of the greatest seasons of any running back in NFL history, rushing for 2,008 yards, catching 25 passes for 217 yards, and scoring 23 touchdowns to earn him both the NFL Most Valuable Player Award and the NFL Offensive Player of the Year Award. But Davis' rushing numbers did not reduce Elway's passing production. The 38-year-old quarterback made the Pro Bowl for the 3rd year in a row and the 9th time in his career, throwing for 2,806 yards and 22 touchdowns, with only 10 interceptions. A big reason for Elway's passing success was that he had two Pro Bowl",
"-24.633390853588935"
],
[
"utilizing previously unheralded running backs, including 1998 NFL MVP Terrell Davis, and developing them into league-leading rushers behind small, yet powerful, Zone Blocking offensive lines. Hall of Fame players from the Broncos' Super Bowl-winning teams in '97 & '98 include Elway, Davis, and tight end Shannon Sharpe.\nShanahan also served as head coach of the Washington Redskins from 2010-2013, but his time in Washington was significantly less successful than his tenure with the Broncos. Despite guiding the Redskins to the NFC East division title in 2012, along with a trip to the NFL playoffs, he only compiled a 24-40 record over",
"-24.62194236618234"
],
[
"Heisman Trophy runner-up), fifth-year wide receiver Scott Fitzkee, rookie halfback Kelvin Bryant of North Carolina, rookie offensive tackle Irv Eatman of UCLA, rookie linebacker Sam Mills, and second-year safety Scott Woerner. The team also featured Towson's all-star rookie punter Sean Landeta. At the conclusion of the regular season, Bryant was named the USFL's Player of the Year by the Associated Press.\nThe Stars entered the playoffs as the top-seeded team. In the Semi-Finals, the Stars were able to defeat the preseason favorites to win the 1983 title—George Allen's Chicago Blitz—by withstanding seven turnovers and erasing a 21-point deficit in",
"-24.62142066747765"
],
[
"not won another league championship since, including having never won the Super Bowl since the game started being played annually in 1966. They appeared in Super Bowl XV in the 1980 season and Super Bowl XXXIX in the 2004 season, but lost both times. In 1970, the Super Bowl trophy was officially named the Vince Lombardi trophy when the league decided to honor Lombardi by naming the trophy after him following his death in 1970. This renaming of the Super Bowl trophy combined with the Eagles inability to win the championship game has led some Eagles fans to believe that",
"-24.589847197989002"
],
[
"Bowls. Most people did not think that the Rams even belonged on the same field with the Steelers. In fact, Sports Illustrated had called the NFC Championship Game \"a game for losers, played by losers\". One sports writer sarcastically suggested that Bradshaw throw left-handed and the Rams should be allowed to play with 12 men on the field to make the Super Bowl more competitive.\nHowever, the Steelers were not taking their opponents lightly. In their previous meetings, the Rams held a 12–1–2 all-time record over the Steelers, including wins in 1971, 1975, and 1978. The wins in 1975 (by",
"-24.589736290916335"
],
[
"the only Pro Bowl selection on the Giants defense, while Umenyiora, limited to 9 games because of injury, recorded 9 sacks and 2 forced fumbles. The Giants secondary was led by Corey Webster, who intercepted a career-high 6 passes. Defensive backs Kenny Phillips and Aaron Ross added four interceptions each, while safety Antrel Rolle picked off two passes and led the team in combined tackles with 96.\nThe Giants joined the 2008 Arizona Cardinals and 1979 Los Angeles Rams as the only other team to advance to the Super Bowl with fewer than ten victories since the NFL expanded to a",
"-24.563123122556135"
],
[
"loss of possession for an incomplete pass in the end zone—and shrunk the circumference of the ball, making it easier to grip and throw. Players who became famous for taking advantage of the easier passing game included Alabama end Don Hutson and TCU passer \"Slingin\" Sammy Baugh.\nIn 1935, New York City's Downtown Athletic Club awarded the first Heisman Trophy to University of Chicago halfback Jay Berwanger, who was also the first ever NFL Draft pick in 1936. The trophy was designed by sculptor Frank Eliscu and modeled after New York University player Ed Smith. The trophy recognizes the nation's \"most",
"-24.555677357842796"
],
[
"the Heisman Trophy. Elway would nevertheless enjoy a tremendously successful NFL career, winning two Super Bowls with the Denver Broncos, and was inducted into the Pro Football and College Football Halls of Fame. Years later, Elway came to terms with The Play, stating that \"each year it gets a little funnier.\"\nThe participants in The Play faded into relative obscurity in the years since, with the only memorable participants in the game being Elway and announcer Joe Starkey for his famous call of The Play.\nRon Rivera, a starting defensive end for California, went on to play for the 1985 Chicago Bears,",
"-24.52675049379468"
],
[
"Nicklaus (golf); and Chic Harley (three-time All-American football running back). Ohio State football players have combined for seven Heisman Awards including the only two-time winner Archie Griffin in 1974 and 1975, Eddie George in 1995, and most recently Troy Smith in 2006. Hall of Fame coaches at Ohio State have included Paul Brown, Woody Hayes, and Jim Tressel in football, Fred Taylor in basketball, Larry Snyder in track and field, and Mike Peppe in swimming and diving. Hall of fame players, in pro-football, include Sid Gillman, Lou Groza, Dante Lavelli, Jim Parker, Paul Warfield, Dick LeBeau, and Bill Willis. Affiliated",
"-24.52238934999332"
],
[
"and 19 losses. Only five teams have appeared in more Super Bowls than the Redskins: the New England Patriots (eleven), Dallas Cowboys (eight), Pittsburgh Steelers (eight), Denver Broncos (eight), and the San Francisco 49ers (six); the Redskins’ five appearances are tied with the Oakland Raiders, Miami Dolphins, New York Giants, and Green Bay Packers.\nAll of the Redskins’ league titles were attained during two ten-year spans. From 1936 to 1945, the Redskins went to the NFL Championship six times, winning two of them. The second period lasted between 1982 and 1991 where the Redskins appeared in the postseason seven times, captured",
"-24.516651545767672"
],
[
"rank the 32 fan bases in the NFL consistently place Eagles fans among the best in the league, noting their \"unmatched fervor.\" Eagles fans have numerous dedicated web communities, ranking the Eagles just behind the Phillies as the dominant Philadelphia sports presence on the web.\nThe American City Business Journals, which conducts a regular study to determine the most loyal fans in the NFL, evaluates fans based primarily on attendance-related factors, and ranked Eagles fans third in both 1999 and 2006. The 2006 study called the fans \"incredibly loyal\", noting that they filled 99.8% of the seats in the stadium over",
"-24.51071638398571"
],
[
"the fourth quarter, but they lost to the Arizona Cardinals by a score of 32–25 after quarterback Kurt Warner scored a last minute touchdown.\nEntering the 2009 season, the Eagles signed quarterback Michael Vick. On December 6, 2009, Andy Reid became only the fifth coach in NFL history to win 100 or more games with a single team in a single decade (the other four are Tom Landry, Don Shula, Tony Dungy, and Bill Belichick. McNabb finally had a complete receiving corps, between first round draft pick Jeremy Maclin, DeSean Jackson's 1,000 yard season, and Brent Celek ranking among the top",
"-24.46967799286358"
],
[
"college football.\nOn December 4, 1956, the Heisman Trophy was awarded to Paul Hornung of Notre Dame. Three Big Ten players finished among the top 10 in the voting for the trophy. They were: Michigan end Ron Kramer (sixth), Ohio State guard Jim Parker (eighth), and Iowa quarterback Ken Ploen (ninth).",
"-24.44713098491775"
],
[
"Bowl Champion, as well as being selected as the eighth greatest NFL team of all time by readers in a \"Page 2\" article on ESPN.com. In 2010, the team was tied for fifth in ESPN.com's NFL Super League, a project that ranked the 16 greatest NFL Super Bowl winning teams using computer simulations of a season of play between these teams, and were ranked eighth in The Ultimate Super Rankings, a 2007 ESPN ranking of the top 80 Super Bowl era NFL teams.",
"-24.428542681969702"
],
[
"a great tackler, although he was occasionally criticized for tackling too high. The winner of the first two Butkus Awards as the nation's top college linebacker, he remains the only player ever to have won the accolade more than once. College Football News ranked him No. 30 on its list of the \"100 Greatest College Players of All-Time.\" In October 1999, Bosworth was named to the Sports Illustrated NCAA Football All-Century Team as one of only nine linebackers on the squad.\nIn addition to his athletic accomplishments, Bosworth was a good student, graduating a year early and thus becoming eligible for",
"-24.422394823399372"
],
[
"to finish second on Heisman ballots in 1967 and would win the trophy in 1968. Both players would wind up as the first overall pick of the NFL draft after each of their senior seasons, and each would enter both the College Football and Pro Football Hall of Fames.\nThe game was highly anticipated. California governor Ronald Reagan and Oregon governor Tom McCall made the trip. Ronald Reagan had famously said he would handpick a box of oranges if Oregon State won. Tom McCall turned the boast into a bet when he offered to put up a freshly caught silver salmon",
"-24.414969288394786"
],
[
"third consecutive year in the playoffs with the momentum of a four-game winning streak. With a record of 13–3, they were tied with the Seattle Seahawks for second overall in the league, behind the 14–2 Indianapolis Colts. They were seeded number two in the AFC behind the Colts. On January 14, 2006, the Broncos defeated the two-time defending champions, the New England Patriots, 27–13, ending the Patriots chance of becoming the first NFL team ever to win three consecutive Super Bowl championships. The last team with a chance of winning three consecutive Super Bowls before the Patriots were the Broncos",
"-24.40938820061274"
],
[
"teammate Chad Johnson. Palmer placed 3rd in voting for NFL Comeback Player of the Year, behind Drew Brees and Chad Pennington. Unfortunately, his team suffered quite a few misfortunes, such as missed point afters and field goals, while slipping from an 11–5 record in 2005 to 8–8 in 2006 and failing to make the playoffs due to a game 16 loss against their rivals, the Pittsburgh Steelers.\nAfter winning the Pro Bowl MVP, Palmer declared, \"This is a huge honor and extremely exciting and I feel very blessed just to be here, let alone for the outcome to be this. But",
"-24.383321195375174"
],
[
"seven. Other Eagles defenders to go to the Pro Bowl under Johnson include Troy Vincent (five), Jeremiah Trotter (four), Hugh Douglas (three), Lito Sheppard (two), and Trent Cole, Michael Lewis, Asante Samuel, Corey Simon, Bobby Taylor (one each).\nCurrent NFL head coaches John Harbaugh (special teams and defensive backs), Ron Rivera (linebackers), and Sean McDermott (defensive backs and linebackers) coached under Johnson with the Eagles. Illness and death Shortly after the Eagles were eliminated from the playoffs, on January 29, 2009, it was announced that Johnson was undergoing treatment for melanoma. In mid-May, Johnson announced a leave of absence due to",
"-24.37934146565385"
],
[
"while Manning set NFL records for most touchdown passes and highest passer rating. But again the Patriots' defense (and snowy conditions) proved too formidable, as they lost 20–3 in the divisional round of the playoffs.\nIn 2005, the Colts' defense improved, making the team the clear favorites in the NFL. They won the first 13 games of the season and finished with a 14–2 record, while ranking second in the NFL in both points scored and fewest points allowed. But once again they lost in the divisional round of the playoffs, this time to the #6 seeded Pittsburgh Steelers, 21–18. After",
"-24.37505801138468"
],
[
"league championship since entering the NFL in 1976. Seahawks linebacker Malcolm Smith, who scored on a 69-yard interception return plus had a fumble recovery and tallied 10 tackles, was named the game's Most Valuable Player (MVP).\nThis was the fifth Super Bowl loss for the Broncos, the most for any franchise. Even in defeat, though, Peyton Manning's record-breaking year continued. He set a record for most passes completed in a Super Bowl with 34. He also moved ahead of Tom Brady into first place on the career playoff passing yardage list with 6,589 yards. In addition, Broncos wide receiver Demaryius Thomas",
"-24.37042339509935"
],
[
"head coach Jack Pardee and offensive coordinator John Jenkins's run and shoot offense, had a record-setting 1989 season that culminated in a Heisman Trophy. He was the seventh overall pick in the 1990 NFL Draft, but did not have success in either the National Football League or the Canadian Football League. David Klingler took over for Ware at UH and was the sixth overall pick in the 1992 NFL Draft. He too, failed to find exceptional success in the NFL.",
"-24.363158791791648"
],
[
"Heisman Trophy, although the school claims six, after alleged violations involving Reggie Bush. As of 2019, 521 Trojans have been taken in the NFL draft, making it second only to Notre Dame.\nFor the 2015 season, USC football was ranked 1st overall in recruiting by Rivals.com, with 4 five-star commits, 17 four-star commits, and 5 three-star commits. Women's sports Women's teams have earned 27 national championships. The Women of Troy have brought home 64 individual NCAA crowns. Two Women of Troy athletes have won the Honda-Broderick Cup as the top collegiate woman athlete of the year: Cheryl Miller (1983–84) and Angela",
"-24.36244177960907"
],
[
"Anson, Fred Clarke, and Bob Feller. In college football, Jay Berwanger was the first winner of the Downtown Athletic Club Trophy in 1935, later renamed the Heisman Trophy and won by Nile Kinnick in 1939. In professional football, Kurt Warner was the Super Bowl XXXIV MVP winner and a two-time NFL MVP award winner. Frank Gotch was a World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion, Zach Johnson won the 2007 Masters Golf Tournament and the 2015 British Open, and Jeremy Hellickson won the 2011 American League Rookie of the Year award pitching for the Tampa Bay Rays. Former WWE Heavyweight Champion Seth Rollins",
"-24.352547745686024"
],
[
"was USC's Matt Leinart, who had won the Heisman trophy in 2004. This meant that the Rose Bowl would mark the first time that two Heisman-trophy winners had ever played in the same backfield.\nThe 2006 Rose Bowl was, in the eyes of many, the most-anticipated matchup in college football history. Both teams were considered good enough to win the National Championship had they existed in different years instead of having to play each other. USC had been ranked No. 1 since the preseason and Texas had held the No. 2 spot that entire time. Before the game, some commentators postulated",
"-24.348130748665426"
],
[
"winners (Billy Vessels, Steve Owens, Billy Sims, Jason White, Sam Bradford Baker Mayfield and Kyler Murray are surrounded by many other award winners, including NFL MVP Award winner Adrian Peterson, Joe Washington, Brian Bosworth, Tony Casillas, Greg Pruitt, Josh Heupel, Jerry Tubbs, Rocky Calmus, Granville Liggins, Teddy Lehman, Lee Roy Selmon, Roy Williams, Tommy McDonald, Mark Clayton, Tommie Harris, J.C. Watts, Keith Jackson and Jammal Brown. More than a dozen Sooner players have been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. Oklahoma has more Butkus award winners than any other school.\nCoaches Bennie Owen, Bud Wilkinson, and Barry Switzer have",
"-24.337400137796067"
],
[
"AQ conference teams when they lost a game. Supporters contended that this created a substantial incentive for teams to do their best to win every game. Under a proposed playoffs system, front-running teams could be in a position of safety at the end of the regular season and could pull or greatly reduce their use of top players in order to protect them from injuries or give them recovery time (this happens frequently in the NFL). This may have been less likely to happen under the BCS system where a team in the running for a No. 1 or No.",
"-24.335311978124082"
],
[
"Griffin. From that day forward, Heisman voting would take place after all the regular season games had been played. From 1972–1974, with Davis as the tailback the Trojans compiled a 31-3-2 record, three conference titles, two Rose Bowl victories in three appearances and two national championships. Upon the completion of his career, he accumulated 24 school, conference and NCAA records, including over 5,400 all-purpose yards and 52 touchdowns.\nAnthony Davis' talents were not just limited to football, he was also successful in baseball as an outfielder and switch-hitter on USC's 1972, 1973 and 1974 College World Series champion baseball teams. Playing",
"-24.334267178870505"
],
[
"along with Tom Jackson as part of the Orange Crush Defense and is considered by some to be the greatest defensive player in Broncos history. Teammate Jim Jensen said Gradishar and Roger Staubach were the two best players he ever took the field with.\nHe became a starter midway though his rookie season and was named to his first Pro Bowl after the 1975 season, his third in the NFL. From that season through his last, 1983, the Broncos \"Orange Crush\" defense allowed the third fewest rushing yards in the NFL, behind only the Steelers \"Steel Curtain\" defense and the",
"-24.331356455979403"
],
[
"win a Super Bowl starting for two teams, and the first quarterback ever to win 200 games (regular season and postseason) as a starter. Gary Kubiak became the first head coach to win a Super Bowl with the same franchise he went to the Super Bowl with as a player.\nManning announced his retirement from the NFL a month after the Super Bowl. This was also the final game in the career of Panthers defensive lineman Jared Allen, who retired as the NFL's ninth all-time leader in sacks. Aftermath Upon receiving the Lombardi Trophy, Broncos general manager and former quarterback John",
"-24.328919072286226"
],
[
"named in his honor. To date, the team has lost all four Super Bowls, and the last six NFC Championships they have played in.\nA similar incident occurred to the first trophy that was awarded to the NFL Champions, the Brunswick-Balke Collender Cup. In 1920, after the Akron Pros were awarded the league championship, that trophy also went missing (like the Thorp trophy, it too was initially to be passed down to each successive champion). The Washington Redskins replica of the Thorp Trophy is on display at FedExField. Rediscovery In 2015, the Thorp Trophy was found to have been in the",
"-24.327280856407015"
],
[
"of the collegiate stars, because many of them were preparing at the same time for bowl games with their regular teams. Also, many potential players preferred to spend Christmas at home. In the game's later years, most of the players came from teams with losing records and from smaller schools which do not play NCAA Division I football. The Classic gave these players an opportunity to be noticed by NFL scouts and others who may not have had the opportunity to observe them previously. Most such players now attend the NFL Combine for evaluation.\nThe game was slow to desegregate.",
"-24.313030975479705"
],
[
"The Redskins finished 10-6 but missed the playoffs again because of a 5-6 start. Clark, along with fellow receivers Art Monk and Ricky Sanders, surpassed the 1,000 yard mark in 1989. This was the second time in NFL History that three receivers from one team all went over the 1,000 yard mark in the same year.\nIn 1990, Clark had another Pro Bowl year and the Redskins made the playoffs. He caught 75 passes for 1,112 yards and eight touchdowns. The Redskins went on to beat the Philadelphia Eagles, 20-6, in an NFC Wild Card game. ",
"-24.30167388007976"
],
[
"players on BCS teams.\nRinger was as high as second in the ESPN EXPERTS Heisman poll, but at one point dropped off of the list after two games with less than 100 yards rushing. After a good game against University of Michigan, he re-entered the Heisman poll and finished the season ranked 8th. The ESPN Fan poll ranked him third in Heisman voting, with over 10 percent of the votes Ringer was the only running back nominated for Heisman.\nRinger was named a first-team Midseason All-American by Sporting News Today, SI.com, CBSSports.com, CollegeFootballNews.com, Rivals.com, and Phil Steele. He was also named a semifinalist",
"-24.29119833034929"
],
[
"offensive line, a \"flex\" player on offense, and a fifth defensive back.\nThe AP claims that the selection panel is national one, but some NFL media markets such as Detroit, a city that has had an NFL team since 1934, do not have a vote. The Sporting News The Sporting News published All-Conference teams beginning in the 1950s. In 1980 it began choosing an All-Pro team, rather than two All-Conference teams. Since its teams are published in Total Football: The Official Encyclopedia of the NFL, they are recognized by the NFL and the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Newspaper Enterprise Association",
"-24.288983804814052"
],
[
"Ravens won Super Bowl XXXV with Holmes as their second string halfback. Kansas City Chiefs In 2001, Holmes signed an inexpensive contract with the Kansas City Chiefs. In his first season with the Chiefs, he exceeded expectations by leading the NFL in rushing with 1,555 yards for the 2001 NFL season, becoming the first undrafted player to do so. (Arian Foster was next to accomplish the feat during the 2010 NFL season.)\nDespite missing the final two games in the 2002 NFL season because of a hip injury, Holmes rushed for 1,615 yards with 21 touchdowns. In the 2003 NFL season,",
"-24.246046361513436"
],
[
"through 1996. It was considered one of the major awards and as included in the NFL Record and Fact Book and its winners still appear in the NFL's Official Encyclopedia, Total Football II. In his book, A Thinking Man's Guide to Pro Football, sportswriter Paul Zimmerman touted the NEA for its All-Pro team and its awards, since they involved polling the players, rather than being a sportswriter's poll like the AP, UPI, and the PFWA.\nWinners are awarded George S. Halas Trophy \n1966— Larry Wilson, S, St. Louis Cardinals\n1967—",
"-24.238235235621687"
],
[
"league's network, NFL Network.\nIn 2012, Bailey was named an All-Pro for the 7th time of his career and was selected to the 2013 Pro Bowl. The Pro Bowl selection was his 12th, extending the record he set for trips by a cornerback, and tied the record for most Pro Bowls played, along with Randall McDaniel and Will Shields.\nAfter the Broncos' loss to the Baltimore Ravens in the 2012–13 NFL playoffs, critics blamed Bailey's poor play for two Ravens touchdowns. Ravens receiver Torrey Smith was being covered by Bailey when Smith caught touchdown passes of 59 and 32 yards. The Broncos",
"-24.218319659215922"
],
[
"trip to Walt Disney World for them and their families), whether they are the Super Bowl MVP or not; examples include Joe Montana (XXIII), Trent Dilfer (XXXV), Peyton Manning (50), Tom Brady and Julian Edelman (LIII). Dilfer was chosen even though teammate Ray Lewis was the MVP of Super Bowl XXXV, due to the bad publicity from Lewis' murder trial the prior year.\nBeing able to rely on a quarterback is vital to team morale. San Diego Chargers safety Rodney Harrison called the 1998 season a \"nightmare\" because of poor play by Ryan Leaf and Craig Whelihan and, from the rookie",
"-24.215961520501878"
],
[
"Tom Brady and Carson Palmer, who were both in the conversation for the 2015 NFL season MVP before losing in their respective conference finals. Selection process Fan voting has increased criticism of the Pro Bowl. Voting by fans makes up 1/3 of the vote for Pro Bowl players. Some teams earn more selections of their players because fans often vote for their favorite team and not necessarily the best player. In the 2008 Pro Bowl, the Dallas Cowboys had thirteen players on the NFC roster, an NFL record. \"If you're in a small market, no one really gets to see",
"-24.16566394001711"
]
] |
3yhz25 | Why do Americans build homes out of nothing but wood in areas where Hurricanes or Tornadoes would do mostly nothing to a house made of brick or concrete? | [
"1. In extremely violent tornado storms that wipe out entire cities, virtually no structure, regardless of material, can survive the wind and still be within reasonable cost. Instead most houses in tornado-prone areas have much safer and cheaper underground shelters. ([Here's a bank vault where 23 people took shelter that withstood an EF5 tornado]( URL_0 ). As you can see it protected the occupants but nevertheless sustained considerable damage. Most people can't afford to or really want to live in a windowless bank vault.) 2. In less violent tornado storms the tornado will only travel through a very narrow path, so the chance of getting hit by a tornado is very low and it's simply not cost effective to tear down every house and replace it with brick houses. Most new subdivisions in these areas are stronger and can withstand a mild tornado. 3. Flying debris is a major cause of death and injuries. Wood will break apart into smaller and lighter pieces while brick and concrete will not break apart easily, they will make much more dangerous hazard.",
"I live in tornado alley, and the chances of my house getting hit by a tornado are basically zero. It just isn't worth the expense to build a house that can withstand a tornado. It's like saying \"look how many people die in car crashes, why not drive tanks around?\"",
"Its all about cost vs usefullness. The chance for a tornado to tear down your house is like winning the lottery, while building a brick house vs wood is significantly more expensive and infact might be too expensive for the family to afford. We all need to live somewhere...",
"With hurricanes most damages is from tidal surges and flooding. Brick homes and concrete homes are just as susceptible to this kind of damage as wooden ones are. You also seem to have a lack of understanding as to how strong tornadoes are. Tornadoes can dismantle a brick house nearly as easily as they can a wooden house. All you get is heavier debris being thrown in the air. Concrete homes would do better, but to be a tornado resistant concrete it has to be around 4' thick and steel reinforced. It basically boils down to cost. A brick home would be between 2 and 5 times more expensive than a wooden one and a concrete home can be as much as 10 times as expensive. A tornado resistant home would be around 20 times as expensive as a single tornado bunker room can cost as much as a normal house.",
"I'm not an expert but I would guess... 1. Brick and concrete are expensive. People generally don't assume a natural disaster will happen to THEM, and many probably don't factor in insurance costs when buying a home. 2. Most new housing these days is basically cookie cutter, off the shelf designs. Concrete, brick, etc. will mean basically a custom designed home.",
"Brick gets wiped smooth just as stick built pretty much. Concrete is a great idea, might help some, but unless you concrete roof that shit, it also won't matter in a tornado. You'll just have some nice concrete walls standing. But most of the real Tornado alley dwellers don't have the finances. It's kind of like people living in flood zones. They know it's going to fucking flood, but it's cheap, and it's hard to find a buyer for your current property, so you're kinda stuck with floods. Or in this case Tornados.",
"\"It's not *that* the wind is blowing, it's *what* the wind is blowing.\" - Ron White When a house gets hit with the debris inside a tornado, it can be made of just about anything and it will still be demolished. The structural damage from a hurricane is caused by the extreme flooding, not wind.",
"I lived in central Illinois for my childhood and in coastal South Carolina for my early adulthood. The odds of a tornado touching down on a house and not a corn field are slim. Many of the towns and homes that dot the wide open farm land are from the late 1800's and most brick structures are important civic buildings or schools due to cost. Tornadoes don't care if a building is made with the finest brick or cheapest pressed wood, in the end it eats what it wants to unless it's an earth home. Earth homes seem to be the bane of tornadoes but nobody wants to bury their 100 year old home stead yet. Architect's have more to think of when building on the SC coast not just because of the hurricane but also the swamps. The swamps love to give full body hugs to heavy structures. Most buildings really close to the ocean are stucco, brick, or hardie-plank and put up on huge stilts or foundation HOWEVER, some places like Charleston have historical buildings that can't be messed and still have wood. Many of the cheaper more inland buildings have a brick veneer on the first floor and a slab foundation but homes close to the swamps are small and built of wood due to sinking (well, that's what I was told by locals). The SC government has tax breaks put in to help home owners make hurricane improvements too but none are for brick that I know of just working shutters, roofs, windows/ doors... you get the idea.",
"Because common established building practices. Nobody is really trained to build a half underground mound house that looks like something out of the Hobbit Shire, even though that is likely the most storm-proof design. (Sloped so the wind and any storm debris goes over it, and insulated and protected by some amount of earth.) And if somehow you manage to build one like that independently, it's typically considered a harder sell because the design is fairly unique. There's also considerations that once building out of more solid materials, you also need to work out ways to get a building to breathe. Condensation and moisture build-up and just not enough air-exchange in a unique design can cause sick-building syndrome. Less experience among local architects in dealing with those things tend to make that more difficult and expensive to approach as well. Wood has been tried and done all the time, so it's a lot cheaper. That and the insurance industry, people just get to keep rebuilding the same damn thing even though you'd think they'd learn after nature hits them with a clue stick every 20 years or so. (And some areas really should have been left farmland and not developed because of the weather patterns.)"
] | [
[
"houses are primarily found in arid regions.\nIn high wind areas, such as where a cyclone or hurricane may make landfall, the main engineering consideration is to hold the roof down during severe storms. Every component of the roof, as of course the rest of the structure, has to withstand the uplift forces of high wind speeds. This is accomplished by using metal ties fastened to each rafter or truss. This is not normally a problem in areas not prone to high wind or extreme weather conditions.\nIn the UK, a concrete tiled roof would normally have rafters at 600mm centers, roof",
"-29.82007978425827"
],
[
"components of other buildings, can provide safe refuge during tornadoes. Dome homes The physical geometry of a building affects its aerodynamic properties and how well it can withstand a storm. Geodesic dome roofs or buildings have low drag coefficients and can withstand higher wind forces than a square building of the same area. Even stronger buildings result from monolithic dome construction. Log house A CAT 5 hurricane-proof log house is resistant to the winds up to 245 mph. Wall logs in such construction have to be made of glued laminated timber and all other components of the house have to",
"-28.25639594074164"
],
[
"pine, and Douglas fir.\nNew domestic housing in many parts of the world today is commonly made from timber-framed construction. Engineered wood products are becoming a bigger part of the construction industry. They may be used in both residential and commercial buildings as structural and aesthetic materials.\nIn buildings made of other materials, wood will still be found as a supporting material, especially in roof construction, in interior doors and their frames, and as exterior cladding.\nWood is also commonly used as shuttering material to form the mold into which concrete is poured during reinforced concrete construction. Wood flooring A solid wood floor",
"-27.895312491578807"
],
[
"cannot be torn away or tipped over by strong winds. Structural engineering and, above all, the lack of corners and exposed parts (roof), eliminate vulnerable surfaces which would otherwise suffer from storm damage.\nFurthermore, earth houses benefit from improved stability due to the more natural shapes of arches. Landscape protection and land use Another benefit of underground sheltering is the efficient use of land. Many houses can sit below grade without spoiling the habitat above ground. Each site can contain both a house and a lawn/garden.\nCompared to conventional buildings, earth houses fit perfectly into their surroundings. The soil-covered roofs help incorporate",
"-27.59516867005732"
],
[
"currently known. It has been speculated that the trees may have been deformed to create naturally curved timber for use in furniture or boat building. Others surmise that a snowstorm could have knocked the trees like this, but to date nobody knows what happened to the pine trees.",
"-27.560795081197284"
],
[
"cover up automobiles and the surrounding buildings. Panes of window glass fall from buildings to the streets as the clips holding the windows in their frames rust and crack.\nBirds of prey such as hawks and eagles make their nests and hunt rodents in skyscrapers. Paint is weathered away after years of exposure to rain. Metal in cars and other human structures is exposed to oxidation and disintegration. Packs of feral dogs roam the crumbling cities whilst more exotic additions, such as tigers, return and thrive. Large animals are thriving once more in the ruins of cities. Moisture causes concrete to",
"-27.55359132832382"
],
[
"into existing hotel facilities.\nAlong with subterranean and ground level houses, tree houses are an option for building eco-friendly houses in remote forest areas, because they do not require a clearing of a certain area of forest. However, the wildlife, climate and illumination on ground level in areas of dense close-canopy forest is not desirable to some people. Popularity Since the mid-1990s, recreational tree houses have enjoyed a rise in popularity in countries such as the United States and parts of Europe. This has been due to increased disposable income, better technology for builders, research into safe building practices and an",
"-27.44235644112632"
],
[
"California contemporary, older neighborhoods typically have many mature forest trees, except in cases where they have been destroyed by homeowners. Increasing density allowed by zoning since the 1980s has meant fewer and fewer trees left, and by the 2000s it became common for developers to completely clearcut dozens of acres of forest and bulldoze all hills flat to build generic tract housing, often with tightly packed homes nearly touching each other and up against the street. However, over the past decade some area cities and counties have revised their tree ordinances to require tree recompense to be equal to",
"-27.348930630698305"
],
[
"in sawn timber. The presence of worm tracks suggests the trees were felled as dead standing timber, and may be post-blight lumber.\nBarns are one of the most common sources for reclaimed wood in the United States. Those constructed through the early 19th century were typically built using whatever trees were growing on or near the builder's property. They often contain a mix of oak, chestnut, poplar, hickory and pine timber. Beam sizes were limited to what could be moved by man and horse. The wood was often hand-hewn with an axe and/or adze. Early settlers likely recognized American oak from",
"-27.153683624284895"
],
[
"for most types of structural building.\nMany families or communities, in rural areas, have a personal woodlot from which the family or community will grow and harvest trees to build with or sell. These lots are tended to like a garden. This was much more prevalent in pre-industrial times, when laws existed as to the amount of wood one could cut at any one time to ensure there would be a supply of timber for the future, but is still a viable form of agriculture. Fired bricks and clay blocks Bricks are made in a similar way to mud-bricks except",
"-27.136598297536693"
],
[
"to fasten windows with the concrete structure surrounding.\nWood has a relatively high degree of flexibility, which can be beneficial under certain building stresses.\nReinforced concrete is a strong, dense material that, if used in a building that is designed properly, can withstand the destructive power of very high winds, and high-speed debris. Regulation After Hurricane Andrew in 1992 caused $16 billion in insured damage, the state of Florida established new building standards and enforcement. The state increased performance criteria for wind-load provisions and adopted new wind provisions from the American Society of Civil Engineers. One important addition included with the new",
"-27.06165343687462"
],
[
"Brick House Ruins Construction The house was constructed about 1725 for Paul Hamilton, a wealthy South Carolina planter, on Edisto Island, one of the Sea Islands in what was then the Province of South Carolina. Materials The two-story house was constructed with exterior walls of brick imported from Boston, such brick being harder and denser than the local kind. The interior of the home was primarily constructed of locally produced lumber which had been aged seven years. Construction also utilized local gravel and sand brought to the site from the Pon Pon. Architecture Its architectural design is in keeping with",
"-26.673785740684252"
],
[
"for paneling, floors and furniture. Pine was also a favorite tree of loggers since pine logs can still be processed in a lumber mill a year or more after being cut down. In contrast, most hardwood trees such as cherry, maple, oak, and ash must be cut into 1\" thick boards immediately after felling or large cracks will develop in the trunk which can render the wood worthless.\nAlthough eastern white pine was frequently used for flooring in buildings constructed before the U.S. Civil War, the wood is soft and will tend to cup over time with wear. George Washington",
"-26.610068608948495"
],
[
"house, made of concrete, has a slanted roof and rectangular doors and windows; its porch is covered by corrugated metal sheets. Another house, a two-storey, concrete structure with rectangular doors and windows and I tiled, tent-shaped roof, has been converted into a commercial building. The land around the site (only partially covered by construction) has been left untended and is overgrown with pine and Christ's-thorn trees.\"",
"-26.505272676964523"
],
[
"a river or lake, but within a distance from major waterways because of mosquitoes and to protect the household against raids by canoe. It is shaped as a large oval, commonly without outer walls to allow ventilation, with a high roof with straight sides. The roof is often made out of palm tree fronds while two types of palm are used for house beams. Temporary walls are made out of large palms when danger seems close. A large yard and gardens then surround the home on the outside. The size of a house plays a pivotal part in the ego",
"-26.256512087362353"
],
[
"city also became home to a privately owned telegraph fire alarm system.\nBuildings reconstructed after the fire often used wood, which is unusual for communities that have experienced such a massive fire event. The motivations for this appear to be economic: lumber was readily available in Key West due to the wrecking business. The wood used most often in wealthy homes was Dade County pine, which had high resistance to termites. However, many buildings destroyed in the fire (such as Fire House No. 1) were rebuilt with red brick.",
"-26.228987765258353"
],
[
"house, supposedly from bricks manufactured from clay gathered from the banks of the nearby Sandy River. The house has been little altered since its construction, the only significant alteration being the replacement of its windows. The house is an unusually fine example of Federal architecture for a comparatively remote and rural setting.",
"-26.204934522567783"
],
[
"the impact of smaller home-footprints has led to roof-space being utilised for further living space and now many new homes are built with third-floor living accommodation. For this reason, especially where lofts have been converted into living space, people tend to use garages for the storage of food freezers, tools, bicycles, garden and outdoor equipment. The majority of continental European houses have cellars, although a large proportion of people live in apartments or flats rather than houses. In North America, cellars usually are found in rural or older homes on the coasts and in the South. However, full basements are",
"-26.20135639476939"
],
[
"of early St. Louis homes was a rock house. Only the wealthiest St. Louisans might afford a home built entirely of rock walls with a masonry foundation due to the difficulty of construction. The earliest house in St. Louis, the home of Pierre Laclede, was made of rock. Similar to the palisade and post-in-sill homes, rock houses tended to have steeply pitched roofs with a gradual slope on galleries and porches. Rural houses The earliest American homes in St. Louis were crude, usually of log construction. Outlying homes in the farmlands were minimally ornamented, and were usually of one or",
"-26.122167578403605"
],
[
"in the 1820s and 1830s. Indeed, \"While most houses in the more settled sections of the state in the 1820s were brick or frame, the farmer or craftsman of the rural areas was still likely to build with logs. Often when prosperity increased, rather than build a new and more imposing house, improvements and additions were made to the log structure.\"\nIt has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since July 13, 1977.",
"-26.118571742772474"
],
[
"indicated a demand for smaller single-family housing for wealthy Houstonians who wanted to downsize yet did not want to abandon the idea of living in a single-family house.\nHurricane Ike came to Houston in September 2008; the hurricane did not damage the trees within the planned subdivision. In an October 24, 2008 Houston Business Journal article, McCord said that he was glad that the trees did not sustain damage, as 25% of the home sites had been reserved. The developers said the canopy formed by the trees, around 40 years old as of 2008, formed the inspiration for the subdivision.\nIn 2009",
"-26.077607359344256"
],
[
"as the Appalachian Mountains, one in every four hardwoods was an American chestnut. Mature trees often grew straight and branch-free for 50 feet and could grow up to 100 feet tall with a trunk diameter of 14 feet at a few feet above ground level. The reddish-brown wood was lightweight, soft, easy to split, very resistant to decay; and it did not warp or shrink. For three centuries many barns and homes near the Appalachian Mountains were made from American chestnut. Because of its resistance to decay, industries throughout the region used wood from the American chestnut",
"-25.995120159670478"
],
[
"the outside. Sometimes wood beams and rafters are used with slate tiles for roofing if available. Houses on hills usually have two stories, with the livestock living on the ground floor. Often a verandah runs along the side of the house. The roof is pitched to deal with the monsoon season and the house may sit on raised platform, plinths or bamboo poles to cope with floods.\nOn the flat lands, adobes are usually made of mud or sun-baked bricks, then plastered inside and out, sometimes with mud mixed with hay or even cow dung and whitewashed with lime.\nWhere bamboo is",
"-25.953105982542183"
],
[
"rocks and suspend the living spaces between the trees with only minimal disturbance - four slender steel columns extending up through the house, with the floors suspended from them. As a result, the four slender support columns and an entry ramp are the only points which touch the ground. Lucas felt that having chosen a site, people should adapt their living to it, rather than building homes in way that would render it unrecognisable. The flora on the site has continued to grow, and trees now grow up through the central light well.\nLucas observed that housing is often \"defensive\", aimed",
"-25.92715368035715"
],
[
"houses were more likely to be built of brick and thus more susceptible to cracking. The major building with the most visible damage was the Nanjoka Railway Station complex, which developed severe cracks in its walls and was subsequently abandoned. The Chitala Farm Institute, an agricultural school, was also heavily damaged. In rural areas, most dwellings were simple huts, built by pasting mud or clay onto timber frames. These were left mostly undamaged. Geology The 1989 Malawi earthquake was the result of a dip-slip fault in the Malawi rift system, part of the larger East African Rift. It is believed",
"-25.90554354467895"
],
[
"Reclaimed lumber Wood origins In the United States of America, wood once functioned as the primary building material because it was strong, relatively inexpensive and abundant. Today, many of the woods that were once plentiful are only available in large quantities through reclamation. One common reclaimed wood, longleaf pine, was used to build factories and warehouses during the Industrial Revolution. The trees were slow-growing (taking 200 to 400 years to mature), tall, straight, and had a natural ability to resist mold and insects. They were also abundant. Longleaf pine grew in thick forests that spanned over 140,000 square miles (360,000 km²)",
"-25.89020020805765"
],
[
"a population of around 6,500 people and approximately 2,000 dwellings, by 1692. As land on which to build diminished, it became common practice to either fill in areas of water and build new infrastructure on top of it, or simply build buildings taller. Buildings gradually became heavier as the residents adopted the brick style homes of their native England. Some urged the population to adopt the low, wooden building style of the previous Spanish inhabitants, but many refused. In the end, all of these separate factors contributed to the impending disaster.\nOn 7 June 1692, a devastating earthquake hit the city",
"-25.88560637482442"
],
[
"Timber Timber, \"trees that are grown in order to produce wood\" is cut into lumber (sawn wood) for use in construction. Wood has been an important, easily available material for construction since humans started building shelters. Engineered wood products are available which bind the particles, fibres or veneers of wood together with adhesives to form composite materials. Plastics have taken over from wood for some traditional uses.\nWood is used in the construction of buildings, bridges, trackways, piles, poles for power lines, masts for boats, pit props, railway sleepers, fencing, hurdles, shuttering for concrete, pipes, scaffolding and pallets. In housebuilding it",
"-25.87034094077535"
],
[
"correct angle to position roofs and a stricterinspection of building codes throughout the Caribbean. Most residential houses and structures are susceptible to hurricane damage in CARICOM, the Caribbean Community and Common Market. Historically, agricultural workers in St. Kitts didn’t own their houses and most of these homes were built as small and cheaply as possible. Construction of houses also occurred on poor soil conditions and steep slopes that increased the vulnerability to landslides and soil erosion. Because of the poor construction and inadequate living areas, there have been numerous efforts to reduce hurricane damage.\nThe leading groups of disaster mitigation include:",
"-25.801841633277945"
],
[
"the new buildings are constructed in contemporary technique with concrete frames and brick walls, instead of traditional timber carpentry. Most often the result is the implant of traditional roof sit on top of modern buildings. This tendency can be seen in West Sumatra and Tana Toraja, where the typical Minang bagonjong (horned) roof and Toraja tongkonan roof are implanted in almost any public buildings; from airports to hotels, restaurants and government offices.\nIt has been noted that the traditional wooden houses are generally more earthquake-resistant than modern brick designs, although they are more vulnerable to fire. The construction of modern concrete",
"-25.747959680797067"
],
[
"in homes made completely of grasses and sand year-round. In Europe, thatch roofs on homes were once prevalent but the material fell out of favor as industrialization and improved transport increased the availability of other materials. Today, though, the practice is undergoing a revival. In the Netherlands, for instance, many new buildings have thatched roofs with special ridge tiles on top. Wood and timber Wood has been used as a building material for thousands of years in its natural state. Today, engineered wood is becoming very common in industrialized countries.\nWood is a product of trees, and sometimes other fibrous plants,",
"-25.723736089945305"
],
[
"used, employing pairs of curved timbers to support the roof; however they were usually hidden from view. In rural areas there was extensive use of turf to fill in the walls, sometimes on a stone base, but they were not long lasting and had to be rebuilt frequently, perhaps as often as every two or three years. In some regions, including the south-west and around Dundee, solid clay walls were used, or combinations of clay, turf and straw, rendered with clay or lime to make them weatherproof. With a lack of long span structural timber, the most common building material",
"-25.677292657317594"
],
[
"curves, and lined with a collection of mature trees. Lots lining the streets are 40 feet wide and run 120 to 145 feet deep, and houses tend to be relatively modest in size, typically in the range of 1000 to 2000 square feet and one or two stories.\nThe neighborhood is distinctive because, unlike nearly all of the surrounding neighborhoods, pre-World War II houses predominate, with 428 of the 570 total built before the war. Many of the oldest houses are wooden, although brick-faced houses predominate in the neighborhood. Architectural styles are typically Colonials and English cottages, with some newer ranch",
"-25.677252597364713"
],
[
"in tree houses on their isolated territory as protection against a tribe of neighbouring head-hunters, the Citak. The BBC revealed in 2018 that the Korowai had constructed tree houses \"for the benefit of overseas programme makers\" and did not actually live in them. However, the Korowai people still build tree houses, but not elevated but fastened to trees in the tree trunks of tall trees, to protect occupants and store food from scavenging animals. In modern societies Modern tree houses are usually built as play areas for children or for leisure purposes. Modern tree houses may also be integrated",
"-25.67042289325036"
],
[
"in such a house for up to 20 years without significant architectural modification. At some point, however, wood would become dangerously old, and vermin could infest portions of the roof and floor. In these cases, good timbers would be salvaged and the old roof burned down. Families returning from late warm-season food-gathering trips would then rebuild roofs and floors before they re-inhabited the houses. Sometimes rebuilding involved removing all of the burned roof materials and scraping out the old floors. At other times, as with many Bridge River houses, the people would remove burned and collapsed roof materials but not",
"-25.66787329784711"
],
[
"encourage residents to build second homes within the boundaries of national forests in order to boost the role of the Forest Service. The homes built at this time utilized natural materials found surrounding the construction sites such as cleared trees and rocks. Large rocks were used in the foundations and walls, while smaller ones decorated the outside walls enhancing the architecture.\nAccording to the National Register of Historic Places, \"Having recreation residences on national forests is a significant chapter in the history of federal management of public lands, as well as in the history of outdoor recreation. California was probably the",
"-25.660180534410756"
],
[
"should be trimmed away from buildings, so they do not make convenient routes for above-ground entry. Cracks, holes and joints should be sealed with polyurethane foam or caulk, especially those that are near the ground. Firewood, rocks, and other materials should not be stored next to a home because it provides sites for nest building near the home, and T. sessile naturally relocate their colonies to be near successful forage sites.",
"-25.63267047100453"
],
[
"one of the largest consumers of logs in the Western United States.\nIn the United States, log homes have embodied a traditional approach to home building, one that has resonated throughout American history. It is especially interesting to discover that, in today's world, log homes represent a technology that allows a home to be built with a high degree of sustainability. In fact, log homes are frequently considered to be on the leading edge of the green building movement.\nCrib barns were a popular type of barn found throughout the U.S. south and southeast regions. Crib barns were especially ubiquitous in the",
"-25.61810496023827"
],
[
"Tree house A tree house, tree fort or treeshed is a platform or building constructed around, next to or among the trunk or branches of one or more mature trees while above ground level. Tree houses can be used for recreation, work space, habitation, and observation. Prehistoric hypotheses Building tree platforms or nests as a shelter from dangers on the ground is a habit of all the great apes, and may have been inherited by humans. It is true that evidence of prehistoric man-made tree houses have never been found by paleoanthropologists, but remains of wooden tree houses would not",
"-25.588578567956574"
],
[
"appearance of wood, brick, or masonry. The fading and cracking of older types of plastic siding compound this issue. In many areas of newer housing development, particularly in North America, entire neighbourhoods are often built with all houses clad in vinyl siding, given an unappealing uniformity. Some cities now campaign for house developers to incorporate varied types of siding during construction. Imitation brick or stone–asphalt siding A predecessor to modern maintenance free sidings was asphalt brick siding. Asphalt impregnated panels (about 2 feet by 4 feet) gave the appearance of brick or even stone. Many buildings have this siding, especially",
"-25.529501716897357"
],
[
"direct injection. Bridges, levees, microhydro, piers Wood is used to build bridges (as the Magere bridge in Amsterdam), as well as water and air mills, and microhydro generators for electricity. Housing Hardwood is used as a material in wooden houses, and other structures with a broad range of dimensions. In traditional homes wood is preferred for ceilings, doors, floorings and windows. Wooden frames were traditionally used for home ceilings, but they risk collapse during fires.\nThe development of energy efficient houses including the \"passive house\" has revamped the importance of wood in construction, because wood provides acoustic and thermal insulation, with",
"-25.528231835050974"
],
[
"constructed of brick, which was made from clay dug and fired on the farm. In a pasture just south of the house the places where clay was dug from the hillside can still be seen, and broken and discarded bricks are still uncovered when the ground is worked there. \nThe addition was constructed· about 1882 and the brick construction, arched lintels above the doors and windows, and high ceilings are typical of the houses constructed by German settlers in Missouri at that time. The conflicting styles of the two parts of the house presented some architectural problems, when nine foot",
"-25.49313802990946"
],
[
"damage to stone, concrete and timber. In order to safeguard the structural integrity of the roof, a steel structure was constructed inside the house to hold it up and a new ceiling attached to its underside. A slightly sloped metal roof was constructed in 1993 discretely on top of the original concrete roof to protect the house from continued issues with rain ingress. The house remains watertight. The current windows are replacements to the same design as the originals. Recent works The non-Griffin designed garage and loggia built post World War II from rock faced stone blocks, which were extant",
"-25.489682764571626"
],
[
"walls of these types of houses, partly buried in the ground, are particularly susceptible to flooding, termites and rot. Three of the five houses of this type still exist in the United States are located in Sainte-Geneviève. The other two are located in Pascagoula (Mississippi) and Natchitoches parish . Most of the old buildings of the city are \"poles in the earth\" type in which the wooden structure is placed on raised brick foundation stones.\nThe oldest House in the city is the \"Bolduc House\" which was built in 1770 on the original site of the city and was then moved",
"-25.413829615041323"
],
[
"acres of land to speculators and private owners.\nThe town of Canajoharie was consumed by fire 3 times causing an ordinance to be passed prohibiting homes to be constructed of wood. Therefore, many of the older homes in the town are made of brick or locally quarried stone.\nAfter the revolutionary war George Washington visited Canajoharie after surveying the damage to nearby Cherry Valley, NY. He stayed the night at the Van Alstyne home a common meeting place. The Van Alstyne house has long been referred to by some as Ft. Rensselaer; the actual Ft.Rensselaer (destroyed sometime before the French-Indian War) was",
"-25.37106233825034"
],
[
"Bugle-Observer. Architecture Many of the original wooden buildings have not survived into modern times. Calamities over the years included a hurricane in 1836, and fires in 1860, and 1911, As a result, much of downtown was rebuilt in the brick that remains today. Before the arrival of the railway, businesses faced the river banks, since they provided transportation, energy, and water. With the switch to rail and road traffic buildings face roads instead.\nThe George Frederick Clarke house, built in 1905, is a provincial historic site valued as a rare example of residential Regency architecture.\nThe Old Carleton County Court House was",
"-25.336300455324817"
],
[
"multi-unit buildings of less than 6 stories, 26% in multi-unit high-rise buildings, 9% in row houses, and the remainder in duplex or movable structures. As with most areas in North America, the vast majority of houses in the region are constructed of wood. A growing number reside in three- to four-story apartment and condominium buildings, commonly constructed of wood, as well as high-rise mainly condominium towers (owner-occupied or investor-owned and rented), normally constructed with a concrete structure.",
"-25.323371819395106"
],
[
"Backyard Origin In cold-weather regions, it is economical in low land value regions to use open land surrounding a house for vegetable gardening during summers and allowing strongly demanded sunlight to enter house windows from a low horizon angle during winters. As land value increases, houses are built nearer to each other. In order to preserve some of the open land, house owners may choose to allow construction on the side land of their houses, but not build in front of or behind their house in order to preserve some remnants of open surrounding land. The back area is known",
"-25.29131947614951"
],
[
"form. According to Bouet, Wace's epic poem Roman de Rou, verses 6,516–6,526, states: \"They took out of the ship beams of wood and dragged them to the ground. Then the Count (Earl) who brought them, (the beams) already pierced and planed, carved and trimmed, the pegs (raw-plugs/dowels) already trimmed and transported in barrels, erected a castle, had a moat dug around it and thus had constructed a big fortress during the night.\" North America Wooden homes have always been popular in North America, due to the large quantity of timber available in North America. In the United States, several companies",
"-25.275228375394363"
],
[
"of North America. Reclaimed longleaf pine is often sold as Heart Pine, where the word \"heart\" refers to the heartwood of the tree.\nPreviously common woods for building barns and other structures were redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) on the U.S. west coast and American Chestnut on the U.S. east coast. Beginning in 1904, a chestnut blight spread across the US, killing billions of American Chestnuts, so when these structures were later dismantled, they were a welcome source of this desirable but later rare wood for subsequent reuse. American Chestnut wood can be identified as pre- or post-blight by analysis of worm tracks",
"-25.249160446517635"
],
[
"as opposed to conventional houses, which would require flat land. Fire protection Compared to other building materials, such as wood, earth houses feature efficient fire protection owing both to the use of concrete and the insulation provided by the roof. Taking the example of Earthships, there is a reported case where the structure survived fire better compared to other types of buildings. Roof planting Roof covering is done using excavation material which allows for planting useful plants. As the roof collects and ties up most of the rain water, rivers are relieved of sudden and large amounts of water. Light",
"-25.230580467556138"
],
[
"or in makeshift shanty towns either because their houses had been destroyed, or they feared standing structures would not withstand aftershocks. Construction standards are low in Haiti; the country has no building codes. Engineers have stated that it is unlikely many buildings would have stood through any kind of disaster. Structures are often raised wherever they can fit; some buildings were built on slopes with insufficient foundations or steel supports. A representative of Catholic Relief Services has estimated that about two million Haitians lived as squatters on land they did not own. The country also suffered from shortages of fuel",
"-25.154288996069226"
],
[
"so as to encourage communication between family members while the intimate spaces are much smaller and darker and mostly used for sleeping. Materials used for building the houses are moulded mud obtained from laterite soils, these are the main material for building walls and the houses are built without windows. Roofing materials are influenced by environmental conditions, in areas close to the Atlantic coast, raffia palm leaves are the main materials for roofing while in the northern regions, wood is substituted for palm fronds. \nThe houses of chiefs and the palace of a king (Afin), include extended courtyards for different",
"-25.148319405154325"
],
[
"Rice Field(s), which is on the banks of the Great Miami River. City architecture Due to the growth of the city in the 19th century, many of the older houses in the city are Victorian-style homes. They are concentrated in the neighborhood of \"Old Miamisburg\" (downtown and riverfront areas). Other architectural styles include Queen Anne, Italianate, and Second Empire-styled buildings. Much of Miami Township has residential housing of single-family homes, which were built during the expanded suburban development typical of the late 20th century, especially the 1970s through the 1990s. Newer houses have been built in the 21st century as",
"-25.140145054552704"
],
[
"Houses\", states that brick houses are somewhat rare in Vermont. \"In a heavily forested country like ours, masonry houses are not common. Most Green Mountain farmers are lumbermen for part of the year. Carpentry is as natural to them as agriculture. Laying brick is a specialized craft.\" (p. 63) The book profiles various brick houses in the state, with photos and descriptions, starting with one in Arlington, VT that Congdon says \"may be the oldest brick house in Vermont, continuously lived in since its erection, built 1779.\" (p. 65) This dates the Truman Galusha House as one of the earliest",
"-25.135350339696743"
],
[
"March 1872 that he was going to build houses of \"Swiss architecture\" on his lots on Highland and Mott Street (as Maple Place was then known).\nConcrete had been used to build American houses before, but only rarely, due to the abundance of wood and masonry. Since it was so unusual, English workers were brought over to build the house, which early on earned the disparaging local nickname of \"Mud House\". The concrete used for the precast blocks was Rosendale cement, made at what is now the Register-listed Snyder Estate Natural Cement Historic District in Rosendale, further north in the Hudson",
"-25.074357701058034"
],
[
"can produce large buildings (some as much as 60 feet (18 m) across), in which more than one family would live. Their size is limited by the length of available tree trunks. Internal vertical support posts were sometimes used to give additional structural support to the roof rafters.\nAfter a strong layer of sticks (or reeds) was wrapped through and over the radiating roof timbers, the people often applied a layer of thatch as part of the roof. The structure was then entirely covered in earth. The earth layer (and the partially subterranean foundation) provided insulation against the extreme temperatures of the",
"-25.065712770054233"
],
[
"Materials The house is noted for an unusual use of materials. With a post-and-beam structure, the exterior of the house is a one-and-one-half-inch concrete shell in striped pink and grey that echoes the colors of the eucalyptus near the home. The color was added to the concrete at the time of pouring. The concrete is not load bearing but provides a shear wall. The concrete shell also provides a substantial passive solar effect even though it is outside of a layer of Styrofoam. The interior walls, floors, and ceiling are knotty",
"-25.020697562409623"
],
[
"often built on heavy steel scaffolds due to the lack of flat space.\nThe frames of the traditional homes are made with massive, interwoven red pine (akamatsu 赤松) or southern Japanese hemlock (tsuga 栂) logs for horizontal beams and squared-off chestnut (kuri 栗) for vertical beams. All are connected through traditional craftsmanship without nails, allowing the wood to expand and contract with the seasons. Some of the oldest building examples still standing date back to the seventeenth century. The foundations are usually made entirely of chestnut beams due to its high strength and anti-rotting properties, and the base beams simply sit",
"-25.01747486302338"
],
[
"slate, shingles, or (increasingly) ceramic tile, are popular in some regions. In prosperous agricultural areas, private homes may have up to three stories. In herding areas where houses may be used only part of the year, they usually have only one story.\nWalls that are constructed of stone or rammed earth may be up to a meter thick at the base. In large structures such as temples and manor homes, walls slope inward to create an illusion of greater height. Windows are usually small because the walls are so heavy that large openings would make the structure",
"-24.98635644398746"
],
[
"The pitch or slope of the roof is fairly steep.\nThe main beams supporting the entire structure vary, depending on the intended length of stay in one area. Most houses are built without the expectation of using them for many years, due to the shifting nature of agricultural work. Houses are built as close as possible to a new field. Occasionally, a site is found so favorable that the house is built to last, employing heavy and solid wooden supports. The strongest houses would have supporting beams made of hardwood 15 to 20 centimeters thick, but this is rather rare. Usually,",
"-24.98158363888797"
],
[
"their homes. In June 2014, almost 250 houses had been built to replace the 347 houses that had been destroyed by the fire. In the Mountain Shadows neighborhood, 77% of the houses were rebuilt, on average 13.8% larger than their original homes. Many of the residents have implemented fire mitigation plans, although building larger homes makes more fuel for fires. Those that didn't rebuild have put up their lots for sale.\nOver 450 houses that survived the actual fire demonstrated in the following months hidden damage due to exposure to high temperatures (up to 2,000 degrees F), ash or embers, and",
"-24.9345082778309"
],
[
"newly-built houses where the materials have not yet been there for long, and in worse cases it can result in defective housing causing trouble for the construction company and homeowner.",
"-24.92763761725655"
],
[
"a steep gable roof and a prominent chimney at the end of the house. The design was influenced by the Dutch Colonial Revival and Cape Cod styles. Both styles are unusual in California architecture, and the house resembles 17th- and 18th-century houses in the northeastern United States.\nWhile stone construction is typically avoided in California due to the risk of earthquake damage, the house survived the 1952 Tehachapi earthquake with only minor damage.",
"-24.913529354016646"
],
[
"which is relatively soft. The softness of the brick has caused it to weather in a non-uniform fashion. The brick is said to have been fired at a small brickyard which once existed on the Kishwaukee River in DeKalb, near the present-day Lincoln Highway bridge. The home stands on a stone foundation and was designed by local carpenter and eventual barbed wire competitor to Glidden, Jacob Haish. Construction was completed in 1861 and the home is a prominent example of Illinois French Colonial architecture. History The land where the Glidden House stands once held a log structure, which Glidden lived",
"-24.909066764637828"
],
[
"separate buildings.\nThe house is largely constructed of wood; an exception being the rear longitudinal wall which is a plain lattice woven in a chequered pattern from split bamboo. The roof is of a truss and cross-beam construction and is typically covered with thatch from the fibre of the sugar palm (ijuk), the toughest thatch material available and said to last a hundred years. The thatch is laid in bundles which can be easily fitted to the curved, multi-gabled roof. Contemporary homes, however, are more frequently using corrugated iron in place of thatch. Roof finials are formed from thatch bound by",
"-24.89359792810501"
],
[
"Northwest. Because of the easy access to lumber, nearly every building was constructed of the affordable, but combustible timber. Additionally, because the area was at or below sea level, the fledgling town was a frequent victim of massive floods, requiring buildings to be built on wooden stilts. The town also used hollowed out scrap logs propped up on wooden braces as sewer and water pipes, increasing the combustible loading. Events of the fire At approximately 2:30 pm on June 6, 1889, an accidentally overturned glue pot in a carpentry shop started the most destructive fire in the history",
"-24.8761926782754"
],
[
"The Cottage in Thorpe, Surrey The original house In 1490 the left hand side of the house was built using timber framing, brick panels and strong diagonal braces. A similar type of construction was used in one of the houses at the Weald and Downland Museum, Sussex. Because bricks were a relatively new way of building they were not yet trusted to take the whole weight of the house; this is why timber was used for the main strength of the house.\nThe original timbers are thought to come from an earlier house on the site. The same type of carpenters'",
"-24.875933117436944"
],
[
"such as Glamorgan and Anglesey, timber framed houses were being built in towns, but not in the countryside, where stone would have been the usual building material. Modern commercial development has tended to remove most of the timber framed houses from the high streets of Welsh towns, leaving the occasional examples, often public houses such as the ‘‘Buck’’ in Newtown and the thatched Horse and Jockey in Wrexham. Many more examples of timber framed houses exist behind brick facades of the 18th and 19th centuries. This is particularly the case in the small market town of Montgomery, where the",
"-24.855106928436726"
],
[
"wood on both sides and probably dates back to the early 1900s. The house may not be outstanding design-wise. But, like other houses of pre World War 2 period, it is designed well and functional. High ceilings, wide windows, and below are ventanillas. The wide eaves of the roof are repeated by the wide and long media agua. The emphasis on its horizontal form makes the house seems larger than it is. The espejos located above the windows are of half cart-wheel design. These provide a contrast to the rectangular framework of the windows. The calados in the transoms are",
"-24.833154557272792"
],
[
"of the traditionally constructed homes sustained little or no damage. This was due to a range of factors, possibly including the height-to-width ratio, the lack of windows, and the quality of the materials used. In general, reinforced concrete-framed homes, built after the 1979 earthquake, were better able to withstand the earthquake. Those near the epicenter still sustained severe damage due to the weight of the roofs and the weak joint connections between major structural elements of the buildings. Future threats Iran was listed as \"the worst offender\" in a 2004 report on countries with poor earthquake engineering. Professor Roger Bilham",
"-24.78803613418131"
],
[
"built in 2008. When Hurricane Sandy hit the area, the surrounding houses were devastated, but Bronx Box remained intact, with the owners staying inside through the whole crisis. The same disaster was survived by his Dune Road Beach House.\nHis Brown-Johnson cabin, also known as Lost River Modern, built in West Virginia in 2006, has been described as one of \"stylish, higher-end houses designed by architects interested in homes that are built in a way that’s more labor and energy efficient and less wasteful than site-built houses\".",
"-24.763396808179095"
],
[
"to alleys behind multistorey brick buildings encouraged the construction of wooden multistorey porches.\nWhile not an everyday occurrence, collapses happen often enough in Chicago that city building inspectors make a point of checking porches when making inspections. People have been killed and injured by collapses of wooden porches in other cities as well.\nA Chicago porch collapse during a get-together in the Lincoln Park neighborhood in 2003 killed 13 people. The weight of approximately 70 people caused the recently renovated porch of the 1890s vintage building to fail. The disaster inspired a 2005 episode of the ER television show. In June 2008,",
"-24.728754065130488"
],
[
"This can be averted, (1) by substituting incombustible and more durable materials for wood, and (2) by employing proper safeguards and appliances, thus preventing a large part of the annual fire loss.\n\"Twenty to fifty years ago when timber was abundant and the best only was selected for building purposes, much more durable houses were built than at present. Large sized and heavy pieces were used for the framing and the beams. These were frequently hewn by hand, so as to utilize the heart which is the best and most durable part of the timber.\n\"The cost of lumber is now from",
"-24.71546685983776"
],
[
"less energy intensive to produce. It is just as energy intensive as concrete to transport. Timber Timber is the oldest of structural materials, and though mainly supplanted by steel, masonry and concrete, it is still used in a significant number of buildings. The properties of timber are non-linear and very variable, depending on the quality, treatment of wood, and type of wood supplied. The design of wooden structures is based strongly on empirical evidence.\nWood is strong in tension and compression, but can be weak in bending due to its fibrous structure. Wood is relatively good in fire as it chars,",
"-24.70444530522218"
],
[
"because of the tent and bedding materials. Environmental disasters Since Hurricane Katrina made landfall in August 2005, the term has been used to describe temporary housing sites set up for Gulf Coast residents who were left homeless by the storm. Some of the tents that were built by Seabees and funded by the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) are wooden structures covered by tents. With the exception of indoor plumbing, most of the tents have heat, air, and lights. The tent city can hold as many as 250 occupants. Displaced residents are only expected to stay for three to",
"-24.640360031859018"
],
[
"still giving them a holiday space whenever they want it. 1980s and 1990s In the late 1970s and 1980s, there was a property boom fuelled by loans from the USA.\nThe lower ground floor layout has remained in most houses, providing garage space, storage areas, games rooms, saunas and more. As before, these often have their own front door, so they can easily be converted into offices.\nThe result is that most modern Polish houses are excellent, both for living in and for running a business. The raised ground floor now houses the kitchen (usually the only one) and a reception room,",
"-24.61519460279669"
],
[
"in later remodeling. Most of these vernacular buildings are two stories in height with a gable or hip roof. The wood frame buildings that retain their original fabric are generally clad with weatherboard or novelty siding or, in a few cases, wood shingles. In many cases, aluminum, vinyl, or asbestos siding have been applied to the exterior of houses. One-story porches and verandas are common, and there are some porches with upper galleries. There are a variety of sash and casement window types. Masonry vernacular buildings are generally brick or stuccoed and are either one or two stories in height.",
"-24.61454078872339"
],
[
"used as an extender is less energy-intensive than Portland cement concrete or petroleum-based materials such as asphalt or tar-penetration macadam). Multi-use paths alongside roads are sometimes made of materials that are softer than concrete, such as asphalt. Wood In the 19th century and early 20th century, sidewalks of wood were common in some North American locations. They may still be found at historic beach locations and in conservation areas to protect the land beneath and around, called boardwalks. Brick Brick sidewalks are found in some urban areas, usually for aesthetic purposes. Brick sidewalk construction usually involves the usage of a",
"-24.600869838614017"
],
[
"majority of the lumber is cypress with flooring made of long leaf pine. The most unique feature of the house are the central hallways placed in a cruciform plan on each floor. On the lower floor, the halls were originally open to the outside through brick arches, that not only provided access but structurally acted as a relieving or displacing arch, due to the weight of the brick structure. These have been enclosed with doorways in the early 1850s. It has been stated that the first floor was used to stable animals but with four fireplaces on the ground",
"-24.59192987856659"
],
[
"money or building material is scarce, additional family members often live in a temporary shelter on the ground beside or behind the main building. A new building is erected as soon as circumstances permit. Due to lack of money or shortage of building materials such buildings are generally smaller than the main house.\nAll settlements are arranged in a similar fashion, in a linear pattern along a road. In more densely populated villages, which lack direct access to the rice fields and are cut off from main roads, dwellings remain independent from each other, separated by a garden with banana trees,",
"-24.585035876138136"
],
[
"the thatched homes have had their roof pitch lowered and the roof completely replaced with either tiles or corrugated tin.\nHistorically, it was common for a home site to consist of three buildings: the main home, a barn, and what is locally called an inkyo (隠居) \"retirement home\" which would be a smaller but independently functioning house for the family's oldest generation. As one set of grandparents died, the next would move into this separate house for some most likely much sought after peace and quiet.\nThe most modern homes from the 1960s onwards lie along the main valley roadside and are",
"-24.568909410154447"
],
[
"because it is unusually easy to carve and quarry, but these qualities also made houses clad in it susceptible to weathering and damage over time.",
"-24.554715912090614"
],
[
"houses appear to be a response to increasing demand for affordable small houses, especially rental houses, in the growing university town.",
"-24.51792387707974"
],
[
"House A house is a building that functions as a home. They can range from simple dwellings such as rudimentary huts of nomadic tribes and the improvised shacks in shantytowns to complex, fixed structures of wood, brick, concrete or other materials containing plumbing, ventilation, and electrical systems. Houses use a range of different roofing systems to keep precipitation such as rain from getting into the dwelling space. Houses may have doors or locks to secure the dwelling space and protect its inhabitants and contents from burglars or other trespassers. Most conventional modern houses in Western cultures will contain one or",
"-24.512352220102912"
],
[
"and snow, it may be from rotted wood, soil subsidence under the porch foundation, rust of nails and fasteners, and not being built to specifications required by modern day building codes. Many older porches were built before codes required them to be able to support a legally mandated load of so many pounds per square foot or metre, and porches are often not as sturdily built as interior structures. The phenomenon is associated with older multistorey apartment buildings with wooden porches. Architect Stanley Tigerman said that in New York City one finds steel fire escapes, but in Chicago, the distance",
"-24.48904216469964"
],
[
"an integral part of buildings in Los Angeles today. The pattern of buildings in Los Angeles to feature these \"flat roofs\" was the result of a 1974 fire ordinance which required all tall buildings in the city to include rooftop helipads in response to the devastating 1974 Joelma Fire in São Paulo, Brazil, in which helicopters could not be used to effect rescues from the rooftop of the building because of the lack of a landing spot, and could otherwise have prevented many deaths. The Wilshire Grand was granted an exception by the Los Angeles City Fire Department however, as",
"-24.486669419100508"
],
[
"least as broad as it is deep, and it may provide sufficient space for residents to entertain guests or gather on special occasions. Adobe-style homes in Santa Fe, New Mexico, often include large porches for entertainment called 'portals,' which are not usually seen in the more traditional adobe homes.\nOlder American homes, particularly those built during the era of Victorian architecture, or built in the Queen Anne style, often included a porch in both the front and the back of the home. The back porch is used as another sitting space. However, many American homes built with a porch since",
"-24.48241769775632"
],
[
"with lime and water to produce a pleasing white colour and protect the clay from the rain.\nThatched roofs are traditional, but have been declining in popularity for over a century because they may pose a fire hazard. Dirt floors are common, and are made hard by washing with a dung mixture, although wooden floors are preferred. \nTypically the long wall of a house is between 26 feet (7.9 m) and 30 feet (9.1 m) and the side wall between 12 feet (3.7 m) and 17 feet (5.2 m). The centre of the home is dominated by a traditional clay oven (Ukrainian: pich or pietz)",
"-24.481699579861015"
],
[
"style may be part of all types of traditional building, from cottages to windmills, shops to workshops, as well as many others.\nIn New Zealand, clapboard housing dominates buildings before 1960. Clapboard, with a corrugated iron roof, was found to be a cost-effective building style. After the big earthquakes of 1855 and 1931, wooden buildings were perceived as being less vulnerable to damage. Clapboard is always referred to as 'weatherboard' in New Zealand.\nNewer, cheaper designs often imitate the form of clapboard construction as \"siding\" made of vinyl (uPVC), aluminum, fiber cement, or other man-made materials.",
"-24.452712074911688"
],
[
"possible in a building, which means more time spent dismantling a building rather than just tearing it down quickly. The trade in recycled timber is not well-established everywhere, so a reliable supply of usable wood may be hard to come by for builders. There may be a stigma associated with using \"used\" or \"cheap\" wood that is perceived to be of not as high quality as \"new\" wood. Not all pieces of wood in a dismantled building will fit in a new building, and it may be cheaper and easier, from a design and labor perspective, to",
"-24.42580166800326"
],
[
"predominated in 80 million hectares of forest from Maine to Florida and west to the Ohio Valley, reaching heights of up to 40 metres (130 ft) and growing two meters around the middle. Chestnuts sometimes piled so high on the forest floor that people would scoop them up with shovels. Both humans and a wide variety of animals relied on this abundant and easily gathered resource for food, particularly in winter.\nChestnut trees also had significant economic value. American carpenters preferred chestnut over other materials for making certain products. Lightweight, rot-resistant, straight-grained and easy to work with, chestnut wood was used to",
"-24.41897061860527"
],
[
"mansions now comprise the greatest concentrations of notable pre-1900 domestic structures in the United States.\nShipping declined throughout the 19th century. Salem and its silting harbor were increasingly eclipsed by nearby Boston and New York City. Consequently, the city turned to manufacturing. Industries included tanneries, shoe factories, and the Naumkeag Steam Cotton Company. More than 400 homes were destroyed in the Great Salem Fire of 1914, leaving 3,500 families homeless from a blaze that began in the Korn Leather Factory at 57 Boston Street. The historic concentration of Federal architecture on Chestnut Street were spared from destruction by fire, in which",
"-24.408002880300046"
],
[
"of a few industrial or commercial buildings like the Blank Book Co. and the Planing Mill, nearly all of the district's brick buildings (mostly houses) are actually brick veneer over wood framing. The use of brick as a construction material peaked in the 1920s.\nSixty-Nine (69) Percent of the foundations are stone, which supports almost all buildings erected before ca. 1920. While stone as a foundation material is common in pre-1920s buildings, its use as a structural material is very rare due in large measure to the common availability and economy of sawn lumber, and the age of the community",
"-24.40784588234601"
],
[
"in 1954. Jacobson marketed the houses in Ranch Acres to professionals and businessmen who had moved to Tulsa to work in the petroleum and defense industries, and who could afford to pay premium prices for these homes.\nNearly all the houses built during the era of significance are one-story, with low or moderately low pitched roofs or mansard roofs. Exterior walls are either brick, native stone, board and batten or horizontal siding. Originally, most of the houses had cedar shake roofs, but most of those have since been changed to asphalt tile. All of the houses had garages, and a majority",
"-24.389433120231843"
],
[
"two-room construction. However, some rural homes were of the I-house style or were built with central hallways connecting a two-room house. Such rural homes often were overtaken by the rapidly expanding city and demolished. However, some rural homes were more developed and became integrated into the street grid of St. Louis.\nThe more developed rural homes in early St. Louis often bear the mark of the Federal Style, with simple and symmetrical façades,\nshuttered windows, and minimal ornament. Although many such homes were built, only a handful survive. Among these is the Lewis Bissell House (1820), now a restaurant and banquet facility.\nOther",
"-24.382633785251528"
],
[
"Built of brick with a brick foundation, the two-story house includes elements of stone and metal. The interior is particularly significant because of elements such as a unique music alcove with decorative panelling, as well as ornate original wood finishing with decorative molding. Preservation On 3 April 1974, much of Xenia's near north side was destroyed by one of the worst tornadoes on record. The Patterson House fared better than most; it was severely damaged, but the owner chose to restore it rather than completing the demolition. Two years later, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places,",
"-24.368866538454313"
],
[
"and raised above the ground (or water, depending on their location). The house was erected around a skeletal structure of tropical hardwood posts and beams, usually cengai. Medium hardwoods, like meranti, were used as floor boards, roof rafters and door and window frames. The roof itself was made of layers of palm frond thatch, while the walls were either made of woven bamboo strips or meranti planks. The basic form of the house was simple, but additional rooms could be added according to the requirements and wealth of the family. Likewise, the architectural ornament, in the form of carved wood",
"-24.365011988411425"
],
[
"built in the Federal-style. It was a two-story structure with two rooms and a central hall on each floor. The entire house was built from brick that was handmade on the plantation by McGehee's enslaved African-American workers. It featured side gables and a symmetrical three-bay facade. Both sides of the house had large external chimneys centered in the wall, with windows to either side on both floors. The original woodwork in the house was joined using the older technique of wooden pegs, rather than nails.\nMcGehee had planned a two-story brick ell for the rear of the house, but it was",
"-24.350279453530675"
],
[
"the shortage of large timbers and an abundance of workable stone in Scotland, houses with only timber fronts were more common. Despite the logistical problems timbered houses enjoyed a resurgence in the late sixteenth century, particularly in Edinburgh where there were large numbers of board, jettied and boarded construction. Increasingly half-timbered houses occurred beside the larger, stone and slate-roofed town houses of merchants and the urban gentry. By the late seventeenth century these had taken on a recognisably Flemish or Dutch appearance. They were often narrow, with four stories, gabled and crow stepped, but often built in stone and harl.",
"-24.34358847067051"
]
] |
1bd99k | Why do online retailers like Amazon stick with MP3 instead of transitioning to lossless FLAC? | [
"The likely reason is compatibility. Many more devices and programs play MP3 than FLAC. For example, the Ipod, arguably the most popular portable audio player, doesn't play FLAC(or at least, didn't the last I knew). If Amazon sold audio files in FLAC, they'd either have to: 1. Also offer the MP3, thus doubling the size of their stock 2. Offer support for converting to MP3, thus increasing their tech support needs, and losing themselves customers. 3. Refuse to support non-FLAC uses, which means they'd not be compatible with Ipods and other non-FLAC players. In short, it makes a lot more sense for them to offer the most popular format in their store.",
"FLAC is not a widely supported file-format, either in software (it's not possible to play FLAC files on Windows without downloading third-party software) or hardware (it's not natively supported by either iOS or iTunes). Thus, switching to FLAC would create a level of inconvenience for the consumer that is not found with rivals such as iTunes. Furthermore, in blind tests on consumer-grade playback equipment most listeners are unable to reliably distinguish between 320kbps MP3 and FLAC files.^[source]( URL_0 ) For this reason, adding FLAC as an option would not be cost effective for Amazon. Audio nazis that require a lossless format can purchase the CD from Amazon.",
"MP3s, when properly trans-coded from the original source, are often transparent, being transparent that the most people can not tell the difference between the encoded MP3 and the original lossless media. An MP3 at 320CBR or v0 is indistinguishable to nearly everyone in standard listening conditions.",
"I'd imagine increased bandwidth to download the much larger Flac files would be a consideration.",
"Others have covered the audio-format stuff, I'll address your comparison to image formats: JPEG and PNG serve different purposes. The JPEG, for the Joint Photographic Experts Group that designed it, format was specifically designed for storing photographic (or at least photorealistic) images that had a lot of colors with gradient transitions - if you're using it for anything else you're probably using it wrong. PNG was created to be a replacement for the GIF format which was optimized for images with a limited number of colors with sharp edges/contrasts - things like line-art or logos. PNGs now have a large enough color palate that the number of available colors might be enough to represent a photograph (certainly better than GIF allows), but the encoding algorithm isn't optimized for the type of image that photography gets you. A more apt comparison might be between JPEG and something like the RAW format - keeping the comparison between file formats that were designed for the same purpose (photography) but the lossless one trades off file size for the image fidelity.",
"ELI5: What is the difference between FLAC and MP3?",
"Nobody cares enough to change, and most people have headphones that would not let them hear the difference."
] | [
[
"Amazon.com, the MP3 files are merely licensed to them and hence they may not be able to resell those MP3 files. However, MP3 songs bought through iTunes Store may be characterized as \"sales\" because of Apple's language in its EULA and hence they may be resell-able, if other requirements of first sale doctrine are met.\nCourts have struggled and taken dramatically different approaches to sort out when only a license was granted to the end user as compared to ownership. Most of these cases involved software-licensing agreements. In general, courts look beneath the surface of the agreements to conclude whether the",
"-31.316094088251702"
],
[
"due to its early support of the MP3 format, lack of digital rights management (DRM) encoding and low prices; all concepts advocated by the Open Music Model. Devin Leonard of CNN attributed eMusic's growth to its being the only online music store aside from iTunes that sold tracks that could be played on an iPod. In 2009, eMusic changed its pricing structure, raising prices for new users and most existing users. The move was unpopular with some, but tracks from the Sony catalogue over two years old were then made available to eMusic customers. Prior to July 2009, eMusic mainly",
"-30.559804302058183"
],
[
"web site. Om Malik of GigaOM also praised the lack of DRM and the high bitrate but disliked the need to install another application to download albums. Overall, the reviewer said \"…I think it makes sense for everyone to browse the Amazon store before hitting the 'buy' button on iTunes.\"\nA 2007 study by Eliot Van Buskirk of Wired News's \"Listening Post\" blog investigated whether Amazon MP3 was watermarking tracks with personally identifiable information. Van Buskirk quoted an Amazon spokesperson as saying, \"Amazon does not apply watermarks. Files are generally provided to us from the labels and some",
"-29.72128269186942"
],
[
"subscription. For a monthly fee, customers were able to download as many tracks as they wished from the service.\neMusic was one of the first sites to sell music in the MP3 format, beginning in 1998. It differs from other well-known music download services (such as the iTunes Store and Amazon Music) in that it is a download-to-own subscription service. However, in 2011 eMusic took its first, limited step into streaming in an effort to help users discover unfamiliar tracks and artists more easily.\nIn 2006, eMusic added two European versions of its online store: 'eMusic UK' and 'eMusic Europe'. Current subscribers",
"-29.49426394473994"
],
[
"automobiles and smart TVs. Amazon's purchasable music catalog is accessible from the Amazon.com web site by searching for an artist or title name, or via a store embedded in many, but not all, of the player apps. To download purchased music, Amazon offers either the Amazon Music player (which runs on Windows 7 or later and Mac OS X 10.9 and later) or a zip file of MP3s downloaded from Amazon's web player.\nAmazon Music previously offered additional applications, such as one for Blackberry and one for Palm. These are no longer offered. Amazon also previously offered a separate app for",
"-29.127887648763135"
],
[
"and Unlimited streaming services, as well as the music store for purchases (on most platforms). The players allow users to store and play their music from a web browser, mobile apps, and desktop applications, Sonos (United States only), Bose (United States only) and other platforms such as certain smart TVs.\nAmazon Music Player accounts get 250 tracks of free storage; however, music purchased through Amazon MP3 store does not count towards the storage limit. Once the music is stored in Amazon Music, a user can choose to download it to one of the Android, iOS, or desktop devices using Amazon Music",
"-29.0325190787662"
],
[
"using a media plugin library once provided by Audible themselves. After Apple's abandonment of most DRM measures, Amazon's downloads ceasing to use it, Audible's DRM system is one of the few remaining in place.\nMany Audible listings displayed to non-U.S. customers are geo-blocked. According to Audible, this is because the publisher who has provided the title does not have the rights to distribute the file in a given region. When a user is logged in, titles that he or she cannot purchase will be hidden.\nThere were hopes that Amazon, after its purchase of Audible, would remove the DRM from its",
"-28.344853785296436"
],
[
"marketing of the popular mp3 player known as the iPod meets all three criteria that the court proposed: 1) Apple's advertising campaign \"Rip, Mix and Burn\" can be interpreted as a direct incitement to copyright infringement, 2) Apple has not taken visible steps to discourage copyright infringement (i.e., the iPod plays MP3 files which are widely distributed on file-sharing sites, rather than creating or relying on a more restrictive format that would ensure that the user had purchased the files they were playing), and 3) Apple benefits monetarily from copyright infringement, as they sell iPods that can store up to",
"-27.965960312154493"
],
[
"offering mp3HD files, stating that now their customers can have lossless audio without leaving the mp3 format. Technicolor are also saying that the agreement is very important for the growth of the format. Starting June 19, 2011 Technicolor and 10 ambassadors and Sound Souvenirs are doing a marketing campaign where they will transform 10 songs into mp3HD. People get to vote for 100 songs from their top charts which ends July 21 and the top 10 get to be mp3HD files. Encoding So far, the only available mp3HD encoder is the Technicolor toolkit which contains a command-line encoder and decoder.",
"-27.940153382136486"
],
[
"application.\nMusic is uploaded via the Amazon Music player for PC and Mac. Previously Amazon offered the Amazon MP3 Uploader which was an Adobe AIR application.\nAmazon Music allows 10 devices (computer, browser, mobile, etc.) to be authorized. Customers can deauthorize their old devices via a web interface.\nOriginally bundled with Amazon Cloud Drive was the music streaming application called Cloud Player which allowed users to play their music stored in the Cloud Drive from any computer or Android device with Internet access. This was discontinued.\nAmazon Music for PC was launched in May 2013 as a downloadable Windows application for playing music",
"-27.921554908927646"
],
[
"to keep their original copies stored on their computers or have them replaced by copies from the iTunes Store. Any music not available in the iTunes Store is uploaded for download onto customers' other supported devices and computers; doing this will not take storage from the customers' iCloud's storage allowance. Any such tracks stored in the higher quality lossless audio ALAC, or original uncompressed PCM formats, WAV and AIFF, are transcoded to 256 kbit/s DRM-free AAC format before uploading to the customers' iCloud storage account, leaving the original higher quality local files in their original format.\nIf a user stops paying for",
"-27.695200423855567"
],
[
"online distribution, which Napster considered beyond the scope of the limited monopoly provided by the Copyright Office. The court rejected this as well, finding that MP3s were the same works as those that appeared on CDs, just in a different format, thus the plaintiffs had every right to control their distribution of digital music files because they are the plaintiffs' copyrighted works. Scope of the injunction Napster contended that the injunction violated the company's First Amendment rights because it was overbroad. While the Ninth Circuit rejected this argument due to the lack of a fair use defense, they did order",
"-27.634771547513083"
],
[
"Mac OS X and Windows called the Amazon Music Downloader which is no longer available. The downloader was purely for downloading purchased tracks, it did not offer music playback capabilities.\nIn November 2018 it was announced that Amazon Music will be available on Android TV.\nIn August 2019, Amazon Music got its first smartwatch app available on selected Garmin smartwatches. Partnerships On February 1, 2008, Pepsi introduced a Pepsi Stuff promotion in partnership with Amazon MP3. Customers can exchange points offered on 4 billion Pepsi bottles for, among other prizes, MP3 downloads from Warner, EMI, and Sony BMG (though not Universal).\nRockstar",
"-27.41732123147085"
],
[
"is partly due to widespread e-book price increases, known as agency pricing, by major publishers that Amazon had recently allowed that brought the average e-book price from $6 to nearly $10. File formats The Kindle Store offer e-books in Amazon's proprietary e-book formats: AZW, and, for fourth generation and later Kindles, AZW3, also called KF8. In August 2015, \"Kindle Format 10\" (KFX) file format was added to the Store that has enhanced typography. E-books available in KFX are indicated on the e-book's description page.\nThe Kindle Store's terms of use forbid transferring Amazon format e-books to another user or a different",
"-27.302169171671267"
],
[
"has been made available as a downloadable MP3 version via sites such as Amazon and iTunes.",
"-27.29439224437374"
],
[
"would support songs in MPEG-4 AAC format (via a firmware update for older iPods). Customers could download music in a closed-source Digital Rights Management (DRM)-restricted form of AAC (see FairPlay) via the iTunes Store or create files without DRM from their own CDs using iTunes. In later years, Apple began offering music videos and movies, which also use AAC for audio encoding.\nOn May 29, 2007, Apple began selling songs and music videos free of DRM from participating record labels. These files mostly adhere to the AAC standard and are playable on many non-Apple products but they do include custom iTunes",
"-27.293518996797502"
],
[
"information such as album artwork and a purchase receipt, so as to identify the customer in case the file is leaked out onto peer-to-peer networks. It is possible, however, to remove these custom tags to restore interoperability with players that conform strictly to the AAC specification. As of January 6, 2009, nearly all music on the USA regioned iTunes Store became DRM-free, with the remainder becoming DRM-free by the end of March 2009.\niTunes supports a \"Variable Bit Rate\" (VBR) encoding option which encodes AAC tracks in an \"Average Bit Rate\" (ABR) scheme. As of September 2009, Apple has added support",
"-27.240965628414415"
],
[
"Games' 2008 title Grand Theft Auto IV connects to Amazon MP3. Players can register on the Rockstar Games Social Club web site to receive e-mail outside the game containing a link to buy marked songs from Amazon MP3.\nMyspace has sold music from Amazon MP3 as part of its MySpace Music feature since September 2008. Reaction Initial reaction to Amazon MP3 was generally positive. The unofficial Apple Weblog praised the lack of DRM especially given that track prices were cheaper than iTunes Plus songs at launch, but the reviewer considered the user experience better in iTunes than on the Amazon",
"-27.184312654906535"
],
[
"Shorten, are not natively supported by Apple's iTunes software (either the Mac OS or Windows versions) or by older iOS devices, but there are free converter tools available to change the format from FLAC to ALAC or vice versa. More modern devices such as the iPhone 7 and above, running iOS11, support FLAC playback. Users of iTunes software who want to use a lossless format which allows the addition of metadata (unlike WAV/AIFF or other PCM-type formats, where metadata is usually ignored) have to use ALAC. All current iOS devices can play ALAC–encoded files. ALAC also does not use any",
"-27.149874356138753"
],
[
"began selling audiobooks that can be listened via the app.\nIn June 2018, Google reopened its publisher program to new sign-ups. To curb piracy, text of new books would now compared with that of other books in the store. Reseller program At launch, Google had formed partnerships with independent booksellers, enabling them to sell Google ebooks on their websites for a cut of sales. Bookstore partners included Powell's, Alibris and participating members of the American Booksellers Association.\nIn a blog post in May 2011, Google announced that it had over 250 independent bookseller partners, compared to just over 100 at the time",
"-27.130949535989203"
],
[
"they are roughly comparable to other similar lossless formats. The format is still in development with Technicolor releasing tools for consumers who are into the format. Sites are saying that it can be the one that achieves mainstream adoption, due to the advantage that the mp3 brand is well known. Since 2009 Technicolor has updated the format and encoding tools to make it more efficient, while also adding a plugin for Winamp (Windows only), a DirectShow filter for Windows Media Player, and a mp3HD converter. On October 7, 2010 Topspin, a music distributor became the first retailer to start",
"-27.07450630533276"
],
[
"Optus Music Store Online Store The online store contains albums and tracks (MP3 with 30 second preview), tones (delivered to device 'over the air' or straight to the mobile phone from web). The site features re-download (within 5 days) features and dual-download for purchase on-device (see below). The main driver for the re-launch and MP3 was to broaden the attractiveness and accessibility due to the difficulties of DRM/Windows Media issues on the old store, which were featured in many negative reviews.\nThe online store is 'open' and supports purchases via PayPal. Optus Mobile customers can have charges applied",
"-27.05038861988578"
],
[
"due to WMA compatibility issues. Fictionwise In January 2009, OverDrive informed Fictionwise that it would no longer be providing downloads for purchasers of e-books through Fictionwise as of January 31, 2009; no reason was provided to Fictionwise as to why it was being shut down. This prevents previous purchasers from being able to renew their books on new devices. Fictionwise was working to provide replacement ebooks for its customers in alternative, non-DRM-protected formats, but did not have the rights to provide all of the books in different formats.",
"-27.04638854879886"
],
[
"audio players, such as mobile phones, and solid state music storage, CD players are being phased out of automobiles in favor of minijack auxiliary inputs, wired connection to USB devices and wireless Bluetooth connection.\nMeanwhile, with the advent and popularity of Internet-based distribution of files in lossily-compressed audio formats such as MP3, sales of CDs began to decline in the 2000s. For example, between 2000 and 2008, despite overall growth in music sales and one anomalous year of increase, major-label CD sales declined overall by 20 percent, although independent and DIY music sales may be tracking better according to figures released",
"-26.969467360006092"
],
[
"for Periodicals. Criticism The revenue sharing condition and the inability to opt out of the lendability feature, that was abused in the former Lendink service, have caused some controversy. Other criticisms involve the business model behind Amazon's implementation and distribution of e-books. Amazon introduced a software application allowing Kindle books to be read on an iPhone or iPod Touch, and soon followed with an application called \"Kindle for PCs\" that can be run on a Windows PC. Due to the book publishers' DRM policies, Amazon claims there is no right of first sale with e-books and states that, since e-books",
"-26.95405691070482"
],
[
"whereas the company described iTunes as a digital library and online music store. Music streaming The subscription-based Apple Music streaming service was announced by the company on June 8, 2015, and launched on June 30. It was first made accessible to macOS (then OS X) through iTunes 12.2. Apple Music is heavily integrated into the Music app, comparable to the iTunes Store being the digital marketplace driving the iTunes software.",
"-26.795024629798718"
],
[
"Napster use peaked with 26.4 million users worldwide.\nAlthough Napster was shut down in 2001 for copyright violations, other music download services took its place. In 2001, Apple Inc.'s iTunes service was introduced and the iPod, a consumer-friendly MP3 player, was released later that year. This and other legal alternatives as well as illicit file sharing continued to depress sales of recorded music on physical formats. By 2006, downloaded digital single sales outnumbered CD sales for the first time and buyers of digital music purchased singles over albums by a margin of 19:1. Even music industry executives",
"-26.72496896586381"
],
[
"Kindle File Format History Kindle devices and apps are designed to use Amazon's e-book formats: AZW that is based on Mobipocket; in fourth generation and later Kindles, AZW3, also called KF8; and in seventh generation and later Kindles, KFX. Kindles do not support the EPUB file format used by many other e-book readers. Similar to EPUB, Amazon's file formats are intended for reflowable, richly formatted e-book content and support DRM restrictions, but unlike EPUB, they are proprietary formats. AZW files debuted with the first Amazon Kindle in 2007.\nSoftware such as the free and open source Calibre, Amazon's KindleGen, and the",
"-26.704134824103676"
],
[
"ebook rentals. Google also dropped support for a wide variety of ebook file formats it used to accept, including DOC, XML, HTML, MOBI and PDB, to focus primarily on the EPUB format.\nIn early May 2015, Google announced that a new custom-made typeface called Literata would be used for Google Play Books. \nTowards the end of the month, Google announced that it was temporarily closing its Books Partner Center for new signups, stating that it was to \"improve our content management capabilities and our user experience.\" This was presumably in response to the observations of extensive piracy on the ebookstore reported",
"-26.694126061804127"
],
[
"MP3 (192kbit/s) and Ogg Vorbis formats. Listening and downloading is free, unlimited and without any advertisements. The site is available in eight languages: English, French, Spanish, German, Italian, Polish, Russian, and Portuguese.\nEach user has a personal account in which extended features are available, for example, creating playlists, saving their favorite songs and albums, becoming a fan of an artist, sharing on social networks, reviewing tracks or albums, and following their favorite artists. The website also promotes new music through an editorial feed on the homepage, along with top charts and genre-specific radio channels. A search engine allows users to look",
"-26.68057244294323"
],
[
"E-book lending Alternative lending models Amazon operates a Kindle Owners' Lending Library that enables paid Amazon Prime users to borrow from a collection of over 600,000 ebooks without any due date, with books being delivered to Kindle and Kindle Fire devices, but not to the free Kindle reading apps for other platforms. The same book can be borrowed by a number of users at the same time, and users may keep a book for as long as they want. Alternatively, the books that are available in the public domain can be downloaded in different formats from many sites like archive.org.",
"-26.65315300738439"
],
[
"credited with accelerating shifts within the music industry. The pricing structure of iTunes encouraged the sale of single songs, allowing users to abandon the purchase of more expensive albums. This hastened the end of the Album Era in popular music.\nOn April 26, 2018, Apple released iTunes 12 for Windows 10 via the Windows Store. The Universal Windows Platform app retains all features available in the desktop version, but will be updated and available through the Windows Store.\nOn June 3, 2019, Apple has stated that they would no longer be including iTunes for future Mac computers, starting from the operating system",
"-26.560697016539052"
],
[
"the .mp3 file, is one of the investors in this project. \nAs of January 2010, no major record labels have adopted the new format, although a number of independent labels have shown an interest. MusicDNA files are likely to be more expensive than current music downloads.",
"-26.473976316628978"
],
[
"Management that restricts copying the music or playing purchased songs on certain digital audio players. They are almost always compressed using a lossy codec (usually MPEG-1 Layer 3, Windows Media, or AAC), which reduces file size and bandwidth requirements. These music resources have been created as a response to expanding technology and needs of customers that wanted easy, quick access to music. Their business models respond to the \"download revolution\" by making legal services attractive for users.\nEven legal music downloads have faced a number of challenges from artists, record labels and the Recording Industry Association of America. In July 2007,",
"-26.43429991789162"
],
[
"files are compatible only with Apple's iTunes media player software on Macs and Windows, their iPod portable digital music players, iPhone smartphones, iPad tablet computers, and the Motorola ROKR E1 and SLVR mobile phones. As a result, that music was locked into this ecosystem and available for portable use only through the purchase of one of the above devices, or by burning to CD and optionally re-ripping to a DRM-free format such as MP3 or WAV.\nIn January, 2005, an iPod purchaser named Thomas Slattery filed a suit against Apple for the \"unlawful bundling\" of their iTunes Music Store and iPod",
"-26.42797318584053"
],
[
"sites.\" At initial launch, it offered 800,000 tracks and 3,500 music videos for download (by way of Vivendi SA's Universal Music Group). File formats SpiralFrog utilized 128 kbit/s which is the standard for most digital music stores such as the Walmart digital music store or 192 kbit/s (for more complex songs that would otherwise sound distorted) Windows Media Audio files wrapped in Microsoft's PlaysForSure DRM. DRM does not allow burning music to a CD but allows sideloading music to up to two portable audio devices. Music from SpiralFrog was not compatible with the Apple iPod or Microsoft's Zune.",
"-26.355755333555862"
],
[
"Apple and EMI jointly announced the removal of DRM technology from EMI's catalog in the iTunes Store, effective in May 2007. Other record labels eventually followed suit and Apple published a press release in January 2009 to announce that all songs on the iTunes Store are available without their FairPlay DRM.\nIn July 2008, Apple launched the App Store to sell third-party applications for the iPhone and iPod Touch. Within a month, the store sold 60 million applications and registered an average daily revenue of $1 million, with Jobs speculating in August 2008 that the App Store could become a billion-dollar business for",
"-26.344062600051984"
],
[
"used, but due to the latter's lack of success in the market, most digital copies utilized iTunes. Other solutions also provided support for Sony PlayStation Portable and pre-smartphone age feature phones using 3GP video files and Open Mobile Alliance DRM. Some publishers limited their digital copies to Microsoft operating systems and devices.\nTo limit the number of free copies, the disc typically comes with a single-use alphanumeric code to authenticate the ownership of the title over the Internet; some versions of the concept come with a QR code containing the single-use code in order to allow it to be scanned by",
"-26.340744864195585"
],
[
"Compact Disc Digital Audio standard (often called the Red Book) to inform consumers which discs do not permit full fair use of their content.\nIn 2005, Sony BMG Music Entertainment was criticized when a copy protection mechanism known as Extended Copy Protection (XCP) used on some of their audio CDs automatically and surreptitiously installed copy-prevention software on computers (see 2005 Sony BMG CD copy protection scandal). Such discs are not legally allowed to be called CDs or Compact Discs because they break the Red Book standard governing CDs, and Amazon.com for example describes them as \"copy protected discs\" rather than \"compact",
"-26.340420555425226"
],
[
"its iPod line, within ten years it became the dominant seller of portable digital audio players, \"...while former giant Sony (maker of the [portable] Walkman and [CD] Discman [was] struggling.\" This market shift was initiated when the first portable digital audio player, the Rio digital music player, was introduced. The 64 MB Rio MP3 player enabled users to store about 20 songs. One of the benefits of the Rio over portable CD players was that since the Rio had no moving parts, it offered skip-free playback. Since 1998, the price of portable digital audio players has dropped and the",
"-26.333940029668156"
],
[
"audiobook selection, in keeping with the current trend in the industry. Nevertheless, Audible's products continue to have DRM, similar to the policy of DRM-protecting their Kindle e-books, which have DRM that allows for a finite, yet undisclosed number of downloads at the discretion of the publisher, however Audible titles that are DRM free can be copied to the Kindle and made functional.\nAudible is able to offer DRM-free titles for content providers who wish to do so. FFmpeg 2.8.1+ is capable of playing Audible's .aa and .aax file formats natively. Original content In 2015, Audible hired Eric Nuzum, formerly VP of",
"-26.326322434353642"
],
[
"AAC. At about the same time AT&T also developed an internal Web based music streaming service that had the ability to download music to FlashPAC. AAC and such music downloading services later formed the foundation for the Apple iPod and iTunes. SaeHan/Eiger MPMan The first portable MP3 player was launched in 1997 by Saehan Information Systems, which sold its “MPMan\" player in Asia in spring 1998. In mid-1998, the South Korean company licensed the players for North American distribution to Eiger Labs, which rebranded them as the EigerMan F10 and F20. The flash-based players were available in 32 MB or 64 MB",
"-26.317319580819458"
],
[
"formats. Platform availability Apple released iTunes for Windows in 2003. In May 2017, Microsoft and Apple announced that they would bring iTunes to the Microsoft Store by the end of that year in order to work on Windows 10 S devices, which are limited to software available in the Microsoft Store. However, Apple told ZDNet in December that it \"[needs] a little more time to get it right\", and thus won't be available in 2017. Apple released the Microsoft Store version on April 26, 2018. Metadata and music importation iTunes features a music library. Each track has attributes, called metadata,",
"-26.310186992321007"
],
[
"78% of sales in 2008, then began to decline in favor of digital downloads. The 2012 survey found CDs accounted for \"nearly half\" of all sales meaning it was no longer the dominate medium (APA did not report the digital download figures for 2012, but in 2011 CDs accounted for 53% and digital download was 41%). The APA estimates that audiobook sales in 2015 in digital format increased by 34% over 2014.\nThe resurgence of audio storytelling is widely attributed to advances in mobile technologies such as smartphones, tablets, and multimedia entertainment systems in cars, also known as connected car platforms.",
"-26.30153919872828"
],
[
"phone owners to stream their iTunes library directly from their home computer to their phone wirelessly, for free, and also to buy music from Didiom's on-device MP3 store. The majority of the music catalog that the company offered came from CD Baby, Finetunes, and Phonofile.\nIn February 2010, the company concluded its beta test, shut down its MP3 store, and launched Didiom Pro, a freemium placeshifting service, using a subscription business model. Didiom Pro has offered a new set of mobile and desktop applications that allowed users to stream audio files from their computer to their iPhone, iPod Touch, BlackBerry, or",
"-26.29034136258997"
],
[
"\"Yepp\".\nAs of November 2013, Samsung discontinued their MP3 players line in most countries. Only the YP-W1 and YP-U7 are still available in some countries. The Galaxy Players series has also been discontinued in most countries. Samsung released the successor to the YP-GI1, the YP-GI2 (Galaxy 070) only in Korea in August 2013. Samsung shut down all official MP3 players dedicated websites and blogs in Korea and worldwide.\nAs of December 2016, Samsung discontinued their MP3 players and Android-based Galaxy Players lines worldwide. Even though Samsung never announced officially they would stop producing MP3 players, it appears they actually did. Comparison of",
"-26.25575847082655"
],
[
"for the various scenes.\nRegarding the purchase options, sorry about the \"clunkiness\" of not offering the full record digital download pre-sale (and having to visit Amazon). My agenda was to be able to offer this for the lowest possible price and this was the best way to achieve that. Amazon has been a great partner with past projects and I appreciate your understanding.\nThe album was released for digital download on September 28, exclusively on Amazon MP3, and is available in three physical formats: CD, Blu-ray 5.1 surround audio and 2x12\" vinyl record, released on October 11, 18 and 25 respectively. It",
"-26.241093261909555"
],
[
"Amazon announced it would buy Audible for about $300 million. The deal closed in March 2008 and Audible became a subsidiary of Amazon. Beijing Century Joyo Courier Services Beijing Century Joyo Courier Services is a subsidiary of Amazon and it applied for a freight forwarding license with the US Maritime Commission. Amazon is also building out its logistics in trucking and air freight to potentially compete with UPS and FedEx. Brilliance Audio Brilliance Audio is an audiobook publisher founded in 1984 by Michael Snodgrass in Grand Haven, Michigan. The company produced its first 8 audio titles in 1985. The company",
"-26.21960613061674"
],
[
"the iPod. With the introduction of iTunes for Windows on October 16, 2003 they stopped bundling the Musicmatch software. Software The Jukebox has a skinnable graphical interface and allows users to manage a catalogue of digital music, as well as CD and stream-based audio. It has a fairly advanced AutoDJ but has been noted as having a longer boot-up time than other players. The Plus version includes faster rip and burn times, exportable tables and tech support, as well as a \"Super-Tagging\" function that fetches for tags and album art and attaches them to the song file, allows you to",
"-26.15962939162273"
],
[
"MSN Music History In 2004, Microsoft created an MSN Music download store to compete with Apple's iTunes Music Store, though its sales in comparison were negligible. The store utilized Microsoft's Windows Media Player application and proprietary Windows Media Format files (protected .wma files).\nIt started out with 1.5 million songs, but decreased to 1.1 million songs due to lagging sales and lack of real support from Microsoft.\nThe MSN Music store was not compatible with Microsoft's own Zune music player. As of 14 November 2006, MSN Music ceased music sales and now redirects viewers to either Zune or Real Rhapsody websites.\nMicrosoft acquired",
"-26.140181513983407"
],
[
"give a reason for ceasing Nook sales in the UK, commentators attributed the decision to declining sales. On March 15, 2016, Barnes & Noble announced it would close the Nook App Store and Nook Video, probably because Google's Play Store, which runs on Barnes & Noble devices, has been far more successful. In the UK, those who have bought, respectively, e-book or video content will need to open accounts with other providers in order to not lose the content.\nB&N continues to sell e-books as well as digital magazines and newspapers in the US. Nook e-reader applications for third party devices",
"-26.108534203298404"
],
[
"songs. Included with an Amazon prime membership, the Amazon Music catalog currently consists of 29,157,740 songs.\nPricing: Amazon Prime subscribers are given access to part of the music library, and can unlock full access by paying either $8 a month, or $79 per year. Non Amazon-Prime users can pay the industry standard of $10 per month, and there is a $4 per month option for users who exclusively listen through Amazon's Echo speaker.\nBusiness Model: subscription-based streaming + a-la-carte downloads. The Beginning of Exclusive Releases Recently, the music industry has seen another consistent decline in album sales in response to the rising",
"-26.089239145396277"
],
[
"and patents No licenses or payments are required for a user to stream or distribute content in AAC format. This reason alone might have made AAC a more attractive format to distribute content than its predecessor MP3, particularly for streaming content (such as Internet radio) depending on the use case.\nHowever, a patent license is required for all manufacturers or developers of AAC codecs. For this reason, free and open source software implementations such as FFmpeg and FAAC may be distributed in source form only, in order to avoid patent infringement. (See below under Products that support AAC, Software.)\nThe AAC patent",
"-26.08705558354268"
],
[
"which saves up to 40 songs as MP3 files and removes DJ chat and adverts. The product can download the songs directly to an iPod, MP3 player or music mobile phone.",
"-26.079525093897246"
],
[
"peripheral makers—as evidenced by the fact that many early USB peripherals were made of translucent plastic (to match the iMac design). iTunes iTunes is a media player, media library, online radio broadcaster, and mobile device management application developed by Apple. It is used to play, download, and organize digital audio and video (as well as other types of media available on the iTunes Store) on personal computers running the macOS and Microsoft Windows operating systems. The iTunes Store is also available on the iPod Touch, iPhone, and iPad.\nThrough the iTunes Store, users can purchase and download music, music videos, television",
"-25.98886339063756"
],
[
"9 and Paperwhite 4 can also play Audible Enhanced (AA, AAX) and MP3 files. The Kindle (7, 8 & 9), Kindle Paperwhite (2, 3 & 4), Voyage and Oasis (1, 2 & 3) can display KFX files natively. KFX is Amazon's successor to the AZW3 format.\nKindles cannot display EPUB files but by using calibre, an EPUB or other unsupported files not listed here can be converted to one of the supported file formats. Multiple devices and organization An e-book may be downloaded from Amazon to several devices at the same time, as long as the devices are registered to the",
"-25.988396072018077"
],
[
"sources\" option in the Settings menu and through the Android Debug Bridge. However, some US carriers, including AT&T, prevented the installation of applications not on the Play Store in firmware, although several devices are not subject to this rule, including the Samsung Infuse 4G; AT&T lifted the restriction on most devices by the middle of 2011.\nAs of 2011, the Amazon Kindle Fire defaults to the Amazon Appstore instead of Google Play, though like most other Android devices, Kindle Fire allows sideloading of applications from unknown sources, and the \"easy installer\" application on the Amazon Appstore makes this easy. Other vendors",
"-25.964041013503447"
],
[
"ounces. Audio adapter In May 2016, Amazon released the official Kindle Audio Adapter for reading e-books aloud via a text-to-speech (TTS) system for the blind and visually impaired. This accessibility accessory, initially supported only for the Paperwhite 3 and Oasis, plugs in the USB port and connects to headphones or speakers. Once connected, the reader uses the Voiceview for Kindle feature to navigate the interface and listen to e-books via TTS. This feature only supports e-books, not audiobooks or music.\nUsing the accessory reduces the Paperwhite 3's battery life to six hours. As an alternative to the official adapter, a generic",
"-25.835164803895168"
],
[
"iPad tablet, and along with it, a new app for it called Apple Books (previously known as iBooks). The app allowed users to purchase e-books from the iTunes Store, manage them through iTunes, and transfer the content to their iPad. Apps On July 10, 2008, Apple introduced native mobile apps for its iOS operating system. On iOS, a dedicated App Store application served as the storefront for browsing, purchasing and managing applications, whereas iTunes on computers had a dedicated section for apps rather than a separate app. In September 2017, Apple updated iTunes to version 12.7, removing the App Store",
"-25.783303860924207"
],
[
"using sideload.com, they are given the option to \"sideload\" those files into their lockers at mp3tunes.com. Robertson and other MP3tunes executives have personal accounts with the website and actively sideload songs into their lockers. Additionally, MP3tunes retrieves and displays album cover art from Amazon.com under a license agreement.\nIn September 2007, MP3tunes received a takedown notice from EMI Music Group that identified 350 infringing songs and unauthorized websites. EMI demanded that in addition to the list items, MP3tunes must \"remove all of EMI's copyrighted works, even those not specifically identified.\" In response to the notice, MP3tunes removed the unauthorized websites from",
"-25.767818153486587"
],
[
"Future Portable CD players are declining in popularity since the rise in popularity of Portable media players that play digital audio files including the iPod and smartphones. Before digital audio players became popular, many switched over to MiniDisc as an alternative to CDs, due to the compact size of the MiniDisc format.",
"-25.757191887969384"
],
[
"have AudibleAir capability (allowing users to download content from their library directly into their devices) require a Windows PC or Macintosh to download the files. Additionally, titles can be played on the PC (using iTunes, Windows Media Player, or AudibleManager). Titles cannot be burned to CD with AudibleManager. According to Audible's website, they can be burned to CD using Apple's iTunes and some versions of Nero. (The DRM generally allows a title to be burned to CD once, although the resulting CDs can be played in any CD player and have no copy prevention.) Currently there is",
"-25.705979788093828"
],
[
"are typically associated with digital distribution — a commercial store where you can buy content such as Steam, Google Play, Amazon, and iTunes.\nDownload / Play / Watch \nDigital locker services often come with integrated client software that allows users to play the movies or games or songs.\nUpload\nMany digital locker services enable users to upload their own content or provide synchronization software that will scan a user's computer and upload the appropriate media for them.\nMatching\nSome services like Google Play and iTunes will match songs users have to a digital signature, allowing them to skip the sometimes slow process of uploading the",
"-25.674180802423507"
],
[
"September 2007, Apple announced that customers would be able to browse the iTunes Store at Starbucks via Wi-Fi in the US—with no requirement to log into the Wi-Fi network—targeted at iPhone, iPod touch, iPad, and MacBook users. The iTunes Store will automatically detect recent songs playing in a Starbucks and offer users the opportunity to download the tracks. Some stores feature LCD screens with the artist name, song, and album information of the current song playing. This feature has been rolled out in Seattle, New York City, and the San Francisco Bay Area, and was offered in limited markets during",
"-25.673274528351612"
],
[
"digital songs were allowed to be downloaded, starting May 2008 (previously, only DRM songs were allowed on the market). Non-DRM songs allow for infinite downloads, which led companies to discontinue products and certificates that catered to non-DRM songs. Thirteen of the companies listed above also stopped distributing songs to services which offered infinite downloads, thus rigging the market.\nA representative of the FTC revealed, \n\"In order to block competition coming from smaller businesses, the companies listed above rigged their own prices. By rigging the prices in compliance with one another, they placed great harm on the consumers and other businesses",
"-25.660213646071497"
],
[
"Other users report no problems from iTunes. According to the reports, this still leaves the dual sense but without Multi-Touch and other advanced features, \"which render the auto and dual mode useless. The digitizer will only start working again after consecutive reboots.\" There have also been reports that the driver may crash, catastrophically or non-catastrophically, leaving no screen input at all. A re-boot may solve the problem, but often users found that the driver installation is damaged, requiring a re-installation of the drivers. But the install program will not un-install if it doesn't recognize the N-Trig hardware. In this case,",
"-25.637104196561268"
],
[
"are available completely unabridged.\nHachette Digital has recorded over 400 audiobooks to date, and has published on CD and as digital downloads; all titles are available to buy and download from online retailers such as Audible and iTunes.\nHachette Digital has had an ebook publishing programme for more than eight years, but demand for ebooks is now higher than ever. There are ongoing plans for digitisation, across both front and backlist titles, and there are currently more than a thousand titles available as ebooks.\nHachette Digital titles are available from the major UK ebook retailers, including the Amazon’s Kindle store, Waterstones, WHSmith and",
"-25.597260001231916"
],
[
"section in the process. However, the following month, iTunes 12.6.3 was also released, retaining the App Store, with 9to5Mac noting that the secondary release was positioned by Apple as \"necessary for some businesses performing internal app deployments\". iTunes Store On April 28, 2003, Apple introduced the iTunes Store, then-named \"iTunes Music Store\". It allowed users to buy and download songs, with 200,000 tracks available at launch. In its first week, customers bought more than one million songs. Music purchased was protected by FairPlay, an encryption layer referred to as digital rights management (DRM). The use of DRM, which limited devices",
"-25.58730739913881"
],
[
"that can be edited by the user, including changing the name of the artist, album, and genre, year of release, artwork, among other additional settings. The software supports importing digital audio tracks that can then be transferred to iOS devices, as well as supporting ripping content from CDs. iTunes supports WAV, AIFF, Apple Lossless, AAC, and MP3 audio formats. It uses the Gracenote music database to provide track name listings for audio CDs. When users rip content from a CD, iTunes attempts to match songs to the Gracenote service. For self-published CDs, or those from obscure record labels, iTunes will",
"-25.5497534989845"
],
[
"BuyMusic History The store was launched in July 2003 with 300,000 tracks available and was designed to compete with iTunes Music Store because at the time of launch, Apple's store was limited to Macintosh users, and BuyMusic was the first to offer paid downloads to non-Mac users. Unlike iTunes Music Store, the price of each song ranges from 80¢ to US$1.99. Reportedly in 2003, the site claimed to be \"The World’s Largest Download Music Store.\" \nThe site used to have extreme limitations on what users could browse. It would not allow anyone not using Microsoft Windows and Internet Explorer 5.0",
"-25.547660974785686"
],
[
"their product packaging in a way that doesn't require additional shipping packaging. Amazon also has an 85-person team researching ways to reduce and improve their packaging and shipping materials. Impact on traditional retail E-commerce has been cited as a major force for the failure of major U.S. retailers in a trend frequently referred to as a \"retail apocalypse.\" The rise of e-commerce outlets like Amazon has made it harder for traditional retailers to attract customers to their stores and forced companies to change their sales strategies. Many companies have turned to sales promotions and increased digital efforts to lure shoppers",
"-25.530855506425723"
],
[
"ITunes History SoundJam MP, released by Casady & Greene in 1998, was renamed \"iTunes\" when Apple purchased it in 2000. The primary developers of the software moved to Apple as part of the acquisition, and simplified SoundJam's user interface, added the ability to burn CDs, and removed its recording feature and skin support. The first version of iTunes, promotionally dubbed \"World’s Best and Easiest To Use Jukebox Software\", was announced on January 9, 2001. Subsequent releases of iTunes often coincided with new hardware devices, and gradually included support for new features, including \"smart playlists,\" the iTunes Store, and new audio",
"-25.489084251661552"
],
[
"sound encoded in either MP3 or the ACELP speech codec, but includes unauthorized-playback prevention by means of an Audible username and password, which can be used on up to four computers and three smartphones at a time. Licenses are available for schools and libraries.\nAudible's content can only be played on selected mobile devices. Its software does enable users to burn a limited number of CDs for unrestricted playback, resulting in CDs that can be copied or converted to unrestricted digital audio formats.\nBecause of the CD issue, Audible's use of digital rights management on its .aa format has earned it criticism.",
"-25.476031925412826"
],
[
"to Tim Cook speaking at WSJD Live, the iPod Classic was discontinued because the parts were unavailable and a redesign was unwarranted given the small amount of consumer interest in the product.\nThree months after its discontinuation, the price for sixth-generation iPod Classic increased by up to four times its original retail price on eBay.",
"-25.448217322446"
],
[
"its own online store. By May 6, 2014, the firm had closed down its website but continued to sell through Amazon.com and eBay. J&R appeared to be liquidating its existing inventory via these marketplaces and did not show significant stock in major categories such as digital cameras. Both J&R storefronts on eBay and Amazon had ceased to offer any merchandise for sale by June 2014 after the series of liquidation auctions had occurred at both the former Manhattan store and the Maspeth warehouse in Queens. Summerfest Since the summer of 2002, J&R had sponsored an annual music festival in City",
"-25.44147805159446"
],
[
"to accommodate the requisite encryption scheme disqualifies Apple computer users from accessing the bulk of OverDrive's audio files, which are formatted as DRM Windows Media Audio (WMA).\nIn March 2008, OverDrive announced that it would distribute a collection of approximately 3,000 audiobooks in the MP3 format, which is more widely compatible. On November 19, 2008, OverDrive also released the OverDrive Media Console for Mac, which allows Mac owners to download and listen to MP3 audiobooks from their library on a home computer. OverDrive's streaming audiobook option—scheduled for release in 2012—will enable Mac users to access many audiobooks that were previously unavailable",
"-25.418284472019877"
],
[
"other digital content available in more than 64 languages. Device compatibility OverDrive is globally compatible with most major ereading devices, including Android, BlackBerry, certain ChromeOS devices (via Android cross-compatibility), iPad, iPhone, iPod Touch, Kobo, Mac, NOOK, Palm (via Pocket Tunes Deluxe), Sony Reader, and Windows. Compatibility with Amazon Kindle, the most popular eReader, is limited to the United States. Retail Before entering the library market, OverDrive distributed eBooks to a number of e-tailers. In 2002, OverDrive was selected as the distributor of HarperCollins’ eBooks to the publisher's online retail stores. OverDrive launched web stores for Harlequin Enterprises in",
"-25.41279873752501"
],
[
"audio track. Audio standards Both MP3 and FLAC releases can optionally include M3U playlist files. Lossy audio: MP3 At the start of the MP3 scene in 1995, there was little organization or standardization. Between 1999-2004, the pre-dominantly used MP3 encoding quality was 192 kbit/s at 44.1 kHz, which was nominal for the hardware and software encoding available at the time. This improved as computers got faster and the LAME MP3 encoder developed into its later versions.\nDue to broad support in hardware devices, unauthorized audio material is usually released in MP3 files at VBR quality. In 2007, new rules put forth that",
"-25.3935550731112"
],
[
"of Windows until the 7.6 update on January 16, 2008. iTunes is currently supported under any 64-bit version of Windows, although the iTunes executable was still 32-bit until version 12.1. The 64-bit versions of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 are not supported by Apple, but a workaround has been devised for both operating systems. Version 8.0 added Genius playlists, grid view, and a new default visualizer.\niTunes 9 added \"Home Share\" enabling automatic updating of purchased items across other computers on the same subnet and offers a new iTunes Store UI. Genius Mixes were added, as well as improved App",
"-25.34201157681673"
],
[
"approved by 69% of readers and disapproved of by 30% of readers. However, the product was panned by many of the readers in written reviews. Although the authenticity or the periodicity of this source was not confirmed, many commentators stated that they would rather spend their money on an MP3 player or that they already owned a boombox/CD player. This suggests that HitClips failed to effectively compete with the more expensive albeit higher quality market. Also, the commentators make several references to MP3 players stating \"I say save your money for a *real* MP3 player!!!\" This suggests that the",
"-25.33367860857652"
],
[
"band for the past five years are available for download or hard-copy purchase at the site. Use of MP3HD Because Umphrey's McGee is one of the few touring acts that record and release every show that is played, sound quality is paramount. As one of the first artists to embrace the upcoming MP3HD, Browning explains that the HDMP3 format is a welcome addition to their existing arsenal of lossless and lossy formats made available for fans. “Offering a much richer sound spectrum combined with the convenience and familiarity of the MP3 format, we expect HDMP3 to be a hit",
"-25.321130854077637"
],
[
"Amazon announced that the Voyage and future e-readers would not support active content because most users prefer to use apps on their smartphones and tablets, but the Paperwhite first generation and earlier Kindles would continue to support active content. Sales Specific Kindle device sales numbers are not released by Amazon; however, according to anonymous inside sources, over three million Kindles had been sold as of December 2009, while external estimates, as of Q4-2009, place the number at about 1.5 million. According to James McQuivey of Forrester Research, estimates are ranging around four million, as of mid-2010.\nIn 2010, Amazon remained the undisputed",
"-25.320321172301192"
],
[
"iTunes Store that were developed with Xcode and the iOS SDK and were published through Apple. From the App Store, GarageBand, iMovie, iPhoto, and the iWork apps (Pages, Keynote, and Numbers) are available.\nThe iPad comes with several pre-installed applications, including Safari, Mail, Photos, Videos, YouTube, Music, iTunes, App Store, Maps, Notes, Calendar, Game Center, Photo Booth, and Contacts. Like all iOS devices, the iPad can sync content and other data with a Mac or PC using iTunes, although iOS 5 and later can be managed and backed up without a computer. Although the tablet is not designed to make phone",
"-25.29361299055745"
],
[
"MyTunes myTunes is a program that originally allowed Windows users to download music from an iTunes music share over a network, circumventing restrictions in iTunes that only allow streaming music. The software was widely popular on college campuses across the U.S. in the early 2000s. It was developed by Bill Zeller at Trinity College.\nmyTunes became defunct in 2006. As ZDNetUK News.com reported on 9 March 2004, \"the popular software has all but vanished from the Net, and its programmer's sites have gone dark. But this time, it's not the doing of an angry record industry or a conflict-averse",
"-25.292872515863564"
],
[
"use with the FLAC format lossless audio sold by the PonoMusic online store, the device could play other common formats including Apple Lossless (ALAC), uncompressed PCM (WAV, AIFF), DSD (DSD64) and DSD2 (DSD128), and the lossy formats AAC and MP3. PonoPlayer could play DRM-free audio in these formats from any source, including FLAC from HDtracks, AAC from iTunes, and lossless audio files copied or “ripped” from audio compact discs. PonoMusic provided the PonoMusic World cross–platform (Mac/Win) application software, based on JRiver Media Center, to manage audio files on the device and on a host computer, but was not required.",
"-25.270873579225736"
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[
"e-books by July of that year. One year later, Tor stated that the removal of DRM had not harmed its e-book business, so they would continue selling them DRM-free.\nIn July 2018, Macmillan Publishers and Tor announced that Tor's e-books would no longer be made available for libraries to purchase and lend to borrowers, via digital distribution services such as OverDrive, until four months after their initial publication date. The company cited the \"direct and adverse impact\" of electronic lending on retail eBook sales, but suggested that the change was part of a \"test program\" and could be reevaluated. Accolades Tor",
"-25.24881720537087"
],
[
"to download an unlimited number of songs for as long as their subscription is active. The songs can be played on up to 3 Windows PCs and on up to 3 other Zune-compatible devices, but cannot be burned to an audio CD. Songs downloaded using Zune Pass are provided in WMA format at 192kbit/s and are restricted by DRM. Zune Music Pass subscribers in the United States and other select countries were permitted to keep 10 songs per month even after their subscription ended, however the incentive was ultimately discontinued. On October 3, 2011, the Zune Music Pass price was",
"-25.20278547473572"
],
[
"are easily accessed through iTunes and QuickTime (When a CDDA track is dragged to a folder other than the CD, QuickTime automatically converts it to AIFF, which is a lossless PCM format).",
"-25.188941082335077"
],
[
"with the band and fans alike.” \nThomson, a software company and leading contributor in the development of the MP3 file, developed the MP3HD format which upholds backward compatibility with the old MP3 format. Already competing with several existing lossless audio codecs, including FLAC, HD-AAC, and Windows Media's own lossless format, backwards compatibility poses as a key advantage for the format. Thus, when employing hardware which does not support the MP3HD file, it will play back simply as a generic MP3 file. S2 The band announced a band and fan experiment called \"The Stew Art Series\" (or \"S2\" for short), whereby",
"-25.135994740528986"
],
[
"superior (addressing many of the limitations inherent to the MP3 design), MP3 has a far higher public profile. Because Vorbis does not have financial support from large organisations, support for the format is not as widespread, though programs such as Audacity can convert to more popular formats, and support in games has gradually improved.",
"-25.08874918607762"
],
[
"USB hard drive rather than the traditional install CDs, due to the Air not coming with an optical drive.\nA wide range of portable applications which are all free of charge, and able to run off a computer running Windows without storing anything on the host computer's drives or registry, can be found in the list of portable software. Audio players Many companies make small solid-state digital audio players, essentially producing flash drives with sound output and a simple user interface. Examples include the Creative MuVo, Philips GoGear and the first generation iPod shuffle. Some of these players are true USB",
"-25.088006296486128"
],
[
"and Cody Brocious, along with Johansen, wrote PyMusique, a Python based program which allows the download of purchased files from the iTunes Music Store without DRM encryption. This was possible because Apple Computer's iTunes software adds the DRM to the music file after the music file is downloaded. On March 22, Apple released a patch for the iTunes Music Store blocking the use of his PyMusique program. The same day, an update to PyMusique was released, circumventing the new patch.\nOn June 26, 2005, Johansen created a modification of Google's new in-browser video player (which was based on the open source",
"-25.06450868360116"
],
[
"to deliver on the native worldwide low speed Internet some compressed MPEG Audio files using the MP2 (Layer II) format and later on used MP3 files when the standard was fully completed. The popularity of MP3s began to rise rapidly with the advent of Nullsoft's audio player Winamp, released in 1997. In 1998, the first portable solid state digital audio player MPMan, developed by SaeHan Information Systems which is headquartered in Seoul, South Korea, was released and the Rio PMP300 was sold afterwards in 1998, despite legal suppression efforts by the RIAA.\nIn November 1997, the website mp3.com was offering thousands",
"-25.05986750134616"
],
[
"iPhone is a built-in app, and thus cannot be removed. iTunes Match iTunes Match debuted on November 14, 2011. It was initially available to US users only. For an annual fee, customers can scan and match tracks in their iTunes music library, including tracks copied from CDs or other sources, with tracks in the iTunes Store, so customers do not have to repurchase said tracks. Customers may download up to 100,000 tracks in 256 kbit/s DRM-free AAC file format that match tracks in any supported audio file formats in customers' iTunes libraries, including ALAC and MP3. Customers also have the choice",
"-25.05400540563278"
],
[
"by The Digital Reader. However, it continued to remain closed for a long time, leading The Digital Reader to speculate that the closure would be permanent, commenting that \"Google has only a minimal interest in ebooks.\" During this time, the only way author and publishers could get their content on to the store was through aggregators, such as PublishDrive, ebookpartnership and StreetLib. \nIn September 2015, Google acquired Oyster, a subscription-based ebook service. As a part of the acquisition, Oyster shut down its existing service in early 2016, and its founders joined Google Play Books in New York.\nIn January 2018, Google",
"-25.048128050792002"
],
[
"the computer-readable text of the book. Instead, it returns a picture of the matching page, instructs the web browser to disable printing and puts limits on the number of pages in a book a single user can access. Additionally, customers can purchase online access to some of the same books via the \"Amazon Upgrade\" program. Third-party sellers Amazon derives many of its sales (around 40% in 2008) from third-party sellers who sell products on Amazon. Associates receive a commission for referring customers to Amazon by placing links to Amazon on their websites if the referral results in a sale. Worldwide,",
"-25.011356063991116"
],
[
"EMusic Features eMusic is a digital music store, founded in 1998 as one of the first sites to sell DRM-free MP3s. The site also features original editorial content and was expanded in March 2014 to include Wondering Sound, an online music publication which includes eMusic's archived music features, interviews, news, photography, and new long-form articles and interviews.\neMusic's music store, as of March 2011, had more than 12 million tracks, up from 9 million tracks in September 2010. New subscribers can take out a seven-day trial before taking a full subscription; the trial account becomes a billable subscription account after",
"-25.010268540587276"
],
[
"and legislation The basic MP3 decoding and encoding technology is patent-free in the European Union, all patents having expired there by 2012 at the latest. In the United States, the technology became substantially patent-free on 16 April 2017 (see below). MP3 patents expired in the US between 2007 and 2017. In the past, many organizations have claimed ownership of patents related to MP3 decoding or encoding. These claims led to a number of legal threats and actions from a variety of sources. As a result, uncertainty about which patents must be licensed in order to create MP3 products without committing",
"-25.004043618879223"
],
[
"and \"expands the speech bubbles of a comic one-tap-at-a-time, making them super easy to read on your mobile device\". Books on Google Play The Google Play store serves as the primary source of ebooks for reading on Google Play Books. As of 2013, over five million titles are available.\nSelect books, mainly textbooks, are available for rental. The rental period starts as soon as the payment is completed, not when the book is opened. Google Play also allows users to pre-order ebooks to have the title delivered automatically as soon as it's made available. File formats Originally, Google allowed publishers and",
"-25.00093843351351"
],
[
"USB to audio converter will also work with Voiceview. Features Kindle devices support dictionary and Wikipedia look-up functions when highlighting a word in an e-book. The font type, size and margins can be customized. Kindles are charged by connecting to a computer's USB port or to an AC adapter. Users needing accessibility due to impaired vision can use an audio adapter to listen to any e-book read aloud on supported Kindles, or those with difficulty in reading text may use the Amazon Ember Bold font for darker text and other fonts may too have bold font versions.\nThe Kindle also contains",
"-25.00037280563265"
]
] |
4hmve0 | Whenever a wound recovers, like from surgery, how does the blood vessels around the area connect itself to their right counterparts on the other side of the wound? | [
"There are a lot of people saying \"They don't\". That is wrong. They do. In the healing process, a hormone known as VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor) is released, and stimulates the growth of new blood vessels. The details are complicated, but oftentimes instead of one vessel connecting itself on both sides, you have several to many smaller vessels forming from both sides, joining up with each other, and ultimately connecting the two sides. Imagine a big pipe that gets split into smaller pipes that all eventually connect back to the big pipe on the other side. That's the simple version. The complicated version involves scar tissue, collagen production and breakdown, a host of hormones and humoral factors, but the bottom line is that vessels do, in fact, re-grow. Without the ability to grow new vessels, healing would not be possible. They are necessary to transport the oxygen and nutrients required for re-growth and healing.",
"They don't. Either they grow completely new or they don't and you lack the vessel in future. This is why surgeons have to stitch major vessels together",
"Bioengineer here. I will attempt an ELI5 on the phone. Imagine a city. The highways are big arteries and veins, the streets and alleys are blood capillaries, the houses are the cells in the tissues, and the passenger cars are red blood cells in the blood. Now imagine an asteroid hitting a part of the town and destroying a whole neighborhood the way that nobody knows where the roads (blood vessels) were before the impact. The first thing that happens is that fire fighter, police, first aiders and ambulances arrive to take care of the situation and take it under control. Those are the immune cells (lots of different types like neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells, and so on). Then they help the local people to reconstruct the neighborhood as much as possible. They start removing the bits and pieces and build new roads and houses from all the edges. It is a very complicated process called angiogenesis (meaning generation of blood vessels) that involves many growth factors (VEGF-A and VEGF-B) and cells to cooperate to form new vessels. They make junctions and they make merges until they have roads to all the new houses. This time though, they are not as nicely designed and blocked as before. After the construction is finished now cars can get from the high way on one side (artery) to the return highway on the other side. The neighborhood is never like before, but it is somewhat \"healed\". I hope it is helpful. I can answer any detail follow up question under the comment.",
"The human body is a remarkable machine. It has evolved ways to deal with wounds inflicted from accidents and lions bites alike. The way it is done is through \"collateral vessels\". This means that when an area loses blood from injury or an obstruction, blood can reach that area through an alternate path, so technically, the vessels do not need to re-attach. In the case of small vessels (capillaries) that supply the skin, there is enough collateral flow that we generally do not care about cutting them. While Large vessels also have collaterals, we sow them back together because the supply from the collaterals to the area is not as good as the original path and in the long term it is not sustainable. With that said there are areas in the body that do not have collaterals and will suffer greatly from an injury to the vessel. One such area is the Kidney. Also an injury to the Aorta (the major blood supplier) is often fatal because it is a high pressure tube and when you puncture it, you are losing the pressure that drives the blood to the smaller vessels.",
"They don't, that's one of the risks associated with having multiple surgeries in the same place. The doctors can no longer be sure where your vessels are and can accidentally cut through them",
"The VEGF answer is a good one, however it's important to note that many simpler molecules play roles in directing blood vessels to areas that have become ischemic (or in lay-terms, lost their blood supply), and they are produced as a direct consequence of the ischemic tissue losing its blood supply. For example there is an increase in potassium around cells that have lost their blood supply, because their blood supply is also their oxygen supply, and these cells need oxygen to maintain the high concentration of potassium within the cell. When they lose their blood/oxygen supply, the potassium leaks out of the cell increasing the potassium concentration around these cells. Similarly, when cells lose their blood/oxygen supply, they can no longer undergo aerobic (or oxygen-dependent) metabolism, and they must switch to anaerobic (or oxygen-independent) metabolism. Anaerobic metabolism produces lactic acid (or the burn in your muscles when you exercise), and this decreases the pH (or increases the proton concentration) in the area around these cells. The potassium and the protons diffuse away from these cells and a concentration gradient forms (think how a smell is weaker the further you are away from its source, but becomes stronger the closer you get). The cells that form new blood vessels are attracted to this increase in potassium and proton concentration and they grow toward it. Thus, the byproducts (potassium and lactate) of cells losing their blood/oxygen supply attract the growth of new vessels, and once these cells have their blood/oxygen supply back, they no longer produce these byproducts and the concentration gradient collapses, and the cell population no longer attracts blood vessels. The body has magnificently elegant solutions to its own problems.",
"[Angiogenesis]( URL_0 ) is pretty much a trial and error process in wound healing, where cells will propagate to transfer vital fluids to a region.",
"You can cut down a corn field and replant, and the field will look the same and function the same but technically, it is not the same corn field as the one you cut down.",
"Blood vessels may regenerate to supply an area but they do not reconnect. That is, new blood vessels need to be formed to cover the severed area.",
"As far as I'm aware blood vessels can't identify their 'correct' counterparts, but blood vessels have been observed to reconnect in skin grafts through the process of inosculation, whereby the end of one cut vessel in the graft connects to the cut end of a vessel in the recipient tissue."
] | [
[
"gain control of the bleeding, the surgeon may need to extend the original incision laterally to ligate the artery at its origin at the external carotid artery. Furthermore, the external laryngeal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve courses in close proximity to the superior thyroid artery, making it at risk for injury during surgery.",
"-37.14252094915719"
],
[
"bleeding and protects the underlying tissue. As repair of the injured tissue continues, fibroblasts and macrophages begin to remodel the area, degrading the proteins that form the provisional blood clot matrix and replacing them with a matrix that more resembles the normal, surrounding tissue. Fibroblasts secrete proteases, including matrix metalloproteinases, that digest the plasma fibronectin, and then the fibroblasts secrete cellular fibronectin and assemble it into an insoluble matrix. Fragmentation of fibronectin by proteases has been suggested to promote wound contraction, a critical step in wound healing. Fragmenting fibronectin further exposes its V-region, which contains the site for",
"-37.0866752093425"
],
[
"treatment is rapid surgery.\nIn the event of bleeding caused by an external source (trauma, penetrating wound), the patient is usually inclined to the injured side, so that the 'good' side can continue to function properly, without interference from the blood inside the body cavity.\nTreatment of internal bleeding is beyond the scope of simple first aid, and a person giving first aid should consider it potentially life-threatening. The definitive treatment for internal bleeding is always surgical treatment, and medical advice must be sought urgently for any victim of internal bleeding.",
"-37.042419197379786"
],
[
"extended out parallel from the wound, creating a rectangle with one edge remaining intact. This rectangle is freed from the deeper tissues and then stretched (or advanced) forward to cover the wound. The flap is disconnected from the body except for the uncut edge which contains the blood supply which feeds in horizontally. A rotation flap is similar except instead of being stretched in a straight line, the flap is stretched in an arc. The more complex transposition flap involves rotating an adjacent piece of tissue, resulting in the creation of a new defect which must then be closed. Regional",
"-36.74365515873069"
],
[
"Postoperative wounds Healing sequence The body responds to postoperative wounds in the same manner as it does to tissue damage acquired in other circumstances. The inflammatory response is designed to create homeostasis. This first step is called the inflammatory stage. The next stage and wound healing is the infiltration of leukocytes and release of cytokines into the tissue. The inflammatory response and the infiltration of leukocytes occur simultaneously. The final stage of postoperative wound healing is called remodeling. Remodeling restores the structure of the tissue and that tissues ability to regain its function. Diagnosis Surgical wounds can begin to open",
"-36.4578531133302"
],
[
"between three and five days after surgery. The wound usually appears red and can be accompanied by drainage. Clinicians delay re-opening the wound unless it is necessary due to the potential of other complications. If the surgical wound worsens, or if a rupture of the digestive system is suspected the decision may be to investigate the source of the drainage or infection. Wound dehiscence The rates of a surgical wound opening after surgery has remained constant. When a wound opens after surgery, the hospital stay becomes longer and the medical care becomes more intensive if a surgical wound opens after",
"-36.447869348397944"
],
[
"stabilisation.\nClassically it was thought that this was the only mechanism involved in aggregation, but three new mechanisms have been identified which can initiate aggregation, depending on the velocity of blood flow (i.e. shear range). Wound repair The blood clot is only a temporary solution to stop bleeding; tissue repair is needed. Small interruptions in the endothelium are handled by physiological mechanisms; large interruptions by the trauma surgeon.\n The fibrin is slowly dissolved by the fibrinolytic enzyme, plasmin, and the platelets are cleared by phagocytosis. Immune function Platelets have central role in innate immunity, initiating and participating in multiple inflammatory processes,",
"-36.38994718820322"
],
[
"wound. Granulation tissue moves, as a wave, from the border of the injury towards the center.\nAs granulation tissue matures, the fibroblasts produce less collagen and become more spindly in appearance. They begin to produce the much stronger type I collagen. Some of the fibroblasts mature into myofibroblasts which contain the same type of actin found in smooth muscle, which enables them to contract and reduce the size of the wound. Maturation phase During the maturation phase of wound healing, unnecessary vessels formed in granulation tissue are removed by apoptosis, and type III collagen is largely replaced by type I. Collagen",
"-36.25202155576153"
],
[
"neuropathy and autoregulation of capillaries leads to poor perfusion of tissues, especially wound base. When pressure is placed on the skin, the skin is damaged and is unable to be repaired due to the lack of blood perfusing the tissue. The wound has a characteristic deep, punched out look, often extending down to the tendons. The wounds are very painful. Diagnosis The lesion can be easily identified clinically. Arterial doppler and pulse volume recordings are performed for baseline assessment of blood flow. Radiographs may be necessary to rule out osteomyelitis. Management The prevalence of arterial insufficiency ulcers among people",
"-36.074288529358455"
],
[
"which involves digital compression of the artery against the posterior wall of the manubrium of the sternum following a right infraclavicular incision, may be used to urgently control the bleeding When the bleeding is controlled the patient should be immediately transferred on the operating room. Surgery A sternal saw and a rigid bronchoscopy is used during the operation. During the operation, a median sternotomy is performed in order to expose and ligate the involved artery above and below the fistula. Division of the thymus and superior retraction of the innominate vein exposes the innominate artery. The innominate artery should be",
"-35.99708093288791"
],
[
"the wound.\nEarly work on wound healing showed that granulation tissue taken from a wound could contract in vitro (or in an organ bath) in a similar fashion to smooth muscle, when exposed to substances that cause smooth muscle to contract, such as adrenaline or angiotensin.\nMore recently it has been shown that fibroblasts can transform into myofibroblasts with photobiomodulation.\nAfter healing is complete, these cells are lost through apoptosis and it has been suggested that in several fibrotic diseases (for example liver cirrhosis, kidney fibrosis, retroperitoneal fibrosis) that this mechanism fails to work, leading to persistence of the myofibroblasts, and consequently expansion",
"-35.781495773502684"
],
[
"heart and can give valuable information about fluid status. Removal In most cases the removal of a PICC is a simple procedure. Generally, the catheter line can be safely and quickly removed by a trained nurse, even in the patient's own home, in a matter of minutes. After removal, the insertion site is normally bandaged with sterile gauze and kept dry for a few days, during which the wound can close and begin healing. Usually, a smaller adhesive bandage can be placed over the wound site after the gauze is removed if the wound is slow to heal. The tip",
"-35.586744893851574"
],
[
"is in a vein for some time, the vein may scar and close and the only way for fluid to leave is along the outside of the cannula where it enters the vein). Infiltration is an inadvertent administration of a nonvesicant solution/drug into the tissue, which happens so often when the tourniquet isn't removed in a timely fashion. Infiltration is characterized by coolness and pallor to the skin as well as localized swelling or edema. It is treated by removing the intravenous access device and elevating the affected limb so that the collected fluids can drain away. Sometimes injections",
"-35.37040993463597"
],
[
"when one is wounded, thrombin cleaves the fibrinogen, which forms clots. As a result, the wound is ‘closed’ by these clots and recovery of the epithelial cells of the skin can take place. This is the natural process necessary for tissue repair. The venom batroxobin also induces clots, but does this with or without tissue damage. This is because batroxobin isn’t inhibited by specific cofactors like thrombin is. These clots can block a vein and hinder blood flow. The differences between thrombin and batroxobin in binding fibrinogen Fibrinogen is a dimeric glycoprotein, which contains two pairs of Aα-, Bβ- peptide",
"-35.33280889072921"
],
[
"the lining of a blood vessel is damaged, connective tissue including collagen fibers is locally exposed. Initially, platelets stick to the exposed connective tissue through specific cell-surface receptors. This is followed by platelet activation and aggregation in which platelets become firmly attached and release chemicals that recruit neighboring platelets to the site of vascular injury. A meshwork of fibrin then forms around this aggregation of platelets to increase the strength of the clot. Cell interactions between bacteria Bacterial populations interact in a similar manner to cells in tissue. They communicate through physical interactions and signaling molecules such as",
"-35.2983691029076"
],
[
"is thought to play an important role in modulating the interactions between adjacent tissues. It forms a viscoelastic solution in water. Mechanical protection for tissues (iris, retina) and cell layers (corneal, endothelium, and epithelium) are provided by the high viscosity of the solution. Elasticity of the solution assists in absorbing mechanical stress and providing a protective buffer for tissues. In facilitating wound healing, it is thought that it acts as a protective transport vehicle, taking peptide growth factors and other structural proteins to a site of action. It is then enzymatically degraded and active proteins are released to promote tissue",
"-35.20588501926977"
],
[
"trauma. Trauma can cause the fluid within a cyst to leak into other areas (e.g., subarachnoid space). Blood vessels on the surface of a cyst may tear and bleed into the cyst (intracystic hemorrhage), increasing its size. If a blood vessel bleeds on the outside of a cyst, a collection of blood (hematoma) may result. In the cases of intracystic hemorrhage and hematoma, the individual may have symptoms of increased pressure within the cranium and signs of compression of nearby nerve (neural) tissue.\nSome scientists debate whether arachnoid cysts are a true congenite condition or if this should be separated",
"-35.08465981332847"
],
[
"the disease while surgery like angioplasty can be performed to provide a more long-lasting effect. Surgery Angioplasty is a procedure used to widen narrowed blood vessels, especially in coronary arteries. A long and thin tube called catheter is inserted into a large artery through an incision in the wrist, arm or groin area. The catheter is guided to the affected artery using a real-time x-ray video. A thin wire is then introduced into the blood vessel, delivering a small balloon to the affected area. The balloon is inflated to stretch the blood vessel and compress the fatty deposits against the",
"-35.0634513923178"
],
[
"permit internal manipulation (eg, intracardiac echocardiography).\nFinally, when the procedure is completed, the catheters are removed and the sheath is removed. With time, the hole made in the blood vessel will heal. Vascular closure devices can be used to speed along hemostasis. Uses Coronary angiography is a diagnostic procedure that allows visualization of the coronary vessels. Fluoroscopy is used to visualize the lumens of the arteries as a 2-D projection. Should these arteries show narrowing or blockage, then techniques exist to open these arteries. Percutaneous coronary intervention is a blanket term that involves the use of mechanical stents, balloons, etc to",
"-35.06058671067876"
],
[
"to find the bleeding blood vessel.\nInternal bleeding where the torso meets the extremities (\"junctional sites\" such as the axilla or groin) cannot be controlled with a tourniquet. For bleeding at junctional sites, a dressing with a blood clotting agent (hemostatic dressing) should be applied.\nA campaign is improve care of bleeding known as Stop The Bleed campaign is also taking place.",
"-35.03830246580765"
],
[
"which results in the net distribution of blood plasma from the vessel into the tissue space. The increased collection of fluid into the tissue causes it to swell (edema). This exuded tissue fluid contain various antimicrobial mediators from the plasma such as complement, lysozyme, antibodies, which can immediately deal damage to microbes, and opsonise the microbes in preparation for the cellular phase. If the inflammatory stimulus is a lacerating wound, exuded platelets, coagulants, plasmin and kinins can clot the wounded area and provide haemostasis in the first instance. These clotting mediators also provide a structural staging framework at the inflammatory",
"-34.811790526873665"
],
[
"margin is attached to the inguinal ligament.\nIts surfaces are directed upward and downward. Clinical significance The lacunar ligament is the only boundary of the femoral canal that can be cut during surgery to release a femoral hernia. Care must be taken when doing so as up to 25% of people have an aberrant obturator artery (corona mortis) which can cause significant bleeding.",
"-34.77730134059675"
],
[
"judged suitable, despite the time delay this involves.\nOnce suitable donor organs are present, the surgeon makes an incision starting above and finishing below the sternum, cutting all the way to the bone. The skin edges are retracted to expose the sternum. Using a bone saw, the sternum is cut down the middle. Rib spreaders are inserted in the cut, and spread the ribs to give access to the heart and lungs of the patient.\nThe patient is connected to a heart-lung machine, which circulates and oxygenates blood. The surgeon removes the failing heart and lungs. Most surgeons endeavour to cut blood",
"-34.711364018323366"
],
[
"more numerous near the surface of the spine. The interior tissue of the spine is made up of thick walled cells. Each barb contains a tube like air cavity which is filled with a light purple substance that, when the barb is broken off from the spine, can cause inflammation of the wound.",
"-34.603310141013935"
],
[
"since the anterior interosseous nerve has no cutaneous branch. Causes Injuries of the forearm with compression of the nerve is the most common cause: examples include\nsupracondylar fractures, often associated with haemorrhage into the deep musculature;\ninjury secondary to open reduction of a forearm fracture; or dislocation of the elbow.\nDirect trauma from a penetrating injury such as a stab wound is a common cause for the syndrome.\nFibrous bands or arcuate (curved) ligaments may entrap the median as well as the anterior interosseous nerves, in which case a patient may experience numbness as well as pain.\nRheumatoid disease and gouty arthritis may be a",
"-34.597943475993816"
],
[
"skin edges are retracted to expose the sternum. Using a bone saw, the sternum is cut down the middle. Rib spreaders are inserted in the cut, and spread the ribs to give access to the heart and lungs of the patient.\nThe patient is connected to a heart–lung machine, which circulates and oxygenates blood. The surgeon removes the failing heart and lungs. Most surgeons endeavour to cut blood vessels as close as possible to the heart to leave room for trimming, especially if the donor heart is of a different size than the original organ.\nThe donor heart and lungs are positioned",
"-34.58344055470661"
],
[
"surgery. Infection Infection will complicate healing of surgical wounds and is commonly observed. Most infections are present within the first 30 days after surgery. Surgical wounds can become infected by bacteria, regardless if the bacteria is already present on the patient's skin or if the bacteria is spread to the patient due to contact with infected individuals. Wound infections can be superficial (skin only), deep (muscle and tissue), or spread to the organ or space where the surgery occurred. Fascia dehiscence The surgical site or wound may allow the passage of air into the body. This most often occurs after",
"-34.5526312997099"
],
[
"There are significant numbers of extra vessels, especially in the extremities with their large surface areas (hands, ears, toes etc.). These are direct connections between artery and vein which bypass nourishing capillaries, and are controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. These shunts are normally mostly closed, but opening them up allows the skin to become engorged with blood, and because these vessels have low resistance, the blood flow through them is brisk. Conversely, when blood supply to the skin must be reduced these shunts can be closed and furthermore, the normal mechanism of vasoconstriction of arterioles, can dramatically reduce perfusion",
"-34.45981532429141"
],
[
"injury cases. Of these cases, the ulnar nerve was most often injured. Peripheral nerves are structured so that the axons are surrounded by most often a myelinated sheath and then an endoneurium. A perineurium surrounds that and the outermost layer is considered the epineurium. When injury occurs, “local vascular trauma leads to hemorrhage and edema (swelling), which results in vigorous inflammatory response resulting in scarring of the injured segment. In most cases, due to the extreme nature of the injury, there is typically complete loss of function. Mechanisms Trauma is the most frequent cause of peripheral nerve lesions. There are",
"-34.418235381599516"
],
[
"often compressed, and therefore surgery for this nerve involves releasing it from tight muscle and fascia in the upper neck. Blood vessels found crossing the nerve such as the occipital artery may be divided in order to avoid chronic pressure and irritation of the greater occipital nerve. The third occipital nerve is a small nerve that travels near the greater occipital nerve and may treated similarly in order to alleviate chronic irritation.\nThe lesser occipital nerve is a small nerve that has additionally been found to be associated with migraine pain. This nerve is found near the sternocleidomastoid",
"-34.40777903923299"
],
[
"procedure information with an instrumental evaluation during surgical treatment. Colonic blood supply The colon receives blood from both the superior and inferior mesenteric arteries. The blood supply from these two major arteries overlap, with abundant collateral circulation via the marginal artery of the colon. However, there are weak points, or \"watershed\" areas, at the borders of the territory supplied by each of these arteries, such as the splenic flexure and the rectosigmoid junction. These watershed areas are most vulnerable to ischemia when blood flow decreases, as they have the fewest vascular collaterals.\nThe rectum receives blood from both the inferior mesenteric",
"-34.404403455539494"
],
[
"longitudinal incision;\nSurgeons care for peroneal tendons, sural nerve and lesser saphenous vein\n(which might be ligated), and branches of the superficial peroneal nerve;\nProceeding through subcutaneous tissue, identify and preserve the inferior extensor retinaculum;\n- this is mobilized for later attachment to the anterior edge of the fibula;\n- identify the ATFL,if it is torn, it is usually torn from the fibula;\n- make anterior capsular incision, leaving a small cuff of tissue, identify the calcaneofibular ligament (CFL) at the inferior tip of the fibula;ankle is then placed in valgus and dorsiflexion, and the redundancy of the ligament is assessed; sutures are passed through",
"-34.35107578753377"
],
[
"the lumen. For a mural thrombus (defined as a thrombus in a large vessel that restricts the blood flow but does not occlude completely), histological reorganisation of the thrombus does not occur via the classic wound healing mechanism. Instead, the platelet-derived growth factor degranulated by the clotted platelets will attract a layer of smooth muscle cells to cover the clot, and this layer of mural smooth muscle will be vascularised by the blood inside the vessel lumen rather than by the vasa vasorum.\nIschaemia/infarction: if an arterial thrombus cannot be lysed by the body and it does not embolise, and if",
"-34.32227589050308"
],
[
"of the artery. The blood pressure in the affected limb would be lowered and whooshing sounds can be heard over the affected arteries using a stethoscope. After that, the following tests could be adapted to further locate the point of narrowing or enlargement of blood vessels. Angiography Angiography is a medical imaging technique used to visualize the lumen of blood vessels. A catheter, which is a long and thin tube, is inserted into a large artery in the arm or groin area. It is then guided along the artery to the targeted blood vessel to be examined. An imaging dye",
"-34.302008676109836"
],
[
"is determined on the reconstructive needs. Transfer of the tissue to the head and neck allows surgeons to rebuild the patient's jaw, optimize tongue function, and reconstruct the throat. When the pieces of tissue are moved, they require their own blood supply for a chance of survival in their new location. After the surgery is completed, the blood vessels that feed the tissue transplant are reconnected to new blood vessels in the neck. These blood vessels are typically no more than 1 to 3 millimeters in diameter which means these connections need to be made with a microscope which is",
"-34.29872259221156"
],
[
"to control bleeding and removing the blood from the pleural cavity, Dalton observed a transverse wound of the pericardium about 2 inches (5 cm) in length. With a sharply curved needle and catgut, he closed the wound by continuous suture, overcoming great difficulty caused by the heart pulsations. The pleural cavity was then irrigated and the chest incision closed without drainage. The patient made \"an uninterrupted, rapid recovery.\" The published report of the operation appeared in the state medical association's journal and another local periodical in 1894, and in the Annals of Surgery the following year. Legacy On July 10, 1893",
"-34.28021606821858"
],
[
"bleeding due to the injury of vessels is possible and there is also the danger of injuring the facial nerve and blood vessels, causing bleeding in the latter case.\nAccording to Weerda: Cosmetically disfiguring cartilage edges along the anterior surface of the antihelix if the cartilage is scored too deeply or the perichondrium is injured; post-operative bleeding; hematoma; relapse (ears protruding again); hypersensitivity; pain with pressure and cold, pressure damage (necrosis) from too tightly fitting hard bandages; perichondritis (inflammation of the cartilage); stronger asymmetry of the ears (see also on otoplasty).",
"-34.24993202602491"
],
[
"are drilled in the ulna and humerus bones of the elbow. A harvested tendon, such as the palmaris tendon from the forearm of the same or opposite elbow, the patellar tendon, hamstring, toe extensor or a donor tendon (allograft), is then woven in a figure-eight pattern through the holes and anchored. The ulnar nerve is usually moved to prevent pain as scar tissue can apply pressure to the nerve. The procedure is done on an outpatient basis allowing a return to home the same day, with the arm in a splint to protect the repair for the first week. ",
"-34.19850136176683"
],
[
"or stretch injury, the nerve will need to be exposed over a larger area. Injured portions of the nerve are removed. The cut nerve endings are then carefully reapproximated using very small sutures. The nerve repair must be covered by healthy tissue, which can be as simple as closing the skin or it can require moving skin or muscle to provide healthy padded coverage over the nerve. The type of anesthesia used depends on the complexity of the injury. A surgical tourniquet is almost always used. Autologous nerve grafting Currently, autologous nerve grafting, or a nerve autograft, is known as",
"-34.187621507036965"
],
[
"on the top that is often used to administer medicine.\nIn cases of shock, a central venous catheter, a peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC), venous cutdown or intraosseous infusion may be necessary.\n\nIf the cannula is not sited correctly, or the vein is particularly fragile and ruptures, blood may extravasate into the surrounding tissues, this situation is known as a blown vein or \"tissuing\". Using this cannula to administer medications causes extravasation of the drug which can lead to edema, causing pain and tissue damage, and even necrosis depending on the medication. The person attempting to obtain the access must find a",
"-34.167918106075376"
],
[
"is preferred because the vessels are too small to be picked up by an artery forceps. Large vessels, if present, can be under-run with suture.When the dural tear is associated with a dural sinus hemorrhage, a graft of pericranium is used for a small tear and a muscle graft from temporalis is used for a large tear. The muscle graft is flattened by hammering before using it for grafting.\nIf dural tear is associated with a brain injury, wide exposure of the wound is done to examine the extent of brain damage. All devitalized brain tissues are removed along with extravasated",
"-34.15476852084976"
],
[
"only the internal carotid artery and nearby sections of the adjacent anterior and middle cerebral arteries, surgeons can direct other arteries, such as the external carotid artery or the superficial temporal artery to replace its circulation. The arteries are either sewn directly into the brain circulation, or placed on the surface of the brain to reestablish new circulation after a few weeks.\nThere are many operations that have been developed for the condition, but currently the most favored are the in-direct procedures EDAS, EMS, and multiple burr holes and the direct procedure STA-MCA. Direct superficial temporal artery (STA) to middle cerebral",
"-34.11762417879072"
],
[
"formed, blood quickly pools within a few hours and, if left untreated, forms a clot. The clot may spontaneously mobilize from the vessel wall leading to a pulmonary embolism, or stroke. Management Management of thrombosed external hemorrhoids has been poorly studied as of 2018. If diagnosed within the first few hours of presentation, the pooling blood may be evacuated using a syringe. Once the blood has clotted, removal by this method is no longer possible and the clot can be removed via an incision over the lump under local anesthetic. The incision is not stitched, but will heal. Care needs",
"-34.09791225811932"
],
[
"required to determine the integrity of the blood vessels and nerves. In open fractures, surgical wound debridement should be performed to prevent any infection into the elbow joint. All Type II and III fractures requiring elbow flexion of more than 90° to maintain the reduction needs to be fixed by percutaneous pinning. All Type IV fractures of supracondylar humerus are unstable; therefore, requires percutaneous pinning. Besides, any polytrauma with multiple fractures of the same side requiring surgical intervention is another indication for percutaneous pinning. Follow up For routine displaced supracondylar fractures requiring percutaneous pinning, radiographic evaluation and clinical assessment can",
"-34.09500116109848"
],
[
" In addition, new blood vessels can form in areas that do not have them. Specifically, new blood vessels can be observed on the iris. In addition to the blood vessels in the iris, they can grow into the angle of the eye. These blood vessels eventually go through a process called fibrosis which closes the normal physiologic anatomy of the angle. The closing of the angle prevents fluid from leaving the eye resulting in an increase in intraocular pressure. This is called neovascular glaucoma. Treatment If caught early, the neovascularization can be reversed with prompt",
"-34.084406285954174"
],
[
"collateral blood vessels to form. These are most often horizontal transpelvis collaterals, connecting both internal iliac veins, thus creating outflow through the right common iliac vein. Sometimes vertical collaterals are formed, most often paralumbar, which can cause neurological symptoms, like tingling and numbness.\nThis compressed, narrowed outflow channel causes stasis of the blood, which is one element of Virchow's triad that precipitates deep vein thrombosis. Diagnosis It is important to consider May-Thurner syndrome in patients who have no other obvious reason for hypercoagulability and who present with left lower extremity thrombosis. To rule out other causes for hypercoagulation, it may be",
"-34.055420536627935"
],
[
"the umbilical vein continues towards the transverse fissure of the liver, where it splits into two. One of these branches joins with the hepatic portal vein (connecting to its left branch), which carries blood into the liver. The second branch (known as the ductus venosus) bypasses the liver and flows into the inferior vena cava, which carries blood towards the heart. The two umbilical arteries branch from the internal iliac arteries and pass on either side of the urinary bladder into the umbilical cord, completing the circuit back to the placenta. Changes after birth In absence of",
"-34.01988585985964"
],
[
"to leak into the extravascular space, isolating extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules and growth factors, preventing them from helping to heal the wound. Leakage of fibrinogen from veins as well as deficiencies in fibrinolysis may also cause fibrin to build up around the vessels, preventing oxygen and nutrients from reaching cells. Venous insufficiency may also cause white blood cells (leukocytes) to accumulate in small blood vessels, releasing inflammatory factors and reactive oxygen species (ROS, free radicals) and further contributing to chronic wound formation. Buildup of white blood cells in small blood vessels may also plug the vessels, further contributing",
"-34.01495854818495"
],
[
"fibrin clot in healing wounds. It typically grows from the base of a wound and is able to fill wounds of almost any size it heals. HA is abundant in granulation tissue matrix. A variety of cell functions that are essential for tissue repair may attribute to this HA-rich network. These functions include facilitation of cell migration into the provisional wound matrix, cell proliferation and organization of the granulation tissue matrix. Initiation of inflammation is crucial for the formation of granulation tissue; therefore, the pro-inflammatory role of HA as discussed above also contributes to this stage of wound healing. Cell",
"-33.98727694066474"
],
[
"debrided to healthy tissue and closed with a monofilament suture. Next, the damaged segments of the trachea and the artery should be excised followed by reconstruction with a primary end to end anastomosis of the trachea. Innominate artery ligation leaves the carotid and subclavian circulations intact. Pulsatile back-bleeding from distal innominate artery stump should be checked to insure collateral circulation. In patients with poor pulsatile back-bleeding, an aorta-axillary artery bypass graft can be considered in patients with severe occlusion of the left common carotid artery, severe atherosclerosis, and brain ischemic or hemorrhagic insults. In addition, an autologous vein bypass between",
"-33.98494859668426"
],
[
"and becomes the spinal cord, creating the risk that blood vessels and nerves exiting the hole may be damaged.\nDue to the proximity of the cranial nerves, injury to those nerves may occur. This can cause loss of function of the facial nerve or oculomotor nerve or hearing loss due to damage of cranial nerve VIII. Management Evidence does not support the use of preventative antibiotics regardless of the presence of a cerebrospinal fluid leak. Prognosis Non-displaced fractures usually heal without intervention. Patients with basilar skull fractures are especially likely to get meningitis. Unfortunately, the efficacy of prophylactic antibiotics in these",
"-33.97539622769909"
],
[
"and to protect against invading pathogens, as the wound often does not have an effective skin barrier to act as a first line of defense. Vascularization It is necessary for a network of blood vessels to be established as soon as possible to provide the growing tissue with nutrients, to take away cellular wastes, and transport new leukocytes to the area. Fibroblasts, the main cells that deposit granulation tissue, depend on oxygen to proliferate and lay down the new extracellular matrix.\nIn vascularisation, also called angiogenesis, endothelial cells quickly grow into the tissue from older, intact blood vessels. These",
"-33.91530870064162"
],
[
"connected directly to a syringe (used either to withdraw blood or deliver its contents into the bloodstream) or may be connected to a length of tubing and thence whichever collection or infusion system is desired.\nThe most convenient site is often the arm, especially the veins on the back of the hand, or the median cubital vein at the elbow, but any identifiable vein can be used. Often it is necessary to use a tourniquet which restricts the venous drainage of the limb and makes the vein bulge. Once the needle is in place, it is common to draw back slightly",
"-33.905455069223535"
],
[
"other nerves in the area. If during wound closure, tendons are sewn directly to the pubic symphysis, osteitis pubis or osteomyelitis can result.",
"-33.89839582327113"
],
[
"the amount of fluid that must drain out is large, some surgeons opt to leave the incisions open, while others suture them only partially, leaving space for the fluid to drain out. History In 1977, Fischer and Fischer reviewed 245 cases with the planotome instrument for treating cellulite in the lateral trochanteric (hip-thigh) areas. There was a 4.9 per cent incidence of seromas, despite incision-wound suction catheters and compression dressings; 2.0 per cent of the cases presented pseudo-cyst formation that required removal of the capsule (cyst) through a wider incision (+ 5.0 mm) and the use of the panotome.\nRelatively modern techniques",
"-33.88208313868381"
],
[
"umbilicus that persists after the cord has fallen off. It may bleed on touch, or may stain the clothes that come in contact with it. This needs to be shown to a pediatric surgeon. This is most likely to be an umbilical polyp and the therapy is to tie it at the base with a stitch so that it falls off and there is no bleeding. Alternatively, it may be an umbilical granuloma that responds well to local application of dry salt or silver nitrate but may take a few weeks to heal and dry. Adults Many hernias never cause",
"-33.86563681822736"
],
[
"the donor and recipient sites simultaneously, forming a bridge. This allows blood to be supplied by the donor site while a new blood supply from the recipient site is formed. Once this happens, the \"bridge\" can be disconnected from the donor site if necessary, completing the transfer. A free flap has the blood supply cut and then reattached microsurgically to a new blood supply at the recipient site.",
"-33.793065999867395"
],
[
"cord, infection, blockage, or hemorrhage and may not necessarily work for all patients. Draining the syrinx more quickly does not produce better outcomes, but a shunt may be required if the fluid in the syrinx is otherwise unable to drain.\nIn the case of trauma-related syringomyelia, the surgeon operates at the level of the initial injury. The syrinx collapses at surgery, but a tube or shunt is usually necessary to prevent re-expansion. Other Surgery is not always recommended for syringomyelia patients. For many patients, the main treatment is analgesia. Physicians specializing in pain management can develop a medication and treatment",
"-33.75070391513873"
],
[
"be used to rapidly stanch a wound until proper medical attention can be obtained. Recent developments A novel type of liquid bandage would incorporate amino acids to form peptide links directly with the skin. This product has potential to reduce bleeding during and after surgery.",
"-33.725106066442095"
],
[
"wound management Internal wounds (usually to the torso) are harder to deal with than external wounds, although they often have an external cause. The key dangers of internal bleeding include hypovolaemic shock (leading to exsanguination), causing a tamponade on the heart or a haemothorax on the lung. The aortic aneurysm is a special case where the aorta, the body's main blood vessel, becomes ruptured through an inherent weakness, although exertion, raised blood pressure or sudden movements could cause a sudden catastrophic failure. This is one of the most serious medical emergencies a patient can face, as the only",
"-33.70875595419784"
],
[
"inflammatory fasciitis or trauma causes fibrosis and adhesions, fascial tissue fails to differentiate the adjacent structures effectively. This can happen after surgery where the fascia has been incised and healing includes a scar that traverses the surrounding structures. Anatomical compartments A fascial compartment is a section within the body that contains muscles and nerves and is surrounded by fascia. In the human body, the limbs can each be divided into two segments – the upper limb can be divided into the arm and the forearm and the sectional compartments of both of these – the fascial compartments of the arm",
"-33.70797733400832"
],
[
"the setting of a bleeding event can be reversed through an intravenous infusion of avidin.",
"-33.65265222583366"
],
[
"sutured to the skin surrounding the wound. For one week the hand is protected with a dressing. The hand and arm are elevated with a sling. The dressing is then removed and careful mobilization can be started, gradually increasing in intensity. After this procedure the recurrence of the disease can be low but the re-operation and complication rate may be high. Segmental fasciectomy with/without cellulose Segmental fasciectomy involves excising part(s) of the contracted cord so that it disappears or no longer contracts the finger. It is less invasive than the limited fasciectomy, because not all the diseased tissue is excised",
"-33.65009246741829"
],
[
"part of a recovery program.\nAn intervertebral disc has a gelatinous core surrounded by a fibrous ring. When in its normal, uninjured state, most of the disc is not served by either the circulatory or nervous systems – blood and nerves only run to the outside of the disc. Specialized cells that can survive without direct blood supply are in the inside of the disc. Over time, the discs lose flexibility and the ability to absorb physical forces. This decreased ability to handle physical forces increases stresses on other parts of the spine, causing the ligaments of the spine to thicken",
"-33.624771396280266"
],
[
"trauma. Surgical techniques Surgical techniques, using a tube or catheter to drain fluid from the peritoneum, chest, or the pericardium around the heart, often are used in cases of severe blunt trauma to the chest or abdomen, especially when a person is experiencing early signs of shock. In those with low blood-pressure, likely because of bleeding in the abdominal cavity, cutting through the abdominal wall surgically is indicated. Prevention By identifying risk factors present within a community and creating solutions to decrease the incidence of injury, trauma referral systems may help to enhance the overall health of a population. Injury",
"-33.610622293017514"
],
[
"trauma should be diagnosed, resuscitated, and stabilized in the Emergency Department in less than 10 minutes before undergoing surgery to reduce the risk of death from internal bleeding. A patient with acute internal bleeding in the abdomen or pelvis after trauma may require use of a REBOA device to slow the bleeding. The REBOA has also been used for non-traumatic causes of internal bleeding, including bleeding during childbirth and gastrointestinal bleeding.\nInternal bleeding from a bone fracture in the arms or legs may be partially controlled with direct pressure using a tourniquet. After tourniquet placement, the patient may need immediate surgery",
"-33.57373848982388"
],
[
"proliferation and activation of fibroblasts, which deposit extracellular matrix into the surrounding connective tissue. This process of tissue repair is a complex one, with tight regulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) synthesis and degradation ensuring maintenance of normal tissue architecture. However, the entire process, although necessary, can lead to a progressive irreversible fibrotic response if tissue injury is severe or repetitive, or if the wound healing response itself becomes deregulated.",
"-33.56851525878301"
],
[
"vessel to minimize bleeding. As the endothelium is destroyed, the underlying von Willebrand factor is exposed and initiates coagulation, which creates a temporary clot to plug the wound and eventually leads to restoration of normal tissue.\nDuring this time, larger bruises may change color due to the breakdown of hemoglobin from within escaped red blood cells in the extracellular space. The striking colors of a bruise are caused by the phagocytosis and sequential degradation of hemoglobin to biliverdin to bilirubin to hemosiderin, with hemoglobin itself producing a red-blue color, biliverdin producing a green color, bilirubin producing a yellow color, and hemosiderin",
"-33.498482970753685"
],
[
"to the undebrided surface not revealing the actual underlying size of the wound. They derive nutrients through a process known as \"extracorporeal digestion\" by secreting a broad spectrum of proteolytic enzymes that liquefy necrotic tissue, and absorb the semi-liquid result within a few days. In an optimum wound environment maggots molt twice, increasing in length from 1–2 mm to 8–10 mm, and in girth, within a period of 48–72 hours by ingesting necrotic tissue, leaving a clean wound free of necrotic tissue when they are removed. Disinfection Secretions from maggots believed to have broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity include allantoin, urea, phenylacetic acid,",
"-33.47447557482519"
],
[
"skin that the needle can pass under. The stage blood flowing out of the needle lubricates the \"wound\" so that it can be slid back and forth.",
"-33.46971300522273"
],
[
"occlude, embolization through angiography may stop the bleeding. Both coils in the end-artery and stents across the area of bleeding have been used to control the hemorrhage. However, the bleeding may be refractory to the embolization, which would necessitate surgery to remove the pancreas at the source of hemorrhage. Also, the cause of bleeding may be too diffuse to be treated with embolization (such as with pancreatitis or with pancreatic cancer). This may also require surgical therapy, and usually a distal pancreatectomy, or removal of the part of the pancreas from the area of bleeding to",
"-33.420276187127456"
],
[
"overall function of the involved hand. Because of this, it is critical that these injuries receive appropriate attention and treatment.\nIn most cases of a complete tear, the aponeurosis of the adductor pollicis muscle may be interposed between the bones of the MCP joint and the torn ligament. When this condition (referred to as a Stener lesion) occurs, the adequate healing of the tear is prevented altogether. For a Stener lesion to occur, a complete tear of the ulnar collateral ligament must be present. However, the Stener lesion can occur even in the absence of a tear of the accessory",
"-33.41702762199566"
],
[
"damaged. A limited nerve inspection without preoperative knowledge about the site of nerve injury may thus give the false impression of an unimpaired nerve and wrongly lead to conservative treatment of the nerve lesion. If no neurologic improvement is shown after 2–3 months from injuries, then operative decompression is indicated. Surgical operations such as grafting and tendon transfer are necessarily required. Tendon transfer Many different conditions can be treated by tendon transfer surgery. Tendon transfer surgery is necessary when a certain muscle function is lost because of a nerve injury. If a nerve is injured and cannot be repaired, then the",
"-33.41140971719142"
],
[
"three groups; red cells, platelet poor plasma, and platelet rich plasma. Blood can be drawn from the patient just prior to surgery and then separated. The separated blood components which have been sequestered can be stored during the surgical procedure. The red cells and platelet poor plasma can be given back to the patient through intravenous transfusion during or after surgery. The platelet rich plasma can be mixed with calcium and thrombin to create a product known as autologous platelet gel. This is an autologous product which can be used for a variety of techniques including use as a hemostatic",
"-33.363619250943884"
],
[
"can improve color match. Complications Post-operative complications can be divided into donor-site and recipient-site problems. Donor-site complications include wound infection, hematoma, and seroma. Recipient-site complications include (total or partial) flap necrosis, wound infection, dehiscence, hematoma or skin graft failure. To avoid major bleeding or sensibility disorders, the anatomy of the scalp must be respected, such as by making incisions parallel to rather than across blood vessels. Due to the rich perfusion, scalp injuries can lead to serious bleeding, which may be difficult to stem if the cut blood vessels retract into the fat.",
"-33.35467769019306"
],
[
"since no tissue is taken directly from the patient's own body. The surgeon will drill a hole forming the tibial bone tunnel and femoral bone tunnel, allowing for the patient's new ACL graft to be guided through. Once the graft is pulled through the bone tunnels, two screws are placed into the tibial and femoral bone tunnel. Recovery time ranges between one and two years or longer, depending if the patient chose an autograft or allograft. A week or so after the occurrence of the injury, the athlete is usually deceived by the fact that he/she is walking normally and",
"-33.348619975091424"
],
[
"the aorta and the carotid artery or the opposite carotid artery and the subclavian artery may be performed to restore normal circulation. The interposition of viable tissue facilitates tracheal wall repair. Thus, vascularized tissues such as the thymus, strap muscles, the sternocleidomastoid, or the pectoralis major muscle should be interposed between tracheal defect and the vessel stumps to prevent bleeding, seal the mediastinum, fill dead space, cover major vital structures, provide a blood supply and venous drainage, and increase the concentration of antibiotics.\nInnominate artery ligation has a 10% risk of neurological deficit. Prognosis TIF is a rare condition with a",
"-33.34707963548135"
],
[
"to a state of negative pressure and function normally.\nCommonly, surgery is needed to close off whatever injuries caused the blood and air to enter the cavity (e.g. stabbing, broken ribs).",
"-33.34196813972085"
],
[
"the proximal and distal end of the segment. Exceptions exist where there is no blood flow through the target vessel at the area of proposed entry, as is the case with an intervening occlusion.\nIf the organ perfused by an artery is sensitive to even temporary occlusion of blood flow, such as in the brain, various other measures are taken. ELANA In neurosurgery, excimer laser assisted non-occlusive anastomosis (ELANA) is a technique use to create a bypass without interrupting the blood supply in the recipient blood vessels. This reduces the risk of stroke or a rupture of an aneurysm.\nThe ELANA technique",
"-33.3309879094013"
],
[
"wound when hypovolemia or shock is not present. Laboratory diagnostic studies such as a hematocrit, white blood cell count and chemical tests such as liver function tests can also help to determine the efficiency of care . Surgery Surgical intervention may be required but it depends on what organ systems are affected by the wound and the extent of the damage. It is important for care providers to thoroughly check the wound site inasmuch as a laceration of an artery often results in delayed complications sometimes leading to death. In cases where there is no suspicion of bleeding or infection,",
"-33.31440252713219"
],
[
"is a subtle modification of other methods to establish a connection between blood vessels (anastomosis) to create a bypass in or to the brain. The differences involve how the recipient artery is opened. In conventional techniques, the recipient artery is temporarily interrupted (occluded with clips) and opened using microscissors or scalpel, while in the ELANA technique blood flow is not interrupted and the opening (arteriotomy) is created with radiation from a 308 nm excimer laser delivered through a catheter inserted in the vessel that will become the bypass while blood continues to flow through the artery that receives the bypass. This",
"-33.30810492565797"
],
[
"Fibrin degradation product Fibrin degradation products (FDPs), also known as fibrin split products, are components of the blood produced by clot degeneration.\nClotting, also called coagulation, at the wound site produces a mass of fibrin threads called a net that remains in place until the cut is healed. As a cut heals, the clotting slows down. Eventually the clot is broken down and dissolved by plasmin. When the clot and fibrin net dissolve, fragments of protein are released into the body. These fragments are fibrin degradation products or FDPs. If your body is unable to dissolve a clot, you may have",
"-33.30452782928478"
],
[
"Radial artery puncture Allen test It is important to perform an Allen test to confirm the patency of the ulnar artery—because, with no collateral flow through the ulnar artery, radial artery puncture can result in a gangrenous finger or loss of the hand from spasm or clotting of the radial artery. The Allen test is performed with the patient sitting with hands resting on knees. A medical professional stands at the patient's side with fingers around the patient's wrist and compresses the tissue over both radial and ulnar arteries for a few minutes—waiting for the blood to drain from the",
"-33.26890137954615"
],
[
"extremities The most common nerve injuries during surgery occur in the upper and lower extremities. Injuries to the nerves in the arm or shoulder can result in numbness, tingling, and decreased sensory or muscular use of the arm, wrist, or hand. Many operating room injuries could be solved by simply restraining the arms and legs. Other causes of nerve or muscular damage to the extremities is caused by pressure on the body by the surgical team leaning on the patient's arms and legs. The patient's arms can be protected from these risks by using an arm sled. Separation of the",
"-33.26759472559206"
],
[
"injury found on imaging will determine whether the surgeon takes an operative or close observational approach.\nDiagnostic peritoneal lavage (DPL) has become largely obsolete with the advances in MDCT, with use limited to centers without access to CT to guide requirement for urgent transfer for operation. Extremities The four main components of extremities are bones, vessels, nerves, and soft tissues. Gunshot wounds can thus cause severe bleeding, fractures, nerve deficits, and soft tissue damage. The Mangled Extremity Severity Score (MESS) is used to classify the severity of injury and evaluates for severity of skeletal and/or soft tissue injury, limb ischemia, shock,",
"-33.24597498495132"
],
[
"to be taken in regard to bleeding from the wound and possible infection with fecal bacteria. If left alone it will usually heal within a few days or weeks. The topical application of a cream containing a heparinoid is often advised to clear the clot.",
"-33.24078628627467"
],
[
"clopidogrel and ticlopidine. When surgery is undertaken following the administration of these drugs, bleeding can be serious. Transfusion under these circumstances is not clear-cut and one has to use clinical judgment in these cases. Platelet collection The separation of individual blood components is done with a specialized centrifuge (see apheresis). The earliest manual forms of thrombapheresis are done by the separation of platelets from multiple bags of whole blood collected from donors or blood sellers. Since each blood bag (usually 250 mL or 500 mL) contains a relatively small number of platelets, it can take as many as a dozen",
"-33.217813478491735"
],
[
"saphenous vein, radial artery, or internal mammary artery) is used to redirect blood from a point before the narrowing (typically the aorta) to a point beyond the obstruction. Valvular heart disease Diseased heart valves that have become abnormally narrow or abnormally leaky may require surgery. This is traditionally performed as an open surgical procedure to replace the damaged heart valve with a tissue or metallic prosthetic valve. In some circumstances, the tricuspid or mitral valves can be repaired surgically, avoiding the need for a valve replacement. Heart valves can also be treated percutaneously, using techniques that share",
"-33.155873358642566"
],
[
"relationship with the radial nerve. They are both found deep to the triceps muscle and are located on the spiral groove of the humerus. Therefore, fracture of the bone may not only lead to lesion of the radial nerve, but also haematoma of the internal structures of the arm. The artery then continues on to anastamose with the recurrent radial branch of the brachial artery, providing a diffuse blood supply for the elbow joint. Veins The veins of the arm carry blood from the extremities of the limb, as well as drain the arm itself. The two main veins are",
"-33.15012018347625"
],
[
"ulnar nerves), and any wounds which would indicate open fracture. Doppler ultrasonography should be performed to ascertain blood flow of the affected limb if the distal pulses are not palpable. Anterior interosseus branch of the median nerve most often injured in postero-lateral displacement of the distal humerus as the proximal fragment is displaced antero-medially. This is evidenced by the weakness of the hand with a weak \"OK\" sign on physical examination (Unable to do an \"OK\" sign; instead a pincer grasp is performed). Radial nerve would be injured if the distal humerus is displaced postero-medially. This is because the proximal",
"-33.14698440139182"
],
[
"arteries occluded, abundant collateral circulation prevents uterine necrosis, and the fibroids decrease in size and vascularity as they receive the bulk of the embolization material. The procedure can be performed in a hospital, surgical center or office setting and commonly take no longer than an hour to perform. Post-procedurally if access was gained via a femoral artery puncture an occlusion device can be used to hasten healing of the puncture site and the patient is asked to remain with the leg extended for several hours but many patients are discharged the same day with some remaining in the hospital",
"-33.14125255664112"
],
[
"area removed; and all of the fractional full thickness holes in the square area healed without scarring. In 2016 this fractional pattern technique was also proven in human tissue. Regeneration with materials Generally humans, in vivo, can regenerate injured tissues for limited distances of up to 2mm. The further the wound distance is from 2mm the more the wound regeneration will need inducement. By 2009, via the use of materials, a max induced regeneration could be achieved inside a 1 cm tissue rupture. Bridging the wound, the material allowed cells to cross the wound gap; the material then degraded. This technology",
"-33.12983351107687"
],
[
"A variety of surgeries are available depending on the injury. Surgery to remove a damaged intervertebral disc may be done to relieve pressure on the spinal cord. The discs are cushions between the vertebrae. After the disc is removed, the vertebrae may be fused together to provide stability. Metal plates, screws, or wires may be needed to hold vertebrae or pieces in place. History Arab physician and surgeon Ibn al-Quff (d. 1286 CE) described a treatment of cervical fractures through the oral route in his book Kitab al-ʿUmda fı Ṣinaʿa al-Jiraḥa (Book of Basics in the Art of Surgery).",
"-33.12804632843472"
],
[
"(and the all fibroblast cells within the wound site perish. Without fibroblasts, the wound site cannot regenerate extracellular matrix and epidermis skin cells cannot proliferate over the wound site. Therefore, without dermal fibroblasts the skin cannot properly recover from injury. Yet, by differentiating mesenchymal stem cells from other regions of the body and injecting them into the wound site, scientists can restore dermal fibroblasts to burned regions of the body. By restoring fibroblasts to the burned regions, the body can restore the ECM within the wound site and recover from the injury. As noted \"The injured dermis is also",
"-33.10586742241867"
],
[
"2008, in full thickness wounds over 3mm, it was found that a wound needed a material inserted in order to induce full tissue regeneration.\nThere are some human organs and tissues that regenerate rather than simply scar, as a result of injury. These include the liver, fingertips, and endometrium. More information is now known regarding the passive replacement of tissues in the human body, as well as the mechanics of stem cells. Advances in research have enabled the induced regeneration of many more tissues and organs than previously thought possible. The aim for these techniques is to use these techniques in",
"-33.08788442439982"
],
[
"the pressure in the arteries. This pressure results in transudation of inflammatory mediators into the subcutaneous tissues of the lower extremity and subsequent breakdown of the tissue including the skin.\nWounds of the distal lower extremities arising from causes not directly related to venous insufficiency (e.g., scratch, bite, burn, or surgical incision) may ultimately fail to heal if underlying (often undiagnosed) venous disease is not properly addressed. Classification A clinical severity score has been developed to assess chronic venous ulcers. It is based on the CEAP (clinical, etiology, anatomy, and pathophysiology) classification system developed by an expert panel. A high",
"-33.085382003802806"
],
[
"the ulnar nerve transfer was not successful. The muscle region was not reinnervated as expected, but instead turned bluish after mobilization, possibly due to a congestion of vascular supply.\nWith the left-arm amputation woman mentioned above, her phantom limb pain returned after surgery. Though at a lesser degree and resolved within 4 weeks, it still presented a serious risk because it is unclear whether it will resolve in other future patients.\nAdditionally, surgery was unsuccessful with a patient because severe nerve injuries were not detectable until during the surgery.\nIt also remains in speculation whether the transferred nerves would survive permanently. Future Research",
"-33.081427342956886"
],
[
"vessel which may be inhibiting the flow of blood and causing pain.\nAfter the procedure has been completed, if the femoral technique is applied, the site of arterial entry is either manually compressed, stapled shut, or sutured in order to prevent access-site complications. Coronary angiography One of the most common angiograms performed is to visualize the blood in the coronary arteries. A long, thin, flexible tube called a catheter is used to administer the X-ray contrast agent at the desired area to be visualized. The catheter is threaded into an artery in the forearm, and the tip is advanced through the",
"-33.06906675049686"
],
[
"arteries arise from the aorta, provide major anastomoses and supplement the blood flow to the spinal cord. In humans the largest of the anterior radicular arteries is known as the artery of Adamkiewicz, or anterior radicularis magna (ARM) artery, which usually arises between L1 and L2, but can arise anywhere from T9 to L5. Impaired blood flow through these critical radicular arteries, especially during surgical procedures that involve abrupt disruption of blood flow through the aorta for example during aortic aneursym repair, can result in spinal cord infarction and paraplegia. Somatosensory organization Somatosensory organization is divided into the dorsal column-medial",
"-33.06741184965358"
],
[
"Hypertrophic scar Cause Mechanical tension on a wound has been identified as a leading cause for hypertrophic scar formation.\nWhen a normal wound heals, the body produces new collagen fibres at a rate which balances the breakdown of old collagen. Hypertrophic scars are red and thick and may be itchy or painful. They do not extend beyond the boundary of the original wound, but may continue to thicken for up to six months. They usually improve over one or two years, but may cause distress due to their appearance or the intensity of the itching; they can also",
"-33.058496098499745"
]
] |
21xza3 | Why is it we go into a state of "feeling low" for no apparent reason sometimes and how does it pass away? | [
"In my Native tradition I call this the blue wolf. It came out of seeking a private vision for my life from the Creator when I was lost and going through one my lowest times. It was inspired by the medicine wheel teachings of my tribe and from the wisdom of my kind Elders. It saved my life, but I am not a therapist, I respectfully do not speak for other Natives, or even other members of my tribe. This was my personal vision that guided me to change the entire path of my life forever. Take what you like and leave the rest. Find out for yourself. If you choose that path, you have to follow the blue wolf into the forest and see where it leads. If you try to control it your are not following. If you try to jump ahead and lead it you are not following. Follow the blue wolf and see where it leads and more will be revealed. Your blue wolf may even lead your to your own private vision for your life. Aho!",
"Summer after Junior-year I caught a slump like this that must have last for over a month. Couldn't figure it out until I did a little self evaluation and realized that between Closing at work (5pm-2am) Staying up partying after (2am-7am) and then crashing for most of the day (7a-3ish) I rarely even saw the sun. after a couple days of sleeping out in my hammock and soaking up some of that sweetsweet Vitamin D I was right as rain.",
"Hormonal fluctuations. The body has a natural cycle in which hormone secretion increases and decreases for certain chemicals within the body. Increased levels of certain hormones and decreased levels of other hormones cause your mood to shift. This is why women get so sensitive during menstruation. Not a lot of people know that guys actually have these hormonal fluctuations as well and their cycles can actually sync the same way girls menstrual cycles do.",
"It was a revelation to me to learn how our thoughts affect our 'reality'. I always thought, \"If I think it, it must be real.\" But that's not true. Thoughts are just thoughts, and they come and go on their own. So, when I start into a depressing thinking pattern, having all kinds of negative thoughts that lay me low, I now realize that I don't have to believe the thoughts. That helps me either snap out of it, or at least realize that the thoughts will pass on their own, and I can just be patient.",
"How is your diet? That is the first thing that comes to my mind when I hear this question. What is a good diet constructed of? A number of important things: Sufficient fiber. This means plenty of vegetables, some fruit, nuts, perhaps some dried fruit. Fiber keeps the digestion system running comfortably and efficiently. By eating plenty of vegetables for fiber you are also getting vitamins that you need to feel your best. Plenty of water. Staying hydrated is very important to feeling at your best. Avoid soda. Soda contains salt which is added by manufacturers to dehydrate you so that you want to drink more soda. They have to add a lot of sugar to mask the salt content. Sugar spikes your blood sugar quickly and then it crashes making you feel tired within a few hours. Sufficient protein. Protein makes you stronger. Your muscles need protein to recover and stay strong after daily use. Remember your heart is a muscle. Meat and fish contain complete protein as does dairy and whey protein powder. If you want to avoid meat you need to combine foods such as rice and beans to get complete protein. Meat also contains vitamin B12 which is particularly important for giving you energy. Vegetarians need to supplement B12. Most people need between 50 and 100 grams of protein a day. People who are weight training often eat much more than 100 grams a day. Addressing food intolerances. People can be intolerant to different foods. If you have a food tolerance, avoiding that food can make an enormous positive difference in how you feel. Certain food intolerances can cause a low feeling. Some examples of food intolerances are dairy, eggs, wheat and soy. There is a lot of information online about food intolerances. If you want help finding whether you have a food intolerance a dietician (nutritionist) or doctor can help you. Sufficient dietary fat. To function properly most bodies need 25-35% dietary fat as a percentage of daily calories. Dietary fat gives long lasting, steady energy throughout the day. Dietary fat is needed to absorb vitamins A, D, E, K, and carotenoids. Each gram of fat has 9 calories, each gram of carbohydrates and protein have 4 calories. Your body needs dietary fat for brain development, controlling inflammation, digestion and blood clotting. Good sources of dietary fat are meat, fish, dairy, nuts, avocados, olive oil, butter. Remember that body fat is a function of total calories and level of exercise and is not the same thing as dietary fat. The fat you get from food are called essential because your body cannot make them itself, or work without them. Dietary fat adds satiety and a sense of fullness after eating a meal and also affects hormone levels. All your cells are defined by fat molecules aligned as a membrane. Dietary fat is needed to provide central building blocks to all cells in the body. Sufficient carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are an important source of energy. Complex carbohydrates found in rice, grains, potatoes and starchy vegetables digest more slowly and give longer lasting energy. Sugar is a simple carbohydrate. Sugar will spike your blood sugar and then you will crash. Some sugar is a nice part of a diet but too much and you will not feel your best. Too much sugar has also been linked to a number of diseases later in life. Most people need between 100 and 300 grams of carbohydrates a day and often more. If you are exercising a lot you will need to eat more carbohydrates. Sufficient vitamin D. Your body generates vitamin D naturally when your skin is exposed to sunlight. Spend 10-15 minutes outside in the middle of a sunny day with exposed skin to get vitamin D. This is difficult to do in the winter because often it will be overcast for weeks. Take advantage of the sun in the spring and summer by spending time outside to restore your vitamin D.",
"For me personally, I get depressed when I'm not doing deep down what I know I should be doing. Therefore fruitless activities depress me such as video gaming too much, not lifting Weighr, not partaking in skateboarding or skiing, not learning, no goals, etc. People get depressed when they get stuck. They stop moving. In life, never stop moving, always better yourself and never be satisfied. (nothing to do with material wealth.)",
"There are many variables such as diet, current thoughts, current experience, location, environment, past memories, stress, amount of sleep, medication etc etc etc that affect mood (the list is virtually infinite). However, your question implies that you are simply sitting still feeling fine, while all of a sudden you feel low. It is important to note that if this scenario as you have implied plays out and persists (that is, it continues to happen) then it would be best to seek help from a medical professional (your doctor who may refer you to a therapist/psychiatrist). The professional would have a better time narrowing down the cause (whether it be biological such as a chemical imbalance in the brain, a physical defect in the brain, or whether it be psychological such as an event in your life that may be impacting your mood on a more general basis). As for what is happening in the brain when you feel low - there are various regions in the brain that influence mood: hippocampus, thalamus, cerebral cortex, and amygdala. No one region is responsible for mood, but each can significantly impact mood per findings from more recent brain scans - but to which extent is highly debated. From a chemical standpoint, some researchers believe that Serotonin, (a neurotransmitter in the brain essentially acting like the chemical that facilitates nerve cell firing) is under-produced. When under-produced, scientists hypothesize that the brain is more prone to psychological stress - but it remains a question of debate in regard to its role. SSRI's or (Selective Serotonin Uptake Inhibitors) are what depression medications are - each medication has a method of either increasing the amount of serotonin in the brain, or limiting the extent by which serotonin is removed from the brain) - by doing so and regulating the amount of serotonin has shown results for patients, though the full mechanism by which SSRI's function is still not fully understood. The observed outcome of SSRI's suggest that once serotonin levels return back to normal levels (pertinent to that patient's standard of normal), then depression can be eradicated or managed. It is important to note that other factors such as the stressful environment, or other environmental traumas must be addressed with the help of a professional. 'The passing of mood' as you state, though, is generally your brain's serotonin level, returned to balance. To feel better generally, try to eat healthy foods, get lots of exercise, engage in meditation, and some studies suggest it may also help to stimulate your brain (read/movies/even games, etc). Improving your physical appearance has been shown in some studies to make you feel better naturally - take care of your body (hygeine, grooming, etc). Again, feeling down for extended periods without any obvious cause is not normal and you should seek professional help. helpful information: URL_0 URL_1 Telephone Hotlines: US Suicide Hotline 1-800-784-2433 NDMDA Depression Hotline – Support Group 800-826-3632 Suicide Prevention Services Crisis Hotline 800-784-2433 Suicide Prevention Services Depression Hotline 630-482-9696 AAA Crisis Pregnancy Center 800-560-0717 Child Abuse Hotline – Support & Information 800-792-5200 Crisis Help Line – For Any Kind of Crisis 800-233-4357 Domestic & Teen Dating Violence (English & Spanish) 800-992-2600 Parental Stress Hotline – Help for Parents 800-632-8188 Runaway Hotline (All Calls are Confidential) 800-231-6946 Sexual Assault Hotline (24/7, English & Spanish) 800-223-5001 Suicide & Depression Hotline – Covenant House 800-999-9999 National Child Abuse Hotline 800-422-4453 National Domestic Violence Hotline 800-799-SAFE National Domestic Violence Hotline (TDD) 800-787-3224 National Youth Crisis Hotline 800-448-4663",
"**1. Emotional response.** Smells, songs, tastes, and other 'cues' can bring up emotions even when we don't clearly remember why. The amygdala processes emotional experiences in the brain. Stress and time can affect memory, but the amygdala will still be able to process emotions. **2. Hormones!** Serotonin, estrogen, and dopamine can effect mood. (Lots of hormones can.) As an extreme example, one reason why people suffer from PTSD is because the stress they experienced released so much dopamine that their brain became addicted to it. This makes their normal day-to-day life boring (and even meaningless) in comparison. But dopamine is released in the brain in our normal day-to-day lives. > \"Inside the brain, dopamine plays important roles in motor control, motivation, arousal, cognition, and reward, as well as a number of basic lower-level functions including lactation, sexual gratification, and nausea.\" [wikipedia]( URL_0 ) Every time you orgasm, eat sugar, or achieve something you care about your brain gives you a dopamine kick. Once that kick runs out you'll feel a bit low - and want to seek that thrill again. Addicted to something? Dopamine probably has a lot to do with it. **3. Health.** Your blood sugar levels, quality of sleep, and how balanced your diet is can affect your mood. (And pretty much anything that goes wrong in your body can make you feel like crap until your body sorts it out.) Even just one unbalanced meal can send your blood sugar up and down a mood-killing rollercoaster. *ETA: Fixed formatting.*",
"**All it takes is one negative thought** ... \"I'm not good enough\", Then it builds up and your brain adds more and more to the mixture without you consciously being aware of it - Negative thoughts equate to low self esteem and that blip causes an immediate downer. The way to stop it is to analyse every positive thing thats happened to you each and every day on a list which takes 2 minutes of your time - Think about how that thing made you feel and you will emulate it.",
"Also because the children grow up and move out, the dog dies, friends die, the marriage goes stale, recession destroys meager life savings leaving no chance for even the most modest retirement, looking forward to working until you die on your feet while some dude named \"Sam\" in India is forcing down the prices for your once economically viable profession. You can't get divorced because someone will be homeless, and you don't hate each other that much. Did I mention watching your own parents lose their ability to identify you? Getting old sucks and is known to cause people to \"feel low.\" But I get coffee cheap at McDonalds, so there's that.",
"I know it's been mentioned before but I want to emphasize: EXERCISE. It WILL pull you out of your slump. Take it from a guy who spent 20 years with crippling depression. My lows are manageable now, and if they start to get bad I just grab my gear and hit the gym. An hour of cardio is the best cure I've found for the unwarranted blues. You CAN do it, and it's far, far easier than you realize. Two weeks in the gym, 3-4 days per week. By the end of the second week you'll feel amazing.",
"More than likely you started feeling low because you got on reddit. To make it pass, stay on reddit.",
"Well you see, when you go to the window, to the wall, to the sweat drop down yo balls, to all these bitches crawl. It creates a state of mind known as \"getting low\"",
"Watch your caffeine intake. Most people are addicted to caffeine. 3-6 hours after consumption, a caffeine comedown makes your brain's dopamine levels sink and this can cause depression-like symptoms for a while.",
"Oh my lord. Why is everything comic sans?!?",
"Just fake it until you make it. I didn't make it yet.",
"The Sweet is never as sweet... without the bitter",
"I can only speak from experience but I often go through a state of feeling low for no reason. Lately, I found that if I throw myself into a task, the feeling goes away. Having a hobby helps a lot. I just recently started digging into music again and forgot how much I enjoyed that. It's all about finding the right balance.",
"From my experience, food, sun, diet etc can play a role in the blues but working in the creative field I come across people daily that smoke, don't maintain healthy diets, and are stuck in a dark studio all day but are extremely positive and upbeat people. What I have come to learn is this: Every time we have a though about something, a chemical factory in the brain called the hypothalamus releases a chemical or a 'peptide' into the blood stream. This peptide matches the thought we just had so if we have an angry thought an angry peptide gets released into the blood stream and if we have a happy thought a happy peptide ensues. These peptides are what cause us to 'feel' no matter what the feeling is. Now since a very young age, we have been gathering thoughts and clumping them together to create different ideas and many of these ideas are ones that cause us 'sadness' and cause peptides to release that give us sad/angry/lonely/ etc feelings. Anything that we experience that reminds us of one of these negative ideas will trigger it's corresponding peptide even if that experience was just watching a movie and being reminded (even on an unconscious level) of some idea we have that make us feel crappy. I think that there is something going on in your life that you are either subconsciously pushing away or not recognizing. Our feelings are no more than indicators that something in the thought process is not flowing right. I'm a certified hypnotherapist specializing in erroneous beliefs and 'false programming' and have much experience with this, I'd be more than happy to talk more if you're interested. Good luck and don't worry about it too much. Distracting yourself completely from the fact that you have the 'blues' for a short while will significantly start to lessen that particular peptide from releasing into the bloodstream. An hour of playing in a pool always does the trick for me.",
"Seratonin production in the body has a lot to do with it. Seratonin is a neurotransmitter in your gut that regulates digestion, mood and social interaction as well as some other things. If your seratonin production is interrupted for some reason, a change in diet for instance, then it can manifest itself with feeling low or depressed until the body adjusts to the change. This is the same reason why a positive change in diet can help to increase your mood.",
"Cognition plays a key role in emotional state. Depending on ones perception of events, your point of view, then your mind will react accordingly. If one is content with his achievements and environment then the mood will be subjective to the thoughts and the way situations are perceived. If one perspective is unsatisfied with their life choices, and environment then their emotions will react accordingly.",
"Jesus titty fucking christ. The top comments are fucking bullshit pseudoscientific anecdotes. Why the fuck aren't they empirically based discussions centering around physiology instead of vague spiritual babbling? Fucking sheeple. By the way, my Blue Wolf told me you shouldn't vaccinate your kids or breed outside your pure line.",
"It depends on how low you mean. It bothers me that a lot of people have offered cursory advice on something that could be clinical depression. I'm not prepared to answer unless I have more information from you.",
"[Your thetan levels are probably off. If you care to take a free personality test, we can help you!]( URL_0 )",
"Is this sub always in fucking comic sans? How had I not noticed until now?",
"Usually its due to my work load at school. They seem in direct correlation.",
"Blood sugar and sleep weigh heavily into mood.",
"You are clearly exhibiting signs of a depressive phase within bipolar disorder. You need to go to your doctor and explain this mood swing so that you can be properly medicated. There is no explanation for this other than the fact that your genes have made you depressed. It is possible that anti-depressant medication will not work, but it will be good to try at first. If it doesn't work, you will likely go off your rocker and completely lose touch with reality or be so intense that your depression is worsened or leads to psychotic or suicidal thoughts. If this happens, call your psychiatrist. You will need to be re-evaluated and put on anti-psychotics along with your anti-depressants. A good work-out routine will be necessary to deal with the anti-psychotics as these naturally lower your energy levels and make you feel a little \"out of it\" and working out will help boost those energy levels... even though you're probably already too tired to work out because of the anti-psychotics and the anti-depressants, in conjuction with the anti-psychotics, should be ultimately mellowing you out. (Treatment isn't easy!) If those 2 drugs aren't working, it's likely one will need to be removed and you will need to be re-evaluated. How are you concentrating, especially when you're feeling good? You might have ADHD, along with bipolar disorder. ADHD medication could be helpful. Something like welbutrin would be perfect, as it acts as both an anti-depressant and as a stimulant for those with ADHD. This could possibly be thrown into the cocktail. But be warned, all of these drugs have interactions that we should be wary of. With so much in your system, your blood pressure is likely to be affected, so you're going to need to be on blood thinners and cholesterol medication, which will ultimately end up affecting your mood, so we'll eventually have to re-evaluate what other medication you should be on. And, at this point, should you really be working out? With all of that stuff in your system, you should probably give up on that. It's unsafe. We'll increase your blood pressure and cholesterol medication so you can cope and if your energy levels drop, we'll just raise your dose of welbutrin or put you on another stimulant like adderall, and raise the dose of your anti-psychotic so you don't go completely manic, while cutting out the welbutrin entirely. Don't worry, /u/SevenIsTheShit, everything will be ok.",
"I had been feeling like this for a few months. I was just sad. Felt like something was very off. Most people told me that it will pass. And it has, for the most part. What I learned from it: eating healthier made me feel better. Gave me more energy and I didn't feel as bad. Working out also helped. I am Vitamin D deficient, taking the supplements made me break out in a rash, so when I can, I try to get out in the sun. I know that you arent asking about peoples personal stories, and I am not sure why exactly this happens. Reading all the responses down there do all seem to make sense. However! What I really saw make the main difference in my outlook was taking a supplement called sam-E. I credit my better moods and lack of feeling low mostly to it. sam-E is naturally made in your body, it forms naturally when the amino acid methionine combines with the energy-producing molecule ATP, helps build proteins, hormones, fatty acids, nucleic acids, and other crucial substances. This is becoming a blab-fest. All in all, I dont know why we feel like this but I did find that eating better, exercising, and taking sam-E did help for me. It took awhile, once I was doing all 3, but they definitely made me feel way better.",
"There are a number of reasons why people can go into a slump, the reason why the reason is not apparent is because humans are complex chemical and biological machines and we aren't entirely aware of everything that's going on. Your slumps could be from seasonal allergens that you aren't seriously allergic to - but just enough to affect your mood, a spider bite, your diet, the weather, pollution, or a million other things. You could have a low level infection, an imbalance of candida in your gastrointestinal tract, you could have depression from something but because you don't think it \"should\" affect you you miss the connection. You might be reacting to a chemical that doesn't normally affect people, but perhaps you are more sensitive to it than most, like insecticides applied to the yard, or something in...hair gel (like maybe parabens?) My point isn't that these are exactly why anyone goes into the slump. But, because each human is complex, and each human's reaction will be different from the next human's when exposed to identical environmental controls, so the reason why these happen and are largely unexplained is - life is complex.",
"Hormones are involved but it's more closely related to the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin. (Although hormone levels do interact with these chemicals so its kind of a chicken-or-the-egg question) These are both responsible for feelings of happiness and pleasure (that is a massive simplification but I'm mobile so forgive me). Many things can interact with the amount of dopamine and serotonin. Certain vitamins and proteins aide in the production and uptake of these chemicals so if your body is lacking them due to a poor diet it can cause a dip in mood. The stress hormone cortisol interferes with the production/uptake of D and S so stress can do it. Even the amount of daylight we get can influence it. In cases of seasonal depression a lack of sunlight has been indicated to lower serotonin levels which cause the \"winter blues\". There is definitely more to be said on this topic and what i have said is simplified but like I said I'm mobile so hopefully that answers your question",
"For me it was directly related to drinking alcohol. I used to get major downs that I had zero control over and would just crush me. Like, not-get-out-of-bed-for-days type of depression. I've been sober ten months now and haven't had more than one crash since, and that was in the very beginning. With time, I've stabilised more than I ever did on medication. I wish our culture would take alcohol more seriously and let people know just how destructive it can really be. I certainly didn't know and it destroyed my life. Took almost a decade to get myself on track again. In general to keep depression at bay, I get as much sleep as my little girl allows, as much sunshine as I can, and as much exercise as my schedule allows for. Treat yourself right and everything else falls into place.",
"For me it's the realization that even with a lot of effort things fail. It's also the realization that the system we live in is corrupt and reflects human greed/selfishness. I guess I expect more from our species, I think we are capable of so much more yet humans constantly choose money and corruption over nature and compassion. That's the shit that gets me down. And then... I make plans with a friend to see a free movie and it falls through but we end up having a wonderful time talking, laughing, walking and encountering things we wouldn't have expected that make our hearts leap and create these amazing memories and life is good! A feeling of being blessed comes over us as wild parrots land on our heads in the middle of the city.... And then....the spiral begins all over again.",
"It really is the most bizarre thing. My mood is constantly on a pendulum. I can be in the most fun situations, surrounded by friends and have something to look forward to, and still just feel as though nothing in the world has any appeal. No food sounds good, no jokes are funny. Other times I can be swamped with work or have just had to deal with some sort of rejection, and I can feel absolutely amazing, bursting with energy and alive. For both there's this meta-cognition where I evaluate my feelings as simply chemical imbalances in my brain. It's weird to think that I feel the way I feel at a given moment is merely the whimsical nature of neurotransmitter transduction rate.",
"Some evidence suggests that depression, or feeling low, can increase creative thinking. This is possibly an evolutionary conserved mechanism to help the evolving homo sapien solve complex problems. For example, if not getting mates or not getting enough food or other problems are facing the homo sapien, they could enter a state of depression, change their ways or solve their problem and promote their evolutionary fitness. Additionally, contrary to ideals of happiness, homo sapiens aren't made to be content at every moment. An overly content homo sapien does nothing to improve his evolutionary fitness. (think of sitting around not moving) Whereas a mildly discontent homo sapien is more open to changes that would improve fitness. ie hunting, gathering, building, trekking.",
"It is possible to have hypoglycemia or low blood sugar, which is the lack of glucose/sugar in the blood for cells to function properly. Where ones pancreas might produce too much of the hormone known as insulin. In this state, the bodies cells need glucose/sugar to function properly, so the pancreas then produces another hormone called glucagon to raise the blood sugar if it drops to low. The symptoms of this state bring upon feelings of hunger, thirst, dizziness, and fatigue. Most diabetics encounter this state because of over estimating insulin injections/doses (especially when exercising) and can correct themselves by consuming a serving of fruit or juice in the range of 8-20 carbohydrates.",
"I'll support \"hormone levels\". The way I see it (I'm talking out of my ass, here. So if any of this is wrong, I never claimed to be right) is that the body can stop producing certain hormones responsible for happy moods (serotonin, dopamine, etc.). When that happens, there is an imbalance in the brain that can cause people to feel down for no apparent reason at all. Happens to me a lot.",
"Small bouts of depression are also thought to have an evolutionary origin. I wish I could make this clearer, but if you think about it it's pretty a pretty simple scenario. For example, you have a situation/problem in your life, you get down on yourself about it, you think about it, you change/objectively look at it, and viola it's not a problem/unsolved situation anymore. Not very ELI5-ish, but none the less.",
"If we look at this question through the evolutionary-psychology lens, it is evident that a lifestyle that deviates too far from our natural state as hunters & gatherers is not without cost. For example, sitting all day at the office and not eating our natural food, the plants. We must return to the old way, for it is the right way.",
"Could be a lot of different things. Get more sleep if you've been shorting yourself (especially if you frequently get less than 6 hours; evening naps don't count; get 7 to 8 hours of real sleep at night).",
"exercising helps too. men was not meant to stand/sit still and a lot of us still carry quite a lot of our ancestral hunter/gatherer genes. just think fish out of water.",
"It's called depression. Stop being sad. STOP! STOP IT. STOP IT RIGHT NOW. QUIT BEING SAD DAMMIT! STOP IT. JUST STOP IT! STOP. Everything should be better now.",
"That's also how depression can work. Seemingly unprovoked melancholia can occur by sheer biochemical under/overproduction. The result can be feelings normally resulting from traumatic or scary external stimulus.",
"Vitamin D helps me immensely with this issue. It's rough in the winter here in Ohio so every winter I take a supplement.",
"I find my happiness level coincides with my bank account levels. Money can't buy happiness, maybe... but no money = more stress.",
"What the fuck is with this prestige worldwide ad I can't even read reddit",
"I'll reiterate: sunlight exposure (get some), diet (don't eat crap), sleep (get enough).",
"as someone who's been 'feeling low' for 5 years, sometimes it doesn't.",
"Um, capitalism. Striving for something artificial. Reaching for goals we don't need.",
"We didn't evolve sitting around at home in front of a computer."
] | [
[
"people’s emotions. How we can change people’s attitudes with tones. After I’ve played a good concert, people leave the room happy. This is something we can give back to the world. When people feel down and like it’s all going to shit, at least we can give them some music and change their attitude so people don’t think it’s all shit... That’s my religion.\"",
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"own true self.\" Crowded into cities, working in mindless jobs, and entertained by light mass media, we \"live on the surface of life\", so that even \"people who seemingly have 'everything' feel empty, uneasy, discontented.\"\nIn cultures where a sense of emptiness is seen as a negative psychological condition, it is often associated with depression. As such, many of the same treatments are proposed: psychotherapy, group therapy, or other types of counselling. As well, people who feel empty may be advised to keep busy and maintain a regular schedule of work and social activities. Other solutions which have been proposed to",
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[
"In the beginning stages, people have the tendency to ease their way into these unhealthy behaviors because it gives them a pleasurable sensation. However, as time goes on, it becomes a habit that they can not stop and they begin to lose these great feeling easily. When these feelings stop, self-destructive behavior enhances because they aren't able to provide themselves with that feeling that makes mental or physical pain go away.",
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"the emotion of ambivalence: the former is precarious, the latter is not yet acted upon or decided upon.\nIndividuals in society want to know every detail about something in hopes to maximize the feeling for that moment, but Wilson found that feeling uncertain can lead to something being more enjoyable because it has a sense of mystery. In fact, the feeling of not knowing can lead them to constantly think and feel about what could have been. Emotion work There are two main types of emotion work: evocation and suppression. Evocation is used to obtain or bring up a certain feeling",
"-33.17614147206041"
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[
"fill the inner void. In contrast to having an empty stomach, which is a clear feeling, having spiritual emptiness is hard to identify, so it fills humans with a \"vague unrest\". While people may try to resolve this emptiness by obsessively having sex, overeating, or taking drugs or alcohol, these addictions only give temporary satisfaction. When a person facing a crisis due to feeling spiritually empty is able to stop one addiction, such as compulsive sex, they often just trade it in for another addictive behaviour, such as gambling or overeating. Fiction, film, design and visual arts A number",
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[
"that once satiated, the feeling of satisfaction rarely lasts and we spend most of our lives in a state of endless striving; in this sense we are, deep down, nothing but Will. Even the moments of satisfaction, when repeated often enough, only lead to boredom and thus human existence is constantly swinging \"like a pendulum to and fro between pain and boredom, and these two are in fact its ultimate constituents\". This ironic cycle eventually allows us to see the inherent vanity at the truth of existence (nichtigkeit) and to realize that \"the purpose of our existence is not to",
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[
"These experiences which strike at the core of a person's identity and consciousness may cause a person to feel uneasy or anxious. \nFactors that tend to diminish symptoms are comforting personal interactions, intense physical or emotional stimulation, and relaxation. Distracting oneself (by engaging in conversation or watching a movie, for example) may also provide temporary relief. Some other factors that are identified as relieving symptom severity are diet and/or exercise, while alcohol and fatigue are listed by some as worsening their symptoms.\nFirst experiences with depersonalization may be frightening, with patients fearing loss of control, dissociation from the rest of",
"-32.454604958431446"
],
[
"to self-harm. When one is in a good state of feeling, they never want it to end; conversely, when someone is in a bad state, they want that feeling to disappear. Inflicting harm or pain to oneself is sometimes the answer for many individuals because they want something to keep their mind off the real problem. These individuals cut, stab, and starve themselves in an effort to feel something other than what they currently feel, as they believe the pain to be not as bad as their actual problem. Distraction is not the only reason why many individuals choose to",
"-32.39568473500549"
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[
"a state of emptiness as a negative, unwanted condition, in some Eastern philosophies such as Buddhist philosophy and Taoism, emptiness (Śūnyatā) represents seeing through the illusion of independent self-nature. Sociology, philosophy, and psychology In the West, feeling \"empty\" is often viewed as a negative condition. Psychologist Clive Hazell, for example, attributes feelings of emptiness to problematic family backgrounds with abusive relationships and mistreatment. He claims that some people who are facing a sense of emptiness try to resolve their painful feelings by becoming addicted to a drug or obsessive activity (be it compulsive sex, gambling or work) or engaging in",
"-32.067257915407026"
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[
"or her to perspire. Finally is the emotion of sadness, which creates a sensation of feeling closed in. As a consequence of feeling closed in the person may react irrationally to make them comfortable. Chris Lucerne also states in her article \"that no matter what, you cannot control your reactions to emotion.\" In conclusion to Lucerne's theory, reaction is random in expressing your feelings.\nDavid Straker states that \"we should watch our own emotions\", likewise in Arlie Hochschild's theory of emotions. Straker talks about how emotions are signals that tell you something about what is happening in the inner you. Sometimes",
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],
[
"feeling in the mind of deep, literary emotion\".\nWhen symptoms become severe, the phenomenon can even come to impact on quality of life, including people saying, \"I can't take my time looking for books because I end up wanting to go to the bathroom\", \"I get other people to buy the books I need\", \"As soon as I've bought the book I need, I get outside the bookstore\", \"I can't go to a bookstore wearing white pants (because of the risk of incontinence)\", and \"Even just dreaming of entering a bookstore always makes me want to go to the bathroom\". ",
"-31.893564978556242"
],
[
"because I'm talking about love and emotion – 'I need you to do this,' 'I want you to do this,' 'You make me feel like this,' 'Why don't you feel like this?' It's typical of how you feel in relationships. The second movement is called ... 'Easier Said Than Done,' and it's about how hard it is to change after you've been in a relationship for so long. And then the third movement is called 'But Not This Time,' because even though I've done things a certain way for so long, I won't do that this time\". Andy Kellman of",
"-31.837418050214183"
],
[
"manages to remain continent, it is described as \"a frustrating situation of half wanting to go to the bathroom and half feeling like one can put it off\".\nNo prodromal symptoms are known, with the phenomenon said to \"occur regardless of how good one's physical condition is\".\nThe state of mind immediately prior to and following onset has been complained of as a deflating feeling \"of sheer patheticness\". There are also people who fall into a state of anticipatory anxiety about \"whether it might happen again next time\". Some people have talked of a peculiar experience of \"a heightened",
"-31.81355007190723"
],
[
"preferred 'experiencing something new' over 'feeling rested and recharged'.",
"-31.608609800052363"
],
[
"keep oneself calm in the face of apparent discord or stress. Being internally \"at peace\" is considered by many to be a healthy mental state, or homeostasis and to be the opposite of feeling stressful, mentally anxious, or emotionally unstable. Within the meditative traditions, the psychological or inward achievement of \"peace of mind\" is often associated with bliss and happiness.\nPeace of mind, serenity, and calmness are descriptions of a disposition free from the effects of stress. In some meditative traditions, inner peace is believed to be a state of consciousness or enlightenment that may be cultivated by various types of",
"-31.471425369381905"
],
[
"of illness. At times, patients may not feel depressed, but rather lack energy to perform everyday activities.\nSubsyndromal Seasonal Affective Disorder is a milder form of SAD experienced by an estimated 14.3% (vs. 6.1% SAD) of the U.S. population. The blue feeling experienced by both SAD and SSAD sufferers can usually be dampened or extinguished by exercise and increased outdoor activity, particularly on sunny days, resulting in increased solar exposure. Connections between human mood, as well as energy levels, and the seasons are well documented, even in healthy individuals. Management Treatments for classic (winter-based) seasonal affective disorder include light therapy, medication,",
"-31.31834350002464"
],
[
"of our time is a symptom of its religious poverty\". He claims that \"many people never experience any emptiness: they are too busy to feel much absence of any kind\"; they only realize their spiritual emptiness if \"painful personal experiences -- the death of a loved one, the collapse of a marriage, the alienation of a child, the failure of a business\" shock them into reassessing their sense of meaning.\nSpiritual emptiness has been associated with juvenile violence. In John C. Thomas' 1999 book How Juvenile Violence Begins: Spiritual Emptiness, he argues that youth in impoverished indigenous communities who feel empty",
"-31.169803871307522"
],
[
"People experience the greatest discomfort from their ambivalence at the time when the situation requires a decision to be made. People are aware of their ambivalence to varying degrees, so the effects of an ambivalent state vary across individuals and situations. For this reason, researchers have considered two forms of ambivalence, only one of which is subjectively experienced as a state of conflict. Felt ambivalence The psychological literature has distinguished between several different forms of ambivalence. One, often called subjective ambivalence or felt ambivalence, represents the psychological experience of conflict (affective manifestation), mixed feelings, mixed reactions (cognitive manifestation), and",
"-31.098156289255712"
],
[
"state of discomfort one feels when two beliefs, or a belief and behavior, contradict each other, or, when a deeply held belief is disconfirmed by evidence. Written with the social psychologist Elliot Aronson, Tavris and Aronson's book, Mistakes Were Made (But Not by Me): Why We Justify Foolish Beliefs, Bad Decisions, and Hurtful Acts, delves into the role cognitive dissonance has on people and how they see both the world and themselves. The book, first published in 2007, was updated and revised for a second edition in 2015.\nAccording to Tavris and Aronson, cognitive dissonance allows us to justify our",
"-31.062642580393003"
],
[
"it revolves around themes of brokenness and this feeling of being really, really small in the presence of God. When the Lord is growing something in me, it feels like a lot of things are dying—because they really are. And when the Lord is making things soft and vulnerable in me, it's really painful. But even so, I think this is the freest sounding project I've created.\"\nCo-produced by GMA's 2005 producer of the Year Ed Cash, as well as Will Hunt and John Alagia (John Mayer, Dave Matthews Band), Waking Up embraces big questions of suffering, barrenness, vulnerability, romance, and",
"-31.053711440530606"
],
[
"losing control of your emotions.\n8 = Freaking out. The beginning of alienation.\n7 = Starting to freak out, on the edge of some definitely bad feelings. You can maintain control with difficulty.\n6 = Feeling bad to the point that you begin to think something ought to be done about the way you feel.\n5 = Moderately upset, uncomfortable. Unpleasant feelings are still manageable with some effort.\n4 = Somewhat upset to the point that you cannot easily ignore an unpleasant thought. You can handle it OK but don't feel good.\n3 = Mildly upset. Worried, bothered to the point",
"-31.0395219097918"
],
[
"it as the best condition that a human can have—a condition of mental and physical health. Others define it as freedom from want and distress; consciousness of the good order of things; assurance of one's place in the universe or society.\nEmotion has a significant influence on, or can even be said to control, human behavior, though historically many cultures and philosophers have for various reasons discouraged allowing this influence to go unchecked. Emotional experiences perceived as pleasant, such as love, admiration, or joy, contrast with those perceived as unpleasant, like hate, envy, or sorrow. There is often a distinction made",
"-30.962789771321695"
],
[
"bodily feelings like hunger and pain, which are innate), people are able to decide what they want to focus their attention on. However, when one is in the flow state, they are completely engrossed with the one task at hand and, without making the conscious decision to do so, lose awareness of all other things: time, people, distractions, and even basic bodily needs. This occurs because all of the attention of the person in the flow state is on the task at hand; there is no more attention to be allocated.\nThe flow state has been described by Csikszentmihályi as the",
"-30.94939757177781"
],
[
"empty they feel, and then release the words. Already within loneliness is a stirring energy unable to cope with itself. That energy transforms the state of loneliness into an action verb. \nMelancholy\nCompared to the word loneliness, “melancholy” reacts more to the environment outside the self than to the inner self. More precisely, it is a reaction to the relationship between the mind and the environment outside the self. If loneliness gazes at its surroundings, melancholy investigates those surroundings. After investigating what surrounds the heart, the drop in the heart’s temperature as it absorbs the environment’s own low temperature—that is melancholy.\n-",
"-30.945877925667446"
],
[
"report sadness or feeling down.\nSymptoms do not only vary in their expression across cultures but will also greatly vary within cultures and across individuals. Depression is a heterogeneous disorder. Sometimes depression leads to increased appetite, while other times it leads to decreased appetite. Similarly, a symptom of depression can be both an increase in sleep or decrease in sleep. Symptoms will look different from individual to individual; however, as mentioned above, the expression of these symptoms tend to follow somewhat of a trend from one culture to the next. Stigma and knowledge of mental illness In many other non-Western societies,",
"-30.90834329475183"
],
[
"they are violent, tranquil or gentle. Further, they are entirely individual and can in no way be described as constituting absolute objective knowledge. Feeling, therefore, is the only possible criterion of knowledge and of conduct. Our ways of being affected are alone knowable. Thus the sole aim for everyone should be pleasure.\nCyrenaicism deduces a single, universal aim for all people which is pleasure. Furthermore, all feeling is momentary and homogeneous. It follows that past and future pleasure have no real existence for us, and that among present pleasures there is no distinction of kind. Socrates had spoken of the higher",
"-30.885771848836157"
],
[
"environment, provoking certain emotions within an individual. People tend to develop personal meanings of death which could accordingly be negative or positive for the individual. If they are positive, then the consequences of those meanings can be comforting (for example, ideas of a rippling effect left on those still alive). If negative they can cause emotional turmoil. Depending on the certain meaning one has associated with death, the consequences will vary accordingly whether they are negative or positive meanings. Religiosity The thought of death may cause different degrees of anxiety for different individuals, depending on many factors.\nA 2012 study involving",
"-30.83324688665016"
],
[
"Evanescence's own song \"Going Under\" with \"Bring Me to Life\", noting their similarity to Linkin Park's material. Lee said, during an interview with MTV News: \"Basically, we go through life every day, kind of doing the same thing, going through the motions, and nothing fazes us for the most part. Then one day something happens that wakes [you] up and makes [you] realize that there's more to life than just feeling nothing, feeling numb. It's as if [you've] never felt before and just realized there's this whole world of emotion or meaning that [you've] never seen before. It's just like,",
"-30.832570770930033"
],
[
"body activity or thinking. In this case, a depressed person may demonstrate a slowing of thinking, speaking, or body movement. They may speak more softly or say less than usual. To meet diagnostic criteria, changes in motor activity must be so abnormal that it can be observed by others. Personal reports of feeling restless or feeling slow do not count towards the diagnostic criteria. Thoughts of death and suicide A person going through a major depressive episode may have repeated thoughts about death (other than the fear of dying) or suicide (with or without a plan), or may have made",
"-30.790244759991765"
],
[
"to get plenty of rest and get rid of distractions. It’s also important to investigate what’s causing the problem, such as stress or anxiety, and take steps to reduce the feeling.",
"-30.70283992009354"
],
[
"something inherent within it can lead to emotional distress.\nThe severity of this distress can vary greatly. On a few occasions, it has manifested itself as a citywide panic. Other times, it merely caused a single person to temporarily lose their hope. Still other times, it caused several individuals to experience emotionally charged flashbacks, pulled from their subconscious. And, although it could be attributed to his psyche, Annihilus' main motivation is an obsessive fear of death.\nNot all inhabitants of the Negative Zone experience anything beyond normal anxieties, but the number of known instances of unusual psychological distress seems rather high. Visitors",
"-30.594112658523954"
],
[
"unhappiness react to genuine pleasure by unknowingly seeking out experiences of unhappiness. The aversive reaction to pleasure explains the phenomenon of people who reach the pinnacle of success and then end up self-destructing. People with unrecognized needs for unhappiness are also vulnerable when faced with disappointments or loss. In response to loss, they have difficulty comforting themselves and try to feel better by unknowingly recreating unhappy experiences, such as feeling badly about themselves, isolating, overeating, fighting or abusing others.\nTreatment.\nPsychotherapy that is based on the theory of Intrapsychic Humanism is called inner Humanism. Even when people receive",
"-30.551406035316177"
],
[
"feels at the moment he or she answers the questionnaire. If the subject feels bad at the time of answering the questionnaire, the subject will remember the loss as more devastating. If the subject feels good when taking the questionnaire, the subject will report that the loss was less difficult to endure. This subjectivity can change rapidly.\nRecognizing that any single simple measure cannot be accurate, one hallmark of Bonanno's research methodology has relied on several independent measures simultaneously. This ensures convergent validity of any findings. For example, his research studies often simultaneously use, among other measures, skin temperature, heart rate,",
"-30.548471012327354"
],
[
"and awareness\" and that awareness is \"the space in which thoughts exist\". Tolle says that \"the primary cause of unhappiness is never the situation but your thoughts about it\".\nAccording to his official website, \"at the core of Tolle's teachings lies the transformation of consciousness, a spiritual awakening that he sees as the next step in human evolution. An essential aspect of this awakening consists in transcending our ego-based state of consciousness. This is a prerequisite not only for personal happiness but also for the ending of violent conflict endemic on our planet\".\nIn his book A New Earth, he describes",
"-30.529047962161712"
],
[
"This can include amplification of soft sounds or misinterpretation of common sounds.\nIn addition, some people may, in conjunction with a high fever, experience more intense and overt hallucinations, seeing things that are not there and misinterpreting events and situations. Less frequent symptoms sometimes described in Alice in Wonderland syndrome patients include loss of limb control and dis-coordination, memory loss, lingering touch and sound sensations, and emotional instability.\nIt has been noted that patients are often reluctant to describe their symptoms due to fear of being labeled with a psychiatric disorder. It is usually easy to rule out psychosis as those with",
"-30.488444504328072"
],
[
"more alive than when normally conscious:\nMost things were pleasant to see, some things made me very embarrassed. In fact, revulsion and guilt took away any good feelings, making me so very sorry for certain things I had said or done. I hadn't just seen what I had done, but I felt and knew the repercussions of my actions. I felt the injury or pain of those who suffered because of my selfish or inappropriate behavior. Effect The effect of a life review is often a strongly transformative experience. Experiencers describe them as extremely unpleasant from the perspective of the",
"-30.33780100851436"
],
[
"feel now? Empty? Not yet. But we need to get help. When you play 162 games and you're eliminated, then you feel empty. And sick.\" He promised reporters, \"We're going to win tomorrow night.\". The following night, Mets pitcher Dwight Gooden struck out 10, and left after pitching nine innings with the score tied at three runs each, but the Phillies' Luis Aguayo won the game with a 10th-inning pinch-hit home run off of Orosco, clinching at least a tie for first place in the division for the Cardinals.\nThe 1988 Mets returned to the playoffs, but the Phillies, who finished",
"-30.229806666666263"
],
[
"concern us. When we encounter a stimulus that affects our well-being we experience a set of bodily changes that represent things like dangers, losses, and offenses. These bodily changes are appropriate to the situation and are learned over time through association to specific instances we have encountered in the past. They are felt, but oftentimes these feelings are not in the foreground of phenomenal consciousness. When we do pay attention to the feeling it then becomes an actual emotion.\nThe set of possible feelings are limited by our biology and correspond roughly to our traditional emotional categories.",
"-30.19451268017292"
],
[
"Got You on My Mind (song) \"Got You on My Mind\" is a song written by Howard Biggs and Joe Thomas. The lyrics commence: \"Got you on my mind feeling kinda sad and low / Wonderin' where you are / wonderin' why you had to go / Tears began to fall ev'rytime I hear your name.\" The song was recorded by John Greer and the Rhythm Rockers 1951, for whom it was a hit, and then covered by Hawkshaw Hawkins 1952, Buddy Morrow and His Orchestra 1952, Jim Reeves early 1950s, Varetta Dillard 1956, The Del Royals 1961, Cookie and",
"-30.18292378995102"
],
[
"really hits home. It was one of those moments when I was very depressed...That whole time around Untouchables, everybody in the band was going through all this bad stuff. And I was just feelin' it, so I wrote this song about being alone and breaking down, and not feeling like a man's supposed to feel. You're supposed to be tough and take all these problems. So I'm basically saying, 'Does it make me not a man if I'm upset about stuff'\"? – Jonathan Davis\n\"I wrote it when I was going through a rough time. And it's basically a song about",
"-30.141236734227277"
],
[
"that made me feel like it's an aerial view of a moment in life. The emotion of that song inspired me. There isn't really much of a thought process beyond playing the notes, hopefully, in a fashion that can be understood,\" she says. \"But when I sit back and I listen back to it and sing it now, I can feel this is sort of an expansive understanding of life. [...] You have this understanding of continuity that grows out of that feeling.\"\n\"Where I Come From\" was released as the second single on February 1, 2019.\nGriffin embarked on a US",
"-30.13541690260172"
],
[
"and faces of the people around us. It explains why a kind face or a soothing tone of voice can dramatically alter the way we feel. It clarifies why knowing that we are seen and heard by the important people in our lives can make us feel calm and safe, and why being ignored or dismissed can precipitate rage reactions or mental collapse. It helped us understand why attuning with another person can shift us out of disorganized and fearful states. In short, Porges’s theory makes us look beyond the effects of fight or flight and put social relationships front",
"-30.08651004661806"
],
[
"Homeostatic emotion A homeostatic emotion, primordial emotion or primordial feeling is an attention-demanding sensation and motivation (e.g., thirst, pain, fatigue) evoked by an internal body state that drives behavior (drinking, withdrawing and resting in these examples) aimed at maintaining the body's internal environment in its ideal state.\nDerek Denton defines \"primordial emotion\" as \"the subjective element of the instincts, which are the genetically programmed behaviour patterns which contrive homeostasis. They include thirst, hunger for air, hunger for food, pain, hunger for specific minerals etc. There are two constituents of a primordial emotion--the specific sensation which when severe may be imperious, and",
"-30.070370246248785"
],
[
"of sleep disturbance. It may include sleeping for prolonged periods at night or increased sleeping during the daytime. The sleep may not be restful, and the person may feel sluggish despite many hours of sleep, which may amplify their depressive symptoms and interfere with other aspects of their lives. Hypersomnia is often associated with an atypical depression, as well as seasonal affective disorder. Feelings of guilt or worthlessness Depressed people may have feelings of guilt that go beyond a normal level or are delusional. These feelings of guilt and/or worthlessness are excessive and inappropriate. Major depressive episodes are notable for",
"-30.01492162310751"
],
[
"Inertia Creeps Background and composition The song describes a relationship that Robert del Naja had, which at the time had just ended:\nI already had a lot of the lyrics written before. It was just about a relationship I had been going through. It's about being in a situation but knowing you should be out of it but you're too fucking lazy or weak to leave. And you're dishonest to yourself and dishonest to the other person. You're betraying them everyday [sic] and the whole scene feels like it's closing in on you, d'ya-know-what-I-mean? The idea is a combination of movements",
"-29.94484168814961"
],
[
"I just become incapable. I remember with my first boyfriend, walking past the window of a pub, seeing he was in there and literally throwing myself on the ground and crawling on the floor because I was so scared! I feel things quite intensely, which is probably why the music is quite intense. If I really like someone, I like someone; if I'm sad, I'm sad.\nI was listening to a lot of hip hop and I wanted to make something that had that kind of beat to it. To me it's the most forward-thinking music around. No one else is",
"-29.911923215404386"
],
[
"Some individuals, when feeling sad, may exclude themselves from a social setting, so as to take the time to recover from the feeling.\nWhile being one of the moods people most want to shake, sadness can sometimes be perpetuated by the very coping strategies chosen, such as ruminating, \"drowning one's sorrows\", or permanently isolating oneself. As alternative ways of coping with sadness to the above, cognitive behavioral therapy suggests instead either challenging one's negative thoughts, or scheduling some positive event as a distraction.\nBeing attentive to, and patient with, one's sadness may also be a way for people to learn through",
"-29.908640248468146"
],
[
"the feeling that comes from my inspiration. Perception synonymous with abstract, I crave it when I listen to music. To reach the place beyond perception where you lose yourself. That is where those happy mistakes come from, the ego is aside and it's nothing technical.",
"-29.903549320239108"
],
[
"about that experience. And I was experiencing it in the moment that I was writing the songs, and sort of asking myself: What the hell is going on? Why are you all of a sudden totally paranoid and plagued by these anxieties? And why is everything so distorted and confusing and fucked up? My lifestyle hadn't changed that much. And then I realized, well, there's something going on inside of me that I don't have control over, and then you realize how vulnerable you are to these things, these elements that you can't understand, or unless you go on medication",
"-29.890518795582466"
],
[
"mind has suffered an acute paroxysm of grief, and the cause still continues, we fall into a state of low spirits, or we may be utterly cast down and dejected. Prolonged bodily pain, if not amounting to an agony, generally leads to the same state of mind. If we expect to suffer, we are anxious; if we have no hope of relief, we despair.\" \nSubsequent chapters include considerations of \"reflection and meditation\" (associated with \"ill-temper\", sulkiness and determination), Chapter 10 on hatred and anger, Chapter 11 on \"disdain, contempt, disgust, guilt, pride, helplessness, patience and affirmation\" and Chapter 12 on",
"-29.848711366415955"
],
[
"feeling of powerlessness, helplessness, of not being recognized as a human being but rather being treated in purely bureaucratic terms by a government agency to which I had turned in vain with an urgent need for help.\nI felt that my masculinity was at stake, that I had to regain control of the situation or go under trying. As the Bruce Springsteen song goes, \"Sometimes I feel so weak I just want to explode....\" These feelings are directly related to my D.C. experience, the subconscious emotions that are dredged up when I feel completely vulnerable. In this state I went",
"-29.805664160638116"
],
[
"and never really achieving anything'. \"The World or Nothing\" continues this trend, with James describing the theme as 'the vicious cycle of feeling lost and resorting to the aid of alcohol while also feeling lost because of alcohol. It talks about how self-destructive a lot of us are and how we enjoy abusing our bodies'. Of \"Nelson's County\", Veck-Gilodi has said: 'This song is about the county of Norfolk and how a lot of the people who reside there seem to have no real ambition other than working a 9-5, raising a family and living a normal life'.\nNorfolk is the",
"-29.799523031921126"
],
[
"of a void and a vague discontent. This arises from an existential vacuum, or feeling of meaninglessness, which is a common phenomenon and is characterised by the subjective state of boredom, apathy, and emptiness. One feels cynical, lacks direction, and questions the point of most of life's activities.\nPeople without a meaning in their life are exposed to aggression, depression and addiction.\nViktor Frankl once recommended that the Statue of Liberty on the East Coast of the United States be complemented by a Statue of Responsibility on the West Coast:\nFreedom, however, is not the last word. Freedom is only part of the",
"-29.7333779981127"
],
[
"it is actually necessary. Feel The Misery is actually a question designed to provoke (probably naively) a thought as to why it’s like this, have anyone of us actually thought who benefits from bombing each other constantly for example? Follow the money and it becomes pretty clear who’s in charge and who benefits from the division.",
"-29.720997525932034"
],
[
"involves the inability to identify and modulate strong emotions such as sadness or anger, which leaves the individual prone to \"sudden affective outbursts such as crying or rage\". According to Tony Attwood, the inability to express feelings using words may also predispose the individual to use physical acts to articulate the mood and release the emotional energy.\nPeople with AS report a feeling of being detached against their will from the world around them (\"on the outside looking in\"). They may have difficulty finding a life partner or getting married due to poor social skills. The complexity and inconsistency of the",
"-29.7113300972851"
],
[
"have some degree of tranquillity by the time you get to the end. It only takes about ten minutes to do this process.\" There are references back to Astral Weeks with gardens wet with rain and a childlike vision. The words are poetic as in the line \"you are a creature all in rapture/You had the key to your soul\".\n\"Got to Go Back\" features Kate St. John's oboe and reminisces of school days back in the singer's childhood in Belfast. \"Oh, The Warm Feeling\" is also a song of feeling the safety of family and love in childhood.\n\"Foreign Window\" is",
"-29.705380022525787"
],
[
"the individual may often think that the cause must be something more serious. This can, in turn, cause more anxiety and worsen the derealization. Derealization also has been shown to interfere with the learning process, with cognitive impairments demonstrated in immediate recall and visuospatial deficits. This can be best understood as the individual feel as if they see the events as if in third person, therefore he or she cannot properly process information especially through the visual pathway.\nPeople experiencing derealization describe feeling as if they are viewing the world through a TV screen. This, co-morbidities such as depression and anxiety,",
"-29.699231243226677"
],
[
"overwhelmed; a great many thoughts may be revolving within their mind, and they may either become triggered or could make a decision to stop the overwhelming feelings.\"\nAlternatively, self-harm may be a means of feeling something, even if the sensation is unpleasant and painful. Those who self-harm sometimes describe feelings of emptiness or numbness (anhedonia), and physical pain may be a relief from these feelings. \"A person may be detached from themselves, detached from life, numb and unfeeling. They may then recognise the need to function more, or have a desire to feel real again, and a decision is made to",
"-29.664158787447377"
],
[
"go about living. Others, wanting to be able to offer up an explanation to make the person feel better, generally say things such as \"At least they are in a better place\" or \"God wanted him/her home.\" People, who are never really left with an explanation as to why, generally fall back on the reason that \"it was their time to go\" and through this somewhat \"explanation\" find themselves able to move on and keep living life. Over time when looking back at the experience of someone close to you dying, one may find that through this hardship they became",
"-29.638951365894172"
],
[
"and Brahmins who speak thus and are of such opinion: 'Whatever a particular person experiences, whether pleasant or painful, or neither pleasant nor painful, all this has its cause in what was previously done. For this reason, the elimination of previous deeds through penance [Tapas] and the non-performaning of new deeds [kamma] is tantamount to non-inflow in the future. From the non flow in the future, there is destruction of deeds. From the destruction of deeds, there is destruction of pain. From the destruction of pain, there is destruction of feeling; from the destruction of feeling, all pain will become",
"-29.614716433919966"
],
[
"suffering and the unwholesome deeds that lead to suffering. It will increase your enthusiasm for engaging in the wholesome actions and deeds that lead to happiness and joy. When you are aware of your pain and suffering it helps you to develop your amount of empathy. Allow you to relate to other people's feelings and suffering. Our attitude may begin to change because our sufferings may not be as worthless and as bad as we may think. Dr. Paul Brand went to India and explored over there and looked at how people suffered physical pain. He says it is",
"-29.576729509601137"
],
[
"and feeling threatened, because these emotions occur when danger or harm is anticipated or impending. Analyses of such emotions have described them as being associated with the standpoint of one or more other people and discrepancy from norms or moral standards. The motivational nature of this discrepancy suggests that one might experience feelings of resentment. The feeling of resentment arises from the anticipated pain to be inflicted by others. The person might also experience anxiety because of apprehension over negative responses from others. This discrepancy is associated with agitation from fear and threat. In addition, it is also associated with",
"-29.557827595410345"
],
[
"has deep meaning. As the way you think of the song will change depending on when you listen to it, when you're a little tired the song might have a sad feel, also if you listen to it at other times it might provide encouragement. There are lyrics have phrases like 'I will absolutely not leave you even if everyone is leaving', and I think it has very good meaning.\" Music video On July 5, 2013, the original version of the music video was released simultaneously on both A Cube's and CJ E&M's YouTube channel. It was directed by Hong",
"-29.557688721106388"
],
[
"tend to feel increased levels of personal distress when perceiving any sign of pain in other people. This tightened self-oriented negative emotion of personal distress has been described as ‘hyper sensitivity’ to the pain of others. This 'hyper sensitivity' has been suggested to overwhelm the individual and hence impair their ability to empathetically respond and relate to the pain of others on a personal level. The increased levels of personal distress may increase the individual's need to reduce their own discomfort, meaning they give less attention to and empathize less with the pain of others. Sadistic personality disorder Psychopathy is",
"-29.546412712195888"
],
[
"who feels the pleasure and pain,\n\nOne should not desire to understand the opinion and thinking but should desire to know him who opines and thinks.\n\nBecause if there were no elements of consciousness, there would be no elements of material being\n\nBecause if there were no elements of material being, there would be no elements of consciousness\n\nBecause any one phenomenon does not come about through the one without the other,\n\nBecause Prana (life-force) is also the Prajnatman (knowledge-self), is bliss, is not ageing, is immortal\n\nThis is my Atman (soul) which one should know, O! this is my Atman which one should know.\n— Kausitaki Upanishad,",
"-29.51771419378929"
],
[
"have fears and for some people, when they get the fears or worries, they turn to a higher power. I just kind of deal with it. And when I go, that's it; I'm gone into the ground and 'goodbye world'. Which isn't depressing; some people might find it depressing. And I might be wrong and that's the good thing because if I'm wrong I'll get into heaven(!)\".",
"-29.49972581525799"
],
[
"posits that affect, along with pain, homeostatic life support processes and the cyclical drives, constitute the primary motivating forces in all human affairs. Of these motivational forces the affects are seen as the primary, and by far the most flexible. (Solbakken, Hansen & Monsen, 2011). Continuum A person with a low level of affect consciousness is expected to be unable to make sense of both his or her own feelings and the emotions of others and to have difficulties attributing causes for his or her own and others' behaviors. A person with high AC is expected to make sense",
"-29.49673031945713"
],
[
"anxiety. On the other hand, while being self-focused, a perceived discrepancy between current behavior and the ideal standard will lead to feelings of dejection and disappointment.",
"-29.494481375208125"
],
[
"an ardent desire or longing, especially a feeling of loss or grief for something lost. It also has a meaning of having feelings for something that we no longer have and wish very much we did. Desiderium comes from the word desiderare, meaning to long for.\nIn Portuguese, \"Tenho saudades tuas\" (European Portuguese) or \"Estou com saudades de você\" (Brazilian Portuguese), translates as \"I have (feel) saudade of you\" meaning \"I miss you\", but carries a much stronger tone. In fact, one can have saudade of someone whom one is with, but have some feeling of loss towards the past",
"-29.487737941322848"
],
[
"agitation- or dejection-related emotions, such as feeling inexplicably depressed or despondent, becoming angry for no apparent reason, or having nightmares or disturbing daydreams about a person. Effects Resentment is most powerful when it is felt toward someone whom the individual is close to or intimate with. To have an injury resulting in resentful feelings inflicted by a friend or loved one leaves the individual feeling betrayed as well as resentful, and these feelings can have deep effects.\nResentment is an emotionally debilitating condition that, when unresolved, can have a variety of negative results on the person experiencing it, including touchiness or",
"-29.449956242504413"
],
[
"no other reason than you feel as if you’ve experienced a change yourself from seeing it.\"",
"-29.41867421689676"
],
[
"unhappiness they had inflicted on others, including feelings they had never dreamed of as resulting, and equally pleasant from the perspective of the good feeling they had brought to others' lives, extending to the littlest forgotten details. To some extent, this experience resembles purgatory. The Tibetan Buddhist understanding can be found in The Tibetan Book of The Dead, and is known as Bardo Thodol (the stage between life and afterlife).\nExperiencers often report a sharp drop in materialistic outlook (both acquisitive and philosophical), an intensified compassion for others and sense of interconnectedness, newfound altruistic activities, personality changes (though occasionally entailing",
"-29.405377010582015"
],
[
"experiences delight which follows from the contact of the senses with their objects of enjoyments, and there is also enjoyment derived through practice of adoration, meditation, etc.; whereby end of sorrow is reached. But even this is not the state of supreme or true happiness. Both, the Physical good and the Spiritual good, result in bliss; whereas the former by itself is an aspect of bliss, the latter constitutes the acme of bliss. According to the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy, Ānanda is that state of sublime delight when the Jiva, the individual empirical self, becomes free from all sins,",
"-29.389389037620276"
],
[
"person with a signal for when to sleep and when to wake up. If circadian rhythm and sleep-wake cycle are misaligned, this might lead to negative affect and emotional instability. It has been found that emotions vary depending on the circadian rhythm and the duration of how long one was awake. Circadian sleep-rhythm disorders like shift-work disorder or Jetlag-disorder have been found to similarly contribute to the Dysregulation of affect, with symptoms like irritability, anxiety, apathy and dysphoria.",
"-29.380523636064027"
],
[
"range of experience related to the threat of personal annihilation, of destruction of self, of nonbeing, and more generally, of the painful side of the human condition. As long as this range of experience remains unconscious, the person will have a limited ability to be empathic with self or others in the more painful aspects of human life.\nAt the same time, 'the lower unconscious merely represents the most primitive part of ourselves...It is not bad, it is just earlier '. Indeed, 'the \"lower\" side has many attractions and great vitality', and – as with Freud's id, or Jung's shadow –",
"-29.347254967942717"
],
[
"reserved with their criticism. The family members feel that the patient doesn't have control over the disorder. When the family is more educated and doesn't have to 'put up' with the patient and his/her disorder they are more likely to have low expressed emotion. Low expressed emotion causes a different kind of stress (citation ?) and it is less directly aimed at the patient.\nHigh or low expressed emotion makes the patient feel trapped, out of control and dependent upon others. The patient may feel like an outsider because of the excessive attention received. In bipolar patients relapse from manic to depressed",
"-29.33851277072972"
],
[
"it. Thirdly, to be self-content, one must feel joy. This joy comes not from living but from letting live.",
"-29.326290796801914"
],
[
"regretful ruminations upon the past, low self-esteem, and depleted belief in self-determination and a capacity to cope can undermine the efficiency of the immune system, increasing vulnerability to ill health. Simultaneously, the biochemical indicators of ill health monitored by the immune system feeds back to the brain via the nervous system, which exacerbates thoughts and feelings of a negative nature. That is to say, we feel and think of ourselves as unwell, which contributes to physical conditions of ill health, which in turn cause us to feel and think of ourselves as unwell.\nHowever, the interplay between cognitive and emotional, neurological,",
"-29.324126883977442"
],
[
"feel happy and motivated to pursue that behavior. When a somatic marker associated with the negative outcome is perceived, the person may feel sad and the emotion may act as an internal alarm to warn the individual to avoid a course of action. These situation-specific somatic states based on, and reinforced by, past experiences help to guide behavior in favor of more advantageous choices and therefore are adaptive.\nAccording to the SMH, two distinct pathways reactivate somatic marker responses. In the first pathway, emotion can be evoked by the changes in the body that are projected to the brain—called the \"body",
"-29.321000650525093"
],
[
"extent all this seems to be wished, forced. Deep down, you feel that you do not live, that you are vegetating, that you are floating.\" In another letter, she said, \"The beings that I love the most have died or are absent and I see this strange fact: I live increasingly away from the beings that surround me, and I take refuge in memories, in the past. I cannot find a place in reality. I'm constantly upset, hurt. Beings and things that I endured perfectly before, now make me nervous and exasperate me to a point that I came",
"-29.294495682464913"
],
[
"it, and I think 'Feel This Moment' is gonna be a great record, because it's got a very powerful sample and everybody's gonna dance too. On top of that, when I say 'Feel this Moment' is basically, 'feel life, don't live life for a moment, live life for life, that is your moment.'\" Critical response \"Feel This Moment\" received generally positive reviews from music critics. David Jeffries of AllMusic picked the song as one of the album's standout tracks, calling it a \"glorious disco explosion.\" Entertainment Weekly's journalist Ray Rahman thought that \"Feel This Moment\" was \"the best song on",
"-29.28025357244769"
],
[
"feeling states of the unitary lived-body which are experienced as a unified field or whole (e.g., comfort, health, vigor, strength, tiredness, illness, weakness, advancing age, phantom limb phenomenon…), and which manifest intentionally as fear and hope.\nThe remaining two strata of the emotive map belongs to the realm of individual personhood because these emotions transcend (or at least exceed) the physical restrictions of lived-body and environment; they are the least subject to arbitrary alteration; and they are also by their very nature communicable and social in character.\nThese are, first, the purely psychic feeling states or emotions having a characteristically ego-quality (e.g.,",
"-29.257015670184046"
],
[
"thought and that thoughts are not free of feeling. The experiential system also takes past experiences into account. In other words, if a person has already experienced a certain issue, he or she is more likely to take more precautions towards the issue. Experimental findings Many studies have been done to further look into affect heuristics and many have found that these heuristics shape our attitudes and opinions towards our decisions, especially risk perception. These studies demonstrate how affect is an important characteristic of the decision-making process in many different domains and aspects as well as how it can lead",
"-29.24728551962471"
],
[
"that can change the way a person's affect displays are conveyed. Reduced affect is when a person's emotions cannot be properly conveyed or displayed physically. There is no actual change in how intensely they truly feel emotions, there is simply a disparity between emotions felt and how intensely they are conveyed. These disorders can greatly affect a person's quality of life, depending on how intense the disability is. Flat, blunted and restricted affect These are symptoms in which an affected person feels an emotion, but does not or cannot display it. Flat being the most severe in where there is",
"-29.237957189092413"
],
[
"asked about emotions, they are more likely to have self-focused responses \"I feel joy\" whereas as Japanese typical reaction would reflect emotions between the self and others \"I would like to share my happiness with others.\" Culture and emotion regulation Emotions play a critical role in interpersonal relationships and how people relate to each other. Emotional exchanges can have serious social consequences that can result in either maintaining and enhancing positive relationships, or becoming a source of antagonism and discord (Fredrickson, 1998; Gottman & Levenson, 1992)). Even though people may generally \"want to feel better than worse\" (Larsen,",
"-29.220772852917435"
],
[
"void and that person might feel depressed that he or she can not get to that ultimate step. Using these behavioral modifications or techniques one can train or teach oneself how to better attain these goals.",
"-29.216150412335992"
],
[
"constants or images, objects that warp, morph, or change solid colours; a sense of melting into the environment, and trails behind moving objects. Sounds may seem to have increased clarity—music, for example, can take on a profound sense of cadence and depth. Some users experience synesthesia, wherein they perceive, for example, a visualization of color upon hearing a particular sound. Emotional As with other psychedelics such as LSD, the experience, or 'trip', is strongly dependent upon set and setting. Hilarity, depression, lack of concentration, and muscular relaxation (including dilated pupils) are all normal effects, sometimes in the same trip. A",
"-29.205840654860367"
],
[
"of dysfunctional thinking and acting, and allows people to change thoughts of great distress like:\n· “Existing conditions must be changed to give me what I like, otherwise I can't stand it and I can't be happy at all!”\n· \"I must have immediate gratification and have to have it, or else I can't stand it and my life is awful\"\n· \"I can't stand hassles\"\nInto more rational and less exaggerated thoughts like:\n· \"I don't like existing conditions\"\n· \"I would like immediate gratification\"\n·",
"-29.205518676535576"
],
[
"or weak, beautiful or ugly, black or white, in various places, religions, castes etc. It is only after numerous apparent births and deaths, that the range of human experience starts to get exhausted. In this way the soul starts dissociating itself from the gross world, enabling its consciousness to become aware of the subtle sphere. Involution When gross impressions become fainter, consciousness starts turning its focus from the apparent outer world inwards. This marks the beginning of its involution. Gradually the thinner gross impressions become subtle impressions, through which the soul experiences the subtle world, and as subtle impressions get",
"-29.181429400807247"
],
[
"Feeling\", according to Stroud, is the turning point at which she begins to face her responsibility to the community, her friends and her family. Not only does she continue her Slaying despite a lack of inspiration, but for the rest of the season she works at a humiliating job to provide for her sister and friends. Music and style \"Once More, with Feeling\" was Joss Whedon's first attempt at writing music, which he had always wanted to do. He learned how to play guitar to write several songs. Christophe Beck, a regular composer for the series, filled in the overture",
"-29.17933829559479"
],
[
"\"here feeling is contrasted with perceptual states that make one aware of the world around them. The 'enemy' that one can feel is oneself. 'To feel' in this case refers to a kind of awareness one has of oneself independent of the sensations of the outside world... Like perceptual feeling it is a kind of direct awareness and so a kind of knowledge by acquaintance.\"\nRobyn Brothers felt the line \"I'd break bread and wine / If there was a church I could receive in\" referenced feelings of spiritual alienation. She compared the song to \"Zooropa\", stating that both reference a",
"-29.177333134575747"
],
[
"responsibility to God, feeling abandoned by God or blaming God for difficulties. It often manifests itself as a less secure relationship with God, an ominous worldview and general spiritual discontent. For those who engage in negative spiritual coping, it is related to significantly poorer physical and mental health outcomes as well as higher mortality. In a study done by Pargament (1998), negative spiritual coping had differing negative health implications among different populations. For citizens of Oklahoma City who experienced the federal building bombing, it was associated with more post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and higher levels of callousness. For college students,",
"-29.169388935435563"
],
[
"and the resulting feeling of well-being before, during, and after the experience.\nVatsyayana, the author of the Kamasutra, describes kama as happiness that is a manasa vyapara (phenomenon of the mind). Just like the Mahabharata, Vatsyayana's Kamasutra defines kama as pleasure an individual experiences from the world, with one or more senses: hearing, seeing, tasting, smelling, and feeling—in harmony with one's mind and soul. Experiencing harmonious music is kama, as is being inspired by natural beauty, the aesthetic appreciation of a work of art, and admiring with joy something created by another human being. Kama Sutra, in its discourse on kama,",
"-29.154565951233963"
],
[
"assumed to be felt by the performer or composer. Listeners can become sad because they recognize that those emotions must have been felt by the composer, much as the viewer of a play can empathize for the actors.\nListeners may also respond to emotional music through action. Throughout history music was composed to inspire people into specific action - to march, dance, sing or fight. Consequently, heightening the emotions in all these events. In fact, many people report being unable to sit still when certain rhythms are played, in some cases even engaging in subliminal actions when physical manifestations should",
"-29.136571295908652"
],
[
"detached view of the world. I see my life — so much dreary, mundane, wasted time wishing upon unattainable goals — and I feel little attachment to the future. But it is not so bad, relatively. I exaggerate. \"In the end, it is that I am unwilling (sick of living) to live in mediocrity. And this is what I have chosen to do about it. \"The saddest part is the inevitable guilt and sorrow I will force on my family and friends. But there is not much I can say. I am sorry. Try to understand that this is about",
"-29.12504558142973"
],
[
"negative feelings, it results in increasing one's mood and heightening positive emotions, which can stem from feelings of warmth or coping resulting from nostalgic reflections. One way to improve mood is to effectively cope with problems that hinder one's happiness. Batcho (2013) found that nostalgia proneness positively related to successful methods of coping throughout all stages—planning and implementing strategies, and reframing the issue positively. These studies led to the conclusion that the coping strategies that are likely among nostalgia prone people often lead to benefits during stressful times. Nostalgia can be connected to more focus on coping strategies and implementing",
"-29.069884768105112"
],
[
"to go on feeling that way. Unhappiness means feeling bad and wanting things to change.\" Thus AfH tends towards a subjective well-being definition of happiness.\nAfH supports people to understand that everybody has an inner world and mental health, and that everybody can choose to take action to look after their mental health, in good times as well as bad times. Just like choosing to look after our physical health by exercising and eating good food, you can look after your mind by developing skills to be happy. AfH Keys to Happier Living AfH promotes 10 Keys to Happier Living which",
"-29.069441835279576"
],
[
"deep depression, alternating with periods of normal mood and/or manic episodes, which are not just periods of \"high energy\" or \"productivity\", though these may be a symptom of mania.",
"-29.06279636383988"
],
[
"\"frenzied action\" or violence. In sociology, a sense of emptiness is associated with social alienation of the individual. This sense of alienation may be suppressed while working, due to the routine nature of work tasks, but during leisure hours or during the weekend, people may feel a sense of \"existential vacuum\" and emptiness.\nIn political philosophy, emptiness is associated with nihilism. Literary critic Georg Lukács (born in 1885) argued against the \"spiritual emptiness and moral inadequacy of capitalism\", and argued in favour of communism as an \"entirely new type of civilization, one that promised a fresh start and an opportunity to",
"-29.060742924652004"
],
[
"sigh. The world says stop that. Another sigh. Another stop that. Moaning elicits laughter. Sighing upsets,\" (59). This thought repeats the sentiment expressed in chapter 2, regarding the difference between \"sellable anger\" and the other, unmarketable but more genuine \"..anger built up through experience and the quotidian struggles against dehumanization...\" – the kind of anger, Rankine states, that makes a person appear insane (24).\nLater, Rankine writes \"you like to think memory goes far back though remembering was never recommended. Forget all that, the world says. The world's had a lot of practice. No one should adhere to the facts that",
"-29.002532209153287"
]
] |
4iy7or | How is that wine bypasses any expiration dates and essentially gets "better" as it ages? | [
"Its typically red wine that gets better with age, white wine turns to vinegar. Its down to personal preference also.",
"Most spoilage occurs due to either rancidity, or microbial growth. Wine contains essentially zero fats, so rancidity isn't an issue. And as far as microbes go, there are very few of them that can tolerate ethanol concentrations anywhere near what's in wine. One of the few that can is yeast, which is what was used to make the wine in the first place. One of the others is a group of little critters referred to as acetobacteria, because they like to eat ethanol and make acetic acid, vinegar. So, if you do get a wine that's been contaminated with a microbe that will digest it, it will in fact go bad and turn into wine vinegar. Now, as far as aged wine being better, that depends. A lot of wines are still made using wild fermentation techniques, which means that the yeast they use isn't from some named and predictable package, it just happens to be whatever was floating around the vinter's yard that day or hanging out on the skins of the grapes. Those wild yeast can make some really awesome flavors. Or some really terrible ones. Fortunately, most of the terrible flavors tend to be rather unstable. So if you allow the wine to just sit around in a cool to slightly warm area (25*C would be pushing it), the unstable compounds will break down and the flavors will mellow. If you get it too hot, the wine will basically cook and too much of the flavor will disappear. If you keep it too cold, the wine will take a very long time to age and some of the nasty flavors will probably never disappear. You also want some of those ostensibly unpleasant flavors to stick around. They help provide complexity to the flavor profile and can balance out any residual sweetness from sugars that the yeast didn't convert into alcohol. This means that there's a sweet spot in the age of a wine where it's at it's best. When this range is will depend on the wine. Sweeter whites tend to peak in a few months, as they have a lot of residual sweetness and very little tannin to balance it. Dry reds tend to peak in a few years, since they have a lot of tannin and very little sugar to balance it.",
"Wine has a lot of alcohol in it. Alcohol stops microorganisms from growing. Microorganisms growing in your food is the #1 cause of it going bad. ...and most people overestimate how much aging will improve wine. Most wines don't really get better after a year or two of aging. A few good ones might improve a few years after that, at which point they pretty much stand still. The only good reason to pay for crazy expensive 20 year old bottles of wine is because they're rare classics - nobody will ever make another 1997 Pierre Whatever Merlot again - and you want to show off that you can afford it."
] | [
[
"also notes that the wine tends not to age very well and is often consumed within a year of its vintage date.",
"-31.39226943725953"
],
[
"age. Storage factors The storage condition of the bottled wine will influence a wine's aging. Vibrations and heat fluctuations can hasten a wine's deterioration and cause adverse effect on the wines. In general, a wine has a greater potential to develop complexity and more aromatic bouquet if it is allowed to age slowly in a relatively cool environment. The lower the temperature, the more slowly a wine develops. On average, the rate of chemical reactions in wine double with each 18 °F (8 °C) increase in temperature. Wine expert Karen MacNeil recommends keeping wine intended for aging in a cool area with",
"-30.697775772239766"
],
[
"Storage of wine Storage of wine is an important consideration for wine that is being kept for long-term aging. While most wine is consumed within 24 hours of purchase, fine wines are often set aside for long-term storage. Wine is one of the few commodities that can improve in flavour and value with age, but it can also rapidly deteriorate if kept in inadequate conditions. \nThe three factors that have the most direct impact on a wine's condition are light, humidity, and temperature. Historically, the storage of wine was handled by wine merchants. Since the mid-20th century, however, consumers have",
"-30.519776349829044"
],
[
"Reserve wine Reserva in Iberia In Portugal and Spain, reserva is a regulated term controlled by law, at least ensuring that reserve wines get some additional ageing. In practice it is very difficult to regulate quality, so the term primarily deals with ageing and alcoholic strength. In Portuguese and Spanish wines, the requirements varies between regions, but typically, when used on a label \"Reserva\" means that the wine was aged for at least three years in the cask and bottle, at least one of which must have been in the cask.\nThose that have been aged for five years (two in",
"-30.51919535948764"
],
[
"in the bottle. Due to the cost of storage, it is not economical to age cheap wines, but many varieties of wine do not benefit from aging, regardless of the quality. Experts vary on precise numbers, but typically state that only 5–10% of wine improves after 1 year, and only 1% improves after 5–10 years.\nIn general, wines with a low pH (such as pinot noir and Sangiovese) have a greater capability of aging. With red wines, a high level of flavor compounds, such as phenolics (most notably tannins), will increase the likelihood that a wine will be able to age.",
"-30.479971635431866"
],
[
"bottling can also influence how well a wine ages and may require significant time and financial investment. The quality of an aged wine varies significantly bottle-by-bottle, depending on the conditions under which it was stored, and the condition of the bottle and cork, and thus it is said that rather than good old vintages, there are good old bottles. There is a significant mystique around the aging of wine, as its chemistry was not understood for a long time, and old wines are often sold for extraordinary prices. However, the vast majority of wine is not aged, and even wine",
"-30.19261229474796"
],
[
"the wine and result in premature oxidation.\nWines packaged in large format bottles, such as magnums and 3 liter Jeroboams, seem to age more slowly than wines packaged in regular 750 ml bottles or half bottles. This may be because of the greater proportion of oxygen exposed to the wine during the bottle process. The advent of alternative wine closures to cork, such as screw caps and synthetic corks have opened up recent discussions on the aging potential of wines sealed with these alternative closures. Currently there are no conclusive results and the topic is the subject of ongoing research. Bottle",
"-30.16699119019904"
],
[
"was traditionally three weeks, which gave the winemaking staff enough time to close down the estate after harvest to take a hunting holiday. The results of these long maceration periods are very tannic and flavorful wines that require years of aging. Wine producers that wish to make a wine more approachable within a couple of years will drastically reduce the maceration time to as little as a few days. Following maceration, the Cabernet must can be fermented at high temperatures up to 30 °C (86 °F). The temperature of fermentation will play a role in the result, with deeper colors",
"-30.072362416947726"
],
[
"more the wine contents alcohol and / or sugar the less sensitive it will be to temperature variances. Conditions Wine can be stored satisfactorily between 7–18 °C (45–64 °F) as long as any variations are gradual. A temperature of 13 °C (55 °F), much like that found in the caves used to store wine in France, is ideal for both short-term storage and long-term aging of wine. Note that wine generally matures differently and more slowly at a lower temperature than it does at a higher temperature. When the temperature swings are significant, 14 degrees or more, it will cause the wine to breathe",
"-29.58480044909811"
],
[
"plate. Fermentation is then stopped early through the use of sulphur dioxide to allow the wine to retain a high level of residual sugar. The wine is then chilled and put through sterile filtration to ensure that the wine is stable and will not start fermenting again in the bottle.\nDepending on the winemaking style the grape can often hit its peak at one-two years of age, though some can stay at high levels of quality up to ten years. Typically Condrieu wines are the Viogniers most often meant to be drunk young while Californian and Australian wines can handle age",
"-29.56916038640702"
],
[
"Master of Wine, Clive Coates, the principle states that a wine will remain at its peak (or optimal) drinking quality for a duration of time that is equal to the time of maturation required to reach its optimal quality. During the aging of a wine certain flavors, aromas and textures appear and fade. Rather than developing and fading in unison, these traits each operate on a unique path and time line. The principle allows for the subjectivity of individual tastes because it follows the logic that positive traits that appeal to one particular wine taster will continue to persist along",
"-29.558422130998224"
],
[
"(some other wines in the EU need only be 85% to be called vintage, depending on their type and appellation). To maintain the quality of non-vintage Champagne a maximum of half the grapes harvested in one year can be used in the production of vintage Champagne ensuring at least 50%, though usually more, is reserved for non-vintage wines. Vintage Champagnes are the product of a single high-quality year, and bottles from prestigious makers can be rare and expensive. Bottle ageing Even experts disagree about the effects of ageing on Champagne after disgorgement. Some prefer the freshness and vitality of young,",
"-29.49605018593138"
],
[
"class evolved with warehouses and the finances to facilitate aging wines for a longer period of time. In regions like Bordeaux, Oporto and Burgundy, this situation dramatically increased the balance of power towards the merchant classes. Aging potential There is a widespread misconception that wine always improves with age, or that wine improves with extended aging, or that aging potential is an indicator of good wine. Some authorities state that more wine is consumed too old than too young. Aging changes wine, but does not categorically improve it or worsen it. Fruitiness deteriorates rapidly, decreasing markedly after only 6 months",
"-29.35421800611948"
],
[
"at an optimal maturation for that drinker until it has reached 20 years of age at which time those positive traits that the drinker perceives will start to fade. Artificial aging There is a long history of using artificial means to try to accelerate the natural aging process. In Ancient Rome a smoke chamber known as a fumarium was used to enhance the flavor of wine through artificial aging. Amphorae were placed in the chamber, which was built on top of a heated hearth, in order to impart a smoky flavor in the wine that also seemed to sharpen the",
"-29.024130061327014"
],
[
"that is aged is rarely aged for long; it is estimated that 90% of wine is meant to be consumed within a year of production, and 99% of wine within 5 years. History The Ancient Greeks and Romans were aware of the potential of aged wines. In Greece, early examples of dried \"straw wines\" were noted for their ability to age due to their high sugar contents. These wines were stored in sealed earthenware amphorae and kept for many years. In Rome, the most sought after wines—Falernian and Surrentine—were prized for their ability to age for decades. In the Book",
"-29.02245686511742"
],
[
"wine may age to a point where other components of the wine (such as a tannins and fruit) are less noticeable themselves, which will then bring back a heightened perception of wine acidity. Other chemical processes that occur during aging include the hydrolysis of flavor precursors which detach themselves from glucose molecules and introduce new flavor notes in the older wine and aldehydes become oxidized. The interaction of certain phenolics develops what is known as tertiary aromas which are different from the primary aromas that are derived from the grape and during fermentation.\nAs a wine starts to mature, its bouquet",
"-28.99335903591418"
],
[
"Roman wines, with mature examples from older vintages fetching higher prices than that from the current vintage, regardless of its overall quality. Roman law codified the distinction between \"old\" and \"new\" as whether wine had aged for at least a year. Falernian was particularly valued for its aging ability, said to need at least 10 years to mature but being at its best between 15 and 20 years. The white wine from Surrentine was said to need at least 25 years.\nIn the manner of Greek wine, Roman wine was often flavored with herbs and spices (similar to modern vermouth and",
"-28.968237056804355"
],
[
"what is known as \"reductive\" ageing. This process leads to the wine losing its color very slowly and produces a wine which is smoother on the palate and less tannic.\nThe latter, being matured in wooden barrels, whose permeability allows a small amount of exposure to oxygen, experience what is known as \"oxidative\" aging. They too lose color, but at a faster pace. They also lose volume to evaporation (angel's share), leaving behind a wine that is slightly more viscous.\nThe IVDP (Instituto dos Vinhos do Douro e Porto) further divides port into two categories: normal ports (standard rubies, three-year-old tawnies, and",
"-28.89127029250085"
],
[
"because some seasons will be much warmer and produce riper grapes and better wine. On the other hand, a poor growing season can lead to grapes failing to reach optimal ripeness, resulting in grape juice that is higher in acid and lower in sugar, which affects the quality of the resulting wine.\nIn many wine regions, especially in the New World, growing seasons are much more uniform. In dry regions, the systematic and controlled use of irrigation also contributes to uniform vintages. However, such wines are regularly labeled by vintage because of consumer demand.\nWines of superior vintages from prestigious producers and",
"-28.89051438671595"
],
[
"Aging of wine The aging of wine is potentially able to improve the quality of wine. This distinguishes wine from most other consumable goods. While wine is perishable and capable of deteriorating, complex chemical reactions involving a wine's sugars, acids and phenolic compounds (such as tannins) can alter the aroma, color, mouthfeel and taste of the wine in a way that may be more pleasing to the taster. The ability of a wine to age is influenced by many factors including grape variety, vintage, viticultural practices, wine region and winemaking style. The condition that the wine is kept in after",
"-28.769034097203985"
],
[
"have such a very limited shelf-life is because of their low phenolic levels due to the very limited skin contact and extraction time. Usually within a year of production the levels of 3-mercaptohexanol-1-ol in the wine have dropped to half its fermentation levels with the presence of 3-mercaptohenyl acetate undetectable in most wines. This is why most wine experts recommend that rosés are consumed as soon after release as possible. French rosés Many of the earliest red wines produced in such notable wine regions as Bordeaux, Burgundy and Champagne were \"rosé-style\" wines made from juice that had only brief periods",
"-28.560826809203718"
],
[
"either sold for consumption or stored in a cellar or cistern, lasting for three to four years. Even after a year of aging, the vintage was still called \"new wine,\" and more aged wines were preferred.\nSpices and scents were often added to wine in order to hide \"defects\" that arose from storage that was often not sufficient to prevent all spoiling. One might expect about 10% of any given cellar of wine to have been ruined completely, but vinegar was also created intentionally for dipping bread among other uses.\nThe Feast of Booths was a prescribed holiday that immediately followed the",
"-28.50095265568234"
],
[
"the acidity tones down. Dry or Sec examples from favorable vintages can have the potential to age for 15–20 years or more but many are ready to drink within 4 or 5 years after vintage. Sparkling Vouvrays tend not to have the same aging potential as their still wine counterparts or vintage dated Champagne and are usually meant to be consumed within 3 years of vintage or, for non-vintage bottling, soon after purchase.\nIn 2005 Decanter Magazine conducted a compilation of the \"100 Greatest Wines\" ever made. A 1947 Vouvray (considered a favorable year by many critics) from the producer S.A.",
"-28.490264544729143"
],
[
"acidity. The wine would sometimes come out of the fumarium with a paler color just like aged wine. Modern winemaking techniques like micro-oxygenation can have the side effect of artificially aging the wine. In the production of Madeira and rancio wines, the wines are deliberately exposed to excessive temperatures to accelerate the maturation of the wine. Other techniques used to artificially age wine (with inconclusive results on their effectiveness) include shaking the wine, exposing it to radiation, magnetism or ultra-sonic waves. More recently, experiments with artificial aging through high-voltage electricity have produced results above the remaining techniques, as assessed by",
"-28.472402730956674"
],
[
"via computer, allowing the winemaker or regulator to easily access the average age of each container, which depends not only on the refreshment interval and number of scales, but also the relative volumes that are chosen for the refreshment process—a larger refreshment and final removal for bottling will result in a younger average age (see Aging). The upper quality levels implied by the labeling system requires the bottled wine to be greater in age than the regulatory requirements. Aging The age of product from the first bottling is the number of containers times the aging interval. As the solera",
"-28.362122873601038"
],
[
"predictable and can vary from bottle to bottle. If a wine is aged for too long, it will start to descend into decrepitude where the fruit tastes hollow and weak while the wine's acidity becomes dominant.\nThe natural esterification that takes place in wines and other alcoholic beverages during the aging process is an example of acid-catalysed esterification. Over time, the acidity of the acetic acid and tannins in an aging wine will catalytically protonate other organic acids (including acetic acid itself), encouraging ethanol to react as a nucleophile. As a result, ethyl acetate – the ester of ethanol and acetic",
"-28.295912138011772"
],
[
"3 years for vintage Champagne. It is not uncommon for a premium Champagne to age for 7 years or more prior to release. In the US, there are no minimum requirements, and aging length can vary from 8 months to 6 years. Another distinct difference, particularly in Californian sparkling wines, is the favorable Californian climate which allows a vintage wine to be produced nearly every year.\nCurrent US regulations ban the use of the term \"champagne\" on any wines not produced in Champagne except if the label was in use before 2006. No new labels including the term \"champagne\" will",
"-28.225926136248745"
],
[
"and volume in the mouth of the wine during ageing in oak barrels. It gives a better biological stability in champagne wines.\nFor a sweet wine, fermentation is stopped before its end to keep some of the sugar: this is the Mutage (fortification). The fermentation can be stopped by adding Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) (sterilisation of wine), by sudden cooling (anaesthesia of yeasts), by sterile filtration (capturing the yeasts in a very fine mesh filter), or a combination of several of these methods. A rule of thumb for determining the point of mutage, which allows a good balance of acquired alcohol and",
"-28.17436436167918"
],
[
"after the wine has settled. While many modern bottling lines try to treat the wine as gently as possible and utilize inert gases to minimize the amount of oxygen exposure, all wine goes through some period of bottle shock. The length of this period will vary with each individual wine. Cork taint The transfer of off-flavours in the cork used to bottle a wine during prolonged aging can be detrimental to the quality of the bottle. The formation of cork taint is a complex process which may result from a wide range of factors ranging from the growing conditions of",
"-28.163511514663696"
],
[
"aged still wine is called reserve wine, and this practice is meant to ensure that a certain Champagne house's non-vintage product has a consistent style over the years. Since the reserve wine is used in the production process, it is never bottled and sold as it is, but the proportion and age of the reserve wine is often seen as one of the indicators of the quality of a Champagne and the producer's level of ambition. Austrian DACs In the Austrian Districtus Austriae Controllatus (DAC) system, most DACs have an additional Reserve designation for a wine which has slightly more",
"-28.137304387171753"
],
[
"winemakers started to rediscover the use of French oak and some wineries will use a combination of both as a blend. Most DOs require some minimum period of barrel ageing which will be stipulated on the wine label by the designations-Crianza, Reserva and Gran Reserva depending on how long it spends in the barrel. The tradition of long barrel and bottle ageing has meant that most Spanish wines are ready to drink once they hit the market. A new generation of winemakers have started to produce more vino joven (young wines) that are released with very little ageing. Cava Cava",
"-28.099644052010262"
],
[
"and phenolics before the wines are pressed and put into barrel. The wine almost always goes through malolactic fermentation. Some Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil producers with vineyards planted in lighter soils will produce an early maturing wine, with an even shorter maceration period and much less oak aging, that can be released as early as the summer after vintage while other examples will see 15 to 18 months of aging before being bottled. Production and wine industry In 1998, Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil produced 53,572 hectoliters of wine (around 595,240 cases) from 929 hectares (approximately 2295 acres) of vineyards. By 2013, that number had expanded to",
"-28.075562542537227"
],
[
"the impact of screw caps on the aging of those few wines that require decades to be at their best. Some argue that the slow ingress of oxygen plays a vital role in aging a wine, while others argue that this amount is almost zero in a sound cork and that any admitted oxygen is harmful.\nProducers in Champagne have aged their wines under crown cap for quite some time; however, the crown cap is replaced by the traditional cork at the end of the second fermentation. \nThe converse of oxidation is reduction, and it has been suggested that screwcapped wine",
"-28.02937879343517"
],
[
"consumed at a younger age. A group of Barolo producers, led by the house of Ceretto, Paolo Cordero di Montezemolo, Elio Altare, and Renato Ratti, started making more modern, international styles of Barolos by using shorter periods for maceration (days as opposed to weeks) and fermentation (usually 48–72 hours or at most 8–10 days), less time aging in new small oak barrels and an extended period of bottle aging prior to release. By using modern technology, including specialized tanks that allow the wine to be pumped out from underneath the cap of skins and then pumped over, they found ways",
"-28.003065091208555"
],
[
"by-product for most wines. If the wine is bottled quickly after fermentation, it is important to degas the wine before bottling.\nWineries can skip the degassing process if they age their wines prior to bottling. Storing the wines in steel or oak barrels for months and sometimes years allows gases to be released from the wine and escape into the air through air-locks.",
"-27.925076314480975"
],
[
"the wine allowed to spend aging on the lees. Burgundian winemaking tends to favor extended contact on the lees and even \"stirring up\" the lees within the wine while it is aging in the barrel in a process known as bâttonage. Colder fermentation temperatures produces more \"tropical\" fruit flavors like mango and pineapple. The \"Old World\" style of winemaking favors the use of wild, or ambient yeast, though some will also use specially cultivated yeast that can impart aromatic qualities to the wine. A particular style of yeast used in Champagne is the Prise de Mousse that is cultivated for",
"-27.740417008055374"
],
[
"Old vine Old vine (French: vieilles vignes, German: alte Reben), a common description on wine labels, indicates that a wine is the product of grape vines that are notably old. There is a general belief that older vines, when properly handled, will give a better wine. There is no legal or generally agreed definition for old. Usage Grape vines can grow for over 120 years. After about 20 years vines start to produce smaller crops, and average yields decrease, leading to more concentrated, intense wines. Diseases such as \"dead arm\" can also afflict old vines, in some cases further concentrating",
"-27.710106486512814"
],
[
"of softening tannins. The softening of tannins occurs during the winemaking and oak aging when tannins go through a process of polymerization that can last days or weeks; decanting merely alters the perception of sulfites and other chemical compounds in the wine through oxidation, which can give some drinkers the sense of softer tannins in the wine. In line with the view that decanting can dissipate aromas, wine expert Kerin O'Keefe prefers to let the wine evolve slowly and naturally in the bottle, by uncorking it a few hours ahead, a practice suggested by wine producers such as Bartolo Mascarello",
"-27.70650142195518"
],
[
"then a mixture of sugar, yeast and still Champagne wine. Aging on lees Non-vintage wine from Champagne cannot legally be sold until it has aged on the lees in the bottle for at least 15 months. Champagne's AOC regulations further require that vintage Champagnes be aged in cellars for three years or more before disgorgement, but most top producers exceed the requirement, holding bottles on the lees for 6 to 8 years. Riddling After ageing, the lees must be consolidated for removal. The bottles undergo a process known as riddling (remuage in French). In this stage, the bottles are placed",
"-27.687848437577486"
],
[
"chemical reactions in wine doubles with each 18 °F (10 °C) increase in temperature. Most experts, such as Jancis Robinson, recommend that wine be kept at constant temperatures between 50 and 59 °F (10 and 15 °C). Tom Stevenson speculates that 52 °F (11 °C) may be the most ideal temperature for storage and aging, while Karen MacNeil recommends keeping wine intended for ageing in a cool area with a constant temperature around 55 °F (13 °C). Wine can be stored at temperatures as high as 69 °F (21 °C) without long-term negative effect. Professor Cornelius Ough of the University of California, Davis believes that wine can be",
"-27.671983676380478"
],
[
"opposite phenomenon, of only releasing a top wine in exceptional years (rather than in most years) is seen in Iberia (Spain and Portugal) in \"Gran Reserva\" reserve wine and vintage port.\nFrom the producer's point of view, a second wine allows the winery to use a stricter selection for its Grand Vin, while still capitalising on its name and distribution channels in selling the second wine, which will be much more profitable than selling off lesser wine \"anonymously\" to be used in e.g. negociant bulk bottlings. History The practice of establishing a second wine began in the 18th century as way",
"-27.663993805472273"
],
[
"common aging periods for Riesling wines would be 5–15 years for dry, 10–20 years for semi-sweet and 10-30+ for sweet versions. Noble rot The most expensive wines made from Riesling are late harvest dessert wines, produced by letting the grapes hang on the vines well past normal picking time. Through evaporation caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea (\"noble rot\") or by freezing, as in the case of ice wine (in German, Eiswein), water is removed and the resulting wine is felt to offer richer layers on the palate. These concentrated wines have more sugar (in extreme cases hundreds of grams",
"-27.645542757119983"
],
[
"through the cork which significantly speeds up the aging process. Between 10–14 °C (50–57 °F), wines will age normally. Active versus passive Wine cellars can be either active or passively cooled. Active wine cellars are highly insulated and need to be properly constructed. They require specialized wine cellar conditioning and cooling systems to maintain the desired temperature and humidity. In a very dry climate, it may be necessary to actively humidify the air, but in most areas this is not necessary. Passive wine cellars must be located in naturally cool and damp areas with minor seasonal and diurnal temperature variations—for example, a",
"-27.62433520075865"
],
[
"will become more developed and multi-layered. While a taster may be able to pick out a few fruit notes in a young wine, a more complex wine will have several distinct fruit, floral, earthy, mineral and oak derived notes. The lingering finish of a wine will lengthen. Eventually the wine will reach a point of maturity, when it is said to be at its \"peak\". This is the point when the wine has the maximum amount of complexity, most pleasing mouthfeel and softening of tannins and has not yet started to decay. When this point will occur is not yet",
"-27.61960142967291"
],
[
"include higher fermentation temperatures and a period of extended maceration following fermentation where the wine can leech more phenolic compounds from the grape skins. This can create more tannic and austere wines with more layers of complexity that require longer periods of bottle aging in order to mature. In contrast, the technique of transferring the must into oak barrels during fermentation and inducing malolactic fermentation early is more commonly associated with New World wine regions and wines that are softer and mature earlier.",
"-27.575271461741067"
],
[
"and the riserva are released a year afterward. The current aging requirements were established in 1998 and dictate that Brunellos are to be aged in oak for 2 years and at least 4 months in a bottle before release. Winemakers who intentionally stray from these rules and regulations can possibly receive a conviction of commercial fraud accompanied by an imprisonment sentence of up to six years. Brunellopoli In 2008, reports surfaced that Italian authorities were investigating claims that several major Brunello producers were adulterating their wines by using foreign or domestic grape varieties in violation of the DOCG regulations,",
"-27.52270739391679"
],
[
"to increase unless a wine is opened, topped up and recorked. If the wine is stored on its side, in contact with the cork, some wine will also be lost by absorption into the cork with longer corks having the potential to absorb more wine (and thus create more ullage) than shorter corks.\nGenerally the greater the amount of ullage, the more potential that the wine has been exposed to harmful levels of oxidation. This is why auction houses and retailers of mature wines pay close attention to the ullage levels in determining the resale value of the wine. The ullage",
"-27.521312147873687"
],
[
"portion of wine that is not from the year denoted on the label. In Chile and South Africa, the requirement is 75% same-year content for vintage-dated wine. In Australia, New Zealand, and the member states of the European Union, the requirement is 85%. In the United States, the requirement is 85%, unless the wine is designated with an AVA, (e.g., Napa Valley), in which case it is 95%. Technically, the 85% rule in the United States applies equally to imports, but there are difficulties in enforcing the regulation.\nThe opposite of a vintage wine is a nonvintage wine (often seen on",
"-27.48350882367231"
],
[
"typically last for at least another decade-sometimes longer depending on the producer and vintage. Some Spanish and Italian Cabernet Sauvignons will need similar time as Bordeaux to develop but most examples are typically made to be drunk earlier.\nWhile New World Cabernets are characterized as being drinkable earlier than Bordeaux, premium producers such as the Californian cult wines will produce wines that need time to age and could potentially develop for two to three decades. Overall, the majority of Californian Cabernets are meant to be approachable after only a couple of years in the bottle but can still have the potential",
"-27.432958164426964"
],
[
"a wine list as NV), which is usually a blend from the produce of two or more years. This is a common practice for winemakers seeking a consistent style of wine, year on year. Etymology The word vintage was first used in the early 15th century. It was taken from the Old French vendage, meaning wine harvest. This word was taken from the Latin vinum (wine) and demere (to remove). Importance of vintage The importance assigned to vintage is both varied and disputed.\nFor wine produced in regions at the colder climatic limits of wine production, vintage can be very important,",
"-27.393283982994035"
],
[
"be consumed very young - often within a year of their release. Others will benefit from some time aging in the bottle. For the vintage year (vendimia or cosecha) to appear on the label, a minimum of 85% of the grapes must be from that year's harvest. The three most common aging designations on Spanish wine labels are Crianza, Reserva and Gran Reserva.\n•Crianza red wines are aged for 1 year with at least 6 months in oak and 6 months in the bottle. Crianza whites and rosés must be aged for at least 1 year with at least 4 months",
"-27.349276474502403"
],
[
"(malolactic) fermentation and bulk aging During the secondary fermentation and aging process, which takes three to six months, the fermentation continues very slowly. The wine is kept under an airlock to protect the wine from oxidation. Proteins from the grape are broken down and the remaining yeast cells and other fine particles from the grapes are allowed to settle. Potassium bitartrate will also precipitate, a process which can be enhanced by cold stabilization to prevent the appearance of (harmless) tartrate crystals after bottling. The result of these processes is that the originally cloudy wine becomes clear. The wine can",
"-27.273384610540234"
],
[
"a few years (old-veau?), there's no real reason to, as it doesn't improve with age. For comparison, standard Beaujolais AOC wines are released the following year and can be stored for one or more years before consuming. The wines show definite variation between vintages, and as such are considered to be an early indicator of the quality of the year's regional wine harvest.\nFor a period around the late 90s some wine critics criticized Beaujolais nouveau as simple or immature. For example, the prominent wine critic Karen MacNeil wrote that \"Drinking it gives you the same kind of silly",
"-27.196278441115282"
],
[
"Tom Stevenson notes a change in the profile of recent vintage with wines that are \"developing finer, more flowery, autolytic aromas.\"\nThe grape varieties are vinified separately before being assembled and bottled. Just before bottling, a tirage is added to the blend so that a second fermentation will take place in the bottle. The carbon dioxide produced during this second fermentation is trapped in the bottle and gives the wine its effervescence. After nine months, the bottles are opened and disgorged before a final corking. Blanquette méthode ancestrale The wine that the monks of St-Hilaire invented in 1531 was known as",
"-27.179666231037118"
],
[
"which released its 1942 vintage gran reserva in 1983 after 41 years of aging. Today most bodegas have shifted their winemaking focus to wines that are ready to drink sooner with the top wines typically aging for 4–8 years prior to release though some traditionalists still age longer. The typical bodega owns anywhere from 10,000 to 40,000 oak barrels.\nThe use of oak in white wine has declined significantly in recent times when before the norm was traditionally 2–5 years in oak. This created slightly oxidized wines with flavors of caramel, coffee, and roasted nuts that did not appeal to a",
"-27.154126987443306"
],
[
"challenges growers and winemakers to keep the wine from becoming flabby and bleak. Some winemakers in the region use malolactic fermentation and some do not. The delicate flavors of the wine can be overwhelmed by too much oak during the winemaking process. Aging In the wine industry the ability of Condrieu to age is much discussed and opinions differ. Some experts like Master of Wine Mary Ewing-Mulligan believe that it is best consumed within three years of harvest. The Oxford Companion to Wine describes Condrieu as one of the few luxury wines that is meant to be consumed young, typically",
"-27.05435525329085"
],
[
"in industries relating to wine storage. Some wine connoisseurs may elect to store their wine at home in a dedicated room, closet or cellarette. Other options involve purchases and rentals at off-site wine storage facilities that are specifically designed for the task.\nWine will prematurely develop if stored in an environment that has large temperature variations, particularly if these occur frequently. Temperature control systems ensure the wine cellar temperature is very stable. The variations cause corks to expand and contract which leads to oxidation of the wine.\nIf wine is stored in conditions that are too dry, the cork will shrink and",
"-26.940931607154198"
],
[
"used only for wines that have been aged at least two years longer than normal for a particular type of wine.",
"-26.940724737243727"
],
[
"for the wine stability.\nClarification of the wine can take place naturally by putting the wine into refrigeration at 35 °F (2 °C). The wine takes about a month to settle and it is clear. No chemicals are needed. Bottling A final dose of sulfite is added to help preserve the wine and prevent unwanted fermentation in the bottle. The wine bottles then are traditionally sealed with a cork, although alternative wine closures such as synthetic corks and screwcaps, which are less subject to cork taint, are becoming increasingly popular. The final step is adding a capsule to the top of the",
"-26.930464438628405"
],
[
"good moisture retaining properties, which allows the vines to survive during periods of prolonged drought. They are poor in organic material and their structure does not favour the propagation of phylloxera. They are quite sandy, allowing good aeration, have a high pH value and are low in salinity. Jumilla labeling laws Spanish wines are often labeled according to the amount of aging the wine has received. When the label says vino joven (\"young wine\") or sin crianza, the wines will have undergone very little, if any, wood aging. Depending on the producer, some of these wines will be meant to",
"-26.895191503164824"
],
[
"the wine.\nAfter fermentation the grapes are then aged in small oak barrels. In many DOC regions, the wines are required to age for at least 3 years though it is not uncommon for producers to age their wines for 5 to 10 years. Traditionally the barrels were made of chestnut instead of oak, which contributed high amounts of wood tannins and was very porous which promoted excessive evaporation in the barrel. Under this same traditional style of winemaking, a large ullage or air space would emerge in the barrel and oxidation took place. This gave the wine its characteristic amber",
"-26.819820645498112"
],
[
"forgotten for centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. During the cold winters of the Champagne region, temperatures would drop so low that the fermentation process was prematurely halted—leaving some residual sugar and dormant yeast. When the wine was shipped to and bottled in England, the fermentation process would restart when the weather warmed and the cork-stoppered wine would begin to build pressure from carbon dioxide gas. When the wine was opened, it would be bubbly. In 1662, the English scientist Christopher Merret presented a paper detailing how the presence of sugar in a wine led to it",
"-26.74789043621422"
],
[
"regions will often command much higher prices than those from average vintages. This is especially the case if wines are likely to improve further with some age in the bottle. Some wines are only labeled with a vintage in better-than-average years, to maintain their quality and reputation, while the vast majority of wines are produced to be drunk young and fresh. In such cases, a vintage is usually considered less important. However, it can serve to protect consumers against buying a wine that would not be expected to improve with age and could be past its best, such as with",
"-26.73248534061713"
],
[
"age of 4.25 years (one half wine that was left over from the second bottling - average age 4.75 years, and one half wine transferred from the second barrel after the second bottling - average age 3.75 years). After 20 years, the output of the solera would be a mix of wine from 3 to 20 years old, averaging very slightly under five years. The average age asymptotically converges on five years as the solera continues. Solera production The output of the solera is the fraction of the last scale taken off for bottling each cycle. The amount of",
"-26.67916372930631"
],
[
"the case of smoother vintages) or in barrels (in the case of more robust vintages). Maturing a wine means storing it for long periods in cellars where the temperature is controlled and where it remains undisturbed apart from rackings that take place every three months. Maturing a wine that is stored in barrels can take between six and eighteen months. Analytical criteria The minimum alcohol content is set at 11% by volume. When it is decided that a wine needs enriching, the alcohol content should not exceed 13.5% by volume. When the harvest is of such exceptional quality that it",
"-26.65276452456601"
],
[
"Vintage Vintage, in winemaking, is the process of picking grapes and creating the finished product—wine (see Harvest (wine)). A vintage wine is one made from grapes that were all, or primarily, grown and harvested in a single specified year. In certain wines, it can denote quality, as in Port wine, where Port houses make and declare vintage Port in their best years. From this tradition, a common, though not strictly correct, usage applies the term to any wine that is perceived to be particularly old or of a particularly high quality.\nMost countries allow a vintage wine to include a",
"-26.63009482389316"
],
[
"a few months before they rapidly deteriorated into vinegar. The older a wine got the cheaper its price became as merchants eagerly sought to rid themselves of aging wine. By the 16th century, sweeter and more alcoholic wines (like Malmsey and Sack) were being made in the Mediterranean and gaining attention for their aging ability. Similarly, Riesling from Germany with its combination of acidity and sugar were also demonstrating their ability to age. In the 17th century, two innovations occurred that radically changed the wine industry's view on aging. One was the development of the cork and bottle which again",
"-26.596386610908667"
],
[
"bodegas who are actively blending for the market.\nWine produced from a solera cannot formally have a vintage date because it is a blend of vintages from many years. However, some bottlings are labeled with an age for marketing reasons, which could be the date that the solera was founded. In most instances, It is unclear whether such age indications denotes the average age, or the age of the oldest batch. In Andalusia, the various average age categories, up to 30 years of age at present, are much better documented to the regulatory body and on the bottle labels at",
"-26.5683355223955"
],
[
"favorable vintages needing at least 10 years of aging before they are drinking at their peak. Coates note that the wines from the Pernand-Vergelesses side tend to have a flinty note and be characterized by more austerity than those from the Aloxe-Corton side that can be slightly more firm and full-bodied.\nWine writer Tom Stevenson describes Corton-Charlemagne as \"the most sumptuous of all white Burgundies\" with rich buttery and fruit flavors and notes of cinnamon, vanilla and honey. Growers and producers Like most Grand cru vineyards in Burgundy ownership of the vines on Corton-Charlemagne is spread out among several growers with",
"-26.56133204892103"
],
[
"the flavour. For years where the harvest is exceptional, a millésime is declared and some Champagne will be made from and labelled as the products of a single vintage rather than a blend of multiple years' harvests. This means that the Champagne will be very good and has to mature for at least 3 years. During this time the Champagne bottle is sealed with a crown cap similar to that used on beer bottles.\nAfter aging, the bottle is manipulated, either manually or mechanically, in a process called remuage (or \"riddling\" in English), so that the lees settle in the neck",
"-26.5399573398754"
],
[
"shock One of the short-term aging needs of wine is a period where the wine is considered \"sick\" due to the trauma and volatility of the bottling experience. During bottling the wine is exposed to some oxygen which causes a domino effect of chemical reactions with various components of the wine. The time it takes for the wine to settle down and have the oxygen fully dissolve and integrate with the wine is considered its period of \"bottle shock\". During this time the wine could taste drastically different from how it did prior to bottling or how it will taste",
"-26.47841967944987"
],
[
"the cork oak, the processing of the cork into stoppers, or the molds growing on the cork itself. Dumb phase During the course of aging, a wine may slip into a \"dumb phase\" where its aromas and flavors are very muted. In Bordeaux this phase is called the age ingrat or \"difficult age\" and is likened to a teenager going through adolescence. The cause or length of time that this \"dumb phase\" will last is not yet fully understood and seems to vary from bottle to bottle. Effects on wine As red wine ages, the harsh tannins of its youth",
"-26.4771562768874"
],
[
"the juice. \"Old vines\" might apply to an entire estate, or it might mean only a certain parcel planted before others. In the U.S., the most common use is on Zinfandel, because in California vineyards up to 125 years old are still bearing small amounts of prized Zinfandel fruit.\nIn a place where wine production is longstanding, it often means a wine whose vines are thirty to forty years old. Some wine makers insist the vines should be older than this. In newly established wine regions, twenty years might be old. The definition is further complicated by the fact that certain",
"-26.440376086044125"
],
[
"within two to four years. Wine writer Tom Stevenson recommends drinking Condrieu within four to eight years of harvest and notes that its freshness and purity can be lost as the wine ages. James Molesworth of Wine Spectator notes that some vintages of Condrieu, such as the 2004, will produce more intense, concentrated wines that will age gracefully. Appellation regulations The Condrieu AOC can only be used for still white wines made from Viognier. The planting density must be at least 6 500 vines per hectare, and the base yield is 41 hectoliter per hectare. The grape must reach a",
"-26.43630267144181"
],
[
"200 L) was previously allowed. For vintage Champagne, 100% of the grapes must come from that vintage year while non-vintage wine is a blend of vintages. Vintage champagne must spend a minimum of three years of aging. There are no regulations about how long it must spend on its lees, but some of the premier Champagne houses keep their wines on lees for upwards of five to ten years. Non-vintage Champagne must spend a minimum of 15 months of aging but only a minimum of 12 months on the lees. Most of the Champagne houses keep their wines on the",
"-26.37084769428475"
],
[
"(S&P 500). As the external market conditions change following the overall business cycle, so does performance of investments. Therefore, returns of 50% on investments done in good years are not directly comparable to returns of 10% done in crisis years. That is why a vintage year is taken into account. The returns are comparable if investments share approximately the same timing. Origin Most likely, the term vintage year is borrowed from the winemaking industry, where it is also used to divide wines in comparable classes.",
"-26.3562859979138"
],
[
"\"runny honey\" with floral notes and an \"enlivening backbone of acidity. Clarke agrees with Jancis Robinson that well made examples have the potential to develop with age but believes that the wines tend to be at their best when \"young and fresh\". Italian wine writer Victor Hazan, husband of the Italian cookbook writer Marcella Hazan, recommends consuming sweet examples of Verduzzo, such as Ramandolo, at between three and four years after the vintage date. Food and wine pairing The wide variance in styles of Verduzzo opens it up to a wide variety of food and wine pairing options. The sweeter",
"-26.349001630602288"
],
[
"vin being made from the same vineyard, with the same blend of grapes and by the same winemaker. Some selection takes place already after harvest, when plots that are often underperforming or are planted with younger vines will be earmarked for the second wine, which means that they receive a \"cheaper\" treatment with a lower percentage of new barrels. Additional selection will be done after the barrel aging when the winemaker will isolate the best performing barrels that most reflects the house style of the estate label with the remaining wine being bottled under second or even third and fourth",
"-26.19227319897618"
],
[
"Vouvrays can exhibit notes of honey, nuts, ginger, fig, apples and white flowers. Vouvrays are often paired with rich, hearty dishes and flavorful sauces. Aging Vouvrays are known for their longevity and aging potential, particularly if the vintage was favorable. Some wines, most notably the sweeter Moelleux styles, have the potential to age and develop in the bottle for several decades to a century. While modern producers are contributing to making examples more approachable to drink while young, some premium examples still made in the traditionally high acid style will often need 3 to 7 years of bottle age before",
"-26.176355659845285"
],
[
"level can also give insight as to the type of care and storage condition that the wine was kept in. Wines that have been kept at ambient humidity levels and in temperatures between 50–59 °F (10–15 °C) will experience evaporation and diffusion at a slower rate than wine kept in lesser conditions and will thus have a lower ullage levels. Ullage levels are generally important to the likelihood of almost any wine being in good shape. Vintage Port might be slightly less prone to damage since it is fortified, but the only wines that can not be damaged by oxidation are",
"-26.161321016435977"
],
[
"the ideal temperature for fermentation, but in general cooler temperatures (25-28°C; 77-82.4°F) produce fruitier red wines for early drinking while higher temperatures (28-35°C; 82.4-95°F) produce more tannic wines designed for long aging. Following the fermentation Winemakers will usually check the density and temperature of the fermenting must once or twice per day. The density is proportional to the sugar content and will be expected to fall each day as the sugar is converted into alcohol by fermentation. Pressing Pressing in winemaking is the process where juice is extracted from grapes. This can be done with the aid of a wine",
"-26.10808841220569"
],
[
"\"Right Bank\" techniques, including extended hanging time to ripen the Merlot grapes more fully, that the style associated with Pomerol wines today evolved.\nAs with most wine regions, the style of winemaking varies by winemaker and by vintage. In general, many Pomerol winemakers practice 15 to 21 days maceration and press when the wine has reached full dryness. The wine almost always goes through malolactic fermentation. The wine will receive 18 to 20 months of aging in barriques prior to bottling and release.\nTradition in Pomerol has been to separate the free-run wine and blend back in a proportion of the vin",
"-26.107327660079136"
],
[
"and viticulture. He defines old wine as one removed from its vintage by at least a year; nonetheless, he notes that while some wines are best consumed young, especially fine wines such as Falernian are meant to be consumed much older.\nThe poetry of Virgil recalls that of the Greek poet Hesiod in its focus on the morality and virtue of viticulture, particularly the austerity, integrity and hard work of Roman farmers. The second book of the didactic poem Georgics deals with viticultural matters. Virgil advises leaving some grapes on the vine until late November when they become \"stiff with frost.\"",
"-26.06868090305943"
],
[
"winemaking blending is always empirical, it cannot be predicted that the combination of two or more vintages will give the expected product. The only secure values are analytical values (alcoholic strength, acidity, pH, etc.). Clarification Clarification consists of removing insoluble particles in suspension in the water-alcohol solution that is the wine and stabilization is to maintain the solubility of the elements dissolved in the wine throughout the retention period in the bottle and consumption at the table.\nTo clarify wine, it is necessary to wait for particle deposition at the bottom of the wine container but this can be accelerated by",
"-26.061037188395858"
],
[
"the number of years in which a vintage can be declared. Although there have been years when only one or two wines have been declared, it has been over thirty years since there was a year with no declarations at all.\n2016 was declared a vintage year by most producers, as was 2011. The quality of the grape harvest was attributed to ideal rainfall and temperature. Other recent widely declared vintage years were 2007, 2003, 2000, 1997 and 1994. History and tradition The wine-producing Douro region is the third oldest protected wine region in the world after the Tokaj-Hegyalja region in",
"-26.03553960642239"
],
[
"at the winery most wood-aged ports, sherries, vins doux naturels, vins de liqueur, basic level ice wines, and sparkling wines are bottled when the producer feels that they are ready to be consumed. These wines are ready to drink upon release and will not benefit much from aging. Vintage ports and other bottled-aged ports and sherries will benefit from some additional aging.\nChampagne and other sparkling wines are infrequently aged, and frequently have no vintage year (no vintage, NV), but vintage champagne may be aged. Aged champagne has traditionally been a peculiarly British affectation, and thus has been referred to as",
"-26.028296680393396"
],
[
"strictly a fermentation). MLF is almost universally practised for red wines. It often occurs naturally, owing to the presence of lactic acid bacteria in wineries, but there are also commercially available preparations of bacteria to inoculate for MLF if necessary. Racking Once the MLF is complete, the red wine is usually racked (decanted) off its lees (dead yeast cells and other solids), and has sulfur dioxide preservative added to avoid oxidation and bacterial spoilage. Aging Most red wine is aged for some period before bottling, though this can vary from a few days, in the case of Beaujolais Nouveau to",
"-25.944420117419213"
],
[
"wine is kept at this temperature until much of the tartaric acid has crystallized and precipitated out of the wine. This helps prevent crystallization of the acid (often called \"wine diamonds\") in the bottle. After this, the wine is normally filtered again to remove any remaining yeast or impurities.\nIn viticulture, the two main components in growing Riesling grapes are to keep it \"Long & Low\" meaning that the ideal situation for Riesling is a climate that allows for a long, slow ripening and proper pruning to keep the yield low and the flavor concentrated. With food Riesling is a versatile",
"-25.943342655082233"
],
[
"part of the stoppers are primarily made of the above 3 typical materials, and newer versions of wine stoppers are made to expand in the wine glass to ensure a tighter seal.\nSome wine stoppers can be vacuum-sealed with a hand pump, to remove oxygen from the bottle, thereby extending the life of the wine by several days after opening the bottle. Journal A wine journal is a journal for recording notes on wine consumed or tasted. It provides a catalogue for the wine enthusiast to record information such as producer, region, vintage, price, date, name of store or restaurant, ranking",
"-25.93608475010842"
],
[
"heat and accelerate the aging process and the older blends, colheitas and frasqueiras are produced by the canteiro method. Because of these methods of production these wines are very long lived and those produced by the canteiro method will survive for decades and even centuries, even after being opened. Wines that have been in barrels for many decades are often removed and stored in demijohns where they may remain unharmed indefinitely. \nSome wines produced in small quantities in Crimea, California and Texas are also referred to as \"Madeira\" or \"Madera\"; however, most countries conform to the EU PDO regulations and",
"-25.89193506585434"
],
[
"wines, particularly the botrytized dessert wines, can have immense aging potential with some well made examples from favorable vintages continuing to age for over a century. These wines, described by wine expert Oz Clarke as nearly \"immortal\", are most often the aszú style wines of Tokaji made from the top 10-15% of Furmint harvested. This potential comes from the balance of acidity and high levels of sugars in the wine which act as preservatives during the aging process.\nDry styles of Furmint are characterized by their aroma notes of smoke, pears and lime. Dessert style wines can develop notes of marzipan,",
"-25.89123803412076"
],
[
"is still bottled under a vintage designation, rather than being used for simpler port qualities. Vintages The term vintage has a distinct meaning in the context of vintage port. While a vintage is simply the year in which a wine is made, most producers of vintage port restrict their production of year-labelled bottlings to only the best years, a few per decade. Contrast with second wines, where (primarily) Bordeaux producers release a year-labelled top wine almost every year, but also lesser quality wines in some years.\nIf a port house decides that its wine is of quality sufficient for a vintage,",
"-25.88836767943576"
],
[
"gross lees as opposed to the less coarse fine lees that come as the wine continues to settle and age. During the time that the wine spends in contact with the lees, a number of changes can impact the wine due to both the autolysis (or self-metabolize) of the dead yeast cells as well as the reductive conditions that can develop if the lees are not aerated or stirred (a process that the French call bâtonnage). The length of time that a wine spends on its lees (called sur lie) will depend on the winemaking style and type of wine.\nThe",
"-25.872143014637913"
],
[
"influence the colour and flavour of resulting vintages of wine that are aged in the container. Once the wine has finished aging for the summer it is usually blended with wine that has spent time aging in large foudres oak cask or sold separately as Maury Rancio. Comparison to Port While the Portuguese wine Port is similarly made with a mutage halting the fermentation, there are some distinct differences in how vin doux naturels like Maurys are made. For one, the fortifying spirits used in Port are of a lower alcohol strength (traditionally 77%) while those used for vin doux",
"-25.871508269250626"
],
[
"the wine can be labeled a Riserva.\nIn the past, Barolo wines tended to be rich in tannin. It can take more than 10 years for the wine to soften and become ready for drinking. Fermenting wine sat on the grape skins for at least three weeks, extracting huge amounts of tannins and was then aged in large, wooden casks for years. In order to appeal to more modern international tastes, those that prefer fruitier, earlier-drinking wine styles, several producers began to cut fermentation times to a maximum of ten days and age the wine in new French oak barriques (small",
"-25.8333621728234"
],
[
"cork to be pushed out or (more usually) the bottle to crack; this will allow more oxygen to be exposed to the wine. Temperature swings (such as repeated transferring a wine from a warm room to a cool refrigerator) can also cause adverse chemical reactions in the wine that may lead to a variety of wine faults. \nIn general, a wine has a greater potential to develop complexity and a more aromatic bouquet if it is allowed to age slowly in a relatively cool environment. The lower the temperature, the more slowly a wine develops. On average, the rate of",
"-25.81720593891805"
],
[
"half to four 750 ml bottles of wine per box, though they come in a wide variety of volumes.\nThe fact that wine is removed from the flexible bag without adding air to fill the vacated space greatly reduces oxidation of the wine during dispensing. Compared to wine in a bottle which should be consumed within hours or days of opening, bag-in-box wine is not subject to cork taint and will not spoil for approximately 3–4 weeks after breaking the seal.\nWine contained in plastic bladders are not intended for cellaring and should be consumed within the manufacturer printed shelf life. Deterioration may",
"-25.788019532570615"
],
[
"for the balance that complements the honeyed sweetness.\nDuring fermentation, the juice is transferred into oak wine barrels where the high sugar concentration of must prolongs the fermentation time which can last up to a year. When the alcohol level kills off all present yeast, the fermentation stops leaving the residual sugar at levels between 8 and 12% and alcohol levels around 14%.\nAfter fermentation, the wine is placed in an aging barrel for two to three years before it is bottled where it will continue aging. A Sauterne from a reputable estate can bottle age for over 30 years though they",
"-25.754158047027886"
],
[
"temperature and oxygen accounts for Madeira's stability; an opened bottle will survive unharmed indefinitely. As long as a cork is put into the top of the bottle to prevent the effects of evaporation, fruit flies and dust, a vintage Madeira, once opened, can last for decades. Properly sealed in bottles, it is one of the longest-lasting wines; Madeiras have been known to survive over 200 years in excellent condition. It is not uncommon to see 150-year-old Madeiras for sale at stores that specialize in rare wine. Vintages dating back to 1780 are known to exist. The oldest bottle that has",
"-25.72338972547732"
],
[
"the alcohol is added shortly before or after the end of the fermentation.\n\nIn the case of some fortified wine styles (such as late harvest and botrytized wines), a naturally high level of sugar will inhibit the yeast. This causes fermentation to stop before the wine can become dry. Commandaria wine Commandaria is made in Cyprus' unique AOC region north of Limassol from high altitude vines of Mavro and Xynisteri, sun dried and aged in oak barrels. Recent developments have produced different styles of Commandaria, some of which are not fortified. Madeira wine Madeira is a fortified wine made in the",
"-25.7174762495124"
]
] |
6ch0lg | Can cancer naturally cure on it's own without the person ever knowing they had it? | [
"Cancer is caused by a mutation in cell replication. Our cells go through checkpoints to make sure everything is replicating right. If something is wrong, the process is usually shut down. If it makes it past this point without being shut down, the immune cells typically will destroy the mutated cells before they can spread. Your body basically is constantly making and killing cancer cells. The problem occurs when these cells get past these protective mechanisms and are able to duplicate.",
"Yes. In fact, the average person gets many cases of cancer over their lifetime, and destroys it. The problem is that the body isn't perfect, and it only takes one cancer to kill you.",
"The immune system is capable, although not perfectly able, to recognize and destroy cancer cells before they have a chance to form tumors. [relevant scientific article relating cancer risk and immunodeficiency ]( URL_0 )",
"Yes, the body has a whole bunch of natural defenses against cancer. It's important to understand that while a single gene mutation can make a cell cancerous, dangerous malignant cancers will have at least four or five mutations that they've developed over time. *Cells can repair most DNA mutations before they can do any damage. The body actually has a number of redundant [repair mechanisms] ( URL_0 ). Often the first step towards a cell becoming malignant is a mutation, or series of mutations, that disables these repair mechanisms. The cell then accumulates more mutations that make it cancerous. *If a cell's DNA becomes irreparably damaged, that will often trigger a self-destruct sequence called [apoptosis] ( URL_1 ). Often malignant cancer cells will have a mutation that disables the apoptosis mechanisms. *If a cancerous cell doesn't self-destruct, the job falls to the very aptly-named Killer T-cells, a special type of [white blood cell] ( URL_2 ) that identify cancerous or infected cells and blow them up. They can trigger a cell's apoptosis mechanism, or release cell-killing enzymes. Often the body has inflammatory reactions to cancer tumours too (the same way it reacts to an infected cut) but that's just not enough to keep it from growing.",
"Didn't read the link but think our bodies are constantly killing off cells with errors which are basically starting blocks of cancer"
] | [
[
"of the family will develop it. The immune system also attacks cancer cells, which is why we need to give chemotherapy on the right day... The concept is sensational. If you can treat people at the right time it could dramatically improve their chance of a successful outcome. The research is still in its early stages, however if we are proved right this method of treatment could be applied to all cancers and in fact all diseases.\" Quinn, 7 March 2010.\nHowever, in 2014, Dr Mutsa Madondo et al. (in a team that included Professor Quinn) were unable to replicate the",
"-34.46057864557952"
],
[
"have responded that they are unwilling to consider the possibility of leaving potential deadly cancers alone because it is \"far-riskier\" than the alternative. Eric Winer, director of the breast cancer program at Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in Boston, says, \"I don't know anyone who offers women the option of doing nothing\" (Beck 2012, Article). Further complicating the issue of early diagnosis is the fact that it is currently impossible to distinguish malicious cancers from benign ones. Otis Brawley, a top official for the American Cancer Society, says that \"even if we overdiagnose 1 in 5, we have numerous studies showing that",
"-33.95135281459079"
],
[
"Surgery is not always possible – for example the patient may have other medical conditions that prevent it, or the cancer may have spread around the body and doctors may not be able to remove it. There is currently no evidence that body-wide medical therapy after surgery where there is no known residual disease, that is, adjuvant therapy, helps to improve survival in kidney cancer. If the cancer cannot be treated with surgery other techniques such as freezing the tumour or treating it with high temperatures may be used. However these are not yet used as standard treatments for kidney",
"-33.60490180552006"
],
[
"in the body. If the cancer metastasizes to other tissues or organs it usually dramatically increases a patient's likelihood of death. Some cancers—such as some forms of leukemia, a cancer of the blood, or malignancies in the brain—can kill without spreading at all.\nOnce a cancer has metastasized it may still be treated with radiosurgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, biological therapy, hormone therapy, surgery, or a combination of these interventions (\"multimodal therapy\"). The choice of treatment depends on many factors, including the type of primary cancer, the size and location of the metastases, the patient's age and general health, and the types",
"-33.23258470639121"
],
[
"us are a cancer, and that if we don't take this cancer and get rid of it, we won't continue to exist. Unfortunately, this dangerous cancer of co-existence has metastasized everywhere. There are various ministers in the government who are encouraging co-existence, who are giving them jobs, allowing them into the hi-tech world, allowing them to become doctors.\" As the crowd responded with booing and cheering, Gopstein continued: \"The cancer we spoke about in the beginning has offshoots in the Knesset of Israel too. Thirty years ago, Rabbi Kahane stood up in the Knesset and took out a hangman's noose",
"-32.859239915414946"
],
[
"of a person that has an advanced illness with a likely prognosis of less than 6 months. As most treatments for cancer involve significant unpleasant side effects, a patient with little realistic hope of a cure or prolonged life may choose to seek comfort care only, forgoing more radical therapies in exchange for a prolonged period of normal living. This is an especially important aspect of care for those patients whose disease is not a good candidate for other forms of treatment. In these patients, the risks related to the chemotherapy may actually be higher than the chance of responding",
"-32.4909731450025"
],
[
"Food and Drug Authority or the European Medicines Agency) approved any as a therapy for any type of disease\". \nDavid Grimes, a cancer researcher at Oxford University, told This Morning: \"It's not just untrue, it's patronising and victim blaming, cancer is bad luck... the healthiest people in the world get cancer and it’s not because they are negative\". Prof. John Gribben, Chair of Medical Oncology at Queen Mary University of London, said: \"This is complete gibberish and undermines all the good work everyone does with evidence-based medicine and targeted approaches\". Edzard Ernst, Emeritus Professor at the University of Exeter said:",
"-32.184680452395696"
],
[
"the tumor is not completely removed during surgery or if the cancer is stage IV; it can extend progression-free survival but has not been shown to extend overall survival. Chemotherapy is curative in approximately 20% of advanced ovarian cancers; it is more often curative with malignant germ cell tumors than epithelial tumors.\nChemotherapy in ovarian cancer typically consists of platins, a group of platinum-based drugs, combined with non-platins. Common therapies can include paclitaxel, cisplatin, topotecan, doxorubicin, epirubicin, and gemcitabine. Carboplatin is typically given in combination with either paclitaxel or docetaxel; the typical combination is carboplatin with paclitaxel. Carboplatin is superior to",
"-32.141637871041894"
],
[
"by an expert in the field of immunodeficiency or infectious diseases. Cancer People with A–T have a highly increased incidence (approximately 25% lifetime risk) of cancers, particularly lymphomas and leukemia, but other cancers can occur. When possible, treatment should avoid the use of radiation therapy and chemotherapy drugs that work in a way that is similar to radiation therapy (radiomimetic drugs), as these are particularly toxic for people with A–T. The special problems of managing cancer are sufficiently complicated that treatment should be done only in academic oncology centers and after consultation with physicians who have specific expertise in A–T.",
"-31.964987422164995"
],
[
"done instead. Cancer that does not respond to hormonal treatment, or that progresses after treatment, might be treated with chemotherapy such as docetaxel. Radiotherapy may also be used to help with pain associated with bony lesions.\nSometimes, the decision may be made not to treat prostate cancer. If a cancer is small and localised, the decision may be made to monitor for cancer activity at intervals (\"Active surveillance\") and commence treatment. If a person, because of frailty or other medical conditions or reasons, has a life expectancy less than ten years, then the impacts of treatment may outweight any perceived benefits.",
"-31.8126537083117"
],
[
"Unfortunately, there is no way to predict which individuals will develop cancer. Because leukemia and lymphomas differ from solid tumors in not progressing from solitary to metastatic stages, there is less need to diagnose them early in their appearance. Surveillance for leukemia and lymphoma is thus not helpful, other than considering cancer as a diagnostic possibility whenever possible symptoms of cancer (e.g. persistent swollen lymph glands, unexplained fever) arise.\nWomen who are A–T carriers (who have one mutated copy of the ATM gene), have approximately a two-fold increased risk for the development of breast cancer compared to the general population. This",
"-31.800534811074613"
],
[
"should lower the risk to develop cancer later. This could be confirmed by collecting epidemiological studies.",
"-31.785652358434163"
],
[
"ineffective....The label 'unproven' is inappropriate for such therapies; it is time to assert that many alternative cancer therapies have been 'disproven'.\"\nEdzard Ernst has stated:\nany alternative cancer cure is bogus by definition. There will never be an alternative cancer cure. Why? Because if something looked halfway promising, then mainstream oncology would scrutinize it, and if there is anything to it, it would become mainstream almost automatically and very quickly. All curative \"alternative cancer cures\" are based on false claims, are bogus, and, I would say, even criminal. Conflicts of interest Some commentators have said that special consideration must be given to",
"-31.743417481251527"
],
[
"occurred until the 1980s, a high proportion of people (about 30–45%) still have to be treated for a post-operative sickness that is not caused by the cancer itself. The most common complication of surgery is difficulty in emptying the stomach. Certain more limited surgical procedures may also be used to ease symptoms (see Palliative care): for instance, if the cancer is invading or compressing the duodenum or colon. In such cases, bypass surgery might overcome the obstruction and improve quality of life but is not intended as a cure. Chemotherapy After surgery, adjuvant chemotherapy with gemcitabine or 5-FU",
"-31.68776479153894"
],
[
"cancerous. It was first discovered and reported in the medical literature in 1976 by J.J. McCoy, Jr., and colleagues. Treatment The most common and most effective treatment is surgical removal of the gallbladder (cholecystectomy) with part of liver and lymph node dissection. However, with gallbladder cancer's extremely poor prognosis, most patients will die within a year of surgery. If surgery is not possible, endoscopic stenting of the biliary tree can reduce jaundice and a stent in stomach may relieve vomiting. Chemotherapy and radiation may also be used with surgery. If gallbladder cancer is diagnosed after cholecystectomy for stone",
"-31.659291171003133"
],
[
"came to the conclusion that “A cancer can not be cured by treating the symptoms. Complete mutualization, to be paid for at a price only commensurate with its dividends is, in my opinion, the only sure measure of relief.\" The findings led to the creation of the Armstrong Commission, to investigate such practices across the industry. Spearheaded by William Armstrong, a State Senator, the commission began work in 1905.",
"-31.50179728564399"
],
[
"disease (incidental cancer), re-operation to remove part of liver and lymph nodes is required in most cases. When it is done as early as possible, patients have the best chance of long-term survival and even cure.",
"-31.40119720592338"
],
[
"the immune system is weaker then cancer evolves as a disease and starts growing.\nEach type of cancer needs a specific combination of treatments aimed at that particular kind of cancer. When the extent of spread of cancer is deep, total removal of the cancer growth by surgery may not be possible. At times, after surgical removal of a part of the cancer, radiotherapy and/or chemotherapy may be necessary to treat the remnant portion of cancer. It is widely known that Chemotherapy has profound toxic side effects and has limitations in efficacy. Radiotherapy is also a very effective mode of treatment",
"-31.317675409722142"
],
[
"remains controversial, due to the possibility of complications from the surgery itself and the fact that it may delay chemotherapy the data so far is mostly positive, with improved survival rates being seen in those treated with this approach. Chemotherapy The use of chemotherapy to treat stomach cancer has no firmly established standard of care. Unfortunately, stomach cancer has not been particularly sensitive to these drugs, and chemotherapy, if used, has usually served to palliatively reduce the size of the tumor, relieve symptoms of the disease and increase survival time. Some drugs used in stomach cancer treatment have included: 5-FU",
"-31.31516241832287"
],
[
"who have been diagnosed with cancer. According to Cancer Research UK, cancer patients should always seek professional advice before taking such supplements, and using them as a substitute for conventional treatment \"could be harmful to [their] health and greatly reduce the chance of curing or controlling [their] cancer\". Methodology Orthomolecular therapies have been criticized as lacking a sufficient evidence base for clinical use: their scientific foundations are too weak, the studies that have been performed are too few and too open to interpretation, and reported positive findings in observational studies are contradicted by the results of more rigorous clinical trials.",
"-31.265318918915"
],
[
"cancerous (malignant). With malignant bone tumors that have not spread, most patients achieve a cure, but the cure rate depends on the type of cancer, location, size, and other factors.",
"-31.246098896022886"
],
[
"diagnosed with incurable, stage 4 cancer, more than two-thirds of people with lung cancer and more than four-fifths of people with colorectal cancer still believed that chemotherapy was likely to cure their cancer.\nThe blood–brain barrier poses an obstacle to delivery of chemotherapy to the brain. This is because the brain has an extensive system in place to protect it from harmful chemicals. Drug transporters can pump out drugs from the brain and brain's blood vessel cells into the cerebrospinal fluid and blood circulation. These transporters pump out most chemotherapy drugs, which reduces their efficacy for treatment of brain tumors. Only",
"-31.175970420423255"
],
[
"the use of laetrile to treat cancer has been identified in the scientific literature as a canonical example of quackery and has never been shown to be effective in the treatment or prevention of cancer. Emanuel Landau, then a Project Director for the APHA, wrote a book review for the American Journal of Public Health, which noted that Griffin \"accepts the 'conspiracy' theory ... that policy-makers in the medical, pharmaceutical, research and fund-raising organizations deliberately or unconsciously strive not to prevent or cure cancer in order to perpetuate their functions\". Landau concludes that although World Without Cancer \"is an emotional",
"-31.150580977126992"
],
[
"disease. If the cancer cells return, the treatment may be repeated and should again result in remission, although the odds of success decline with repeated treatment. Remission lengths vary significantly, from one year to more than twenty years. The median patient can expect a treatment-free interval of about ten years.\nIt does not seem to matter which drug a patient receives. A patient who is not successfully treated with one of these two drugs has a reduced chance of being successfully treated with the other. However, there are other options. Other treatments Splenectomy can produce long-term",
"-31.08169538329821"
],
[
"the surgery, there may be certain unknown or unique risks attached depending on the cancer or surgical area. Additionally, undertaking a prophylactic surgery does not guarantee the patient that they will never develop cancer later. Ultimately, it is a very complex and personal question when it comes to making the decision on whether to operate. Individuals whom do request prophylactic surgeries can be under the influence of anxiety, uncertainty and irrational fear as a result of a test or hereditary disease may incite these fears in the individual. It is important to consider both your own, families and surgeon’s opinions",
"-31.066891562659293"
],
[
"surgery because of the allegedly excessive risk of acquiring AIDS.\nDay remarried later to former California congressman William Dannemeyer.\nShe has two sons and granddaughters. Alternative cancer treatment As a promoter of alternative medicine she claims to have discovered the cause and cure of cancer, as a result of God showing her how to recover from her own cancer with a 10 step plan. According to her theory, all cancers are due to weakness of the immune system which must be cured by diet. \"All diseases are caused by a combination of three factors: malnutrition, dehydration, and stress.\"\nIn 2004, she began marketing",
"-30.910031397768762"
],
[
"cancer is constantly evolving, it often develops even more genetic changes that allow it to adapt and survive against the drug. This drug resistance allows the cancers to grow back despite previously effective treatment. This has become a major challenge in treating cancers.\nThe POGs and other new cancer treatments are generally tested on patients with advanced cancers who have failed previous drug therapy. With time, cancer progresses and evolves based on the previous treatments the individual has received. These cancers are incredibly difficult to treat due to their drug resistance mechanisms. There is a growing acceptance that these new medications",
"-30.903732789796777"
],
[
"this is the only cure for this cancer. Whether or not surgical resection can be offered depends on how much the cancer has spread. The exact location of the tumor is also a significant factor, and CT can show how it relates to the major blood vessels passing close to the pancreas. The general health of the person must also be assessed, though age in itself is not an obstacle to surgery.\nChemotherapy and, to a lesser extent, radiotherapy are likely to be offered to most people, whether or not surgery is possible. Specialists advise that the management of pancreatic cancer",
"-30.867747312200663"
],
[
"many cases can still be treated successfully. Changes in cancer stage The formal \"stage\" of a cancer does not change over time, even if the cancer progresses. A cancer that returns or spreads is still referred to by the stage it was given when it first diagnosed. Sometimes, after a period of remission (cancer being undetectable) for certain cancers, if more treatment is planned, a doctor might restage the cancer. The same process that was done when the cancer was first diagnosed will be repeated: exams, imaging tests, biopsies, and possibly surgery to restage the cancer. If the cancer is",
"-30.864134533447213"
],
[
"typically easily treated with surgery. More advanced tumors may take up to 20 years to relapse, if they relapse at all, and are only treated with surgery unless the tumor has changed its histological characteristics or grown very quickly. In these cases, and when there is significant ascites, chemotherapy may also be used. Relapse is usually indicated by rising CA-125 levels and then progresses to symptomatic relapse within 2–6 months. Recurrent sex cord-stromal tumors are typically unresponsive to treatment but not aggressive.\nIt is the most deadly gynecologic cancer. Epidemiology In 2014, the number of new cases that occurred in developed",
"-30.855438999948092"
],
[
"major complication with the current methods of treating cancer with chemotherapy is that treatment is not optimized to specifically target cancer cells and the widespread distribution of chemotherapeutic drugs throughout the body can cause harmful side effects such as naseua, hair loss, and cardiotoxicity. Since many of the characteristics of AuNPs allow them to target cancer cells specifically and accumulate within tumor cells, these molecules can act as tumor-targeting drug delivery systems. Once within the tumor microenvironment, these complexes dissociate and release the chemotherapeutic, allowing the drug to take effect and eventually cause apoptosis.\nGold nanoparticles have their advantages in drug",
"-30.755391642742325"
],
[
"completely using surgery. If the cancer cannot be completely removed, the disease is usually deadly within 3 to 6 months. This is partially due to late presentation with tumors, but also the lack of medical expertise and facilities in the regions with high HCC prevalence. However, survival can vary, and occasionally people survive much longer than 6 months. The prognosis for metastatic or unresectable HCC has recently improved due to the approval of Sorafenib (Nexavar®) for advanced HCC. Epidemiology HCC is one of the most common tumors worldwide. The epidemiology of HCC exhibits two main patterns, one in North",
"-30.602457770699402"
],
[
"damage of the disease by early diagnosis, but rather to avoid the emergence of cancer by preventing exposure to substances that cause it. Primary prevention is concerned with this: to do research on natural or synthetic substances to understand which are carcinogenic and, once identified, to suggest to the health authorities of public health measures to remove them from circulation. It is a strategy that protects all – so the rich as the poor - but unfortunately it is neglected by scientists, politicians and health authorities”.\n“The researchers more closely resemble sociologists than revolutionary innovators, identifying themselves, and ending up loving",
"-30.589868314767955"
],
[
"has been done within the \"Toxicology in the 21st century\" project. In cancer Chemotherapy as a treatment of cancer often relies on the ability of cytotoxic agents to kill or damage cells which are reproducing; this preferentially targets rapidly dividing cancer cells.",
"-30.544645667934674"
],
[
"be either benign, meaning not cancerous, or malignant, meaning cancerous; while the benign tumors typically need little treatment to no treatment, the malignant tumors can cause serious problems and can potentially be life-threatening. Different methods are used to determine if the tumor is malignant and whether it has spread to other organs. Methods used to determine malignancy include fine needle aspirate, biopsy, or complete removal. To determine if the tumor has metastasized, a rectal examination or an ultrasound can be performed; the most frequent location for metastasis include the lymph nodes, spleen, liver, the abdominal wall, the lungs, and blood",
"-30.52238385155215"
],
[
"Chemotherapy is not usually used as primary treatment but may be used in advanced cases with spread to the bones, liver or lungs. It may also be given at a lower dose together with radiation therapy.\nWomen with vulvar cancer should have routine follow-up and exams with their oncologist, often every 3 months for the first 2–3 years after treatment. They should not have routine surveillance imaging to monitor the cancer unless new symptoms appear or tumor markers begin rising. Imaging without these indications is discouraged because it is unlikely to detect a recurrence or improve survival and is associated with",
"-30.513578522812168"
],
[
"of a cure for breast cancer, rather than the reality that there is no certain cure for breast cancer, and no guarantee there will ever be such a cure (Sulik 2010, pp. 359–361). The practice of blindly wearing or displaying a pink ribbon without making other, more concrete efforts to cure breast cancer has been described as a kind of slacktivism due to its lack of real effects (Landman 2008), and has been compared to equally simple yet ineffective \"awareness\" practices like the drive for women to post the colors of their bras on Facebook (Borrelli 2010) Critics say that the",
"-30.45582142312196"
],
[
"who immediately started me on a new treatment that has had 90% success rate. The cancer is being held in remission but I'll be receiving this treatment for the rest of my life. I have four close friends who have all endured some kind of surgery or treatment for this cancer and all are doing well. While I don't like to talk publicly about my health problems, after Alvin's death, I decided it was time I spoke out. A cancer diagnosis can shake your world and your family's but if caught in time it can be cured or held in",
"-30.438162617138005"
],
[
"each case. For instance, a cancer patient may be willing to undergo yet more chemotherapy with a very expensive medication for the benefit of a few weeks of life, while medical staff, insurance company staff, and close relatives may believe this is a futile course of care.\nA 2010 survey of more than 10,000 physicians in the United States found respondents divided on the issue of recommending or giving \"life-sustaining therapy when [they] judged that it was futile\", with 23.6% saying they would do so, 37% saying they would not, and 39.4% selecting \"It depends\". Arguments against providing futile medical care",
"-30.35581299441401"
],
[
"surgery. This is called \"neoadjuvant chemotherapy\", and is common when a tumor cannot be completely removed or optimally debulked via surgery. Though it has not been shown to increase survival, it can reduce the risk of complications after surgery. If a unilateral salpingo-oophorectomy or other surgery is performed, additional chemotherapy, called \"adjuvant chemotherapy\", can be given. Adjuvant chemotherapy is used in stage 1 cancer typically if the tumor is of a high histologic grade (grade 3) or the highest substage (stage 1c), provided the cancer has been optimally staged during surgery. Bevacizumab may be used as an adjuvant chemotherapy if",
"-30.276388157741167"
],
[
"preventing tumor growth but has not proven to be fully successful, for tumor cells cut off from the blood supply can eventually develop “reactive resistance” to hypoxia. These resistant cancer cells could be killed by chemotherapeutic drugs, but once the vasculature to the tumor has been cut off, there is no way for chemotherapy to be delivered. Nanotechnology offers a way to deliver chemotherapeutic drugs and anti-angiogenic drugs in the same vehicle so that as the blood supply is shut off, chemotherapy is present to prevent any hypoxia-resistant cells from proliferating. Technology Labs at MIT are in the",
"-30.26436621742323"
],
[
"(excluding carcinoma in situ and non-melanoma skin cancers) die from that cancer or its treatment.\nSurvival is worse in the developing world, partly because the types of cancer that are most common there are harder to treat than those associated with developed countries.\nThose who survive cancer develop a second primary cancer at about twice the rate of those never diagnosed. The increased risk is believed to be due to the random chance of developing any cancer, the likelihood of surviving the first cancer, the same risk factors that produced the first cancer, unwanted side effects of treating the first cancer (particularly",
"-30.227448497491423"
],
[
"required to remove the cancer. They may experience temporary or persistent post-chemotherapy cognitive impairment. Some young survivors lose their ability to have children.\nCancer survivors frequently need medical monitoring, and some treatments for unrelated diseases in the future may be contraindicated. For example, a patient who has had a significant amount of radiation therapy may not be a good candidate for more radiation treatments in the future. To assist with these needs, \"survivor care plans\" have been promoted. These are personalized documents that describe the person's diagnosis and treatment in detail, list common known side effects,",
"-30.191681344469544"
],
[
"Treatment of cancer Types of treatments The treatment of cancer has undergone evolutionary changes as understanding of the underlying biological processes has increased. Tumor removal surgeries have been documented in ancient Egypt, hormone therapy and radiation therapy were developed in the late 19th Century. Chemotherapy, immunotherapy and newer targeted therapies are products of the 20th century. As new information about the biology of cancer emerges, treatments will be developed and modified to increase effectiveness, precision, survivability, and quality of life. Surgery In theory, non-hematological cancers can be cured if entirely removed by surgery, but this is not always possible. When",
"-30.119167948825634"
],
[
"of the tumor mass. Cancer cells that are left over after a surgery are typically rapidly dividing cells, leaving them the most vulnerable to chemotherapy. Standard chemotherapy regimens are usually administered every 3 weeks to allow normal cells time to recover. This practice has led scientists to the hypothesis that the recurrence of cancer after surgery and chemo may be due to the rapidly diving cells outpacing the rate of chemotherapy administration. DDC tries to circumvent this issue by giving chemotherapy every 2 weeks. To lessen the side effects of chemotherapy that can be exacerbated with more closely administered chemotherapy",
"-30.080513310269453"
],
[
"include inoperable tumor, massive obesity, a particularly high-risk operation, or a desire to preserve fertility. These contraindications happen in about 5–10% of cases. Women who wish to preserve their fertility and have low-grade stage I cancer can be treated with progestins, with or without concurrent tamoxifen therapy. This therapy can be continued until the cancer does not respond to treatment or until childbearing is done. Uterine perforation may occur during a D&C or an endometrial biopsy. Side effects of surgery to remove endometrial cancer can specifically include sexual dysfunction, temporary incontinence, and lymphedema, along with more common side effects of",
"-30.07535139580432"
],
[
"methods to diagnose whether or not a person has leukemia, many people have not been diagnosed because many of the symptoms are vague, non-specific, and can refer to other diseases. For this reason, the American Cancer Society estimates that at least one-fifth of the people with leukemia have not yet been diagnosed. Treatment Most forms of leukemia are treated with pharmaceutical medication, typically combined into a multi-drug chemotherapy regimen. Some are also treated with radiation therapy. In some cases, a bone marrow transplant is effective. Treatment approach For most people with CLL, it is incurable by present treatments, so",
"-30.048483038670383"
],
[
"life would cure the cancer. Among other effects, this belief allowed society to blame the victim for having caused the cancer (by \"wanting\" it) or having prevented its cure (by not becoming a sufficiently happy, fearless and loving person). It also increased patients' anxiety, as they incorrectly believed that natural emotions of sadness, anger or fear shorten their lives. The idea was ridiculed by Susan Sontag, who published Illness as Metaphor while recovering from treatment for breast cancer in 1978. Although the original idea is now generally regarded as nonsense, the idea partly persists in a reduced form with a",
"-30.021989805805788"
],
[
"cancer is malignant enough that the mother is unlikely to be able to wait that long, to perform an abortion in order to treat the cancer. In utero Fetal tumors are sometimes diagnosed while still in utero. Teratoma is the most common type of fetal tumor, and usually is benign. In some cases these are surgically treated while the fetus is still in the uterus. Racial and Social Disparities in the Treatment of Cancer Cancer is a significant issue that is affecting the world. Specifically in the U.S, it is expected for there to be 1,735,350 new cases of cancer,",
"-29.986870294902474"
],
[
"INSERM, the Université Paris Descartes and Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP) in order to isolate cancer cells from blood without loss and identify them through a diagnostic cytopathology-based approach. Further characterisation Some drugs are particularly effective against cancers which fit certain requirements. For example, Herceptin is very effective in patients who are Her2 positive, but much less effective in patients who are Her2 negative. Once the primary tumor is removed, biopsy of the current state of the cancer through traditional tissue typing is not possible anymore. Often tissue sections of the primary tumor, removed years prior, are used to",
"-29.973606955987634"
],
[
"variants include the following: Alternative treatments In Natural Cures \"They\" Don't Want You to Know About, Kevin Trudeau proposes that there are all-natural cures for serious illnesses including cancer, herpes, arthritis, AIDS, acid reflux disease, various phobias, depression, obesity, diabetes, multiple sclerosis, lupus, chronic fatigue syndrome, attention deficit disorder, muscular dystrophy, and that these are all being deliberately hidden and suppressed from the public by the Food and Drug Administration, the Federal Trade Commission, and the major food and drug companies. HIV/AIDS In a 2006 column for Harper's Magazine, journalist Celia Farber claimed that the antiretroviral drug nevirapine was",
"-29.96502104366664"
],
[
"cancer in the developed world are expected to live at least five years after the cancer is discovered. In the U.S. for example, about 11 million Americans alive today—one in 30 people–are either currently undergoing treatment for cancer or have done so in the past.\nMany cancer survivors describe the process of living with and beating cancer as a life-changing experience. It is not uncommon for survivors to use the experience as opportunities for creative self-transformation into a \"better person\" or as motivation to meet goals of great personal importance, such as climbing a mountain or reconciling with an estranged family",
"-29.935722354282916"
],
[
"for cancer. A spokesman for the council that instigated the action stated, \"it is as important now as it ever was that people are protected from those peddling unproven products with spurious claims as to their effects.\"",
"-29.915016840106546"
],
[
"can be offered if the person is sufficiently fit, after a recovery period of one to two months. In people not suitable for curative surgery, chemotherapy may be used to extend life or improve its quality. Before surgery, neoadjuvant chemotherapy or chemoradiotherapy may be used in cases that are considered to be \"borderline resectable\" (see Staging) in order to reduce the cancer to a level where surgery could be beneficial. In other cases neoadjuvant therapy remains controversial, because it delays surgery.\nGemcitabine was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1997, after a clinical trial",
"-29.89100815038546"
],
[
"tumor of any size that has also spread to nearby lymph nodes. However, the cancer is not strictly limited to this area and may be seen within bones, marrow, and lungs. Treatment Determination of treatment options depends on certain factors, some of which affect internal organs and others that affect personal appearance. When determining treatment, oncologists consider the initial location the tumor, the likelihood of body function deterioration, the effect on appearance, and the patient's potential response to chemotherapy and radiation. Surgery is the least successful of the treatment options; the tumor cannot be completely removed because it develops within",
"-29.84983127823216"
],
[
"drugs. But there haven’t been any large scale studies in humans. So we don't know yet whether it can work as a cancer treatment or not. Many sites on the internet advertise and promote graviola capsules as a cancer cure, but none of them are supported by any reputable scientific cancer organisations. We do not support the use of graviola to treat cancer.\"\nIn 2008, a court case relating to the sale in the UK of Triamazon, a soursop product, resulted in the criminal conviction of a man under the terms of the UK Cancer Act for offering to treat people",
"-29.834240998396126"
],
[
"method of treatment for most isolated, solid cancers and may play a role in palliation and prolongation of survival. It is typically an important part of definitive diagnosis and staging of tumors, as biopsies are usually required. In localized cancer, surgery typically attempts to remove the entire mass along with, in certain cases, the lymph nodes in the area. For some types of cancer this is sufficient to eliminate the cancer. Immunotherapy A variety of therapies using immunotherapy, stimulating or helping the immune system to fight cancer, have come into use since 1997. Approaches include antibodies, checkpoint therapy, and adoptive",
"-29.82035314643872"
],
[
"combined approach that includes surgery may be considered. Disease that is widespread, metastatic or recurrent is managed palliatively: in this case, chemotherapy may be used to lengthen survival, while treatments such as radiotherapy or stenting may be used to relieve symptoms and make it easier to swallow. Surgery If the cancer has been diagnosed while still in an early stage, surgical treatment with a curative intention may be possible. Some small tumors that only involve the mucosa or lining of the esophagus may be removed by endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR). Otherwise, curative surgery of early-stage lesions may entail removal of",
"-29.811624051013496"
],
[
"who take part may be helped personally by the treatment they receive. They get up-to-date care from cancer experts, and they receive either a new treatment being tested or the best available standard treatment for their cancer. At the same time, new treatments also may have unknown risks, but if a new treatment proves effective or more effective than standard treatment, study patients who receive it may be among the first to benefit. There is no guarantee that a new treatment being tested or a standard treatment will produce good results. In children with cancer, a survey of trials found",
"-29.781617617074517"
],
[
"cells) and deposited material (such as type I collagen and hyaluronic acid). This creates a tumor microenvironment that is short of blood vessels (hypovascular) and so of oxygen (tumor hypoxia). It is thought that this prevents many chemotherapy drugs from reaching the tumor, as one factor making the cancer especially hard to treat. Exocrine cancers Pancreatic cancer is usually staged following a CT scan. The most widely used cancer staging system for pancreatic cancer is the one formulated by the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) together with the Union for International Cancer Control (UICC). The AJCC-UICC",
"-29.766604041622486"
],
[
"albendazole and/or mebendazole) for up to two years after surgery is the only sure way to completely cure the disease. However, in inoperable cases, chemotherapy by itself can also be used. In treatment using just chemotherapy, one could use either mebendazole in three doses or albendazole in two doses. Since chemotherapy on its own is not guaranteed to completely rid the patient of disease, patients are often kept on the drugs for extended periods of times (i.e. more than 6 months, years). In addition to surgery and chemotherapy, liver transplants are being looked into as a form of treatment for",
"-29.75117375224363"
],
[
"In other words, they believed that cancer cells was spread through the blood and lymph systems and that it entered these systems at an earlier stage than had previously been thought. This meant that the best way to fight breast cancer was not to perform an extensive excision of local tissue. Instead, a lumpectomy, in which only the tumor itself and a small amount of surrounding tissue are excised, would likely be just as effective and would have the added advantage of not causing disfigurement.\nWhat Fisher introduced, in short, was an entirely new theory about the spread of breast cancer:",
"-29.73400998581201"
],
[
"and Parkinson's disease. Also known as programmed cell death and cell suicide. Cancer treatment One of the challenges of cancer treatment is how to destroy malignant tumors without damaging healthy cells. A new method that shows great promise for accomplishing this employs the use of a suicide gene. A suicide gene is a gene which will cause a cell to kill itself through apoptosis. There are currently two methods of suicide gene therapy being used. Gene-directed enzyme-producing therapy (GDEPT) uses a gene taken from the cancer cell and then modified with other genes to form enzymes that are harmless to",
"-29.733942111983197"
],
[
"there are issues like inducing disease (cancer as you indicate or others). There is going to be exposure to the gut and that is not necessarily good since we don't know the effects as of yet. SR9009 has some functional groups that are known to have potential toxicology liabilities and it would never be developed as a drug. It was ok as a \"tool\" to figure out if we should continue to spend money and effort to get better drugs – but we had to design these \"bad\" functional groups out since they are know to have toxic effects in",
"-29.66186920680002"
],
[
"very high success rate of preventing or removing cancer, without recurrence, since the locations giving rise to cancer are physically removed in toto by the surgery.\nFollowing surgery, if a partial colectomy has been performed, colonoscopic surveillance of the remaining colon is necessary as the individual still has a risk of developing colon cancer. However, if this happened, it would be a fresh incident from polyps developing anew in the unremoved part of the colon subsequent to surgery, rather than a return or metastasis of any cancer removed by the original surgery. Epidemiology The incidence of the mutation is between 1",
"-29.647559433913557"
],
[
"others.\nThe overall impact of chemotherapy on cancer survival can be difficult to estimate, since improved cancer screening, prevention (e.g. anti-smoking campaigns), and detection all influence statistics on cancer incidence and mortality. In the United States, overall cancer incidence rates were stable from 1995 through 1999, while cancer death rates decreased steadily from 1993 through 1999. Again, this likely reflects the combined impact of improved screening, prevention, and treatment. Nonetheless, cancer remains a major cause of illness and death, and conventional cytotoxic chemotherapy has proved unable to cure most cancers after they have metastasized.",
"-29.621584368287586"
],
[
"person to avoid chemotherapy while \"dishonestly promoting its benefits with no scientific basis for her claims\". The Queensland Office of Fair Trading handed down a court order prohibiting her from \"making any claims she is able to treat, cure, or benefit any person suffering from cancer\" and she was charged court costs of A$12,000.\nOn May 28, 2015, a US federal jury found Louis Daniel Smith guilty of conspiracy, smuggling, selling misbranded drugs and defrauding the United States in relation to the sale of MMS. According to the evidence presented at trial, Smith created phony “water purification” and “wastewater treatment” businesses",
"-29.612055285077076"
],
[
"cells are recognized by the immune system as damaged and are consequently targeted for elimination”. For a tumor to progress it requires conditions within the body and surrounding area to be growth-promoting. Almost all people have suitable immune cells to fight off tumors in the body. Studies have shown that the immune system even has the ability to prevent precancerous cells from growing and arbitrate the regression of established tumors. The dangerous thing about cancer cells is they have the ability to inhibit the function of the immune system. Although a tumor may be in its beginning stage and very",
"-29.59343345556408"
],
[
"of treatments used previously. In patients diagnosed with CUP it is often still possible to treat the disease even when the primary tumor cannot be located.\nCurrent treatments are rarely able to cure metastatic cancer though some tumors, such as testicular cancer and thyroid cancer, are usually curable.\nPalliative care, care aimed at improving the quality of life of people with major illness, has been recommended as part of management programs for metastasis. Research Although metastasis is widely accepted to be the result of the tumor cells migration, there is a hypothesis saying that some metastases are the result of inflammatory processes",
"-29.581098009613925"
],
[
"the removal of only the tumor, or the entire organ. A single cancer cell is invisible to the naked eye but can regrow into a new tumor, a process called recurrence. For this reason, the pathologist will examine the surgical specimen to determine if a margin of healthy tissue is present, thus decreasing the chance that microscopic cancer cells are left in the patient.\nIn addition to removal of the primary tumor, surgery is often necessary for staging, e.g. determining the extent of the disease and whether it has metastasized to regional lymph nodes. Staging is a major determinant of prognosis",
"-29.56843265601492"
],
[
"of all cancers in adults are of alimentary origin. His hypothesis was that cancer is a nutritional disease and is caused by liver damage.\nBlond believed that cancer treatment requires the healing of liver damage. He argued that if the liver detoxifies correctly then cancer cannot develop because it thrives only on toxic products of digestion. His suggestions of treatment opposed any radiation therapy or surgery. He regarded \"cancer prevention, a problem of dietary control\" and recommended a vegetarian diet as therapy. He cited cases of cancer patients being successfully treated with vegetable juices, yoghurt, raw vegetables and fruit.\nPathologist J. H.",
"-29.549163058221666"
],
[
"often a very dramatic and rapidly enlarging, destructive tumor, there is usually a benign clinical course after complete local excision (usually by partial maxillectomy) with clear or free surgical margins. In rare cases, chemotherapy may be used for recurrent or residual tumors. Overall, the outcome is good, although it is quite unpredictable, with about 30% of patients have a recurrence. In about 10% of cases, metastasis may be seen (lymph nodes, liver, bone and soft tissue). Epidemiology This tumor is exception, with fewer than 500 cases reported world wide. More than 95% of patients are less than 1 year of",
"-29.545592784619657"
],
[
"fit and outcompete the rest of the population. The chemotherapy, administered directly after, should wipe out the predominant tumor cells.",
"-29.533226197403565"
],
[
"have no cures.\nResearchers have found that almost all disorders and diseases that affect humans reflect the interplay between the environment and their genes; however we are still in the initial stages of understanding the specific role genes play on common disorders and diseases. For example, while news reports may give a different impression, most cancer is not inherited. It is therefore likely that the recent rise in the rates of cancer worldwide can be at least partially attributed to the rise in the number of synthetic and otherwise toxic compounds found in our society today. Thus, in the",
"-29.49856058228761"
],
[
"treatments have been exhausted. When at least one regimen containing protease inhibitors has failed in a patient, the subsequent attempts to treat the HIV infection may be referred to as salvage therapy. Cancers Salvage chemotherapy is a treatment that is given after the cancer has not responded to other chemotherapy regimens.",
"-29.468583924113773"
],
[
"genes and numerical chromosome changes) and may thus also indicate the prognosis and best treatment. Prevention Cancer prevention is defined as active measures to decrease cancer risk. The vast majority of cancer cases are due to environmental risk factors. Many of these environmental factors are controllable lifestyle choices. Thus, cancer is generally preventable. Between 70% and 90% of common cancers are due to environmental factors and therefore potentially preventable.\nGreater than 30% of cancer deaths could be prevented by avoiding risk factors including: tobacco, excess weight/obesity, poor diet, physical inactivity, alcohol, sexually transmitted infections and air pollution. Not all environmental causes",
"-29.43757542426465"
],
[
"standard treatment, and they can suffer side effects that are serious at the very least and can even actively cause their deaths. Kelley's cancer therapy Kelley formulated his own ideas about cancer, basing them on those of Max Gerson, and named his treatment \"non-specific metabolic therapy\". According to Kelley, cancer is a single disease caused by the lack of certain enzymes. His treatment involves injection of pancreatic enzymes, 50 daily vitamins and minerals, regular administration of laetrile, frequent body shampoos, detoxication using coffee enemas, and a specific diet. Kelley also added prayer and osteopathic manipulations to his treatment regime.\nIn",
"-29.415396937169135"
],
[
"on the conclusion that there is a lot of knowledge already in what factors affect getting cancer, but much less about the factors that make patients live more or less well with the disease. 2013 scandals and lower donations Short after the 2013 edition, the event and foundation were criticized because they hadn't been able to actually spend 37 million euro of the collected donations from the previous years and researchers complained that the process to get funding was opaque. Later that year Coen van Veenendaal, one of the founders and former member of the board, was accused of making",
"-29.40044123813277"
],
[
"it can result in lung cancer after a long time after the initial treatment. Treatment consists of surgical removal of the growth. Sometimes radiation and chemotherapy is performed.",
"-29.370809569431003"
],
[
"usually between 4–5 days in the hospital and 6 weeks in total. An echocardiogram is taken every year to make sure the tumor has not returned or formed any new growth.\nIf surgery is too difficult, a heart transplantation is a second option. Continuous observations and checkups are recommended to monitor the condition. In cases of arrhythmias, anti-arrhythmic medication is given before surgical treatments are considered. There has been excellent outcomes for individuals who undergo surgery to remove the tumor. If the tumor is completely resected, individuals will have a disease-free survival. If the tumor is incomplete it will continue to",
"-29.340491144219413"
],
[
"the cancer has metastasized to other sites in the body prior to surgery, complete surgical excision is usually impossible. In the Halstedian model of cancer progression, tumors grow locally, then spread to the lymph nodes, then to the rest of the body. This has given rise to the popularity of local-only treatments such as surgery for small cancers. Even small localized tumors are increasingly recognized as possessing metastatic potential.\nExamples of surgical procedures for cancer include mastectomy for breast cancer, prostatectomy for prostate cancer, and lung cancer surgery for non-small cell lung cancer. The goal of the surgery can be either",
"-29.33806350050145"
],
[
"outpatient care. Under these plans, cancer treatment given to a patient after they have left a hospital, including radiation and chemotherapy, may not be covered. Pre-existing conditions While cancer insurance plans have varying definitions of pre-existing conditions, they generally agree in that they impose restrictions on individuals who have already been diagnosed with cancer at time of enrollment. Some plans may not provide benefits for costs incurred due to a pre-existing condition during the first twelve months of coverage. Other plans may render patients completely ineligible if they have ever been diagnosed with certain forms of cancer, AIDS, or HIV.",
"-29.332860415510368"
],
[
"of complementary therapies following diagnosis is a significant and possibly growing phenomenon\".\nIn Australia, one study reported that 46% of children suffering from cancer have been treated with at least one non-traditional therapy. Further 40% of those of any age receiving palliative care had tried at least one such therapy. Some of the most popular alternative cancer treatments were found to be dietary therapies, antioxidants, high dose vitamins, and herbal therapies.\nUse of unconventional cancer treatments in the United States has been influenced by the U.S. federal government's National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM), initially known as the Office of",
"-29.265239918109728"
],
[
"but a routine check-up in 2006 showed that other tumours had grown and it would be dangerous to remove them. Henson was put on a regimen of chemotherapy, and now works regularly to raise funds for cancer charities, especially Marie Curie Cancer Care.",
"-29.222739943303168"
],
[
"cancer. There is also no apparent difference between total abdominal hysterectomy and supracervical hysterectomy for advanced cancers. Approximately 2.8% of people having a first surgery for advanced ovarian cancer die within two weeks of the surgery (2.8% perioperative mortality rate). More aggressive surgeries are associated with better outcomes in advanced (stage III or IV) ovarian cancer. Chemotherapy Chemotherapy has been a general standard of care for ovarian cancer for decades, although with variable protocols. Chemotherapy is used after surgery to treat any residual disease, if appropriate. In some cases, there may be reason to perform chemotherapy first, followed by",
"-29.191386854683515"
],
[
"the trial has generally found that selenium and vitamin E do not prevent prostate cancer. Other research based on foods rich in selenium or Vitamin E, not supplements, suggests that there is limited evidence such foods may protect against some forms of cancer. Methodology The study followed over 35,000 men in the United States, Puerto Rico, and Canada, who were assigned randomly to receive either both a selenium and vitamin E supplement, selenium and placebo, vitamin E and placebo, or two placebos. It was one of the largest cancer prevention trials ever conducted, and was described by the NCI as",
"-29.19008126646804"
],
[
"Gynecologists said:\n\"The evidence is not yet clear that these still do in fact cause cancer or related to it. The FDA Advisory Committee made comments about this, that if there wasn't enough evidence to indicate whether or not these pills were related to the development of cancer, and I think that's still thin; you have to be cautious about them, but I don't think there is clear evidence, either one way or the other, that they do or don't cause cancer.\"\nAnother physician, Dr. Roy Hertz of the Population Council, said that anyone who takes this should know of \"our knowledge",
"-29.181860196284106"
],
[
"investigated whether cancer was contagious. He surgically inserted under his skin a piece of cancerous lymph node from a patient with cancer of the lip. After two weeks, the transplant started to fade and Senn concluded that cancer is not contagious.\nMuch earlier, in 1808, Jean-Louis-Marc Alibert injected himself with a discharge from breast cancer. The site of injection became inflamed, but did not develop cancer.\nGerhard Domagk, in 1949, injected himself with sterilised extract of human cancer in an attempt to prove that immunisation against cancer was possible. AIDS vaccine Daniel Zagury, in 1986, was the first to",
"-29.169914237689227"
],
[
"chemotherapy drugs used to fight cancer, are using multiple active ingredient treatments.\nNature provides the most powerful cure-all drug, said Swerdlow. It has been scientifically proven to lower risks of heart disease, reduce chances of developing cancer, and prevent strokes (the three leading causes of death in the United States) all without side effects. This miracle drug is simply eating fruits and vegetables every day. To Heal A Nation (with Jan Scruggs) Howard K. Smith's introduction to this book begins with the impact of the Vietnam War as an \"inflamed wound\" on the body of American society:\nHistorians regard the civil war",
"-29.15467300225282"
],
[
"no treatment; others may be removed if they cause problems such as seizures, discomfort or cosmetic concerns. Surgery is usually the most effective approach and is used to treat most benign tumors. In some case other treatments may be of use. Adenomas of the rectum may be treated with sclerotherapy, a treatment in which chemicals are used to shrink blood vessels in order to cut off the blood supply. Most benign tumors do not respond to chemotherapy or radiation therapy, although there are exceptions; benign intercranial tumors are sometimes treated with radiation therapy and chemotherapy under certain circumstances. Radiation can",
"-29.146663006977178"
],
[
"as other cancer types.\nThe efficacy of chemotherapy depends on the type of cancer and the stage. In combination with surgery, chemotherapy has proven useful in cancer types including breast cancer, colorectal cancer, pancreatic cancer, osteogenic sarcoma, testicular cancer, ovarian cancer and certain lung cancers. Chemotherapy is curative for some cancers, such as some leukemias, ineffective in some brain tumors, and needless in others, such as most non-melanoma skin cancers. The effectiveness of chemotherapy is often limited by its toxicity to other tissues in the body. Even when chemotherapy does not provide a permanent cure, it may be useful to reduce",
"-29.145591862572473"
],
[
"of breast cancer with a genetic link. After medical treatment, including chemotherapy, her cancer is in remission.",
"-29.00547411100706"
],
[
"are expressed in these tumors, persons who are immunosuppressed such as AIDS or transplant patients are at higher risk for these types of cancers. Chronic indirect tumor viruses, on the other hand, can be lost (at least theoretically) from a mature tumor that has accumulated sufficient mutations and growth conditions (hyperplasia) from the chronic inflammation of viral infection. In this latter case, it is controversial but at least theoretically possible that an indirect tumor virus could undergo \"hit-and-run\" and so the virus would be lost from the clinically diagnosed tumor. In practical terms, this is an uncommon occurrence if it",
"-29.003871531807818"
],
[
"Rudolf Breuss Rudolf Breuss (1899–1990) was an Austrian who maintained that cancer lives on solid foods taken into the body, and that cancerous growths will die if a patient drinks only vegetable juices and tea for 42 days.\nBreuss stated that more than 45,000 people were cured following his treatment. He wrote a book titled The Breuss Cancer Cure: Advice for the Prevention and Natural Treatment of Cancer, Leukemia and Other Seemingly Incurable Diseases; according to a 1995 English translation, Cancer Cure has been translated into seven languages and has sold in more than 1 million copies.\nA senior nurse for Cancer",
"-28.995270199571678"
],
[
"fatal cases of breast cancer, complete with autopsy, as well as many other cancer cases from the literature and argues that the distribution of metastases cannot be due to chance, concluding that although \"the best work in pathology of cancer is done by those who… are studying the nature of the seed…\" [the cancer cell], the \"observations of the properties of the soil\" [the secondary organ] \"may also be useful...\" Approbation of Louis Pasteur In addition to other publications, he also wrote a book about Louis Pasteur titled Pasteur and After Pasteur while holding the position of Honorable Secretary of",
"-28.978452191207907"
],
[
"options is also beneficial because ovarian cancer is the fifth leading cause of cancer deaths for women and is one of the most lethal gynecological cancers.",
"-28.906098635226954"
],
[
"rare that only 0.01 percent of the cancer population has it and it affects about 1 person in every 1,000,000 worldwide. Around 20 cases are diagnosed in America every year – the cause is unknown. It is unresponsive to any known strain of chemotherapy, making treatment very difficult. Society There is a Facebook site set up for people with EHE. \nThere is also a Registry for patients to enter their medical history. \nCRAVAT Center for Research and Analysis of VAscular Tumors is a website for the EHE community. The EHE Rare Cancer Foundation Australia was established in 2015 by Australians",
"-28.90329636790557"
],
[
"of each individual's own cancer to select or develop uniquely targeted therapies. If personal biobanking options are not available to patients in some locations, they may conceivably start looking for private tumor banks to preserve their own excised tumors for use in their own future therapies. The implications of this trend for ethical and regulatory issues related to existing institutional biobanking policies are not yet clear.",
"-28.875992536748527"
],
[
"the book and the video, Griffin asserts that cancer is a metabolic disease like a vitamin deficiency facilitated by the insufficient dietary consumption of amygdalin. He contends that \"eliminating cancer through a nondrug therapy has not been accepted because of the hidden economic and power agendas of those who dominate the medical establishment\" and he wrote, \"at the very top of the world's economic and political pyramid of power there is a grouping of financial, political, and industrial interests that, by the very nature of their goals, are the natural enemies of the nutritional approaches to health.\"\nSince the 1970s,",
"-28.863699658075348"
],
[
"tumor is secreting hormones or other circulating chemicals. A biopsy of the tumor may be required to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment Because ganglioneuromas are benign, treatment may not be necessary, as it would expose patients to more risk than leaving it alone. If there are symptoms or major physical deformity, treatment usually consists of surgery to remove the tumor. Prognosis Most ganglioneuromas are noncancerous, thus expected outcome is usually good. However, a ganglioneuroma may become cancerous and spread to other areas, or it may regrow after removal.\nIf the tumor has been present for a long time and has pressed on",
"-28.86347018269589"
]
] |
29gy6c | How does a silencer on a fire arm work? | [
"The aim of a silencer is to break up/soften the noise of the weapon firing. It does this by directing the air leaving the muzzle through a series of baffles, slowing and redirecting the air so that it will form a 'softer' noise, rather than a single loud pulse. The noise you hear in the movies is not representative of the average silenced weapon, but is a plot device to let bad (or good) guys do their job steathily. In practice, the silencer will reduce the noise and make it harder to pinpoint, but will not give anything like as significant a reduction in volume",
"Imagine a hollow tube with a series of \"walls\" inside. These walls are called baffles. Much of the sound produced in the report of a gunshot is produced fron the rapid expansion of hot gasses leaving the muzzle of the barrel. The suppressor serves to trap these gasses within a series of baffles, lessening the sound. Bear in mind that you will not find many suppressors creating the 'hollywood' quiet sound that we're so used to. In fact, it can still be quite loud. Especially if you're using supersonic ammunition (subsonic ammunition is a must for eliminating the supersonic crack - but will often have reduced ballistic performance). The proper term is suppressor, as these devices only serve to suppress or muffle the sound. \"Silencer\" is actually a trademark of a company called Silenco that produces suppressors. To add a little more, baffle strikes can result in a catastrophic failure of the suppressor. When using a bullet that is too heavy to be stabilized by the twist rate of the barrel, the bullet can actually hit the baffles, destroying the suppressor. This can also be caused by improper threading, where the suppressor, when mounted, is ever so slightly canted.",
"They don't work like in the movies; you don't get a mouse fart *pthew* noise. Most movies don't accurately depict a silencer, because they can't accurately portray how utterly loud the guns are. Guns, even smaller .22 caliber guns, are so loud that standing next to one without hearing protection while it is being fired *just once* can damage your hearing. A silencer reduces this sound that's about as loud as a jet engine to one that's about as loud as a jackhammer. In other words: it still sounds like a gunshot, it just won't make you go deaf immediately."
] | [
[
"by mounting the body of the silencer to a spring, which attaches to a piece that screws onto the muzzle of the firearm. When fired, the force of the gases expanding inside the baffles of the suppressor act to force the suppressor body forward in relation to the barrel. The spring allows the barrel to recoil while the suppressor stays in place; the pressure of the gases between the two components helps force them apart as well, much like the VIckers-type boosters described above. Many suppressor boosters incorporate an indexing system which allows the suppressor to be reoriented in a",
"-32.274674692533154"
],
[
"1940 to 1947, called the Trigger Cocking Double Action. If the hammer was down, pulling the trigger would cock the hammer. If the trigger was pulled with the hammer cocked, it would then fire. This meant that to fire the revolver from a hammer down state, the trigger must be pulled twice. Use with suppressors As a general rule, revolvers cannot be effective with a sound suppressor (\"silencer\"), as there is usually a small gap between the revolving cylinder and the barrel which a bullet must traverse or jump when fired. From this opening, a rather loud report is produced.",
"-31.33450090302358"
],
[
"MSP Groza silent pistol Design The Groza uses a specialised cartridge. When fired, an internal piston within the cartridge launches the bullet forward and retains all the gases within the case, thus making a near silent weapon with almost no flash.",
"-31.09135566832265"
],
[
"way of firing a gun. Holding a burning stick while trying to pour a charge of black powder carefully down a barrel is dangerous, and trying to hold the gun with one hand while simultaneously aiming at the target and looking for the touchhole makes it very difficult to fire accurately. Matchlock The first attempt to make the process of firing a small arm easier was the \"matchlock\". The matchlock incorporated a \"lock\" (so-called because of its resemblance to door locks of the day) that was actuated by a trigger, originally called a \"tricker.\" The lock was a simple",
"-30.323340556235053"
],
[
"when high pressure powder gases are suddenly released to the atmosphere.\nThe Welrod uses a bolt-action design because it is simple, reliable and quiet. The bolt-action has only the noise of the firing pin hitting the primer, and the bolt can be cycled quietly.\nThe Welrod is extremely quiet for a gun, producing a sound of around 73 dB when fired.\nMagazines of six and eight rounds were produced. Operation The pistol is manually operated using a rotary bolt, locking with two lugs. Loading is performed with a pull/push action using the round knurled knob to the rear of the weapon. The trigger",
"-30.030165984178893"
],
[
"technique to avoid injury or death. The technique includes ramming cotton cloth or wadding down the barrel of the firearm until the cloth is against the powder charge. Next, the gun is fired upward in a safe direction, and ones runs and picks up the cloth that is projected out of the barrel, and then blows it into flame. It works better if there is a supply of tinder at hand so that the cloth can be placed against it to start the fire.\nFire is presented as a tool meeting many survival needs. The heat provided by a fire warms",
"-29.921044706134126"
],
[
"PBS-1 silencer The PBS-1 is a silencer designed for the Soviet AK-47 assault rifle. It is 40 mm (1.6 in) in diameter and 120 mm (4.7 in) long. History The PBS-1 silencer, designed for use with the AK-47 to reduce the noise when firing, was introduced in the 1960s, and was used mostly by Spetsnaz forces and the KGB. They were used by the Spetsnaz in the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s, requiring the use of the older AKM version of the AK-47, because the newer AK-74 did not have a silencer available.\nThe PBS-1 is a two-chambered silencer using baffles and a rubber wipe.",
"-29.860036793077597"
],
[
"on semi-automatic firearms, as even a small number of shots can heat up a barrel enough to injure an operator in certain circumstances.\nBarrel shrouds are also used on pump-action shotguns. The military trench shotgun features a ventilated metal handguard with a bayonet attachment lug. Ventilated handguards or heat shields (usually without bayonet lugs) are also used on police riot shotguns and shotguns marketed for civilian self-defense. The heat shield also serves as an attachment base for accessories such as sights or sling swivels. Legislation The barrel shroud has been the target of legislative restrictions in the United States, along with",
"-29.63415437907679"
],
[
"Browning machine gun or the Iron Horse TOR (thumb operated receiver) use the thumb, and others like the Springfield Armory M6 Scout use a \"squeeze-bar trigger\". Function Firearms use triggers to initiate the firing of a cartridge in the firing chamber of the weapon. This is accomplished by actuating a striking device through a combination of spring and kinetic energy operating through a firing pin to strike and ignite the primer. There are two primary types of striking mechanisms, hammers and strikers. Hammers are spring-tensioned masses of metal that pivot on a pin when released and strike a firing",
"-29.5936156649841"
],
[
"exposed hammer could cause a chambered round to fire. If left cocked, it was in the firing position without a safety. Modern Henry replicas incorporate a safety mechanism, such as a transfer bar safety, so the gun will not fire if dropped or the hammer is released partially by accident. \nTo load the magazine, the shooter moves the cartridge-follower along the slot into the top portion of the magazine-tube and pivots it to the right to open the front-end of the magazine. He loads up to 15 cartridges one by one, he pivots the top portion back and",
"-29.474057684945052"
],
[
"the wave will get past the ball before it can reach its off position. Torch The torch is the tool that the welder holds and manipulates to make the weld. It has a connection and valve for the fuel gas and a connection and valve for the oxygen, a handle for the welder to grasp, and a mixing chamber (set at an angle) where the fuel gas and oxygen mix, with a tip where the flame forms. Two basic types of torches are positive pressure type and low pressure or injector type. Welding torch A welding torch head is used",
"-29.45908574241912"
],
[
"\"automatic\" fire long before the advent of the machine gun. Matchlock Matchlocks were the first and simplest firearms firing mechanisms developed. Using the matchlock mechanism, the powder in the gun barrel was ignited by a piece of burning cord called a \"match\". The match was wedged into one end of an S-shaped piece of steel. As the trigger (often actually a lever) was pulled, the match was brought into the open end of a \"touch hole\" at the base of the gun barrel, which contained a very small quantity of gunpowder, igniting the main charge of gunpowder in the gun",
"-29.253924556134734"
],
[
"self-igniting firearm. Its name is from its rotating steel wheel to provide ignition. Developed in Europe around 1500, it was used alongside the matchlock.\nThe wheellock works by spinning a spring-loaded steel wheel against a piece of pyrite to generate intense sparks, which ignite gunpowder in a pan, which flashes through a small touchhole to ignite the main charge in the firearm's barrel. The pyrite is clamped in vise jaws on a spring-loaded arm (or \"dog\"), which rests on the pan cover. When the trigger is pulled, the pan cover is opened, and the wheel is rotated, with the pyrite pressed",
"-29.08633954427205"
],
[
"identically to that of a DA revolver. However, this is combined with the ability of most semi-automatics to self-cock the hammer when firing. Thus, the weapon can be carried with the hammer down on a loaded chamber, reducing perceived danger of carrying a single-action semi-automatic. When the user is ready to fire, simply pulling the trigger, in double action mode, will cock and release the hammer. When the weapon fires, the cycling slide will automatically cock the hammer to the rear, meaning that the rest of the shots fired will be in single-action mode, unless the hammer is manually lowered",
"-29.058723224094138"
],
[
"The pan As in all muzzle-loading firearms (prior to the introduction of the percussion cap), the pan transmits the fire to the main charge of gunpowder inside the breech of the barrel, via a small hole (or \"vent\") in the side of the breech, that gives on to the pan. The priming pan of all wheellocks is provided with a sliding cover that has two purposes, the first of which is to contain the priming powder and afford it some protection from the elements (the second is examined below, under 'Operation'). The pan cover may be slid open and closed",
"-29.050689481729933"
],
[
"lever which pivoted when pulled and lowered the match down to the touchhole. The match was a slow-burning fuse made of plant fibers that were soaked in a solution of nitrates, charcoal, and sulfur, and dried. This \"slow-match\" was ignited before the gun was needed, and it would slowly burn, keeping a hot ember at the burning end. After the gun was loaded and the touchhole primed with powder, the burning tip of the match was positioned so that the lock would bring it into contact with the touchhole. To fire the gun, it was aimed and the trigger pulled.",
"-28.977239291765727"
],
[
"The gun is now ready to fire. To fire the gun the operator has to disengage the safety and pull the trigger. The CO₂ from the cartridge shoots into the barrel behind the dart. The rubber gasket on the front part of the dart seals the gap between the dart and the inner side of the barrel so the pressure of the CO₂ builds up in the barrel behind the dart and finally propels the dart out of the front of the barrel in the aimed direction of the gun. The shots of the SAC-46 were reported at a volume",
"-28.871925373372505"
],
[
"Primer (firearms) In firearms and artillery, the primer (/ˈpraɪmər/) is the chemical and/or device responsible for initiating the propellant combustion that will push the projectiles out of the gun barrel. \nIn early, black powder guns such as muzzleloaders, the primer was essentially the same chemical as the main propellant (albeit usually in a finer-powdered form), but poured into an external flash pan, where it could be ignited by an ignition source such as a slow match or a flintlock. This external powder was connected through a small opening at the rear of the gun barrel that led to",
"-28.868155725940596"
],
[
"the hammer before firing the first shot with double-action operation. The firing mechanism extracts and ejects the first spent round, cocks the hammer, and chambers a fresh round for single-action operation with each subsequent shot – all features found in many modern day handguns. Besides a DA/SA trigger design similar to that of the earlier Walther PPKs the P38 features a visible and tactile loaded chamber indicator in the form of a metal rod that protrudes out of the top rear end of the slide when a round is present in the chamber.\nThe moving-barrel design mechanism operates by use of",
"-28.8368531044689"
],
[
"of the barrel, near the sight and trigger assemblies, was an asbestos heat shield to protect the gunner's shoulder and neck from the heat of the barrel when firing.\nIt was capable of maintaining a sustained fire rate of one round per minute, but the weapon could also be rapid fired at an increased rate of one round every six seconds (10 rpm) by a well trained crew. The rapid firing was limited to five rounds, with a mandatory 15 minute cool-off period afterward.\nThe M49A1 sub-caliber device, which uses NATO 7.62 mm rounds, is typically used for zeroing the sight and for",
"-28.815710188267985"
],
[
"first truly automatic hammerless shotgun in 1883. This gun automatically cocked itself when the breech was closed. He later developed the mechanism to automatically eject the shells when the breech was opened. John Moses Browning One of the men most responsible for the modern development of the shotgun was prolific gun designer John Browning. While working for Winchester Firearms, Browning revolutionized shotgun design. In 1887, Browning introduced the Model 1887 Lever Action Repeating Shotgun, which loaded a fresh cartridge from its internal magazine by the operation of the action lever. Before this time most shotguns were the 'break open' type.\nThis",
"-28.797841089079157"
],
[
"used to rotate the cylinder.\nThe Jackhammer is capable of semi-automatic and fully automatic fire by way of a thumb safety. At the moment of firing, the front of the shell sealed inside the breech of the barrel much like the Nagant M1895 revolver. Unlike the Nagant, whose cylinder moved forward to form the seal, the barrel of the Jackhammer was driven forward and away from the cylinder by a ring-piston, using gas tapped from the bore. As the barrel moved forward, the breech cleared the front of the fired cartridge and an operating rod attached to the",
"-28.757963214069605"
],
[
"silencer not having been used, and that its absence would explain burn marks on Nevill's body. The court had heard that \"three circular burn type marks\" had been found on Nevill's back. In November 1985 a police report submitted to the Director of Public Prosecutions had argued that the burn marks were made with the hot end of the gun or with a poker from the Aga. Arguments about scratch marks The defence commissioned a report from Peter Sutherst, a British forensic photographic expert, who was asked in 2008 to examine negatives of the kitchen taken on the day of",
"-28.72676503842922"
],
[
"first be chambered manually before the weapon can fire. When the trigger is pulled, only the hammer and firing pin move, striking and firing the cartridge. The bolt then recoils far enough rearward to extract and load a new cartridge from the magazine into the firearm's chamber, ready to fire again once the trigger is pulled.\nAn open-bolt mechanism is a common characteristic of fully automatic firearms. With this system, pulling the trigger releases the bolt from a cocked, rearward position, pushing a cartridge from the magazine into the chamber, firing the gun. The bolt retracts to the rearward position, ready",
"-28.673978401522618"
],
[
"of smoke can be seen when shot. Starting pistols may also include modified versions of standard pistols incapable of firing bullets, most commonly achieved by welding an obstruction into the barrel. This is less common nowadays, especially in Western countries. When electronic timing is used, a sensor is often affixed to the gun, which sends an electronic signal to the timing system upon firing. For deaf competitors or for modern electronic systems, a light may be used instead.\nAn issue with the use of starting pistols is that, since the report of the pistol is carried to the competitors at the",
"-28.67097682208987"
],
[
"to be exposed. A shell is inserted into the breech (up to two for a double barreled shotgun and up to six for a revolver), and the mechanism is closed and latched. The hammer is then pulled back and latched. The weapon can now ready be fired, done by squeezing the trigger.\nAfter firing the rounds, the break action is unlatched and the barrel and forearm are allowed to fall forward. This causes an extractor catch to remove the spent shell, which then falls to the ground. The weapon is now ready for reloading. Tip-up action The tip-up was the first",
"-28.631317279636278"
],
[
"Fire piston A fire piston, sometimes called a fire syringe or a slam rod fire starter, is a device of ancient Southeast Asian origin which is used to kindle fire. It uses the principle of the heating of a gas (in this case air) by rapid and adiabatic compression to ignite a piece of tinder, which is then used to set light to kindling. Description and use A fire piston consists of a hollow cylinder sealed at one end and open at the other. Sizes range in length from 3 to 6 inches (7.5 to 15 cm) with a bore",
"-28.59989977099758"
],
[
"action foregrip operated by pushing it forward and then pulling it back, this pushed a bar which pushed the bolt back and cocked the weapon. The grip was then rotated slightly to disengage the bar and allow the bolt to cycle once fired. In response to the Welgun’s open receiver, the EMC was enclosed with only the magazine insert and ejection port open when firing. When the bolt was closed these openings were covered, minimising the chances of dirt entering the action.",
"-28.59038213961412"
],
[
"the hammer, or pulls the trigger on an empty chamber (weapons lacking automatic-hold-open feature only).\nIn the late 1930s and early 1940s, Walther introduced the first \"double-action\" semi-automatics, the PPK and P.38 models, which featured a revolver-style \"double-action\" trigger, allowing the weapon to be carried with a round chambered and the hammer lowered. After the first shot, they would fire as single-actions. These double action, or \"double action/single action\", pistols rapidly gained popularity, and the traditional single-action rapidly lost favor, although they still retain a dedicated following. Today, a \"typical\" revolver is a \"double-action\", which can be fired in single action",
"-28.585503583439277"
],
[
"steel called the \"frizzen\". At the same time, the motion of the flint and hammer pushes the frizzen back, opening the cover to the pan, which contains the gunpowder. As the flint strikes the frizzen it creates a spark which falls into the pan and ignites the powder. Flame burns through a small hole into the barrel of the gun and ignites the main powder charge, causing the weapon to fire.\nMost hammers follow Marin le Bourgeoys's design, and have a \"half-cocked\" position, which is the \"safe\" position since pulling the trigger from this position does not cause the gun to",
"-28.46466456440976"
],
[
"the trigger when the chamber block is locked), pistol grip, battery and electronics. The cartridge primers are ignited electrically, so there are four circular contact plates on the locking surface (contacting the case bottom) and four contact pins in the center of each plate (contacting the primer). On the trigger pull an impulse is generated. The electronic firing mechanism is able to send firing impulses in sequence to the chambers from 1 to 4 and to skip chambers with malfunctioning rounds to avoid misfires. The weapon is only capable of firing one round at a time. There are different models",
"-28.431614254157466"
],
[
"automatic lock recoil and a tilting barrel. Its hammer can either be used in single or double action. The trigger has a push power of 2.4 kg in single action and 4.9 kg in double action. Safety The pistol has a decocker, being the only safety device available. In addition, an automatic safety lock is also mounted on the firing pin. This blocks the hammer to prevent it from firing, being available only when the trigger is properly pushed.",
"-28.390429326627782"
],
[
"the firearm, one is \"testing\" the trigger action and observing the hammer or striker drop, without using live ammunition. Sources indicate that \"dry\" originates from exhibitions by late-19th-century fire departments in the United States, where drills (runs) were conducted for public viewing without the use of water (dry).",
"-28.384990923615987"
],
[
"fast enough, the extractor will typically eject the empty case(s) from the cylinder. Some break-action shotguns are also designed to eject empty shells completely out of the chamber when the barrel is opened.\nExtractors or cartridge pullers can be tools to pull out empty cartridge cases or hulls, used as a small gadget with three claws that come on a ring or mounted on some rod that serves as handle, The extractors can be of different gauges from eight gauge to 22 caliber.\nThese extractors that are not built as part of the shotgun are sometimes found combined with a dog whistle",
"-28.378382224305824"
],
[
"blowback mechanism with a double-action trigger, has a rotating safety/decocking lever on the left side of the slide, and is equipped with a firing pin safety mechanism, which prevents the firing pin from striking the primer of a loaded cartridge, unless the trigger is pulled. Field-stripping the pistol for cleaning is accomplished identically to the Walther PP pistol.\nThe frame is made of aluminum alloy and the slide is made from steel.",
"-28.346914973517414"
],
[
"secure hold, picatinny rails, or a tactical light. Trigger disconnectors Modern pump shotgun designs, such as the Remington 870 and Mossberg 500, have a safety feature called a trigger disconnector, which disconnects the trigger from the sear as the bolt moves back, so that the trigger must be released and pulled again to fire the shotgun after it closes. Many early pump shotguns, such as the Winchester 1897, did not have trigger disconnectors, and would, if the trigger were held back, fire immediately upon closing. Due to the higher rate of fire that this allows, some shooters prefer models without",
"-28.34032409923384"
],
[
"plastic trigger block to put behind the trigger when not in use, and is only operated by an included special key. To put the gun into a fire-ready mode, the operator must work the action fully open, whether or not a round will be fired, and then close the action fully. Before or after working the action, the operator has to work the air pump at least once to shoot the round, but like most multi-stroke pneumatic air rifles, three pumps is usually the minimum for firing a powerful round, depending on the distance the round is being fired. And",
"-28.299279460894468"
],
[
"crew recorded musket-fire, a set of microphones were arrayed close to the target (in this case a swine carcass) to record the musket-ball impacts.\nA counter-example is the common technique for recording an automobile. For recording \"Onboard\" car sounds (which include the car interiors), a three-microphone technique is common. Two microphones record the engine directly: one is taped to the underside of the hood, near the engine block. The second microphone is covered in a wind screen and tightly attached to the rear bumper, within an inch or so of the tail pipe. The third microphone, which",
"-28.292051033138705"
],
[
"semi-automatic pistols, the Hi-Power's trigger is not connected to the hammer. If a double-action pistol is carried with the hammer down with a round in the chamber and a loaded magazine installed, the shooter may fire the pistol either by simply squeezing the trigger or by pulling the hammer back to the cocked position and then squeezing the trigger. In contrast, a single-action pistol can only be fired with the hammer in the cocked position; this is generally done when a loaded magazine is inserted and the slide cycled by hand. In common with the M1911, the Hi-Power is therefore",
"-28.24022435050574"
],
[
"of an AR-15. The use of a lock washer or crush washer was rejected as their use can increase visible flash from the shooter's perspective. The Vortex is tightened by hand and repeated firing of the rifle causes the Vortex to tighten to the barrel.\nThe Vortex Flash Hider has been called the \"most effective flash hider available short of a (sound) suppressor\" by writer and gunsmith Patrick Sweeney, when used on an AR-15. In a 2005 article appearing in SWAT magazine it was deemed to be superior to the M16A2 \"bird cage\" flash suppressor and the Yankee Hill Machine Phantom",
"-28.232484298314375"
],
[
"was so great, that a shooting school and a shooting magazine were named after this phrase. Compressed surprise break Here the compressed, surprise break of the trigger is used to discharge the firearm.\nIn this technique, one should pull the trigger to have the shot break as if it were a glass rod. When the compression of the trigger by the finger reaches an appropriate point, the \"glass rod\" of the trigger will break and discharge the firearm. The \"surprise break\" of the \"glass rod\" means the pistol remains aligned on the target while the muscles in the shooter's hand adjust",
"-28.221103792602662"
],
[
"in cool, dry conditions free from contaminating vapors to prevent deterioration of the propellant and cartridge. Handloaders must take special precautions for storing primers and loose gunpowder. Noise When a firearm is discharged it emits a very loud noise, typically close to the handler's ears. This can cause temporary or permanent hearing damage such as tinnitus. Hearing protection such as earplugs (disposable or reusable) and/or earmuffs (including electronic devices that amplify quiet sounds) can be used to reduce the risk of hearing damage. Firearms may also be fitted with a sound suppressor which cools the gas emitting from the barrel",
"-28.205903290690912"
],
[
"shoot the projectile, but still have enough energy to drive a bullet partway into the barrel — a dangerous condition called a squib load. Priming methods The first step to firing a firearm of any sort is igniting the propellant. The earliest firearms were hand cannons, which were simple closed tubes. There was a small aperture, the \"touchhole\", drilled in the closed end of the tube, leading to the main powder charge. This hole was filled with finely ground powder, which was then ignited with a hot ember or torch. With the advent of hand-held firearms, this became an undesirable",
"-28.200876840623096"
],
[
"method of ignition for hunters and recreational shooters who use muzzle-loading arms. Electric-fired A small number of caseless cartridges use no primer at all, but the primary propellant is ignited using an externally provided electric charge, such as with the Voere VEC-91 and the O'Dwyer VLe. This is not to be confused with an electrically ignited internal primer (see below). Internal priming Chemical primers, advanced metallurgy and manufacturing techniques all came together in the 19th century to create an entirely new class of firearm — the cartridge arm. Flintlock and caplock shooters had long carried their ammunition in paper cartridges, which",
"-28.182421698817052"
],
[
"through the target. The first sound-chamber system for big bore rifles was patented in 1975, and was used for the first time in a world championship in 1982.\nIt functions by using microphones to measure the sound wave of the projectile as it passes through the target. The target is built like a frame and covered with rubber sheets front and back providing an almost tight sound-chamber. Inside the chamber there are microphones, either three in the bottom of the frame, or one in each of the four corners. Additionally, the air temperature inside the target is measured to precisely calculate",
"-28.176396085335"
],
[
"ammo. As long as the trigger is squeezed, weapons will fire on full automatic. Once the ammo counter is depleted, the rate of fire decreases sharply. When the trigger is let go, the counter instantly refills. A pump slide underneath the front of the gun barrel is used for bombs. Up to three bombs can be carried at a time, as opposed to nine in the first game.",
"-28.173500050688745"
],
[
"In a revolver, this means that simply squeezing the trigger when the hammer is lowered will both cock and release it. If the user uses their thumb to pull the hammer to the back, but doesn't press the trigger, the mechanism will lock the hammer in the cocked position until the trigger is pressed, just like a single action. Firing in double action mode gives greater rapidity of fire, but a longer, heavier trigger pull, which can limit accuracy compared to the lighter, shorter trigger pull of a single-action only handgun.\nIn a DA/SA semi-automatic handgun, the trigger mechanism functions",
"-28.158434780692915"
],
[
"cartridge primer, in a \"half-cocked\" position. The safety notch works first by allowing the handler to retract the hammer a short distance from the firing pin or primer, such that dropping the firearm on its hammer will not result in an energy transfer to the pin or spur, which could then discharge a chambered cartridge. A second purpose is to allow the sear to \"catch\" a hammer that is falling when the trigger has not been pulled, such as in cases where a drop jarred the sear loose or when the hammer was not fully cocked before being released. However,",
"-28.147784335218603"
],
[
"operator to secure a full grip on the weapon while using the attached bayonet, even when the barrel is far too hot to touch (otherwise, there is little reason to enshroud the barrel and hinder the cooling airflow). One or both of these features can be seen on many military long-arms, including the 1903 Springfield, the SMLE, M1 Garand, and Mauser rifles, to name some of the more obvious types. The U.S. Army specifications for shotguns require a metal trigger guard for durability, which reduces the number of \"special purpose\" models used by police that would also be suitable for",
"-28.134870982808934"
],
[
"cylinder to the next round and locks the cylinder in place with the chamber aligned with the barrel. The trigger, when pulled, releases the hammer, which fires the round in the chamber. To fire again, the hammer must be manually cocked again. This is called \"single-action\" because the trigger only performs a single action, of releasing the hammer. Because only a single action is performed and trigger pull is lightened, firing a revolver in this way allows most shooters to achieve greater accuracy. Additionally, the need to cock the hammer manually acts as a safety. Unfortunately with some revolvers, since",
"-28.11783044139156"
],
[
"dry-fired (provided the hammer is not drawn back from the second notch) to allow a shooter to become familiar with the trigger pull. The break-action only has to be cycled, while leaving the hammer in the second notch position, to practice dry-firing. G2's with switchable firing pins (centerfire or rimfire) can be safely dry-fired with the hammer only in the safety (center) position. Barrels Barrels have been made in lengths of 6, 8 3/4, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 21 inches (530 mm). Heavier recoiling cartridge barrels have been made with integral muzzle brakes. Barrels for the original Contender may be",
"-28.07627853948361"
],
[
"gun does not recoil, the trigger can be reset to fire the second shot. This is accomplished by moving the safety/barrel selector back to the \"safe\" position and then forward to the \"fire\" position, without changing the barrel selection. Opening the action does not automatically engage the safety mechanism.\nCurrent Citoris feature screw-in Invector choke tubes to regulate shot patterns downrange and thus provide versatility for usage in hunting and target shooting. These can be used with either lead, bismuth, or steel shot. Older models had factory fixed chokes, and steel shot is not recommended for use with those.\nSome",
"-28.056581345794257"
],
[
"accurate fire. A comment to the author by an experienced SEAL team leader aptly underlines the importance of having an accurate light machine gun: \"Men react one of two ways when they are shot at. If you just shoot at them, they will take cover and return fire, but if you start hitting them, they withdraw.\"\nThe magazine catch consists of two tapered pins on a bar, controlled by the magazine release button. The machine gun feeds from a proprietary 100-round synthetic drum magazine (early models also used 60-round drum magazines), or from a modified 20 or 30-round STANAG 4179 magazine",
"-28.05223546375055"
],
[
"barrel assembly. A handguard usually encloses the barrel and a gas-operated reloading device using burnt powder gas vented from a hole (or port) in the barrel near the forward end of the handguard. The handguard is attached to the upper receiver and may also be attached to the barrel.\nThe initial design included a tube to vent burnt powder gas back into the bolt carrier assembly where it expands in a variable volume chamber forcing the bolt open to eject the spent cartridge case. A buffer spring in the butt stock then pushes the bolt closed picking up a new cartridge",
"-28.05044447425462"
],
[
"the trigger will fire the weapon. Others use either the firearm's recoil or a small portion of the propellant gas drawn from the barrel, to operate the firearm's mechanism and ready it for the next shot. Such firearms are sometimes called \"self-loading,\" but are more commonly known as semi-automatic, if they fire one shot for every pull of the trigger, or automatic or \"full-auto\" if they continue to fire until the trigger is released and the magazine is empty.\nA revolver is a unique type of firearm in which a rotating cylinder holds a number of cartridges; the cylinder \"revolves\" to",
"-28.04795329971239"
],
[
"The buffer is made available to absorb and reduce shock loads of both barrel and slide in their extreme rear positions. The striker has a special cocking feature that looks like a hammer of a standard pistol. This construction allows the shooter to cock the striker manually, thus enabling a double-action operation or an operation with a preliminary cocked striker. An extractor has a dual function: that of extracting an empty case and the second case, which is an indicator of ammo in the magazine. If the extractor's front tip is slightly elevated, the pistol has ammunition. If the extractor",
"-28.02816787356278"
],
[
"welding torch in the other. Maintaining a short arc length, while preventing contact between the electrode and the workpiece, is also important.\nTo strike the welding arc, a high frequency generator (similar to a Tesla coil) provides an electric spark. This spark is a conductive path for the welding current through the shielding gas and allows the arc to be initiated while the electrode and the workpiece are separated, typically about 1.5–3 mm (0.06–0.12 in) apart. \nOnce the arc is struck, the welder moves the torch in a small circle to create a welding pool, the size of which depends on the size",
"-28.0240762361791"
],
[
"and working parts are in the forward position, closing the breech. Squeezing the trigger releases the striker or hammer, firing the cartridge in the chamber. Assuming proper operation (no stoppages) a cook off is possible with this design because a cartridge is kept chambered in the potentially hot chamber, where it can absorb enough heat to cause ignition of its propellant. Apart from the possibility to cook off the heated propellant requires a special formula to allow for consistent muzzle velocity throughout all temperatures. Caseless ammunition Caseless ammunition eliminates the metal case that typically holds the primer or igniter and",
"-28.001427978815627"
],
[
"units retained them for projecting smoke screens. Deployment The weapon was initially operated by joint infantry and artillery detachments, eventually it became the responsibility of the Royal Field Artillery. A typical infantry division was equipped with three batteries designated X, Y, Z, each with four mortars. Silencer Provision was made in mid-1916 for attachment of the \"Temple silencer\" at the muzzle, intended to reduce the flash and noise generated on firing, which at the short ranges the mortar operated at was quickly noticed by the enemy and invited artillery response. This required the use of bombs with a special piston",
"-27.95195330392744"
],
[
"is located inside the trigger housing (actuated by the recoiling bolt).\nThe rifle is hammer fired and has a trigger mechanism with a 3-position fire selector switch that is also the manual safety toggle that secures the weapon from accidentally discharging (fire selector in the \"E\" or \"1\" position – single fire mode (\"Einzelfeuer\"), \"F\" or \"20\" – automatic fire (\"Feuerstoß\"), \"S\" or \"0\" – weapon is safe (\"Sicher\"), trigger disabled mechanically). The weapon can be fitted with an optional 4-position safety/fire selector group illustrated with pictograms with an ambidextrous selector lever. The additional, fourth selector setting enables a 3-round burst",
"-27.939141176524572"
],
[
"the entire hammer shrouded and/or has the thumb spur machined off, preventing the user from cocking it (revolvers).\nThis design requires a trigger pull to both cock and trip the hammer/striker for every single shot, unlike a DA/SA, which only requires a double-action trigger pull for the first shot (or a typical DA/SA revolver, which can fire single action any time the user wishes, but uses double-action as a default). This means that there is no single-action function for any shot, and the hammer or striker always rests in the down position until the trigger pull begins. With semi-automatics, this means",
"-27.936759160264046"
],
[
"Anvil firing Anvil firing (also known as anvil launching or anvil shooting) is the practice of firing an anvil into the air with gunpowder.\nIn the UK, the term refers to a method of testing anvils. Black powder was poured onto the top of the anvil and ignited. If the anvil did not shatter it was deemed safe to use. Method Typically, two anvils are used: one as a base (placed upside down), and another one (also known as the \"flier\") as the projectile (placed right-side up, atop the base).\nAn alternative method is to place the bottom anvil upright, and fill",
"-27.86599443445448"
],
[
"ejector and be thrown as much as 40 ft away from the rifle in some cases, depending on position. Features The Galil is hammer-fired and has a trigger mechanism patterned after the trigger used in the American M1 Garand. The rifle's fire selector switch has three positions: S-A-R. The standard AK-47 style selector is retained on the right face of the receiver, and a dual thumb-selector is present on the left face above the pistol grip for easier manipulation. Pushing the left-selector to the rear position \"R\" (British terminology for \"repetition\"), provides semi-automatic fire. Pushing it to the middle position \"A\"",
"-27.86198840200086"
],
[
"double-action. The only safety used is an internal automatic firing pin safety that unlocks the firing pin only in the final stages of the trigger pull. The WIST-94 is fed by a 16-round magazine. The magazine release catch is reversible for use by left-handed shooter. The slide release lever is located at the left side of the gun. The sights are fixed and have self-luminous tritium inserts for low-light situations. The WIST-94L is also equipped with a laser sight mounted in the upper part of trigger guard. The name of the hand gun sounds, in Polish, very similar to Vis.",
"-27.831588030734565"
],
[
"on the top rear of the cylinder. For a swing out cylinder, the cylinder is mounted on a pivot that is coaxial with the chambers, and the cylinder swings out and down. Some designs, such as the Ruger Super Redhawk or the Taurus Raging Bull, use a latches at the front and rear of the cylinder to provide a secure bond between cylinder and frame.\nTo fire a revolver, generally the hammer is first manually cocked and latched into place. The trigger, when pulled, releases the hammer, which fires the round in the chamber. Knives Various types of knives with",
"-27.819050218022312"
],
[
"and re-latched prior to firing. A separate operation may be required for the cocking and latching-open of a hammer to fire the new round. Break open actions are universal in double-barrelled shotguns, double-barrelled rifles and combination guns, and are also common in single shot rifles, pistols, and shotguns, and can also be found in flare guns, grenade launchers, air guns and some older revolver designs.\nSeveral latch designs have been used for loading revolvers. In a top-break revolver, the frame is hinged at the bottom front of the cylinder. The frame is in two parts, held together by a latch",
"-27.807800729497103"
],
[
"to make the volume safer for the handler's ears. Hot gases and debris A firearm emits hot gases, powder, and other debris when discharged. Some weapons, such as semi-automatic and fully automatic firearms, typically eject spent cartridge casings at high speed. Casings are also dangerously hot when ejected. Revolvers store spent casings in the chamber, but may emit a stream of hot gases and possible fine particulate debris laterally from the interface between the revolving chamber and the gun barrel. Any of these may hurt the handler or bystanders through burning or impact damage. Because eyes are particularly vulnerable to",
"-27.696379302593414"
],
[
"it easy to operate with gloves. When the operating ring is in the vertical position and pulled back by cycling the action or cocking it by hand the action is ready to fire. Ammunition feeding The Karabiner Model 1931 feeds from a detachable box magazine machined to match the cartridge for which the rifle was being chambered, that can hold up to 6 rifle cartridges. The magazine release button is an integral part of the magazine.\nFor reloading the K31 box magazine was normally not exchanged for another magazine but a unique formed phenolic resin embedded paper stripper clip with a",
"-27.695199893496465"
],
[
"slide remains open after the last round is fired. The magazine release button can be reversed for left-handed shooters and it has a \"round in the chamber\" indicator. It is one of the easiest, if not the easiest, semi-automatic handgun to field strip for cleaning.\nThe pistol features ambidextrous safety, a decocker activated by the safety lever, emphasized sights, combat trigger guard, an integrated accessory mounting groove in the frame (added after the year 2000, in the Pro, for Professional, version), firing pin block; the pistol will not fire unless the trigger is squeezed all the way back protecting from accidental",
"-27.68299170614773"
],
[
"device to ensure the weapon will only fire on automatic when the bolt is fully locked, as the hammer is tripped by the bolt carrier's last few millimetres of forward movement. The device also reduces \"trigger slap\" or \"trigger bounce\" and the weapon’s rate of fire, which also reduces the dispersion of bullets when firing in fully automatic mode. The hammer was also changed and equipped with a protrusion that engages the rate reducer and the trigger has only one notched hammer release arm (compared with two parallel arms in the AK-47). Sights The AKM’s notched rear tangent iron sight",
"-27.680173751745315"
],
[
"Gemtech Suppressors Gemtech offers a variety of different silencers. Ammunition In 2011, Gemtech developed their own line of subsonic .22 Long Rifle ammunition optimized for use with sound suppressors. Kel Whelan, working with Brett Olin of CCI Ammunition came up with a round utilizing a unique 42 grain bullet and travelling at 1050 feet per second.\nTwo years later, the company began producing .300 Blackout ammunition in both supersonic and subsonic loads. American Suppressor Association Gemtech was instrumental in forming the American Suppressor Association (ASA), a nonprofit trade association \"to further the pursuit of education, public relations, legislation, hunting applications and",
"-27.677942887705285"
],
[
"manually cocking the hammer or firing a cartridge all cock the hammer, setting the trigger for the next shot to single action. The PM is a semi-automatic firearm, therefore its rate of fire depends on how rapidly the shooter squeezes the trigger. Spent cartridges are ejected some 5.5–6 meters away to the shooter's right and rear. After firing the last round, the slide is held back by the slide stop lever/ejector. Magazines can be removed from the gun via the heel release, located on the bottom of the grip. After loading a fresh magazine, the slide can be released by",
"-27.670053667534376"
],
[
"upon firing. This is opposed to an open bolt firearm where the bolt is held rearward and pulling the trigger releases it to slam forward and fire the cartridge.",
"-27.668924338548095"
],
[
"wound plastic, cloth or leather. The middle of the torch is often larger in diameter than the handle and this section helps to balance the torch and makes it easier to juggle. The upper portion of the dowel is often covered in metal (usually aluminium) with the uppermost section covered in a wick. The wick is wrapped around the top of the shaft several times and secured with screws into the wooden core.\nTorches as described are commercially available from all the main juggling/circus skills manufacturers such as Renegade Juggling (as pictured above), Dubé, Beard, Flames 'N Games, Mister Babache, Henrys,",
"-27.654065178718156"
],
[
"Matchlock Description The classic matchlock gun held a burning slow match in a clamp at the end of a small curved lever known as the serpentine. Upon the pull of a lever (or in later models a trigger) protruding from the bottom of the gun and connected to the serpentine, the clamp dropped down, lowering the smoldering match into the flash pan and igniting the priming powder. The flash from the primer travelled through the touch hole igniting the main charge of propellant in the gun barrel. On release of the lever or trigger, the spring-loaded serpentine would move in",
"-27.63977879914455"
],
[
"fires the chambered cartridge; most post-World War II military rifles use a rotating hammer firing mechanism. The firing mechanism and trigger are inspired by the vz. 58, but with noticeable differences. The QBZ-95's striker piece has a more complex shape. Furthermore, the QBZ-95 uses in-line main and striker springs using the same spring guide rod, instead of two parallel springs.\nThe charging handle is located under the integral carrying handle, similar to early versions of the AR-10. To chamber a round and charge the weapon, this handle is pulled fully to the rear and then released forward to bring a round",
"-27.639246340768295"
],
[
"to the initial puncture of the CO₂ cartridge Tippmann designed the trigger of the TPX pistol out of cast zinc (with a nickel-plated finish). After insertion of a 12 gram CO₂ cartridge one pull of this trigger will puncture it allowing for the CO₂ to enter the gun to be used to propel the paintballs. Covered Ammo Windows Ammunition windows allow for the user of the TPX to view paintballs as they are inside the grip of the pistol. The TPX includes this feature. Holes are made in the sides of the pistol grip, and in the top of the marker",
"-27.63181857734162"
],
[
"body of the gun simple bayonet mounts are used. Due to her specialized applications and large size the gun is normally transported disassembled and is assembled and loaded just prior to the shooting. To load the gun the operator first has to insert a fresh CO₂-cartridge in to its tubular compartment right under the barrel. Then he inserts the dart from the front into the short barrel part of the main body of the gun. The dart is now partly sticking out of the gun. Then he mounts one or both barrel parts on to the body of the gun.",
"-27.61903877533041"
],
[
"close the firing pan on the previous chamber and open the next ready to be primed. The crank screwed tight again, locking the tapered end of the next chamber into the breech of the barrel. The flintlock mechanism was then primed and fired.\nTo reload the weapon, the crank handle could be unscrewed completely to remove the cylinder, which could then be replaced with a fresh one. In this way it was similar to earlier breech-loading swivel guns with a detachable chamber which could be loaded prior to use. The cylinder appears to have been referred to as a \"charger\" in",
"-27.61257962109812"
],
[
"an electronically fired primer, the projectile was set in motion, and at the same time a reactive force acted on the remaining stacked projectiles in the barrel, pushing them backwards. By design, the remaining projectiles would distort under this load, expanding radially against the gun barrel wall. This created a seal (obturation), which prevented the hot propellant gases (expanding behind the lead projectile) from leaking past them and prematurely igniting the remaining propellant charges in the barrel. As each of these propellant charges was selectively (electronically) ignited, the force \"unlocked\" the projectile in front and propelled it down the gun",
"-27.605273725348525"
],
[
"holes\" in a revolving cylinder; each chamber in the cylinder is loaded with a single cartridge or charge. Semi-automatic pistols have a single fixed firing chamber machined into the rear of the barrel, and a magazine so they can be used to fire more than one round. Each press of the trigger fires a cartridge, using the energy of the cartridge to activate the mechanism so that the next cartridge may be fired immediately. This is opposed to \"double-action\" revolvers which accomplish the same end using a mechanical action linked to the trigger pull.\nPrior to the 19th century, virtually all",
"-27.57819863385521"
],
[
"been affixed to pump-action combat shotguns, allowing the soldier to grasp the barrel while using a bayonet.",
"-27.557044471992413"
],
[
"travels through the touch hole to cause the main charge of gunpowder to explode. The steel is at the end of an arm that can be moved independently of the pan cover.\nThe snaphance first appeared in the late 1550s as an improvement of the earlier snaplock in one or more of the following countries: Spain, Holland, Germany, Scotland, or Sweden. The main improvement was that the pan-cover opened automatically (to keep the priming dry until the exact moment of firing), as in the wheel-lock. (The snaplock had a manually operated pan cover similar to that of the matchlock. Some definitions",
"-27.556335800516536"
],
[
"by Franklin Armory, Fostech Outdoors, and Liberty Gun Works. The AR-15 trigger as produced by Liberty Gun Works only functions in pull and release mode, and does not have a way to catch the hammer on release; while the other two have three-position safety selectors and a way to capture the hammer on release. In these triggers, the third position activates the pull and release mode, while the center selector position causes the trigger to only drop the hammer when pulled. The US Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms has stated in letters to Fostech and Franklin that you",
"-27.55548065993935"
],
[
"The weapon is then fired by pressing the single stage trigger rated at approximately 20 N (4.5 lbf) As long as the lever is depressed, the weapon fires like any other semi-automatic pistol. If the lever is released, the weapon is immediately de-cocked and rendered safe. This method of operation dispensed the need for a manual safety selector while providing safety for the user carrying the pistol with a chambered round, and increased the speed with which the pistol could be deployed and fired. The trigger and firing mechanism's method of operation (and the unique slide catch) were protected by U.S. Patent",
"-27.539475718105678"
],
[
"mouth holding the primer. The cartridge was loaded with the .30-30 case facing outwards, so that the .30-30 case full of burning powder was propelled into the target upon firing. This system is fast to reload and one of the most effective despite the fact that it does not use a bullet. Ammunition issues Since most powerheads are designed to use commercial ammunition, which is not designed to be used underwater, the ammunition used must be waterproofed. A coating of nail polish or varnish is commonly used around the primer and case mouth. For shotshells, a layer of",
"-27.511023792823835"
],
[
"Flash suppressor A flash suppressor, also known as a flash guard, flash eliminator, flash hider, or flash cone, is a muzzle device attached to the muzzle of a rifle that reduces its visible signature while firing by cooling or dispersing the burning gases that exit the muzzle, a phenomenon typical of carbine-length weapons. Its primary intent is to reduce the chances that the shooter will be blinded in low-light shooting conditions. Contrary to popular belief, it is only a minor secondary benefit if a flash suppressor reduces the intensity of the flash visible to the enemy.\nA flash suppressor is different",
"-27.470596822488005"
],
[
"Release aid Use Archers using compound bows most commonly use a release aid to hold the string and release it precisely, although finger tabs are also popular with compound bows, especially among older archers who have used finger tabs when shooting recurve bows. The release aid attaches to the bowstring just below the nocking point or at the D loop and permits the archer to release the string by the use of some form of trigger. When such a device was first invented (patent filed in USA, 1879) it was known as a \"clutch\". The trigger may be an actual",
"-27.464214101215475"
],
[
"Raiders of the Lost Ark during \"The Busters of the Lost Myths\" episode. With exact trained usage, the show demonstrated that it is possible to disarm a pistol-wielding opponent with a long whip strike. The episode also demonstrates that a wood log, with sufficient friction, could be used as an overhang to grapple with a whip, swing across a chasm and neatly disengage. Using a high-speed camera they were also able to verify that the tip of a whip can break the speed of sound.\nIn the Sherlock Holmes series of stories by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Holmes occasionally carries a",
"-27.41583137674843"
],
[
"(Waffenfabrik Bern) prototype pistol. The Barnitzke system uses gas pressure from the ignited cartridge and feeds it through a small port in the barrel in front of the chamber to retard the rearward motion of the slide.\nThis is accomplished by using the fixed piston formed by the outside of the barrel, inside a moving cylinder formed by the inside of the slide, gas pressure in the space between them opposing the rearward motion of the slide until the gas pressure has declined (at which point the bullet has left the muzzle) thereby allowing the slide to continue its rearward motion.\nThereafter",
"-27.394108866283204"
],
[
"cocks the hammer. The slide is then pushed forward by the recoil spring. As the slide moves forward, it: a.) extracts a new round from the magazine and b.) pushes the round into the chamber and c.) tilts the breech end of the barrel up into battery under the action of a cam on the barrel. The tilting action locks the breech to the slide. Since the firearm is single-action only, the hammer cannot be cocked by squeezing the trigger, but must initially be cocked to fire the first round by manually cycling the slide. Since this pistol has an",
"-27.38861311614164"
],
[
"weapon delivers a taser-like jolt to whatever it strikes in combat. Holding the shock blade's trigger discharges a beam of neuro-electrical energy, with an effective range of 15 feet. Bat'leth The bat'leth is the Klingon double-sided scimitar/hook sword/deer horn knives hybrid-edge weapon, designed by martial arts enthusiast and Star Trek: The Next Generation effects producer Dan Curry. The bat'leth is a curved blade with spiked protrusions and handholds along the middle of the blade's back. In battle, the handholds are used to twirl and spin the blade rapidly.\nKlingon oral history holds that the first bat'leth was forged around 625 A.D.",
"-27.383940943313064"
],
[
"in which the bolt is held fully to rearward by the sear when cocked. When the trigger is depressed, the bolt is released, traveling forward to chamber and simultaneously fire the first and subsequent rounds until either the trigger is released or the ammunition is exhausted. This eliminates the risk of \"cook-off\", which can sometimes occur in closed-bolt automatic weapons. Disassembly The Thompson submachine gun varies in field strip procedure, depending on the variant. World War II-era M1 variants and RPB models field strip more easily than the M1921.\nThe 1928 variant can be disassembled easily by first detaching the stock,",
"-27.37249300711119"
],
[
"weapon is then aimed with the built-in iron sights, and the hammer on the fire controls would be cocked with the users thumb. When the trigger is pulled, the hammer falls onto a percussion primer which ignites the black powder propellant charge. Part of the explosive force is blown out the rear of the tube as back-blast, which provides a recoilless effect. The warhead is ejected from the front of the tube by the exploding propellant, and the spring-steel fins unfold to stabilize the projectile in flight. The warhead then travels in a ballistic arc until",
"-27.36653901153477"
],
[
"contacting the cartridge primer or firing pin when at rest. Similar to the firing pin block, the obstruction to the hammer's travel is removed as a consequence of pulling the trigger. This allows the hammer to contact the primer or firing pin only when the trigger is pulled. Transfer bar A transfer bar is also used in revolvers and some exposed hammer rifles, but works the opposite way from a hammer block. The transfer bar has the spur that would otherwise be on the hammer, or encloses a firing pin similar to autoloading designs. The hammer itself cannot contact",
"-27.363136935673538"
],
[
"Torch (juggling) Juggling torches are one of various props used by jugglers. Torches are usually commercially made props that are made of wood and/or metal with a wick attached at one end. The wick is impregnated with a flammable substance (usually paraffin) and ignited before use. Construction The torch is usually constructed around a wooden dowel which runs the length of the torch from the knob (base) to the top. The lower 8-10 inch section is fitted with a handle, and is the section the juggler uses to catch and throw the torch. The handle can be covered in spiral",
"-27.352708420919953"
],
[
"grip— what of them? It's just a case of being out of practice and uncourageous, hurrying but not being able to take out the fire fuse and place it in the matchlock grip, trying for speed and convenience. In this way, there is absolutely no way to be accurate, and so how could one value muskets? Especially given that the name of the weapon is \"bird-gun,\" which comes from the way that it can hit a flying bird, hitting accurately many times. But in this way, fighting forth, the power doesn't go the way one intends, and one doesn't know",
"-27.341388447923237"
],
[
"silencer, as otherwise the four shots would have been extremely loud, and no one in the vicinity at the time reported hearing any shots.\nWhile it would have been possible to match up the bullets recovered from the crime scene by comparing rifling characteristics with the CZ-27's original barrel, this would prove impossible as Barlow had removed the barrel and disposed of it. Not only had the barrel been replaced, but Barlow had also filed down the firing pin and cartridge case extractor claws as well as substituting the original magazine with a homemade one. The prosecution alleged that",
"-27.33635886079719"
],
[
"hammer striking mechanism and a trigger mechanism with a three-position rotary dial fire control selector, located at the foot of the trigger. The dial has three settings: S – safe, 1 – semi-automatic fire, and A – fully automatic fire. When set on A, the P90's fire selector provides a two-stage trigger operation similar to that of the Steyr AUG assault rifle—pulling the trigger back slightly produces semi-automatic fire, and pulling the trigger fully to the rear produces fully automatic fire. Feeding The P90 uses a unique horizontally mounted feeding system—patented in the United States—that contributes to the weapon's compact profile and unusual",
"-27.33231509383768"
],
[
"them out of contact with the primer and often will have an integrated passive safety mechanism, such as a block that prevents them from moving forward unless the trigger is depressed, or a transfer bar, also trigger actuated, that must be in place to allow the hammer to depress the firing pin. This safety is in addition to any manually operated safety or safeties that act to block the trigger or hammer.\nFirearms that use long firing pins, such as pistols, will often use a firing pin that is too short to project when depressed flush by the hammer. This",
"-27.33222742640646"
]
] |
5mcane | Is there an advantage to using the Imperial System of measurement instead of the Metric System? | [
"No advantage to the imperial. The changes are arithmetic only. The metric system being standardised in orders of magnitude makes it significantly easier to remember. It's worth pointing out they are (were?) both standardised. The difference is one is standardised in a much more user friendly way. Look at these two Imperial units list [this] ( URL_1 ) and [this] ( URL_2 ). These are *slightly* different from the ones the US uses, but comparable enough for this (it's a bit like the difference between US English and correct English :P ) Now look at [this]( URL_0 ) This one is much easier to remember.",
"The Imperial system is more closely tied to the size of the human body, and it is easier to measure things by cutting them in half or doubling them than it is to break out a scale.",
"In metric, all measurements are relatable to one another. You can easily determine how many joules of energy you need to raise the temperature of a kilo of water by one degree C, because all of them use base units of kilos, Celsius (Kelvin) & Joules. In the imperial system, however, the only way would be to resort to conversion equations or look up tables, since there are no standardised, relatable units. As someone else pointed out, before the days where we had easy access to a calculator, the imperial system's base in the number 12 would make it easier to divide it up, since 12 is easily divisible by 2, 3, 4, & 6, while 10 has only 2 & 5, with 3 as a very rough approximation. But these days that's no excuse to cling to it.",
"A minor \"benefit\" I've heard mentioned is that a foot is 12 inches which can be divided more readily (2, 3, 4) without needing to resort to fractions. (Note: I am merely passing on what I heard and am not advocating that such a thing is indeed a benefit.)",
"To my knowledge, there is no benefit. We Americans are just stubborn and like to be different.",
"The advantage is that people are used to it. But in science and engineering, the disadvantages are legion. Converting units and dimensional analysis in metric systems are a snap, but in English units they are a nightmare, at least for me (I'm an engineer, btw). I'm American, and I far prefer to do calculations in imperial and convert back to imperial at the end. It's just easier. Probably my biggest peeve about the imperial system is the slug. The imperial unit for mass, the slug, is basically a formality, and most engineering texts use the concept of pound-mass, where they just take something's weight and divide by gravity, as most things are measured in pounds, not slugs. This may not sound like a big problem, but what it results in is that EVERY SINGLE EQUATION has an errant gravity constant (or lack of one, or one squared, etc) that is different that what I learned, and am used to using. So, when studying for my professional engineering test, every single equation had two variants: Imperial and metric. Thankfully, the PE test took answers in both forms, so I just used metric. Maybe it's just me, but I HATE working with imperial units. I wish we'd get on with the rest of the world and move on to metric, if only for the sake of science and engineering.",
"\"United States customary units\" (that's the official name) are used in lots of things worldwide because changing would be inconvenient. Wheel sizes, camera mounting screws, electronic component spacing, are a few. The US continues using them because there isn't a big benefit to changing. Scientists and engineers all know the metric system and use it when it is advantageous. It has been widely taught in schools since the 1970's. Most people just don't care."
] | [
[
"to 0.6 L. Tradition Some conservatives consider the retention of traditional non-metric units as a form of traditionalism, valuing historic usage spanning centuries.\nNon-metric units often have had different values in different times and places, and some units such as the stone even had different definitions depending on the type of object measured. At the time of the French Revolution there were over 5000 different foot measures. The current UK imperial system is based on the Weights and Measures Act 1824, dating from about 30 years after the founding of the metric system.\nBy contrast, the metric system has remained unchanged (for most",
"-31.112175723406835"
],
[
"to go back to using imperial units, with some reverting without permission. A poll following the EU vote also found that 45% of Britons sought to revert to selling produce in imperial units.\nImperial units remain in common everyday use for human body measurements, in particular stones and pounds for weight, and feet and inches for height. United States and Canada Over time, the metric system has influenced the United States through international trade and standardisation. The use of the metric system was made legal as a system of measurement in 1866 and the United States was a founding member of",
"-30.580650355739635"
],
[
"Metrication in the United Kingdom Metrication in the United Kingdom, the process of introducing the metric system of measurement in place of imperial units, has made steady progress since the mid–20th century but today remains equivocal and varies by context. Most of government, industry and commerce use metric units, but imperial units are officially used to specify journey distances, vehicle speeds and the sizes of returnable milk containers, beer and cider glasses (though fresh milk is often still sold in multiples of pints, with the metric equivalent also marked). Imperial units are also often used to describe body measurements and",
"-30.557668790163007"
],
[
"historically derived from the English units that were in use at the time of settlement. Because the United States was already independent at the time, these units were unaffected by the introduction of the imperial system. United Kingdom British law now defines each imperial unit in terms of the metric equivalent. The metric system is in official use within the United Kingdom for most official applications with Imperial units remaining in widespread use amongst the public. All UK roads use the imperial system except for weight limits, and newer height or width restriction signs give metric alongside imperial.\nUnits of measurement",
"-30.468298917709035"
],
[
"of linen.\nNowadays most non-metric units are standardised to fixed values, which eliminates the disadvantage of imprecision while retaining the advantage of human scale. For example the advocacy group British Weights and Measures Association has argued that metrication led to greater complexity for consumers accustomed to imperial units because, unlike the ounce, a single gram is too small a measurement in everyday life. Divisibility Metric opponents cite easier division of customary units as one reason not to adopt a decimalised system. For example, those customary units with ratios of 12 and 16 have more proper factors than the metric 10:",
"-30.239984129555523"
],
[
"several imperial measures are still widely encountered and usually understood, such as feet and inches for a person's height, pounds and ounces for an infant's birth weight, and in colloquial terms such as referring to drinks in pints. In the food manufacturing industry in New Zealand both metric and non-metric systems of weight are used and usually understood owing to raw food products being imported from both metric and non-metric countries. However per the December 1976 Weights and Measures Amendment Act, all foodstuffs must be retailed using the metric system. In general, the knowledge of non-metric units is lessening.\nThe word",
"-30.13181798707228"
],
[
"Imperial units The system of imperial units or the imperial system (also known as British Imperial or Exchequer Standards of 1825) is the system of units first defined in the British Weights and Measures Act of 1824, which was later refined and reduced. The imperial units replaced the Winchester Standards, which were in effect from 1588 to 1825. The system came into official use across the British Empire. By the late 20th century, most nations of the former empire had officially adopted the metric system as their main system of measurement, although some imperial units are still used in",
"-29.745589359161386"
],
[
"of units in the United States and the metric system has, to varying degrees, replaced the imperial system in the countries that used it.\nMost of the units of measure have been adapted in one way or another since the Norman Conquest (1066). The units of linear measure have changed the least – the yard (which replaced the ell) and the chain were measures derived in England. The foot used by craftsman supplanted the longer foot used in agriculture. The agricultural foot was reduced to ¹⁰⁄₁₁ of its former size, causing the rod, pole or perch to become 16 ¹⁄₂ (rather",
"-29.60485404584324"
],
[
"in either the partial or total displacement of the imperial system or the US customary system of measure in those countries. The current status of imperial and US customary units, as summarised by NIST, is that \"the SI metric system is now the official system of units in the United Kingdom, while the customary units are still predominantly used in the United States\".\nThe situation is however not as clear-cut as this. In the United States, for example, the metric system is the predominant system of measure in certain fields such as automobile manufacture even though customary units are used in",
"-29.35077937404276"
],
[
"transactions. Metric units must be used for certain trading activities (selling by weight or measure for example), although imperial units may continue to be displayed in parallel.\nBritish law has enacted the provisions of European Union directive 80/181/EEC, which catalogues the units of measure that may be used for \"economic, public health, public safety and administrative purposes\". These units consist of the recommendations of the General Conference on Weights and Measures, supplemented by some additional units of measure that may be used for specified purposes. Metric units could be legally used for trading purposes for nearly a century before metrication efforts",
"-29.09719997443608"
],
[
"the British Commonwealth, but in all these countries they have been largely supplanted by the metric system. They are still used for some applications in the United Kingdom but have been mostly replaced by the metric system in commercial, scientific, and industrial applications.\nUS customary units, however, are still the main system of measurement in the United States. While some steps towards metrication have been made (mainly in the late 1960s and early 1970s), the customary units have a strong hold due to the vast industrial infrastructure and commercial development.\nWhile imperial and US customary systems are closely related, there are a",
"-28.990938751521753"
],
[
"units or have neglected to take metrication into account. Writers sometimes use customary units simply because American readers and watchers will understand the measurements; other times, they are simply used by accident. The 1966 show Star Trek, for instance, initially used U.S. customary units despite multiple Earth national origins and a setting in the 23rd century. Later, starting with \"The Changeling\", metric measures were used, albeit inconsistently. Later sequels of the show, such as Star Trek: The Next Generation, and Star Trek: Enterprise (set in the 22nd century), used the metric system exclusively.\nBoth the metric system and attitudes in the",
"-28.860496669993154"
],
[
"French National Archives. Subsequently, that year, the metric system was adopted by law in France. \n The French system was short-lived due to its unpopularity. Napoleon ridiculed it, and in 1812, introduced a replacement system, the mesures usuelles or \"customary measures\" which restored many of the old units, but redefined in terms of the metric system.\nDuring the first half of the 19th century there was little consistency in the choice of preferred multiples of the base units: typically the myriametre (10000 metres) was in widespread use in both France and parts of Germany, while the kilogram (1000 grams) rather than the",
"-28.712463170551928"
],
[
"the metric units, so it was a kind of hybrid system. In 1837, after the collapse of the Napoleonic Empire, the new Assembly reimposed the metric system defined by the laws of 1795 and 1799, to take effect in 1840. The metrication of France took until about 1858 to be completed. Some of the old unit names, especially the livre, originally a unit of mass derived from the Roman libra (as was the English pound), but now meaning 500 grams, are still in use today. Development of non-coherent metric systems At the start of the nineteenth century, the",
"-28.655525363225024"
],
[
"regulated trading by weight or measure purposes, but some imperial units remain the primary official unit of measurement. For example, miles, yards, and feet remain the official units for road signage – and use of imperial units is widespread. The Imperial pint also remains a permitted unit for milk in returnable bottles and for draught beer and cider in British pubs. Imperial units are also legal for use alongside metric units on food packaging and price indications for goods sold loose, and may be used exclusively where a product is sold by description, rather than by weight/mass/volume. E.g. Television",
"-28.589105843209836"
],
[
"number of times due to public resistance, until in 2009 the requirement to ultimately cease use of traditional units alongside metric units was finally removed.\nBritish scientists, philosophers and engineers have been at the forefront of the development of metrication – in 1861 a committee of the British Association for Advancement of Science (BAAS), including William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin), James Clerk Maxwell and Joule among its members, defined various electrical units in terms of metric rather than imperial units, and in the 1870s Johnson, Matthey & Co manufactured the international prototype metre and kilogram. Before 1799 When James VI of",
"-28.390516309940722"
],
[
"English units English units are the units of measurement that were used in England up to 1826 (when they were replaced by Imperial units), which evolved as a combination of the Anglo-Saxon and Roman systems of units. Various standards have applied to English units at different times, in different places, and for different applications.\nThe two main sets of English units were the Winchester Units, in effect from 1495–1587, as reaffirmed by King Henry VII, and the Exchequer Standards, in effect from 1588–1825, as first defined by Queen Elizabeth I.\nThe units were replaced by Imperial Units in 1824 (effective 1 January",
"-28.303560971660772"
],
[
"the units are defined in more than one system, some subsidiary units were used to a much greater extent, or for different purposes, in one area rather than the other. The distinctions between these systems are often not drawn precisely.\nOne such distinction is that between these systems and older British/English units/systems or newer additions. The term imperial should not be applied to English units that were outlawed in the Weights and Measures Act 1824 or earlier, or which had fallen out of use by that time, nor to post-imperial inventions, such as the slug or poundal.\nThe US customary system is",
"-28.174693601406034"
],
[
"consistency with which the metre is defined. Government compulsion The adoption of metric units has required some government compulsion and some have argued that such policies are wrong in principle. Compulsory standards of weights and measures go back as far as Magna Carta. In 1824 in Britain, the Weights and Measures Act (\"An Act for ascertaining and establishing Uniformity of Weights and Measures\") consolidated the various gallons in use at the time and established a new imperial gallon, and prohibited the use of the older units, including what the United States now calls customary US measure.\nAnti-metrication in the UK often",
"-28.126134150777943"
],
[
"unfamiliar because nothing in our everyday lives is that big or that small.\nThe International System of Units has been adopted as the official system of weights and measures by all nations in the world except for Myanmar, Liberia, and the United States, while the United States is the only industrialised country where the metric system is not the predominant system of units. There are 192 countries that predominantly use the metric system and 3 that do not. Gaussian second and the first mechanical system of units In 1832, Gauss used the astronomical second as a base unit in defining",
"-27.94632189736876"
],
[
"usage some older Indians may still refer to imperial units. Some measurements, such as the heights of mountains, are still recorded in feet. Tyre rim diameters are still measured in inches, as used worldwide. Industries like the construction and the real estate industry still use both the metric and the imperial system though it is more common for sizes of homes to be given in square feet and land in acres.\nIn Standard Indian English, as in Australian, Singaporean, and British English, metric units such as the litre, metre, and metric tonne utilise the traditional spellings brought over from French, which",
"-27.92209119751351"
],
[
"imperial indicator. Similarly most jars of jam and packs of sausages are labelled 454 g with no imperial indicator. India India's conversion to the metric system from the imperial system occurred in stages between 1955 and 1962. The metric system in weights and measures was adopted by the Indian Parliament in December 1956 with the Standards of Weights and Measures Act, which took effect beginning 1 October 1958. For the next five years, both the previous and new system were legal. In April 1962, all other systems were banned.\nToday all official measurements are made in the metric system. However, in common",
"-27.921205014106818"
],
[
"referred to trades workers in construction in Paris, who were at that time beginning to replace pre-Metric system units of measurement, such as the toise, with measurements in tenths as a more efficient system:\nIt seems to me that it is up to the sovereigns to change the division of their money, weights and measures, because the ausneur and toiseur have marked their measurements in tenths on the side where there are no ruler markings...\nFrom this perspective, Marie Crous provided a basis for the metric system decimal.\nMathematician Olry Terquem regretted that her name had not yet been given to a street",
"-27.701615324243903"
],
[
"and time even though the tons, hundredweights, gallons, and nautical miles, for example, are different for the U.S. units. Many Imperial units remain in use in Britain, which has officially switched to the SI system—with a few exceptions such as road signs, which are still in miles. Draught beer and cider must be sold by the imperial pint, and milk in returnable bottles can be sold by the imperial pint. Many people measure their height in feet and inches and their weight in stone and pounds, to give just a few examples. Imperial units are used in many other",
"-27.70115823794913"
],
[
"aircraft manufacture. In the United Kingdom, metric units are required for almost all regulated use of units of measure except for a few specifically exempt areas such as road signs, speedometers and draught beer. Metrication is also all but complete in the Commonwealth countries of Australia, India, New Zealand and South Africa; metrication in Canada has displaced the imperial system in many areas.\nAs of June 2013 the imperial and US customary systems of measurement were dependent on the SI for their formal definitions, the yard being defined as 0.9144 metres exactly, the pound avoirdupois as 0.45359237 kilograms exactly while both systems",
"-27.6401160305104"
],
[
"\"meter rulers\". The spelling meter vs metre varies by country. Sometimes the imperial units are not included.\nAlthough not used as often, metersticks can be found in the United States. For example, they are common in schools where there is a desire for students to become familiar with metric units. They may also be used in American science labs.\nThe folding carpenters' rulers used in Scandinavia are sometimes equipped with double measurements, metric and imperial on both sides, also functioning as a handy conversion table, accounting for its Scandinavian term: Tommestokk/tumstock (thumb (inch) stick), a term with the same meaning that is",
"-27.555785054864828"
],
[
"U.S. toward the metric system are a target of humorous jabs in shows such as The Simpsons, Futurama and The Big Bang Theory. A Saturday Night Live sketch titled \"Decabet\", released at the height of the metrication movement, lampooned the different metric measurements by introducing a new alphabet consisting of only ten letters.\nIn the 1994 film Pulp Fiction, Vincent Vega (John Travolta) tells Jules Winnfield (Samuel L. Jackson) that \"Europe is a little different\", because for example in Paris, they don't call it a \"Quarter Pounder with Cheese\" but a \"Royale with Cheese\" as \"they've got the metric system, they",
"-27.41875133290887"
],
[
"of units of measurement, now known as base units. Derived units were built up from the base units using logical rather than empirical relationships while multiples and submultiples of both base and derived units were decimal-based and identified by a standard set of prefixes. Units based on the natural world Like most units of measure, the units of the metric system were based on perceptual quantities of the natural world. But they also had definitions in terms of stable relationships in that world: a metre was defined not by the span of a man's arms like a toise, but on",
"-27.389061566922464"
],
[
"Metric system The metric system is an internationally recognised decimalised system of measurement. It is in widespread use, and where it is adopted, it is the only or most common system of weights and measures (see metrication). It is now known as the International System of Units (SI). It is used to measure everyday things such as the mass of a sack of flour, the height of a person, the speed of a car, and the volume of fuel in its tank. It is also used in science, industry and trade.\nIn its modern form, it consists of",
"-27.379969511006493"
],
[
"small retail businesses. However, all government, legal and similar works still had to use the metric system and the metric system continued to be taught at all levels of education.\nThe prototypes of the metric unit, the kilogram and the metre, enabled an immediate standardization of measurement over the whole country, replacing the varying legal measures in different parts of the country, and even more across the whole of Europe. The new livre (known as the livre métrique) was defined as five hundred grams, and the new toise (toise métrique) was defined as two metres. Products could be sold",
"-27.358784850104712"
],
[
"Units of measurement in France France has a unique history of units of measurement due to the radical decision to invent and adopt the metric system after the French Revolution.\nIn the Ancien régime, before 1795, France used a system of measures that had many of the characteristics of the modern Imperial System of units. There was widespread abuse of the king's standards to the extent that the lieue could vary from 3.268 km in Beauce to 5.849 km in Provence. In the revolutionary era, France used the first version of the metric system. This system was not well received by the public.",
"-27.30863787634007"
],
[
"between them. Duplication in naming and usage A common argument for the metric system is that it avoids duplication of naming and the associated confusion. The most commonly cited example is pound (force) vs pound (mass), which have the same symbol and are both commonly written simply as \"pounds\", which can lead to costly and dangerous shipping and engineering errors. Opponents of metrication point out that this issue only occurs due to misuse; when used 'properly', there is no cause for confusion.\nSeparately, it is also argued that customary units feature too many overlapping units. The most commonly cited examples are",
"-27.286756737943506"
],
[
"Metric typographic units Metric typographic units have been devised and proposed several times to overcome the various traditional point systems. After the French revolution of 1789 one popular proponent of a switch to metric was Didot, who had been able to standardise the continental European typographic measurement a few decades earlier. The conversion did not happen, though. The Didot point was metrically redefined as ¹⁄₂₆₆₀ m (≈ 0.376 mm) in 1879 by Berthold.\nThe advent and success of desktop publishing (DTP) software and word processors for office use, coming mostly from the non-metric United States, basically revoked this metrication process in typography. DTP",
"-27.217113533843076"
],
[
"and cultural costs which must be offset against the advantages to be obtained from using a more rational system. However pressure built up, including from scientists and engineers for conversion to a more rational, and also internationally consistent, basis of measurement.\nIn antiquity, systems of measurement were defined locally: the different units might be defined independently according to the length of a king's thumb or the size of his foot, the length of stride, the length of arm, or maybe the weight of water in a keg of specific size, perhaps itself defined in hands and knuckles. The unifying characteristic is",
"-27.208697228430538"
],
[
"regulations require all measuring devices used in trade or retail to display measurements in metric quantities. Almost all traders in the UK will accept requests from customers specified in imperial units, and scales which display in both unit systems are commonplace in the retail trade. Metric price signs may be accompanied by imperial price signs provided that the imperial signs are no larger and no more prominent than the metric ones.\nThe United Kingdom completed its official partial transition to the metric system in 1995, with some imperial units still legally mandated for certain applications such as draught beer and cider,",
"-27.080475184237002"
],
[
"of water. The metric system was, in the words of French philosopher Marquis de Condorcet, \"for all people for all time\".\nThe metric system has names to cover different ranges of the same measure. Instead of using names based on the context of the measure, the metric system mainly uses names made by adding prefixes, such as kilo- or milli-, as decimal multipliers to the base unit names. Thus, one kilogram is 1000 grams and one kilometre is 1000 metres.\nDuring the nineteenth century the metric system was adopted by both the worldwide scientific community and many countries as the system of measurement. It",
"-26.84327130492602"
],
[
"for the pint (Imperial) of draught beer sold in pubs (see Metrication in the United Kingdom). In 2007, the European Commission also announced that (to appease British public opinion and to facilitate trade with the United States) it was to abandon the requirement for metric-only labelling on packaged goods, and to allow dual metric–imperial marking to continue indefinitely.\nThe United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada have some active opposition to metrication, particularly where updated weights and measures laws would make obsolete historic systems of measurement. Other countries, like France and Japan, that once had significant popular opposition to metrication",
"-26.80431654881977"
],
[
"well - defined system of weights and measures. The government of that time ensured that everybody used the same system. In the Indian medical system, Ayurveda, the units of mass and volume were well defined.\nThe measurement system during the time of the Mughal emperor, Akbar, the guz was the measure of length. The guz was widely used till the introduction of the metric system in India in 1956. During the British period, efforts were made to achieve uniformity in weights and measures. A compromise was reached in the system of measurements which continued till India's independence in 1947. After independence",
"-26.785775999946054"
],
[
"Introduction to the metric system The metric system was developed during the French Revolution to replace the various measures previously used in France. The metre (spelled \"meter\" in American English) is the unit of length in the metric system and was originally based on the dimensions of the earth, as far as it could be measured at the time. The litre (or in American English \"liter\"), is the unit of volume and was defined as one thousandth of a cubic metre. The metric unit of mass is the kilogram and it was defined as the mass of one litre",
"-26.71700733693433"
],
[
"the United States, metric units are used almost universally in science, widely in the military, and partially in industry, but customary units predominate in household use. At retail stores, the liter is a commonly used unit for volume, especially on bottles of beverages, and milligrams, rather than grains, are used for medications. Some other standard non-SI units are still in international use, such as nautical miles and knots in aviation and shipping. Metric system Metric systems of units have evolved since the adoption of the first well-defined system in France in 1795. During this evolution the use of these systems",
"-26.597190473068622"
],
[
"units of the Imperial and Customary system are defined in terms of the metre and kilogram.\nThe metric system is also extensible, and new derived units are defined as needed in fields such as radiology and chemistry. The most recent derived unit, the katal, for catalytic activity, was added in 1999. Recent changes are directed toward defining base units in terms of invariant constants of physics to provide more precise realisations of units for advances in science and industry. Realization of units The base units used in the metric system must be realisable. Each of the definitions of the",
"-26.591527523276454"
],
[
"but did so in 1883. Meanwhile, British scientists and technologists were at the forefront of the metrication movement – it was the British Association for the Advancement of Science that promoted the CGS system of units as a coherent system and it was the British firm Johnson Matthey that was accepted by the CGPM in 1889 to cast the international prototype metre and kilogram.\nIn 1895 another Parliamentary select committee recommended the compulsory adoption of the metric system after a two-year permissive period. The 1897 Weights and Measures Act legalised the metric units for trade, but did not make them mandatory.",
"-26.425821291093598"
],
[
"of the existing English system, as well as simplification of their relationship to each other. The second system was revolutionary, and was based on units linked by powers of ten, very similar to the decimal metric system which would be proposed in France. The base units for length, mass, and volume in Jefferson's revolutionary system (named the foot, the ounce, and the bushel, respectively) were relatively close in size to their pre-existing counterparts and bore identical names, although the manner in which they were defined was very different.\nJefferson's proposal was the world's first scientifically based, fully integrated, decimal system of",
"-26.367660040064948"
],
[
"Maltese units of measurement In modern usage, metric is used almost exclusively in commercial transactions. These units are mostly historical, although they are still used in some limited contexts and in Maltese idioms and set phrases. Many of these terms are directly related to Arabic units and some to Sicilian units. The Weights and Measures Ordinance of 1921 established uniformity in the conversion of such weights and measures. All these measures were defined as simple multiples of the Imperial units then in use in Britain. Volume These units were all (except for the cubic units) defined in 1921 relative",
"-26.339134770125384"
],
[
"vehicle fuel economy. In schools metric units are taught and used as the norm and imperial units that remain in common usage in the UK must also be taught.\nAdopting the metric system was discussed in Parliament as early as 1818 and some industries and even some government agencies had metricated, or were in the process of metricating by the mid-1960s. A formal government policy to support metrication was agreed by 1965. This policy, initiated in response to requests from industry, was to support voluntary metrication, with costs picked up where they fell. In 1969 the government created the Metrication",
"-26.32667129674519"
],
[
"places, for example, in many Commonwealth countries that are considered metricated, land area is measured in acres and floor space in square feet, particularly for commercial transactions (rather than government statistics). Similarly, gasoline is sold by the gallon in many countries that are considered metricated. Metric system The metric system is a decimal system of measurement based on its units for length, the metre and for mass, the kilogram. It exists in several variations, with different choices of base units, though these do not affect its day-to-day use. Since the 1960s, the International System of Units (SI) is the internationally",
"-26.265488784920308"
],
[
"metric units were simply given the names of units of measure that were then in use. Examples include the ons (ounce) which was defined as being 100 g. Norway In 1875, Norway was the first country to ratify the metre convention, and it was seen as an important step for Norway to gain independence. The decision to adopt the metric system is said to have been the Norwegian Parliament's fastest decision in peace time. Portugal In August 1814, Portugal officially adopted the metric system but with the names of the units substituted by Portuguese traditional ones. In this system the basic",
"-26.227319936602726"
],
[
"of the world today.\nThe desire for a single international system of measurement came from growing international trade and the need to apply common standards to goods. For a company to buy a product produced in another country, they need to ensure that the product would arrive as described. The medieval ell was abandoned in part because its value could not be standardised. One primary advantage of the International System of Units is simply that it is international, and the pressure on countries to conform to it grew as it became increasingly an international standard. However, it also simplified the teaching",
"-26.17858375250944"
],
[
"Preferred metric sizes Preferred metric sizes are a set of international standards and de facto standards that are designed to make using the metric system easier and simpler, especially in engineering and construction practices. One of the methods used to arrive at these preferred sizes is the use of preferred numbers and convenient numbers such as the Renard series, the 1-2-5 series to limit the number of different sizes of components needed.\nOne of the largest benefits of such limits is an ensuing multiplicative or exponential reduction in the number of parts, tools and other items needed to support the installation",
"-26.090383688686416"
],
[
"temperature scale, road signs, and measures used in the sale of such items as wool and milk had been metricated. Only a few letters voiced outright opposition to the changeover. Exceptions Although New Zealand completed metrication in the 1970s, a 1992 study of university students found that at that time there was a continued use of imperial units for birth weight and human height alongside metric units. On the 30th anniversary of the introduction of the metric system in December 2006, the New Zealand Consumer Affairs Minister, Judith Tizard, commented that \"Now 30 years on the metric system is part",
"-25.996904787587482"
],
[
"Brazilian units of measurement A number different units of measurement were used in Brazil to measure quantities including length, mass, area, and capacity, as those units were derived from Portugal and had significant local variances.\nIn 1814, as part of the Portuguese Empire, Brazil adopted the new Portuguese metric system, which was based in the original metric system, but with its units having Portuguese traditional names. This system was not, however, widely adopted and was soon abandoned, with the Portuguese customary units continuing to be used.\nIn 1862, the International Metric System finally became compulsory in Brazil. Pre-metric units A number of",
"-25.985566181348986"
],
[
"space manufacturer SpaceX currently designs its systems (e.g. Dragon and Falcon 9) using metric units. High modernism and legibility Commentator Ken Alder noted that on the eve of the French Revolution a quarter of a million different units of measure were in use in France; in many cases the quantity associated with each unit of measure differed from town to town and often from trade to trade. He claimed that the metric system originated in the ideology of Pure Reason from the more radical element of the French Revolution, that it was devised in France to try to make France",
"-25.948055239183304"
],
[
"now depends on a fixed numerical value for Planck's constant. The new definition was formally propagated on 20 May 2019.\nWhile there are numerous named derived units of the metric system, such as the watt and lumen, other common quantities such as velocity and acceleration do not have their own unit, but are defined in terms of existing base and derived units such as metres per second for velocity.\nUnits of the British imperial system and the related US customary system are officially defined in terms of the metric system. Notably, as per the International Yard and Pound Agreement the base",
"-25.81139399537642"
],
[
"that there was some definition based on some standard. Eventually cubits and strides gave way to \"customary units\" to meet the needs of merchants and scientists.\nIn the metric system and other recent systems, a single basic unit is used for each base quantity. Often secondary units (multiples and submultiples) are derived from the basic units by multiplying by powers of ten, i.e. by simply moving the decimal point. Thus the basic metric unit of length is the metre; a distance of 1 m is 1,000 millimetres, or 0.001 kilometres. Current practice Metrication is complete or nearly complete in almost all countries. US customary",
"-25.786754556000233"
],
[
"measures between nations who traded and exchanged scientific ideas with each other was necessary. Spain, for example, had aligned her units of measure with the royal units of France, and Peter the Great aligned the Russian units of measure with those of England. In 1783 the British inventor James Watt, who was having difficulties in communicating with German scientists, called for the creation of a global decimal measurement system, proposing a system which used the density of water to link length and mass, and in 1788 the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier commissioned a set of nine brass cylinders—a [French] pound",
"-25.724379709652567"
],
[
"1960 the two countries agreed to common definitions of the yard and the pound based on definitions of the metre and the kilogram. This change, which amounted to a few parts per million, had little effect in the United Kingdom, but resulted in the United States having two slightly different systems of linear measure – the international system, and the surveyors system. English units of measure English units of measure, were derived from a combination of Roman, Carolignian and Saxon units of measure. They were a precursor to both the Imperial system of units (first defined in 1824, to",
"-25.69541489231051"
],
[
"and Wear Metro and London Tramlink which along with all other modern British tram systems also operate in metric. The Cambrian Line has also changed to metric units with the change to ERMTS signalling. London Underground has converted to using metric units for distances but not for speeds.\nApart from the sale of petrol, which was metricated in the 1980s, motorists have seen little metrication. Speedometers and mandatory information on car advertisements such as fuel consumption are given in both metric and imperial units. The 1994 TSRGD permitted the use of metric units alongside imperial units for width and height warning",
"-25.683711993857287"
],
[
"been used in the United States\". In addition, named units of measure that are used in the engineering industry are also catalogued. Prior to metrication, the units of measure used in the Ireland were the same as those used in the United Kingdom while those used in the British Commonwealth and in South Africa were in most cases a subset of those used in the United Kingdom with, in certain cases, local differences.\nUnless otherwise specified, the units of measure quoted below were used in both the United States, the United Kingdom. The SI equivalents are quoted to four",
"-25.54767449655992"
],
[
"international figures were adopted. A law adopted in 1931 changed the old weight and length measurements. Previously used measurement units such as arshin, endaze, okka have been removed. Instead, meters were accepted as length measurements and weight as weight measures. With these changes in length and weight measurements, unity was achieved in the country. The International System of Units (known as metric) is the modern form of the metric system, and is the most widely used system of measurement. Turkey moved to metric system. Fine art drive Among the five main fine arts painting, sculpture, architecture, music, and poetry, with",
"-25.539624793294934"
],
[
"have received only metric instruction in school (from the early 1970s) are more familiar with metric measurements. Quebec has implemented metrication more fully. The use of imperial units is more common in rural areas than in the rest of the country, where opposition to metrication was strongest, rather than in urban areas.\nCanadians are exposed to both metric and imperial units, and it is not unusual for there to be references to both metres and feet, acres and hectares, or grams and ounces, in the same conversation. Temperature Despite the exclusive use of degrees Celsius in weather reports, some older Canadians",
"-25.365004722043523"
],
[
"iraimbilanja. However, these are only theoretically non-decimal, as in both cases the value of the main unit is so low that the sub-units are too small to be of any practical use and coins of the sub-units are no longer used.\nFor weights and measures this is also called metrication, replacing traditional units that are related in other ways, such as those formed by successive doubling or halving, or by more arbitrary conversion factors. Units of physical measurement, such as length and mass, were decimalised with the introduction of the metric system, which has been adopted by almost all countries with",
"-25.312198765808716"
],
[
"no relationship to each other. As both humanity's understanding of philosophical concepts and the organisation of society developed, so units of measurement were standardised – first particular units of measure had the same value across a community then different units of the same quantity (for example feet and inches) were given a fixed relationship. Apart from Ancient China where the units of capacity and of mass are linked to red millet seed, there is little evidence of the linking of different quantities until the Age of Reason. Relating quantities of the same kind The history of the measurement of",
"-25.30333167387289"
],
[
"system using the length of a pendulum as the base unit of length received the support of the British Parliament, championed by John Riggs Miller, but when the French overthrew their monarchy and decided to use the meridional definition of the metre as their base unit, Britain withdrew support. The French continued alone and created the foundations of what is now called the Système International d'Unités and is the measurement system for most of the world. 1799–1962 In 1799, the French created, and started to use, a new system with the metre and the kilogram as the units of length",
"-25.258201930540963"
],
[
"Standard weights and measures were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization. The centralized weight and measure system served the commercial interest of Indus merchants as smaller weight measures were used to measure luxury goods while larger weights were employed for buying bulkier items, such as food grains etc. Weights existed in multiples of a standard weight and in categories. Technical standardisation enabled gauging devices to be effectively used in angular measurement and measurement for construction. Uniform units of length were used in the planning of towns such as Lothal, Surkotada, Kalibangan, Dolavira, Harappa, and Mohenjo-daro. The weights and measures",
"-25.231728087674128"
],
[
"the Metric System (1906).",
"-25.173106617847225"
],
[
"units.\nScreen sizes for devices such as televisions, monitors and phones, and wheel rim sizes for vehicles, are stated in inches, as is the convention in the rest of the world. Ireland Ireland has officially changed over to the metric system since entering the European Union, with distances on new road signs being metric since 1997 and speed limits being metric since 2005. The imperial system remains in limited use – for sales of beer in pubs (traditionally sold by the pint). All other goods are required by law to be sold in metric units, although old quantities are retained for",
"-25.16310234850971"
],
[
"Measurement in economics The measures used in economics are physical measures, nominal price value measures and fixed price value measures. These measures differ from one another by the variables they measure and by the variables excluded from measurements. The measurable variables in economics are quantity, quality and distribution. Excluding variables from measurement makes it possible to better focus the measurement on a given variable, yet, this means a more narrow approach. The table was compiled to compare the basic types of measurement. The first column presents the measure types, the second the variables being measured, and the third column gives",
"-25.119151960781892"
],
[
"History of the metre Universal measure The standard measures of length in Europe diverged from one another after the fall of the Carolingian Empire (around 888): while measures could be standardized within a given jurisdiction (which was often little more than a single market town), there were numerous variations of measure between regions. Indeed, as the measures were often used as the basis for taxation (of cloth, for example), the use of a particular measure was associated with the sovereignty of a given ruler and often dictated by law.\nNevertheless, with the increasing scientific activity of the 17th century came calls",
"-24.990363295961288"
],
[
"the fundamental ones by logical relationships, so that a unit of square area for example, was the unit of length squared.\nMany derived units were already in use before and during the time the metric system evolved, because they represented convenient abstractions of whatever base units were defined for the system, especially in the sciences. So analogous units were scaled in terms of the metric units, and their names adopted into the system. Many of these were associated with electromagnetism. Other perceptual units, like volume, which were not defined in terms of base units, were incorporated into the system with",
"-24.980626526128617"
],
[
"Weights and Measures Act (R.S., 1985, c. W-6). These units have the same name and, with the exception of capacity measures such as the gallon, the same values as US customary units. For example, before metrication in Canada, gasoline was sold by the imperial gallon (about 4.55 litres). In cross-border transactions, it was often unclear whether values quoted in gallons, etc. were referring to the US values (3.79 litres) or the imperial values of these units. The fact that a higher price was being charged did not always resolve the matter. Conversion process The Liberal federal government of Pierre",
"-24.92141739220824"
],
[
"Office that criticised the use of sub-standard weighing machines in NHS hospitals.\nTo help ease the EC's desired transition from sole use of imperial units to sole use of metric units, the directive permitted the use of what were termed \"supplementary indicators\"—the continued use of imperial units alongside the metric units catalogued by the directive (dual labelling). The initial intention was to prohibit dual labelling after the end of 1989, with metric units only being allowed after that date. This deadline was later extended: first to the end of 1999, then to the end of 2009. Finally, in 2007, the European",
"-24.894097424548818"
],
[
"metric system legal status in 1866, it permitted the use of the word kilo as an alternative to the word kilogram, but in 1990 revoked the status of the word kilo.\nDuring the 19th century, the standard system of metric units was the centimetre–gram–second system of units, treating the gram as the fundamental unit of mass and the kilogram as a derived unit. \nIn 1901, however, following the discovery by James Clerk Maxwell that electric measurements could not be explained solely in terms of the three fundamental units of length, mass and time, Giovanni Giorgi proposed a new standard system that",
"-24.83931261887483"
],
[
"Rule. Why \"Metre\" is in the names International rule yachts It is commonly believed that the term Metre refers to the units of measurement used for the input values entered into the formula. This has led to the idea that the use of metric units for the formula represented a major concession on the part of the British whose preeminence in yachting at the time could have justified using Imperial units. In fact, the formula works equally well with Imperial Units. The relation between the length and area components of the formula are preserved whether in metric",
"-24.828375824799878"
],
[
"political motivation to harmonise units throughout France, a length standard based on a natural source was proposed. In March 1791, the metre was defined. This led to the creation of the decimal-based metric system in 1795, establishing standards for other types of measurements. Several other countries adopted the metric system between 1795 and 1875; to ensure international conformity, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (French: Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, or BIPM) was established by the Metre Convention. Although the BIPM's original mission was to create international standards for units of measurement and relate them to national standards",
"-24.827046282720403"
],
[
"years since the effective date of the Law, 1 January 1993, on the condition of indicating the corresponding SI values, then for three more years thereafter, Chinese, Imperial, and US units would be permissible as secondary to the SI. Modern Chinese units All \"metric values\" given in the tables are exact unless otherwise specified by the approximation sign '~'.\nCertain units are also listed at List of Chinese classifiers → Measurement units. Metric and other area units Metric and other standard length units can be squared by the addition of the prefix 平方 píngfāng. For example, a square kilometre is 平方公里",
"-24.701844514042023"
],
[
"expressed in terms of grains for both metric and imperial cartridges.\nAs in most of the western world, air navigation is based on nautical units, e.g., the nautical mile, which is neither imperial nor metric, though altitude is still measured in imperial feet in keeping with the international standard. Australia Metrication in Australia has largely ended the official use of imperial units, though for particular measurements, international use of imperial units is still followed. In licensed venues, draught beer and cider is sold in glasses and jugs with sizes based on the imperial fluid ounce, though rounded to the nearest",
"-24.641122205503052"
],
[
"and learning of measurement as all SI units are based on a handful of base units (in particular, the metre, kilogram and second cover the majority of everyday measurements), using decimal prefixes to cover all magnitudes. This contrasts with pre-metric units, which largely have names that do not relate directly to one another (e.g. inch, foot, yard, mile) and are related to one another by inconsistent ratios which must simply be memorised (e.g. 12, 3, 1760). As the values in an SI expression are always decimal (i.e. without vulgar fractions) and mixed units (such as \"feet and inches\") are not",
"-24.614343996916432"
],
[
"has spread throughout the world, first to non-English-speaking countries, and then to English speaking countries.\nMultiples and submultiples of metric units are related by powers of ten and their names are formed with prefixes. This relationship is compatible with the decimal system of numbers and it contributes greatly to the convenience of metric units.\nIn the early metric system there were two base units, the metre for length and the gram for mass. The other units of length and mass, and all units of area, volume, and derived units such as density were derived from these two base units.\nMesures usuelles (French for",
"-24.492383070566575"
],
[
"that in order for schemes to improve the human condition to succeed, they must take into account local conditions, and that the high-modernist ideologies of the 20th century have prevented this. Scott cites the enforcement of the metric system as a specific example of this sort of failed and resented \"improvement\" imposed by centralizing and standardizing authority. While the metric system was introduced in the French law by the revolutionary government in April 1795, it did not immediately displace traditional measurements in the popular mind. In fact, its use was initially associated with officialdom and elitism as Chateaubriand remarked in",
"-24.464556274862844"
],
[
"definitions in the metric base units, so that the system remained simple. It grew in number of units, but the system retained a uniform structure. Decimal ratios Some customary systems of weights and measures had duodecimal ratios, which meant quantities were conveniently divisible by 2, 3, 4, and 6. But it was difficult to do arithmetic with things like ¹⁄₄ pound or ¹⁄₃ foot. There was no system of notation for successive fractions: for example, ¹⁄₃ of ¹⁄₃ of a foot was not an inch or any other unit. But the system of counting in decimal ratios did have",
"-24.28328336647246"
],
[
"Underground uses metric.\nMost British people still use imperial units in everyday life for distance (miles, yards, feet and inches) and volume in some cases (especially milk and beer in pints) but rarely for canned or bottled soft drinks or petrol. Though use of kilograms is increasing, most British people also still use imperial units in everyday life for body weight (stones and pounds for adults, pounds and ounces for babies). Some government documents aimed at the public give body weight and height not only in metric units (kilograms centimetres) but also in imperial units (stones and pounds, feet and inches).",
"-24.277570410442422"
],
[
"Metric engine (American expression) A metric engine is an American expression which refers to an internal combustion engine, often for automobiles, whose underlying engineering design is based on a metric system of units, particularly SI.\nAs American industry converted from traditional units to SI in the late 20th century, the automotive industry responded by transitioning its auto and engine designs to be \"metric\" rather than \"English\". Characteristics A metric engine has one or more of the following characteristics:",
"-24.264295979031886"
],
[
"disrupted tables, and misplaced captions). Before the popularization of desktop publishing, type measurements were done with a tool called a typometer. Metric units The traditional typographic units are based either on non-metric units, or on odd multiples (such as ³⁵⁄₈₃) of a metric unit. There are no specifically metric units for this particular purpose, although there is a DIN standard sometimes used in German publishing, which measures type sizes in multiples of 0.25 mm, and proponents of the metrication of typography generally recommend the use of the millimetre for typographical measurements, rather than the development of new specifically typographical metric units.",
"-24.232685720795416"
],
[
"Metrication Metrication or metrification is the act or process of converting the system of measurement traditionally used in a country to the metric system. Worldwide, there has been a process of nations transitioning from their various local and traditional units of measurement, to the metric system. This process first began in France during the 1790s and has continued extensively world-wide over the following two centuries, but the metric system has not been fully adopted in all countries and sectors. Overview Whilst most countries in the world are using the metric system as their official system of weights and measures,",
"-24.22845627887"
],
[
"therefore became truly international. Until 1875 the French government owned the prototype metre and kilogram, but in that year the Convention of the metre was signed and control of the standards relating to mass and length passed on to a trio of inter-government organisations.\nIn 1960 the metric system was extensively revised to form the International System of Units, abbreviated to \"SI\". Units The names of the units of measure used in the metric system consist of two parts: a unit name (for example \"metre\", \"gram\", \"litre\") and an associated multiplier prefix (for example \"milli-\" meaning ¹⁄₁₀₀₀, \"kilo-\" meaning 1000).",
"-24.208748059303616"
],
[
"US Metric Association Background The Metric Act of 1866 declared the metric system to be \"lawful throughout the United States of America\" and in all business dealings and court proceedings.\nAt an international commercial congress the Treaty of the Metre, also known as the Metre Convention (Convention du Mètre) of 1875 was signed by 17 countries, including the US, making the metric system the international system of weights and measures. Note that this was a meeting of international states to facilitate commerce. This treaty, then, falls under the overview of the United States Department of State, which has devolved oversight to",
"-24.202469743977417"
],
[
"in Scotland, and the Scottish measures remained in common use until the Weights and Measures Act 1824 outlawed them.\nThis period marked the Age of Enlightenment, when people started using the power of reason to reform society and advance knowledge. Britons played their role in the realm of measurement, laying down practical and philosophical foundations for a decimal system of measurement which were ultimately to provide the building blocks of the metric system.\nOne of the earliest decimal measuring devices, developed in 1620 by the English clergyman and mathematician Edmund Gunter, introduced two new units of measure— the chain and the link—and",
"-24.16362452658359"
],
[
"Persian units of measurement An official system of weights and measures was established in the ancient \nPersian Empire under the Achaemenid dynasty (550-350 BCE). The shekel and mina (\"profane\" or \"sacred\") were units of both weight and volume. A shekel or mina weight was equal to the weight of that volume of water. The talent was a measure of weight used for large amounts of coinage. Some related units were used in Persia in the 19th century, and are still used in contemporary Iran. Weight The talent was a measure of weight used for large amounts of coinage (bullion, bulk",
"-24.160630930855405"
],
[
"Units of Measure (UCUM) Application to units of measurement The use of prefixes can be traced back to the introduction of the metric system in the 1790s, long before the 1960 introduction of the SI. The prefixes, including those introduced after 1960, are used with any metric unit, whether officially included in the SI or not (e.g., millidynes and milligauss). Metric prefixes may also be used with non-metric units.\nThe choice of prefixes with a given unit is usually dictated by convenience of use. Unit prefixes for amounts that are much larger or smaller than those actually encountered are seldom used.",
"-24.088235043920577"
],
[
"redefined the yard and the pound in terms of the metre and the kilogram respectively. These new units became known as the international yard and pound. Congress has neither endorsed nor repudiated this action. (See § Metric equivalents). Comparison of imperial and US customary systems Prior to 1960 the imperial and customary yard and the pound were sufficiently close to each other that for most practical purposes the differences in the sizes of units of length, area, volume and mass could be disregarded, though there were differences in usage - for example, in the United States short road distances are",
"-23.858701528341044"
],
[
"and weights of measures that would be used in the new republic. In his response in 1790 he noted that the existing system of measure was sound but that control of the base artefact was not under the control of the United States. His report suggested a means of manufacturing a local standard and also left the way open for an adoption of a decimal-based system should this be appropriate. In the event, the existing standards were retained.\nFor many years no action was taken at the federal level to ensure harmony in units of measure – the units acquired by",
"-23.855325973621802"
],
[
"screen and clothing sizes tend to be denominated in inches only, but a piece of material priced per inch would be unlawful unless the metric price was also shown. Other English-speaking countries The British metrication programme signalled the start of metrication programmes elsewhere in the Commonwealth, though India had started its programme in 1959, six years before the United Kingdom. South Africa (then not a member of the Commonwealth) set up a Metrication Advisory Board in 1967, New Zealand set up its Metric Advisory Board in 1969, Australia passed the Metric Conversion Act in 1970 and Canada appointed a Metrication",
"-23.84785781110986"
],
[
"both metric and imperial. Machines made in Canada often incorporate parts from other countries and thus the finished product may have both metric and imperial parts. Farm and industrial equipment manufactured in Canada will most often use inch system fasteners and structural steel, but fluid capacities are always listed in metric.\nBuilding trades such as plumbing and carpentry often use imperial units. Rough timber, drywall, plywood, fasteners, pipes, and tubing are all sold in imperial units. Nails in hardware stores are measured in inches but sold in metric weight packages.\nElectricians in every country use metric units such as volts and amperes,",
"-23.836803996018716"
],
[
"in the United States, although these are no longer widely used.\nIn all these systems, the fundamental unit is the pound (lb), and all other units are defined as fractions or multiples of it. The tables of imperial troy mass and apothecaries' mass are the same as the corresponding United States tables, except for the British spelling \"drachm\" in the table of apothecaries' mass. The table of imperial avoirdupois mass is the same as the United States table up to 1 pound, but above that point the tables differ.\nThe imperial system has a hundredweight, defined as eight Stone of 14 lbs",
"-23.77198410705023"
],
[
"Tucker Carlson's Fox News to argue against the metric system.",
"-23.646499041147763"
],
[
"good\".\nAustralia's switch to the metric system in the 1970s changed most of the country's vocabulary of measurement from imperial to metric measures. Since the switch to metric, heights of individuals are listed in centimetres on official documents such as a driver's licence but older people understand and may speak of feet and inches. Grammar As with American English, but unlike British English, collective nouns are almost always singular in construction, e.g., the government was unable to decide as opposed to the government were unable to decide. Shan't, the negation of should as in I shan't be happy if ..., the",
"-23.607368046039483"
],
[
"standard, was approximately one metre and whose unit of mass was the mass of a cubic standard of rainwater (which would have been approximately 1,000 kg). He proposed that one tenth of this mass (100 kg) should be called a stone. In 1791, a few years before the French Revolutionary Government agreed on the metre as the basis of the metric system, Thomas Jefferson, in a report to Congress proposed that the United States should adopt a decimal currency system (which was adopted) and a decimal-based system of measure (which was not adopted). Jefferson's proposal for units of measure included a \"decimal",
"-23.607056304521393"
],
[
"units. (Other alternative unit systems also exist, as discussed below.) Conversions between Gaussian units and SI units are not as simple as normal unit conversions. For example, the formulas for physical laws of electromagnetism (such as Maxwell's equations) need to be adjusted depending on what system of units one uses. As another example, quantities that are dimensionless (loosely \"unitless\") in one system may have dimension in another. History Gaussian units existed before the CGS system. The British Association report of 1873 that proposed the CGS contains gaussian units derived from the foot–grain–second and metre–gram–second as well. There are",
"-23.586745920751127"
],
[
"Generalised metric In mathematics, the concept of a generalised metric is a generalisation of that of a metric, in which the distance is not a real number but taken from an arbitrary ordered field.\nIn general, when we define metric space the distance function is taken to be a real-valued function. The real numbers form an ordered field which is Archimedean and order complete. These metric spaces have some nice properties like: in a metric space compactness, sequential compactness and countable compactness are equivalent etc. These properties may not, however, hold so easily if the distance function is taken in an",
"-23.535868481645593"
],
[
"differ from those used in the United States and the Philippines. The imperial long ton is invariably spelt with one 'n'. Canada During the 1970s, the metric system and SI units were introduced in Canada to replace the imperial system. Within the government, efforts to implement the metric system were extensive; almost any agency, institution, or function provided by the government uses SI units exclusively. Imperial units were eliminated from all road signs, although both systems of measurement will still be found on privately owned signs, such as the height warnings at the entrance of a parkade. In the 1980s,",
"-23.512785288403393"
]
] |
43s2s0 | how was the term 'cis' developed to define heterosexual men and women who identify as the sex they were born with? why does it seem like its a term brand new in the last year? | [
"Also, cisgender only refers to gender and has nothing to do with sexual orientation. Gay and bisexual men and women can also be cisgender, just as transgender men and women can be straight.",
"Trans means born as one sex and identifies as another. Cis means that you identify as the same sex you were born as. These terms actually come from things like chemistry.",
" URL_0 It comes from the Latin root \"Cis\" which means \"on the same side of\". It is a modern term based on Latin.",
"The truth of the matter is that it's a term developed by 'non-cis people' because they didn't like the fact that they have a 'label' and cis people don't.",
"[It was asked and answered a dozen times before.]( URL_0 )"
] | [
[
"gay, lesbian and bisexual characters are still often defined mainly by their sexuality, having Lexa—one of the show's strongest, most well-liked characters—casually reveal that she's queer and then carry on with her day sends a strong and important message to young viewers,\" stated Wilken. \"However, there's a big difference between having a supporting character (however brilliant) play the pronoun game, and actually featuring a same-sex pairing on the show.\" She said The CW did not have \"a single queer main character on any of the network's currently running shows\" and that needed to change. \"The next step, obviously, is the",
"-32.14331506646704"
],
[
"were neither homosexual nor autogynephilic transsexuals and should not be classified in either group. A majority felt that the sexual attraction to become a woman weakened with age, but others reported that they had noticed a change after physical transition. Blanchard ultimately concluded that transsexuals were either sexually aroused by men, androphilic, or aroused by the thought of being a woman, nonandrophilic.\nThe number of openly transgender women has rapidly increased over the past several decades. More and more individuals have undergone operations and hormone therapy. They believe that their gender identity, defined as \"one's inner sense of being male or",
"-31.99651120782073"
],
[
"autonomy and pointing out reasons that young trans women often turn to sex work such as low self-esteem and severe employment discrimination. \nA review by GLAAD of its archives of transgender-inclusive television episodes from 2002 to 2012 found that 20% of transgender characters were depicted as sex workers.\nSome trans men in the sex work industry are gay for pay. Classifying transsexual people by sexual orientation Sexologist Magnus Hirschfeld first suggested a distinction based on sexual orientation in 1923. A number of two-type taxonomies based on sexuality have subsequently been proposed by clinicians, though some clinicians believe that other factors are",
"-31.93461405276321"
],
[
"sex was interpreted to mean a same-sex marriage had taken place. Cases In 1959, Christine Jorgensen, a trans woman, was denied a marriage license by a clerk in New York City, on the basis that her birth certificate listed her as male; Jorgensen did not pursue the matter in court. Later that same year, Charlotte McLeod, another trans female who underwent gender reassignment surgery, married her husband Ralph H. Heidel in Miami. She did not mention her birth gender, however, or the fact she was still legally a male. The first case in the United States which found that",
"-31.87369909649715"
],
[
"at which trans women referred themselves to explore sex reassignment and their self-ratings of childhood femininity were also studied. Computer classification divided cases into heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, and asexual/analloerotic, according to cases' ratings of themselves. The homosexual group was significantly younger (mean age of 23.6 years) than the groups of heterosexual (mean of 39.1), bisexual (32.3), or asexual (35.3) transsexuals. The people in the homosexual group also rated themselves as significantly more feminine during their childhoods than the other groups, which did not differ from each other.\nOn the basis of the different features they exhibited, Blanchard concluded that",
"-31.805775633678422"
],
[
"with the terms, and also a shift to nomenclature based on genetics.\nIntersex is in some caused by unusual sex hormones; the unusual hormones may be caused by an atypical set of sex chromosomes. One possible pathophysiologic explanation of intersex in humans is a parthenogenetic division of a haploid ovum into two haploid ova. Upon fertilization of the two ova by two sperm cells (one carrying an X chromosome and the other carrying a Y chromosome), the two fertilized ova are then fused together resulting in a person having dual genitalial, gonadal (ovotestes) and genetic sex. Another common cause of being",
"-31.781832787091844"
],
[
"did not identify with either gender. The sexuality of the participants was also requested, separated into two categories: \"heterosexual\" and \"non-heterosexual\". The results were as follows: 30% were non-heterosexual women, 15.2% were heterosexual women, 4.7% were non-heterosexual men, 39.5% were heterosexual men and 1.2% identified as \"other\". Regarding age, 69% of respondents were between 16 and 25 years old. Maser's study reinforced the notion of the yuri fandom being split somewhat equally between men and women, as well as highlighting the differing sexualities within it.",
"-31.712553140707314"
],
[
"female homosexuals\". However, these findings have been reviewed and have subsequently been dismissed by Gooren as suffering from faulty design and interpretation.\nFactors implicated in the development of transsexuality include chromosomal abnormalities, polymorphisms of certain genes, and variations in aromatase (cytochrome P450 CYP19) and CYP17. Girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia show an increase in probability of transsexuality later in life; however, this risk is still only 1–3% in CAH. Although historically abnormal sexual differentiation has pointed to androgens as a causal factor, there are codeterminants of gender identity and sexual orientation with overriding effects of androgens on the",
"-31.647298887663055"
],
[
"the medical professionals in different regions treat intersexual people also give us a good example of how sex is socially constructed. In her Sexing the body: gender politics and the construction of sexuality, she introduces the following example:\n A group of physicians from Saudi Arabia recently reported on several cases of XX intersex children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a genetically inherited malfunction of the enzymes that aid in making steroid hormones. [...] In the United States and Europe, such children, because they have the potential to bear children later in life, are usually raised as girls. Saudi doctors trained",
"-31.635006872471422"
],
[
"survey six years later. An even higher percentage of post-high-school young-adult men in the U.S. and in a handful of other countries (including New Zealand and Norway) make the same choice.\nAn analytical review article looking at the experiences and meanings of same-sex sexual encounters among men and women who identify as heterosexual found that a large portion of same sex encounters occur among those who identify as heterosexual. The prevalence of same-sex sexuality among heterosexually identifying men and women is not universal. 13.6% of women and 4.6% of men reported attraction to members of the same sex, while 12.6% of",
"-31.542500774608925"
],
[
"most homosexual transsexuals describe themselves as having been very feminine from a young age. Bailey and Zucker write that non-transgender gay men are also often very feminine when young, but usually learn to live in a more masculine role when they grow up. They argue that homosexual transsexuals differ because they encounter early adversity that prevented them from defeminizing. Gay men find the femininity of homosexual transsexuals very unattractive, and the homosexual transsexuals themselves are very attracted to masculinity that they have trouble finding in gay men. As a result, homosexual transsexuals may be partially motivated by a",
"-31.50929098529741"
],
[
"gai have emerged as hubs of LGBT culture and tourism.\nAs the Census of Canada does not ask all respondents to identify their sexual orientation, there is no exact overall count of how many Canadians identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender. However, because same-sex marriage has been legal in Canada since the passage of the Civil Marriage Act in 2005, census figures are published for same-sex couples. The Canada 2006 Census recorded approximately 7,500 same-sex marriages nationwide, while the Canada 2011 Census listed 21,000. However, the 2011 data only included couples living in major cities—some additional data on same-sex couples",
"-31.50056935235625"
],
[
"a transgender publicly. Bandini also went through gender dysphoria for three-and-a-half decades before finally admitting it to the world. Depictions of coming out In 1996, the acclaimed British film Beautiful Thing had a positive take in its depiction of two teenage boys coming to terms with their sexual identity. In 1987, a two-part episode of the Quebec television series Avec un grand A, \"Lise, Pierre et Marcel\", depicted a married closeted man who has to come out when his wife discovers that he has been having an affair with another man. In the Emmy Award-nominated episode \"Gay Witch Hunt\" of",
"-31.486825339030474"
],
[
"preferred name.\nIn August 2018, the Supreme Federal Court struck down a Palmas law which banned \"gender and sexuality courses\" in schools. Gender identity and expression While the term transgender as used in the United States and Europe has come to encompass all gender-variant individuals, including female-to-male transsexuals, drag queens and kings, and intersex individuals, in Brazil the social phenomenon of \"transgênero\" largely consists of individuals who were assigned male at birth and identify as women. Transgender women in Brazil fall into two categories: \"travestis\" and transsexuals, although for Brazilians the two terms are interchangeable. To the extent that the latter",
"-31.442024318515905"
],
[
"male or female.\nSome people who are intersex, such as some of those with androgen insensitivity syndrome, outwardly appear completely female or male, frequently without realizing they are intersex. Other kinds of intersex conditions are identified immediately at birth because those with the condition have a sexual organ larger than a clitoris and smaller than a penis.\nSome humans were historically termed true hermaphrodites if their gonadal tissue contained both testicular and ovarian tissue, or pseudohermaphrodites if their external appearance (phenotype) differed from sex expected from internal gonads. This language has fallen out of favor due to misconceptions and pejorative connotations associated",
"-31.396456204660353"
],
[
"Subsequent official character biographies have confirmed Arnie Roth as gay. As of 2006, these policies are no longer enforced and LGBT characters appear regularly in Marvel comics. Although same-sex couples are depicted occasionally kissing, intimate or sexual scenes have not been shown, even in Marvel's \"Adult only\" imprint. The use of mutants and the discrimination they face in the X-Men comics has been seen as a metaphor for the real-world discrimination directed at minority groups including LGBT people.\nAlpha Flight's Northstar, a member of the original Alpha Flight superhero team, was the first major gay character created by Marvel Comics. Creator",
"-31.3701052648903"
],
[
"studied in depth as possible causes of homosexuality.\nBlanchard (1996) and Zucker (2007) came to the general conclusion that birth order has some influence over sexual orientation in biological males in general, and homosexual male-to-female transsexuals in specific. This phenomenon is called the \"fraternal birth order effect\". In 2000 Richard Green wrote \"Homosexual male-to-female transsexuals have a later than expected birth order and more older brothers than other subgroups of male-to-female transsexuals. Each older brother increases the odds that a male transsexual is homosexual by 40%.\" Green did not find a higher incidence of homosexuality in the younger brothers of homosexual",
"-31.362732873647474"
],
[
"lesbian and bisexual characters have since emerged in superhero fiction, such as Gen¹³'s Rainmaker, Apollo and Midnighter of The Authority, and Wiccan and Hulkling of the Young Avengers. Notable transgender or gender bending characters are fewer in number by comparison: the alter ego of superheroine Zsazsa Zaturnnah, a seminal character in Philippine popular culture, is an effeminate gay man who transforms into a female superhuman after ingesting a magical stone. Desire from Neil Gaiman's The Sandman series, Cloud from Defenders, and Xavin from the Runaways are all characters who could (and often) change their gender at will. Alysia Yeoh, a",
"-31.328147841617465"
],
[
"men\" (MSM) and \"women who have sex with women\" (WSW) refer to people who engage in sexual activity with others of the same sex regardless of how they identify themselves—as many choose not to accept social identities as lesbian, gay and bisexual. These terms are often used in medical literature and social research to describe such groups for study, without needing to consider the issues of sexual self-identity. The terms are seen as problematic by some, however, because they \"obscure social dimensions of sexuality; undermine the self-labeling of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people; and do not sufficiently describe variations in",
"-31.24104567966424"
],
[
"the X and Y chromosomes are called sex-linked, because they are linked to sex chromosomes, not because they are characteristic of one sex or the other. In practice, the term almost always refers to X-linked traits and a great many such traits (such as red-green colour vision deficiency) are not affected by sex. Females have two copies of every gene locus found on the X chromosome, just as for the autosomes, and the same dominance relationships apply. Males, however, have only one copy of each X chromosome gene locus, and are described as hemizygous for these genes. The Y chromosome",
"-31.140623584156856"
],
[
"had had encounters with both men and women while on the show, the show was edited to make it seem as though they had only been with men. Erasure from LGBT rights and litigation Individuals identifying as bisexual have been absent from conversations surrounding LGBT-rights and litigation. Examples include the early use of the term \"gay marriage\" as opposed to \"same-sex marriage\" or \"marriage equality,\" as well as the lack of recognition of bisexuality in briefs or opinions handed down by the courts. A survey of relevant terminology in LGBT-rights cases found that, excluding a brief period in U.S. Supreme",
"-31.10906077711843"
],
[
"Homosexual transsexual Development of the concept The term homosexual transsexual was defined by Kurt Freund in 1974, and is used by various sexologists and psychiatrists to describe trans women who are attracted to men, though occasionally they use it to describe trans men who are attracted to women. The concept of a taxonomy based on transsexual sexuality was first proposed by physician Magnus Hirschfeld in 1922, and codified by endocrinologist Harry Benjamin in the Benjamin Scale in 1966, which was published in the influential book \"The Transsexual Phenomenon\". Benjamin wrote that researchers of his day thought that attraction to",
"-31.082770174834877"
],
[
"2003. US states have recognised third options since at least 2012, in the case of an 'hermaphrodite' birth certificate sex marker in Ohio. In 2013, Germany became the first European nation to register babies with characteristics of both sexes as indeterminate gender on birth certificates, amidst opposition and skepticism from intersex organisations who point out that the law mandates exclusion from male or female categories.\nUS organization Intersex Campaign for Equality is pursuing third sex classifications for non-binary intersex people, including through a federal court case. On November 22, 2016, the United States District Court for the District of Colorado ruled",
"-31.042798266136742"
],
[
"have varied. The Janus Report on Sexual Behavior, published in 1993, showed that 5 percent of men and 3 percent of women considered themselves bisexual and 4 percent of men and 2 percent of women considered themselves homosexual.\nA 2002 survey in the United States by National Center for Health Statistics found that 1.8 percent of men ages 18–44 considered themselves bisexual, 2.3 percent homosexual, and 3.9 percent as \"something else\". The same study found that 2.8 percent of women ages 18–44 considered themselves bisexual, 1.3 percent homosexual, and 3.8 percent as \"something else\". In 2007, an article in the 'Health'",
"-30.989524948759936"
],
[
"women and 2.8% of men have at some point had a same-sex sexual encounter. Findings from the National Survey of Family Growth data from 2011-2015 revealed another insight into how much same sex attraction and behavior can be accounted for by heterosexually identifying people. They found that 61.9% of women and 59% of men with currently reported same-sex attractions, identified as heterosexual. Similarly, 65.2% of women and 43.4% of men who have engaged in same-sex sexual encounters identify as heterosexual.",
"-30.834001176670427"
],
[
"the Family Pride Coalition showed that 50% of gay men had fathered children and 75% of lesbians had children, and even more have had straight sex without having children. Men who have sex with men (MSM) Men who have sex with men (MSM) refers to men who engage in sexual activity with other men, regardless of how they identify themselves; many choose not to accept social identities of gay or bisexual.\nThe term was created in the 1990s by epidemiologists in order to study the spread of disease among men who have sex with men, regardless of identity. As a risk",
"-30.803726688493043"
],
[
"Intersex rights in Australia History Early common law, like canon law, held that hermaphrodites were to be treated as male or female depending on the prevailing sex. However, in 1979 the Family Court of Australia annulled the marriage of an intersex man who had been \"born a male and had been reared as a male\" on the basis that he was an hermaphrodite.\nThe Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome Support Group Australia is thought to be world's oldest intersex civil society organization, founded in 1985. Intersex Human Rights Australia (formerly OII Australia) was established in 2009. The two organizations have campaigned for political",
"-30.78648944667657"
],
[
" As an example, they described a case who \"said that he was 'bisexual' rather than 'gay' because he was able to think of the transwomen as women\".\nAs part of HIV prevention research in 2004, Operario et al. interviewed 46 men in the San Francisco area who had sex with transgender women, but found \"no consistent patterns between how men described their sexual orientation identity versus their sexual behavior and attraction to transgender women\". Of the sample, 20 of them described themselves as being straight or heterosexual. Some men were definitive about this declaration, while others were hesitant",
"-30.76137873380503"
],
[
"when an attending midwife or physician announces, \"It's a girl!\" Synonyms: female assigned at birth (FAAB) and designated female at birth (DFAB).\nIntersex, in humans and other animals, describes variations in sex characteristics including chromosomes, gonads, sex hormones, or genitals that, according to the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, \"do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies\". These may complicate the sex assignment of a newborn and can result a phenotypical sex assignment that is inconsistent with normal genotype.\nTransgender people have a gender identity, or gender expression, that differs from their assigned sex. Transgender",
"-30.728455322794616"
],
[
"for 30 years as a human research subject. Born in Potsdam in 1780, and designated as female at birth, they assumed a male identity around 1807. Traveling intersex persons, like Derrier and Katharina/Karl Hohmann, who allowed themselves to be examined by physicians were instrumental in the development of codified standards for sexing. Mid modern period During the Victorian era, medical authors introduced the terms \"true hermaphrodite\" for an individual who has both ovarian and testicular tissue, verified under a microscope, \"male pseudo-hermaphrodite\" for a person with testicular tissue, but either female or ambiguous sexual anatomy, and \"female pseudo-hermaphrodite\" for a",
"-30.720144483086187"
],
[
"this is where the sexual determining factor on the Y chromosome (SRY) is transferred to the X chromosome due to an unequal crossing over, this gene indicated what gender the individual should be and causes the development of testes, causing the individual to be phenotypically male but genotypically female, the resulting individual is (information needed).",
"-30.716026989743114"
],
[
"Add Hormones: An Insider’s Guide to the Transsexual Experience, recounts his transition \"from 40-something straight woman to the gay man he’d always known himself to be.\" Researchers eventually acknowledged the existence of this phenomenon, and by the end of the 20th century, psychiatrist Ira Pauly wrote, \"The statement that all female-to-male transgender are homosexual [Pauly means attracted to women] in their sexual preference can no longer be made.\" Gay trans men have varying levels of acceptance within other communities. Upon beginning testosterone treatments, some trans men report an increase in both their libido and their desire for sex with non-trans",
"-30.684799620707054"
],
[
"lead to similar ravages (as in the tale of Actaeon).\nIn The Symposium by Plato, Aristophanes relays a myth of the origin of both heterosexual and homosexual love. Originally, each human being had two heads, four arms, and four legs, before Zeus decided to split every person in two. After everyone was split, each half searched for their other half, to make themselves whole again. Some people were originally half-male and half-female, and when Zeus split them they became men and women who sought opposite-sex partners. Some people were originally all-female, and they split into females who sought female partners. Some",
"-30.666957047535107"
],
[
"teenagers, when given the choice to select a term that best describes their sexual feelings, desires, and behaviors, opt for \"mostly\" or \"predominantly\" heterosexual. With \"100% heterosexual\" being the largest assumed identity, \"mostly-heterosexual\" was the first runner up in self-identification. Of the 160 men interviewed for a study in 2008 and 2009, nearly one in eight reported same-sex attractions, fantasies, and crushes. The majority had these feelings since high school; a few others developed them more recently. And in a national sample of young men whose average age was 22, the \"mostly straight\" proportion increased when they completed the same",
"-30.653215774567798"
],
[
"Androgynos In Jewish tradition, the term androgynos (אנדרוגינוס in Hebrew, translation \"intersex\") refers to someone who possesses both male and female sexual characteristics. Due to the ambiguous nature of the individual's sex, Rabbinic literature discusses the gender of the individual and the legal ramifications that result based on potential gender classifications. In traditional observant Judaism, gender plays a central role in legal obligations. Biological basis During the development of the embryo into a fetus, a specific process occurs that determines the physiological properties of the fetus. In other words, there is a point in time where the fetus exists without",
"-30.630642750213156"
],
[
"recognition of intersex as a distinct gender, and praised Germany for allowing babies to be registered as neither male nor female.\nIn 2017, Graham wrote and performed a solo play titled Angels are Intersex. After Angels are Intersex they began using the name Seven Graham and they/them pronouns. Graham co-produced the 2018 short film Ponyboi, along with co-producer Emma Thompson and executive producer Stephen Fry. It was the first film to feature an intersex actor playing the role of an intersex person.",
"-30.625386416504625"
],
[
"someone changing sex became widely known when Christine Jorgensen in 1952 became the first person widely publicized as undergoing sex reassignment surgery. Around the same time, organizations and clubs began to form, such as Virginia Prince's Tranvestia publication for an international organization of cross-dressers, but this operated in the same shadows as the still forming gay subculture. In the late 1950s and 1960s, modern transgender and gay activism began with the 1959 Cooper Do-nuts Riot in Los Angeles, 1966 Compton's Cafeteria riot in San Francisco, and a defining event in gay and transgender activism, the 1969 Stonewall Riots in New",
"-30.61721726495307"
],
[
"date heterosexual women, while other trans men date queer-identified women; the latter might be because queer-identified women are less invested in the gender and sexual anatomy of a person when it comes to selecting an intimate partner. It is also common for trans men to have histories with the lesbian community or to feel that they identify better with that community because of its wide acceptance of gender variance, with a number of trans men having identified as lesbian (often as a \"butch lesbian\") before realizing that they are instead transgender.\nTrans men have less success fitting in with and",
"-30.54248338823959"
],
[
"at adult sexuality.\nSabra L. Katz-Wise and Janet S. Hide report in article published 2014 in \"Archives of Sexual Behavior\" of their study on 188 female and male young adults in the United States with a same-gender orientation, aged 18–26 years. In that cohort, sexual fluidity in attractions was reported by 63% of females and 50% of males, with 48% of those females and 34% of those males reporting fluidity in sexual orientation identity. Transgender individuals There is little to no research to date on the stability of sexual orientation identity within the transgender community. They may be studied independently from",
"-30.5168659389019"
],
[
"people are sometimes called transsexual if they desire medical assistance to transition from one sex to another. \nSex reassignment : a treatment program consisting of a combination of psychological, medical, and surgical methods intended to physically change a person's sex. History The discernment of an infant's sex was, until recently, almost universally considered an observation or recognition of an inherent aspect of a baby. The rationales for sex assignment and consequential registration appear to have been little questioned. A Dutch report on gender registration states that sex registration was introduced in 1811 as an intrinsic component in population registration, due to",
"-30.50831271125935"
],
[
"male to female. At the time, the term transgender was not prevalent; instead words such as \"androgyne\", \"invert\", and \"fairie\" were used. She struggled throughout her life up to her late twenties with her extreme desire to perform fellatio, claiming to have partaken in over sixteen hundred sexual encounters in the span of a dozen years.\nAs a young adult, June found safe havens in places such as Paresis Hall in New York City to take on her new identity. Paresis Hall, or Columbia Hall, was one of many establishments considered the center of homosexual nightlife where male prostitutes would do",
"-30.50308230497467"
],
[
"homosexuals, and sometimes have sex, at other times. An Indian man, Vijay, and his wife are introduced. The fact that Vijay lives a double life with a male partner of twelve years is revealed. Vijay's wife doesn't know about this, and he feels guilty because he was forced into an arranged marriage. But in the Hindu religion, it was once considered natural to have a different sexuality until British colonization. India still have Hijra (South Asia), a group of people who are a type of third gender. They go through a now-illegal operation to remove their male genitalia.\nIn Bangkok,",
"-30.49578837113222"
],
[
"emerged in 1953, associated with the then famous transition of Christine Jorgensen.\nErotic materials created for people attracted to trans men have become more visible, especially due to pornographic actor Buck Angel. Trans activist Jamison Green writes that cisgender gay men who are partnered with trans men \"are often surprised to find that a penis is not what defines a man, that the lack of a penis does not mean a lack of masculinity, manliness, or male sexuality.\" Gay author Andrew Sullivan has criticized the idea that gay men should necessarily be attracted to trans men, arguing that sexual orientation is",
"-30.49526535946643"
],
[
"The male counterpart, for men who have similar interpersonal relationships with gay and bisexual men is fag stag, part of hag-ism, the identification of a person with a group—usually united in terms of sexuality, gender identity, or shared sex—of which he or she is not officially a member. People who associate with lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people may be called fruit flies regardless of their sex. American Miss Fag Hag Pageant The American event was created by comedian Shawn Hollenbach and produced by Hollenbach and Paul Case as a benefit for Hetrick-Martin Institute and was held at Comix",
"-30.48966841145375"
],
[
"Gay Bisexual Transgender and Intersex Information Service. Japan During the Taishō period (30 July 1912 to 25 December 1926) an intersex man who was initially assigned female at birth underwent sex reassignment surgery to masculinize his genitals and was allowed to be assessed for military service, he was rejected for not being tall enough but his intersex status was not commented on. Iran Since the first half of the 20th century intersex people who were assigned male at birth and had surgery to correct any issues were allowed to serve and intersex persons assigned female at birth could also serve",
"-30.473100202798378"
],
[
" is female, while another 0.4% indicating that their perceived gender was ‘other’. Among birth-assigned females, 2.9% (1:34) indicated they perceived their gender as male, while another 1.3% indicating ‘other’. Hong Kong The Court of Final Appeal of Hong Kong ruled that a transsexual woman has the right to marry her boyfriend. The ruling was made on 13 May 2013.\nOn 16 September 2013, Eliana Rubashkyn a transgender woman claimed that she was discriminated and sexually abused by the customs officers, including being subjected to invasive body searches and denied usage of a female toilet, although Hong Kong officers denied the",
"-30.46808515652083"
],
[
"minor role for women. By contrast, in a study doing genetic analysis of 409 pairs of homosexual brothers, including twins, strong evidence was found that some homosexual men are born homosexual. The study, including approximately three times as many people as the previous largest study on this subject, indicates that it is significantly more statistically reliable. It links sexual orientation in men with two regions of the human genome that have been implicated before. Lead author of the study, Alan Sanders, however, states that \"complex traits such as sexual orientation depend on multiple factors, both environmental and genetic\". A region",
"-30.46477507549571"
],
[
"LGBT rights in Austria Law regarding same-sex sexual activity Same-sex sexual acts have been legal since 1971. In 2002, the age of consent was equalized by a court decision from 18 to 14 years of age. Recognition of same-sex relationships Following the ruling of the European Court of Human Rights in Karner v. Austria in 2003, cohabitating same-sex couples were given the same rights as cohabitating opposite-sex couples.\nFirst planned in 2007, registered partnerships have been legal in Austria since 1 January 2010.\nBefore the Constitutional Court decided to legalize same-sex marriage, the Austrian Government had not legalised same-sex marriage due to",
"-30.441818549938034"
],
[
"as a person born with an intersex body who has a non-binary sense of gender identity that \"matches\" his/her body, s/he is both cisgender and gender non-conforming, presumably opposites according to cisgender's definition, and that this evidences the term's basis on a binary sex model that does not account for intersex people's existence. S/he also critiques the fact that the term \"sex assigned at birth\" is used in one of cisgender's definitions without noting that babies are assigned male or female regardless of intersex status in most of the world, stating that doing so obfuscates the birth of intersex babies",
"-30.429751918323745"
],
[
"although only 7,500 of these changed their sex coding as well.\nIn a study by Kara Devaney, entitled Transgender Research Literature Review, it is addressed that the term transgender encompasses a myriad of different and unique identities that do not follow the \"normal\" rules of gender. Miriam J. Abelson writes, \"There is no question that trans men's experiences are men's\nexperiences and give insight about men, masculinity, and gender inequality.\"\nA trans man may be gay, bisexual, pansexual, polysexual, asexual, demisexual, etc., and some trans men consider conventional sexual orientation labels inadequate or inapplicable to them. The literature commonly indicates that sexual",
"-30.36895047040889"
],
[
"Twink (gay slang) Twink is gay slang for a young man in his late teens to early twenties whose traits may include: general physical attractiveness; little to no body or facial hair; a slim to average build; and a youthful appearance that belies an older chronological age. Etymology The exact origins of the term twink are disputed. Some trace its first appearance to 1963, although it may be derived from an older British gay slang term twank, which means: \"The quarry of a homosexual prostitute (male); a man willing and ready to become any dominant man's 'partner'\". The Oxford Dictionary",
"-30.35416378849186"
],
[
"sexual orientation in men\", with each older brother increasing a man's odds of being gay by about 33%.\nBlanchard hypothesizes that the older brother effect is caused by interactions between a male fetus and the immune system of the mother: because certain proteins (called H-y antigens) are produced by male and not by female fetuses, the mother's immune system reacts only to male fetuses and is more likely to produce a reaction with each successive exposure to a male fetus. Typology of transsexualism Blanchard coined the term \"autogynephilia\" to describe trans women with an erotic desire \"to be women,\" and hypothesized",
"-30.34219685808057"
],
[
"the Y chromosome. \"Female\" is the default sex, due to the absence of the Y chromosome. In the 1930s, Alfred Jost determined that the presence of testosterone was required for Wolffian duct development in the male rabbit.\nSRY is a sex-determining gene on the Y chromosome in the therians (placental mammals and marsupials). Non-human mammals use several genes on the Y chromosome. Not all male-specific genes are located on the Y chromosome. Platypus, a monotreme, use five pairs of different XY chromosomes with six groups of male-linked genes, AMH being the master switch. Other species (including most Drosophila species) use the",
"-30.329982001247117"
],
[
"LGBT rights in Chile History In 1810, the age of consent for opposite-sex activity was 12. In 1999, the age of consent was set at 14 for both girls and boys in relation to heterosexual sex. Homosexual acts were decriminalized in 1999, with an age of consent of 18. In 2011, the Tribunal Constitucional de Chile confirmed that the age of consent is 14 for heterosexual relations (for both girls and boys), as well as for lesbian relations (Woman-girl), but it is 18 for male homosexual relations. In August 2018, the Constitutional Court again rejected that Article 365 of the",
"-30.329190045129508"
],
[
"would have self-identified as \"homosexual\" as a community. Marriage between males Although in general the Romans regarded marriage as a male–female union for the purpose of producing children, a few scholars believe that in the early Imperial period some male couples were celebrating traditional marriage rites in the presence of friends. male–male weddings are reported by sources that mock them; the feelings of the participants are not recorded. Both Martial and Juvenal refer to marriage between males as something that occurs not infrequently, although they disapprove of it. Roman law did not recognize marriage between males, but one of the",
"-30.279504399106372"
],
[
"and many scenes have featured the bisexual debuts of prominent pornographic actors generally known for acting in gay porn. Gay porn actors including Wesley Woods, Jackson Trainor, and Justin Matthews have made their first bisexual scenes on WhyNotBi. Reactions have been mixed, with the website receiving both praise and criticism. Bisexual men have expressed support for a studio geared towards them, while some gay men have objected by claiming that gay porn actors having sex with women is heteronormative. The website has been praised for its diversity for featuring gay, bisexual, heterosexual, and transgender content in its scenes.",
"-30.273140419187257"
],
[
"the ensuing years since the enactment of Title IX, single-sex professional fraternities and sororities became coeducational to conform to Title IX. Several organizations simply opened their membership both men and women. For example, Phi Chi (medicine) opened membership to women in 1973; Phi Beta (music and speech) opened membership to men in 1976; and Delta Omicron (music) opened membership to men in 1979. A few single-sex groups merged with other organizations, such as Phi Delta Delta, a women’s professional law fraternity, merged with Phi Alpha Delta (law) in 1972.\nDespite the fact that Title IX was enacted in 1972, there continues",
"-30.270334789057586"
],
[
"Anthony Bogaert Research Bogaert is known for studying multiple subjects related to human sexuality, including asexuality. He has also published studies examining the relationship between the number of brothers a man has and his sexual orientation. These studies have concluded that the more older brothers a man has, the more likely he is to be gay, and that this effect is due to prenatal factors, not environmental ones.",
"-30.269093641079962"
],
[
"sexual orientation. Some highly disputed studies suggest gay men have also been shown to have higher levels of circulating androgens and larger penises, on average, than heterosexual men, Fraternal birth order According to a multitude of studies over several decades, gay men have more older brothers on average, a phenomenon known as the fraternal birth order effect. It has been suggested that the greater the number of older male siblings the higher the level of androgen fetuses are exposed to. No evidence of birth order effects have been observed in women. The theory holds that the fraternal birth",
"-30.242770478245802"
],
[
"for transmasculine individuals would not confer a competitive advantage.\nSports organizations have sought a test for sex verification to ensure fairness across all sports. This began in the 1940s with \"femininity certificates\" provided by a physician. In the 1960s, visual genital inspections were used to confirm gender, followed by chromosomal analysis to detect the presence of the SRY and DYZ1 genes, normally found on the Y chromosome. These tests were all designed to ensure that athletes were only allowed to compete as their sex, but mostly resulted in the exclusion of intersex athletes.\nMore recently, testosterone levels have become the focus",
"-30.22619369183667"
],
[
"in 1901 to refer to when an individual is excited by his own body, and Hirshfeld used it to describe excitement in natal males to the thought or image of themselves as women.\nResearchers used varying subsets of that typology for several decades. Hamburger used all five of Hirschfelds types. Randall classified transsexual cases into homosexual, heterosexual, or bisexual. Walinder used homosexual, heterosexual, and asexual. Bentler also divided postoperative transsexuals into homosexual, heterosexual, and asexual, although the asexual group might be better described as analloerotic, due to their reporting high rates of masturbation.\nIn 1966, Harry Benjamin wrote that researchers of",
"-30.218926169822225"
],
[
"attraction to those of their same gender (e.g., trans men liking men and trans women liking women) is considerably less common among trans men than among trans women; the vast majority of trans men are reported as heterosexual. Surveys from the National Center for Transgender Equality show more variation in sexual orientation or sexual identity among trans men. In NCTE's 2015 Transgender Survey of respondents who identified as trans men, 23% identified as heterosexual or straight. The vast majority (65%) identified their sexual orientation or sexual identity as queer (24%), pansexual (17%), bisexual (12%), or gay/same-gender loving (12%).\nSome trans men",
"-30.201639622595394"
],
[
"genetic sex (XY-male or XX-female) corresponds with the phenotypical sex; that is to say, genetic sex corresponds with internal and external gonads, and external appearance of the genitals. Signs There are a variety of symptoms that can occur. Ambiguous genitalia being the most common sign, there can be micropenis, clitoromegaly, partial labial fusion, electrolyte abnormalities, delayed or absent puberty, unexpected changes at puberty, hypospadias, labial or inguinal (groin) masses (which may turn out to be testes) in girls and undescended testes (which may turn out to be ovaries) in boys. Ambiguous genitalia Ambiguous genitalia may appear as a large",
"-30.18358256375359"
],
[
"identifying with the gay male community because it tends to be more cisgender-focused and body-focused (especially in terms of being phallocentric); as a result, gay trans men are likelier to partner with each other than with a cisgender gay man. There are, however, cases of women being likelier than men to thoroughly question trans men about their motivations for modifying their bodies.\nSome scholars argue against assumptions that trans men are predominantly heterosexual and usually have lesbian histories. In scholars' Ian Irving and Rupert Raj's book Trans Activism in Canada, researchers state, \"There is still a common misperception that",
"-30.17767242123955"
],
[
"Transgender sexuality Sexual orientation distribution In the United States, transgender respondents to one 2015 survey self-identified as queer (21%), pansexual (18%), gay, lesbian, or same-gender-loving (16%), straight (15%), bisexual (14%), and asexual (10%). A second study cites \n23% said they were attracted to the same sex or gender, 25% bisexual, 4% asexual, 23% queer, 23% straight and 2% something else. Transgender women A 2015 survey of roughly 3000 American trans women showed that at least 60% were attracted to women. Of the trans women respondents 27% answered gay, lesbian, or same-gender-loving, 20% answered bisexual, 19% straight, 16% pansexual, 6% answered",
"-30.148165329359472"
],
[
"their mother and a Y chromosome from their father. It is thus the male’s sperm that determines the sex of each offspring in humans.\nHowever, a small percentage of humans have a divergent sexual development, known as intersex. This can result from allosomes that are neither XX nor XY. It can also occur when two fertilized embryo fuse, producing a chimera that might contain two different sets of DNA one XX and the other XY. It could also result from exposure, often in utero, to chemicals that disrupt the normal conversion of the allosomes into sex hormones and",
"-30.147106588963652"
],
[
"St. Vincent titled \"Some Men Have Pussies\", becoming one of the few major gay porn companies to feature transgender men. The scene was largely popular, but provoked some controversy. Buck Angel's \"Cirque Noir\" and Cyd St. Vincent's \"Some Men Have Pussies\" have been praised as \"landmark roles\" in the representation of trans men in gay porn \"whose magnitude cannot be understated.\" In late 2018, Michael Lucas performed in a sex scene with a trans man performer, a first for the Lucas Entertainment studio. Beginning in February of 2019, the gay porn website Men.com has begun to feature scenes starring trans",
"-30.13765062513994"
],
[
"first suggestion to replace the term 'hermaphrodite' with 'intersex' came from British specialist Cawadias in the 1940s. This suggestion was taken up by specialists in the UK during the 1960s. Historical accounts from the early twentieth century include that of Australian Florrie Cox, whose marriage was annulled due to \"malformation frigidity\".\nSince the rise of modern medical science in Western societies, some intersex people with ambiguous external genitalia have had their genitalia surgically modified to resemble either female or male genitals. Surgeons pinpointed intersex babies as a \"social emergency\" once they were born. The parents of the intersex babies were not",
"-30.10895229491871"
],
[
"eventually transitioned to using the name Max and male pronouns, but still identifies as more an intersex person then a man. Max now is married with a daughter.\nThe next story told is about the intersex condition of Maria José Martínez-Patiño, a former Olympic hurdler, who was banned from competition after a test showed her to have XY (male) chromosomes. She eventually won her medals back and was allowed to compete as a woman after a long legal battle. There are no more chromosome tests in the Olympic Games, however, gender verification in sports remains contentious.\nNext, eight-year-old Noah is introduced. Noah",
"-30.105088606476784"
],
[
"on the X chromosome called Xq28, was originally identified in 1993 by Dean Hamer of the US National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland. Another region in the twist of chromosome 8, known as 8q12, was first identified in 2005. Fraternal birth order According to several studies, each additional older brother increases a man's odds of developing a homosexual orientation by 28–48%. Most researchers attribute this to prenatal environmental factors, such as prenatal hormones. McConaghy (2006) found no relationship between the strength of the effect and degree of homosexual feelings, suggesting the influence of fraternal birth order was",
"-30.09089324908564"
],
[
"became the sixth country in Europe and the eighth country in the world to legally recognize same-sex marriage on the national level. The law came into force on 5 June 2010.\nThe new Law of Gender Identity come into effect in 2011, being considered the most liberal of its kind in the world, it allows for transsexual people to change their name and sex in legal documentation.\nIn 2015, the full equality in parenting for LGBT couples was authorized by law. The LGBT-parenting single adoption was already previously allowed, joint adoption by the couple is legal since 2016. Drugs legislation Portugal was",
"-30.078401448612567"
],
[
"classifications, like binary classifications, were based on structural violence and failed to respect diversity and a \"right to self-determination\". Marriage Marriage regardless of sex, gender or intersex status has been legally recognised in Australia since 9 December 2017. The Marriage Amendment (Definition and Religious Freedoms) Act 2017 permits any “2 people” to marry.\nPrior to that date, marriage was only permitted between a \"man and a woman\", meaning that intersex people who had other sex classifications, or sex classifications that matched their partner, could not legally marry each other.\nHistorically, two legal cases are known to involve the marriages of intersex people.",
"-30.071385231800377"
],
[
"canon, there had been little LGBT representation until Star Trek: Discovery in 2017. The International Review of Science Fiction ran a feature entitled \"Prisoners of Dogma and Prejudice: Why There Are no G/L/B/T Characters in Star Trek: Deep Space 9\" However, gender identity has occasionally been treated as an \"issue\" within the new Star Trek series, to be dealt with as a theme in individual episodes, such as the 1995 Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode \"Rejoined\", which was the first episode of the show to feature a same-sex relationship and romantic same-sex kiss between women. Subsequently, the Star Trek",
"-30.07134143449366"
],
[
"1000 gay men and lesbians (and a control group of 500 heterosexual men and women), 63% of both gay men and lesbians reported that they did not like activities typical of their sex in childhood, compared with only 10–15% of heterosexual men and women. Bem also drew from six prospective studies, longitudinal studies that began with gender-nonconforming boys around age 7 and followed them into adolescence and adulthood; a majority (63%) of the gender nonconforming boys become gay or bisexual as adults. Ganzfeld experiment In parapsychology, Bem is known for his defense of the ganzfeld experiment as evidence of psi,",
"-30.035655057814438"
],
[
"by a fellow soldier for dating a transsexual woman. James talks about her life as a lesbian transgender woman.\nHow sex is developed in the womb is explained by the narrator and James Pfaus, a professor at Concordia University. More about how sex develops is discussed between each of the stories.\nMax Beck, an Intersex person, tells the story of how he was born with ambiguous genitalia and then assigned female at birth. He was raised with many operations for which he did not know the reason until he found out that he was classified as a male pseudohermaphrodite at birth. He",
"-30.01396217587171"
],
[
"office. During his first term, the age of consent for homosexuals was equalised at sixteen years of age (see Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000) and the ban on homosexuals in the armed forces was lifted. Subsequently, in 2005, a Civil Partnership Act came into effect, allowing gay couples to form legally recognised partnerships with the same rights as a traditional heterosexual marriage. At the end of September 2006, more than 30,000 Britons had entered into Civil Partnerships as a result of this law. Adoption by same-sex couples was legalised, and discrimination in the workplace (Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003),",
"-30.013907393440604"
],
[
"to males and female-to-male's attracted to females). The heterosexual male-to-females said they felt their first cross-gender wishes around the time they first cross-dressed, whereas both the homosexual groups said their cross-gender wishes preceded cross-dressing (3–4 years on average). Where fetishistic arousal was acknowledged by over 80% of the heterosexual male-to-females, fewer than 10% of either homosexual group did. Blanchard therefore proposed that the larger numbers of trans women is not because males are more susceptible to gender dysphoria itself, but because natal males are more susceptible to fetishistic transvestism, which can, in turn lead to gender dysphoria.\nThe age",
"-29.997028982732445"
],
[
"karyotype, and one in 2500 have a 45,X one.\nGirls typically have a female reproductive system. Some intersex children with ambiguous genitals and some transgender children, originally assigned male at birth, may also be classified or self-identify as girls.\nGirls' bodies undergo gradual changes during puberty. Puberty is the process of physical changes by which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction to enable fertilization. It is initiated by hormonal signals from the brain to the gonads. In response to the signals, the gonads produce hormones that stimulate libido and the growth, function, and transformation of the",
"-29.996570526156574"
],
[
"accept the gender identity they were assigned at birth until they are at an age he believes they may determine their own gender identity. Considerable disagreement exists between academic sex researchers, who say the sciences supports Zucker's approach, and activists who compare it to conversion therapy attempting to change gay men and lesbians into heterosexual men and women.\nZucker says he tries to encourage children to accept their birth sex and supports them in transitioning should they still experience gender dysphoria into adolescence.\nFor children assigned as male at birth, Zucker reportedly asked parents to take away toys associated with girls and",
"-29.982575683614414"
],
[
"people to marry according to their current gender as opposed to the gender of their birth; this did not permit same-sex marriage from the perspective of the genders the couple identifies as, but it did mean that a male-to-female transsexual could legally marry a man, and a female-to-male transsexual could legally marry a woman.\nIn October 2007, the Administrative Appeals Tribunal overturned a decision by the Foreign Affairs Department refusing to issue a transgender woman a passport listing her as female because she is married to a woman. The tribunal ordered that she be issued a passport listing her as female,",
"-29.979868422145955"
],
[
"engaged themselves in a consensual same-sex relationship with an underaged person between 14 and 20. Then in 1978 the age was lowered to 18. Since 2002, by the ruling of the Constitutional Court of Hungary repealed Paragraph 199 – Which provided an equal age of consent of 14, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender. Since 1996, the Unregistered Cohabitation Act 1995 was provided for any couple, regardless of gender and/or sexual orientation and from 1 July 2009 the Registered Partnership Act 2009 becomes effective, and provides a registered partnership just for same-sex couples – since that opposite-sex already have marriage,",
"-29.96180153498426"
],
[
"that between 10% and 36% of homosexual transsexuals report a history of sexual arousal to cross dressing. Bentler (1976) found 23%, while Freund (1982) reported 31%.\nPrevious taxonomies, or systems of categorization, used the terms \"classic transsexual\" or \"true transsexual,\" terms once used in differential diagnoses. Blanchard (1995) also said homosexual transsexuals were comparatively shorter and lighter in proportion to their height than non-homosexuals. Independent research done by Johnson (1990) and Smith (2005) concur with most of Blanchard's observations. Smith did not find a significant difference in height-weight ratio. Subsequent research has found only partial support of Smith's findings.",
"-29.919805505196564"
],
[
"for between 71-85% of male homosexual preference. Additionally, it does not explain instances where a firstborn child displays male homosexual preference (MHP).\nIn 2017, researchers discovered a biological mechanism of gay people who tend to have older brothers. They think Neuroligin 4 Y-linked protein is responsible for a later son being gay. They found that women had significantly higher anti-NLGN4Y levels than men. The result also indicates that number of pregnancies, mothers of gay sons, particularly those with older brothers, had significantly higher anti-NLGN4Y levels than did the control samples of women, including mothers of heterosexual sons. Female fertility In 2004,",
"-29.91221157950349"
],
[
"questioning science Anne Fausto-Sterling came up with alternatives to the concept of having only two sexes, male and female. She argues that through biological development there is a possibility of having five sexes instead of two. She believes there are male, female, merm (male pseudohermaphrodites, i.e. when testicular tissue is present), ferm (female pseudohermaphrodites, i.e. when ovarian tissue is present), and herm (true hermaphrodites, i.e. when both testicular and ovarian tissue is present). Emotion Alison Jaggar disputes the dichotomy between reason and emotion and argues that rationality needs emotion. She states emotions are normally associated with women and rationality is",
"-29.901985518212314"
],
[
"physical and psychosocial development. Legal recognition The Asia Pacific Forum of National Human Rights Institutions states that legal recognition is firstly \"about intersex people who have been issued a male or a female birth certificate being able to enjoy the same legal rights as other men and women.\" In some regions, obtaining any form of birth certification may be an issue. A Kenyan court case in 2014 established the right of an intersex boy, \"Baby A\", to a birth certificate.\nLike all individuals, some intersex individuals may be raised as a certain sex (male or female) but then identify with another",
"-29.8937079381285"
],
[
"name the experience\". Gender identities Like all individuals, some intersex individuals may be raised as a particular sex (male or female) but then identify with another later in life, while most do not. Like non-intersex people, some intersex individuals may not identify themselves as either exclusively female or exclusively male. A 2012 clinical review suggests that between 8.5-20% of persons with intersex conditions may experience gender dysphoria, while sociological research in Australia, a country with a third 'X' sex classification, shows that 19% of people born with atypical sex characteristics selected an \"X\" or \"other\" option, while 52% are women,",
"-29.87432657298632"
],
[
"The name was derived from an aphorism of Victorian writer Thomas Carlyle: \"A mystic bond of brotherhood makes all men one\". The name was also a nod to referring to a gay person as \"one of us\". ONE was the first LGBT organization in the United States to have its own office, and as such its offices acted as a prototype LGBT community center. \nOne, Inc. readily admitted women, including–with their pseudonyms–Joan Corbin (as Eve Elloree), Irma Wolf (as Ann Carrl Reid), Stella Rush (as Sten Russell), Helen Sandoz (as Helen Sanders), and Betty Perdue (as Geraldine Jackson). They",
"-29.86316566716414"
],
[
"trans women. Freund noted that the sexual arousal could be associated, not only with crossdressing, but also with other feminine-typical behaviors, such as applying make-up or shaving the legs. Blanchard credited Freund with being first author to distinguish between the erotic arousal due to dressing as a woman (transvestic fetishism) and erotic arousal due to physically transforming into a more typically female form (autogynephilia).\nWhen Blanchard began his studies, all researchers of the topic had \"identified a homosexual type of gender identity disturbance [which] occurs in homosexuals of both sexes. There is general agreement, moreover, on the clinical description of",
"-29.853018090230762"
],
[
"internal coming out. The second phase involves one's decision to come out to others, e.g. family, friends, or colleagues. The third phase more generally involves living openly as an LGBT person. In the United States today, people often come out during high school or college age. At this age, they may not trust or ask for help from others, especially when their orientation is not accepted in society. Sometimes their own families are not even informed.\nAccording to Rosario, Schrimshaw, Hunter, Braun (2006), \"the development of a lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) sexual identity is a complex and often difficult process.",
"-29.83384664042387"
],
[
"sought social recognition of homosexual and transgender men and women; with branches in several countries, the committee was (on a small scale) the first international LGBT organization. In 1919, Hirschfeld co-founded the Institut für Sexualwissenschaft, a sexology research institute with a research library, a large archive, and a marriage and sex counseling office. The institute was a worldwide pioneer in the call for civil rights and social acceptance for homosexual and transgender people. Hirschfeld coined the word transvestite. In 1930 and 1931, with his (and other doctors') help, Dora Richter became the first known trans woman to undergo vaginoplasty, along",
"-29.795016859541647"
],
[
"men, as a woman was the factor that distinguished a transvestite from a transsexual. \"The transvestite - they say - is a man, feels himself to be one, is heterosexual, and merely wants to dress as a woman. The transsexual feels himself to be a woman (\"trapped in a man’s body\") and is attracted to men.\" (Benjamin 1966).\nHomosexuality was removed as a mental disorder from the DSM-II, the diagnostic manual published by the American Psychiatric Association, the most widely used diagnostic manual worldwide. Ego-dystonic homosexuality was retained as a diagnosis for those who are caused distress by their sexual",
"-29.790869143384043"
],
[
"percent of Americans identify as bisexual.\nA collection of recent Western surveys finds that about 10% of women and 4% of men identify as mostly heterosexual, 1% of women and 0.5% of men as bisexual, and 0.4% of women and 0.5% of men as mostly homosexual.\nAcross cultures, there is some variance in the prevalence of bisexual behavior, but there is no persuasive evidence that there is much variance in the rate of same-sex attraction. The World Health Organization estimates a worldwide prevalence of men who have sex with men between 3 and 16%, many of whom have sex with women as",
"-29.782451890059747"
],
[
"admitted and US citizens may petition for immigrant visas for their same-sex spouses under the same terms as opposite-sex spouses. Boutilier v. Immigration Service, 1967 In 1967, the Supreme Court confirmed that, when describing a homosexual person, they were to be referred to as a \"psychopathic personality.\" Twenty-one-year-old Clive Boutilier, a Canadian, had moved to the United States in 1955 to join his mother, stepfather, and 3 siblings who already lived there. In 1963, he applied for US citizenship, admitting that he had been arrested on a sodomy charge in 1959. He was ordered to be deported. He challenged his",
"-29.75803883577464"
],
[
"2001, NDP MP Libby Davies publicly acknowledged she had a female partner, becoming the country's first (and so far only) female Member of Parliament to come out.\nIn 2002, sexual orientation and gender identity were included in the Northwest Territories Human Rights Act.\nIn 2003, the British Columbia Court of Appeal made a unanimous decision that limiting the definition of marriage to heterosexual couples violated equality rights. The ruling was not effective immediately, but allowed a two-year transition period for Ottawa to legally recognize same-sex marriage. In June, the Ontario Court of Appeal upheld the decision of a lower court to allow",
"-29.757962017785758"
],
[
"woman' in English, this term is not correct in Thailand. As well as transgender people, the term can refer to gay men, and was originally used to refer to intersex people. Before the 1960s, the use of kathoey included anyone who deviated from the dominant sexual norms. Because of this confusion in translation, the English translation of kathoey is usually 'ladyboy' (or variants of the term).\nUse of the term kathoey suggests that the person self-identifies as a type of male, in contrast to sao praphet song (which, like \"trans woman\", suggests a \"female\" (sao) identity), and in contrast to phet",
"-29.746006996720098"
],
[
"whose birth certificates recorded their sex as indeterminate ... Alex is also believed to be the first Australian issued with a birth certificate acknowledging a gender other than male or female. Alex says \"indeterminate – also known as intersex\". It was issued in Alex's birth State of Victoria, which unlike WA, changed its policy to allow the category\".\nSeveral other Australians are known to have adopted sex non-specific or indeterminate identification documents subsequently, including Tony Briffa, and Norrie May-Welby.",
"-29.74437538255006"
],
[
"and characters who expressed same-sex attractions. The 1997 coming-out of comedian Ellen DeGeneres on her show Ellen was front-page news in America and brought the show its highest ratings. However, public interest in the show swiftly declined after this, and the show was cancelled after one more season. Immediately afterward, Will & Grace, which ran from 1998 to 2006 on NBC, became the most successful series to date focusing on male-male sexual relationships. Showtime's Queer as Folk, running from 2000 to 2005, was noted for its somewhat frank depiction of gay life, as well as its vivid sex scenes, containing",
"-29.743982299230993"
],
[
"a connection with sexual risk. A survey conducted by the Virginia Commonwealth University found that men who had high machismo values or characteristics were more than five times more probable to participate in activities or behave in a way to put them at risk for contracting HIV or an STI.\nBecause of the negative connotations that come with identifying as homosexual, the definition of homosexuality has become ambiguous. By genderizing sexual practices, only men who are sexually penetrated during sex, locas are considered homosexual while men who are the sexual penetrators during sex can maintain their heterosexual identity. Also, in many",
"-29.726304203853942"
],
[
"have almost certainly described some actors as heterosexual to increase sales and publicity for their product. Moreover, many gay or bisexual men who star in gay porn films may wish to be identified publicly as heterosexual for personal or professional reasons.\nSome straight actors have started acting in gay porn only to be accused of being gay while others' first step was to strictly do solo masturbation or muscle exhibition scenes. The higher pay scale and profile within a production often leads to group scenes where a straight actor only \"tops\". Many times a \"top\" actor will then be sought as",
"-29.71956299431622"
],
[
"of same-sex attraction because of flaws in his sampling methods. Austria A 2018 study reported that the percentage of people identifying as LGBT in Austria was 6.2% (broken into 5.5% for males and 6.8% for females). Hungary A 2018 study reported that the percentage of people identifying as LGBT in Hungary was 1.5%. Iceland An estimation from 2005 gave around 6.9% as the proportion of the population that is homosexual in Iceland. Philippines A Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality Survey conducted in 2002 by the University of the Philippines Population Institute and Demographic Research and Development Foundation found that about",
"-29.70360462894314"
]
] |
447fej | Why have corporate stores completely overtaken small and medium business retails stores and sandwich shops in past 20 years? For example, Starbucks was an anomaly in my college town, and now virtually every indie coffee shop has been killed. | [
"Economy of scale. Mass retailers have a lower cost for goods so they are able to undercut smaller stores to take away their business. They could even operate a single store at a loss in order to force their competition out of business while absorbing the loss across the chain. Add to that the American consumers desire for conformity and familiar surroundings and you have the perfect recipe.",
"While your local coffee shops may make better coffee, Starbucks is better a business, generally speaking. By being able to do things in huge quantities, Starbucks can take advantage of economies of scale, and as such can make more money off of fewer sales. For example, buying custom printed stuff, from signs to menus is expensive, but Starbucks can thin out that cost by ordering 10,000 of them, while your local shop pays a lot more for just one shop's worth of items. This holds true on all kinds of things, from cups to coffee beans to commercials. So while your local coffee shops were selling more cups of coffee, they were paying a lot more for those cups, giving Starbucks a hire profit margin and a lot more staying power in the industry.",
"One factor hasn't been emphasized yet: The consumer. If people wouldn't go to Starbucks there wouldn't be a Starbucks.",
"There's also familiarity. If I like Starbucks, it's easy for me to go to almost anywhere and grab the same latte I'm used to getting back home. Consistency is key and usually very comforting for the consumer. In theory I like little independent coffee shops, but in reality I usually go to Starbucks because I'm used to it and it's easy.",
"Another thing that I think is key, is the atmosphere and culture. Atmosphere and culture? Starbucks has no atmosphere or culture. Walk into an indie coffee shop with a bit of grease on your hands and dirty clothes. Maybe you have an odd way of talking, maybe you have a certain type of accent. In an indie shop, the person working there may or may not take notice and react a certain way, a kind of \"what are you doing here?\", perhaps a bit of condescension in their tone. Walk into a Starbucks, it doesn't matter. The people that work there are not there to be apart of the scene. They don't consider themselves really cool and interesting, witty and wild because they work at Starbucks, it a fucking job. They don't care about you or who you are or if you look weird or talk funny. Can you pay, is this going to be a hassle? You can pay, cool, what do you want. Here you go. And that is it. There is no having a discussion or interaction beyond, here is my money, thank you for serving me what I ordered, I hope your day goes smoothly. And that is really nice.",
"37 cents, or less, if product within 2-3 miles. I used to work in Industrial Development for communities around 2,000 - 5,000 in population. Walmart targeted communities that size that had a little money, and they basically wiped out every Mom/Pop store, or private change. People just want 'that bargain', and new floors, new brighter lights bring people into the store. This was before WM carried groceries, and larger electronic merchandise. They killed off every store of any kind after that. Everyone, and I mean, everyone, in about 9 months, except to get a small brand product for cooking, quit the private stores, and they had to close. There are some private owners who do win though, as 'they got there first, and built a good offense'. Back in that day, a grocery store know as \"Bob's IGA\" fought of Winn-Dixie, Kroger, and even Walmart, only due to it's owner having a magic personality, a tremendous deli area, it's location in the county seat (plus a 99 year lease), and the North side of the county was unusually loyal to it. It was in an unusual 'right turn' location, coming in and out of the city, plus it had a Dairy Queen in the same big parking lot, where people got their hamburgers and ice cream. Even old sun brunt farmers like their ice cream handy after getting their groceries, and nearby John Deer parts.",
"Large corporations are built upon the very foundation of efficiency. The bigger they are, the more money the owners have at stake, and the more savings are sought in order that the owners can make more money--and create more growth. These sought-after efficiencies often spell death for the small businesses with whom the large corporations compete. The most clear example is Wal-Mart. The introduction of a Wal-Mart to a small town can both provide cheaper purchasing options to the inhabitants, but also pushes all the small \"mom & pop\" type convenience stores out of business, because they simply cannot compete on price. Starbucks does not necessarily sell cheap coffee, but they sell their product at a price that local coffee shops cannot compete with well, and they also have product consistency and name recognition that is unparalleled. The marketing is better, and it is paid for. Local coffee shops have owners and workers who might have some extra time to put a cutesy little chalkboard sign together, while Starbucks has an enormous group of people charged with looking after their marketing. This is the product of capitalism, whether we love it or not. The big guys always win the battle, and we can only hope we gamble well on the results.",
"Large businesses have access to more resources which lets them have more expansive marketing campaigns -- your small-town shop's interesting events don't matter if only a few people see them. Also large businesses have the capital to survive long price wars, taking a loss for a while in order to drive competitors out of business and then raising prices afterward. Wal-mart's a good example of a business that uses huge loss leaders to create an image of low prices on everything.",
"Because people are generally loyal to brands and franchises have better brand recognition than local stores. There is virtually no difference in the coffee I could get (if I drank that disgusting bitter bean water) at the Starbucks down the street and a Starbucks on the opposite side of the nation. I know what I'm getting at every single Starbucks, because it's generally the same thing. Not so much for local stores. Their coffee may be better (like saying one turd is better than another IMO), but it's unfamiliar. I don't know their blends. I'm not familiar with their product. Hell, I may not even be aware of their store because it doesn't have a big fat sign with a naked mermaid in front of it. So I go to Starbucks because it's familiar. And if I'm ever a few miles away from where I live, I can find Starbucks within a couple miles and get the same coffee as I can from the store down the street from my house. I don't even know where or how good a local coffee house is once I get beyond a certain radius from my house. I can take a chance and try coffee at some strange and unknown local shop, or I can get exactly what I know at a Starbucks. So Starbucks is guaranteed to get all the commuter business while local stores rely solely on local business. This goes for all major chains and local competition.",
"A lot of the problem is trying to compete in price. Big shops sell low quality food they get mass produced from factories, and people expect to pay the same prices at local shops. I worked at pizzerias for years with fresh, made form scratch Italian entrees, and people would still prefer to go to Olive Garden and get something microwaved to order. There's also the problem of competent staff, which the chains couldn't care less about.",
"Everything is being pushed into a corporate wall e world. USPS lady told me that they are being slowly forced into full automation.",
"It is cheaper to order supplies and ingredients in bulk...like having multi-year deals with entire coffee plantations to get their entire crop than it is to buy those supplies on the open market. This saves a bundle! So, the same product (coffee in this case) can be purchased for way less for the mega-corp than for the single shop.",
"My AP US History teacher told me about this along with monopolies. The reason the companies are able to take over the other businesses comes from 2 ways. 1. They buy out the business, pretty self explanatory. 2. The big company can drop its prices lower than that of the local company. This may affect their profits and the store may go in the red (in debt) for a short while, but the giant company can suffer the loss because they have more stores that are making profits to even out. The local company takes a harder hit trying to lower its prices with the giant company, and they cannot suffer the loss compared to the big company and the local business goes out of business because they have been in debt too long.",
"Something I haven't seen mentioned much here, is the manner of development that's occurring in the commercial real estate side of things. Consider that most startups lack the capital to buy a spot, renovate, and actually succeed. Can't buy it? Fine, someone will lease it to you, but wait, you can't get the lease due to aforementioned funding. So, at least in the sense of the sprawl, what we see is a handful of developers churning 5-30 acre tracts of land, generally retaining a healthy portion of ownership, leasing all the space (key), and then going to the easiest source of funds (corporations with pockets). What I find somewhat disgusting is when you have a single entity actually franchise several locations/businesses within a development. The notion of choice is an illusion in that case.",
"Corporations can figure out the most efficient way of doing things and then apply that across every store. An independent store might come up with a couple of good ideas, but a corporate store has dozens and dozens of little improvements that add up to them making more money. They can get better deals from suppliers because they buy in volume. Also, big chains can advertise in ways that an independent store can't. TV ads for example just don't make sense for a small store. So the corporate chains end up making more money and re-investing that money in marketing, location and efficiency. They just end up out-competing the smaller stores over time.",
"Starbucks generally out-competes their competition. They'll either buy the store directly or open a competing store nearby. When they open a new store, you notice that enough people don't care about the indie store having better coffee, they just want their cup of joe, and Starbucks is better or a little cheaper or faster or closer by, and the indie store has to fold because people go there instead.",
"As someone from Wellington New Zealand, we have very few Starbucks and toooones of indie coffee shops , I think we have the highest per capita in the world, so it depends on where your from and the local cultural tastes. Here Starbucks is seen as cheap and nasty by most of us.",
"This reminds me of a documentary on Netflix. It's called The High Cost of Low Prices. It's about Wal-Mart doing exactly what you're talking about. I would sincerely suggest you watch it to get a good understanding of what's going on.",
"I'm really not satisfied with these answers, there are many places where larger chains don't take over everything or have to close down. I think it has more to do with the local laws, more so than economy of scale.",
"Starbucks used to buy out the leases of local coffee shops, so they couldn't renew and it could change to a starbucks."
] | [
[
"buying directly from growers. Expansion to new markets and products The first Starbucks location outside North America opened in Tokyo, Japan, in 1996. On December 4, 1997, the Philippines became the third market to open outside North America with its first branch in the country located at 6750 Ayala Building in Makati City, Philippines. Starbucks entered the U.K. market in 1998 with the $83 million USD acquisition of the then 56-outlet, UK-based Seattle Coffee Company, re-branding all the stores as Starbucks.\nIn 1999, Starbucks experimented with eateries in the San Francisco Bay area through a restaurant chain called Circadia. After people",
"-30.239069957227912"
],
[
"Frappuccino. In 1991, when it was first planning to expand into Los Angeles, Starbucks tried to purchase Coffee Bean, but Hyman turned them down. The opening of Starbucks stores in Los Angeles unexpectedly helped Coffee Bean's business, by driving curious customers to the area.\nIn 1996, the Hymans sold the Asian franchise rights to Singaporean brothers Victor Sassoon and Sunny Sassoon. The Sassoons quickly expanded the company in the US and internationally, opening the first outlet in Singapore in 1996, and in Malaysia the following year. Within two years, they had opened 29 stores in Singapore and Malaysia, almost as many",
"-29.91721670339757"
],
[
"in the United States in the next five years. The same month, the largest Starbucks in the US opened at the University of Alabama's Ferguson Center.\nIn 2013, Starbucks met with Dansk Supermarked, which is the biggest retail company in Denmark. The first Starbucks inside Dansk Supermarked opened in August 2013 in the department stores Salling in Aalborg and Aarhus.\nStarbucks has announced its first café in Bolivia would open in 2014 in Santa Cruz de la Sierra and the first in Panama in 2015.\nOn June 19, 2015, a Starbucks opened at Disney's Animal Kingdom on Discovery Island. Since the park does",
"-29.32857710798271"
],
[
"its own brand, there are only eight varieties so far plus a milk pod for the latte.\" Other products In July 2019, Starbucks announced that it would no longer be selling newspapers in its cafes. It was also announced that kiosks for grab-and-go snacks and bags of whole-bean coffee would be removed from stores beginning in September 2019. Locations The company's headquarters is located in Seattle, Washington, United States, where 3,501 people worked as of January 2015. The main building in the Starbucks complex was previously a Sears distribution center. Expansion In 2008, Starbucks continued its expansion, settling in Argentina,",
"-29.13391131845856"
],
[
"to the Withers Group.\nIn January 2009, Starbucks announced the closure of an additional 300 underperforming stores and the elimination of 7,000 positions. CEO Howard Schultz also announced that he had received board approval to reduce his salary. Altogether, from February 2008 to January 2009, Starbucks terminated an estimated 18,400 U.S. jobs and began closing 977 stores worldwide.\nIn August 2009, Ahold announced closures and rebranding for 43 of their licensed store Starbucks kiosks for their US based Stop & Shop and Giant supermarkets.\nIn July 2012, the company announced that they may begin closing unprofitable European stores immediately. Unbranded stores In 2009,",
"-29.10081549577808"
],
[
"Bankes Coffee Stores Bankes Coffee Stores (also known as E. Bankes & Co.) was a chain of stores that operated in the Chicago region throughout the early 20th century. The company was founded by Ireland born Edward Bankes. Dubbed \"the Starbucks of Chicago\" during its peak the company operated over 20 stores.",
"-29.04637795506278"
],
[
"learned that these restaurants were owned by Starbucks, Starbucks converted the restaurants to Starbucks cafes.\nAustralia's first Starbucks store opened in July 2000 in Sydney. After a massive downturn in 2008, the remaining Australian Starbucks stores were purchased in 2014, with the company planning a more restrained expansion.\nIn September 2002, Starbucks opened its first store in Latin America, at Mexico City. Currently, there are over 500 locations in Mexico and there are plans for the opening of up to 850 by 2018.\nIn October 2002, Starbucks established a coffee trading company in Lausanne, Switzerland to handle purchases of green coffee. All other",
"-28.998270102252718"
],
[
"2010, the company had a revenue of $122 million. In 2011, the company had 74 locations in 20 states, including 13 company-owned stores; 44 stores had been closed since 2008, when the Great Recession began. Jerry Couvaras stated that the store closings were primarily part of a business strategy in order to gain revenue to remodel existing stores that were left open. Between 2001 and 2011, 66 loans from the Small Business Administration (SBA) were made to Atlanta Bread Company franchisees. Half of the loans failed, totaling $32.8 million, with a loss of $5 million for the United States federal",
"-28.955240880750353"
],
[
"presses. U.S. decline and renaissance For most of the 20th century, almost all bookstores in the United States were independent. In the 1950s, automobiles and suburban shopping malls became more common. Mall-based bookstore chains began in the 1960s, and underwent a major expansion in numbers in the 1970s and 1980s,\nespecially B. Dalton and Waldenbooks. Big box chains also expanded during this period, including Barnes & Noble (which also acquired Texas chain Bookstop), Borders, and Crown Books. Amazon.com was founded during the dot-com boom in 1994 and exclusively sold books until 1998.\nBy the 1990s, these competitive pressures",
"-28.864916797203477"
],
[
"32 states. This collapse created an opening for the return of more independent shops.\nAccording to the American Booksellers Association, the number of independent U.S. bookstores increased 35%, from 1,651 in 2009 to 2,227 in 2015. A Harvard Business School study by Professor Ryan Raffaelli attributed this increase to the buy local movement and success in curation of interesting titles and hosting book-oriented community events. The market has bifurcated between consumers looking for a highly interactive experience at local stores, and consumers looking for low-cost, high-selection stores where large chains compete with difficulty against online sales. Portrayal in",
"-28.858907940448262"
],
[
"Starbucks announced the purchase of Teavana for US$620 million in cash and the deal was formally closed on December 31, 2012.\nOn February 1, 2013, Starbucks opened its first store in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, and this was followed by an announcement in late August 2013 that the retailer will be opening its inaugural store in Colombia. The Colombian announcement was delivered at a press conference in Bogota, where the company's CEO explained, \"Starbucks has always admired and respected Colombia's distinguished coffee tradition.\"\nIn May 2014, the Starbucks operations in South Korea launched a mobile ordering system named Siren Order, which",
"-28.831262129322567"
],
[
"brand and boost its profit. Of the new cuts, 550 of the positions were layoffs and the rest were unfilled jobs. These closings and layoffs effectively ended the company's period of growth and expansion that began in the mid-1990s.\nStarbucks also announced in July 2008 that it would close 61 of its 84 stores in Australia in the following month. Nick Wailes, an expert in strategic management of the University of Sydney, commented that \"Starbucks failed to truly understand Australia's cafe culture.\" In May 2014, Starbucks announced ongoing losses in the Australian market, which resulted in the remaining stores being sold",
"-28.785419059044216"
],
[
"and to break the long term long rental leases. Store closures Under new ownership, eleven stores were gradually closed in 2007. On 2 March 2009, it was announced that all Virgin Megastores in the United States would close.\nThe store at Arden Fair Mall in Sacramento, CA closed in 2005 and was converted to an Urban Outfitters, while the Grapevine Mills location was closed at the end of 2008. Related Companies announced that the Virgin Megastore flagship store in Times Square would close by April 2009, with the space being replaced by Forever 21. On 25 February 2009 it was announced",
"-28.549770296667702"
],
[
"Cracker Barrel and Starbucks, opened in late 2007.",
"-28.51188368192834"
],
[
"to as the \"breakfast wars\". United States While the Coffee Wars have traditionally been between Dunkin' Donuts and Starbucks, more competitors expanded in the United States recently. In particular, Tim Hortons, a Canadian chain which historically had only a limited presence in the U.S. (particularly in Western New York), made a major expansion into the United States in the early part of the 21st century, culminating in its corporate merger with established U.S. fast food chain Burger King. Established general fast food chains also began promoting their coffee products, including McDonald's, which introduced its McCafé line aimed at customers of",
"-28.493805997859454"
],
[
"rapidly to become the largest bookstore chain in the nation with four stores in New York City, plus single stores in Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, and Washington. Unfortunately, the firm acquired a lot of debt in the process and its creditors forced the company to reorganize in 1930 while still allowing the Brentano family to manage the chain. Even though the company continued to have cash flow problems, the company went ahead and opened its tenth store within \nthe United States in Pittsburgh in 1930.\nThe creditor-imposed reorganization plan of 1930 did not solve the cash flow problem. In March 1933, Brentano's",
"-28.422690189501736"
],
[
"of its locations in Israel, citing \"on-going operational challenges\" and a \"difficult business environment.\"\nThe Starbucks location in the former imperial palace in Beijing closed in July 2007. The coffee shop had been a source of ongoing controversy since its opening in 2000 with protesters objecting that the presence of the American chain in this location \"was trampling on Chinese culture.\"\nIn July 2008, the company announced it was closing 600 underperforming company-owned stores and cutting U.S. expansion plans amid growing economic uncertainty. On July 29, 2008, Starbucks also cut almost 1,000 non-retail jobs as part of its bid to re-energize the",
"-28.36425579751085"
],
[
"but three of its U.S. stores due to declining sales. The final American store, located in Spokane, Washington, was closed in April 2010 after fifteen years in business.\nIn December 2013, Big Lots announced it was closing all LW and Big Lots stores in Canada to focus on its American division. By February 2014, all Canadian Big Lots and LW Stores were closed.",
"-28.351860806520563"
],
[
"converted into IndigoSpirit stores. Expansion into the United States After dominating the Canadian book market by the early 1970s, Coles found little opportunity for further growth within Canada and Jack Coles decided to explore further expansion south of the border by opening new \"Coles - the Book People!\" stores in the rapidly expanding United States market.\nThe first store in the United States was opened in Buffalo, New York, in 1973. By 1980, there were 56 stores in the United States with more being opened. In 1987, Southam decided to sell or close the U.S. stores since the stores were",
"-28.31484659018315"
],
[
"\"But the recent consumer spending slow down did not facilitate that environment\", he said.\nIn early January 2001, the chain started their liquidation sales and the final store closed in March 2001. At the time of its liquidation, the company had 10,000 employees and 105 stores in 7 states. Many of its former store locations were purchased by Wal-Mart, although other locations became The Home Depot, Forman Mills, Shaw's Star Market, Target, Kohl's, Ocean State Job Lot, Bob's Stores, Marshalls, Dollar Tree, ShopRite, National Wholesale Liquidators, or Stop & Shop. Stop & Shop owned much of its real estate even after",
"-28.19209061388392"
],
[
"intentionally operating at a loss, and clustering several locations in a small geographical area (i.e., saturating the market), have been labeled anti-competitive by critics. For example, Starbucks fueled its initial expansion into the UK market with a buyout of Seattle Coffee Company but then used its capital and influence to obtain prime locations, some of which operated at a financial loss. Critics claimed this was an unfair attempt to drive out small, independent competitors, who could not afford to pay inflated prices for premium real estate.\nWhile relations with independent coffeehouse chains have been strained, some owners have credited Starbucks with",
"-28.138427054713247"
],
[
"going to start with farmers in Costa Rica, Colombia and Rwanda in order to develop a new way to track the bean to cup journey.\nOn June 19, 2018, Starbucks announced the closing of 150 locations in 2019, this is three times the number the corporation typically closes in a single year. The closings will happen in urban areas that already have dense clusters of stores.\nIn 2018, Starbucks expanded its partnership with Uber Eats to bring its beverages to U.S. customers' doorsteps, as it had already done for some time in China. Corporate governance In 2006, Starbucks's chairman at the time,",
"-28.1089623953485"
],
[
"point of having Starbucks retain ownership of every domestic outlet. On June 26, 1992, Starbucks had its initial public offering and trading of its common stock under the stock ticker NASDAQ-NMS: SBUX. The offering was done by Alex, Brown & Sons Inc. and Wertheim Schroder & Co. Inc.\nOn June 1, 2000, Schultz stepped down as CEO of Starbucks, moving to the new position of chief global strategist to help the company expand internationally. On January 8, 2008, Schultz returned as CEO of Starbucks after an eight-year hiatus. Although the company was growing, that growth was largely dependent on opening new",
"-28.091110611130716"
],
[
"end From its heights in 1984 as the sixth-largest department store chain firm in the United States, CHH fell into Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1991. Besides the financial problems of surviving the 1980s era of hostile takeovers, the main California department store business had faltered because of increasing competition from Nordstrom.\nIn 1992, after one and one-half years of bankruptcy negotiations, financier Sam Zell and his Zell/Chilmark Fund completed the reorganization of the newly renamed Broadway Stores, Inc., taking a 75 percent stake. The company finally emerged from bankruptcy in October 1992 and Hawley promptly announced his retirement. In early 1993,",
"-28.090770851966226"
],
[
"Tata Starbucks History In January 2011, Starbucks Corporation and Tata Coffee announced plans to begin opening Starbucks locations in India. Despite a false start in 2007, in January 2012 Starbucks finally announced a 50:50 joint venture with Tata Global Beverages, called Tata Starbucks Ltd., which would own and operate outlets branded \"Starbucks, A Tata Alliance\". Starbucks had previously attempted to enter the Indian market in 2007. Starbucks did not cite any reason for the withdrawal.\nOn 19 October 2012, Starbucks opened its first store in India, measuring 4,500 sq ft in Elphinstone Building, Horniman Circle, Mumbai. Starbucks opened its first roasting",
"-28.089769382990198"
],
[
"further sites under construction. The acquisition took the group to 108 outlets.\nIn July 2002, the group announced plans to halt its expansion programme, sell underperforming bars and launch a strategic business review as annual losses grew. A number of takeover talks ensued with easyGroup, Benjys and Caffè Nero but all offers were rejected. Coffee Republic sold 13 sites to Starbucks and returned to an AIM listing.\nIn August 2003, Coffee Republic unveiled a survival plan to convert itself into a New York-style deli-bar chain called Coffee Republic Deli and whittle its numbers down to a core of 50 outlets. It piloted",
"-28.0679224536143"
],
[
"one of the main businesses in UK high street coffee bars, competing with Starbucks, Café Nero, Costa and Pret a Manger. In July 2002, the group announced plans to halt its expansion programme, sell under-performing bars and launch a strategic business review as annual losses grew. On 7 July 2009, Coffee Republic went into administration, citing a difficult trading environment following the economic downturn of the period. At the end of July, following the closure of 18 Bars, Coffee Republic was bought out of administration by property firm Arab Investment Ltd. The new company trades as Coffee Republic Trading Ltd.",
"-28.0472742827842"
],
[
"have been slowly taking over the needs for physical locations of store brands. A prime example of this includes the decline of malls within the United States. The sales of malls within the United States have declined from $87.46 billion in 2005 to $60.65 billion in 2015. The emergence of e-commerce companies like Amazon and Alibaba (both unicorns before they went public) have decreased the need for physical locations to buy consumer goods. Many large corporations have seen this trend for a while and have tried to adapt to the e-commerce trend. Walmart recently bought Jet.com, an American e-commerce company,",
"-28.036387364853"
],
[
"three years later. Government estimates for the late 1980s show additional consolidation in both wholesale and retail sectors including a continued sharp decline in mom-and-pop store operations. A further decline in mom-and-pop stores is expected as a result of the Large-Scale Retail Store Law of 1990, which greatly reduced the power of small retailers to block the establishment of large retail stores. Soaring land prices are another major cause of the decline of mom-and-pop stores, but an even more important reason is the growth of convenience and discount stores. Discount stores are not much bigger than the traditional small shops,",
"-28.01666396021028"
],
[
"and packaging plant to supply its Indian outlets in Coorg, Karnataka in 2013.\nStarbucks expanded its presence to Delhi on 24 January 2013 by opening 2 outlets at Terminal III of the Indira Gandhi International Airport, and later one in Connaught Place. Tata Global Beverages announced in 2013 that they would have 50 locations by the end of the year, with an investment of ₹4 billion (US$58 million). However, the company would open its 50th store in India only on 8 July 2014.\nThe third city of India to get a Starbucks outlet was Pune, where the company opened an outlet at Koregaon",
"-27.98638694701367"
],
[
"chain added hard goods such as kitchen items, bed and bath items, furniture, toys, housewares, stationery and health and beauty products to their product lines.\nAfter filing for bankruptcy protection for the second time in late 2007, SAAN announced in June 2008 that it would be closing all stores within 8–10 weeks, with a going-out-of-business sale being conducted by a joint venture group led by Gordon Brothers Group and Great American Group LLC. All remaining 126 stores closed within the following weeks, with some closing earlier than others.\nSAAN Stores Ltd. changed ownership again after it was bought out of bankruptcy",
"-27.953310286073247"
],
[
"the advent of the internet age.\nThe primary factors affecting the store appears to have been a combination of the rising rent for real estate in Manhattan, competition from book superstores, and Brown's mismanagement of the business—factors which influenced the closures of a number of other venerable bookstores during the same period.\nOn May 22, 2007, the city auctioned off the store's inventory to a small crowd each of whom had put down a $1,000 deposit in order to attend. Attendees included book collectors and other book store owners. Ultimately, the estimated $3 million worth of inventory was all bought up in",
"-27.909362064965535"
],
[
"November 1995. The original superstores were in Burlington, Ontario and Burnaby, British Columbia.\nChapters quickly changed the face of Canada's book selling industry. Previously, companies like Coles and Smithbooks had many small stores. Chapters built large box stores with a much larger product selection. Chapters provided chairs and couches for their customers, as well as Starbucks coffee shops, and did not discourage reading inside the store. The company became Canada's largest book retailer, with 77 superstores branded as Chapters and more than 280 mall-based stores under the names Coles, SmithBooks (formerly the Canadian branch of W H Smith), Classic Bookshops, the",
"-27.832707236841088"
],
[
"Caicos. The first of these stores will be opened by year-end of 2018.\nAt the end of December in 2017, the world biggest Starbucks store opened at HKRI Taikoo Hui in Shanghai, China.\nStarbucks announced the opening of stores in Serbia in late 2018. The first store was opened in April 2019 at Rajićeva Mall.\nOn the 1 June 2019, Starbucks opened its first coffee store in Malta at Valletta. This will be the 80th country that will have a Starbucks outlet. Former In 2003, after struggling with fierce local competition, Starbucks, along with its partner Delek Group of Israel, closed all six",
"-27.82171992326039"
],
[
"2017 Cadillac Fairview sued Starbucks over Teavana closures in Canada. \nHowever, on January 18, 2018, Simon and Starbucks reached an agreement that would close the remaining 77 Teavana stores in Simon malls, ending the tea shop's existence as independent storefronts after nearly 21 years in business. Competitors Apart from generic tea brands (such as Lipton, Red Rose Tea, and Tetley), Teavana's competitors include DavidsTea, Nuovo Tea, Stash Tea Company, T2, The Wellness Group (TWG), Harney & Sons, Tea at Sea, Argo Tea, Art of Tea, and Oolong Tea Collective. Between partners Teavana partnered with a few charities and organizations to",
"-27.75108853339225"
],
[
"100 franchises by 2009, however, the 2008 recession caused many stores to shut down, putting the company in a delicate situation financially. The company then was restructured in year 2009 and regained its margin and market share about 40% annual growth from year 2010 to 2014. As of July 2018, Tapioca Express has 38 locations in California, Washington, and Texas. Drinks & foods Tapioca Express is known for bringing the boba drink culture to the United States in the late 90s. Since then, they have introduced over 100 drinks to their menu, ranging from a variety of juice, tea, coffee",
"-27.749959206557833"
],
[
"is accessible through a local version of Starbucks smartphone application. Starbucks in the U.S. later launched a similar system named Mobile Order & Pay, starting with Portland, Oregon in December 2015. The service have since expanded nationwide, and in late March 2018, the company opened the system (previously available to Starbucks Rewards members only) to all customers.\nIn August 2014, Starbucks opened their first store in Williamsburg, Brooklyn. This location will be one of 30 Starbucks stores that will serve beer and wine.\nIn September 2014, it was revealed that Starbucks would acquire the remaining 60.5 percent stake in Starbuck Coffee Japan",
"-27.727906348882243"
],
[
"chain than Federated's own top-tier retailer Bloomingdale's; the folding of the Field's stores into Macy's was seen by Chicagoans as both a demotion of a 150-year-old Chicago institution and an insult to the city itself, and critics urged a boycott of Macy's after the Macy's takeover.\nIn July 2009, Macy's announced that Chicago candymaker Cupid Candies would begin production of one-pound boxes of Frango mint chocolates. Cupid Candies is a 73-year-old Chicago candy maker located on the city's south side. Frango mints made by Cupid Candies will be shipped to Chicago-area Macy's stores. All other Frango candies, as",
"-27.711270131840138"
],
[
"was seized by the government in March 2016 and eventually closed, Turkey's most circulated newspaper was the Gülen-aligned Zaman. United Kingdom According to the Audit Bureau of Circulations the best-selling papers as of January 2017 are The Sun, 1.67 million, The Daily Mail, 1.51 million and the Daily Mirror, 725,000. United States The heyday of the newspaper industry was the 1940s, but the percentage of Americans reading newspapers began to decline with the increased competition from radio, television and, more recently, the Internet. A growing population helped the absolute circulation numbers continue to increase until the 1970s, where it remained",
"-27.675434418932127"
],
[
"coffee-related business continued to be managed from Seattle.\nIn April 2003, Starbucks completed the purchase of Seattle's Best Coffee and Torrefazione Italia from AFC Enterprises for $72m. The deal only gained 150 stores for Starbucks, but according to the Seattle Post-Intelligencer, the wholesale business was more significant. In September 2006, rival Diedrich Coffee announced that it would sell most of its company-owned retail stores to Starbucks. This sale included the company-owned locations of the Oregon-based Coffee People chain. Starbucks converted the Diedrich Coffee and Coffee People locations to Starbucks, although the Portland International Airport Coffee People locations were excluded from the",
"-27.656553776963847"
],
[
"Hollys Coffee History Hollys Coffee opened its first store in May 1998 in Gangnam-gu, Seoul.\nIt expanded rapidly and opened its 100th store in May 2006 in Gangnam Station.\nIts first international store was in the USA and opened April 2008 in Los Angeles.\nIt opened its 200th store in May 2009.\nThe Hollys Coffee Academy was opened in April 2011.\nContinuing to expand overseas its first store in the Philippines was opened in July 2011,\nthe first store in China was opened in July 2012 in Shenzhen,.\nand its first store in Thailand opened in 2013 in Bangkok",
"-27.65078128501773"
],
[
"Federated Department Stores (now known as Macy's, Inc.), who was in the midst of significant corporate reorganization at the time, announced that the Goldsmith's location at Raleigh Springs would be shuttered by April of the same year. Finally, the JC Penney store (which had been downgraded to a JC Penney outlet center along with Dillard's) was closed as well, leaving Sears as the only anchor store.\nStarting in 2005, Wal-Mart began negotiations with Simon Property Group to open a Supercenter at the mall. These plans would call for the demolition of the former JC Penney space, as well as the mall's",
"-27.646811700222315"
],
[
"38 stores, of which all but two were within the state of Michigan, and it employed 400 people. The majority of its stores were 2,000 square feet (190 m²) to 8,000 square feet (740 m²) in size and located in neighborhood shopping centers and strip malls, although the chain also operated larger-format stores in indoor shopping malls.\nRounds of closures began in the early 2000s, when seventeen stores were shuttered. Eleven more closed by August 2002, and the last ten were to have closed by year's end. The decision to close the stores was a result of the increased presence of music sold",
"-27.63070197361958"
],
[
"human advent calendars. Also in this period, the chain opened eight new stores across the United Kingdom, meaning the chain opened 31 new stores in 2010. The company opened a total of 15 new stores in 2011, 11 in 2012 and 9 in 2013. A further 15 opened in 2014.\nIn August 2011, the chain did not perform as well with profits reduced, due to economic conditions and massive investment in the chain, including many store openings, expansion of headquarters and warehouse and upgrading store equipment. The chief executive of The Original Factory Shop is former Lloyds Pharmacy boss Tony Page,",
"-27.62183505401481"
],
[
"CIO.[4] The Starbucks Technology and Digital efforts introduced many new innovations such as free wifi, mobile payments and the Starbucks Digital Network. The journey and role Starbucks Information Technology played in the transformation of the company is documented in the book “Onward: How Starbucks Fought for Its Life without Losing Its Soul”. Best Buy Gillett joined Best Buy in March 2012 as EVP and President Digital, Marketing and Business Services in Minneapolis, MN. Gillett was an architect of the 2012 transformation plan called Renew Blue shared at the Q4 2012 Investor meeting. Gillett resigned from his role at Best",
"-27.61829276048229"
],
[
"company closed three stores, of which one was located in Las Vegas, Nevada, and two were located in Indianapolis, Indiana. The year prior, the company closed 20 stores across the country, including locations in Missouri, Kansas, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, California, Massachusetts, Indiana, Florida, Michigan, and New York.\nUpon its emergence from bankruptcy in February 2011, the company had 64 Jennifer Convertibles stores and eight Jennifer Leather stores, as well as six licensed Ashley Furniture HomeStores in the greater New York City area. Criticism On July 29, 2004, New York Attorney General Eliot Spitzer announced a consent order and judgment that would significantly",
"-27.613471465709154"
],
[
"Park, on 8 September 2013. Starbucks opened a 3,000-square-foot flagship store at Koramangala, Bangalore on 22 November 2013, making it the fourth city to have an outlet.\nStarbucks opened the largest coffee-forward store in the country at Vittal Mallya Road, Bangalore on 18 March 2019. The store measures 3,000 sq ft, and is Starbucks' 140th outlet in India. Tata Starbucks opened 25 stores in 2017-18 and 30 in the 2018-19 fiscal year.\nOn 21 February 2019, CEO Navin Gurnaney announced that Tata Starbucks would transition to using only compostable and recyclable packaging materials across all its stores from June 2020.\nStarbucks announced its",
"-27.58310625244667"
],
[
"1995. It was believed that its continued weak sales, along with operating losses and constricted trade credit, contributed to its bankruptcy. During that time, Wal-Mart had begun to open new stores in many Jamesway trade areas, making Jamesway's fate inescapable. Ames purchased 11 former Jamesway stores and reopened them as Ames stores, but that company declared bankruptcy with a similar reason to Jamesway's, and eventually closed all of its stores in 2002. Joseph Ettore became the new president of Ames.",
"-27.574192432090058"
],
[
"first grocery store in US with an in-store Starbucks coffee store in 1989. In 1995, they expanded to Portland, Oregon opening stores under the Haggen moniker. In 2008 a joint investigation between the DEA, IRS, FDA and Edmonds police department uncovered a drug diversion scheme at the Edmonds pharmacy location. Ultimately, Haggen paid $425,000 in fines.\nAfter two decades of aggressive expansion and innovation the company began to transition after the passing of Dorothy Haggen in October 2008 and the appointment of CEO Jim Donald, former CEO of Starbucks Coffee Company, in September 2009. In January 2010, Haggen stores",
"-27.550084771297406"
],
[
"Eagle. Credit Suisse, a major global financial services company, predicted that 25% of U.S. malls remaining in 2017 could close by 2022.\nSince at least 2010, various economic factors have resulted in the closing of many North American stores, particularly in the department store industry. For example, Sears Holdings had more than 3,500 stores and 355,000 employees in 2006. By the end of 2016, Sears operated 1,430 stores. In October 2018, Sears filed for bankruptcy and announced they would close an additional 142 of their 687 stores. At the time of filing, Sears had 68,000 employees.\nThe retail apocalypse has had a",
"-27.527576526394114"
],
[
"contact with the customers.\nThe first one to open was in Osaka in 1980. Initially, all of them were in remote areas outside the traditional entertainment districts. Within a year, large numbers had opened in many more places, such as major railway stations.\nIn the 1980s (the peak of the boom in these shops), many started to have topless or bottomless waitresses. However, at this point, the number of such shops started to decline rapidly.\nEventually, such coffee shops gave way to fashion health (massage) clubs and few no-pan kissa, if any, remain. The New Amusement Business Control and Improvement Act came into",
"-27.500959975615842"
],
[
"from Ames Stores. The sale included the remaining GC Murphy Stores and Bargain World Stores as well. Decline In 1989, 1,300 stores were operated by the McCrory company. However, as the decade turned, its fortunes decreased, and by 1992 it filed for bankruptcy. The changing retail landscape including the migrating of shoppers from the inner cities to the influx of superstores such as Target and Wal-Mart sealed the fate of the once mighty Five And Ten. Several rounds of store closures followed, with one of the biggest coming in 1997 when McCrory's shuttered 300 of its last 460 stores.",
"-27.489493733097333"
],
[
"to the Skaggs Companies which took the American Stores name, moving its headquarters to Salt Lake City. Also in 1979, American Stores announced that it would be closing most of its stores in New York state. In the 1980s, American Stores undertook various acquisitions (including Chicago metropolitan area chain Jewel Food Stores) which ran the Jewel-T chain; it operated in many former urban Acme buildings. In 1995, Acme sold 45 stores in northeastern Pennsylvania to Penn Traffic. American Stores was acquired by major Western and Southern chain Albertsons in November 1999.\nIn 2006, Albertsons' supermarket holdings were bought by Cerberus Capital",
"-27.443426911864663"
],
[
"Coffee wars The coffee wars are various marketing moves by coffee shops to increase brand market share. In North America, this currently includes Dunkin' Donuts, Starbucks, Second Cup, Tim Hortons, McDonald's, Burger King and more recently McCafé which originated in Australia. Canada Coffee chains that originated in Canada includes Blenz Coffee, Coffee Time, Second Cup, Tim Horton's, and Timothy's World Coffee. Tim Horton's is the largest coffee chain in the country by number of stores, with 4,613 stores in Canada on December 31, 2016. \nSeveral American coffee and fast food chains have also entered the Canadian market, including McDonald's,",
"-27.405446407428826"
],
[
"or losses of lease. Despite their well-known brands, the stores had little staying power in the competitive marketplace.\nIn June 2007, it was announced that Dunlaps and all its accompanying stores would be going out of business, thus ending one of the last small regional department store chains left in the country. They cited the cause as being unable to get financing for a loan to keep the company afloat. Within months, all the stores were liquidated and closed.",
"-27.40140992165834"
],
[
"Us store (which replaced the two-level Venture store in 1993) shrunk to become a one-level store with the bottom level of the store taken over by Rebel Sport which then was taken over by Aldi. Franklins closed in 2001 and was taken over by Food For Less in 2002 and operated until November 2015 when Woolworths opened at the other end of the centre. Food For Less was taken over by Tong Li Supermarket and a medical centre. Grace Bros (renamed to Myer in 2004) became sole department store until its closure in early 2015. Despite having many variety stores",
"-27.394306150701595"
],
[
"closed and consolidated into the Van Houtte roasting plant in Quebec. Expansion into the United States In the mid-1990s, Timothy's expanded into the United States, concentrating in New York City. Other stores were located in Boston, Washington, D.C., and Philadelphia. At one point, it was New York City's second-largest coffeehouse chain, after Starbucks. After the September 11 attacks in 2001, the company closed its American operations and the company re-focused on the Canadian market and wholesale business operation. Expansion into South Korea Timothy's opened its first overseas store in Seoul, Republic of Korea (South Korea) on May 19, 2007. Current",
"-27.39353057469998"
],
[
"were sold worldwide up to 2007) was attributed in part to it being distributed and promoted via Starbucks coffeehouses, as well as the distribution and marketing relationship between Concord Records and the Starbucks Hear Music label. The Starbucks Coffee Company proved to be singularly responsible for nearly thirty-percent of the total domestic sales of the album. Following several certifications of gold, platinum and multi-platinum in the United States during the fall of 2004, Genius Loves Company earned a triple-platinum sales certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on February 2, 2005.\nFor the week ending September 18, 2004, Genius Loves Company",
"-27.376437013444956"
],
[
"dropped 40% from 1995 to 2000.\nIn the 2000s, e-books started to take market share away from printed books, either published directly via the world wide web, or read on e-ink devices such as the Amazon Kindle, introduced in 2007. Amazon continued to gain significant market share, and these competitive pressures resulted in a collapse of the chain stores in the 2010s. Crown closed in 2001; Borders, B. Dalton, and Waldenbooks were liquidated in 2010-11. A smaller Barnes & Noble, with its less-successful Nook e-reader was left as the only nation-wide chain, with second-largest Books-A-Million operating in only",
"-27.333777249907143"
],
[
"the logo and brand name, and remodel the stores as local coffee houses \"inspired by Starbucks.\" CEO Howard Schultz says the unbranded stores are a \"laboratory for Starbucks\". The first, 15th Avenue Coffee and Tea, opened in July 2009 on Capitol Hill. It served wine and beer, and hosted live music and poetry readings. It was remodeled and reopened as a Starbucks-branded store in 2011, and later closed in 2017. Another, Roy Street Coffee and Tea at 700 Broadway E., also on Capitol Hill opened in November as a \"Tudor-style coffeehouse\".\nAlthough the stores have been called \"stealth Starbucks\" and criticized",
"-27.33332219795193"
],
[
"trader 2002. Five new Double Coffee houses opened in 2003 and at the end of 2005 there were 16 in Latvia with branches subsequently opening in Estonia, Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine. The chain opened its first non-European branch in June 2009 in Beijing, China In 2009, the Estonian section of the chain went bankrupt, followed in 2011 by bankruptcy in Lithuania and a withdrawal from both those countries' markets.",
"-27.32359720999375"
],
[
"had put independent bookstores under considerable financial pressure and many closed due to their inability to compete. Closures in the United States include Kroch's and Brentano's (1995) in Chicago, Gotham Book Mart (2006) in New York, Cody's Books (2008) in Berkeley, Kepler's Books (August 31, 2005), Printers Inc. Bookstore (2001) in Palo Alto, A Clean Well-Lighted Place for Books (2006) in San Francisco, Midnight Special (2004) in Santa Monica, Dutton's Books (2008) in Los Angeles, Coliseum Books (2007) in New York City, and Wordsworth Books (2004) in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The number of independent booksellers in the United States",
"-27.305402683523425"
],
[
"Original Starbucks The Pike Place Starbucks store, commonly called the Original Starbucks, is the first Starbucks store, established in 1971 at Pike Place Market in downtown Seattle, Washington, United States. The store has kept its early appearance over time and is subject to design guidelines due to its historic significance. The store is considered a tourist attraction and often hosts a crowd.\nWhile commonly referred to as the first Starbucks location, the current address is the second for the Pike Place store. The first Starbucks cafe was located at 2000 Western Avenue from 1971–1976. This cafe later moved to 1912 Pike",
"-27.288121933146613"
],
[
"not generating enough profit. A few months later 52 U.S. stores were sold to K-Mart and were converted into Waldenbooks stores.",
"-27.280024789011804"
],
[
"Hudson's Bay Company, Sears Canada, and Zellers all took market share from Eaton's. By the 1990s, American retailers, most notably Walmart, were expanding into Canada, and Eaton's found it increasingly difficult to compete.\nRetailing and land use trends in the last decades of the 20th century did not favour Eaton's. Traditional department stores, including Eaton's, commanded an ever-shrinking share of the Canadian retail dollar, as big box stores, such as Wal-Mart and Zellers, and specialty stores expanded their shares of retail sales. With the advent of urban sprawl, most Canadian downtown shopping districts (which were historically dominated by",
"-27.247508848959114"
],
[
"decided to step down as president and CEO and sell the chain to his 700 employees in 1986. At the time of the transition the chain had 17 locations. Increased competition from Crown, Borders, Barnes & Noble, and other discount bookstores forced the company to close all 10 of its suburban mall locations and leaving the remaining 7 Chicago locations open in 1993. A few months later when the company was on verge of bankruptcy, Kroch bought back the company and then turned around and resold the company to Businesship International. After closing more stores, the new parent company was",
"-27.236143350761267"
],
[
"Book Company, and Active Minds. However, the SmithBooks, the Book Company, and Classic Bookshops names have been gradually phased and locations rebranded as Coles stores in recent years. Canada's first book superstore, Toronto's World's Biggest Bookstore, once part of the Coles chain, was also owned by Chapters and had continued to operate under its original name.\nChapters grew quickly. It was criticized, however, for several reasons. It was blamed for the demise of several independent bookstores across Canada, especially alternative stores carrying obscure or controversial titles. Although it was said that Chapters also built its business around moving massive numbers of",
"-27.216336552781286"
],
[
"big chain stores were buying up the distribution channels [and] they just raised the prices and they made sure that no one can compete. So all the little guys went out of business.\"\nGalco's stocks and ships more than 700 different sodas, many of them hard-to-find and small-batch brands; it also offers a variety of beers, old-fashioned candies, and fresh sandwiches. In 2013, Galco's carried 108 different diet sodas, 68 cream sodas, and 61 root beers.\nAmong the more prominent sodas that Galco's stocks include Afri-Cola, Bubble Up, Dad's Root Beer, Faygo, Fentimans Curiosity Cola, Green River, Jolt Cola, Jones Soda, Kickapoo",
"-27.190517190436367"
],
[
"its buying operations, as well as putting together more food and drugstore combination stores.\nFrom 1992 up through 1998, American Stores consolidated operations and moved major responsibilities of their subsidiaries to their headquarters in Salt Lake City, Utah. The company’s employees based in Salt Lake City, Utah increased from fewer than 100 in 1992 to over 1,200 by 1998. During this period, American Stores itself did not operate any food or drugstores in Utah having sold-off the Osco Drug and Alpha Beta Utah stores in 1991. Super Saver Food In early 1994, American Stores launched a discount warehouse food store concept",
"-27.189070307998918"
],
[
"multinationals that were ready to enter the market (Starbucks were yet to enter, and Gloria Jean's were looking to expand their Australian franchise, as they only had two test sites in New South Wales).\nIn 2001, the company opened its first store outside Victoria on Adelaide's Grenfell Street (it has since moved further down the road to Currie Street), and in April 2003, that store became Hudsons' first franchised operation. Also in 2003, Hudsons Coffee commenced rolling out its first Wi-Fi hotspots within Melbourne CBD outlets, and by the end of that year the chain had expanded to 25 outlets. By",
"-27.184244861025945"
],
[
"creating one of the largest employee-owned companies in America. In 1988, the retail chain filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy which resulted in the closing of 170 stores across 11 states and the loss of 1,600 jobs.\nAccording to a source, franchisees were given a 99-year license to use the Otasco name after the chain went out of business. As of 2014, two Otasco stores remain in operation in Oklahoma, in Beaver and in Marlow. Borger, Texas still had a store operating under the Otasco name in 2012. Many, Louisiana has a locally-owned Otasco Associate store still in business as of 2014.",
"-27.172762552974746"
],
[
"the Canadian market for baked goods (based on the number of customers served) and held 62% of the Canadian coffee market (compared to Starbucks, in the number two position, at 7%). 2007–2013: Repatriation On June 29, 2009, Tim Hortons Inc. announced that, pending shareholder approval, the chain's operations would be reorganized under a new publicly traded company, also named \"Tim Hortons Incorporated,\" incorporated under the Canada Business Corporations Act. The change was being made primarily for tax purposes. On September 28, 2009, Tim Hortons Inc. announced it had completed the reorganization of its corporate structure to become a Canadian public",
"-27.171851519466145"
],
[
"70 corporate stores and shift its business primarily to online. These stores closed after Memorial Day Weekend of 2017. Of the remaining stores, 50 more closed by the end of June 2017.\nOne particular store closing in April 2017 garnered widespread media attention when a Facebook account, calling itself \"RadioShack - Reynoldsburg, OH\", began lashing out at customers with messages such as \"We closed. Fuck all of you.\", \"Always hated all you prick customers anyway.\" RadioShack addressed these posts on their official Facebook page denying any involvement.\nOn June 29, 2017, RadioShack's creditors sued Sprint, claiming that it sabotaged its",
"-27.1571229868714"
],
[
"1982, divesting itself of its 880 restaurants in the United States.\nThe chain recovered, but failed to return to its former glory; sales and restaurant numbers declined and many foreign markets were abandoned. One reason for this certainly was the fact that the franchised-restaurant market had changed, with US fast-food giants McDonald's, Burger King, Wendy's and KFC taking over, and smaller companies finding themselves unable to compete (Wimpy provides another example). In 2003, and again in 2007, Wienerwald filed for bankruptcy again, which resulted in further closures of restaurants and further release of employees.\nIn 2007 Friedrich Jahn's daughters Margot Steinberg and",
"-27.154316770087462"
],
[
"plc. The deal closed in November 2011, with Uniq resultantly delisting from the London Stock Exchange. On 25 July 2016, the company acquired The Sandwich Factory Holdings Ltd for £15m from Cranswick plc. On 14 November 2016, Greencore announced it would acquire US-based Peacock Foods for $747.5m, significantly expanding its presence in the country.\nThe health of Greencore's US business was questioned by investors as a result of a late August 2017 fear that Starbucks had backtracked on a contract at the coffee giant's Jacksonville facility in Florida. Brokerage house Cantor Fitzgerald became the first firm to lower its investment rating",
"-27.153154206192994"
],
[
"downturn Despite the aggressive growth of their businesses, most of the firms stock prices and prospects collapsed by late 2000 or early 2001, due to the collapse of the Internet bubble as well as increased competition from the \"Big Five\" and other established technology consulting firms.",
"-27.153115706401877"
],
[
"North American Coffee Partnership In 1994, PepsiCo and Starbucks formed an entity called the North American Coffee Partnership. The joint venture was created so that ready-to-drink products using the Starbucks name could be distributed using Pepsi's global network. The Frappuccino was the joint venture's first product. Since 1996, the NACP has expanded to include a diverse portfolio of Starbucks branded coffee and energy drinks. The NACP has approximately 97% market share in RTD (ready-to-drink) coffee and has grown to more than a $1.5 billion retail business.",
"-27.120440274782595"
],
[
"the stores finally ceased trading in 2008/9, only around 10% of the stores had cafes in them. These were usually located at the back of the stores or, when a store had a second sales floor, they were located either in the basement or upstairs on the first floor. They sold the usual range of hot and cold drinks, with hot food available, including breakfasts and lunch-time meals.\nStores with cafes in them included Aylesbury, Basingstoke, Milton Keynes, Blackpool, Brighton, Bromley, Exeter, Coventry, Cambridge, Dereham, Doncaster, Grantham, Hounslow, High Wycombe, Ipswich, Paignton, Gloucester, Huntingdon, Worcester, Windsor, Plymouth, Portsmouth, Leigh, Lancaster, Leicester,",
"-27.11529372214818"
],
[
"It filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in April 1995, ended 27 locations, and unloaded $40 million worth of old merchandise that was in its warehouses. In August 1997 the company emerged from bankruptcy protection. The store chain itself had a hard time competing against big box retailers that were rapidly expanding into the area like Walmart and Target, and also with the advent of online shopping and the rise of household Internet use, Weiner's also suffered as they were slow to adopt online retail.\nIn October 2000 the company declared bankruptcy again. The company announced that it was closing 44 of",
"-27.11238871248497"
],
[
"With the advent of its Super Crown Books locations, as well as the boom in sales volume of competitors like Borders, Barnes & Noble, and Books-a-Million, the company reevaluated its Classic Crown locations and determined that several of the smaller stores would become increasingly unprofitable as the trend toward larger bookstores continued. In 1993, under the guidance of Glenn E. Hemmerle, president and CEO of the company from October 1992 through June 1994, Crown prepared the financial groundwork for closing several of its smaller stores. Haft family feud A bitter divorce between Herbert Haft and his wife tore the family",
"-27.075710246746894"
],
[
"America at the White House \"Insourcing American Jobs\" Forum. Success stories Advances in 3D printing technologies brought manufacturers closer to their customers.\nThere have been several very successful stories of companies. In most cases hundreds if not thousands of jobs were created or reinstated. In the case of Starbucks, in 2012 it saved American Mug and Stein Company in East Liverpool, Ohio from bankruptcy. Avoiding failure There have been some cases of reshoring that weren't successful. Otis Elevators’ reshoring effort did not go well. Otis says it failed to consider the consequences of the new location and tried to do",
"-27.05857673229184"
],
[
"focusing on locally relevant design for each store.\nStarbucks's first Channel Island store was opened in early 2015, in the primary business area of St Peter Port in Guernsey.\nIn 2014 Starbucks was scheduled to open a store in Azerbaijan, in the Port Baku Mall.\nIn August 2013, Starbucks's CEO, Howard Schultz, personally announced the opening of Starbucks stores in Colombia. The first café was set to open in 2014 in Bogotá and add 50 more stores throughout Colombia's main cities in a 5-year limit. Schultz also stated that Starbucks will work with both the Colombian Government and USAID to continue \"empowering local",
"-27.058119433102547"
],
[
"total purchasing of the largest coffee brands owned by Nestlé, Kraft, and Sara Lee. The leading global brands, in terms of volumes purchased, are Starbucks, whose private certification (C.A.F.E. Practices) covers nearly 90% of its purchases, and Nespresso whose purchase of sustainable coffees (Rainforest Alliance Certified) now accounts for more than half of its total buying. Current issues From a market share of zero to a share 8% of the global coffee industry in one decade suggests that sustainable coffees are no longer a small niche. Efforts are underway by various certification bodies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and global food companies",
"-27.052081424248172"
],
[
"Commerce Bancorp History The company was founded in 1973 by fast-food restaurant franchise owner Vernon Hill, a graduate of the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. Hill sought to bring fast food convenience to banking and expanded Commerce from one location to over 435 in thirty-three years. With growth of over sixty-five new stores opening annually, the company had planned to reach at least 800 stores by 2010. During the early-mid 2000s, television advertisements for Commerce Bank featured Kelly Ripa and Regis Philbin. In 2006 Commerce purchased eMoney Advisor for $32 million in stock. Mascots Commerce Bank had an",
"-27.05116011123755"
],
[
"hours.\nIn 2011, The Fair Trade Coffee Company closed its doors and moved to an online store.",
"-27.00810953936889"
],
[
"USA, as part of a global strategy to ramp up their premium lifestyle portfolio, revealing plans to open hundreds of stores within 2 years, and expanding into more than 15 countries. In 2015, CEO Sorapoj Techakraisri revealed plans to list Dean & DeLuca on the US stock market within 3 years \nIn August 2016, CEO Sorapoj Techakraisri revealed plans to increase the total number of stores for the brand globally to 300 branches by 2021. As of 2018 the number of stores globally stands at more than 60. Corporate social responsibility In the 2011 Thailand floods, PACE Development",
"-27.001288699859288"
],
[
"Pasqua Coffee Pasqua Coffee was a San Francisco-based retail coffee chain that was named The Pedestrian Café when it opened in 1983. It started as a single store and grew to almost 60 locations in San Francisco, Los Angeles, and New York City before it was acquired by Starbucks Coffee in 1999.",
"-26.99777895931038"
],
[
"firm's stores on 8 January 2009, resulting in the loss of 178 jobs. This left a total of 92 stores. On 14 January it was announced that a further 18 stores would close (leaving just over 70 stores), at a cost of 353 jobs. A flagship branch in Piccadilly, London, was one of the 18 stores to close. The same day, 14 stores were sold to HMV. This left a company portfolio of 68 stores (63 in the UK and five in Ireland).\nOn 20 January, Zavvi in Athlone closed, reducing the branches of Zavvi Ireland to four. On 29 January",
"-26.984688158816425"
],
[
"educating customers on coffee. Labor disputes Starbucks workers in seven stores have joined the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) as the Starbucks Workers Union since 2004.\nIn line with a Starbucks Union press release, since then, the union membership has begun expanding to Chicago and Maryland in addition to New York City, where the movement originated. On March 7, 2006, the IWW and Starbucks agreed to a National Labor Relations Board settlement in which three Starbucks workers were granted almost US$2,000 in back wages and two fired employees were offered reinstatement. According to the Starbucks Union, on November 24, 2006,",
"-26.960602591221686"
],
[
"on the tactic used in the early success of Wal-Mart). 1970s–1990s By the late 1970s (when Casey's opened its first warehouse) the chain had 118 stores, including the original store operated by Lamberti's parents which entered the Casey's fold in 1977.\nIn 1982, Casey's opened its first Distribution Center in Urbandale, Iowa.\nCasey's became a publicly traded company in October, 1983, with an initial public offering of 700,000 shares. Around this time Casey's began to sell doughnuts in its stores; in December 1984 it introduced pizza into its stores (which is one of its signature items today).\nIn 1990, Casey's moved to",
"-26.91634081491793"
],
[
"whose layout was driven wholly by merchandising concerns.\nAn even more popular level, were the Variety stores, especially the dime stores, led by Woolworth, Kresge, and Kress. They operated over 4,200 stores in 1930. By the 21st century, the dime store disappeared and the niche of low-cost, high turnover merchandise was taken over by the dollar stores.\nThe 2000s have seen a worldwide decline with the rise of e-commerce. The number of companies operating department stores dropped from 95 (operating 9,969 stores) in 2006 to 68 (operating 9,456 stores) in 2013. Salt Lake City On 1 March 1869, Zion's Cooperative Mercantile",
"-26.915138690674212"
],
[
"Wal-Mart, whose outlets offer a wide range of products in an attempt to make competing specialty stores obsolete. Essentially, each section in large department stores, such as hardware, electronics, and clothing, consequently aims to replace competing businesses specializing in just one of those areas.\nWhile the above example deals with the combining of many different categories of products, supplier convergence can also occur with just one primary product. Examples of this trend would be the growth of book superstores such as Borders and Chapters, who have replaced many independent bookstores not by offering different products, but by offering a",
"-26.911515377723845"
],
[
"ever constructed by the company.\nIn November 2017, Food City opened its first in-store Starbucks in a newly built location in Athens, Tennessee. As of November, 2018, the company operates 8 Starbucks in-store locations. Headquarters K-VA-T's corporate operations were located in Grundy, Virginia, from its inception in 1955 until it moved to Abingdon, Virginia, in the 1970s. Over the course of the years, the company's operations were spread out over five different buildings throughout Abingdon and Washington County.\nIn October 2013, K-VA-T officially consolidated its corporate operations into a new headquarters building in downtown Abingdon, Virginia, at 1 Food City Circle.",
"-26.903170687000966"
],
[
"the Columbia Business school, it was found the IPO of B&M was overhyped due to an already saturated market in the UK.\nIn November 2014, the business opened its 400th store (in Stockport) and claimed to serve in excess of three million customers every week.\nDuring July 2017, the company completed the acquisition of the smaller frozen food store chain Heron Foods for £152 million. Operations B&M's strategy for acquiring products requires it to purchase directly from factories, or to seek overproduction and bulk buy opportunities, which means the retailer may make less profit by selling these items more cheaply than the",
"-26.897634297201876"
],
[
"editors. By the late 20th century, however, all the Luce magazines and their imitators (such as Newsweek and Look) had drastically scaled back. Newsweek ended its print edition in 2013. 21st century Internet Following the emergence of browsers, USA Today became the first newspaper to offer an online version of its publication in 1995, though CNN launched its own site later that year. However, especially after 2000, the Internet brought \"free\" news and classified advertising to audiences that no longer saw a reason for subscriptions, undercutting the business model of many daily newspapers. Bankruptcy loomed across the U.S. and",
"-26.8828842696239"
],
[
"chain bookstores such as Borders and Barnes & Noble began to compete with independent bookstores such as Printers Inc. The rise of Amazon.com also affected Printers Inc. and other independent bookstores. Thus, in December 1998, Printers Inc. announced that it would be closing. The local community protested the closing, however, as the owners began to search for a new partner. In March 1999 Printers Inc. was resurrected under new management. This management lasted until 2001 when Printers Inc. Bookstore closed for good. The Printers Inc. Cafe, however, did not close as it is under different management. Documentary The",
"-26.877691393485293"
],
[
"the ends cut off.\" The dining area also contained a second area that sold popcorn, pretzels and Icee drinks. Bankruptcy By the late 1990s, the chain found that it was unable to compete against other retail chains, such as Kmart, Target, and Wal-Mart. Venture tried to return to its founding principles as an upscale discounter and remodeled most of its 90+ stores. While facing vast competition Venture made a fatal mistake trying to expand into Texas instead of protecting its core markets. Venture sold the Texas stores to Kmart in 1996 and closed its distribution center in Corsicana, Texas.",
"-26.871006072819"
],
[
"December 2007, Biggby Coffee was ranked 289 out of the 500 companies on Entrepreneur Magazine’s Annual Franchise 500 List. In 2008, the organization moved up 34 spots to number 255, the second among coffee retailers on the list!\nIn September 2011, Biggby Coffee was named the fastest-growing coffee chain in America by CNBC, which ranked the company number one based on their growth percentage from the previous year. Biggby Coffee was ranked above popular brands like Starbucks and Dunkin’ Donuts.\nIn 2011 and 2012, Biggby Coffee was named a Top 40 Food and Franchise in the United States by Franchise Business Review.",
"-26.865951648389455"
],
[
"stores, such as Wal-Mart and Target. The company closed its Hollywood store and sold the building in 1984. Rodgers' Cedar Mill store closed in 1988, the space being taken over by an expanded Cedar Mill Library. The last three stores in the chain, in Portland's Menlo Park Shopping Center (at NE 122nd & Glisan), in the Westmoreland neighborhood, and in Lake Oswego, closed in early 1998.",
"-26.865772111399565"
],
[
"Johnson was able to purchase 125 Starbucks stores, which reported higher than average per capita sales. The partnership, called Urban Coffee Opportunities, placed Starbucks in locations such as Detroit, Washington, D.C., Harlem, and the Crenshaw District of Los Angeles. Johnson sold his remaining interest in the stores back to the company in 2010, ending a successful twelve-year partnership. He has also made investments in urban real estate through the Canyon-Johnson and Yucaipa-Johnson funds. Another major project is with insurance services company Aon Corp. In 2005–2007, Johnson was part of a syndicate that bought the Williamsburgh Savings Bank Tower, then the",
"-26.862307051051175"
]
] |
1k31ye | Why don't some planets in our solar system orbit the other way around the Sun? | [
"Try to imagine the solar system before there was even really a star. There would have been a cloud of material flying all around. If everything was very random, then very little would have enough speed to avoid being sucked into the newly forming star. If some things had a velocity in one direction and other things had a velocity in another direction, then they would likely end up dragging on each other, slow down, and get pulled in. What we think happened is that as the sun was forming, it acquired a spin and that spin ended up transferring to the cloud of material, shaping it into a disc which eventually would collect together to form the planets. Without this spin, the material would have just fallen into the sun and it would have burned a little bit brighter.",
"Retrograde orbits (orbits that go the opposite direction of the star's spin) tend to decay quickly and spiral inward. Often these kind of orbits are associated with captured natural satellites. Triton, for example, is thought to have been captured by Neptune and orbits in a retrograde motion compared to the planet's rotation. I think that would make a large body orbiting the sun retrograde very interesting -- likely captured from another solar system.",
"The real question is, do they all spin the other direction on the other side of the universe's equator?",
"Before there were planets there was a larger spinning disk of gas yhat eventually formed into planets. Since it was one disk everything is revolving the same direction.",
"because that's how planets are made. planets started off as space debris that was compacted together. think of it like cars crashing. if two cars were traveling in the same direction and hit, they would be smashed together and keep traveling in the same direction, [like so]( URL_0 ) if two cars traveling in opposite directions crashed, they in a sense \"explode\" apart. thus the only way planets could be formed would be if the space rocks traveling in the same direction joined together, getting bigger and bigger, destroying anything moving in the opposite direction. sorry if there's any confusion, I'm hungover and my brain isn't working",
"They were all formed from the same large disk of spinning gas, thus were always all headed in the same direction."
] | [
[
"planets do indeed move around the Sun, which due to its much larger mass, moves far less than its own diameter and the gravity of which is dominant in determining the orbits of the planets (in other words, the center of mass of the Solar System is near the center of the Sun). The Earth and Moon are much closer to being a binary planet; the center of mass around which they both rotate is still inside the Earth, but is about 4,624 km (2,873 mi) or 72.6% of the Earth's radius away from the centre of the Earth (thus closer to",
"-40.30778359275428"
],
[
"Solar System's proto-planetary disk, forming a system under gravitational interaction. This idea, too, is a problematic condition for defining two bodies as \"double planets\" because planets can \"capture\" moons through gravitational interaction. For example, the moons of Mars (Phobos and Deimos) are thought to be asteroids captured long ago by Mars. Such a definition would also deem Neptune-Triton a double planet, since Triton was a Kuiper belt body the same size and of similar composition to Pluto, later captured by Neptune.",
"-37.33511960320175"
],
[
"Because of its orbital distance and mass are just about the same as Jupiter, astronomers began to predict that star systems with Jupiter-like planets at the right orbital distance could have terrestrial planets in the inner portion, like the Solar System does.\nWhile several Jovian-sized planets have been discovered, most have been found orbiting close to their stars. It is now hypothesized that Jupiter's movement in the Solar System may have cleared the way for the rocky inner planets, including Earth, to form. The similarity extends to the star that centers the system; like the Sun, HIP 11915 is a G-class",
"-37.12324379605707"
],
[
"together comprise less than 0.002% of the Solar System's total mass.\nMost large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of Earth's orbit, known as the ecliptic. The planets are very close to the ecliptic, whereas comets and Kuiper belt objects are frequently at significantly greater angles to it. All the planets, and most other objects, orbit the Sun in the same direction that the Sun is rotating (counter-clockwise, as viewed from above Earth's north pole). There are exceptions, such as Halley's Comet.\nThe overall structure of the charted regions of the Solar System consists of the Sun, four",
"-36.64546777097348"
],
[
"system. Orbit and rotation Venus orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 0.72 AU (108 million km; 67 million mi), and completes an orbit every 224.7 days. Although all planetary orbits are elliptical, Venus's orbit is the closest to circular, with an eccentricity of less than 0.01. When Venus lies between Earth and the Sun in inferior conjunction, it makes the closest approach to Earth of any planet at an average distance of 41 million km (25 million mi). The planet reaches inferior conjunction every 584 days, on average. Because of the decreasing eccentricity of Earth's orbit, the minimum distances will become greater over tens of thousands of years.",
"-36.0727248621406"
],
[
"System during a close encounter between the Sun and another star. If a planet was in a distant orbit around this star, three-body interactions during the encounter could alter the planet's path, leaving it in a stable orbit around the Sun. A planet originating in a system without Jupiter-massed planets could remain in a distant eccentric orbit for a longer time, increasing its chances of capture. The wider range of possible orbits would reduce the odds of its capture in a relatively low inclination orbit to 1–2 percent. This process could also occur with rogue planets, but the likelihood of",
"-35.920398317502986"
],
[
"of the planets in the Solar System rotate in the same direction as they orbit the Sun, which is counter-clockwise as seen from above the Sun's north pole, the exceptions being Venus and Uranus, which rotate clockwise, though Uranus's extreme axial tilt means there are differing conventions on which of its poles is \"north\", and therefore whether it is rotating clockwise or anti-clockwise. Regardless of which convention is used, Uranus has a retrograde rotation relative to its orbit.\nThe rotation of a planet can be induced by several factors during formation. A net angular momentum can be induced by the individual",
"-35.695370035478845"
],
[
"because all the planets are closer or further away from the Earth at different times, Venus and Mars up to eight times. He encourages Simplicio to make a plan of the planets, starting with Venus and Mercury which are easily seen to rotate about the Sun. Mars must also go about the Sun (as well as the Earth) since it is never seen horned, unlike Venus now seen through the telescope; similarly with Jupiter and Saturn. Earth, which is between Mars with a period of two years and Venus with nine months, has a period of a year which may",
"-35.46601445478154"
],
[
"orbits of the inner planets. Some of them are potentially hazardous objects. Outer Solar System The outer region of the Solar System is home to the giant planets and their large moons. The centaurs and many short-period comets also orbit in this region. Due to their greater distance from the Sun, the solid objects in the outer Solar System contain a higher proportion of volatiles, such as water, ammonia, and methane than those of the inner Solar System because the lower temperatures allow these compounds to remain solid. Outer planets The four outer planets, or giant planets (sometimes called Jovian",
"-35.00568769974052"
],
[
"difficult, because of sunlight scattered in Earth's atmosphere, but observers in space can see them easily if direct sunlight is blocked from reaching the observer's eyes.) The planets' phases are \"new\" when they are at inferior conjunction, passing more or less between the Sun and the Earth. (Sometimes they appear to cross the solar disk, which is called a transit of the planet.) At intermediate points on their orbits, these planets exhibit the full range of crescent and gibbous phases. Superior planets The superior planets, orbiting outside the Earth's orbit, do not exhibit the full range of phases as they",
"-34.96472113672644"
],
[
"main challenges in interplanetary travel is producing the very large velocity changes necessary to travel from one body to another in the Solar System.\nDue to the Sun's gravitational pull, a spacecraft moving farther from the Sun will slow down, while a spacecraft moving closer will speed up. Also, since any two planets are at different distances from the Sun, the planet from which the spacecraft starts is moving around the Sun at a different speed than the planet to which the spacecraft is travelling (in accordance with Kepler's Third Law). Because of these facts, a spacecraft desiring to transfer to",
"-34.96195090546098"
],
[
"than Mercury orbits the Sun. Except for b, they orbit farther than the Galilean satellites do around Jupiter, but closer than most of the other moons of Jupiter. The distance between the orbits of b and c is only 1.6 times the distance between the Earth and the Moon. The planets should appear prominently in each other's skies, in some cases appearing several times larger than the Moon appears from Earth. A year on the closest planet passes in only 1.5 Earth days, while the seventh planet's year passes in only 18.8 days.\nThe planets pass so close to one another",
"-34.932826325530186"
],
[
"solar twin with similar metallicity might have a similar composition to Earth. Also, this would help eliminate stellar extremes and variability that may be applicable to other types of stars.\nWhile planets have been discovered orbiting similar stars to the Sun, most are gas giant or super-Earth sized, and many of these planetary systems have shown to be surprisingly different from our own. This measure is not entirely reliable as Mars and Venus also orbit the Sun but have different compositions and properties. Surface water and hydrological cycle The concept of the habitable zone (or Liquid Water Zone) defining a region",
"-34.91246174249318"
],
[
"is the opposite of all the other motions of the heavenly bodies which are from west to east; making the Earth rotate brings it into line with all the others. Although Aristotle argues that circular motions are not contraries, they could still lead to collisions.\nThe great orbits of the planets take longer than the shorter: Saturn and Jupiter take many years, Mars two, whereas the Moon takes only a month. Jupiter's moons take even less. This is not changed if the Earth rotates every day, but if the Earth is stationary then we suddenly find that the sphere of the",
"-34.886149056867"
],
[
"they spiraled toward the Sun due to gas drag after their eccentricities were excited. \nSeveral hypotheses have also been offered for the lack of close orbiting super-Earth and the small mass of Mercury. \nIf Jupiter's core formed close to the Sun, its outward migration across the inner Solar System could have pushed material outward in its resonances, leaving the region inside Venus's orbit depleted. In a protoplanetary disk that was evolving via a disk wind, planetary embryos could have migrated outward before merging to form planets, leaving the Solar System without planets inside Mercury's orbit. An early generation of",
"-34.74226402072236"
],
[
"systems start with many close-in planets, and that typically a sequence of their collisions causes consolidation of mass into few larger planets, but in case of the Solar System the collisions caused their destruction and ejection.\nThe orbits of Solar System planets are nearly circular. Compared to other systems, they have smaller orbital eccentricity. Although there are attempts to explain it partly with a bias in the radial-velocity detection method and partly with long interactions of a quite high number of planets, the exact causes remain undetermined.",
"-34.693436288274825"
],
[
"star, with a large planet–moon distance, it is expected that the orbital planes of moons will tend to be aligned with the planet's orbit around the star due to tides from the star, but if the planet–moon distance is small it may be inclined. For gas giants, the orbits of moons will tend to be aligned with the giant planet's equator because these formed in circumplanetary disks. Lack of moons around planets close to their stars Planets close to their stars on circular orbits will tend to despin and become tidally locked. As the planet's rotation slows down the radius",
"-34.68192262091907"
],
[
"Solar conjunction Solar conjunction occurs when a planet or other solar system object is on the opposite side of the Sun from the Earth. From an Earth reference, the Sun will pass between the Earth and the object. Communication with any spacecraft in solar conjunction will be severely limited due to the Sun's interference on radio transmissions from the spacecraft.\nThe term can also refer to the passage of the line of sight to an interior planet (Mercury or Venus) being very close to the solar disk. If the planet passes directly in front of the Sun, a solar transit",
"-34.657882832769246"
],
[
"the orbits of the two known planets. Under the \"packed planetary systems\" hypothesis, which predicts that planetary systems form in such a way that the system could not support additional planets between the orbits of the existing ones, the gap would be expected to host a planet.\nIn September 2007, a third planet with a mass at least 0.396 Jupiter masses was announced to be orbiting between planets b and c with an eccentric orbit. The planet, orbiting in a region of the planetary system previously known to be stable for additional planets, was seen as a confirmation of the \"packed",
"-34.41666059894487"
],
[
"star's rotation. A substantial fraction of hot-Jupiters even have retrograde orbits, meaning that they orbit in the opposite direction from the star's rotation. Rather than a planet's orbit having been disturbed, it may be that the star itself flipped early in their system's formation due to interactions between the star's magnetic field and the planet-forming disk. Periastron precession Periastron precession is the rotation of a planet's orbit within the orbital plane, i.e. the axes of the ellipse change direction. In the Solar System, perturbations from other planets are the main cause, but for close-in exoplanets the largest factor can be",
"-34.40311915964412"
],
[
"the Sun and Moon and the stars revolve around the Earth, and the other five planets revolve around the Sun. \nAt the same time, the motions of the planets are mathematically equivalent to the motions in Copernicus' heliocentric system under a simple coordinate transformation, so that, as long as no force law is postulated to explain why the planets move as described, there is no mathematical reason to prefer either the Tychonic or the Copernican system. Motivation for the Tychonic system Tycho admired aspects of Copernicus's heliocentric model of the Solar System, but felt that it had problems",
"-34.371150377672166"
],
[
"to Earth's orbit; thus, when the planet passes between Earth and the Sun, it usually does not cross the face of the Sun. Transits of Venus occur when the planet's inferior conjunction coincides with its presence in the plane of Earth's orbit. Transits of Venus occur in cycles of 243 years with the current pattern of transits being pairs of transits separated by eight years, at intervals of about 105.5 years or 121.5 years—a pattern first discovered in 1639 by the English astronomer Jeremiah Horrocks.\nThe latest pair was June 8, 2004 and June 5–6, 2012. The transit could be watched live from many",
"-34.341003922367236"
],
[
"orbiting super-Earths into the Sun could be avoided if the debris coalesced into larger objects, reducing gas drag; and if the protoplanetary disk had an inner cavity, their inward migration could be halted near its edge. If no planets had yet formed in the inner Solar System, the destruction of the larger bodies during the collisional cascade could have left the remaining debris small enough to be pushed outward by the solar wind, which would have been much stronger during the early Solar System, leaving little to form planets inside Mercury's orbit. Later developments Simulations of the formation of the",
"-34.307988131884485"
],
[
"orbit around the Sun in a 3:2 resonance.\nMany exoplanets (especially the close-in ones) are expected to be in spin–orbit resonances higher than 1:1. A Mercury-like terrestrial planet can, for example, become captured in a 3:2, 2:1, or 5:2 spin–orbit resonance, with the probability of each being dependent on the orbital eccentricity. Moons Most major moons in the Solar System − the gravitationally rounded satellites − are tidally locked with their primaries, because they orbit very closely and tidal force increases rapidly (as a cubic function) with decreasing distance. Notable exceptions are the irregular outer satellites of the gas giants, which",
"-34.12257478147512"
],
[
"system.\nThe center of mass of the Jupiter–Sun system lies outside the surface of the Sun, though arguing that Jupiter and the Sun are a double star is not analogous to arguing Pluto-Charon is a double dwarf planet. The problem is that Jupiter is not a star, or even a brown dwarf, and due to its low mass it is unable to achieve any form of fusion. Formation of the system A final consideration is the way in which the two bodies came to form a system. Both the Earth-Moon and Pluto-Charon systems are thought to have been formed as",
"-34.02906458557118"
],
[
"planet and the Sun and Moon being celestial objects in their own right and not objects orbiting the Earth).",
"-34.00166758047999"
],
[
"Transit (astronomy) In the Solar System One example of a transit involves the motion of a planet between a terrestrial observer and the Sun. This can happen only with inferior planets, namely Mercury and Venus (see transit of Mercury and transit of Venus). However, because a transit is dependent on the point of observation, the Earth itself transits the Sun if observed from Mars. In the solar transit of the Moon captured during calibration of the STEREO B spacecraft's ultraviolet imaging, the Moon appears much smaller than it does when seen from Earth, because the spacecraft–Moon separation was several times",
"-33.89630067918915"
],
[
"to the fixed stars about once every 27.3 days (its sidereal period). However, because Earth is moving in its orbit around the Sun at the same time, it takes slightly longer for the Moon to show the same phase to Earth, which is about 29.5 days (its synodic period). Unlike most satellites of other planets, the Moon orbits closer to the ecliptic plane than to the planet's equatorial plane. The Moon's orbit is subtly perturbed by the Sun and Earth in many small, complex and interacting ways. For example, the plane of the Moon's orbit gradually rotates once every 18.61 years, which",
"-33.83323766443209"
],
[
"Heliocentric orbit A heliocentric orbit (also called circumsolar orbit) is an orbit around the barycenter of the Solar System, which is usually located within or very near the surface of the Sun. All planets, comets, and asteroids in the Solar System, and the Sun itself are in such orbits, as are many artificial probes and pieces of debris. The moons of planets in the Solar System, by contrast, are not in heliocentric orbits, as they orbit their respective planet (although the Moon has a convex orbit around the Sun).\nThe barycenter of the Solar System, while always very near the Sun,",
"-33.821357097484"
],
[
"can be regarded as a double planet system, rather than as a planet with a satellite. The plane of the Moon's orbit around Earth lies close to the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun (the ecliptic), rather than in the plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation of Earth (the equator) as is usually the case with planetary satellites. The mass of the Moon is sufficiently large, and it is sufficiently close, to raise tides in the matter of Earth. In particular, the water of the oceans bulges out towards and away from the Moon. The average",
"-33.676775629166514"
],
[
"and the star's rotation must use a different word and is termed the spin–orbit angle or spin–orbit alignment. In most cases the orientation of the star's rotational axis is unknown. The Kepler spacecraft has found a few hundred multi-planet systems and in most of these systems the planets all orbit in nearly the same plane, much like the Solar System. However, a combination of astrometric and radial-velocity measurements has shown that some planetary systems contain planets whose orbital planes are significantly tilted relative to each other. More than half of hot Jupiters have orbital planes substantially misaligned with their parent",
"-33.55010956119804"
],
[
"they orbit a point clearly outside of Pluto, as visible in animations created from images of the New Horizons space probe in June 2015.\nUnder this definition, the Earth–Moon system is not currently a double planet; although the Moon is massive enough to cause the Earth to make a noticeable revolution around this center of mass, this point nevertheless lies well within Earth. However, the Moon currently migrates outward from Earth at a rate of approximately 3.8 cm (1.5 in) per year; in a few billion years, the Earth–Moon system's center of mass will lie outside Earth, which would make it a double-planet",
"-33.54967906420643"
],
[
"that the earth, and other planets as well, circled the sun, which in fact, did not move, but only appeared to move due to the revolution of our planet. Copernicus introduced our world to the understanding that other planets took similar paths around the sun; while each path differed, all served the same purpose and generated the same result: every planet makes a full path around our central star. Rotation of a planet about its axis creates day and night for that planet, just as day and night occur on earth. Although the time frames for a",
"-33.52909234369872"
],
[
"a planet closer to the Sun must decrease its speed with respect to the Sun by a large amount in order to intercept it, while a spacecraft traveling to a planet farther out from the Sun must increase its speed substantially. Then, if additionally the spacecraft wishes to enter into orbit around the destination planet (instead of just flying by it), it must match the planet's orbital speed around the Sun, usually requiring another large velocity change.\nSimply doing this by brute force – accelerating in the shortest route to the destination and then matching the planet's speed – would require",
"-33.404510356340325"
],
[
"sync with their rotations). This means, they always show one face to their stars, with one side in perpetual day, the other in perpetual night. Orbital clearing The defining dynamic characteristic of a planet is that it has cleared its neighborhood. A planet that has cleared its neighborhood has accumulated enough mass to gather up or sweep away all the planetesimals in its orbit. In effect, it orbits its star in isolation, as opposed to sharing its orbit with a multitude of similar-sized objects. This characteristic was mandated as part of the IAU's official definition of a planet in August,",
"-33.367299041710794"
],
[
"that neither Uranus nor Neptune could have formed in their present positions, because too little primordial matter existed at that range to produce objects of such high mass. Instead, these planets are estimated to have formed closer to Jupiter. Scattering of planetesimals early in the Solar System's history would have led to migration of the orbits of the giant planets: Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune drifted outwards, whereas Jupiter drifted inwards. Eventually, the orbits shifted to the point where Jupiter and Saturn reached an exact 1:2 resonance; Jupiter orbited the Sun twice for every one Saturn orbit. The gravitational repercussions of",
"-33.32213960390072"
],
[
"Earth's orbit Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of 149.60 million km (92.96 million mi), and one complete orbit takes 365.256 days (1 sidereal year), during which time Earth has traveled 940 million km (584 million mi). Earth's orbit has an eccentricity of 0.0167. Since the Sun constitutes 99.8% of the mass of the solar system, the center of the orbit is extremely close to the center of the Sun.\nAs seen from Earth, the planet's orbital prograde motion makes the Sun appear to move with respect to other stars at a rate of about 1° eastward per solar day (or",
"-33.31625103368424"
],
[
"by planetary objects called natural satellites, or moons (two of which, Titan and Ganymede, are larger than the planet Mercury), and, in the case of the four giant planets, by planetary rings, thin bands of tiny particles that orbit them in unison. Most of the largest natural satellites are in synchronous rotation, with one face permanently turned toward their parent.\nKepler's laws of planetary motion describe the orbits of objects about the Sun. Following Kepler's laws, each object travels along an ellipse with the Sun at one focus. Objects closer to the Sun (with smaller semi-major axes) travel more quickly because",
"-33.266505242092535"
],
[
"tidally locked to their respective primaries, meaning that the same side of the natural satellite always faces its planet. The only known exception is Saturn's natural satellite Hyperion, which rotates chaotically because of the gravitational influence of Titan.\nIn contrast, the outer natural satellites of the giant planets (irregular satellites) are too far away to have become locked. For example, Jupiter's Himalia, Saturn's Phoebe, and Neptune's Nereid have rotation periods in the range of ten hours, whereas their orbital periods are hundreds of days. Satellites of satellites No \"moons of moons\" or subsatellites (natural satellites that orbit a natural satellite of",
"-33.2632638583309"
],
[
"in the evolutionary history of life on Earth. Its orbit is close to circular, and orbits near the Sun are at roughly the same speed as that of the spiral arms. Therefore, the Sun passes through arms only rarely. Because spiral arms are home to a far larger concentration of supernovae, gravitational instabilities, and radiation that could disrupt the Solar System, this has given Earth long periods of stability for life to evolve. The Solar System also lies well outside the star-crowded environs of the galactic centre. Near the centre, gravitational tugs from nearby stars could perturb bodies in the",
"-33.223826040222775"
],
[
"even though they are similar in relative size, only Pluto would currently be classified as a dwarf planet.\nHowever, some have suggested that the Moon nonetheless deserves to be called a planet. In 1975, Isaac Asimov noted that the timing of the Moon's orbit is in tandem with the Earth's own orbit around the Sun—looking down on the ecliptic, the Moon never actually loops back on itself, and in essence it orbits the Sun in its own right.\nAlso many moons, even those that do not orbit the Sun directly, often exhibit features in common with true planets. There are 19 moons",
"-33.22277424146887"
],
[
"onto larger orbits by close encounters with Jupiter and/or Saturn. Systems of exoplanets can undergo similar dynamical instabilities following the dissipation of the gas disk that alter their orbits and in some cases result in planets being ejected or colliding with the star.\nPlanets scattered gravitationally can end on highly eccentric orbits with perihelia close to the star, enabling their orbits to be altered due to the tides they raise on the star. The eccentricities and inclinations of these planets are also excited during these encounters, providing one possible explanation for the observed eccentricity distribution of the closely orbiting exoplanets. The",
"-33.21595709196117"
],
[
"of the planets is weak and does not significantly affect the shape of the Sun. The Sun rotates faster at its equator than at its poles. This differential rotation is caused by convective motion due to heat transport and the Coriolis force due to the Sun's rotation. In a frame of reference defined by the stars, the rotational period is approximately 25.6 days at the equator and 33.5 days at the poles. Viewed from Earth as it orbits the Sun, the apparent rotational period of the Sun at its equator is about 28 days. Sunlight The solar constant is the",
"-33.212701142183505"
],
[
"the orbital velocity of Earth about the Sun (30 km/s), this never happens. There are no rearward loops in the Moon's solar orbit.\nConsidering the Earth–Moon system as a binary planet, its centre of gravity is within Earth, about 4,624 km (2,873 mi) or 72.6% of the Earth's radius from the centre of the Earth. This centre of gravity remains on the line between the centres of the Earth and Moon as the Earth completes its diurnal rotation. The path of the Earth–Moon system in its solar orbit is defined as the movement of this mutual centre of gravity around the Sun. Consequently, Earth's",
"-33.190182794991415"
],
[
"From the year 1 to 5383, there are 526 approaches less than 40 million km; then there are none for about 60,158 years.\nAll the planets in the Solar System orbit the Sun in a anticlockwise direction as viewed from above Earth's north pole. Most planets also rotate on their axes in an anti-clockwise direction, but Venus rotates clockwise in retrograde rotation once every 243 Earth days—the slowest rotation of any planet. Because its rotation is so slow, Venus is very close to spherical. A Venusian sidereal day thus lasts longer than a Venusian year (243 versus 224.7 Earth days). Venus's equator rotates at 6.52 km/h (4.05 mph),",
"-33.17170828930102"
],
[
"the resonance due to close encounters with a major planet.\nAnother common form of resonance in the Solar System is spin–orbit resonance, where the period of spin (the time it takes the planet or moon to rotate once about its axis) has a simple numerical relationship with its orbital period. An example is our own Moon, which is in a 1:1 spin–orbit resonance that keeps the far side of the Moon away from the Earth. Mercury is in a 3:2 spin–orbit resonance. Predictability The planets' orbits are chaotic over longer timescales, in such a way that the whole Solar System possesses",
"-33.13033245620318"
],
[
"of the inner Solar System are relatively close to the Sun; the radius of this entire region is less than the distance between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. This region is also within the frost line, which is a little less than 5 AU (about 700 million km) from the Sun. Inner planets The four terrestrial or inner planets have dense, rocky compositions, few or no moons, and no ring systems. They are composed largely of refractory minerals, such as the silicates—which form their crusts and mantles—and metals, such as iron and nickel, which form their cores. Three of",
"-33.069937761840265"
],
[
"196, sicut etiam sescupla sunt majora simplis, minora vero duplis.\nTranslation : (4) However, the credibility of this [argument] is proved by the comparison of the four [moons] of Jupiter and Jupiter with the six planets and the Sun. Because, regarding the body of Jupiter, whether it turns around its axis, we don't have proofs for what suffices for us [regarding the rotation of ] the body of the Earth and especially of the Sun, certainly [as reason proves to us]: but reason attests that, just as it is clearly [true] among the six planets around the Sun, so",
"-33.044572128215805"
],
[
"form in the outer reaches of their system (in orbits similar to those of Jupiter and Saturn). Once formed, some of these planets may migrate close to their stars, becoming hot Jupiters. The theoretical difficulty in understanding HD 188753 Ab is that any protoplanetary disk would have ended around 1 astronomical unit from the primary star (due to the presence of the secondary stars). A Jovian planet should not have been able to form so close to the primary, and with no disk material beyond 1 AU, a planet should not have been able to form beyond",
"-33.02964856894687"
],
[
"solar days, making approximately the same face visible from Earth at each close approach. Whether this relationship arose by chance or is the result of some kind of tidal locking with Earth is unknown.\nProxima Centauri b, the \"Earth-like planet\" discovered in 2016 that orbits around the star Proxima Centauri is tidally locked, either in synchronized rotation, or otherwise expresses a 3:2 spin–orbit resonance like that of Mercury.\nOne form of hypothetical tidal locked exoplanets are eyeball planets, that in turn are divided into \"hot\" and \"cold\" eyeball planets. Stars Close binary stars throughout the universe are expected to be tidally locked",
"-32.97222038923064"
],
[
"planets' orbits will expand; if Venus, Earth, and Mars still exist, their orbits will lie roughly at 1.4 AU (210,000,000 km), 1.9 AU (280,000,000 km), and 2.8 AU (420,000,000 km). They and the other remaining planets will become dark, frigid hulks, completely devoid of any form of life. They will continue to orbit their star, their speed slowed due to their increased distance from the Sun and the Sun's reduced gravity. Two billion years later, when the Sun has cooled to the 6000–8000K range, the carbon and oxygen in the Sun's core will freeze, with over 90% of its remaining mass assuming a crystalline structure. Eventually,",
"-32.914241548773134"
],
[
"around both Alpha Centauri A and B, but most recent numerical investigations have shown that the gravitational pull of the companion star renders the accretion of planets difficult. Despite these difficulties, given the similarities to the Sun in spectral types, star type, age and probable stability of the orbits, it has been suggested that this stellar system could hold one of the best possibilities for harbouring extraterrestrial life on a potential planet.\nIn the Solar System, Jupiter and Saturn were probably crucial in perturbing comets into the inner Solar System, providing the inner planets with a source of water and various other",
"-32.90987074223813"
],
[
"system, either natural or artificial satellites, follow orbits about a barycenter near or within that planet.\nOwing to mutual gravitational perturbations, the eccentricities of the planetary orbits vary over time. Mercury, the smallest planet in the Solar System, has the most eccentric orbit. At the present epoch, Mars has the next largest eccentricity while the smallest orbital eccentricities are seen with Venus and Neptune.\nAs two objects orbit each other, the periapsis is that point at which the two objects are closest to each other and the apoapsis is that point at which they are the farthest. (More specific terms are used",
"-32.900919617153704"
],
[
"circular than that of any other planet in the Solar System, resulting in a substantially higher orbital speed near perihelion. As a result, at specific points on Mercury's surface an observer would be able to see the Sun rise part way, then reverse and set before rising again, all within the same Mercurian day.",
"-32.90016355627449"
],
[
"of a synchronous orbit of the planet moves outwards from the planet. For planets tidally locked to their stars, the distance from the planet at which the moon will be in a synchronous orbit around the planet is outside the Hill sphere of the planet. The Hill sphere of the planet is the region where its gravity dominates that of the star so it can hold on to its moons. Moons inside the synchronous orbit radius of a planet will spiral into the planet. Therefore, if the synchronous orbit is outside the Hill sphere, then all moons will spiral into",
"-32.89658964041155"
],
[
"Planetary phase Inferior planets The two inferior planets, Mercury and Venus, which have orbits that are smaller than the Earth's, exhibit the full range of phases as does the Moon, when seen through a telescope. Their phases are \"full\" when they are at superior conjunction, on the far side of the Sun as seen from the Earth. (It is possible to see them at these times, since their orbits are not exactly in the plane of Earth's orbit, so they usually appear to pass slightly above or below the Sun in the sky. Seeing them from the Earth's surface is",
"-32.88262409390882"
],
[
"are caused by the orbital motion of the host stars, rather than by other planets. In addition, if the planet is massive enough, it can cause slight variations of the host stars' orbital periods. Despite being harder to find circumbinary planets due to their non-periodic transits, it is much easier to confirm them, as timing patterns of transits cannot be mimicked by an eclipsing binary or a background star system.\nIn addition to transits, planets orbiting around their stars undergo reflected-light variations—like the Moon, they go through phases from full to new and back again. Because Kepler cannot resolve the planet",
"-32.88203913427424"
],
[
"planets on the other can be distinguished from each other and can be considered as two actions by which each attracts the other, yet inasmuch as they are between the same, two bodies they are not two but a simple operation between two termini. Two bodies can be drawn to each other by the contraction of rope between them. The cause of the action is twofold, namely the disposition of each of the two bodies; the action is likewise twofold, insofar as it is upon two bodies; but insofar as it is between two bodies it is single and one",
"-32.81143145210808"
],
[
"example:\n\"The model of the solar system is similar to that of an atom, with planets orbiting the sun like electrons orbiting the nucleus. Electrons can jump from orbit to orbit; so we should study ancient records for sightings of planets jumping from orbit to orbit.\"",
"-32.76911364776606"
],
[
"Sun's equator and the orbital plane of Jupiter, which is only 6°.\nThe misalignment may indicate that in the past an encounter with another planet altered its orbit, kicking it out of the plane of the planetary system. Its orbital eccentricity is very large (e = 0.2883). Since tidal forces should have reduced the orbital eccentricity of this planet it is possible that there is another massive planet outside the orbit of XO-3 that is in orbital resonance with XO-3b. Another planetary system that may have also undergone such planet-planet interactions is Upsilon Andromedae. Debate There is currently a debate over the",
"-32.76805483747739"
],
[
"the star and the planet, located at one of the Lagrangian points of the star–planet system, is subject to a combined gravitational force that acts through this barycenter. Hence the smallest object orbits around the barycenter with the same orbital period as the planet, and the arrangement can remain stable over time.\nIn the Solar System, most known trojans share the orbit of Jupiter. They are divided into the Greek camp at L₄ (ahead of Jupiter) and the Trojan camp at L₅ (trailing Jupiter). More than a million Jupiter trojans larger than one kilometer are thought to exist, of which more",
"-32.76598026468855"
],
[
"resonance For many years it was thought that Mercury was synchronously tidally locked with the Sun, rotating once for each orbit and always keeping the same face directed towards the Sun, in the same way that the same side of the Moon always faces Earth. Radar observations in 1965 proved that the planet has a 3:2 spin–orbit resonance, rotating three times for every two revolutions around the Sun. The eccentricity of Mercury's orbit makes this resonance stable—at perihelion, when the solar tide is strongest, the Sun is nearly still in Mercury's sky.\nThe rare 3:2 resonant tidal locking is stabilized by",
"-32.72550584573764"
],
[
"close together, but lie at different distances from the Solar System. Binary companion (minor planets) When binary minor planets are similar in size, they may be called \"binary companions\" instead of referring to the smaller body as a satellite. Good examples of true binary companions are the 90 Antiope and the 79360 Sila–Nunam systems. Pluto and its largest moon Charon are sometimes described as a binary system because the barycenter (center of mass) of the two objects is not inside either of them.",
"-32.72215059120208"
],
[
"the work of Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), a German astronomer, it was believed, or assumed, that planets traveled in circular orbits around the Sun. When Kepler studied Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe's careful observations of Mars's position in the sky on many nights, Kepler realized that Mars's orbit could not be a circle. After considerable analysis, Kepler discovered that Mars's orbit was an ellipse, with the Sun occupying one of the elliptical orbit's two focal points. This, in turn, led to Kepler's discovery that all planets orbit the Sun in elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one of the two focal points.",
"-32.607764618471265"
],
[
"a rogue planet. The remaining planets then continue to migrate at a declining rate and slowly approach their final orbits as most of the remaining planetesimal disk is removed. Solar System effects The migrations of the giant planets and encounters between them have many effects in the outer Solar System. The gravitational encounters between the giant planets excite the eccentricities and inclinations of their orbits. The planetesimals scattered inward by Neptune enter planet-crossing orbits where they may impact the planets or their satellites The impacts of these planetesimals leave craters and impact basins on the moons of the outer planets,",
"-32.59355052560568"
],
[
"Minimum mass Orientation of the transit to Earth Most stars will not have their planets lined up and orientated so that they eclipse over the center of the star and give the viewer on earth a perfect transit. It is for this reason that when we often are only able to extrapolate a minimum mass when viewing a star's wobble because we do not know the inclination and therefore only be able to calculate the part pulling the star on the plane of celestial sphere.\nFor orbiting bodies in extrasolar planetary systems, an inclination of 0° or 180° corresponds to",
"-32.580920653184876"
],
[
"transit the Sun are those with orbits that take them between the two bodies. These include Aten asteroids (including Apohele asteroids and the hypothetical Vulcanoid asteroids) and some Apollo asteroids (perhaps including quasi-satellites of Earth). Unfortunately, observations of such transits are difficult because all of these asteroids are only a few kilometres in diameter at most, so that their angular diameter is too tiny to observe against the Sun.\nOne example was the May 16, 1990 transit of 3838 Epona with a diameter of 2.5 km. At a distance of 0.53 AU from Earth, its angular diameter was only 7 milliseconds",
"-32.51033151478623"
],
[
"actually orbiting a point that lies away from the center of the primary (larger) body. For example, the Moon does not orbit the exact center of the Earth, but a point on a line between the center of the Earth and the Moon, approximately 1,710 km (1,062 miles) below the surface of the Earth, where their respective masses balance. This is the point about which the Earth and Moon orbit as they travel around the Sun. If the masses are more similar, e.g., Pluto and Charon, the barycenter will fall outside both bodies. Body motion When high jumpers perform a \"Fosbury Flop\",",
"-32.50965057084977"
],
[
"about 149°, not to be confused with the line-of-sight inclination of the orbit, given in the table, which is near 90° for all transiting planets), which would make it the first planet discovered to have such an orbital motion. It was found by measuring the Rossiter–McLaughlin effect of the planet on the star's Doppler signal as it transited, in which whichever of the star's hemispheres is turning toward or away from Earth will show a slight blueshift or redshift which is dampened by the transiting planet. Scientists are not yet sure why the planet orbits opposite to the star's rotation.",
"-32.49200537404977"
],
[
"challenges for eventual biospheres because of likely extreme variations in surface temperature during different parts of the orbit. If the separation is significantly close to the planet's distance, a stable orbit may be impossible.\nPlanets that orbit just one star in a binary pair are said to have \"S-type\" orbits, whereas those that orbit around both stars have \"P-type\" or \"circumbinary\" orbits. It is estimated that 50–60% of binary stars are capable of supporting habitable terrestrial planets within stable orbital ranges. Non-circumbinary planet In non circumbinary planets, if a planet's distance to its primary exceeds about one fifth of the closest",
"-32.47152798157185"
],
[
"outer Solar System, it did not include a requirement that Jupiter's and Saturn's orbits diverged rapidly as would be necessary to reproduce the current inner Solar System, however.\nA number of previous works also modeled Solar Systems with extra giant planets. A study by Thommes, Bryden, Wu, and Rasio included simulations of four and five planets beginning in resonant chains. Loose resonant chains of four or five planets with Jupiter and Saturn beginning in a 2:1 resonance often resulted in the loss of an ice giant for small mass planetesimal disks. The loss of a planet was avoided in four planet",
"-32.46489420706348"
],
[
"or hot-Jupiter. Gravitational scattering by other planets onto eccentric orbits with a perihelion near the star followed by the circularization of its orbit due to tidal interactions with the star can leave a planet on a close orbit. If a massive companion planet or star on an inclined orbit was present an exchange of inclination for eccentricity via the Kozai mechanism raising eccentricities and lowering perihelion followed by circularization can also result in a close orbit. Many of the Jupiter-sized planets have eccentric orbits which may indicate that gravitational encounters occurred between the planets, although migration while in resonance can",
"-32.43456617319316"
],
[
"Venus's orbit, if it had Venus's slow rotation. If Venus lost its water ocean due to a runaway greenhouse effect, it is likely to have had a higher rotation rate in the past. Alternatively, Venus never had an ocean because water vapor was lost to space during its formation and could have had its slow rotation throughout its history.\nTidally locked planets (a.k.a. \"eyeball\" planets) can be habitable closer to their star than previously thought due to the effect of clouds: at high stellar flux, strong convection produces thick water clouds near the substellar point that greatly increase the planetary",
"-32.40868030817364"
],
[
"they are more affected by the Sun's gravity. On an elliptical orbit, a body's distance from the Sun varies over the course of its year. A body's closest approach to the Sun is called its perihelion, whereas its most distant point from the Sun is called its aphelion. The orbits of the planets are nearly circular, but many comets, asteroids, and Kuiper belt objects follow highly elliptical orbits. The positions of the bodies in the Solar System can be predicted using numerical models.\nAlthough the Sun dominates the system by mass, it accounts for only about 2% of the angular momentum.",
"-32.400676953140646"
],
[
"vicinity of the Sun in the sky. 1987 Mercury, Venus and Mars separately reached conjunction with each other, and each separately with the Sun, within a 7-day period in August 1987 as seen from the Earth. The Moon also reached conjunction with each of these bodies on 24 August. However, none of these conjunctions were observable due to the glare of the Sun. 2000 In May 2000, in a very rare event, several planets lay in the vicinity of the Sun in the sky as seen from the Earth, and a series of conjunctions took place. Jupiter, Mercury and Saturn",
"-32.394746791629586"
],
[
"line between dwarf planets and planets\", and that since neither Earth, Mars, Jupiter, nor Neptune have entirely cleared their regions of debris, none could properly be considered planets under the IAU definition.\nMike Brown counters these claims by saying that, far from not having cleared their orbits, the major planets completely control the orbits of the other bodies within their orbital zone. Jupiter may coexist with a large number of small bodies in its orbit (the Trojan asteroids), but these bodies only exist in Jupiter's orbit because they are in the sway of the planet's huge gravity. Similarly, Pluto may cross",
"-32.38666896568611"
],
[
"in the Solar System that have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium and would be considered planets if only the physical parameters are considered. Both Jupiter's moon Ganymede and Saturn's moon Titan are larger than Mercury, and Titan even has a substantial atmosphere, thicker than the Earth's. Moons such as Io and Triton demonstrate obvious and ongoing geological activity, and Ganymede has a magnetic field. Just as stars in orbit around other stars are still referred to as stars, some astronomers argue that objects in orbit around planets that share all their characteristics could also be called planets. Indeed, Mike Brown makes just",
"-32.33560925797792"
],
[
"between the giant planets and the gas disk result in the giant planets migrating toward the central star, in some cases becoming hot Jupiters. However, in a multiple-planet system, this inward migration may be halted or reversed if a more rapidly migrating smaller planet is captured in an outer orbital resonance. The Grand Tack hypothesis, which posits that Jupiter's migration is reversed at 1.5 AU following the capture of Saturn in a resonance, is an example of this type of orbital evolution. The resonance in which Saturn is captured, a 3:2 or a 2:1 resonance, and the extent of the",
"-32.3271495035151"
],
[
"known to orbit its planet in less than the length of that planet's day—the other two being Jupiter's innermost moon Metis, and Mars' moon Phobos. The orbit has very small eccentricity and inclination—around 0.0015 and 0.03°, respectively. Inclination is relative to the equator of Jupiter.\nDue to tidal locking, Adrastea rotates synchronously with its orbital period, keeping one face always looking toward the planet. Its long axis is aligned towards Jupiter, this being the lowest energy configuration.\nThe orbit of Adrastea lies inside Jupiter's synchronous orbit radius (as does Metis's), and as a result, tidal forces are slowly causing its orbit to",
"-32.280340768018505"
],
[
"sphere. However, the rotation of a planet causes it to be flattened at the poles; so the equatorial radius is larger than the polar radius, making it closer to an oblate spheroid. The oblateness of transiting exoplanets will affect the transit light curves. At the limits of current technology it has been possible to show that HD 189733b is less oblate than Saturn.\nIf the planet is close to its star, then gravitational tides will elongate the planet in the direction of the star, making the planet closer to a triaxial ellipsoid. Because tidal deformation is along a line between the",
"-32.27319221266953"
],
[
"Venus or even the Moon as slingshots in journeys to the outer planets.\nThis maneuver can only change an object's velocity relative to a third, uninvolved object, – possibly the “centre of mass” or the Sun. There is no change in the velocities of the two objects involved in the maneuver relative to each other. The Sun cannot be used in a gravitational slingshot because it is stationary compared to rest of the Solar System, which orbits the Sun. It may be used to send a spaceship or probe into the galaxy because the Sun revolves around the center",
"-32.27026460005436"
],
[
"is slightly eccentric and the gravity of the other moons disturbs it regularly.\nThese poles also apply to planets that are rotating synchronously with their primary stars, as is likely the case with many hot Jupiters and as was once thought to be the case with Mercury. Other synchronously rotating objects, such as Pluto and some asteroids with large asteroid moons, can also be described as having \"near\" and \"far\" poles – though \"leading\" and \"trailing\" may not be as significant in these cases.",
"-32.26745870371815"
],
[
"orbits with Jupiter or one of the other large planets – so many revolutions of one will equal another number of revolutions of the other. This creates a shower component called a filament.\nA second effect is a close encounter with a planet. When the meteoroids pass by Earth, some are accelerated (making wider orbits around the Sun), others are decelerated (making shorter orbits), resulting in gaps in the dust trail in the next return (like opening a curtain, with grains piling up at the beginning and end of the gap). Also, Jupiter's perturbation can change sections of the dust trail",
"-32.26116370630916"
],
[
"in the protoplanetary disc, blowing it into interstellar space, thus ending the growth of the planets. Subsequent evolution The planets were originally thought to have formed in or near their current orbits. However, this has been questioned during the last 20 years. Currently, many planetary scientists think that the Solar System might have looked very different after its initial formation: several objects at least as massive as Mercury were present in the inner Solar System, the outer Solar System was much more compact than it is now, and the Kuiper belt was much closer to the Sun. Terrestrial planets At",
"-32.21440047357464"
],
[
"Comparison with extrasolar systems Compared to many other planetary systems, the Solar System stands out in lacking planets interior to the orbit of Mercury. The known Solar System also lacks super-Earths (Planet Nine could be a super-Earth beyond the known Solar System). Uncommonly, it has only small rocky planets and large gas giants; elsewhere planets of intermediate size are typical—both rocky and gas—so there is no \"gap\" as seen between the size of Earth and of Neptune (with a radius 3.8 times as large). Also, these super-Earths have closer orbits than Mercury. This led to the hypothesis that all planetary",
"-32.19292360579129"
],
[
"to planets and asteroids in the Solar System, have allowed a reasonably accurate value for the astronomical unit (AU) to be calculated to a precision of about ±30 meters. As a result, the need for parallax calculations has been superseded. Grazing and simultaneous transits Sometimes Venus only grazes the Sun during a transit. In this case it is possible that in some areas of the Earth a full transit can be seen while in other regions there is only a partial transit (no second or third contact). The last transit of this type was on 6 December 1631, and the",
"-32.17804288538173"
],
[
"so the last condition only applies to small bodies held together by other forces, e.g. smaller asteroids. Most inner moons of planets have synchronous rotation, so their synchronous orbits are, in practice, limited to their leading and trailing (L₄ and L₅) Lagrange points, as well as the L₁ and L₂ Lagrange points, assuming they do not fall within the body of the moon. Objects with chaotic rotations, such as exhibited by Hyperion, are also problematic, as their synchronous orbits change unpredictably. Inclination An inclination of zero is used for geostationary satellites, ensuring that the orbit remains over the equator",
"-32.05936026235577"
],
[
"its fingers curl in the direction that the Moon orbits Earth, Earth orbits the Sun, and the Moon and Earth rotate on their own axes.\nIn representations of the Solar System, it is common to draw the trajectory of Earth from the point of view of the Sun, and the trajectory of the Moon from the point of view of Earth. This could give the impression that the Moon orbits Earth in such a way that sometimes it goes backwards when viewed from the Sun's perspective. However, because the orbital velocity of the Moon around Earth (1 km/s) is small compared to",
"-32.05065738217672"
],
[
"with shorter period orbits results in more frequent encounters with the planetesimals with less angular momentum and the inward migration of the planet. Planetesimal-driven migration in a gas disk, however, can be outward for a particular range of planetesimal sizes because of the removal of shorter period planetesimals due to gas drag. Resonance capture The migration of planets can lead to planets being captured in resonances and chains of resonances if their orbits converge. The orbits of the planets can converge if the migration of the inner planet is halted at the inner edge of the gas disk, resulting in",
"-32.044722752674716"
],
[
"and dynamical friction with the remaining planetesimal disc damps their eccentricities and makes the orbits of Uranus and Neptune circular again.\nIn some 50% of the initial models of Tsiganis and colleagues, Neptune and Uranus also exchange places. An exchange of Uranus and Neptune would be consistent with models of their formation in a disk that had a surface density that declined with distance from the Sun, which predicts that the masses of the planets should also decline with distance from the Sun. Solar System features Running dynamical models of the Solar System with different initial conditions for the simulated length",
"-32.0100535187521"
],
[
"to another orbit, or to be captured either as a satellite or into a resonant orbit. As a consequence it does not then share its orbital region with other bodies of significant size, except for its own satellites, or other bodies governed by its own gravitational influence. This latter restriction excludes objects whose orbits may cross but that will never collide with each other due to orbital resonance, such as Jupiter and its trojans, Earth and 3753 Cruithne, or Neptune and the plutinos. As to the extent of orbit clearing required, Jean-Luc Margot emphasises \"a planet can never completely clear",
"-32.00447683271341"
],
[
"as far as 9.6° from the Sun when viewed from the Earth at inferior conjunction. Since the angular diameter of the Sun is about half a degree, Venus may appear to pass above or below the Sun by more than 18 solar diameters during an ordinary conjunction.\nSequences of transits usually repeat every 243 years. After this period of time Venus and Earth have returned to very nearly the same point in their respective orbits. During the Earth's 243 sidereal orbital periods, which total 88,757.3 days, Venus completes 395 sidereal orbital periods of 224.701 days each, equal to 88,756.9 Earth days.",
"-31.995223626341613"
],
[
"the binary star separation, or orbital period about 3–8 times the binary period. The innermost planets in all the Kepler circumbinary systems have been found orbiting close to this radius. The planets have semi-major axes that lie between 1.09 and 1.46 times this critical radius. The reason could be that migration might become inefficient near the critical radius, leaving planets just outside this radius.\nFor example, Kepler-47c is a gas giant in the circumbinary habitable zone of the Kepler-47 system.\nIf Earth-like planets form in or migrate into the circumbinary habitable zone they are capable of sustaining liquid water on their surface",
"-31.964487099307007"
],
[
"other side, but the Sun moves to 2.17 solar radii away from the barycenter when all jovian planets are in line on the other side. The orbital angular momenta of the Sun and all non-jovian planets, moons, and small Solar System bodies, as well as the axial rotation momenta of all bodies, including the Sun, total only about 2%.\nIf all Solar System bodies were point masses, or were rigid bodies having spherically symmetric mass distributions, then an invariable plane defined on orbits alone would be truly invariable and would constitute an inertial frame of reference. But almost all are not,",
"-31.964204704388976"
],
[
"relatively small inner planets surrounded by a belt of mostly rocky asteroids, and four giant planets surrounded by the Kuiper belt of mostly icy objects. Astronomers sometimes informally divide this structure into separate regions. The inner Solar System includes the four terrestrial planets and the asteroid belt. The outer Solar System is beyond the asteroids, including the four giant planets. Since the discovery of the Kuiper belt, the outermost parts of the Solar System are considered a distinct region consisting of the objects beyond Neptune.\nMost of the planets in the Solar System have secondary systems of their own, being orbited",
"-31.913118773605675"
],
[
"through the background stars in one year. If the Earth orbited the Sun with a constant speed, in a circular orbit in a plane perpendicular to the Earth's axis, then the Sun would culminate every day at exactly the same time, and be a perfect time keeper (except for the very small effect of the slowing rotation of the Earth). But the orbit of the Earth is an ellipse not centered on the Sun, and its speed varies between 30.287 and 29.291 km/s, according to Kepler's laws of planetary motion, and its angular speed also varies, and thus the Sun appears",
"-31.904913192323875"
],
[
"to the Sun at perihelion and moving slower when it is farther away at aphelion.\nIn the 17th century, Johannes Kepler discovered that the orbits along which the planets travel around the Sun are ellipses with the Sun at one focus, and described this in his first law of planetary motion. Later, Isaac Newton explained this as a corollary of his law of universal gravitation.",
"-31.889379871136043"
],
[
"due to a quick crossing of a spin-orbit resonance with Neptune while Neptune's inclination was small, for example, during Neptune's initial migration before planetary encounters began. Alternatively, if that crossing occurred when Jupiter's semi-major axis jumped, it may be due to its current proximity to spin-orbit resonance with Uranus. Saturn's large tilt can be acquired if it is captured in a spin-orbit resonance with Neptune as Neptune slowly approached its current orbit at the end of the migration. The final tilts of Jupiter and Saturn are very sensitive to the final positions of the planets: Jupiter's tilt would be much",
"-31.87252542329952"
],
[
"separation of Jupiter and Saturn often grows too large and their eccentricities become too small as the larger disk is cleared. These problems led David Nesvorný of the Southwest Research Institute to propose that the Solar System began with five giant planets, with an additional Neptune-mass planet between Saturn and Uranus. Using thousands of simulations with a variety of initial conditions he found that the simulations beginning with five giant planets were ten times more likely to reproduce the orbits of the outer planets. A follow-up study by David Nesvorný and Alessandro Morbidelli found that the required jump in the",
"-31.839719763433095"
],
[
"larger if Uranus migrated beyond its current orbit, Saturn's would be much smaller if Neptune's migration ended earlier or if the resonance crossing was more rapid. Even in simulations where the final position of the giant planets are similar to the current Solar System, Jupiter's and Saturn's tilt are reproduced less than 10% of the time. Kuiper belt A slow migration of Neptune covering several AU results in a Kuiper belt with a broad inclination distribution. As Neptune migrates outward it scatters many objects from the planetesimal disk onto orbits with larger semi-major axes. Some of these planetesimals are then",
"-31.81861273641698"
]
] |
8hfd2h | How does "intentional" cognitive functions like thinking and memorization happen within the brain's cells? | [
"This is a hugely debated question in the philosophy of mind. I think it's fair to say that the answer is far from clear. It may be the case that intentional states cannot be realized in physical systems. Trying to give a physicalist account of intentional states is an active research program in the philosophy of mind. Try looking up \"qualia\".",
"This strains the limits of ELI5 for the best possible reason. I like to believe that it’s true that if you can’t explain what you know to a 5yo (given obvious caveats) then you don’t really ‘know’ said thing. Since we really don’t know this it’s nearly impossible to ELI5. Additionally, I’d like to take this opportunity to take a swipe at those who believe the coming ‘singularity’ means we will be able to port our consciousness onto a digital framework. We are so far from understanding, let alone modeling a bees cognition to imagine us doing the same for a human, seamlessly is truly delusional. A century from now? Maybe but I’d bet against. Source: GED with two years of undergrad. So.......",
"Computational mind theory would say that it works similar to how data is stored on a computer, but instead of transistors the bioelctrical networks in the brain store information. Asking this question brings a cascade of questions from the nature of conscious thought all the way to the deterministic/non deterministic nature of the universe. Perhaps the two concepts are inextricably linked, but that's another good question.",
"Well, there are a bunch of things that work together when you decide to do something. You need to learn about all of these parts and how they work together. The first part you need to learn about is the thalamus. The thalamus is the part that first gets vision from your eyes, sound from your ears, smell from your nose, taste from your tongue and feelings of touch from all over your body. It also gets messages about your balance and whether or not you're moving from a little organ in your ear. The thalamus organizes these senses and sends them to other parts of the brain, on the edges, called lobes, but it doesn't send all of them! It has little switches that either turn on or off based on how much power the senses have. For example, when we see movement it usually turns on more switches than the other stuff that we see which stands still. Because the brain can only send so many messages at a time, only the stuff that turns on a lot of switches will be sent out. It's sort of the same for smell and the other senses. Something that smells really good will turn on a lot of switches. That's why, for example, even though your nose is on all day, you don't notice it until someone starts cooking dinner. The switches are turning on, but way more switches are being turned on by stuff you are seeing or feeling. Now we understand the first part played by the thalamus. After it sends out the powerful sensations to the lobes, the lobes go into action. The lobes also have a bunch of switches, but their switches organize in a different way. They turn on if the sensations have certain qualities. For example, when you see an object that is moving, there are some switches that turn on if the thing has edges and other switches that turn on if the thing has a face. These switches are different than the switches in the thalamus, because even if they are off they don't stop the signal. For example, you don't stop seeing a baseball even though baseballs don't have faces, you just know that it's not an animal. All the different lobes for the different senses do this if the thalamus sends them sensations. When they figure out the qualities of the stuff that is sensed, they then send the senses to parts of another part of the brain: the hippocampus (hippocampus is greek for seahorse because it's a part of the brain that is shaped like a little seahorse!). The hippocampus also has a bunch of switches. These switches make up what we call memory. Here, in the hippocampus, the senses that have been chosen for their power in the thalamus and organized by their qualities in the lobes are checked by memory. If the pattern of on and off switches that they came from matches patterns of on and off switches in the hippocampus, we call it remembering! If they don't match patterns that we know, the hippocampus takes those patterns of on and off switches and leaves them alone for the future. If it keeps getting the pattern of something it doesn't remember, the pattern becomes a part of it. Now, when it gets the pattern, it will remember it. This is how a lot of memories work, though not all of them. You remember things like how to ride a bike in a different way. We're not going to talk about that today, because I have a lot of chores to do besides explaining all of this. For now, only one type of memory will have to be enough. Now, you want to now about how we decide to remember, and we will get to that, but first you need to understand that we remember stuff whether we want to or not. When we decide to remember, we still do the same thing, but we decide what we focus our senses on. If we want to remember some new words, we might look at the new words on paper and read them over and over. This makes the new pattern in the hippocampus, but have you ever noticed that it's hard to learn when there is a bunch of noisy people around? That's because the thalamus is still sending senses based on what the power of what our eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin sense. If there is too much sound or bad smells, the stuff that we want to remember won't make it to the hippocampus. The other stuff will. This still hasn't answered your question, though. In order to answer your question we have to learn about another part of the brain: the prefrontal lobes. The prefrontal lobes have two main parts: a left and right side. The left side arranges words it has in patterns from the hippocampus in ways that that the hippocampus also has stored in patterns. For example, we know that a sentence in English needs a subject and verb. This is a pattern, and it's also stored in the form of a pattern. I know, this is getting really complicated, but hang in there. These words and the patterns about how we can arrange them help the left prefrontal cortex consider stuff. How do they do that? Well, this is sort of a tricky thing: the patterns of patterns are connected to other patterns, called associations, so that your memory of the word dog and your memories of dogs usually show themselves to the prefrontal cortex at the same time. Your memories of experiences with dogs, though, might show up in the right side of the prefrontal cortex. The two sides are doing different things, but they talk to each other about what they are doing so that they stay coordinated. If, for example, you were ever scared by a dog, the right side might make sure that the left side doesn't make word patterns that say all dogs are nice. In this way, the two sides work together to make stories up about what could happen, what is happening, and what has happened. If these stories are strong enough, they can go into the hippocampus as patterns of patterns too. Sometimes these two sides of the brain work in a different way. Sometimes the right side makes up images, smells, tastes, feelings and sounds, and the left side tries to make up sentences to describe it. We call this imagination. Sometimes we imagine something that we want but that hasn't happened, and the left part of the brain figures out a pattern that explains how to make it happen. For example, if I imagine a casserole, the left and right side might work together by trying to remember the list of words that has all the ingredients and the memory of whether or not I have them. Now you are starting to understand how all the switches work, but we haven't talked about the switches in the prefrontal cortex. That's because we don't really understand how all of those work together. Maybe the thalamus just sends us the powerful sensations, and then the rest of the parts figure out what to do according to what we remember. For example, if we get hunger senses, the hippocampus might just send patterns about hunger to the prefrontal cortex, which will then check the hippocampus for memories about what to do when you're hungry. When it does this, it might also have other things that it is working on, so it might focus on those instead. The truth is that this part of how the brain works is even more complicated! The switches turn on and off, but they aren't exactly like the switches in either the hippocampus, the other lobes, or the thalamus. They are similar in that they have switches that turn on and off, but they turn on and off based on sending messages back and forth with different parts of the brain constantly, including other switches that are also in the prefrontal cortex. I can't really explain that part very well yet.",
"Intentional is a human construct. All healthy human brains are capable of thinking and memorizing so it's part of their intrinsic nature rather than conscious intent. Now which path they take in terms of decision making (free will) is hotly debated but one path must be taken which it always is (determinism).",
"Like everyone said, we don't really know, but also it doesn't. From what we *do* know, thinking and memories happen in the networks and connections *between* cells, not *inside* of individual cells. No one bird is planning it, yet the flock avoids the obstacle with apparent coordination."
] | [
[
"activation, the word pairs are learned but able to be suppressed during the no think phase.\nfMRI studies have shown two distinct patterns of brain activity during suppression tasks. The first is that there is less activity in the hippocampus, the brain area responsible for forming memories. The second is an increase of brain activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, especially in cases where suppression is harder. Researchers think that this region works to prevent memory formation by preventing the hippocampus from working.\nThis methodology can also be used to study thought substitution by adding an instruction during the no think phase",
"-34.55604908891837"
],
[
"evidence that memories are stored in the nucleus of neurons. Epigenetics Studies of the molecular basis for memory formation indicate that epigenetic mechanisms operating in brain neurons play a central role in determining this capability. Key epigenetic mechanisms involved in memory include the methylation and demethylation of neuronal DNA, as well as modifications of histone proteins including methylations, acetylations and deacetylations (see Epigenetics in learning and memory; also ).\nStimulation of brain activity in memory formation is often accompanied by the generation of damage in neuronal DNA that is followed by repair associated with persistent epigenetic alterations. In particular the",
"-33.39964009789401"
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[
"no mental content, and that organization and function of the brain comes solely from life experiences. The standard social science model views the brain simply as a large domain-general structure, whose functions have evolved gradually through cultural input. Today, many scientists continue to view the brain as a black box, where only its inputs and outputs can be measured, but their internal mechanisms will never be known.\nOne of the first discoveries relevant to this hypothesis came from a French neurologist, Joseph Jules Dejerine. He discovered that a stroke affecting a small area of the brain's left visual system left patients",
"-33.393529291060986"
],
[
"- it is not currently known if the physical activity of the brain is conclusively or solely responsible for thoughts and actions. Examining the brain as a way to prevent crimes or disorders before they manifest raises the question of if it is possible for people to exercise their agency despite their neurological condition. Even using neurodata in a way to treat certain disorders and diseases preemptively raises questions about identity, agency and how society defines morality.",
"-33.318146591307595"
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[
"neuroplasticity and how the brain is able to change and adapt over the course of a person's life. Her early career research focused on the areas of the brain that play an important role in our ability to form and retain memories. More recently, she's expanded this work to study the role of aerobic exercise on potentially enhancing cognitive abilities. Memory and the brain Suzuki's research career started with studying underlying memory. Her lab focused on the role of the hippocampus, which is the part of the brain that is responsible for memory of facts and events, otherwise known as",
"-33.29922241566237"
],
[
"Therefore, the use of a brain reflects how it is organised. This ability to re-organize is especially important if ever a part of the brain becomes damaged. Scientists are unsure of whether the stimuli of what we do not recall are filtered out at the sensory phase or if they are filtered out after the brain examines their significance. Mapping activity Positron emission tomography (PET) demonstrates a consistent functional anatomical blueprint of hippocampal activation during episodic encoding and retrieval. Activation in the hippocampal region associated with episodic memory encoding has been shown to occur in the rostral portion of",
"-33.17497096792795"
],
[
"factors and examination of the temporal dynamics of activity between neurons. Miller's lab has used this approach to make a number of discoveries of how different brain areas collaborate to produce thought and action. This includes recent discoveries that oscillating \"brain waves\" may control the timing of shifts of attention and that different items simultaneously held in short-term memory line up on different phases of each brain wave. The latter may explain why we can only think about a few things at the same time. Media Appearances Earl Miller has made frequent appearances in the popular press.",
"-33.15179682878079"
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[
"we tap into when we recall an event that happened when we were younger. Humans as Information Processing Systems Consider a computer, and how one types words onto a document or into a search engine. The action of typing data into a computer can be described as “input”. There are “similarities to how humans receive information and computers receive data input” (Miller, 2016, p. 323). Furthermore, “we can correlate thinking with a computer program; the mind’s information storage capacity with the amount of gigabytes available on a laptop; forgetting information with the delete key on a keyboard; recalling old information",
"-33.114074888348114"
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[
"is engaged for determination of the relationship between items integration into whole units of information is required. Examples of this include recognizing figures, such as a triangle within a circle vs. a circle within a triangle. Successive processing is required for organizing separate items in a sequence such as remembering a sequence of words or actions exactly in the order in which they had just been presented. These four processes are hypothesized to functions of four areas of the brain. Planning is broadly located in the front part of our brains, the frontal lobe. Attention and arousal are",
"-33.05330931703793"
],
[
"of the more known neuromodulators involved in procedural memory. Evidence suggests that it may influence neural plasticity in memory systems by adapting brain processing when the environment is changing and an individual is then forced to make a behavioural choice or series of rapid decisions. It is very important in the process of \"adaptive navigation\", which serves to help different brain areas respond together during a new situation that has many unknown stimuli and features. Dopamine pathways are dispersed all over the brain and this allows for parallel processing in many structures all at the same time. Currently most",
"-33.05260417773388"
],
[
"a number of assumptions, including information made available by the environment is processed by a series of processing systems (e.g. attention, perception, short-term memory),these processing systems transform or alter the information in systematic ways, the aim of research is to specify the processes and structures that underlie cognitive performance, and information processing in humans resembles that in computers.\nThe information processing theory using \"chunking\" to put the information into short term memory. Miller said it was known that the human brain can only chunk into the brain with 7 parts, plus or minus two. Seven in the big number to remember.",
"-32.99955036758911"
],
[
"Mind uploading Overview The human brain contains, on average, about 86 billion nerve cells called neurons, each individually linked to other neurons by way of connectors called axons and dendrites. Signals at the junctures (synapses) of these connections are transmitted by the release and detection of chemicals known as neurotransmitters. The established neuroscientific consensus is that the human mind is largely an emergent property of the information processing of this neural network.\nNeuroscientists have stated that important functions performed by the mind, such as learning, memory, and consciousness, are due to purely physical and electrochemical processes in the brain and are",
"-32.863665006821975"
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[
"lobe, and the right cerebellum. Writing creatively and generating ideas, on the other hand, is controlled by the limbic system, specifically involving the activity of the hippocampus, which is important in the retrieval of long-term memories. Words and ideas are cognized and understood by the temporal lobes, and these temporal lobes are connected to the limbic system. \nAlthough hypergraphia cannot be isolated to one specific part of the brain, some areas are known to have more of an effect than others. The hippocampus has been found to play a role in the occurrence of temporal lobe epilepsy and",
"-32.79009699553717"
],
[
"circuitry. Once these cognitive functions find a cortical area devoted to a similar purpose, they can invade the existing circuit. Through plasticity (an ongoing characteristic of the brain's cortical structure to change and reorganize through learning), the cortex can adapt in order to accommodate for these novel functions. History Up until recently, social scientists did not believe brain biology was relevant to their field, and thus never attempted to research the biological mechanisms of such cultural acquisitions as reading and arithmetic. Many early social scientists held tabula rasa (blank slate) views, which was the notion that individuals are born with",
"-32.70170620258432"
],
[
"Computational-representational understanding of mind Computational representational understanding of mind (CRUM) is a hypothesis in cognitive science which proposes that thinking is performed by computations operating on representations. This hypothesis assumes that the mind has mental representations analogous to data structures and computational procedures analogous to algorithms, such that computer programs using algorithms applied to data structures can model the mind and its processes.\nCRUM takes into consideration several theoretical approaches of understanding human cognition, including logic, rule, concept, analogy, image, and connection based systems. These serve as the representation aspects of CRUM theory which are then acted upon to simulate certain",
"-32.68395041994518"
],
[
"cognitive processes that constitute the mind. The evidence from brain imaging indicates that all processes of the mind have physical correlates in brain function. However, such correlational studies cannot determine whether neural activity plays a causal role in the occurrence of these cognitive processes (correlation does not imply causation) and they cannot determine if the neural activity is either necessary or sufficient for such processes to occur. Identification of causation, and of necessary and sufficient conditions requires explicit experimental manipulation of that activity. If manipulation of brain activity changes consciousness, then a causal role for that brain activity can be",
"-32.67668585019419"
],
[
"distinct from the mechanisms of the more primitive cerebellum, which dominates in the blinking response and receives the input of auditory information directly. It does not need to \"reach out\" to other brain structures for assistance in forming some memories of simple association.\nAn MIT study found that behavior based on high-level cognition, such as the expression of a specific memory, can be generated in a mammal by highly specific physical activation of a specific small subpopulation of brain cells. By reactivating these cells by physical means in mice, such as shining light on neurons affected by optogenetics, a long-term",
"-32.55050334986299"
],
[
"pathways, associating one neuron with another. When we learn something, new pathways are made between neurons in the brain which then communicate through chemical signals. If these cells have a history of sending out certain signals under specific chemical conditions within the brain, they are then primed to work most effectively under similar circumstances. State-dependent memory happens when a new neural connection is made while the brain is in a specific chemical state - for instance, a child with ADHD learns their multiplication tables while on stimulant medication. Because their brain created these new connections related to multiplication tables while",
"-32.54605722706765"
],
[
"than remembering information itself. Thus the brain may be allowed to be involved in higher order activities such as contemplation, critical thinking and problem solving. (Taylor, 2012, #14)\nFeel / ability to empathize \nAccording to a study on two groups of sixth-graders, kids who had no access to electronic devices for five days picked up on emotions and non-verbal cues better than those who used their devices during that time. (De Loatch, 2015, #16) Ecological techno subsystem Ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) emerged before the advent of Internet revolution and the developmental influence of then available technology (e.g., television) was conceptually",
"-32.52015379391378"
],
[
"the brain specific thoughts originate—or even how usefully such localization corresponds with reality. However, neuroimaging has delivered unmistakable results showing the existence of correlations between mind and brain. Some of these draw on a systemic neural network model rather than a localized function model.\nPsychiatric interventions such as transcranial magnetic stimulation and drugs also provide information about brain–mind interactions. Psychopharmacology is the study of drug-induced mental effects. Computer simulation Computational modeling is a tool used in mathematical psychology and cognitive psychology to simulate behavior. This method has several advantages. Since modern computers process information quickly, simulations can be run in a",
"-32.45960846106573"
],
[
"studies opened the door to unraveling the molecular and cellular mechanisms that are responsible for the long-term storage of information in the brain. Once again, studies in the Silva Laboratory revealed the critical role of synaptic plasticity in learning and memory, this time in cortical memory storage Discovery of neuronal memory allocation A team led by Sheena Josselyn in the Silva Lab discovered that there are molecular and cellular mechanisms that regulate which neurons in a circuit encode a given memory (neuronal memory allocation). They found that the transcription factor CREB modulates the probability that individual amygdala neurons become involved",
"-32.45374788949994"
],
[
"of brain function, explaining cognitive processes in terms of connections between neuron assemblies. These ideas played a large part in his views on education and learning.\nHebb viewed motivation and learning as related properties. He believed that everything in the brain was interrelated and worked together. His theory was that everything we experience in our environment fires a set of neurons called a cell assembly. This cell assembly is the brain's thoughts or ideas. These cell assemblies then work together to form phase sequences, which are streams of thoughts. Once these cell assemblies and phase",
"-32.3526595152216"
],
[
"(This is why a phone number is seven digits)\n (Video that elaborates on the basic breakdown of the Information Processing Theory) Emergence Information processing as a model for human thinking and learning is part of the resurgence of cognitive perspectives of learning. The cognitive perspective asserts that complex mental states affect human learning and behavior that such mental states can be scientifically investigated. Computers, which process information, include internal states that affect processing. Computers, therefore, provided a model for possible human mental states that provided researchers with clues and direction for understanding human thinking and learning as information processing.",
"-32.26095403218642"
],
[
"theories of mind are often said to require mental representation because 'input' into a computation comes in the form of symbols or representations of other objects. A computer cannot compute an actual object, but must interpret and represent the object in some form and then compute the representation. The computational theory of mind is related to the representational theory of mind in that they both require that mental states are representations. However, the representational theory of mind shifts the focus to the symbols being manipulated. This approach better accounts for systematicity and productivity. In Fodor's original views, the computational theory",
"-32.244251015014015"
],
[
"a \"filter\" model of attention, according to which much information processing takes place below the threshold of consciousness, and only certain processes, limited by nature and by simultaneous quantity, make their way through the filter. Copious research has shown that subconscious priming of certain ideas can covertly influence thoughts and behavior. A significant hurdle in this research is proving that a subject's conscious mind has not grasped a certain stimulus, due to the unreliability of self-reporting. For this reason, some psychologists prefer to distinguish between implicit and explicit memory. In another approach, one can also describe a subliminal stimulus as",
"-32.22996121112374"
],
[
"the information stored in the brain. So then if one thinks information in the brain constitutes mental states, then it must follow that information in the PDA is a cognitive state too. Consider also the role of pen and paper in a complex multiplication problem. The pen and paper are so involved in the cognitive process of solving the problem that it seems ridiculous to say they are somehow different from the process, in very much the same way the PDA is used for information like the brain. Another example examines how humans control and manipulate their environment so that",
"-32.12524897430558"
],
[
"which involves use of higher thought. This autobiographical layer of self is developed gradually over time. Working memory is necessary for an extensive display of items to be recalled and referenced. Linguistic areas of the brain are activated to enhance the organism's experience, however, contrary to the language of thought hypothesis, language is not necessarily required.",
"-32.111921840929426"
],
[
"not a symbolic representation but a reflection of how the brain has changed its dynamics in order to achieve motor activity. This leads to a discussion of primary consciousness which integrates with perception into a means of directing immediate behavior and requires significant levels of reentrancy to achieve its effects. The Dynamic Core Hypothesis The problem of integrating, or binding, the activity of functionally segregated areas of the brain in order to concentrate attention on a particular activity in a short amount of time (typically 100-250 msecs) after the presentation of a stimulus is explored by means of large-scale simulations.",
"-31.999478468147572"
],
[
"from their memory (Tulving & Watkins, 1975; Hastie & Park, 1986; Iyengar, 1990). Tversky and Kahneman (1974) also argue that the formation of individuals' judgments directly correlates with \"the ease in which instances or associations could be brought to mind\" (p. 208). When individuals receive and process information, they develop memory traces that can be easily recalled to make decisions on a certain issue. Agenda-setting, in this regard, can make certain issue to be easily accessed in individual's memory when forming judgment about the issue.\n(b) Applicability (Framing)\nThe idea of framing theory is closely related to the agenda-setting theory tradition but it",
"-31.990340571355773"
],
[
"be the most likely memory substrate. Usually the term \"neuroplasticity\" refers to changes in the brain that are caused by activity or experience.\nConnections display temporal and spatial characteristics. Temporal characteristics refer to the continuously modified activity-dependent efficacy of synaptic transmission, called spike-timing-dependent plasticity. It has been observed in several studies that the synaptic efficacy of this transmission can undergo short-term increase (called facilitation) or decrease (depression) according to the activity of the presynaptic neuron. The induction of long-term changes in synaptic efficacy, by long-term potentiation (LTP) or depression (LTD), depends strongly on the relative timing of the onset of the",
"-31.95562083942059"
],
[
"processing is not just bottom-up but can be enhanced when top-down attention is directed toward a target, even if the target never becomes conscious. Brains can even do some mathematical operations unconsciously, and sitting on a problem to let the unconscious mind work out an answer has proved helpful in several experiments. Ch. 5: Theorizing Consciousness Dehaene discusses his version of the Global Workspace Theory of consciousness. Dehaene proposes that \"When we say that we are aware of a certain piece of information, what we mean is just this: the information has entered into a specific storage area that makes",
"-31.912500021637243"
],
[
"was also hypothesized that the brain began using information-integration techniques to solve the rule-based learning tasks. Since rule-based tasks use the hypothesis-testing system of the brain, it can be concluded that the hypothesis-testing system of the brain was damaged/weakened. It is known that the caudate and working memories are part of this system. Therefore, it was confirmed that the putamen is involved in category learning, competition between the systems, feed-back processing in rule-based tasks, and is involved in the processing of pre-frontal regions (which relate to working memory and executive functioning). Now it is known that not only the basal",
"-31.847222162643448"
],
[
"since it looks as if getting there would just amount to uprooting our symbols from their intrinsic meanings (thereby merely reducing ourselves to the functional equivalent of a programmable computer).\" Whole brain emulation A popular approach discussed to achieving general intelligent action is whole brain emulation. A low-level brain model is built by scanning and mapping a biological brain in detail and copying its state into a computer system or another computational device. The computer runs a simulation model so faithful to the original that it will behave in essentially the same way as the original brain, or for all",
"-31.826251778868027"
],
[
"For example, they might show normal recognition of an object they had seen in the past, but fail to recollect when or where it had been viewed. Some researchers believe that the prefrontal cortex helps organize information for more efficient storage, drawing upon its role in executive function. Others believe that the prefrontal cortex underlies semantic strategies which enhance encoding, such as thinking about the meaning of the study material or rehearsing it in working memory.\nResearchers do not agree about how long episodic memories are stored in the hippocampus. Some researchers believe that episodic memories always rely on the hippocampus.",
"-31.812894757953472"
],
[
"they would a sequence of nonsense syllables.\nAccording to a theory by Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch, working memory is under the influence of three key mechanisms: the visuospatial sketchpad, the central executive, and the phonological loop. A mechanism called the episodic buffer was later added to the model. The phonological loop is the mechanism that facilitates learning and memory by storing information (in the articulatory loop) and refreshing or rehearsing it in our memory (in the acoustic store). The phonological similarity effect is when items in a list have similar features (e.g. similar sound), they are more difficult to remember.",
"-31.775098696583882"
],
[
"underlying learning and memory is now widely accepted. Cognitive theories In cognitive psychology, the human mind is seen to be a structured system for handling information. Several theories argue that cognitive activities such as judgments, evaluations, or thoughts are necessary for an emotion to occur. Richard Lazarus argues this by saying it is necessary to capture the fact that emotions are about something or have intentionality. Such cognitive activity may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing.\nWritten in 1958, Donald Eric Broadbent's Perception and Communication was the first book entirely devoted to",
"-31.75684154231567"
],
[
"in the brain. The modern neuroscientific view is that brain metabolism, measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging or positron emission tomography, is a physical correlate of mental activity.",
"-31.713742744352203"
],
[
"cues are visual or spatial. The parietal lobe is also responsible for maintaining attention on the intended action and inhibiting other activities during performance. Studies using PET have shown that the parietal lobe is activated when participants engage in prospective memory tasks involving visual information such as remembering a series of numbers. Activation of the parietal lobe is also evident in studies using magnetoencephalography (MEG) which traces electric activity of the brain.\nHarrington et al. (1998) found that neural areas ranging from the inferior parietal cortex to the frontal gyri are involved in temporal monitoring during time-based prospective memory tasks. Patients",
"-31.675671464727202"
],
[
"argue that motoric embodiment is not just \"interference\" that inhibits visual mental imagery but is capable of facilitating mental imagery.\nAs cognitive neuroscience approaches to mental imagery continued, research expanded beyond questions of serial versus parallel or topographic processing to questions of the relationship between mental images and perceptual representations. Both brain imaging (fMRI and ERP) and studies of neuropsychological patients have been used to test the hypothesis that a mental image is the reactivation, from memory, of brain representations normally activated during the perception of an external stimulus. In other words, if perceiving an apple activates contour and location and",
"-31.660544307182136"
],
[
"organization of the brain is also the basis for a number of theories of brain function including the general theory of mind and Neural Darwinism. The concept of neuroplasticity is also central to theories of memory and learning that are associated with experience-driven alteration of synaptic structure and function in studies of classical conditioning in invertebrate animal models such as Aplysia. Treatment of brain damage A surprising consequence of neuroplasticity is that the brain activity associated with a given function can be transferred to a different location; this can result from normal experience and also occurs in the process of",
"-31.619885660416912"
],
[
"of information in working memory, coordinated by the frontal lobes.\nThe frontal lobes help a person select out memories that are most relevant on a given occasion. It can coordinate various types of information into a coherent memory trace. For example, the knowledge of the information itself, as well as knowing where information came from must be put together into a single memory representation; this is called source monitoring. Sometimes we experience situations where information becomes separated, such as when we recall something, but cannot remember where we remember it from; this is referred to as a source monitoring",
"-31.611960911890492"
],
[
"allocated to the various operations involved in processing, retaining, and reporting information\". This means that working memory and the various areas of the brain responsible for it are theoretically limited to a finite set of \"mental resources\" or mental capacity with which to carry out operation. Cognitive inhibition, of course, is responsible for determining what is relevant to the working memory and shuts out what is irrelevant, \"freeing up space\" and mental capacity needed for more pressing matters. \n\nIn the theory of inefficient inhibition, cognitive inhibition does not perform its function fully, and a shortage of mental resources leads to",
"-31.59604145900812"
],
[
"the modern human species.\nEvolutionary psychologists propose that the mind is made up of genetically influenced and domain-specific mental algorithms or computational modules, designed to solve specific evolutionary problems of the past. Cosmides and Tooby also state in a brief \"primer\" on their website, that \"…the brain is a physical system. It functions like a computer,\" \"…the brain’s function is to process information,\" \"different neural circuits are specialized for solving different adaptive problems,\" and \"our modern skulls house a stone age mind.\"\nThe definition of module has caused confusion and dispute. J. A. Fodor initially defined module as \"functionally specialized cognitive",
"-31.50034392143425"
],
[
"and cognitive development Brain research shows that some general aspects of the brain, such as myelination, plasticity, and connectivity of neurons, are related to some dimensions of general intelligence, such as speed of processing and learning efficiency. Moreover, there are brain regions, located mainly in the frontal and parietal cortex that subserve functions that are central to all cognitive processing, such as executive control, and working memory. Also, there are many neural networks that specialize in the representation of different types of information such as verbal (temporal lobe of the brain), spatial (occipital lobe of the brain) or quantitative information",
"-31.48114414466545"
],
[
"stored in the neocortex during SWS, memories start to remain in the hippocampus where they were encoded, as evidenced by increased hippocampal activation compared to younger adults during recall tasks, when subjects learned word associations, slept, and then were asked to recall the learned words. Executive function The original studies of Fuster and of Goldman-Rakic emphasized the fundamental ability of the prefrontal cortex to represent information not currently in the environment, and the central role of this function in creating the \"mental sketch pad\". Goldman-Rakic spoke of how this representational knowledge was used to intelligently guide thought, action, and emotion,",
"-31.46921254575136"
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[
"memory by finding out how the brain encodes different memories in the hippocampus. \n By mimicking the natural coding of the brain with electrical stimulation, researchers look to replace compromised hippocampal regions and restore function. Treatment for several conditions that impact cognition such as stroke, Alzheimer's disease and head trauma can benefit from the development of a hippocampal prosthetic. Epilepsy has also been linked to dysfunction in the CA3 region of the hippocampus. Brain-computer interfaces A Brain-computer interface (BCI) is a type of implant that allows for a direct connection between a patient's brain and some form of external",
"-31.44621879789338"
],
[
"shows that these brain regions play a role in personal goal processing, which is a critical feature of episodic future thinking. Brain regions involved in the 'what' and 'where' of an event Cabeza et al. conducted a positron emission tomography (PET) scan study on a group of human test subjects to identify the brain regions involved in temporal memory, which is based on a linear progression of events. Since 'recollecting a past episode involves remembering not only what happened but also when it happened', PET scans were used to find the areas of the brain that were activated when trying",
"-31.359799968253355"
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[
"a connecting system where information processing took place (an association center), and an output or efferent system (a motor center); and, finally, a modular conception of the brain whereby discrete mental faculties were connected to specific regions of the brain. Burckhardt's hypothesis was that by deliberately creating lesions in regions of the brain identified as association centers a transformation in behavior might ensue. According to his model, those mentally ill might experience \"excitations abnormal in quality, quantity and intensity\" in the sensory regions of the brain and this abnormal stimulation would then be transmitted to the motor regions giving rise",
"-31.35390198341338"
],
[
"of activity within the brain; temporal resolution (or information about the timing of brain activity), on the other hand, is poor, since the BOLD response happens much more slowly than language processing. In addition to demonstrating which parts of the brain may subserve specific language tasks or computations, hemodynamic methods have also been used to demonstrate how the structure of the brain's language architecture and the distribution of language-related activation may change over time, as a function of linguistic exposure.\nIn addition to PET and fMRI, which show which areas of the brain are activated by certain tasks, researchers also",
"-31.32094962033443"
],
[
"and the hippocampus. Neural structures involved Several neural structures are proposed to be involved in explicit memory. Most are in the temporal lobe or closely related to it, such as the amygdala, the hippocampus, the rhinal cortex in the temporal lobe, and the prefrontal cortex. Nuclei in the thalamus also are included, because many connections between the prefrontal cortex and temporal cortex are made through the thalamus. The regions that make up the explicit memory circuit receive input from the neocortex and from brainstem systems, including acetylcholine, serotonin, and noradrenaline systems. Traumatic brain injury While the human brain is certainly",
"-31.271571338525973"
],
[
"were simply presented. This study was done using connect-the-dots or verbal instruction to produce either a nonsense or real image. It is believed that effort made to comprehend something when encoding induces activation of alternative cues that later participate in recall. Cerebral lateralization Functional magnetic resonance imaging and electroencephalogram studies have found that problem solving requiring insight involves increased activity in the right cerebral hemisphere as compared with problem solving not requiring insight. In particular, increased activity was found in the right hemisphere anterior superior temporal gyrus. Sleep Some unconscious processing may take place while a person is asleep, and",
"-31.26323711045552"
],
[
"brain are leveraged. The idea is that these abilities are more natural and require \"less work\" than other forms of recognition based on reading text, maintaining an awareness of \"current working directory\" (in a command-line environment, for example), relying on the memory of past actions, or any other non-spatial cues.\nOne more advantage is that it allows the user to keep things arranged a certain way from one session to the next, as with the \"workspace\" settings in many high-end software packages. For instance, the windows showing the contents of different folders for a complex project could be tiled onscreen in",
"-31.254010369244497"
],
[
"computation by simulating, or mathematically analyzing, the operations of simplified \"units\" that have some of the properties of neurons but abstract out much of their biological complexity. The computational functions of the brain are studied both by computer scientists and neuroscientists.\nComputational neurogenetic modeling is concerned with the study and development of dynamic neuronal models for modeling brain functions with respect to genes and dynamic interactions between genes.\nRecent years have seen increasing applications of genetic and genomic techniques to the study of the brain and a focus on the roles of neurotrophic factors and physical activity in neuroplasticity. The most",
"-31.22109894058667"
],
[
"Neuronal recycling hypothesis The neuronal recycling hypothesis was proposed by Stanislas Dehaene in the field of cognitive neuroscience in an attempt to explain the underlying neural processes which allow humans to acquire recently invented cognitive capacities. This hypothesis was formulated in response to the 'reading paradox', which states that these cognitive processes are cultural inventions too modern to be the products of evolution. The paradox lies within the fact that cross-cultural evidence suggests specific brain areas are associated with these functions. The concept of neuronal recycling resolves this paradox by suggesting that novel functions actually utilize and 'recycle' existing brain",
"-31.138494379352778"
],
[
"cingulate cortex (vACC) is also a part of the brain that becomes activated when there are signs of self-referencing and processing. The vACC is activated when self-descriptive information is negative. There is also pCC (posterior cingulate cortex) activity seen in neuroimaging studies during self-referential processing. Depth of processing or cognitive structure Given all of the neurological support for the effect of self-reference on encoding and memory, there is still a debate in the psychological community about whether or not the self-reference effect signifies a special functional role played by the self in cognition. Generally, this question is met by people",
"-31.096157055173535"
],
[
"in spatial attention Due to the brain's limited capacity to process information, it becomes necessary that the brain have the ability filter out unnecessary information, and select important information. Input, especially to the visual field, competes for selective attention. Models for gating mechanisms in the process of attention have been explored by many groups of researchers, however, a consensus on the role of synaptic gating in attention has not been reached. Role in working memory Gating mechanisms in the basal ganglia have been linked to our ability to filter irrelevant information and access relevant information from working memory. In this",
"-31.089877199334296"
],
[
"once. The brain must then decide which activity is most important, thereby taking more time. Psychologist David Meyer of the University of Michigan claims that, instead of a “bottleneck,” the brain experiences “adaptive executive control” which places priorities on each activity. These viewpoints differ in that while bottlenecking attempts to force many thoughts through the brain at once, adaptive executive control prioritizes tasks to maintain a semblance of order. The brain better understands this order and, as psychologists such as Dr. Meyer believe, can, therefore, be trained to multitask. It is not known exactly how the brain processes input and",
"-31.052759331359994"
],
[
"intermediaries, and by temporal and spatial conjunction. The prefrontal cortex works similarly upon information processing happening elsewhere in the brain through creating working memory space. This space allows novel intermediary forms of association to be created and held together between different information processing systems in the brain. This process is essential to the formation of symbols and symbol based cognition. Free cortex Due to brain enlargement in humans, most of the human cerebral cortex lacks tightly evolved functions and so is open to acquire nonevolved skills. Even highly evolved cortical areas such as the primary visual and auditory cortices can",
"-31.039801799566703"
],
[
"with an internet search engine; intellectually strategizing with using Microsoft tools; and finally making a decision with computer output” (Miller, 2016, p. 323). When information-psychologists consider the structure of the cognitive system as it relates to computers in this way, they often refer to it as cognitive architecture (Miller, 2016, p. 323). Understanding how a person’s cognitive architecture uses its computer pieces allows information-psychologists to “complete an analysis of every step of what a person does to information” (Miller, 2016, p. 323). \nInformation-processing theory is a theory of human development; therefore, information-processing psychologists are able to “view children at various",
"-31.036799439694732"
],
[
"it has been shown to associate with, and regulate the promoters not only of Id3 but also of cyclin D1 and RAR-β, being part of transcriptional complexes. It has been shown that when the differentiation of new neurons of the hippocampus - a brain region important for learning and memory - is either accelerated or delayed by means of overexpression or deletion of BTG2, respectively, spatial and contextual memory is heavily altered. This suggests that the time the young neurons spend in different states of neuronal differentiation is critical for their ultimate function in learning and memory, and that",
"-31.027271580998786"
],
[
"actions. In the researchers' own words, they claim that, “depending on their target of influence, representations in the PFC can function variously as attentional templates, rules, or goals by providing top-down bias signals to other parts of the brain that guide the flow of activity along the pathways needed to perform a task”.\nExperimental data indicate a role for the prefrontal cortex in mediating normal sleep physiology, dreaming and sleep-deprivation phenomena.\nWhen analyzing and thinking about attributes of other individuals, the medial prefrontal cortex is activated, however, it is not activated when contemplating the characteristics of inanimate objects.\nStudies using fMRI have shown",
"-31.010973583033774"
],
[
"also a notion of integrating the \"top\" parts of the brain with the \"lower\" parts of the brain to integrate thought and emotion, as well as integrating visual, auditory, and motor skills; \nAnother idea is that of \"brain buttons\" - spots on the neck that if touched in certain ways, can stimulate the flow of blood to the brain.\nAnother set of underlying ideas is psychomotor patterning, also known as the Doman-Delacato theory of development, which claims that if motor skills are not acquired in the correct order, the result will be a lifelong deficit in learning ability, and also claims",
"-30.98221977200592"
],
[
"creating classifiers in one part of the brain, and applying them to different parts of the brain. This supports the idea that the brain might not be as modular as previously thought, and that certain types of brain processing may happen in a fundamentally distributed manner. In particular, the model of working memory operations that emerges suggests that traditional models of working memory, such as Baddely's, are too modular and hierarchical. Philosophy of Neuroscience In his 2013 book The Neural Basis of Free Will, Tse focused on the question of mental causation, in particular the proposition that mental events (and",
"-30.962616671458818"
],
[
"date are conserved across different brain regions, and it is likely that the mechanisms of fear-based memory allocation found in the amygdala will also be similarly present for other types of memories throughout different brain regions. Indeed, Sano and colleagues in the Silva lab showed that CREB also regulates neuronal memory allocation in the amygdala.\nCREB may be activated by multiple pathways. For example, the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and protein kinase A (PKA) pathways appear to participate in neuronal allocation. When activated by the second messengers such as cAMP and calcium ions, enzymes such as PKA and MAP kinase can",
"-30.962565833106055"
],
[
"including the inhibition of inappropriate thoughts, distractions, actions, and feelings. In this way, working memory can be seen as fundamental to attention and behavioral inhibition. Fuster speaks of how this prefrontal ability allows the wedding of past to future, allowing both cross-temporal and cross-modal associations in the creation of goal-directed, perception-action cycles. This ability to represent underlies all other higher executive functions.\nShimamura proposed Dynamic Filtering Theory to describe the role of the prefrontal cortex in executive functions. The prefrontal cortex is presumed to act as a high-level gating or filtering mechanism that enhances goal-directed activations and inhibits irrelevant activations. This",
"-30.955737016513012"
],
[
"to explain how (in general terms) the mind functions. This means that it is not an account of brain function, although it is set out in such a way that might facilitate such accounts. Modules, processing units and working memory Briefly, MOGUL architecture follows Jackendoff in positing a generic cognitive module (or, in MOGUL, a processing unit) which consists of an integrative processor operating on structural elements (structures) in a memory store. Specifically, it works with activated elements that are raised into working memory from that memory store.\nModules are only somewhat generic in structure; the rest is very specific to",
"-30.951800755545264"
],
[
"cell is usually expressed as changes in neuronal excitability. This occurs through modulation of membrane components, such as resting and voltage-gated channels and ion pumps. Nonsynaptic processes are thought to be involved in memory storage. One possible mechanism of this action involves marking a neuron that has been recently active with changes in excitability. This would help to link temporally separated stimuli. Another potential mechanism comes from a computational model that indicates that nonsynaptic plasticity may prime circuits for modification in learning because excitability changes may regulate the threshold for synaptic plasticity.\nThe storage capacity of synaptic-based memory storage systems is",
"-30.93774239619961"
],
[
"for how specific neurons in a network, and not others that receive similar input, are committed to storing a specific memory. The role of CREB in neuronal allocation The transcription factor cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) is a well-studied mechanism of neuronal memory allocation. Most studies to date use the amygdala as a model circuit, and fear-related memory traces in the amygdala are mediated by CREB expression in the individual neurons allocated to those memories. CREB modulates cellular processes that lead to neuronal allocation, particularly with regards to dendritic spine density and morphology. Many of the memory mechanisms studied to",
"-30.933773115102667"
],
[
"which allows us to remember our past, be able to optimize the present, and plan for the future. Remembering involves a complex interaction between the current environment, what one expects to remember, and what is retained from the past. The mechanisms of the brain that allow memory storage and retrieval serves us well most of the time, but occasionally gets us into trouble. Brain areas of interest There is extensive evidence that the amygdala is involved in effectively influencing memory. Emotional arousal, usually fear based, activates the amygdala and results in the modulation of memory storage occurring in other",
"-30.908472670940682"
],
[
"by cumulating experiences and learning processes. When brain functions are active, the cerebral cortex processes large volumes of information. Conscious thought is a result of a massive information compression process, which originates from external sensations, such as sight and hearing, or from internal thoughts or associations, and is governed by the context and the emotional state. The condensation of relevant information, which takes place in the subconscious, generates instructions for reactions as well as new cognitive input for the cortex. A conscious thought itself should be considered as the control feedback of what the subconscious has already determined.",
"-30.89660805335734"
],
[
"processing Through the use of schemata, a heuristic technique to encode and retrieve memories, the majority of typical situations do not require much strenuous processing. People can quickly organize new perceptions into schemata and act without effort.\nHowever, schemata can influence and hamper the uptake of new information (proactive interference), such as when existing stereotypes, giving rise to limited or biased discourses and expectations (prejudices), lead an individual to \"see\" or \"remember\" something that has not happened because it is more believable in terms of his/her schema. For example, if a well-dressed businessman draws a knife on a vagrant, the schemata",
"-30.89571768938913"
],
[
"combination of neurons which could be grouped together as one processing unit, Hebb referred to as \"cell-assemblies\". And their combination of connections made up the ever-changing algorithm which dictated the brain's response to stimuli.\nNot only did Hebb's model for the working of the mind influence how psychologists understood the processing of stimuli within the mind but also it opened up the way for the creation of computational machines that mimicked the biological processes of a living nervous system. Hebb argued that simple underlying neural mechanisms could explain observed psychological phenomena such as learning. Computer simulations of neural networks were",
"-30.893287776503712"
],
[
"Cognitive skill Cognitive functioning is a term referring to a human’s ability to process thoughts that should not deplete on a large scale in healthy individuals. It is defined as \"the ability of an individual to perform the various mental activities most closely associated with learning and problem solving. Examples include verbal, spatial, psychomotor, and processing-speed ability.\" Cognition mainly refers to things like memory, the ability to learn new information, speech, understanding of written material. The brain is usually capable of learning new skills in the aforementioned areas, typically in early childhood, and of developing personal thoughts and beliefs",
"-30.87897079256436"
],
[
"chairs to replacing the mouse and keyboard. Detecting attention It is possible to track which of two forms of rivalrous binocular illusions a person was subjectively experiencing from fMRI signals.\nWhen humans think of an object, such as a screwdriver, many different areas of the brain activate. Marcel Just and his colleague, Tom Mitchell, have used fMRI brain scans to teach a computer to identify the various parts of the brain associated with specific thoughts. This technology also yielded a discovery: similar thoughts in different human brains are surprisingly similar neurologically. To illustrate this, Just and Mitchell used their computer to",
"-30.844933767453767"
],
[
"as the stage of life in which the individual's thoughts start taking more of an abstract form and the egocentric thoughts decrease. This allows the individual to think and reason in a wider perspective. A combination of behavioural and fMRI studies have demonstrated development of executive functions, that is, cognitive skills that enable the control and coordination of thoughts and behaviour, which are generally associated with the prefrontal cortex. The thoughts, ideas and concepts developed at this period of life greatly influence one's future life, playing a major role in character and personality formation.\nBiological changes in brain structure and connectivity",
"-30.8443984654441"
],
[
"Memory improvement Neuroplasticity Neuroplasticity is the mechanism by which the brain encodes experience, learns new behaviours and relearns lost behaviour if the brain has been damaged.\nExperience-dependent neuroplasticity suggests that the brain changes in response to what it experiences. London taxicab drivers provide a great example of this dynamic. They undergo extensive training for 2–4 years, learning and memorizing street names, layout of streets within the city and the quickest cross-city routes. After studying London taxicab drivers over a period of time, it was found that the grey matter volume increased over time in the posterior hippocampus, an area in",
"-30.806307023274712"
],
[
"event- or time- based prospective memory tasks. Parietal lobe In terms of prospective memory, the parietal lobe plays an important role in processing and recognizing cues that trigger and keep attention focused on intended actions while performing other tasks. This part of the brain is activated most intensely when these cues are visual or spatial. The parietal lobe is located in the superior region of the brain above the occipital lobe and behind the frontal lobe.\nFor time-based prospective memory, the parietal lobe is important especially when an individual is required to remember numbers, more specifically, a certain time",
"-30.80554552108515"
],
[
"cognitive tasks can be better performed. Leaving one's car keys in a familiar place so they aren't missed for instance, or using landmarks to navigate in an unfamiliar city. Thus, humans incorporate aspects of their environment to aid in their cognitive functioning. Examples of the value of embodied approach The value of the embodiment approach in the context of cognitive science is perhaps best explained by Andy Clark. He makes the claim that the brain alone should not be the single focus for the scientific study of cognition\nIt is increasingly clear that, in a wide variety of cases, the individual",
"-30.80526075803209"
],
[
"Brain-reading Brain-reading or thought identification uses the responses of multiple voxels in the brain evoked by stimulus then detected by fMRI in order to decode the original stimulus. Advances in research have made this possible by using human neuroimaging to decode a person's conscious experience based on non-invasive measurements of an individual's brain activity. Brain reading studies differ in the type of decoding (i.e. classification, identification and reconstruction) employed, the target (i.e. decoding visual patterns, auditory patterns, cognitive states), and the decoding algorithms (linear classification, nonlinear classification, direct reconstruction, Bayesian reconstruction, etc.) employed.\nProfessor of neuropsychology Barbara Sahakian qualifies, \"A lot of neuroscientists in",
"-30.794082261956646"
],
[
"is concerned with how sensory and other information is represented in the brain by neurons. The main goal of studying neural coding is to characterize the relationship between the stimulus and the individual or ensemble neuronal responses, and the relationships among the electrical activities of the neurons within the ensemble. It is thought that neurons can encode both digital and analog information. All-or-none principle The conduction of nerve impulses is an example of an all-or-none response. In other words, if a neuron responds at all, then it must respond completely. Greater intensity of stimulation, like brighter image/louder sound, does not",
"-30.77484363772237"
],
[
"of brain rhythms of different frequencies and their cross-frequency coupling has opened up opportunities for the dissection of cognitive mechanisms in health and disease.\nHis most influential work, the two-stage model of memory trace consolidation, demonstrates how the neocortex-mediated information during learning transiently modifies hippocampal networks, followed by reactivation and consolidation of these memory traces during sharp wave-ripple patterns of sleep. Buzsáki's demonstration that in the absence of changing environmental signals, cortical circuits continuously generate self-organized cell assembly sequences is an important link to the neuronal assembly basis of cognitive functions. His experiments demonstrated how skewed distribution of firing rates supports",
"-30.748299360391684"
],
[
"single cognitive process can be inserted into another set of cognitive processes without affecting the functioning of the rest. For example, if you wanted to find the reading comprehension area of the brain, you might scan participants while they were presented with a word and while they were presented with a non-word (e.g. \"Floob\"). If you infer that the resulting difference in brain pattern represents the regions of the brain involved in reading comprehension, you have assumed that these changes are not reflective of changes in task difficulty or differential recruitment between tasks. The term pure insertion was coined by",
"-30.74290103392559"
],
[
"that weights sensory evidence by its estimated relevance. The respective theoretical concepts like “memory” or “selective attention” are addressed as cognitive functions. Cognitive functions are brought about by the complex interactions among many neurons, neuronal groups, and brain areas. These complex interactions cannot yet be deduced from our understanding of individual neurons. Therefore, a central goal is to understand the principles behind such interactions and how they lead to behavior. Research at the ESI aims at understanding the mechanisms behind the core cognitive functions.",
"-30.71931860235054"
],
[
"can provide meaningful understanding of the nature of thinking. Nor is it intended to build a cohesive theory but to provide the reader with a collection of concepts that will illuminate further thinking about thinking.\nMore detailed models and theories specifically about the brain can be found under the topic of Cognitive Science and connectionism. Behaviour of the Model The characteristic behaviour of the system is shown to create and reinforce patterns. The current set of patterns in the system determine how new experiences are integrated. Attention tends to flow along well-worn paths and patterns have large catchment areas. Novel experiences",
"-30.69023784052115"
],
[
"a person associates more stimuli with a particular memory and it becomes more easily accessible. Temporal lobes are said to be the area of the brain that are important for storing new memories when learning. The availability of memories accessible to recall is positively correlated with the size and function of a person's temporal lobe. Drugs and psychostimulants All drugs and stimulants of the brain can affect how someone learns, consolidates, and retrieves certain memories. For example, cocaine blocks the reuptake of dopamine, a neurotransmitter in the brain, causing an increase of dopamine in the synaptic cleft. This will elicit",
"-30.685361042342265"
],
[
"speaking on NPR: \nSome scientists now believe that memories effectively get rewritten every time they're activated. Studies on rats suggest that if you block a crucial chemical process during the execution of a learned behavior - pushing a lever to get food, for instance - the learned behavior disappears. The rat stops remembering. Theoretically, if you could block that chemical reaction in a human brain while triggering a specific memory, you could make a targeted erasure. Think of a dreadful fight with your girlfriend while blocking that chemical reaction, and zap! The memory's gone.\nDaniel Goleman, in his book Vital Lies,",
"-30.68432371329982"
],
[
"are functions of four areas of the brain. Planning is broadly located in the front part of our brains, the frontal lobe. Attention and arousal are combined functions of the frontal lobe and the lower parts of the cortex, although the parietal lobes are also involved in attention as well. Simultaneous processing and Successive processing occur in the posterior region or the back of the brain. Simultaneous processing is broadly associated with the occipital and the parietal lobes while Successive processing is broadly associated with the frontal-temporal lobes. The PASS (Planning/Attention/Simultaneous/Successive) theory is heavily indebted to both Luria (1966, 1973),",
"-30.679443000582978"
],
[
"studies might still serve as a useful heuristic in cognitive neuropsychological studies. Single unit recordings It is commonly understood in neuroscience that information is encoded in the brain by the firing patterns of neurons. Many of the philosophical questions surrounding the neural code are related to questions about representation and computation that are discussed below. There are other methodological questions including whether neurons represent information through an average firing rate or whether there is information represented by the temporal dynamics. There are similar questions about whether neurons represent information individually or as a population. Computational neuroscience Many of the philosophical",
"-30.67736242369574"
],
[
"the mechanisms underlying neuroplasticity. Re-organization is not cortically emergent, but occurs at every level in the processing hierarchy; this produces the map changes observed in the cerebral cortex. Applications and example The adult brain is not entirely \"hard-wired\" with fixed neuronal circuits. There are many instances of cortical and subcortical rewiring of neuronal circuits in response to training as well as in response to injury. There is solid evidence that neurogenesis (birth of brain cells) occurs in the adult, mammalian brain—and such changes can persist well into old age. The evidence for neurogenesis is mainly restricted to the hippocampus",
"-30.67691042390652"
],
[
"Planning (cognitive) Cognitive planning is one of the executive functions. It encompasses the neurological processes involved in the formulation, evaluation and selection of a sequence of thoughts and actions to achieve a desired goal. Various studies utilizing a combination of neuropsychological, neuropharmacological and functional neuroimaging approaches have suggested there is a positive relationship between impaired planning ability and damage to the frontal lobe.\nA specific area within the mid-dorsolateral frontal cortex located in the frontal lobe has been implicated as playing an intrinsic role in both cognitive planning and associated executive traits such as working memory.\nDisruption of the neural pathways, via",
"-30.648832006671"
],
[
"of the medial temporal lobe, a brain structure that includes the hippocampus and other para-hippocampal cortical areas. The organization of these brain areas is largely conserved across mammalian species as are the major pathways that information travels between the medial temporal lobe and the neocortex. Because of this strong parallel between animal brain structures and the structures involved in human episodic memory, there is reason to believe that not only do some animals possess the ability to form what-where-when memories, but that this episodic-like system may be more comparable to human episodic memory than once thought.\nAccording to Eichenbaum (2000), information",
"-30.621242843044456"
],
[
"international arena as they provide some basic rules of protocol. Neuroscientific (neurocognitive) model In cognitive neuroscience decision-making refers to the cognitive process of evaluating a number of possibilities, and selecting the most appropriate thereof in order to further a specific goal, or task. This faculty is a fundamental component of executive functions, although recent studies show that a complex brain network is involved including motor areas.",
"-30.600507565643056"
],
[
"parietal cortex and the superior prefrontal cortices. Ambler and Burne in 1999 created the Memory-Affect-Cognition (MAC) theory to explain the processes involved in decision making. According to the theory, the majority of decisions are habitual and do not require affect or cognition; they require memory only. Most of the remaining decisions only require memory and affect; they do not require cognition. The main use for cognition is in the form of rationalization following a particular action, however, there are occasional instances in which memory, affect and cognition are all used in conjunction, such as during a",
"-30.56761321844533"
],
[
"Brain–brain interface A brain–brain interface is a direct communication pathway between the brain of one animal and the brain of another animal.\nBrain to brain interfaces have been used to help rats collaborate with each other. When a second rat was unable to choose the correct lever, the first rat noticed (not getting a second reward), and produced a round of task-related neuron firing that made the second rat more likely to choose the correct lever.\nIn 2013, Rajesh Rao was able to use electrical brain recordings and a form of magnetic stimulation to send a brain signal to Andrea Stocco on",
"-30.566159756301204"
],
[
"cortex, which was activated in an experiment where subjects analyzed the relevance of data to themselves. Specificity of processing is explained on a neurological basis by studies that show brain activity in the same location when a visual memory is encoded and retrieved, and lexical memory in a different location. Visual memory areas were mostly located within the bilateral extrastriate visual cortex. Mental disorders Levels-of-processing effects interact in various ways with mental disorders. In particular, levels-of-processing effects appear to be strengthened in patients with age-related memory degradation, selectively strengthened in panic disorder patients, unaffected in Alzheimer's disease patients,",
"-30.522031700355"
],
[
"planning and carrying out of everyday tasks.\nThe hippocampus is involved in storage of memories, the amygdala plays a role in perception and communication of emotion, while the basal ganglia play a major role in the coordination of voluntary movement. Difference from the peripheral nervous system This differentiates the CNS from the PNS, which consists of neurons, axons, and Schwann cells. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells have similar functions in the CNS and PNS, respectively. Both act to add myelin sheaths to the axons, which acts as a form of insulation allowing for better and faster proliferation of electrical signals along the",
"-30.508797519258223"
],
[
"field of neuroinformatics, which is concerned with developing and adapting algorithms to analyze those data. Terminology The term brain mapping is often used interchangeably with brain morphometry, although mapping in the narrower sense of projecting properties of the brain onto a template brain is, strictly speaking, only a subfield of brain morphometry. On the other hand, though much more rarely, neuromorphometry is also sometimes used as a synonym for brain morphometry (particularly in the earlier literature, e.g. Haug 1986), though technically is only one of its subfields. Biology The morphology and function of a complex organ like the brain are",
"-30.47826395544689"
],
[
"part [of the brain] allows [a person] to leave something when it’s incomplete and return to the same place and continue from there,” while Brodmann Area 10, a part of the brain’s frontal lobes, is important for establishing and attaining long-term goals. Focusing on multiple dissimilar tasks at once forces the brain to process all activity in its anterior. Though the brain is complex and can perform a myriad of tasks, it cannot multitask well.\nAnother study by René Marois, a psychologist at Vanderbilt University, discovered that the brain exhibits a “response selection bottleneck” when asked to perform several tasks at",
"-30.45798298472073"
],
[
"neurons remains opaque due to the difficulty of measuring transcription in cells that are simultaneously identified for type. Certainly, learning and memory could be influenced by transcriptional changes in astrocytes and other glial elements. And it should be considered that there could be mechanistic effects of NF-κB aside from direct transactivation of genes. Cancers NF-κB is widely used by eukaryotic cells as a regulator of genes that control cell proliferation and cell survival. As such, many different types of human tumors have misregulated NF-κB: that is, NF-κB is constitutively active. Active NF-κB turns on the expression of genes",
"-30.444372079276945"
],
[
"the synchronization of neural activity between different regions of the cortex and is associated with the appearance of specific mental states depending on the frequency range of the most prominent oscillatory activity, gamma most associated with conscious, selective concentration on tasks, learning (perceptual and associative), and short-term memory. Magnetoencephalography (MEG) has been used to show that during conscious perception, gamma-band frequency electrical activity and thalamocortical resonance prominently occurs in the human brain. Absence of these gamma-band patterns correlates with nonconscious states and is characterized by the presence of lower-frequency oscillations instead. Vision The lateral geniculate nucleus, known as the major",
"-30.427329319354612"
]
] |
65r2jv | Why dont police officers have to wear body cameras yet? | [
"Police unions. No one has mentioned this yet. As most police officers are unionized, any change to their working conditions has to be approved through collective bargaining (negotiating with the union). Union contracts often run for 3-5 years so the state can't just tell cops to start using them. Since many police union members (cops) don't want the cameras the unions can delay or prevent departments from adopting them. Police unions are often politically powerful and politicians generally don't like to ram things down their throats that they really don't want. This is why in many places they've either been slow to adopt cameras or haven't done it at all. Note: I'm not demonizing police unions. They are not the sole reason that cameras are not fully adopted. Money is probably the number one reason, but there are also privacy concerns as well.",
"A lot of the answers so far are good, but they're missing one really important point: police are run by *cities*, not by states or the federal government. Dozens of major cities around the country have already started using body cameras, and some of them for all officers. Other cities want to do it but haven't yet got the funding. In some cities they're seeing resistance from officers or unions, it's true, but overall the trend seems to be to start using them.",
"•The most apparent and obvious is cost. Those aren't cheap and considering the area's where this would most beneficial are already cash strapped cities. Often the funds just aren't there. •Privacy concerns of the citizenry. Can't record in people's residence, or interior of car. Also many states require both parties to consent to being recorded, so the cops could violate state law by recording a person. Doing any of the above could make such recordings inadmissible in court. Also there's concern over the storage of said recordings, plus the distinction between essential and non-essential recordings. •Their implementation and use would require training on there proper use, what one can and cannot record. Which again adds to the cost. Signed of from incumbent mayor's, governor's, chief's, police unions, etc., down to an individual officer(s) not wishing or wanting to do so if deemed non-essential to his/hers gear and uniform. •Finally it's not the problem solver its made out to be. Yeah it has helped in some cases but those are few and far between (and more often than not proved the officer innocent from false claims made against them by the person they arrested.) They can be easily damaged, dropped, lost, and misaligned. And remember in situations where they are helpful the last thought on anyone's mind \"is the shot in focus?\" Whats filmed could be obstructed, out of focus, out of range, and sometimes only captures blur. In all honestly the cost of body cams could be better spent elsewhere. They can be helpful but better training and equipment would do worlds better than having a recording of an event.",
"1) They are expensive. 2) There are privacy concerns for the Police. 3) There are security concerns for Police. 4) There are privacy concerns for the public interacting with the police.",
"Most departments that have the funding for them, have them. Police departments can't just shit money and equipment. It requires funding.",
"I'm not sure if this is allowed as a top level comment, but it's something that I'm very passionate about so I'm going to respond anyway and attempt to explain like you're five on why you don't want to push body cameras on law enforcement, you want to resist them having access to them. I was a federal cop for 5 years so I've seen both sides of the body camera 'movement'. The citizens who are forcing the issue of body cameras see them as a means to catch cops doing the wrong thing which on the surface makes totals sense, but when you dig into the subject a little deeper that argument for support starts to fall apart. Employers have been monitoring their employees since the invention of closed circuit TV. Almost everywhere you go there are cameras watching both the customers and the employees...but mostly the employees. The average employee isn't bothered by this because they would never do something wrong, a handful of employees are dissuaded from trying anything on camera but if they find a weak spot they'll exploit it, and a select few don't care about the cameras and gamble that nobody is watching. The same goes for body cameras. There are over 900,000 sworn law enforcement officers in the US and the overwhelmingly vast majority of them will spend their entire career faithfully serving the public with honor, dignity, and respect with some of them selflessly and heroically giving their live in the process. A handful of cops would be dissuaded from doing something questionable on camera but would exploit a weakness in the system if they found one, and a select few just want to watch the world burn. The numbers for \"bad\" cops are no different than the numbers for \"bad\" doctors, \"bad\" lawyers, or any other profession. Some people just suck and they choose a variety of different professions to fund their suck ass lives. So now you win and all 900,000+ cops are outfitted with body cameras and dash cams. But most of the cops would never do anything wrong and now they've got these cameras with them all the time. So what exactly are the camera's purpose? They become evidence gathering tools against you and you can't just think about today, you have to consider the technological advances of the future. If we mandated 100% body camera compliance tomorrow, within five years every cop would be a walking talking license plate reader/facial recognition computer. In ten years we'd have cameras on every street corner and on the highways because \"why pay cops to pull over speeders when you can just send them a ticket in the mail? Cops are needed for real crimes.\" You also have to take into account what this would do to our criminal justice system. When television shows like CSI became popular it had a measurable effect on the system that has been labeled [The CSI Effect:]( URL_0 ) > The CSI effect is hypothesized to affect verdicts in two main ways: first, that jurors expect more forensic evidence than is available or necessary, resulting in a higher rate of acquittal when such evidence is absent; and second, that jurors have greater confidence in forensic and particularly DNA evidence than is warranted, resulting in a higher rate of conviction when such evidence is present. While these and other effects may be caused by crime shows, the most commonly reported effect is that jurors are wrongly acquitting defendants despite overwhelming evidence of guilt. In particular, prosecutors have reported feeling pressured to provide DNA evidence even when eyewitness testimony is available. In one highly publicized incident, Los Angeles County, California District Attorney Steve Cooley blamed actor Robert Blake's acquittal on murder charges on the CSI effect. Cooley noted that the not guilty verdict came despite two witness accounts of Blake's guilt, and claimed that the jury members were \"incredibly stupid\". In a world where every cop has a body and dash camera, anything that happens off camera might as well have never happened. The solution to that? Cameras everywhere!! The result? Hello 1984.",
"So one thing I havent seen written yet is server space cost and records requests. I'll go into them here: 1. Server space. Video clips take up a large amount of space on hard drives, so finding organization and storage for these videos numbering in the thousands is a headache. It's expensive to purchase the server space, but also to have it staffed properly. There are mechanisms where video needs to be purged, and you run into legal issues there as well. 2. Open Records Requests. Imagine you're drunk and somehow end up partially or fully nude (this is a pretty common occurrence believe it or not). Your video clip of you nude is now open to be requested by anyone connected to this case, including civil attorneys for any lawsuit that may occur. This video may also be shown publicly in court. There are mechanisms or software that can be used to pixelate or blur nudity, but again....cost."
] | [
[
"weapons also require policies on their use, along with training on proper use. Police officers are also encouraged to consider a use of force continuum, and try to deescalate situations with verbal warnings and persuasion. Body Cameras Studies have shown that police officers that wear body cameras while on duty have fewer instances of misconduct and excessive force. In addition, it appears their usage is responsible for a decline in complaints against officers. In order for the usage of body-cameras to be effective, it is important that police officers ensure they are functioning correctly. The devices are not immune",
"-36.62427749890412"
],
[
"implemented in police departments. During a case study attempting to test the effects that body cameras had on police actions, researchers found evidence that suggested that police used less force with civilians when they had body cameras. Police are supposed to have the cameras on from the time they receive a call of an incident to when the entire encounter is over. However, there is controversy regarding police using the equipment properly. The issue regarding an officer's ability to turn on and off the record button is if the police officer is trustworthy. Recording police officer's entire shift",
"-36.523062352556735"
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[
"cameras for 46 officers of the Orlando Police Department over one year concluded that for officers wearing the body cameras, use-of-force incidents dropped by 53%, civilian complaints dropped by 65%, two in three officers who wore the cameras said they’d want to continue wearing them in the future and that it made them \"better officers\". Other studies produced similar results. For instance, an analysis by the San Antonio Express-News of San Antonio law enforcement's use of body-worn cameras found that incidents where police used force and formal misconduct complaints decreased significantly. Scholars of crime were unsure to what extent body-worn",
"-36.32365835667588"
],
[
"Keith Ablow, who stated that it was an \"insult to police officers\" to provide them body cameras. Others, such as Black Lives Matter, have released specific policy solutions to tackle the issue of police violence and escalation that include body cameras for police, limited use of force, and demilitarization of the police are a few of the ten crucial policies listed in Campaign Zero. China The use of body-worn cameras by law enforcement offers potential advantages in keeping officers safe, enabling situational awareness, improving community relations and accountability, and providing evidence for trials. A legislation regarding body-worn camera has been",
"-36.3074060108047"
],
[
"an officer's entire workday to be recorded. Some transparency advocates believe that such cameras should be installed in all police cruisers to ensure accountability. Some police departments have experimented with Taser cameras that automatically begin recording when the Taser is deployed. The Cato Institute recommends that police film all no-knock raids. In recent times, police departments have been trying to implement the body camera as a step to fixing misconduct. The police departments in Pittsburgh have been trying body cameras on their officers to see both the positive and negative aspects of using body cameras.\nRecording by witnesses have made a",
"-36.12804521166254"
],
[
"invested $4 million in rolling out body-worn cameras to frontline police officers. Queensland police have had the cameras in operation for some time, and have already collected 155,000 hours worth of footage. According to research being conducted in 2016 'the use of body-worn cameras has now gathered traction in most Australian states and territories'. Despite the increasing prevalence of the devices, some Australian commentators have expressed privacy concerns. Canada Some police services in Canada such as the Calgary Police Service have trialed body-worn video systems since 2012, and have recently adopted body-cameras for deployment by all officers beginning in 2017.",
"-35.93119860946899"
],
[
"during major events.\nPSCP Officers patrol cars do have dash cameras however the department does not issue body cameras. Officers have the option to pay out of pocket for personal body cameras.",
"-35.87379284709459"
],
[
"the Supreme Court. In these circumstances an officer can record an individual and their actions as long as they are in public spaces. Many other nations have their own search and seizure laws that have specific implications associated with the use of body cameras worn on police officers. Costs and benefits All costs and benefits, including indirect costs and benefits, have to be weighed against each other in a cost-benefit analysis, to be able to judge whether body cameras lead to a positive or negative business case. The police in Kent, United Kingdom, predicted a positive business case within two",
"-35.82156210253015"
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[
"mentorship or supervision. Privacy concerns As with all forms of surveillance, bodycams highlight issues of privacy. There are concerns about the privacy of the people being filmed (suspects, victims, witnesses), but also about that of the officers wearing the cameras or the officers whose actions are record by their colleagues. Support With 88% of Americans and 95% of Dutch people supporting body cameras on police officers, there is strong public support for this technology. However, it is important to note that not all members of the public are necessarily aware of the presence of bodycams. A study in Milwaukee revealed",
"-35.519103084807284"
],
[
"all the footage filmed by body cameras will be accessible via public-records requests, whether victims of domestic violence will be hesitant to call police if they know they will be filmed and whether paying for the cameras and maintenance will lead to cuts elsewhere in the police budget\". Others have worried about a \"gotcha discipline\". Some unions have argued that it was \"mandatory\" for police departments to include provisions about body-worn cameras in union contracts because it would be a \"clear change in working conditions\" as well as something that could \"impact an officer's safety\". Civil liberties The American Civil",
"-35.343231228063814"
],
[
"Liberties Union is an organization that has been a major proponent of body cameras on officers, but only in certain situations. The ACLU has advocated body camera use for both police departments and U.S. Customs and Border Protection, granted that safeguards are in place to protect the privacy of both officers and civilians. However, they have opposed the use of such camera systems for parking enforcement officers, fire marshals, building inspectors, or other code enforcement officers. The questions raised by the ACLU and others fuel the most heated debate on body-worn cameras. Some believe similarly to Fox News resident psychiatrist",
"-35.303441244526766"
],
[
"outside organizations including other departments who already use body cameras. While the commission has not created a policy yet as of December 2014, several guidelines were already outlined by the mayor, including that officers would have to turn on the cameras whenever they arrest or detain someone for interrogation and that many public interactions such as domestic violence interviews would not be recorded. The cameras may also be turned off in situations where police use deadly force. Prior to the rollout of any body worn cameras, officers have been able to carry personally owned audio recording devices since 1994 if",
"-35.29277494351845"
],
[
"civilian complaints about police brutality across the nation. Supporters argue that the use of a body-worn camera allows evidence to be viewed from an unbiased perspective. Corporations are currently working on body-worn camera models that will resolve the technology's limitations such as better audio capturing technology and battery life, to name a few. Drones In recent years police have recruited unmanned surveillance devices, such as small throwable robotics and flying drones, to do recon in dangerous locations. These devices can be used to identify the presence of a hostage, locate and/or identify subjects and reveal the layout of a room,",
"-35.11176402476849"
],
[
"law enforcement and communities' trust in police. Designs Body worn cameras are often designed to be worn in one of three locations: on the torso, on or built into a helmet, and on or built into glasses. Some feature live streaming capabilities while others are based on local storage. The National Criminal Justice Technology Research, Test, and Evaluation Center has conducted market surveys on the body worn cameras to assist organisations in purchasing the best camera. The survey discusses device functionality, optics, audio, GPS, and several more categories. These cameras range in price from 200 dollars to 2,000 dollars. Law",
"-35.08186570124235"
],
[
"Police unions in Canada have been opposed to body-worn video systems, citing privacy and cost concerns.\nIn 2015, several city police units including those in Winnipeg and Montreal announced plans to experiment with the technology. The Toronto Police Service started a pilot in 2014 with the technology during a year-long study of body-worn cameras. In total, 100 officers were using the technology from May 2015 thru May 2016. The evaluation report concluded that support for the body cameras was strong and increased during the pilot. There were technical issues, for instance with battery life, camera mounting, docking, recharging, ability to classify,",
"-34.825774248922244"
],
[
"enacted by the Ministry of Public Security, making the body-worn camera standard and mandatory policing equipment for law enforcement agencies in China.\nTwo million police officers are being equipped with this camera in China. The police in Hong Kong has been experimenting with body cameras since 2013. Based on positive findings from an (unpublished) evaluation, the decision was taken to supply all front-line officers with a bodycam. Denmark The police in Denmark has been credited in English media as the first police force to use body cameras, even before the English pilots of 2007 were initiated. In 2017, the Minister of",
"-34.70861591619905"
],
[
"enforcement Wearable cameras are used by police and other law enforcement organizations in countries around the world. The cameras are intended to improve interactions between officers and the public. The first generation of 'modern' police body cameras was introduced around 2005 in the United Kingdom, followed from 2014 onwards by large scale implementation in the United States, mainly to increase transparency and police accountability. Other countries have followed the trend. Early studies overwhelmingly showed positive results, but replications have led to mixed findings. Outcomes have been shown to differ depending on the local context and the guidelines regulating activation of",
"-34.569425374036655"
],
[
"The researchers concluded that police officers equipped with body cameras used force and confronted civilians in a similar manner compared with officers without body cameras: “This is the most important empirical study on the impact of police body-worn cameras to date. ... These results suggest we should recalibrate our expectations” of cameras’ ability to make a “large-scale behavioral change in policing, particularly in contexts similar to Washington, D.C.\". The study not only presents statistical analyses, but also provides qualitative research and analysis to shed light on the controversies surrounding the cameras. According to the study, several factors could explain why",
"-34.18240040089586"
],
[
"Axon, Looxcie, and probably other firms. Experiments with police use in Rialto, California in 2012 to 2013 resulted in a reduction of both complaints against officers and reduction in use of violence by officers. The public is shielded from police misconduct and the police officer from bogus complaints.\nBecause these body cameras are turned on for every encounter with the public, privacy issues have been brought up with specific emphasis on special victim cases such as rape or domestic violence. Police worry that with a camera right in front of the victim, they will not feel comfortable in revealing all",
"-34.012532346649095"
],
[
"use body cameras include public transport, security professionals, ambulances and fire-fighters. The Dutch Railways decided to equip 700 security personnel with bodycams in 2018. Larger roll-outs in cities have either been executed in 2018 (Rotterdam) or announced in 2019 (Amsterdam). Police Swedish police have used body cameras, for instance at large football games and demonstrations. According to a spokesperson for the Swedish Police in 2015, body cameras would not become standard equipment for police officers. They would be used for special purposes because there was no need to record all interactions. \"We are not in the same situation as the",
"-33.95569179294398"
],
[
"or not. The rules that determine who has access, influence the willingness of officers to comply to the rules concerning wearing of bodycams and the on/off instructions. Important in this respect is whether the software automatically logs who has accessed the footage and whether any editing has been done. Australia The number of body-worn cameras in use by the police of Australia is growing increasingly prevalent in parallel with other countries. The first bodycams or 'cop-cams' were trialed in Western Australia in 2007. Victoria has been trialing body-worn cameras since 2012, and in 2015 the NSW police announced they had",
"-33.72920069680549"
],
[
"have produced mixed findings on the impact of body-worn cameras and the effect these have on police or citizen behavior. Early reports touting the benefits of police body cameras were based on limited research of small groups of police officers in a short period of time. In recent years, more robust research became available. 'Yes: they work' - the Rialto and Orlando studies An impact assessment, based on 54 Rialto police officers wearing body cameras showed that complaints against officers from citizens dropped by 88% and \"use of force\" dropped by 59%. Another report that studied the effects of body-worn",
"-33.52565757774573"
],
[
"on this site include requirements for video footage retention, types of events for which recording is mandatory, and rules about public access to digital footage.\nInvestigations have shown that although in many states the usage of body worn cameras is mandatory, there are instances where some officers have failed to adhere to the law. From 2015 until 2017, there have been nationally recognized scenarios of fatal shootings in San Francisco, Alabama, Washington D.C., and Los Angeles in which the officer was wearing a body camera, but did not activate it during the incident. The Los Angeles Police Department is one",
"-33.52514814861934"
],
[
"policies that shape the way officers use the bodycams. Three main questions are important:\n1) Who wears the bodycam? This can be an individual voluntary choice or a collective mandatory requirement.\n2) What has to be recorded? Officers can have discretion to turn the bodycam on or off as they see fit or they can be guided through protocols.\n3) Who has access to the recordings? Access to the recordings determines to a large extent whether police officers will embrace the technology or not. Important questions in this domain are whether supervisors can access the footage and whether the recordings are public records",
"-33.46325781039013"
],
[
"use or plan to use cams at this time.\" There are other issues that can occur from the use of body cameras as well. This includes downloading and maintenance of the data which can be expensive. There is also some worry that if video testimony becomes more relied upon in court cases, not having video evidence from body cameras would decrease the likelihood that the court system believes credible testimony from police officers and witnesses\nCivilian review boards have also been proposed as another solution to decreasing police brutality. Benefits of civilian review boards can include making sure police are doing",
"-33.43537650274811"
],
[
"out in Gothenburg and Södertälje. Many other Swedish police regions have expressed interest in using body cameras. The project was started early 2018 with a trial of body cameras in local police areas in the police region of the South and in the police region of Stockholm. The test would be continuously evaluated by the Crime Prevention Council. Other law enforcement The Swedish army in Afghanistan has used helmet cameras, according to this article from 2015. In 2016, train hosts in Gothenburg and West Sweden started testing bodycams. They were only allowed to turn on the cameras if a passenger",
"-33.400994123890996"
],
[
"covered by June 2016. The Reveal RS3-SX body camera is issued to the SPF.\nThe SPF mentioned that strict safeguard are in place with video footage to be deleted 31 days after they're shot unless they're needed in an active case. Officers are allowed to deactivate the cameras at their discretion according to the situation, such as cases of encountering sexual assault victims. First tests 2005 Body-worn video cameras received wide media coverage because of the first testing of body-worn cameras in the United Kingdom in 2005. The test was begun on a small-scale by Devon and Cornwall Police. In 2006,",
"-33.299300910090096"
],
[
"a similar role to that of the IPCC and PIRC.\nIn Africa, there exists two such bodies, one in South Africa and another one in Kenya known as the Independent Policing Oversight Authority.\nIn the United States, police are increasingly using police body-worn cameras during this Age of Ferguson. Since Michael Brown's death in Ferguson, Missouri, the US Department of Justice has made a call to action for police departments across the nation to implement body-worn cameras into their departments so further investigation will be possible. How it is measured Police brutality is measured based on the accounts of people who have",
"-33.23639362415997"
],
[
"from $30 million to $70 million. Body cameras Beginning in September 2013, the LAPD started a trial program for the use of body worn cameras with 30 officers in the Skid Row area. Reports from the trial program indicated that the cameras functioned well and that they assisted in deescalating situations although there were some technical issues with the cameras along with slight issues with the cameras falling off of officers during movement. In November 2014, in a sign of body camera purchases to come, the department chose Taser International as the vendor for body cameras to be used by",
"-33.186055341822794"
],
[
"that officers are not allowed to review the recordings. However, the bodycams acquired offered this option and would have to be replaced with different type progressively, but not before the end of 2017 - according to the source quoted in the article. Identity checks One of the main reasons for the national police, gendarmerie and municipal police to start using bodycams is the systematic recording of identity checks in public places. Starting in March 2017, the police and gendarmerie in 23 prioritised security zones ('zones de securité priorities), including Paris, Marseille, Nice, Toulouse and Lyon, had to record each identity",
"-33.15937078393472"
],
[
"the information that they know. There have been two case studies done in the United States that have revealed that police officers who have cameras have fewer encounters with citizens than officers who do not have cameras, due to fear of being reprimanded for committing a mistake. In art Referred to as an early proponent of lifelogging and perhaps the most extreme example of self-tracking since 2003, conceptual media artist Alberto Frigo has embarked on an ambitious project, 2004–2040, to understand himself. Starting with tracking everything his right (dominant) hand has used, he's slowly added on different tracking and",
"-33.13984807230008"
],
[
"Police officers in Rome have not yet been equipped with bodycams. However, in October 2017, the secretary of the union Sulpl Roma, announced that police officers who ask for them will receive a bodycam before the end of the year 2017. The reason would be two-fold: to modernise the officers' equipment and to settle disputes with drivers who disagree with police, for instance over a fine or the cause of an accident. Privacy The privacy law governing the use of bodycams by police in Italy is the law that protects personal data. According to a spokesperson of the police in",
"-33.03547113365494"
],
[
"or the body camera was not tuned on and the footage cannot be investigated. More time and research was expected to allow a more precise answer to whether or not body worn cameras improve officer conduct.\nAs more empirical evidence became available, the importance of differences in local contexts and policies was revealed. The level of discretion that officers have in the activation of the body cameras has, for instance, been suggested as one of the deciding characteristics in any body camera policy and therefore in the results that can be expected. Unintended outcomes can even be the result from increased",
"-32.92847434920259"
],
[
"wear fluorescent yellow stab vests for activities such as cycling. In addition, officers carry TETRA digital radios, HTC PDAs, rigid handcuffs, CS incapacitant gas, the ASP 21\" collapsible baton, leg restraints, a resuscitation mask and a basic first aid kit. PCSO's do not carry ASPs, handcuffs, leg restraints or incapacitant spray.\nShould the need arise, some officers can use body-mounted cameras. Police vehicles may contain a variety of equipment, which can include Arnold batons, traffic cones, road signs, breathalyzers, stingers, speed guns and the like. Strength and recruitment As of March 2017, Hampshire Constabulary has 2,896 police officers, 364 Special constables,",
"-32.87847633776255"
],
[
"Office was beginning to encourage the emerging industry and published another document entitled \"Guidance for the Police use of Body Worn Cameras\". The report was based on the first national pilot of BWV conducted in Plymouth. Tony McNulty MP, Minister of State for Security, Counter-Terrorism and Police wrote a foreword that held BWV in a promising light: \"The use of body-worn video has the potential to improve significantly the quality of evidence provided by police officers…video recording from the scene of an incident will capture compelling evidence…that could never be captured in written statements.\" Despite being hailed as a tool",
"-32.771066810273624"
],
[
"boroughs, testing the impact of Body Worn Video on complaints, stop and search and criminal justice outcomes for violent offenses. Following the trial, the decision was made to issue body cameras to all officers who have regular engagement with the public. Other officers will be able to access cameras on an ‘as needed’ basis. A total of 22,000 cameras will be issued. Northern Ireland In 2016, the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) formally introduced body Worn Video technology commencing with Derry City and Strabane District, with Belfast becoming the second District to introduce the technology. A pilot Body Worn",
"-32.57065388385672"
],
[
"Body worn video Body worn video (BWV), also known as body cameras and body-worn cameras, or wearable cameras is a wearable audio, video, or photographic recording system.\nBody worn video has a range of uses and designs, of which the best-known use is as a part of policing equipment. Other uses include action cameras for social and recreational (including cycling), within commerce, in healthcare and medical use, in military use, journalism, citizen sousveillance and covert surveillance.\nNascent research on the impact of body-worn cameras in law enforcement shows mixed evidence as to the impact of cameras on the use of force by",
"-32.54755529020622"
],
[
"camera usage. The Chicago Police Department as well as the mayor of the city, Rahm Emanuel, have been vocal about their plan to enact a body-worn camera expansion that would equip police officers by the end of 2017. The goal of this plan, as well as the hiring of more officers, is to improve public trust in the law, expand transparency, and halt the climbing number of homicides. Springfield Police Department (Illinois) has also been among the local departments that have expanded the use of body worn cameras despite the Springfield Police Chief Kenny Winslow stating that \"there are still",
"-32.41989163891412"
],
[
"officers. Currently, only officers of the Special Operations Group and the emergency response team at HM Prison Risdon are authorised to carry Tasers.\nIn late 2017, it is expected the first trials of Body Worn Cameras will be rolled out to Frontline Officers. Vehicles Tasmania Police vehicles are based around the Holden Commodore and Ford Falcon for general (urban) patrol, they have selected the Kia Stinger to replace these, following their discontinuing. Various other makes and models are employed on a \"best-suitability\" basis for rural, investigative, personnel transport and general inquiry roles including a range of mid-sized vehicles from Toyota and",
"-32.37758367383503"
],
[
"- perhaps too high - expectations. The meta-evaluation cited below contains information on all studies if they met the methodological quality requirements. 'It depends' - meta-evaluations In reviewing the existing research on police body-worn cameras in 2017, University of Virginia economist Jennifer Doleac noted that the existing research was mixed as to whether the cameras reduce the use of force by police officers or increase the communities' trust in police. But a reduction in complaints against police using excessive force does not necessarily mean there are fewer cases of misconduct, it could mean that people are just not speaking up",
"-32.29246536749997"
],
[
"ease of review and other issues. Administrative responsibilities associated with the body cameras resulted in significant commitment of time by officers that then was not available to spend on other duties. In September 2016, the Toronto police wanted to put out a call for proposals from suppliers. Singapore The Singapore Police Force announced on January 2015 that officers stationed at its Neighbouring Police Centres will be issued body cameras with those located at Bukit Merah West. Officers stationed at Ang Mo Kio North, Bedok South, Bukit Merah East, Jurong West and Toa Payoh in June 2015 with the entire island",
"-32.2636208696058"
],
[
"million worth of traffic violations captured by traffic cameras in that year.\nAutomated cameras have advantages over manual police enforcement because they rarely make errors, are not disputable, allow the police to respond to important issues, and add revenue to the city without the cost of human officers. However, there were cases where the cameras were reported to be used as traps and the legitimacy was disputed. Another disadvantage was that some drivers received violations for momentarily entering the bus lane to avoid a collision, or taking too long to exit the bus lane as a result of traffic jams. Enforcement",
"-32.26218400639482"
],
[
"footage to the devices in police vehicles. The national privacy watchdog, CNIL, has called for a democratic debate to define appropriate frameworks and to strike a balance between security and the rights and freedoms of everyone. Reasons for bodycams In some parts of Germany, some state police services have used body-worn video systems since 2013 and the number of states (German: Land or Länder) where police use bodycams has increased ever since. The reason for the introduction of these cameras in Germany has overwhelmingly been to protect police against assaults from citizens. The second reason is the ability to reconstruct",
"-32.2612637685379"
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[
"needed to identify themselves manually, but could pass freely after being authorized by the facial recognition system. Use in schools In the United States, Britain, Australia and New Zealand, CCTV is widely used in schools due to its success in preventing bullying, vandalism, monitoring visitors and maintaining a record of evidence in the event of a crime. There are some restrictions on installation, with cameras not being installed in an area where there is a \"reasonable expectation of privacy\", such as bathrooms, gym locker areas and private offices (unless consent by the office occupant is given). Cameras are generally acceptable",
"-32.150530493003316"
],
[
"Video camera scheme was run during 2014/15, which illustrated the benefits of Body Worn Video. On that basis a business case was submitted to the Department of Justice and funding was secured to purchase Body Worn Video technology for officers across the service. In 2017, the Northern Ireland Prison Service implemented body worn video, following the success of the PSNI deployment. Devon and Cornwall In September 2018, Devon and Cornwall Police announced their intention to begin outfitting officers with body worn cameras. The force was the first to trial BWV in the UK in 2005. The project was launched alongside",
"-32.1066924657207"
],
[
"police in the US who need to document everything in order to maintain credibility\". The police in Stockholm announced to start using body cameras from the summer of 2017. The 300 cameras were to be used in two suburbs of Stockholm, Rinkeby and Botkyrka, to ease the pressure on police staff and to increase clear-up rates. According to the co-ordinator of the project, officers in Rinkeby are met with quite a lot of violence and threats during interventions. The project is part of a pilot project within the national police camera project. Earlier trials with body cameras have been carried",
"-32.07863219175488"
],
[
"and not allowing access for police officers to turn on and off the record button would cause an issue from the large amount of data the camera would accumulate and large costs. However, developers are still researching for other alternatives. For example, another possible solution for the controversies surrounding police body cameras is to develop real-time storage technology for the body cameras. To address the possibility of police misusing their body cameras, technology that will enable the cameras to send real-time information back to police departments for analysis. The stream of information will hold police officers accountable for their actions",
"-32.03910976857878"
],
[
"Justice has equipped security personnel in detention centers with body cameras. Pilot project 2015 In Finland, a pilot with body cameras was started in 2015. Thirty cameras were used by the Helsinki Police Department to help the police in maintaining public order. It was hoped that body cameras might prevent crime and disorder. Furthermore, it was expected that the cameras could at the same time improve the way the police worked. The cameras were meant to be used in specific settings and only in public places. Filming inside homes would only be allowed as part of a criminal investigation. The",
"-31.948004098627734"
],
[
"Dorset Police. The cameras will be switched on by officers to record specific incidents including performing arrests, searches, stopping motor vehicles for any reason, and during violent incidents or where domestic abuse or modern slavery are suspected. Law and policies In 2012, the National Institute of Justice at the United States Department of Justice issued a primer regarding laws, policies, practices, and technology for local police departments to consider.\nFollowing The Law Enforcement Officer-Worn Body Camera Act, the state of Illinois became one of the first states to have a comprehensive set of rules for police departments in regards to body",
"-31.90536822011927"
],
[
"during which police officers have misused wiretapping laws against civilians such as Anthony Graber in Maryland. Graber was arrested after he posted a video of a police contact on YouTube. Homeland security In addition, there have been numerous examples in which police or security officers have erroneously told civilians that filming or taking pictures of a particular building is unlawful and a violation, due to either national security or homeland security reasons. Examples covered in the blog include a police officer advising that photographing the National Laboratory at the University of Texas Medical Branch was prohibited, and similar examples",
"-31.825589066225803"
],
[
"that \"evidence gathering using this equipment has the potential radically to enhance the police performance at the scene of a wide range of incidents\". In the same report, the Home Office concluded that the body worn camera system used in Devon and Cornwall had \"the ability to significantly improve the quality of the evidence provided by police officers at incidents\". However, mostly due to the limitations of the then available technology, it was also recommended that police forces should await the completion of successful trials and projects to re-evaluate the technology before investing in cameras. By July 2007, the Home",
"-31.79922617309785"
],
[
"500 metres away. Police in Western Australia make use of undercover motorcycles to keep an eye on other motorists and any offence will be recorded on the motorcycle officer's helmet camera. Police in India have become more aggressive on a wide variety of traffic violations and once again, there is a widespread use of cameras.",
"-31.7534190104343"
],
[
"and training to law enforcement agencies through community policing initiatives”, the United States Department of Justice announced in May 2015 that they would grant 73 out of the 285 awards requested for a total of 20 million dollars. This allowed for the purchase and distribution of 21,000 cameras to be placed in active duty. A National Institute of Justice report found this in regards to responding police agencies: \"In a sample of police departments surveyed in 2013, approximately 75 percent of them reported that they did not use body-worn cameras\". A November 2014 survey of police departments serving the 100",
"-31.641429311130196"
],
[
"which include an increase in minority officers, and the use of body camera's when conducting a search. What led these changes was an investigation performed by the Justice Department. In the investigation, which was published March 2015, they found \"a pattern or practice of unlawful conduct\" and this conduct includes an immoderate number of tickets and amount of fines that were disproportionately given to the black residents of Ferguson. In effect, a reform was put out that enforced changes to the conduct of searches, arrests, and general police interactions with citizens. Now officers are to wear body cameras while on",
"-31.55075014475733"
],
[
"Force decided to adopt body worn video technology in 2015. Speaking to the media at the time, Gen Al Muzeina flagged-up the value of footage from these cameras. He said that this evidence could, potentially, be used where there are objections to traffic offences or a failure by officers to meet acceptable standards. The Abu Dhabi Police also confirmed in the same year that – following two years of trials – it would be rolling out body worn video cameras to patrol officers. Impact studies In 2019, a team of researchers published the most comprehensive overview to date of the",
"-31.473538752965396"
],
[
"identifiable police equipment (such as lights, sirens or radios) to conduct covert surveillance. Some police vehicles equipped with surveillance are Bait cars which are deployed in high volume car theft areas. High visibility decoy car Some police forces use vehicles (or sometimes fake \"cut outs\" of vehicles) to deter crime. They may be old vehicles retired from use, stock models restyled as police cars, or a metal sign made to look like a police car. They are placed in areas thought to be susceptible to crime in order to provide a high visibility presence without committing an officer. Examples of",
"-31.339195226028096"
],
[
"prosecutions. Privacy concerns Concerns over privacy have been raised with this technology, most notably in the context of Google Glasses and policing. The advent of large-scale data collection, possibly in combination with facial recognition and other technologies capable of interpreting videos in bulk, means that all cameras, including body worn cameras, could create a means of tracking people anywhere they go. In policing, critics have warned that each police officer could become a \"roving surveillance camera\" Police will interact with citizens during vulnerable moments, such as in a hospital, or in a domestic violence situation. Concerns have also been raised",
"-31.327319793170318"
],
[
"on current legislation, but an additional legal framework would be needed regulating recording and storage of recordings. Filming inside homes is not generally allowed. The cameras could be available at the end of 2018, after the necessary training and purchases. The Federation of Police Officers wants provisions to make sure that human errors will not be problematic for officers wearing cameras. The question is whether police can erase recordings when they want to. According to the working group, this is no different from the handling of other police documentation. During the pilot, the recordings were stored for 24 hours and",
"-30.994660761396517"
],
[
"station officer can allow the use of reserve guns in emergencies. During public unrest, protests or possible terrorist attacks, police are equipped by the state (or central) government.\nSpecial units at the state and federal level have automatic weapons, such as the AK-47, AKM and INSAS assault rifles and Bren guns. Special-forces and SWAT units use Heckler & Koch MP5s, Brügger & Thomet MP9s, AK-103s, M4A1 Carbines and others. Bulletproof jackets are generally not worn by state police, although special units carry tactical vests, gear, and weapons according to function. Mukhbir Informers (mukhbir) provide information for financial compensation. Police agencies",
"-30.943144587101415"
],
[
"shall not be closed.\" The bill did not advance. SLPOA business manager Roorda said the St. Louis Police Officers Association has had concerns about dashboard cameras in use on many city patrol cars and would have the same worries about on-body devices. Roorda said both types of cameras provide video of \"one angle of an encounter\" that sometimes doesn't reflect exactly what happened. \"In general, cameras have been bad for law enforcement and the communities they protect,\" he said. \"It causes constant second-guessing by the courts and the media.\"\nIn January 2015, Roorda, wearing an \"I am Darren Wilson\" bracelet, was",
"-30.907591626339126"
],
[
"According to the community violence hypothesis, \"police use force in direct response to levels of violence in the community\". This theory explains that force is used to control groups that threaten the community or police themselves with violence. Solutions Many policies have been offered for how to prevent police brutality. One proposed solution is body worn cameras. The theory of using body cameras is that police officers will be less likely to commit misconduct if they understand that their actions are being recorded. The United States Department of Justice under Obama's administration supplied $20 million for body cameras to be",
"-30.903118191461544"
],
[
"one exception is the use of video in distance education, where it is an important tool.\nSurveillance of the public using CCTV is common in many areas around the world. In recent years, the use of body worn video cameras has been introduced as a new form of surveillance, often used in law enforcement, with cameras located on a police officer's chest or head. Video surveillance has generated significant debate about balancing its use with individuals' right to privacy even when in public.\nIn industrial plants, CCTV equipment may be used to observe parts of a process from a central control",
"-30.87280898744939"
],
[
"practice for surveillance cameras, in which Principle 8 included the use of body cameras, stating: \"Surveillance camera system operators should consider any approved operational, technical and competency standards relevant to a system and its purpose and work to meet and maintain those standards\". 2013 also saw the start of Operation Hyperion, a Hampshire Police initiative on the Isle of Wight that equipped every frontline police officer with a personal issue body worn camera, the biggest project of its kind at the time. Sergeant Steve Goodier oversaw the project and was adamant that the project would drive legislative changes to free up",
"-30.854781199712306"
],
[
"one academic reviewer of the case described it as raising questions about how often such police actions are illegal, but unprovable—describing it as strong justification for requiring police officers to wear body cameras. Movie According to a 2016 report in Deadline, Ruben Fleischer will direct a feature adaptation of Cops as an edgy narrative feature with a buddy comedy bent on the order of a Lethal Weapon with Fleischer co-producing the movie with David Bernad through The District along with Cops rights holder Langley Films' John Langley, Cameron Fay will write the script and Boies/Schiller Film Group will finance the",
"-30.818545157962944"
],
[
"a permit to film or photograph in public places and police have no power to stop them filming or photographing incidents or police personnel\". The IAC, Film and Video Institute recommends to follow instruction given by police as there may be a reason you are unaware of for not filming. An exception is an area that has prohibitions detailed within anti terrorism legislation. Civil proceeding can be taken if a person is filmed without consent, and privacy laws exist to protect a person where they can expect privacy. Two public locations in the UK, Trafalgar Square and Parliament Square,",
"-30.78021260964306"
],
[
"became violent or threatened to use violence. Public transport in Stockholm, Storstockholms Lokaltrafik, started using body cameras in 2018. Security guards were the first to start using these cameras and ticket controllers followed in December 2018. The cameras are used in order to improve the safety of staff. Additionally, the cameras can be used to make a recording of travellers without a valid ticket. By filming them, the identity of the person in question can be verified even if they used someone else's identity during the check. United Arab Emirates Following a successful six month pilot scheme, the Dubai Police",
"-30.779170071182307"
],
[
"to malfunctioning, which could cause critical gaps in recordings. In addition, they can easily be manipulated to face a different direction, or the view can easily be obstructed by other means. Studies have shown that in more than half of instances where force was used by officers, the body-camera failed to capture the interactions due to above mentioned \"failures\".\nSome are worried about the privacy of victims who may be recorded by police officers wearing body cameras, raising concerns regarding possible retaliation against those captured cooperating with law enforcement.\nAfter the fatal shootings of several unarmed citizens, President Barack Obama vowed in",
"-30.77098364639096"
],
[
"was erroneously placed on the US terrorist watchlist. Some of his sousveillance activities include using his cell phone as a tracking device, and publicly posting debit card and other transactions that document his actions.\nOne specific use of alibi sousveillance is the growing trend of police officers wearing body cameras while on patrol. Well-publicized events involving police-citizen altercations (such as the case of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri) have increased calls for police to wear body-cameras and so capture evidence of the incidents, for the benefit of them personally plus the criminal justice system as a whole. By having officers use",
"-30.769310286152177"
],
[
"threat of citizens not coming forward with tips for fear of being recorded. In terms of the police officer's private contexts, they may forget to turn off cameras in the bathroom or in private conversations. These situations should be considered as the technology is developed further and the use of it is becoming more saturated. In the U.S. federal and individual states have varying statutes regarding consent laws. Search and seizure Another major concern that has arisen since the implementation of police body cameras is how these technologies will affect the privacy rights of individual citizens in regards to search",
"-30.69264786200074"
],
[
"on March 2, 2015, that made numerous recommendations. It did not call for all officers to wear body cameras, but did call for independent prosecutors to investigate civilian deaths in police custody or in officer-involved shootings.\nSue Rahr, while sheriff of King County, had introduced a new policing model called L.E.E.D. (Listen and Explain with Equity and Dignity) in 2011, which influenced her later work on the \"guardian model\" of training police candidates when she became the executive director of the Washington State Criminal Justice Training Commission; Obama appointed Rahr to the President's Task Force, where the \"guardian model\" received support",
"-30.495461494254414"
],
[
"situations and at dangerous locations, for instance in nightlife entertainment areas where fighting is a common occurrence. In Baden-Württemberg, bodycams are deployed in Stuttgart, Mannheim and Freiburg since 2016. The aim here is to test the bodycams during one year with the purpose of reducing violence against the police. Federal police Starting in February 2016, the Federal Police began testing bodycams at trainstations in Berlin, Cologne, Düsseldorf and Munich. In early 2017, the Bundestag agreed with government plans to introduce bodycams to protect officers. Legal issues All Länder in the country use bodycams, but there are substantial differences in the",
"-30.37479546663235"
],
[
"body cameras. The procedure for releasing such video is currently evolving and could potentially incriminate more suspects than officers, although current waiting times of several months to release such videos appear to be attempted cover-ups of police mistakes. In October 2015, then-FBI Director James Comey remarked in a speech at the University of Chicago Law School that the increased attention on police in light of recent viral videos showing police involved in fatal shootings has made officers less aggressive and emboldened criminals. Comey has acknowledged that there is no data to back up his assertion; according to him, viral videos",
"-30.333187140757218"
],
[
"the uniform the police wear during overt policing activity. Usually each country has its own different police uniform. \nContrast plainclothes law enforcement and undercover operations. Medical workers Uniforms can distinguish various categories of staff in medical institutions: doctors, surgeons, nurses, ancillary staff and volunteers.\nNote that traditional female nurses' uniforms resemble uniforms (habits) worn by religious orders.\nEquipment - notably stethoscopes - worn like a badge of office, may accompany or replace medical uniforms. Domestic workers Domestic workers are often required by their employers-managers to wear a uniform. Beautician The beauticians use uniforms to protect their skin from harmful chemicals and",
"-30.248415557551198"
],
[
"addition, the Emergency Response Unit can use the Royal Norwegian Air Force's Bell 412 helicopters.\nThe police have two main types of uniforms, type I is used for personnel which primarily undertake indoor work, and type II is used for personnel which primarily undertakes outdoor service. Both types have summer and winter versions, and type I also has a dress uniform version. Both types use black as the dominant color with light blue shirts. Police officers are not armed with firearms during patrolling, but have weapons locked down in the patrol cars. Arming requires permission from the chief of police or",
"-30.137209609500133"
],
[
"most populous cities, Vocativ found that \"41 cities use body cams on some of their officers, 25 have plans to implement body cams and 30 cities do not use or plan to use cams at this time\".\nThe Urban Institute, a nonprofit research organization based in Washington D.C., has compiled a Police Body-Worn Camera Legislation Tracker website. The site provides a state-by-state breakdown of state laws directly applicable to body worn cameras and laws affecting their use (e.g., general prohibitions about audio recordings and laws related to one-party versus all party consent for recordings). Categories of body-worn camera legislation tracked",
"-30.09668768569827"
],
[
"from the unit appear in court they routinely give evidence anonymously from behind a screen to protect their identity. All officers within the unit carry firearms, and train more often than regular police detectives. All officers are armed with concealed semi-automatic pistols, and if the situation requires, they have access to shotguns, submachine guns, assault rifles and sniper rifles. The SDU has a large pool of unmarked and armoured cars, and has access to helicopters if needed.\nThe budget for the SDU is classified, although it is drawn from the overall Garda budget (€1.34 billion in 2014). The only published figures",
"-29.999578003567876"
],
[
"to find their own ways to prevent police brutality and to make the prosecution of police misconduct a smoother process.\nStarting in January 2016, Austrian police forces will be trialling the use of body cameras, which will be used to film their interactions with civilians. The hope is that this will make the prosecution of any officers who are excessively violent or forceful a lot easier as there will be solid evidence, and also that it will deter officers from behaving violently in the first place, as they will know they are being monitored. It is unsure how long the trial",
"-29.920348414219916"
],
[
"Metropolitan Police force) for ten minutes whilst dressed as a pink ballerina and wearing a pig snout over his face, before being threatened with arrest and moved on by police officers. McGowan claimed it was a protest in response to new laws being brought in to stop police being photographed or video recorded by the public whilst the police are on the job, because there should be transparency in public service and the laws may stop police misconduct being recorded. McGowan explained: \"The law is outrageous and should be reversed immediately, and I will be looking to have my photograph",
"-29.901828801899683"
],
[
"transparency due to over-deterrence: officers who know they are being recorded, will only do the minimum required. These officers will also tend to do everything by the book, reluctant to apply discretion. More information on the results of these meta-evaluations is presented below under 'Impact studies'. Unions Police unions in several U.S. cities, such as New York City (the Patrolmen's Benevolent Association, which represents part of the NYPD), Las Vegas, and Jersey City, New Jersey, and St. Louis, Missouri, expressed doubts or opposition to body cameras. Specifically, union officials expressed concerns about possible distraction and safety issues, and questioned \"whether",
"-29.8139801347279"
],
[
"on regular duty, they are available at police stations. Officers at and above the rank of sub-inspector or head constable are authorized to carry a side arm, generally a Pistol Auto 9mm 1A or a Glock 17. Officers always carry side arms. Traffic police officers have fine books and other equipment.\nFirearms previously stocked at police stations included .303 Lee–Enfield rifles (now replaced), 7.62 1A self-loading rifles and SAF Carbine 2A1s, which have been replaced by AK-47 and INSAS rifles. The Ordnance Factory Board is a supplier of arms, ammunition, uniforms, bullet-proof vehicles, and mine-protected vehicles to the police. Only a",
"-29.805082017439418"
],
[
"that awareness of the bodycams was comparatively low in the first year following implementation (36%) but increased after two more years (76%). In that study, respondents were asked whether they thought bodycams would improve relationships between the police and community members: 84 percent (strongly) agreed. An even larger proportion, 87 percent, (strongly) agreed that Body-Worn Cameras would hold Milwaukee police officers accountable for their behaviors. These percentages hardly changed in the three years following introduction, which suggests that opinions such as these are independent of awareness of bodycams. Facial recognition One possibility is that a police officer wearing this technology",
"-29.8000791069353"
],
[
"handle low to medium priority calls which do not require an armed police officer with arrest powers freeing sworn officers to concentrate on those incidents requiring their specific skill set. Even a few CSOs can have a significant impact on the efficiency and effectiveness of police services that departments provide.\nMost departments distinguish the CSO's from normal police officers in a variety of ways, however, the two most common are uniform and vehicle. Uniforms vary by department and should be recognizable to the public as police staff, but visibly distinct from regular police officers, examples being neon Yellow(similar to the color",
"-29.782907423737925"
],
[
"sidearm for detectives and covert units. A degree of individual preference of model adopted by the individual officer exists to this day. Operational equipment In addition to firearms, police are also equipped with an expandable baton, OC spray. In April 2015, the Multiuse Integrated Protection Vest (MPIV) was issued, a combination of a load bearing vest and a Ballistic vest, with a high visibility over garment similar to vests in use with Victoria Police, together with a new uniform.\nTasmania Police evaluated the use of taser stun guns in 2009, but the decision was made not to issue tasers to front-line",
"-29.775567139542545"
],
[
"support them in their work\". The word \"police\" is embroidered above the name tag of the new uniforms and the metallic buttons replaced with concealed plastic buttons for better comfort to allow officers put on the body vests over their uniforms. Riveted buttons are also fixed on the shoulders to allow the attachment of a body worn camera. Vehicles Land division officers typically patrol and respond to calls in vehicles known as the Fast Response Car (FRC). Car models that have been used by the SPF include the Subaru Impreza TS 1.6.\nIn 2005, the SPF introduced the new Fast Response",
"-29.725126166420523"
],
[
"from the Police Tactical Unit, they are however differentiated by blue-coloured berets, and are armed with less firepower with each officer carrying a Taurus Model 85 revolver and T-baton similar to officers from Neighbourhood Police Centres. These officers are trained and authorised to utilise their firearms based on the officers' discretion, including \"shoot to kill\" if deemed necessary; which was evolved into the independent unit known as the Public Transport Security Command on August 2009. Alcohol is based on an issue, thereby roadblocks were set up to prevent intoxication on the Mass Rapid Transit since January 2009.\nOn 5 November 2018,",
"-29.70865584872081"
],
[
"and the lack of government regulation over them. Particular concerns have been noted with respect to the use of cameras equipped with facial recognition at public protests. It has been suggested that such camera use may \"chill\" rights of free speech and association.\nLooking at the United States in particular, there are 117 million Americans in the FBI's shared database according to the Georgetown Report. People can become fearful of the police's ability to identify them in public and gather information about where they've been and where they might be going. In the US, there is no federal law in place",
"-29.682952397473855"
],
[
"months by 1,500 officers. The trial was monitored and independently evaluated, according to the highest possible methodological standard: a randomised controlled trial. Violence and aggression towards police officers were reduced significantly. Based on these positive findings, the management of the National Police decided to roll-out 2,000 bodycams to all front-line units in the country. Other law enforcement with bodycams Other organizations besides the police use bodycams, mainly local law enforcement officers. This is the case on a considerable scale in Amsterdam and Rotterdam, but also in a dozen other cities including Alkmaar, Assen, Breda, Ede and Eindhoven. Other organisations that",
"-29.680676291754935"
],
[
"consists of a cycling helmet, breathable cycling shirt and cargo cycling trousers. Hi-visibility jackets or vests are normally compulsory for cycling. Equipment PCSOs use a police radio to communicate with other PCSOs, police officers and the control room on the same channel. Some neighbourhood police teams NPT or safer neighbourhood teams (SNT) also monitor local shop/pub watch radios. A body armour vest is issued to all PCSOs although in previous years some forces did not do this. Arrangements for use vary between forces, from compulsory use throughout shift down to officers choice of use. Unlike constables, due to the non-confrontational",
"-29.67658950733312"
],
[
"during protests. Starting in May 2017, ten bodycams were being trialled by the police forces of Turin and Milan to be used in high-risk operations and use-of-force incidents. Part of the trial was to connect the live streams of the cameras to the control-room of the police. The bodycams for these pilots were supplied free of charge by a manufacturer for a period of three months. Based on the experiences during the trials, a decision would have to be reached whether to supply all front-line officers with bodycams. The price for fifty bodycams in Milan was 215,000 euros. Rome 2017",
"-29.671998954494484"
],
[
"larger concern of the police is regarding the consequences of not acting; therefore, covering their backs.",
"-29.635711800074205"
],
[
"up to two years. The deadline can be extended with the permission of a \"senior UK official\". Cameras Surveillance cameras are video cameras used for the purpose of observing an area. They are often connected to a recording device or IP network, and may be watched by a security guard or law enforcement officer. Cameras and recording equipment used to be relatively expensive and required human personnel to monitor camera footage, but analysis of footage has been made easier by automated software that organizes digital video footage into a searchable database, and by video analysis software (such as VIRAT and",
"-29.6267138904077"
],
[
"private donors to start the body camera program for the initial rollout phase in order to ease budget constraints for the city with another $1 million coming from the National Institute of Justice, a branch of the Department of Justice. In total, the body cameras will most likely cost less than $10 million and will be included in Garcetti's proposed fiscal year 2016 budget. Before all of the cameras are deployed to patrol officers, the Police Commission will create a policy that governs the use of the cameras and video footage while consulting with department and city officials along with",
"-29.563074422767386"
],
[
"Any police officer (men and women) handpicked from various departments is eligible to apply for service for STAFOC unit. They undergo training with the elite 69 Commandos and urban counter-terrorist division Unit Tindak Khas (UTK). Uniforms STAFOC/STING/STAGG members always operate in standard black or blue tactical uniforms worn by the other counter-terrorism forces. Fire retardant balaclavas are often used to protect their faces as well as protect their identities. Both units commonly use the standard American PASGT helmets or Marine Ops-Core helmets. These tactical vests are labelled with \"POLIS\" (meaning \"POLICE\" in Malays), or RMP insignia, to allow for easy",
"-29.537875157780945"
],
[
"installing automated facial recognition and license plate recognition devices in its squad cars, and providing handheld face scanners, which officers will use to identify people while on patrol.\nFacial thermographs are in development, which allow machines to identify certain emotions in people such as fear or stress, by measuring the temperature generated by blood flow to different parts of the face. Law enforcement officers believe that this has potential for them to identify when a suspect is nervous, which might indicate that they are hiding something, lying, or worried about something.\nIn his paper in Ethics and Information Technology, Avi Marciano maps",
"-29.531402045162395"
],
[
"serving police officers, a pilot serving with the National Police Air Service and two retired police officers who crewed the South Yorkshire Police helicopter were to stand trial accused of misusing the camera on the SY Police helicopter to film people who were naked or having sex. Four of the men denied charges of misconduct in a public office and were due to stand trial at Sheffield Crown Court on 17 July 2017. A fifth man did not appear at the hearing.",
"-29.528057154326234"
],
[
"groups: Weapons and equipment Each policeman is armed with a pistol (handgun) which he or she usually also carries while off-duty. Also, each patrol car must have at least one long-arm (i.e. rifle). Police volunteers are usually armed with an M1 Carbine, which they return to the police's armory after they finish their duty (they do not take the rifle home, but may sign one out for escorting field trips, etc.). Volunteers who have a gun license may use their own personal handgun as personal defense weapon for their police duty, under the condition that the gun and ammunition type",
"-29.490112695959397"
],
[
"police have no power to stop them filming or photographing incidents or police personnel\" and that \"The power to stop and search someone under Section 44 of the Terrorism Act 2000 no longer exists.\"\nIt is an offence under section 58 of the Terrorism Act 2000 to take a photograph of a kind likely to be useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism, or possessing such a photograph. There is an identical defence of reasonable excuse. This offence (and possibly, but not necessarily the s. 58(a) offence) covers only a photograph as described in s. 2(3)(b) of",
"-29.393775698030367"
],
[
"case, police officers operated their thermal imaging device while on a public street, and if that same standard were applied to a dog, he feared that it would not be able to be used to detect, for example, \"explosives, or for a violent fugitive or kidnapped child,\" outside from a public sidewalk as well.",
"-29.360998168151127"
],
[
"to possess, though this varies by nation and jurisdiction. In some nations police may take their armaments home when off duty, while in others they are required to leave all (or some) of them in storage at their station. Some jurisdictions have special paramilitary units (such as SWAT or AFO) that carry machine guns, explosives or other military weapons, though the majority of the time these must be stored at the unit's headquarters.\nFor civilians, permits can sometimes be obtained to possess or carry certain weapons if that person meets certain qualifications that show they can be trusted (such as safety",
"-29.34516346952296"
],
[
"Worn Video (BWV) cameras for officers and PCSOs started in June 2013. Public panels scrutinise the stop and search paperwork and video footage from police officers.\nHe planned to introduce hi-tech tablet devices for Police officers as part as part of a drive to get them spending more time on the streets. In 2014, Bedfordshire Police allowed The Garden Productions to make 24 Hours in Police Custody, a series for Channel 4 with multiple cameras in Luton Police station. The series received positive reviews.\nIn January 2015, Martins announced plans to consult the public on whether they would be prepared to pay",
"-29.31921059754677"
]
] |
3ygjix | Why does Craigslist still look like a website from the early 90's? | [
"This question comes up about various websites fairly often, and I'm afraid it makes no sense. Websites are not required to change because of your perception of what a website needs to look like \"right now\". That website does its job, it fulfils its functionality and it's not in any danger from competition. Why would someone put in the immense amount of effort to change it? What do you think it's missing? Edit: Apostrophes. Edit-Edit: I has too many apostrophes in my original comment. Craigslist is not missing apostrophes to my knowledge.",
"its their thing. they remain unique by hanging onto their distinctive stripped-down look. they have added a lot of bells and whistles compared to what it looked like 15+ years ago, but hold onto their distinctive look because the people who still use it prefer that.",
"The same reason Reddit looks the way it does. Users have already learned how to use the site. Even minor design changes create dissonance in user experience and people flip out. Look what happens every time Facebook changes designs. People get confused and complain. Craigslist is a fairly simple platform, too, and a simple design (or lack-there-of) is just part of their image. This line from their site, regarding the use of .org, also explains why they've chosen to retain the original design aesthetic. t symbolizes the relatively non-commercial nature, public service mission, and non-corporate culture of craigslist.",
"They advertised for help building the site on craigslist, a guy showed up and murdered the entire company. Classic craigslist.",
"Because not every website's purpose is to be pretty, the most important thing, is it useful to the end users. And most people, of all ages, can easily figure out how to use it. So it really doesn't need a redesign. Also where would it get the money for a redesign? It doesn't make any money unless there's some advertising on the site.",
"It's what people have come to expect from CL. It's no-frills, no-nonsense, straightforward links are approachable for anyone and the confusion factor is nil. If they changed anything, people would freak the hell out. The consistency means you can navigate that website in your head, forever. Anyone who has sold more than one item, looked for more than one job, hunted for more than one apartment already knows how to use the website and it's **easy as fuck**.",
"It seems like most comments are that CL serves its purpose and functionality, so why change that. While I appreciate practicality and simplicity, I feel like attractiveness is part of the overall purpose. A car serves its purpose as a paintless (not a word) metal box with a padded chairs. However, the consumer also appreciates the aesthetically luxury car in addition to functionality; the two don't have to be disjoint. With websites, of course users want functionality, but they also want traffic. Take for example Google. I love Google because of its simplicity and user friendly home page. But they spend on redesigning the word Google and having a special celebratory logo for holidays. I keep going back to Google and sometimes Bing because they are functional eye candy.",
"There are a lot of background improvements to Craigslist now compared with 10 years ago, but the UI is generally the same. Many researchers believe people don't like constantly changing UI. There is also a kind of pragmatic philosophy and analytical mindset towards this too. Basically: *Besides just to \"get with the times\", why? What improvement to the customer experience warrants a UI change?* Thirdly, people typically prefer a simpler UI with less \"random crap\" in the way. Some examples: - When you want to look something up online, do you prefer the way Yahoo looks or the way Google looks? - If you happen to remember what Myspace used to look like; Would you prefer that UI over Facebook's? (I just mean in general, not referencing the customer complaints when they make changes). On the other side of the coin. Remember what Amazon first looked like? The UI was just crappy to use, even when they only sold books. Besides customer complaints about using their site, they also obviously started selling more stuff than just books. A dramatic UI change was necessary in order to adjust to this."
] | [
[
"users of Craigslist. Users place items that they want to sell on the website, and other users that are looking to purchase these items contact the seller. Craigslist is used to bring together individuals and organizations and connect them to the resources, tools, technology and ideas they need to effectively engage in community building and see the impact of their actions. This is done via email or over the telephone. The buyer and the seller form a meeting in which goods are exchanged for money. Without this type of website, the buyer would not know that the product",
"-27.57129815882945"
],
[
"2000, current CEO Jim Buckmaster joined the company as lead programmer and CTO. Buckmaster contributed the site's multi-city architecture, search engine, discussion forums, flagging system, self-posting process, homepage design, personals categories, and best-of-Craigslist feature. He was promoted to CEO in November 2000.\nThe website expanded into nine more U.S. cities in 2000, four in 2001 and 2002 each, and 14 in 2003. On August 1, 2004, Craigslist began charging $25 to post job openings on the New York and Los Angeles pages. On the same day, a new section called \"Gigs\" was added, where low-cost and unpaid jobs can be",
"-27.45704920210119"
],
[
"Craigslist Inc. v. 3Taps Inc. Background Craigslist is a website where users post and browse classified ads for, among other things, housing.\nPadMapper is a website specialized for browsing housing ads.\nPadMapper collected data from Craigslist and offered a map of the ads.\n3Taps, a data scraping and hosting company, was also collecting data from Craigslist as part of a larger effort to gather public datasets.\nOn 22 June 2012, Craigslist sent a cease-and-desist letter to PadMapper, requesting that PadMapper stop scraping Craigslist's real estate listings.\nEarlier in 2010, Craigslist's founder Craig Newmark had written that \"we take issue with only services which consume a",
"-26.889488866669126"
],
[
"distributing the content to the consumers in a profitable way is not yet clear.\nThe Los Angeles Times reviewer remarks that whereas \"Google\" has become a common word in the English language synonymous to online searching, the term \"Googled\", as used in Auletta's book title, is more synonymous to \"outsmarted\", \"slamdunked\", and \"left for dead\", when applied to traditional media companies.\nThe review in The Observer calls the book \"superbly balanced\" but it remarks that despite its balance, Auletta's work does not show Google has a real understanding of the media whose operations it is disrupting. The review cites the example of",
"-26.408475415810244"
],
[
"posted free. Operations The site serves more than 20 billion page views per month, putting it in 72nd place overall among websites worldwide and 11th place overall among websites in the United States (per Alexa.com on June 28, 2016), with more than 49.4 million unique monthly visitors in the United States alone (per Compete.com on January 8, 2010). With more than 80 million new classified advertisements each month, Craigslist is the leading classifieds service in any medium.\nThe site receives more than 2 million new job listings each month, making it one of the top job boards in the world. Craigslist also",
"-26.329796415870078"
],
[
"Frontier Foundation and others on August 8, 2012.\nOn 20 July 2012, Craigslist sued both PadMapper and 3Taps.\nCraigslist's complaint specified several reasons that 3Taps's continued use of Craigslist was unlawful:\nit was in violation of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act;\nit was a breach of Craigslist's terms of service contract;\nit infringed on Craigslist's copyright of the listings;\nit was also contributory copyright infringement, since 3Taps shared the listings with PadMapper;\nand it infringed on and diluted Craigslist's trademark. 3Taps opposed the claim that it violated the CFAA.\nOn July 12, 2013 the Electronic Frontier Foundation filed an amicus brief in support of PadMapper and",
"-26.107985106049455"
],
[
"dark traffic had originally obtained the content through another referral method or directly copy-pasting the link. This makes it difficult for marketers to understand how effective their social media marketing strategy is and make changes accordingly.\nTo combat this lack of transparency, websites can include more attractive ways to share links than simply copy-pasting into another application; for example, sites can implement highly visible share buttons, a copy-paste button, or buttons to share a link with a referral tag directly to a dark social channel like WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, or email. Rules can also be made within traditional analytics tools to",
"-26.029328160977457"
],
[
"users, if they so chose, to go to a home page rather than directly to the advertisement of an individual property. The opinion does not appear to distinguish or explain away the difference in result from that of the Newsbooster case. Holtzbrinck v. Paperboy In July 2003 a German Federal Superior Court held that the Paperboy search engine could lawfully deep link to news stories. An appellate court then overturned the ruling, but the German Federal Supreme Court reversed in favor of Paperboy. \"A sensible use of the immense wealth of information offered by the World Wide Web is practically",
"-25.901027945732494"
],
[
"Web portal History In the late 1990s the Web portal was a Web IT buzzword. After the proliferation of Web browsers in the late-1990s many companies tried to build or acquire a portal to attempt to obtain a share of an Internet market. The Web portal gained special attention because it was, for many users, the starting point of their Web browsing if it was set as their home page. The content and branding of a portal could change as Internet companies merged or were acquired. Netscape became a part of America Online, the Walt Disney Company launched Go.com, IBM",
"-25.690256511752523"
],
[
"to that of The Wall Street Journal. In 2017, Digiday included imprint Insider as a candidate in two separate categories–\"Best New Vertical\" and \"Best Use of Instagram\"–at their annual Publishing Awards.\nThe website has, however, faced criticism for what critics consider its clickbait-style headlines. In 2013, The New Yorker criticized the website for prioritizing publishing speed over accuracy. In 2018, the website received criticism from some media outlets after deleting a controversial column about Scarlett Johansson.",
"-25.502226547701866"
],
[
"category from its U.S. sites. Backpage.com soon became the highest profile website to include this category, although a significant number of other sites (including Craigslist) continued to include adult services ads, though not directly labeled as such, Backpage was then targeted by the same forces that had pursued Craigslist.\nNTI/VVM refused to buckle to this pressure. In taking this position, VVM felt that the First Amendment rights implications, coupled with the protections given to interactive computer services in section 230 of the Communications Decency Act of 1996, were paramount. Over the next five years, Backpage won every legal challenge to its",
"-25.475757831940427"
],
[
"lot of bandwidth.\"\nCraigslist also blocked PadMapper's and 3Taps's IP addresses from accessing its site, causing a significant drop in traffic to PadMapper.\n3Taps continued to collect data from Craigslist by accessing the site through proxies, which allowed it to conceal its IP address and bypass Craigslist's block.\nOn 9 July 2012, PadMapper restored its site by getting its data from 3Taps instead of directly from Craigslist.\nOn July 16, 2012 Craigslist changed their terms of service to claim exclusive ownership, and exclusive right to enforce copyright of all postings made by users. Craigslist later rescinded these changes under pressure from the Electronic",
"-25.399988676741486"
],
[
"the website went live in 1996.\nIn the fall of 1998, the name \"List Foundation\" was introduced and Craigslist started transitioning to the use of this name. In April 1999, when Newmark learned of other organizations called \"List Foundation\", the use of this name was dropped. Craigslist incorporated as a private for-profit company in 1999. Around the time of these events, Newmark realized the site was growing so fast that he could stop working as a software engineer and devote his full attention to running Craigslist. By April 2000, there were nine employees working out of Newmark's San Francisco apartment.\nIn January",
"-25.310834294825327"
],
[
"e-commerce website. In a bid to try to take back a share of internet sales of books, the beta testing of their new transactional website commenced, due for full completion before the end of the month.\nBorders sold eight London Books Etc shops to competitor Waterstones in August 2008 for an undisclosed sum.\nFive Borders shops in Oxford Street, Llantrisant, Blanchardstown, Swindon and London Colney were closed in July 2009 and replaced by New Look. After July 2009, Borders was owned by Valco Capital Partners, part of Hilco, who specialise in distressed retailers.\nAt the end of September 2009, it was announced that",
"-25.286367500026245"
],
[
"websites that changed the world\".\nBy 1997 it was the fifth most popular site on the internet, with over one million users. The company went public in 1998, nearly doubling its initial share price in its first day of trading; Bohnett used the increased funding to add various features including a search engine, numerous tools and templates which made page creation easy and which completely bypassed any need for HTML coding, and social tools which made it easy to interact. GeoCities also hosted business sites, sites for world news, and shopping sites. By December 1998 it was the third most visited",
"-25.2323001640616"
],
[
"Content writing services History Adoption of the World Wide Web spread across the globe during the early 1990s. With it came the ability for businesses to represent themselves through a website, enabling visitors to obtain relevant information and engage with their favorite brands. Later came search engines like Yahoo, Google, and Bing. Their goal was to categorize information found on the internet and present it to those who were searching for it. This information, known as web content, became intrinsic to the modern Web in years to come.\nThe demand made by search engines for credible and well-organized information led to",
"-25.142084578728827"
],
[
"\"internet meme due to its shockingly upfront title and unique album cover\".\nDespite the heavily independent and lo-fi nature of the album, it received positive coverage in the music press. Sputnik Music wrote that the album fuses \"a nostalgic and ethereal blend of cloud rap and vaporwave\". The Chicago Reader wrote that the album is \"outsider-artist genius. People on the Internet are initially drawn to Viper because of his blatant disregard for grammar, outrageously violent and drugcentric lyrics, and how sonically bizarre he is in general.\"\nSince then, Viper has remained active, producing almost an album per day on average in 2014,",
"-25.119892541959416"
],
[
"It was the second most visited website on the internet as of February 1996, but it quickly dropped below rival search engines and directories such as Yahoo!, Infoseek, Lycos, and Excite by 1997.",
"-25.10624617728172"
],
[
"in 2011 changed the typefaces to Farnham and Amplitude for headlines, Utopia for text, and Freight for headers. Online version SCMP.com had started out as a subscription-only service, which also allows the retrieval of archive articles dating back from 1993. It was launched online in December 1996. On 30 May 2007, SCMP.com relaunched with a new look, features, and multimedia content. Headlines and the introduction to stories are now free to view, while the full articles are available to subscribers. Archive photos and articles are available for purchase.\nOn 16 July 2007, SCMP.com launched its first-ever viral video marketing campaign targeting",
"-25.046543497010134"
],
[
"and password were spammed with advertisements. The Gnosis group notes that with the source code to the Gawker content management system they obtained, it will be easier to develop new exploits. 2011 redesign and traffic loss As part of a planned overhaul of all Gawker Media sites, on 1 February 2011, some Gawker sites underwent a major design change as part of the larger roll-out. Most notable was the absence of formerly present Twitter and StumbleUpon sharing buttons. Nick Denton explained that Facebook had been by far the biggest contributor to the site's traffic and that the other buttons",
"-24.95845680835191"
],
[
"to the free advertising model of Craigslist and other smaller websites. In response to this phenomenon, NTI launched a free classified website called backpage.com in 2004. It soon became the second largest online classified site in the U.S.\nThe site included all the categories found in newspaper classified sections, including those that were unique to, and part of, the First Amendment-driven traditions of most alternative weeklies. These included personals (including adult oriented personal ads), adult services, musicians and \"New Age\" services.\nOn September 4, 2010, in response to pressure from a variety of governmental agencies and NGO's, Craigslist removed the adult services",
"-24.93311276406166"
],
[
"a monthly magazine circulated in Pakistan by the DAWN group of newspapers, focusing on issues related to software/hardware and Internet technologies. The magazine sported a tagline boasting it to be \"Pakistan's Internet Magazine\" until March 2005. Since most of the issues discussed in its leaves are mostly about information technology rather than just Internet, the tagline was removed. A symbol that dons its cover pronouncing its identity is that of a mouse with eight limbs and a blinking red sensor as an eye over a web engulfed in a yellow circle, mostly found at the top-right corner of the publication.",
"-24.92164178020903"
],
[
"including information manager Stephen Lewis, describe the causes primarily in terms of the technology \"infrastructure\", leading to a \"conundrum\" whereby the Internet could eventually be carved up into numerous geopolitical entities and borders, much as the physical world is today. Commercial lock-in The Atlantic magazine speculates that many of the new \"gadgets have a 'hidden agenda' to hold you in their ecosystem\". Writer Derek Thomson explains that \"in the Splinternet age, ads are more tightly controlled by platform. My old BlackBerry defaulted to Bing search because (network operator) Verizon has a deal with Microsoft. But my new phone that runs",
"-24.81717970140744"
],
[
"this is mainly connected to and seen on the internet, it has also happened in newspapers during times of political elections. Corporations and political parties try to imitate grassroots movements in order to sway the public to believing something that isn't true. Clickbait Clickbait refers to headlines of online news articles that are sensationalized or sometimes completely fake. It uses people's natural curiosity to get people to click. In some cases clickbait is simply used to generate income, more clicks means more money made with advertisers. But these headlines and articles can also be used to influence a group of people on social",
"-24.76760322751943"
],
[
"Some webmasters expressed their concerns over the AutoLink feature claiming that Google had no rights to modify their webpages or to direct the users to a commercial website such as Amazon.\nThis caused Barnes & Noble, a competitor of Amazon, to link all ISBNs on their site back to themselves to prevent people clicking them to take them to their competitor.\nGoogle sceptics compare it with Microsoft's unpopular SmartTags, which ultimately proved too controversial and were dropped. Trac Wiki Engine Trac is a web application for issue tracking in software development. It has a wiki engine which is used for all text",
"-24.761591177855735"
],
[
"as New York, Beijing, Amsterdam and Brussels. It provides news, images, video and other editorial content to IDG's web sites and print publications worldwide.\nIn 2005, several investors, including IDG, attempted to purchase BlogCN.\nIDG Books, which was a public company spun off from the privately held IDG, published the popular self-help \"...For Dummies\" books. The \"...For Dummies\" range was originally limited to computer related fields, but later expanded to include a much wider variety of topics. The series is now published by John Wiley & Sons. IDG Books/Hungry Minds — as IDG Books was briefly renamed before being sold to Wiley in",
"-24.729710429441184"
],
[
"publishing has been handled by publishers, with the history of self-publishing progressing slowly until the advent of computers brought us electronic publishing, which has been made evermore ubiquitous from the moment the world went online with the Internet. The establishment of the World Wide Web in 1989 soon propelled the website into a dominant medium of publishing, as websites are easily created by almost anyone with Internet access. The history of wikis started shortly thereafter, followed closely by the history of blogging. Commercial publishing also progressed, as previously printed forms developed into online forms of publishing, distributing online books,",
"-24.723873152266606"
],
[
"independent bookstore, which collectively made 32 percent of book sales in the U.S. The travel store closed in 2005.\nPowell's established its Internet presence in 1993, beginning with email and FTP-based access to its technical bookstore; it has since expanded to incorporate fiction and other genres as a traditional ecommerce site. Their website was established in 1994, before Amazon.com, and has contributed substantially to the chain's recent growth.\nThe City of Books location grew to its current size after an expansion that opened in 1999; it included a new entrance facing the Pearl District which featured the \"Pillar of Books\",",
"-24.67799021076644"
],
[
"for \"brand or series identity\", and in 2008 the official website was launched, with features including the latest news, a members only area with access to exclusive content and downloads, and a forum.\nIn around 1990, Bloomsbury produced a series of facsimile editions, as hardbacks with new dustjacket designs, and with all plates in black and white, including those which were originally in colour.",
"-24.63946549076354"
],
[
"companies pre-SSL prohibited online sales, so the alternative was mail-order, and this required a print catalog. While hashing out plans for a FringeWare catalog, the two decided to create a magazine, inspired by Boing Boing and Whole Earth Review/Coevolution Quarterly, with a catalog in the back pages. Mark Frauenfelder of Boing Boing referred to the publication as a \"magalog.\"\nFringeWare has been, if not the home, then the battered half-way house for half of the memage in your head. Schwa, SubGenius, the FringeWare review, BoingBoing, them Bots which win the Turing Contest, the Dead Media Project. I'm sure they'd consider it",
"-24.58453294876381"
],
[
"with the same aims as Southport Reporter in the UK, with The Yorkshire Times following suit and becoming Yorkshire's first online-only paper in 2011.\nIn the US, technology news websites such as CNET, TechCrunch, and ZDNet started as web publications and enjoy comparable readership to the conventional newspapers. Also, with the ever-rising popularity of online media, veteran publications like the U.S. News & World Report are abandoning print and going online-only. Another example of an online-only English daily newspaper is the Arabian Post, focussing on the Middle East's current affairs and business. Trends In 2015, 55% of people reported that",
"-24.583607206499437"
],
[
"Spider (magazine) Internet Since June 2008, Cricket, Spider, and Ladybug magazines have had web sites for their children readers and families. The three websites present the individual style of the magazine and are built around the signature characters that appear in the margins of every issue. The focus of the website is to increase learning interaction in a different way with children, with moderated forums, question pools, contests and opportunities to comment on what is being read. There are also interactive games, stories, and more. Awards The magazine was a 2007 and 2008 winner of a Gold Parents' Choice Award",
"-24.576924027467612"
],
[
"partly as a reaction to Friendster, and its policy of blocking accounts that did not use real names. Intermix Media was then founded as the successor of eUniverse, and it was under Intermix that Myspace garnered the level of popularity for which it is notable. When Intermix Media and Myspace were sold to News Corp, Anderson became president of the company.\nMyspace was sold to News Corp in 2005 for $580 million. Following the News Corp acquisition, Anderson said: \"Before [the acquisition], I could do whatever I wanted. Now it takes more time to get people to agree on things.",
"-24.570254696860502"
],
[
"of youth culture. The 2010s also saw the emergence of various controversial trends, such as the expansion of cybercrime and of internet censorship. Web 2.0 Beginning in 2002, new ideas for sharing and exchanging content ad hoc, such as Weblogs and RSS, rapidly gained acceptance on the Web. This new model for information exchange, primarily featuring user-generated and user-edited websites, was dubbed Web 2.0. The Web 2.0 boom saw many new service-oriented startups catering to a newly democratized Web.\nAs the Web became easier to query, it attained a greater ease of use overall and gained a sense of organization",
"-24.56421690240859"
],
[
"reasons.\nWith the rise of new TLDs, some companies have registered entire TLDs in order to create a hack for their name. Most prominent is .gle, created for Google to be used as goo.gle.",
"-24.553957894502673"
],
[
"created with very little content, but are instead stuffed with very similar keywords and phrases. They are designed to rank highly within the search results, but serve no purpose to visitors looking for information. A doorway page will generally have \"click here to enter\" on the page. In 2006, Google ousted BMW for using \"doorway pages\" to the company's German site, BMW.de. Scraper sites Scraper sites are created using various programs designed to \"scrape\" search-engine results pages or other sources of content and create \"content\" for a website. The specific presentation of content on these sites is unique, but is",
"-24.534932076581754"
],
[
"have designed personalized online realities in which \"we only see and hear what we like\". FTC fines In 2012, the US Federal Trade Commission fined Google US$22.5 million for violating their agreement not to violate the privacy of users of Apple's Safari web browser. The FTC was also continuing to investigate if Google's favoring of their own services in their search results violated antitrust regulations. Trademark As people talk about \"googling\" rather than searching, the company has taken some steps to defend its trademark, in an effort to prevent if from becoming a generic trademark. This has led to",
"-24.45089180873765"
],
[
"postings grew rapidly. There was no moderation and Newmark was surprised when people started using the mailing list for non-event postings. People trying to get technical positions filled found that the list was a good way to reach people with the skills they were looking for. This led to the addition of a jobs category. User demand for more categories caused the list of categories to grow. The initial technology encountered some limits, so by June 1995 Majordomo had been installed and the mailing list \"Craigslist\" resumed operations. Community members started asking for a web interface. Newmark registered \"craigslist.org\", and",
"-24.391805557970656"
],
[
"shop) was the centre of a robbery. The \"tiny premises\" had been under threat of closure owing to Post Office's modernisation plans and has now closed.\nOn 17 April 2008, local, national and international media reported on Denshaw's entry on Wikipedia which had been vandalised with spoof information. The entry \"attracted unwelcome notoriety after it was targeted\" by editors, although the offending material was removed after initial reports were published. The story featured on the BBC's North West Tonight, a regional news programme, and later picked up by news services as far away as Pakistan. Governance Lying within the ancient county",
"-24.380181209169677"
],
[
"when Dicker calls something interesting, and so many heads turned when he said he was leaving the Post for a blockchain startup called Po.et.\" Many have covered the evolution of Po.et, citing how blockchain can change digital publishing for the better. Accolades In 2013, Business Insider named Dicker one of the most creative people in social media marketing\nIn 2017, Business Insider named Dicker and the RED team the most interesting ad-tech upstarts of 2017",
"-24.369918576529017"
],
[
"meaty and straightforward and filler-free ...\n The barebones approach cited in his quote have since changed; DuckDuckGo now has auto-completion and instant results for example. McCracken included the site in Time's list of \"50 Best Websites of 2011\".\nThom Holwerda, who reviewed the search engine for OSNews, praised its privacy features and shortcuts to site-specific searches as well as criticizing Google for \"track[ing] pretty much everything you do\", particularly because of the risk of such information being subject to a U.S. government subpoena. In 2012, in response to accusations that it was a monopoly, Google identified DuckDuckGo as a competitor. Weinberg",
"-24.365480676668994"
],
[
"been associated with other websites or metablogs such as Fark, Digg, Drudge Report, Imgur, Reddit, and Twitter, leading to terms such as being \"farked\" or \"drudged\", being under the \"Reddit effect\"—or receiving a \"hug of death\" from the site in question. Google Doodles, which link to search results on the doodle topic, also result in high increases of traffic from the search results page. Typically, less robust sites are unable to cope with the huge increase in traffic and become unavailable – common causes are lack of sufficient data bandwidth, servers that fail to cope with the high number of",
"-24.360801237417036"
],
[
"MediaBrowser MediaBrowser (MediaBrowser.com, Inc.) was an Internet browser branding company that started in 2000 by Mark C. Brown. They made specially branded versions of Internet Explorer for various company brands and themes. Because the branded web browsers made by MediaBrowser require Internet Explorer 5 or higher it is only supported on Windows operating systems. On December 5, 2001, Mediabrowser.com, Inc. went bankrupt and shut down their site and its branded web browsers. System requirements Windows 95 to Windows XP, Internet Explorer 5.0 or higher, Windows Media Player 6.4 or higher, Macromedia Flash 4.0 or higher.\nAlso a 486 MHz or higher processor,",
"-24.32134474972554"
],
[
"2010, was marred by site-wide bugs and glitches. Digg users reacted with hostile verbal opposition. Beyond the release, Digg faced problems due to so-called \"power users\" who would manipulate the article recommendation features to only support one another's postings, flooding the site with articles only from these users and making it impossible to have genuine content from non-power users appear on the front page. Frustrations with the system led to dwindling web traffic, exacerbated by heavy competition from Facebook, whose like buttons started to appear on websites next to Digg's. High staff turnover included the departure of head of business",
"-24.29806831415044"
],
[
"trade name, or they use the phrase as a subheading for public relations materials. History DTP’s history provides the groundwork for current web-to-print expansion, and the onset of e-commerce between 1998 and 2000 created an environment for web-to-print to prosper. However, web-to-print and the framework for it had been well established by commercial developments in some years before this. For instance Xerox Corporation (one of the companies that has been attributed to the origins of the Internet) had a commercial product available for sale in 1995 called InterDoc, which is described as software that allowed printing departments to receive",
"-24.254017218598165"
],
[
"the now popular social bookmarking phenomenon. When interesting websites were hard to find a traffic exchange for an organization new to the web proved an invaluable tool.\nCirca 1994 traffic exchanges moved from corporate intranets to the web. In an effort to build communities the concept of rating pages was replaced with rewarding members for viewing.\nIt was 1996 before traffic exchanges began to charge for traffic and around this time the concept changed from a tool for locating interesting sites to a commercial one. This change in direction resulted in increased popularity at the expense of the content which",
"-24.253346511279233"
],
[
"only a short time. Visitors who store the URL for a particular entry often find upon their return that the desired content has been replaced by something new. Prominently posting permalinks is a method employed by bloggers to encourage visitors to store a more long-lived URL (the permalink) for reference.\nPermalinks frequently consist of a string of characters that represent the date and time of posting, and an identifier that denotes the author who initially authored the item or its subject. Crucially, if an item is changed, renamed, or moved within the internal database, its permalink remains unaltered, as it functions",
"-24.24392398184864"
],
[
"more akin to an internet service provider, which is generally not held liable due to its lack of control over publications' contents, than a publisher. It has been recommended that trademark owners monitor what information is presented about their trademarks on wikis, since courts may use such content as evidence pertaining to public perceptions. Joshua Jarvis notes, \"Once misinformation is identified, the trade mark owner can simply edit the entry.\"",
"-24.241431654576445"
],
[
"by branded \"sharing\" buttons from various social news or bookmarking services at the time, giving bloggers and news services a seemingly more accurate metric for readership and traffic than ever before; the issue of user moderation, however, gave bloggers and news services pause due to both real and alleged competition in moderation ranking of shared \"front-page\" posts. With the rise of micro-blogging in the latter 2000s, however, user moderation on front pages was de-emphasized as a feature in favor of \"reblogs\" on user profiles, which were usually taken by bloggers and news services as automatic endorsement of an original/linked post's",
"-24.238995431136573"
],
[
"previous router as the origin and the immediate next router as the destination. Thus, no router ever knows both the true origin and destination of the packet. This makes these services more secure than centralized anonymizing services (where a central point of knowledge exists).\nSites such as Chatroulette, Omegle, and Tinder (which pair up random users for a conversation) capitalized on a fascination with anonymity. Apps like Yik Yak, Secret and Whisper let people share things anonymously or quasi-anonymously whereas Random lets the user to explore the web anonymously. Other sites, however, including Facebook and Google+, ask users to sign in",
"-24.212272886768915"
],
[
"to the public release, New York Times reporters successfully carried out re-identification of individuals by taking groups of searches made by anonymized users. AOL had attempted to suppress identifying information, including usernames and IP addresses, but had replaced these with unique identification numbers to preserve the utility of this data for researchers. Bloggers, after the release, pored over the data, either trying to identify specific users with this content, or to point out entertaining, depressing, or shocking search queries, examples of which include \"how to kill you wife,\" \"depression and medical leave,\" \"car crash photos.\" Two reporters, Michael Barbaro and",
"-24.208966348000104"
],
[
"companies offer to sell high PageRank links to webmasters. As links from higher-PR pages are believed to be more valuable, they tend to be more expensive. It can be an effective and viable marketing strategy to buy link advertisements on content pages of quality and relevant sites to drive traffic and increase a webmaster's link popularity. However, Google has publicly warned webmasters that if they are or were discovered to be selling links for the purpose of conferring PageRank and reputation, their links will be devalued (ignored in the calculation of other pages' PageRanks). The practice of buying and selling",
"-24.184543210314587"
],
[
"Retail locations for consumer brands give evidence of the popularity and reach of their brands.\nBecause there is a requirement for trust before a customer buys from a company, some companies without brick and mortar understand that they must provide some proof of existence that their software company is real, significant or legitimate. Reach The internet provides a low-cost means for businesses to expand their reach globally. Global reach was traditionally limited to multinationals with large budgets, but eMarketing opens up new avenues for smaller businesses to access potential consumers from all over the world. Scope Internet marketing provides flexibility to",
"-24.15830659995754"
],
[
"and their contacts revealed. This was later adjusted so that users had to explicitly add information that they want public.\nGoogle Profiles existed before Buzz and could be set by the user to be public or not. After Buzz was released, the last name field was required to be non empty and profiles set not to be indexed became indexed for a profile search.\nA 2010 New York Times article characterized Google as being \"known for releasing new products before they are fully ready and then improving them over time\". Google twice tried to address privacy concerns: first by making the option",
"-24.13301195089298"
],
[
"Others attempt to access websites which are redirected to pay-per-click search engines which may install more malware display ads. Some variants of CoolWebSearch also add links to pornography, and gambling sites to the user's Desktop, Internet Explorer's bookmarks and history. Certain versions attempt to edit users' trusted sites and modify security settings as well as to hide from removal programs. Variants are often named for the effects they have such as msconfig, Msoffice, Mupdate, Msinfo and Svchost32. Possible creators The website claims that they are not responsible for the browser hijacking. They run an affiliate program that pays affiliates",
"-24.115904673264595"
],
[
"a media research organization released a \"Local Media Tracking Survey\". A couple of highlights of the study found that users of Internet yellow pages reported that 36% of the time they used an IYP they made a purchase (more than 1 out of 3 leads purchased something). It was further reported that a large number of users had no company in mind when they began their search on Internet yellow pages.\nIt takes many keywords and search terms to cover a small businesses \"category\" or \"heading\" for search engines. Internet yellow pages allow a small business to advertise locally and target",
"-24.113820584621863"
],
[
"offers an add-on for web browsers including Firefox, Google Chrome, Opera, Internet Explorer and Baidu. The extension rates websites based on their trustworthiness and provides the user with a red, yellow, or green indicator, with red meaning that the site has a poor reputation. Reviews WOT was discovered to be selling personally identifiable user data in November 2016. This breach of user privacy, initially discovered and reported by investigative journalists in Germany, was widely reported in the press, resulting in the removal of the Web of Trust plugin from all major browsers.\nIn the years prior to discovery of the",
"-24.091164879966527"
],
[
"the Internet itself\". Writings Battelle's 2005 book The Search: How Google and Its Rivals Rewrote the Rules of Business and Transformed Our Culture, chronicled the rise of search engines. The book was an international best seller and finalist for the Financial Times and Goldman Sachs Business Book of the Year Award. The book has been translated into more than 25 languages.\nBattelle maintains Searchblog, an ongoing daily site which covers the intersection of media, technology, and culture, with archives dating back to October 2003. Accolades Battelle was named a “Global Leader for Tomorrow” by the World Economic Forum, and was a",
"-24.0865841176128"
],
[
"have the resources to do\". Seen as a \"big blow for small bookstores seeking to compete against Amazon and Barnes & Noble\", the move attracted severe criticism from the industry. In a letter to its members, the American Booksellers Association said that it was \"very disappointed\" in Google's decision while noting that the change could be \"disconcerting and disruptive\" for booksellers. \"As an enormous, multinational corporation, Google has interests far beyond independent bookstores, and the book world at large, and, at times, it has lacked understanding of many basic principles of our industry\", the letter said. Affiliate program In June",
"-24.070758235888206"
],
[
"Amazon. Privacy issues of social networking sites The advent of the Web 2.0 has caused social profiling and is a growing concern for Internet privacy. Web 2.0 is the system that facilitates participatory information sharing and collaboration on the Internet, in social networking media websites like Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and MySpace. These social networking sites have seen a boom in their popularity starting from the late 2000s. Through these websites many people are giving their personal information out on the internet.\nIt has been a topic of discussion of who is held accountable for the collection and distribution of personal information.",
"-24.069700268213637"
],
[
"Starting June 2014, Google started removing links to director profiles of the United Kingdom and Spain in the website, and the company published a daily updated list with deleted links for each country as a response.\nThe company claims that business information is exempted from privacy laws, and that their users have the right to access business information all across the world.\nAn article by Roger Parloff was published in Fortune Magazine covering the story, citing 110 removed links, 64 from UK directors and 56 from Spanish directors (in September 2015, the website lists 174 links, 100 from the UK and",
"-24.036097546224482"
],
[
"its writers. As their name suggests, they are not affiliated with any companies or studios, though bias is inherent in the unregulated model to which they subscribe. While many independent sites take the form of blogs (the vast majority in fact, depending on how low down the ladder you look), the 'user-submitted' model, where readers write stories that are moderated by an editorial team, is also popular.\nIn recent times some of the larger independent sites have begun to be bought up by larger media companies, most often Ziff Davis Media, who now own a string of independent sites.\nIn 2013–2014, IGN",
"-24.035169688926544"
],
[
"the goal to \"make news more accessible and easier to navigate ... with a renewed focus on facts, diverse perspectives, and more control for users.\" Yet several options such as the search tools menu were removed along with the redesign, making searches much more difficult. It now uses a card format for grouping related news stories, and as summarized by Engadget, \"doesn't look like a search results page anymore\", removing text snippets and blue links. EU copyright and database right In March 2005, Agence France-Presse (AFP) sued Google for $17.5 million, alleging that Google News infringed on its copyright because \"Google",
"-24.015679691859987"
],
[
"business in the House of Lords Chamber itself, as well as the debates in the Moses Room, known as Grand Committee. Parliamentary Written Answers and Statements are also printed. Emma Crewe notes that \"Editors view reporters in general as a hive of revolution and anti-establishment attitudes, while they perceive themselves as calm and uncomplaining\". The Internet, with the help of volunteers, has made the UK Hansard more accessible. The UK Hansard is currently being digitised to a high-level format for on-line publication. It is possible to review and search the UK Hansard from 1803, with the exception of Standing Committees.\nBecause",
"-24.013567848218372"
],
[
"and old collectors alike.\nBy 1997, the community had changed forever; eBay was quickly becoming the alternative marketplace after two years of steady growth. Professional sellers took notice, causing many of them to close their bricks-and-mortar businesses and focus their attention completely on internet sites and the future of the on-line marketplace.\nIn the early days of internet selling, prices varied widely. One could find posters normally valued in the hundreds of dollars selling for twenty dollars, or, alternatively, find posters normally valued at twenty dollars going for a hundred, or more. Today, the market place for film memorabilia has mostly stabilised.",
"-23.999989282368915"
],
[
"of its most popular features, including its most popular feature, the message boards. This policy was later rescinded after tens of thousands of members left the service.\nThe price increases prompted an increase of \"underground IDs\" (known as 'UG's for shorthand)—where multiple users shared a single account that they turned into private bulletin boards by using emails that were returned (and therefore not billed) due to invalid email addresses. Those invalid addresses were the simple names of the person or people for whom the messages were intended. When those people signed in and checked the email, they would find \"returned\" messages",
"-23.984649075980997"
],
[
"to Internet search engines and online directories. According to a study by Knowledge Networks/SRI, in 2007, print yellow pages were referenced 13.4 billion times, while Internet yellow pages references increased to 3.8 billion, up from 2006's 3.3 billion online searches. As a result, most yellow pages publishers have attempted to create online versions of their print directories. These online versions are referred to as IYP or Internet yellow pages. Independent ad agencies or Internet marketing consultants can assist business owners in determining sound opportunities for yellow pages advertising and provide objective information on usage, possession and preferences.\nArchived yellow pages and",
"-23.92061761461082"
],
[
"track sites they visited with DoubleClick ads on them. There was a privacy concern when Google was in the process of acquiring DoubleClick that the acquisition would let Google create even more comprehensive profiles of its users since they would be collecting data about search queries and additionally tracking websites visited. This could lead to users being shown ads that are increasingly effective with the use of behavioral targeting. With more effective ads comes the possibility of more purchases from consumers that they may not have made otherwise. In 1994, a conflict between selling ads and relevance of results on",
"-23.886496400256874"
],
[
"Richard Phillips.\nThe new online magazine – or e-zine – started at an opportune time when the traditional freight press, still largely based around \"hard-copy\" publications, was struggling due to the effects of the Great Recession and the change in readers habits to web-based sources of information. As a result, it established itself well in the new market for digital information and has been consulted by the global mainstream press on stories and the News Archive has proved invaluable as a reference source to many journalists tracking the history of a particular story.",
"-23.87872714718651"
],
[
"site, which overhauled the user’s building experience. It involved the removal of ads, the modernization of the user interface, and the addition of a step-by-step “successful website” checklist.\nOn May 3, 2013, Webs introduced a SEO Booster, a search engine optimization tool that helps users identify the best keyword phrases to build into their website in order to improve its position in search engine results. Product Webs offers a \"drag and drop\" interface and professional looking themes for users creating a new website. For pro-level websites, there are additional e-commerce features including unlimited webstore items and Google and Facebook advertising",
"-23.864935609628446"
],
[
"a new web presence that might appear to misrepresent or mislead an audience, such as counterfeiters, spoofers, or malicious hackers. One of the early software in the online brand protection marketplace was MarkMonitor, now part of Thomson Reuters. This software helped detect rogue domain names and websites.\nHowever, the modern day growth of social media has seen a rise in the number of fraudulent brand impersonations. It has become much easier for a new web presence to be created on those platforms, which results in a greater frequency of them today. As a preventative measure, online brand protection providers are now",
"-23.850361258846533"
],
[
"from SMB shares. The search engine would probe IP addresses for publicly shared files and then index them for download by other users.\nIn 1998, the company developed a web search engine as well, crawling the World Wide Web for links to multimedia audio, video and images.\nIn 1999 Scour received an investment from Michael Ovitz and the Yucaipa Company, an investment arm of the billionaire Ronald Burkle. Together, the total investment represented a controlling share in the company. After the investment, Scour expanded in terms of product offerings and personnel. The company launched a software product named MyCaster which allowed users",
"-23.837555852311198"
],
[
"Topps Tiles History The first store was opened in Manchester in 1963, by Alan Brindle and Ted Derbyshire, and then the stores were sold/merged with a chain based in London owned by Barry Bester and Stuart Williams. There are now stores totalling over 370 across the United Kingdom. Topps has, in 2014, opened boutique format stores in London and the North West.\nOriginally, the firm was based in Wilmslow, but is now based near Leicester at Grove Park, next to the M1. In turn, it is near Enderby and the B1114 (former A46). From 2007 to 2009, Topps Tiles sponsored Leicester",
"-23.834475613984978"
],
[
"dominates the U.S. rental housing market, with millions of new listings every month. The 23 largest U.S. cities listed on the Craigslist home page collectively receive more than 300,000 postings per day just in the \"for sale\" and \"housing\" sections as of October 2011. The classified advertisements range from traditional buy/sell ads and community announcements to personal ads.\nIn 2009, Craigslist operated with a staff of 28 people. Financials and ownership In December 2006, at the UBS Global Media Conference in New York, Craigslist CEO Jim Buckmaster told Wall Street analysts that Craigslist had little interest in maximizing profit, and instead",
"-23.829086127021583"
],
[
"from outlets such as the Economist, the New York Times, Forbes, and the San Francisco Chronicle. Criticism In 2010, TechCrunch asked: “Does Quid have the most pretentious website of any startup ever?” The jab followed a debate on Quora discussing the website’s use of Latin, arcane typefaces, and an overly academic tone. The company has since updated its website.",
"-23.82905601389939"
],
[
"Blogger is founded. Google comes out with Google News, a service unique in that it requires no human intervention.\nIn 2002, Friendster is released.\nIn 2003, Google buys Blogger.\nIn 2004, the rise of Gmail gives competition to Microsoft's Hotmail. Microsoft's Newsbot comes as a response to Google News. Picasa and A9 are also released this year. In August, Google goes public, acquires Keyhole (now Google Earth), a company that maps the world, and begins digitizing and indexing world libraries. Reason Magazine sends its subscribers satellite photos of their homes, with information tailored to them inside.\nFrom this point EPIC passes into the realm",
"-23.818133599706925"
],
[
"be a disaster for all users of the system. \nMaking the sandbox a priority was brought on, according to Michael Catanzaro, because he was particularly concerned with the code quality of OpenJPEG and the numerous security problems that had been discovered in it, including many years of failing security reviews by Ubuntu. He further explained that web compatibility requires that sites believe that Web is a major browser. Sending them the user agent of Apple Safari causes fewer broken websites than others (due to sharing the Webkit engine), but also causes caching servers to deliver JPEG 2000 images, of which",
"-23.796197265619412"
],
[
"online store that sold computers and computer accessories via Internet. He sold Virus in 1997 for an undisclosed amount.\nIn 1999, Andreev founded SpyLog, a web-tracking business which helped webmasters track visits to their sites, as well as track users' habits on the web. Although there were already existing services from Rambler and Mail.ru, SpyLog grew quickly.\nIn 2002, Andreev started contextual advertising firm Begun, often described as an earlier version of Google AdWords. A majority share of the company was purchased by Russian investment firm FINAM in 2004. Google tried to purchase Begun for $140 million in 2008.\nMamba was founded in",
"-23.786067719600396"
],
[
"EzineArticles History EzineArticles was among the hardest hit websites by Google's major algorithm update in 2011, which hit all article directories. The site responded by becoming more selective, reducing submissions by 10%, reducing the amount of advertisements displayed on each page, and raising their minimum word count. The site considered adding nofollow tags to all links, but abandoned this idea after objections from users.\nOn September 11, 2014, EzineArticles changed all their links from \"do follow\" to \"nofollow\". In an announcement made on the company's blog, the team cited their decision to change all links nofollow as an experiment to",
"-23.770491347662755"
],
[
"has ready-to-use formats for posts that have been used by publishers such as TheBlaze, The Huffington Post, MarthaStewart.com, AOL, and MTV to push content to social media. The company launched its first video format in 2016, and full article format in 2017.",
"-23.730180586804636"
],
[
"their search engine ranking through a private blog network. Prior to Google's update to its search algorithm known as Panda, a type of scraper site known as an auto blog was quite common among black hat marketers who used a method known as spamdexing. Legality Scraper sites may violate copyright law. Even taking content from an open content site can be a copyright violation, if done in a way which does not respect the license. For instance, the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) and Creative Commons ShareAlike (CC-BY-SA) licenses used on Wikipedia require that a republisher of Wikipedia inform its",
"-23.726701935069286"
],
[
"BBS), and links that are relevant to truthfulness (or falsehood) of stories published. The site has received numerous complaints for shutting down users' accounts for no obvious reasons. Rankings According to 2013 data, wenxuecity.com is ranked 2,531 globally and 810 in the U.S. on search engine traffic volume. Every 30 days, the number of average pageviews is over 2 billion, and that of unique visitors is close to 3 million. Within the 3 million unique visitors, over 90% are returning visitors. And about 60% of the total traffic comes from the US, while about 20% are from Canada. On",
"-23.694334167346824"
],
[
"been privately purchased by staff. They further presented evidence showing the material on these servers had been planted there by someone hired by Svenska Antipiratbyrån, a Swedish organisation fighting against copyright infringement.\nIn 2009, Bahnhof generated controversy by failing to store the IP addresses of customers, in order to defeat the Swedish government's new laws on illegal file-sharing, transposing the EU IPRED regulations, which enabled ISPs to retain data longer than the data protection regulations would allow, in order for them to be available on police request.\nAfter the whistleblowing website WikiLeaks was kicked off of Amazon Web Services in December 2010,",
"-23.686870756049757"
],
[
"user-journalist interaction web boards were among the features unique to the digital format. Later, portals such as AOL and Yahoo! and their news aggregators (sites that collect and categorize links from news sources) led to news agencies such as The Associated Press to supplying digitally suited content for aggregation beyond the limit of what client news providers could use in the past.\nAlso, Salon, was founded in 1995. In 2001 the American Journalism Review called Salon the Internet's \"preeminent independent venue for journalism.\"\nIn 2008, for the first time, more Americans reported getting their national and international news from the internet, rather",
"-23.684648118564837"
],
[
"and book buyers\", quoting bank robber Willie Sutton's quip that he targeted banks \"because that's where the money is\".\nThe New Yorker, covering the first New York City store opening at Columbus Circle, called it in a headline \"Not Built for People Who Actually Read,\" continuing to say the store is \"designed to further popularize, on Amazon, that which is already popular on Amazon.\"",
"-23.683729383716127"
],
[
"of article easier to find using search engines like Google.\nIn the beginning, most how-tos on the Internet were the result of a complex process in which an author wrote a how-to for potential readers. After 2001, user added content played a more and more important role on the internet in a trend that is widely referred to as Web 2.0. This had a profound impact on the way in which how-tos are generated on the internet, as the readers and users were able to add to and improve the on-line content.",
"-23.680237837601453"
],
[
"that the Internet would render traditional retailers obsolete through disintermediation. History One of the first known purchases from a company arguably operating a bricks and clicks business model was a Pizza Hut pizza ordered over the internet in 1994. The great surge in adoption of the bricks and clicks model came around 2000, with large retailers such as Wal-Mart starting websites that allow users to browse the same goods they would find in store from the comfort of their homes. For firms The bricks and clicks model has typically been used by traditional retailers who have extensive logistics and supply",
"-23.66667531980056"
],
[
"and W later launched their respective websites and in 2010, Style.com moved to publisher Fairchild Fashion Media.\nIn late 2014, Style.com moved back to its original home, Condé Nast. In April 2015, the content on Style.com migrated to Vogue Runway, an existing channel on Vogue.com, and Condé Nast announced it would use the URL for a new e-commerce venture launching on 2 September 2016.\nAfter failing to make an impression on consumers as an e-commerce site Style.com ceased trading in June 2017, just nine months after conception as an online retailer, and was absorbed by Farfetch.com, in a partnership the companies said",
"-23.662027520651463"
],
[
"flux, in a sort of \"Wild Wild West\" state. The online retailing giant, Amazon, has had a huge impact on the book-selling industry, driving many brick-and-mortar bookstores out of business and making inroads into publishing as well. Amazon has enticed readers away from bookstores and into an online environment, and its KDP and CreateSpace distribution channels have spawned a huge growth in self-publishing. As a result, the numbers of self-published authors are ever-increasing.\nThere is an anti-establishment aspect to self-publishing, in that it has been seen historically as a way to defy authority or resist oppression. The self-publishing movement can also",
"-23.61592516809469"
],
[
"new kind of journalism... the Web... let intelligent readers review the source materials and draw their own conclusions. This step, far beyond the traditional role of newspapers, attracted attention and readers from all over the world.\" The number of visits or \"hits\" to the \"Dark Alliance\" website rapidly climbed to 500,000, then 800,000 and topped out at 1,000,000 a day - phenomenal for this early stage of the development of the modern Internet. In October 1996, two months after the release of the series, a Boston Globe reporter wrote \"that the story was 'pulsing through [L.A.'s] black",
"-23.60516622621799"
],
[
"dictionary; he settled on \"Amazon\" because it was a place that was \"exotic and different\", just as he had envisioned for his Internet enterprise. The Amazon River, he noted, was the biggest river in the world, and he planned to make his store the biggest bookstore in the world. Additionally, a name that began with \"A\" was preferred because it would probably be at the top of an alphabetized list. Bezos placed a premium on his head start in building a brand and told a reporter, \"There's nothing about our model that can't be copied over time. But you know,",
"-23.604647684231168"
],
[
"it meant that content was key and those with great content would be recognised and those with little or spammy content would be penalised and receive no ranking benefits. The purpose per Google was to catch excessive spammers. Allegedly, few websites lost search rankings on Google for specific keywords during the Panda and Penguin rollouts. Google specifically mentions that doorway pages, which are only built to attract search engine traffic, are against their webmaster guidelines.\nIn January 2012, the so-called Page Layout Algorithm Update (also known as the Top Heavy Update) was released, which targeted websites with too many ads, or",
"-23.582898306834977"
],
[
"content of requested web pages, has been compared to those of NebuAd and Front Porch.\nThe service, which would have been marketed to end-users as \"Webwise\", (in 2009 the BBC took legal advice over the trade mark Webwise), would work by categorising user interests and matching them with advertisers who wish to target that type of user. \"As you browse we're able to categorise all of your Internet actions\", said Phorm COO Virasb Vahidi. \"We actually can see the entire Internet\".\nThe company said that data collected would be completely anonymous and that Phorm would never be aware of the identity of",
"-23.57554655367221"
],
[
"sites aim to provide a \"one-stop shop\" for job-seekers who don't need to search the underlying job boards. In 2006, tensions developed between the job boards and several scraper sites, with Craigslist banning scrapers from its job classifieds and Monster.com specifically banning scrapers through its adoption of a robots exclusion standard on all its pages while others have embraced them.\nIndustry specific posting boards are also appearing. These consolidate all the vacancies in a very specific industry. The largest \"niche\" job board is Dice.com which focuses on the IT industry. Many industry and professional associations offer members a",
"-23.572326530747887"
],
[
"showed 99 of the then Catalog Age 100 companies had not optimized their website for search engines. The other company did not have a website. Brian Klais, vice-president of their e-business sector, and Stephan Spencer said to Multi Channel Merchant: \"the vast majority of sites analyzed had sizable chunks of their site inaccessible to search engine spiders, mostly due to search-engine-unfriendly dynamic URLs and navigation based on Java, JavaScript, or Flash.\" White paper Netconcepts released a white paper in 2006, detailing the aspect of long tail searches and the value of having them. The white paper says",
"-23.554611399857095"
],
[
"provides a way for webmasters to submit a sitemap and web feeds, allows users to determine the \"crawl rate\", and track the web pages index status.\nIn 2015, it was reported that Google was developing and promoting mobile search as a key feature within future products. In response, many brands began to take a different approach to their Internet marketing strategies. Relationship with Google In 1998, two graduate students at Stanford University, Larry Page and Sergey Brin, developed \"Backrub\", a search engine that relied on a mathematical algorithm to rate the prominence of web pages. The number calculated by the algorithm,",
"-23.53525883855764"
],
[
"illegal material on ThePirateBay.org.BOiNK was announced in October in response to the raid on Oink's Pink Palace, a music-oriented BitTorrent website. A month later Sunde cancelled BOiNK, citing the many new music websites created since the downfall of OiNK.\nA Mac dashboard widget was released in December, listing \"top 10 stuff currently on TPB, either per category or the full list\". SlopsBox, a disposable email address anti-spam service, also appeared in December, and was reviewed in 2009.\nIn 2008, Baywords was launched as a free blogging service that lets users of the site blog about anything as long as it does not",
"-23.533168196605402"
],
[
"Swedish luxury marketplace website Jameslist.com received a lawsuit filed on July 11, 2012 which among unspecified damages also asked for a complete shutdown of Jameslist.com As a consequence, the young company was forced to rename to JamesEdition. Content policies As of 2012, mashup sites such as padmapper.com and housingmaps.com were overlaying Craigslist data with Google Maps and adding their own search filters to improve usability. In June 2012, Craigslist changed its terms of service to disallow the practice. In July 2012, Craigslist filed a lawsuit against padmapper.com. Following the shutdown of Padmapper.com, some users complained that the service was",
"-23.532640564313624"
],
[
"of their CEO, Jorge Carrasco. Brand.com created several blog posts \"to drown out critical stories\" including one at Huffington Post where the writer did not disclose conflict of interest, subsequently leading to the article being removed. Ars Technica reported that some of the websites that the stories were posted on \"appear to have been utterly fake\". In May 2014, Seattle City Light requested a refund from Brand.com as they claimed the company did not deliver the services that were promised as the critical story still appeared high in Google searches. In September 2014 it was revealed that Brand.com had received",
"-23.527957286612946"
],
[
"it was not much of an issue for giant platforms like Facebook and Google, as users are discovering and exploring the internet because they want users to participate and create more content. More importantly, because user participation creates fresh content and profile data that are useful for third parties such as advertising corporates and national security. Therefore, suppression of privacy is built into the business model of Web 2.0 and one should not be too tied up to the optimistic notion of Web 2.0 being the next evolutionary step for digital media. Trademark In November 2004, CMP Media applied to",
"-23.5227584753884"
]
] |
2zi0os | why does a jury find you 'not guilty' but doesn't find you 'innocent'? | [
"\"Not Guilty\" means there is no sufficient proof against you. \"Innocent\" means you did not do it.",
"If you commit a crime in front of dozens of witnesses you are, by the US standards, innocent until proven guilty. You enter the courtroom for trial innocent. Only a finding of guilty changes that status. The burden of proof is on the prosecution to prove guilt, there is no burden at all on the defense to prove innocence. Since innocense is never in question the only logical conclusion if the prosecution fails to prove guilt is \"not guilty.\"",
"We have a high bar (at least in theory) for what we consider to be guilty of a crime. As such, the jury just needs to determine whether that high bar has been met or not. Since you don't have to be innocent to be found not guilty, we simply leave it at that. They have not been found guilty so we say they are not guilty. We don't attempt to take the further, more complex, step to determine that they are innocent.",
"Those are two different findings. \"Not guilty\" simply means that the case against you was not proven beyond a reasonable doubt. You were not found guilty. \"Innocent\" is not used in courts as frequently, but it is usually part of the phrase, \"factually innocent.\" This means that not only can we not prove that the defendant did it, but it has been shown to be fact that they did not do it. It's a step farther.",
"The presumption is that you are innocent. They are there to determine your guilt, your innocence is already presumed.",
"In Scots law there is a third \"Not Proven\" verdict."
] | [
[
"so that now the \"not guilty\" verdict has become the normal one when a jury is not persuaded of guilt and the \"not proven\" verdict is only used when the jury is not certain of innocence or guilt. It is absolutely central to Scottish and English law that there is a presumption of innocence. It is not a trivial distinction since any shift in the burden of proof is a significant change which undermines the safeguard for the citizen. Non-trial juries Besides petit juries for jury trials and grand juries for issuing indictments, juries are sometimes used in non-legal or",
"-32.22041108261328"
],
[
"injustice, the jury decided to assert what it believed to be their \"ancient right\" to judge the whole case and not just the facts, rendering the verdict of \"not guilty\". Over time, juries have tended to favour the \"not guilty\" verdict over \"not proven\" and with this the interpretation has changed. Now the \"not guilty\" verdict has become the normal verdict when a jury is convinced of innocence and the \"not proven\" verdict is only used when the jury is not certain of innocence or guilt.\nStandard jury trial practice in the United States during the Founding Era and for several",
"-32.0320218038396"
],
[
"jury causes the exclusion of a third alternative: that the jury, without believing the accused, after considering the accused's evidence in the context of the evidence as a whole, may still have reasonable doubt as to his guilt.\nWhere an error has been made in the instruction of jury members on the burden of proof in a criminal case, the fact that the trial judge correctly instructed the jury on that issue elsewhere in the charge is a strong indication that the jury were not in fact left in doubt as to the burden resting on the Crown.\nAs Sopinka J. dissented,",
"-31.67172022955492"
],
[
"favour of the accused (as a 'no'). If only six jurors (being half of the jury) or less vote 'yes', the accused is acquitted. If at least eight jurors (a qualified majority) vote 'yes', the accused is found guilty. In case the accused is only found guilty by a simple majority of the jurors (meaning seven voted 'yes' and five 'no'), the three judges decide on the question. The accused is found guilty if a majority of the judges (two of three) considers the accused guilty as well, otherwise the accused is acquitted on that question. Since there is no",
"-31.23331763665192"
],
[
"to their verdict as additional commentary on their verdict. The 'not proven' verdict may be given when a jury is not prepared to utter 'not guilty' or where the jury has lingering doubts; however if eight jurors cannot agree on an accused's guilt or on an alternative verdict, then the accused will be acquitted.\nCases in the High Court are prosecuted in the public interest by the Lord Advocate, who is usually represented in such cases by Advocates Depute. A private prosecution can be brought before the High Court, but this is very rare and difficult as it requires the concurrence",
"-31.101306838099845"
],
[
"that O. J. Simpson or Julius Rosenberg was \"guilty\" or \"not innocent\" is taken as an actual judgment by the whole society that they must act as if they were so. By corollary, the ruling that such a person is \"not guilty\" may not be so taken, due to the asymmetry in the assumption that one is assumed innocent until proven guilty, and prefers to take the risk of freeing a guilty party over convicting innocents. Still others—often, but not always, theists of one type or another—believe that the origin of guilt comes from violating universal principles of right and",
"-30.88069951257785"
],
[
"to have not committed the crime itself, but at the same time may claim that if the defendant had committed the crime, the act was excused for a reason such as insanity or intoxication, or was justified due to provocation or self defense. However, a jury will naturally be suspicious if a defendant claims the benefits of, for example, both alibi and self defense.",
"-30.676037567202002"
],
[
"is a typical formulation) but also unable to tell right from wrong. If the defendant runs away from the crime scene, there must thus be an awareness that the crime is wrong and so a jury would, under such factual circumstances, deny that defense.\nClark v. Arizona ruled that the defense is not a right and that its scope is limited by whether the defendant knew right from wrong.",
"-30.591235641972162"
],
[
"defendant was probably actually innocent.\" That concern is reflected, for example, in the \"fundamental value determination of our society that it is far worse to convict an innocent man than to let a guilty man go free.\"\nA fundamental error occurs whenever there is a failure to prove beyond a reasonable doubt every element of the charged offense. In United States v. McClelland, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit held that \"the failure to properly instruct the jury on [the required] element of a crime constitutes fundamental error\".\nA fundamental error occurs whenever a defendant stands convicted",
"-30.357833996327827"
],
[
"it has agreed. . . . If the jury cannot agree on all counts as to any defendant, the jury may return a verdict on those counts on which it has agreed. . . . If the jury cannot agree on a verdict on one or more counts, the court may declare a mistrial on those counts. A hung jury does not imply either the defendant's guilt or innocence. The government may retry any defendant on any count on which the jury could not agree.\"\nJuries in criminal cases are generally, as a rule, required to reach a unanimous verdict, and",
"-30.35306508996291"
],
[
"power of the jury to acquit, even if its verdict is contrary to the law as given by the judge, and contrary to the evidence. This is a power that must exist as long as we adhere to the general verdict in criminal cases, for the courts cannot search the minds of the jurors to find the basis upon which they judge. If the jury feels that the law under which the defendant is accused, is unjust, or that exigent circumstances justified the actions of the accused, or for any reason which appeals to their logic or passion, the jury",
"-30.348707156139426"
],
[
"was not enough evidence. If you cannot prove what the crime was, you cannot determine what the punishment should be.\" She added, \"I'm not saying that I believe the defense,\" but that \"it's easier for me logically to get from point A to point B\" via the defense argument, as opposed to the prosecution argument. Ford believed George Anthony was \"dishonest.\" She said the jury \"was sick to [their] stomachs to get [the not-guilty] verdict\" and that the decision process overwhelmed them to the point where they did not want to talk to reporters afterwards. Juror number two, a 46-year-old",
"-30.324562980618794"
],
[
"witness will not express testimony in exactly the same way twice, so this would be difficult to prove. It is the role of the judge, not the jury, to determine what law applies to a particular set of facts. However, occasionally jurors find the law to be invalid or unfair, and on that basis acquit the defendant, regardless of the evidence presented that the defendant violated the law. This is commonly referred to as \"jury nullification of law\" or simply jury nullification. When there is no jury (\"bench trial\"), the judge makes rulings on both questions of law",
"-30.207477573654614"
],
[
"reasons, e.g. that on average it might be factually more complicated to establish guilt beyond a reasonable doubt in the more severe cases.\nBoth in the \"solemn\" and the \"summary\" acquittals, not proven is interpreted as indicating that the jury or judge, respectively, is not convinced of the innocence of the accused; in fact, they may be morally convinced that the accused is guilty, but do not find the proofs sufficient for a conviction. One reason for this is the rule that in such cases the evidence for the prosecution must be corroborated in order to permit a conviction.",
"-30.182735004695132"
],
[
"reasoning for this ruling is that when the jury is not given the ability to convict for a lesser offense, the jurors might opt to convict a less culpable defendant instead of letting defendant go free, essentially convicting of a more serious crime than the facts warrant. As the Court noted, “the failure to give the jury the ‘third option’ of convicting on a lesser included offense would seem inevitably to enhance the risk of an unwarranted conviction. Such a risk cannot be tolerated in a case in which the defendant’s life is at stake.”\nTherefore, they must have at least",
"-30.125183809599548"
],
[
"R v W (D) Comments Based on Cory's second point, \"If you do not believe the testimony of the accused but you are left in reasonable doubt by it, you must acquit\" (a more contentious point), the jury is essentially told to choose between two conflicting stories. Certainly, if the jury rejected all of the evidence of the accused, it is difficult to see how that very evidence, having been rejected, could raise a reasonable doubt. However, if a jury could reject part of the evidence of the accused and still reasonably entertain a doubt as to his guilt based",
"-30.108062141865958"
],
[
"is in the interest of both suspects to confess and testify against the other suspect, irrespective of the innocence of the accused. Arguably, the worst case is when only one party is guilty: here, the innocent one has no incentive to confess, while the guilty one has a strong incentive to confess and give testimony (including false testimony) against the innocent.\nA 2009 study by the European Association of Law and Economics observed that innocent defendants are consistently more likely than guilty defendants to reject otherwise-favorable pleas proposals, even when theoretically disadvantageous to do so, because of perceived unfairness, and would",
"-30.0125545001938"
],
[
"or she is very likely guilty. On the other hand, it is virtually impossible to prove anything to an absolute certainty when dealing with the reconstruction of past events and the Crown does not have to do so.\n\nWhat then is reasonable doubt? A reasonable doubt is an honest and reasonable uncertainty left in your mind about the guilt of the accused after you have given careful and impartial consideration to all of the evidence. In summary, if, after careful and impartial consideration of the evidence, you are sure that the accused is guilty you must find him or her guilty.",
"-30.011932421999518"
],
[
"argument regarding jury decisions: \"Facts are stubborn things; and whatever may be our wishes, our inclinations, or the dictates of our passion, they cannot alter the state of facts and evidence.\" He added, \"It is more important that innocence be protected than it is that guilt be punished, for guilt and crimes are so frequent in this world that they cannot all be punished. But if innocence itself is brought to the bar and condemned, perhaps to die, then the citizen will say, 'whether I do good or whether I do evil is immaterial, for innocence itself is no protection,'",
"-29.989105456741527"
],
[
"is unique in having three possible verdicts for a criminal trial: \"guilty\", \"not guilty\" and \"not proven\". Both \"not guilty\" and \"not proven\" result in an acquittal.\nThe 'not proven' verdict in modern Scots criminal law can be described as an historical accident. Historically, there were no set forms for verdicts used by early juries, and their role was simply to find the guilt or innocence of the accused. The role of the jury changed when it became customary in the Justice Court to compose lengthy indictments, where facts were listed which culminated in a statement of the punishable character of",
"-29.862080139319005"
],
[
"the jury system is to secure unanimity by a comparison of views, and by arguments among the jurors themselves. It certainly cannot be the law that each juror should not listen with deference to the arguments, and with a distrust of his own judgment, if he finds a large majority of the jury taking a different view of the case from what he does himself. It cannot be that each juror should go to the jury room with a blind determination that the verdict shall represent his opinion of the case at that moment, or that he should close his",
"-29.858422011428047"
],
[
"the defendant not guilty if the case has not been proven beyond a reasonable doubt. Conversely the jury should find the defendant guilty if the case has been proven beyond a reasonable doubt. The permissive language \"should\" arguably allows juries to consider nullification arguments. It is also possible to receive a specific jury instruction on nullification, though most judges simply avoid the topic and do not tell jurors of their power to judge the fairness of the law and how it is applied as well as to judge the facts of a case.\nDuring the Vietnam War era, many protestors, including",
"-29.850997758388985"
],
[
"innocent until the Crown has proved his or her guilt. The presumption of innocence means that the accused does not have to give or call any evidence and does not have to establish his or her innocence.\nThe Crown must prove that the accused is guilty beyond reasonable doubt. Proof beyond reasonable doubt is a very high standard of proof which the Crown will have met only if, at the end of the case, you are sure that the accused is guilty.\n\nIt is not enough for the Crown to persuade you that the accused is probably guilty or even that he",
"-29.72825684264535"
],
[
"unanimity requirement, hung juries are not a possibility. After all questions posed have been answered this way, the jurors and judges draw up the motivation for the verdict, which must contain the main reasons as to why the accused is found guilty. In case the accused is found guilty, the three judges may declare a mistrial if all three of them agree the jurors are sorely mistaken either as to questions of fact or questions of law, as discovered during the drawing up of the motivation. This will result in the case being suspended and subjected to a new trial",
"-29.718622569904255"
],
[
"is accused is unjust, or exigent circumstances justified the actions of the accused, or for any reason which appeals to their logic or passion, the jury has the right to acquit, and the courts must abide that decision.\" The Fully Informed Jury Association is a non-profit educational organization dedicated to informing jurors of their rights and seeking the passage of laws to require judges to inform jurors that they can and should judge the law. In Sparf v. the United States, 156 U.S. 51 (1895), the Supreme Court, in a 5–4 decision, held that a trial judge has",
"-29.60511293838499"
],
[
"properly convict upon it, it is his duty, upon a submission being made, to stop the case.\n(b) Where however the prosecution evidence is such that its strength or weakness depends on the view to be taken of a witness's reliability or other matters which are generally speaking within the province of the jury and where on one possible view of the facts there is evidence upon which a jury could properly come to the conclusion that the defendant is guilty, then the judge should allow the matter to be tried by the jury. ...\n\nThere will of course, as always in",
"-29.60510457162161"
],
[
"the defendant believed, or may have believed, that he was being attacked or that a crime was being committed, and that force was necessary to protect himself or to prevent the crime, then the prosecution have not proved their case. If however the defendant's alleged belief was mistaken and if the mistake was an unreasonable one, that may be a peaceful reason for coming to the conclusion that the belief was not honestly held and should be rejected. Even if the jury come to the conclusion that the mistake was an unreasonable one, if the defendant may genuinely have",
"-29.6044102376909"
],
[
"guilty or innocent of a crime, if the defence can persuade a jury that reasonable doubt exists over the credibility of a confession then the jury is likely to disregard the confession. If the defence can show that the confession was made under such duress that most people would make such a confession, then the jury is likely to question the confession's credibility. Usually the more duress that can be shown to have been used by law enforcement by the defence, the less weight most juries will place on confessions. In Britain partly to protect the individual against police brutality",
"-29.599873981067503"
],
[
"The jury was not representative of the community and would not provide a fair and impartial trial.\"\nLeipold points out that to argue that nullification prevents unfair prosecutions is to argue that it is unfair to convict a defendant when a representative legislature has passed a statute making a certain behavior a crime, the evidence shows beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant engaged in that behavior, and the accused has no defense to the charge.",
"-29.566322869737633"
],
[
"guilty prisoner who is acquitted of a crime. The condition \"the prisoner is guilty\" holds (the prisoner is indeed guilty). But the test (a trial in a court of law) failed to realize this condition, and wrongly decided that the prisoner was not guilty, falsely concluding a negative about the condition.\nA false negative error is a type II error occurring in a test where a single condition is checked for and the result of the test is erroneously that the condition is absent. False positive and false negative rates The false positive rate is the proportion of all negatives that",
"-29.543027947715018"
],
[
"factually innocent\" because he \"was tried before a jury of his peers, with the full panoply of protections that our Constitution affords criminal defendants. At the conclusion of that trial, the jury found [Herrera] guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.\" O'Connor reiterated the majority's conclusion that the execution of an innocent person was not unconstitutional by assuming that there was no constitutional issue raised:\nConsequently, the issue before us is not whether a State can execute the innocent. It is, as the Court notes, whether a fairly convicted and therefore legally guilty person is constitutionally entitled to yet another judicial proceeding",
"-29.496703337645158"
],
[
"out that it is only effective if a jury finds it to be compelling evidence of innocence or a substantial mitigating factor. When this occurs, there is no reason to exclude claims of abuse from the trial proceedings. Wilson has argued that the problem lies not in the employment of excuses as legal defenses, but in the intermingling of social science, which seeks to explain human behavior, with criminal law, which seeks to judge behavior. Although many citizens advocate severe penalties as a means of reducing crime, a number of studies have shown that the juror's desire to realize that",
"-29.493031877980684"
],
[
"more logical than if it were to instead exclude the prosecutor's evidence of the defendant's guilt if the defendant were able to present evidence that, if believed, strongly supported a not guilty verdict. \"The point is that, by evaluating the strength of only one party's evidence, no logical conclusion can be reached regarding the strength of contrary evidence offered by the other side to rebut or cast doubt.\" The Court therefore found the rule to be \"arbitrary\" and in violation of a criminal defendant's right to have \"a meaningful opportunity to present a complete defense.\"",
"-29.434483484365046"
],
[
"mistake was reasonable. The jury returned a verdict of guilty. Judgment Lord Lane gave the leading judgement and stated that:\nThe reasonableness or unreasonableness of the defendant's belief is material to the question of whether the belief was held by the defendant at all. If the belief was in fact held, its unreasonableness, so far as guilt or innocence is concerned, is neither here nor there. It is irrelevant.\"",
"-29.42385914029728"
],
[
"certain situations. A jury's perception of a defendant's guilt or innocence could depend on such a detail. If a witness remembers a moustache or a weapon when there was none, the wrong person may be wrongly convicted.",
"-29.39725100286887"
],
[
"suspects are more likely to waive their rights than those who are guilty, so therefore Miranda rights in most cases do not protect accused innocents from interrogation (article 1). Through the use of minimization, when an investigator justifies the crime with possible excuses to make it easier to confess to, and the use of the false evidence ploy, mentioning evidence that proves the suspect guilty (which actually does not exist), many innocent people end up confessing to crimes they have not committed. Most people cannot recognize a false confession, because confessions are trusted and a jury or judge would see",
"-29.38671064947266"
],
[
"Marcia Clark believe that the jury interpreted \"reasonable doubt\" too narrowly. Clark said instruction on reasonable doubt is \"the hardest, most elusive\" instruction of all. \"And I think it's where even the most fair-minded jurors can get derailed,\" she said, opining the confusion between reasonable doubt and a reason to doubt. \"In Scotland, they have three verdicts: guilty, not guilty, and not proven. It's one way of showing that even if the jury didn't believe the evidence amounted to proof beyond a reasonable doubt, it didn't find the defendant innocent either. There's a difference.\" Defense, prosecution, and jury Following the",
"-29.33401355976821"
],
[
"pointed to a conviction, the jury would simply refuse to apply the law to an accused for whom it had sympathy. Alternatively, a jury who feels antipathy towards an accused might convict despite a law which points to acquittal. To give a harsh, but I think telling example, a jury fueled by the passions of racism could be told that they need not apply the law against murder to a white man who had killed a black man. Such a possibility need only be stated to reveal the potentially frightening implications of Mr. Manning's assertions. ...\nIt is no doubt true",
"-29.31067181227263"
],
[
" In Gay, the South Carolina Supreme Court had ruled that the defendant's evidence could not raise a \"reasonable inference\" of his innocence \"in view of the strong evidence\" of his guilt, particularly the forensic evidence. Similarly, in the present case, the court applied the rule that \"where there is strong evidence of [a defendant's] guilt, especially where there is strong forensic evidence, the proffered evidence about a third party's alleged guilt\" may (or perhaps must) be excluded.\nThis rule was in error, the Court wrote, because it required the trial judge to focus on the strength of the prosecution's",
"-29.24151624627848"
],
[
"of conspiracy does not merge into the completed crime. Use in jury proceedings In criminal jury trials, the court is permitted (but not required) to instruct jurors that they can find the defendant guilty of the most serious crime charged, or of a lesser included offense of that crime (in English law, this is termed an alternative verdict).\nIn murder cases, however, where a convicted defendant may face capital punishment, the United States Supreme Court has held that the court must instruct the jury that they may find the defendant guilty of a lesser included offense such as voluntary manslaughter. The",
"-29.225494924404757"
],
[
"juror had to possess real estate of a certain value. Unlike in modern jury trials, jurors not only could decide whether the defendant was guilty or not guilty but also could decide that the defendant was guilty but not to be punished, as Alexander II believed that justice without morality is wrong. The sentence was rendered by professional judges.\nUnlike trials with estate of the realm representatives who could also sit in upper courts, jury trials were held only on the level of district court. Most liberals praised introduction of jury trials-a few intellectuals criticized them. Two examples of such critics",
"-29.184336164395063"
],
[
"jury not only has the authority to rule on the facts of the case, but also on the legitimacy of the law under which the case is tried. This doctrine would further allow juries to refuse to convict if they regard the law by which they are asked to convict as illegitimate. He became associated with Benjamin Tucker's American individualist anarchist journal Liberty which published all of his later works in serial format and for which he wrote several editorial columns on current events. He argued that \"almost all fortunes are made out of the capital and labour of other",
"-29.172644396414398"
],
[
"reluctance to shed innocent blood, (a reluctance which had certainly not been evident on his part in previous Plot trials), and warned the jury that while he still believed in the Plot, it must not be assumed that all those accused were party to it. The jury, after asking if they might find the prisoners guilty of misprision of treason, and being told they could not, found all the prisoners not guilty. \nThe acquittal dealt a severe blow to the credibility of the \"Plot\", but there was a public backlash also. The jurors had to flee their homes for fear",
"-29.1606020735926"
],
[
"which might create the impression that he was not capable of committing such a crime, but is an opinion unrelated to guilt. Conclusions Rules of evidence are meant to screen what evidence the jury may consider to prevent testimony that is mere opinion from infringing upon the territory of jury decision-making. Rule 704(b) reversed the trend toward permitting the testimony of experts on the ultimate issue. Since so much faith is placed in the jury system, limiting what a jury can consider narrows the jury's options. As in the past, lay witnesses may testify to facts only.\nThe result of rule",
"-29.156702180654975"
],
[
"that juries have a de facto power to disregard the law as stated to the jury by the judge. We cannot enter the jury room. The jury is never called upon to explain the reasons which lie behind a verdict. It may even be true that in some limited circumstances the private decision of a jury to refuse to apply the law will constitute, in the words of a Law Reform Commission of Canada working paper, \"the citizen's ultimate protection against oppressive laws and the oppressive enforcement of the law\" (Law Reform Commission of Canada, Working Paper 27, The Jury",
"-29.073130889912136"
],
[
"determining guilt does not exist, the criminal justice system must rely on rulings handed down by juries. Even after a decision has been made, it is virtually impossible to know whether a jury has been correct or incorrect in freeing or accusing a defendant of a crime. Although establishing the effectiveness of juries is an arduous task, contemporary research has provided partial support for the proficiency of juries as decision makers. The role of a juror Evidence has shown that jurors typically take their roles very seriously. According to Simon (1980), jurors approach their responsibilities as decision makers much in",
"-29.058462657267228"
],
[
"juries, because they entail arguing both that the defendant did and did not commit the crime alleged. An English perspective Much of U.S. criminal law is derived from the English common law, whose standard analysis is that (with the exception of strict liability offenses) a crime is made up of two parts: (i) the guilty act (actus reus) (ii) and the guilty intention (mens rea). A court examines the issues in sequence since there is little point in establishing intent if the accused did not commit the act. The court will convict only if the actus and the",
"-29.021790335245896"
],
[
"trial? Is a judgment of conviction void when a deposition has been read against a person on trial for crime because he was not confronted with the witness, or because the indictment did not inform him with sufficient clearness of the nature and cause of the accusation? Decision The high court confessed that it is not always very easy to determine what matters go to the jurisdiction of court so as to make its action when erroneous a nullity. But the general rule is that when the court has jurisdiction by law of the offense charged, and of the party",
"-28.889540122938342"
],
[
"matters of the law. Neither judge nor jury can initiate an inquiry, and judges rarely ask witnesses questions directly during trial. In some United States jurisdictions, it is common practice for jurors to submit questions to the court that they believe were not resolved in direct or cross-examination. After testimony and other evidence are presented and summarized in arguments, the jury will declare a verdict (literally: \"the spoken truth\") and, in some jurisdictions, the reasoning behind the verdict. But discussions among jurors cannot be made public except in extraordinary circumstances. \nAppeals on the basis of factual issues, such as",
"-28.880014509908506"
],
[
"the jury did not give a verdict of either \"proven\" or \"not proven\" but instead gave a verdict of \"not guilty\", thus establishing the constitutional principle of a Scottish Jury's right to render one of three verdicts: \"proven\", \"not proven\" and \"not guilty\" which remain contentious to this day.",
"-28.863076731475303"
],
[
" documents that jurors do not rely on expert testimony to evaluate the defendant's dangerousness but are influenced by expert testimony regarding the defendant's mental illness and mental instability. Jurors accept that mental health professionals have expertise on issues of mental illness and tend to accept expert testimony on the subject. However, expert testimony on the potential dangerousness of the defendant was not related to jury opinion. On these issue it appears that jurors rely on common sense since there is no evidence that experts of any kind can predict dangerousness and jurors disregard expert testimony accordingly. Race",
"-28.85908080037916"
],
[
"led to a conviction. The Supreme Court, however, overturned the conviction. It was held that in the first trial, since the defense had not presented any evidence that there was no robbery, the jury's acquittal had to be based on the conclusion that the defendant's alibi was valid. Since one jury had held that the defendant was not present at the crime scene, the State could not re-litigate the issue. Retrial after acquittal Once acquitted, a defendant may not be retried for the same offense: \"A verdict of acquittal, although not followed by any judgment, is a bar to a",
"-28.84652275891858"
],
[
"was held that the accused was guilty, notwithstanding that his statement is inadmissible in law, but logically relevant to the question to be decided, that is the witness’s credibility. The court relied upon Hawkins \"…though the evidence signify nothing to the merits of the cause and is immaterial, yet, if it has a direct tendency to material, it is equally criminal in its own nature, and equally tends to abuse the administration of justice, and there does not seem to be any reason why it should not be equally punishable\".\nIt is submitted that once a person has been lawfully",
"-28.831430206773803"
],
[
" She can't tell you her side of the story. The defendant won't.\nThe judge, in his instructions to the jury, stated that a defendant has a constitutional right not to testify, and that this did not create a presumption of guilt, nor reduce the need for the prosecution to prove its case; but also stated to the jury:\nAs to any evidence or facts against him which the defendant can reasonably be expected to deny or explain because of facts within his knowledge, if he does not testify or if, though he does testify, he fails to deny or explain",
"-28.821418987383367"
],
[
"On the other hand, if you are not sure that the accused is guilty, you must find him or her not guilty.",
"-28.82011008464906"
],
[
"do more than create a suspicion of the existence of the fact to be established. It is such relevant evidence as a reasonable mind might accept as adequate to support a conclusion, and it must be enough to justify, if the trial were to a jury, a refusal to direct a verdict when the conclusion sought to be drawn from it is one of fact for the jury.\nAssociate Justice Hugo Black dissented, joined by Associate Justice Stanley Forman Reed. Black concluded that the majority had substituted its own appraisal of the evidence for that of the Board's, which was inappropriate.",
"-28.791670942198834"
],
[
"on trial'\", and juries remain one of the 'cornerstones' of the criminal justice system in many countries.\nThere are however, many debates about the efficacy of the jury system and the ability of jurors to adequately determine the guilt or otherwise of the accused. Some argue that lay individuals are incapable of digesting the often complex forensic evidence presented during a trial, others argue that any misunderstanding of the evidence is a flaw in legal cross examination and summing up. Many observe that the juror and the accused seldom can be considered 'peers' which is historically considered a fundamental precept",
"-28.751200969563797"
],
[
"useless.\nWhere a trial 'on indictment' has been prescribed, it is an essential element that it be found by a unanimous verdict of guilty by 12 lay members of the public. This requirement stems from the (historical) meaning of 'jury' at the time that the Constitution was written and is (in principle) thus an integral element of trial by jury. Unlike in the Australian states, an accused person cannot elect a Judge-only trial, even where both the accused and the prosecutor seek such a trial. Belgium The Belgian Constitution provides that all cases involving the most serious crimes be judged by",
"-28.731940188401495"
],
[
"offence to be presumed innocent until proven guilty according to law. It establishes that the burden of proof of guilt in criminal cases is carried by the prosecutor, who must prove the accused's guilt beyond reasonable doubt. It is widely-acknowledged common law that the prosecution must prove guilt even when an affirmative defence is argued. A provision requiring an accused person to disprove the existence of a presumed fact, that fact being an important element of the offence in question (e.g. the presumption of supply) generally violates the presumption of innocence in section 25(c). Section 5 Section 5 provides that",
"-28.72826444155362"
],
[
"inferred to be guilty by exercising their right to silence, it no longer confers the protection intended by such a right. In the United States, the Fifth Amendment has been interpreted to prohibit a jury from drawing a negative inference based on the defendant's invocation of his right not to testify, and the jury must be so instructed if the defendant requests.\nLord Devlin in The Judge said: \"It can also be argued that two prejudiced searchers starting from opposite ends of the field will between them be less likely to miss anything than the impartial searcher starting at the middle.\"",
"-28.69048339249275"
],
[
"excluded, but the judge should consider whether a breach has occurred and what the effect of the breach was on the defendant. If a judge decides to admit evidence where there has been a breach, he should give reasons. and in a jury trial, the jury should normally be told \"that an identification procedure enables suspects to put the reliability of an eye-witness’s identification to the test, that the suspect has lost the benefit of that safeguard, and that they should take account of that fact in their assessment of the whole case, giving it such weight as they think",
"-28.670845710510548"
],
[
"\"guilty\" verdict. He questions the reliability of the two witnesses and the prosecution's claim that the murder weapon, a switchblade, was \"rare\" and produces an identical knife. Juror 8 argues that he cannot vote \"guilty\" because reasonable doubt exists.\nHaving hung the jury, Juror 8 suggests a secret ballot among the other eleven; if all the remaining jurors still vote \"guilty\", he will acquiesce. The ballot reveals one \"not guilty\" vote. Juror 3 accuses Juror 5, who grew up in a slum, of changing his vote out of sympathy, but Juror 9 reveals that he changed his vote, agreeing there should",
"-28.65267090423731"
],
[
"presented to the grand jury, and hearsay evidence is permitted. This is so because a grand jury cannot convict a defendant. It can only decide to indict the defendant and proceed forward toward trial. Grand juries vote to indict in the overwhelming majority of cases, and prosecutors are not prohibited from presenting the same case to a new grand jury if a \"no bill\" was returned by a previous grand jury. A typical grand jury considers a new criminal case every fifteen minutes. In some jurisdictions, in addition to indicting persons for crimes, a grand",
"-28.643128164942027"
],
[
"the mercy of a jury trial, and forgo their ancient right to trial by ordeal. If they refused a jury trial, there was no option but to keep them in prison until they changed their mind.\nUnder these circumstances, the jury became a new form of ordeal. The judges, in difficult cases ceased to be inquisitors, and simply came to accept the verdict of the jury. The accused was pronounced either \"guilty\" or \"not guilty\". This result soon came to be accepted with as little doubt, as much as the result of the hot iron or cold water was",
"-28.638543294742703"
],
[
"non-jury trial) decides whether the defendant really has the good faith belief he or she claims. With respect to willfulness, the placing of the burden of proof on the prosecution is of limited utility to a defendant that the jury simply does not believe.\nA further stumbling block for tax protesters is found in the Cheek Doctrine with respect to arguments about \"constitutionality.\" Under the Doctrine, the belief that the Sixteenth Amendment was not properly ratified and the belief that the federal income tax is otherwise unconstitutional are not treated as beliefs that one is not violating the \"tax law\" –",
"-28.636305729683954"
],
[
"who saw the murder from across the street stands as solid evidence. Juror 12 changes his vote back to \"guilty\", making the vote 8-4 again. Juror 9, seeing Juror 4 rub his nose, irritated by his glasses, realizes that the witness had impressions on her nose, indicating that she wore glasses and likely was not wearing them when she saw the murder. Jurors 12 and 4 change their vote to \"not guilty\". Juror 10, who says he still thinks the defendant is guilty, bluntly admits to no longer caring about the verdict and votes for acquittal.\nUndeterred, Juror 3 is forced",
"-28.63515332771931"
],
[
"to a jury trial has been enshrined in English law since Magna Carta in 1215, and is most common in serious cases, although the defendant can insist on a jury trial for most criminal cases. Jury trials in complex fraud cases have been described by some members and appointees of the Labour Party as expensive and time-consuming. In contrast, the Bar Council, Liberty and other political parties have supported the idea that trial by jury is at the heart of the judicial system and placed the blame for a few complicated jury trials failing on inadequate preparation by the prosecution.",
"-28.584858017682564"
],
[
"Australia Council, Deakin University, and the University of Tasmania. As a lawyer, Littlemore has spoken publicly about how he feels it is a professional challenge to knowingly get the guilty acquitted at trial. In an interview in October 1995 on Channel 7 when asked by host Andrew Denton if he could defend \"someone who you yourself believe not to be innocent\", Littlemore's response was \"Well, they're the best cases. I mean, you really feel you've done something when you get the guilty off. Anyone can get an innocent person off. I mean, they shouldn't be on trial. But the guilty",
"-28.579828917165287"
],
[
"to 28.\nProponents of reform argue that the \"not proven\" verdict is widely regarded as an acquittal used when the judge or jury does not have enough evidence to convict but is not sufficiently convinced of the accused person's innocence to bring in a \"not guilty\" verdict. Essentially, the judge or jury is unconvinced that the suspect is innocent, but guilt has not been proven \"beyond reasonable doubt\". Conversely, its opponents argue that a two-verdict system would lead to an increase in wrongful convictions. Scottish rape crisis centres have expressed concern that scrapping \"not proven\", a disproportionately common verdict in rape",
"-28.564627782587195"
],
[
"thoughtfully, whether you should accept the weight and sufficiency of evidence which fails to convince your fellow jurors beyond a reasonable doubt.\nRemember at all times that no juror is expected to give up an honest belief he or she may have as to the weight or effect of the evidence; but, after full deliberation and consideration of the evidence in the case, it is your duty to agree upon a verdict if you can do so.\nYou must also remember that if the evidence in the case fails to establish guilt beyond a reasonable doubt the Defendant should have your unanimous",
"-28.556331782310735"
],
[
"we conclude that a juror who intends to nullify the applicable law is no less subject to dismissal than is a juror who disregards the court's instructions due to an event or relationship that renders him biased or otherwise unable to render a fair and impartial verdict.\nIn 2001, a California Supreme Court ruling on a case involving statutory rape led to a new jury instruction that requires jurors to inform the judge whenever a fellow panelist appears to be deciding a case based on his or her dislike of a law. People v. Williams, 25 Cal.4th 441, 106 Cal.Rptr.2d 295,",
"-28.55276536697056"
],
[
"opinion, duly discharged the judicial duty cast upon it. If, on the other hand, the evidence does answer to that description, the court will refuse to interfere, not because it would have come to the same conclusion itself, but because no ground exists for interference with the discharge of a duty entrusted by law to the jury alone. Facts A jury had convicted the accused on a charge of arson. Judgment The court found that there was evidence before the jury on which reasonable men could properly have convicted, and therefore refused to interfere with the verdict. A person who",
"-28.552195425145328"
],
[
"media (such as newspaper articles and segments which aired on television news magazines), journal articles, books, reports, legislation and websites\".\nIn the United States, establishing \"actual innocence\" after a conviction may be considerably more difficult than winning an acquittal at trial, however. At trial, the defendant enjoys a due process right to the presumption of innocence, and the State is obligated to prove the guilt of the accused beyond a reasonable doubt. See, e.g., Cochran v. United States, 157 U.S. 286, 299 (1895). However, \"innocence\" is a factual question, and once a fact-finder—judge or jury—makes a factual determination, appellate and post-conviction",
"-28.523002110930975"
],
[
"and law.\nSome advocacy groups and websites argue that private parties in cases where the government is the opponent have the right to have juries be instructed that they have the right and duty to render a verdict contrary to legal positions they believe to be unjust or unconstitutional. These and other organizations contact citizens directly and lobby for legal reforms regarding instructions given to jurors.\nClay Conrad, a jury scholar and attorney, argues that there is nothing \"wrong\" with jury nullification; nullification is part and parcel of what a jury is all about. Conrad extensively reviews cases of jury nullification in",
"-28.515848338080104"
],
[
"jury would convict the defendant for an \"improper\" reason.",
"-28.50543629171443"
],
[
"Number Three In all trials for criminal offenses, the jury, after having received the instruction of the court, shall have the right, in their verdict of guilty or not guilty, to determine the law and the facts of the case, but it shall be the duty of the court to superintend the course of the trials, to decide upon the admission and rejection of evidence, and upon all questions of law raised during the trials, and upon all collateral and incidental proceedings; and also to allow bills of exceptions. And the court may grant a new trial in case of",
"-28.46140124601152"
],
[
"beyond reasonable doubt.\" The Judgment Summary further explained: \"Evidence concerning such conduct was not admitted to show that the accused is a person of bad character. The fact that the accused engaged in discreditable conduct and could, therefore, be viewed as a person of bad character, cannot be used to reason that the accused is the type of person who might kill his wife, or that by reason of his bad character he is likely to have killed her. Such reasoning would be unfair and is prohibited.\" Appeal dismissed An appeal by prosecutors against the verdict was held in the",
"-28.450059962749947"
],
[
"Trial of the facts Under the law of England and Wales regarding insanity and unfitness to plead, once a court has determined that the defendant is subject to a disability that prevents their trial progressing, there may be a \"trial of the facts\" in which the truth of the allegations against the defendant, as opposed to their guilt or innocence of a crime, is to be determined. The court's options are: to order an absolute discharge; a supervision order; or a hospital order (with or without a restriction order).\nThe trial is not a criminal trial to determine guilt or otherwise;",
"-28.41535795449454"
],
[
"himself. If, upon the other hand, the majority were for acquittal, the minority ought to ask themselves whether they might not reasonably doubt the correctness of a judgment which was not concurred in by the majority. These instructions were taken literally from a charge in a criminal case which was approved of by the supreme court of Massachusetts and by the supreme court of Connecticut.\nWhile, undoubtedly, the verdict of the jury should represent the opinion of each individual juror, it by no means follows that opinions may not be changed by conference in the jury room. The very object of",
"-28.398418923607096"
],
[
"three of the jurors were “improperly excluded for cause because of their opposition to capital punishment.” In a previous U.S. Supreme Court case, Witherspoon vs. Illinois (1968), the Court came to the conclusion that \"prospective jurors could not be disqualified from jury service simply because they voiced general objections to the death penalty or expressed conscientious or religious scruples against it. However, a state may exclude those jurors who would automatically vote against the death penalty, or those jurors whose attitudes about the death penalty would affect their decision regarding the defendant’s guilt or innocence.” Therefore, the state of",
"-28.38182255208085"
],
[
"Whether or not the judges came to the trial with their minds made up, they seem to have had little doubt as to the verdict which the jury should bring in.\nNugent was found guilty, and hanged at Trim on 13 April. There were claims that the jury were coerced by the judges, which is likely enough. John Philipps Kenyon writes that until the 1670s it was considered quite proper for a judge to bring strong pressure on a jury to find the \"right\" verdict (i.e. guilty), and the practice of a judge \"suggesting\"",
"-28.34811726679618"
],
[
"determine whether the law is just or whether the law is unjust. That cannot be your task. There is no such thing as valid jury nullification. You would violate your oath and the law if you willfully brought a verdict contrary to the law given to you in this case.\" However, they deemed this a harmless error and affirmed the conviction. Advocacy groups and notable proponents Ron Paul, a U.S. Representative and presidential candidate in 1988, 2008 and 2012, is a notable supporter of jury nullification and has written extensively on the historic importance of juries as finders of fact",
"-28.327851630863734"
],
[
"credibility of the accused, the Crown could fail to prove their case beyond a reasonable doubt even if the jury had a doubt about the credibility of the accused's story. Then, on the recharge, the Crown would have failed to discharge its onus only if they believed the evidence of the accused. The jury would be uncertain as to which version was correct and it's pure speculation that they would have accepted the first version rather than the second one, which was characterized by the trial judge as \"better\". This takes on additional significance in light of the statement to",
"-28.323726042173803"
],
[
"wrote on SCOTUSblog, that the grand jury investigation was atypical. Citron argues that, based on case law – a question raised in United States v. Williams – prosecutors can withhold \"substantial exculpatory evidence\" in order to obtain an indictment, as the role of the grand jury is not to determine guilt, but rather to decide whether there is enough evidence of a crime; exculpatory evidence can be presented at trial. Citron presented the dissent from Justice Stevens, who said that the prosecutor need not \"ferret out and present all evidence that could be used at trial to create a reasonable",
"-28.317270594998263"
],
[
"character that one would be willing to rely and act upon it without hesitation in the most important of one's own affairs. However, it does not mean an absolute certainty. The standard that must be met by the prosecution's evidence in a criminal prosecution is that no other logical explanation can be derived from the facts except that the defendant committed the crime, thereby overcoming the presumption that a person is innocent unless and until proven guilty.\nIf the trier of fact has no doubt as to the defendant's guilt, or if their only doubts are unreasonable doubts, then the prosecutor",
"-28.311917467741296"
],
[
"do not have a right to have members of their community on their particular jury, but rather that minority members simply cannot be systematically excluded from juries. Next, the Court said that even if racial minorities found themselves in a jury minority, the rest of the jury would hear their voices and that there is \"no proof for the notion that a majority will disregard its instructions and cast its votes for guilt or innocence based on prejudice rather than the evidence.\" Concurrences and dissents The four-justice plurality decided that federal and state juries should operate in the same way—and",
"-28.298734872136265"
],
[
"in R v Windle [1952] 2 QB 826. Insanity at the time of the trial If a defendant at the time of trial claims he is insane, this hinges on whether or not he is able to understand the charge, the difference between \"guilty\" and \"not guilty\" and is able to instruct his lawyers. If he is unable to do these things, he can be found \"unfit to plead\" under Section 4 of the Criminal Procedure (Insanity) Act 1964. In that situation, the judge has wide discretion as to what to do with the defendant, except in cases of murder,",
"-28.28391517372802"
],
[
"to do so. In some cases this amounts to jury nullification, e.g. the jury effectively re-writing the law or blatantly ignoring it in a particular case.\nIn Anglo-American–based legal systems, finding of fact made by the jury is not appealable unless clearly wrong to any reasonable person. This principle is enshrined in the Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution, which provides that \"... no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.\" Judges In a bench trial, judges are professional triers of fact.",
"-28.273219463182613"
],
[
"the law. Juries might seek nullification where they agree with the political motivations of the defendant. However, the defendant must first present information about his political motivations to the jury. A shadow defense might be used to convey this information to the jury, not because the defense itself is likely to succeed but because it provides a vehicle for informing jurors about sympathetic personal characteristics of the defendants.\nOther causes of jury nullification may include a belief that the law at issue is unjust or unduly harsh, a belief that the prosecution is abusing its power, or a belief that the",
"-28.263176954817027"
],
[
"no responsibility to inform the jury of the right to nullify laws.\nModern American jurisprudence is generally intolerant of the practice, and a juror can be removed from a case if the judge believes that the juror is aware of the power of nullification. Jury equity In the United Kingdom, a similar power exists, often called \"jury equity\". This enables a jury to reach a decision in direct contradiction with the law if they feel the law is unjust. This can create a persuasive precedent for future cases, or render prosecutors reluctant to bring a charge – thus a jury has",
"-28.261774354847148"
],
[
"criminal case is allowed to try to prove to the jury what the law is. For example, in a murder case the defendant is not allowed to persuade the jury that there is no law against murder, or to try to interpret the law for the jury. Likewise, the prosecution is not allowed to do this. Instead, disagreements about what the law is are argued by both sides before the judge, who then makes a ruling. Prior to jury deliberations, the judge instructs the jury on the law. Examples of applications of this rule in tax controversies are United States",
"-28.244291112059727"
],
[
"what they did to be wrong. If a juror has been personated, the trial in which he sat can be voided.",
"-28.240456858227844"
],
[
"contrary to the facts or law. A good example is the case of one Carnegie of Finhaven who in 1728 accidentally killed the Scottish Earl of Strathmore. As the defendant had undoubtedly killed the Earl, the law (as it stood) required the jury to render the verdict that the case had been \"proven\" and cause Carnegie of Finhaven to die for an accidental killing. Instead, the jury asserted what is believed to be their \"ancient right\" to judge the whole case and not just the facts and brought in the verdict of \"not guilty\". This led to the",
"-28.21356313416618"
],
[
"cannot contradict that testimony, there is no logical thing to come except that the jury find a verdict that we may carry to the higher court, purely as a matter of proper procedure. We do not think it is fair to the court or counsel on the other side to waste a lot of time when we know this is the inevitable result and probably the best result for the case.\nAfter they were brought in, Darrow then addressed the jury, telling them that:\nWe came down here to offer evidence in this case and the court has held under the law",
"-28.183656899025664"
],
[
"their impartiality. Role The role of the jury is described as that of a finder of fact, while the judge is seen as having the sole responsibility of interpreting the appropriate law and instructing the jury accordingly. The jury determines the truth or falsity of factual allegations and renders a verdict on whether a criminal defendant is guilty, or a civil defendant is civilly liable. Sometimes a jury makes specific findings of fact in what is called a \"special verdict.\" A verdict without specific findings of fact that includes only findings of guilt, or civil liability and an",
"-28.182421570760198"
],
[
"for first degree murder, even though the original jury had refused to find him guilty on that charge and it was in no way involved in his appeal. For the reasons stated hereafter, we conclude that this second trial for first degree murder placed Green in jeopardy twice for the same offense in violation of the Constitution.\n\nThat the jury did not explicitly return an acquittal on first degree murder in its verdict is immaterial:\nIn brief, we believe this case can be treated no differently, for purposes of former jeopardy, than if the jury had returned a verdict which expressly read:",
"-28.1493262508302"
],
[
"Trier of fact Juries In a jury trial, a jury is the trier of fact. The jury finds the facts and applies them to the relevant statute or law it is instructed by the judge to use in order to reach its verdict. Thus, in a jury trial, the findings of fact are made by the jury while the judge makes legal rulings as to what evidence will be heard by the jury and what legal framework governs the case. Jurors are instructed to strictly follow the law as given by the judge, but are in no way obligated",
"-28.12463847870822"
],
[
" Thus, there might be a single plaintiff or witness for the prosecution, which the jury or judge believes is both truthful and trustworthy, but no other witness or circumstances against the accused. By Scottish law, the accused then should be acquitted, but often will be so by the verdict not proven. Use in other jurisdictions Since 1989, in the Italian juridical system, there are five modes of acquittal available. Two of these correspond roughly to the Scottish not guilty and not proven, respectively.\nIn general, the Scottish verdict has not been permanently adopted outside its home country, but it was",
"-28.105273418943398"
],
[
"and emotional strain to both the defense and the prosecution. If you should fail to agree upon a verdict, the case will be left open and may have to be tried again. Obviously, another trial would only serve to increase the cost to both sides, and there is no reason to believe that the case can be tried again by either side any better or more exhaustively than it has been tried before you.\nAny future jury must be selected in the same manner and from the same source as you were chosen, and there is no reason to believe that",
"-28.102046388434246"
],
[
"murder is an ordeal not to be viewed lightly. Further, and perhaps of more importance, we cannot determine whether or not the murder charge against petitioner induced the jury to find him guilty of the less serious offense of voluntary manslaughter rather than to continue to debate his innocence.\nNoting that the murder charge may have poisoned the jury against Price, the Supreme Court vacated the voluntary manslaughter conviction and remanded the case. Non-final judgments As double jeopardy applies only to charges that were the subject of an earlier final judgment, there are many situations in which it does not apply,",
"-28.085740995185915"
]
] |
208999 | Why are we trying so hard to visit the mars, when the venus is only half that far away? | [
"Mars has a surface rather similar to Earth’s. Granted, there is no comparable atmosphere, but as a landing site for rovers and such it is perfect. Venus is gaseous and stormy. And HOT!",
"Mars offers the possibility of human habitation. It has a comparable day length to ours, the presence of water, and, looking ahead, seems able to be terraformed. Venus is not and will never be able to support human life. Its atmosphere is corrosive and so thick, standing on the surface you would experience the same pressures you would at the bottom of a sea. Not to mention the temperatures on the surface are hot enough to melt lead. Venus is so hostile, even robotic probes we have sent there have only operated for minutes before being destroyed.",
"Venus may be closer using a distance measure, it takes almost the same energy to get to Mars, or just a little more. It's too complicated to easily summarize, but in a nutshell, a spaceship has to use its engines (or something else, see below) to speed up and slow down in order to change orbits. It transitions from Earth orbit to an orbit that's free of Earth and going around the sun, and it must enter an orbit around Mars or Venus, essentially matching their orbits around the sun. In addition to engines, there's the possibility of using Mars's thin and Venus's horrifyingly thick atmosphere for aerobraking to help slow down and \"capture\" into orbit around the planet, so it's possible to do slowdowns like this without engines. However, it does mean lugging a heat shield around. You can see [this delta-V chart]( URL_0 ), which works like a subway map. The numbers next to each leg are like the fare one must pay to cover that leg. Legs with the red arrow mean that aerobraking is possible, so maybe you don't have to pay the full amount (which is paid in fuel and engine-wear). From a raw numbers standpoint, one can get to the surface of Mars and back for about the same deltaV that one gets from to the *orbit* of Venus*. That big 27 next to Venus is what it takes to get from the surface of Venus to orbit around Venus-- 27 km/s, or roughly 3 times the delta-V of getting from the Earth's surface to Earth orbit. Of course, you bring a much smaller ship to Venus than you do from Earth, and there are tricks, like using balloons to carry the ship up before it takes off, and such. But it's way more complicated than a trip to Mars, where people can walk around outside and spaceships won't be crushed and all that. TL;DR: Earth is moving at 67,000 mph around the sun. Venus is moving at 78,000 mph around the sun. Mars moves at 54,000 mph around the sun. A rocket must use engines to change the speed at which it goes around the sun, and we're talking 11,000 (V) vs 13,000 (M) miles per hour difference. Considering how much easier Mars is to be around in all the other ways, the energy difference is chump-change. Edit: typos",
"Venus is too hot. We sent probes there in the 70s and they melted after a few hours of being on the surface. We know that Venus was once like the Earth but had a runaway greenhouse effect making it inhospitable for anything to survive there. Mars is less extreme and easier to study, even though it's much further away than Venus.",
"Because the [atmosphere on Venus]( URL_0 ) is incredibly hostile. We did send [probes]( URL_1 ) to survey the planet.",
"the longest lived probe to reach the surface of venus lasted under 2 hours before being a combination of corroded, crushed, and melted.",
"There are several reasons. First of all Mars isn't *that* much further. The closest Mars gets to Earth is 35 million miles, while Venus can get 26 million miles. Secondly Venus' surface is almost impossible to explore because of the high pressure and heat (probes sent there last only an hour or so), and it's also thought that Venus was entirely covered by volcanic eruptions fairly recently which would cover most of the surface in new rock. Mars' surface is easy to explore and old, so will contain a good geological record of the planet's history. Now one interesting thing about Venus is that while the surface is completely inhospitable, 50km above the surface [its atmosphere is the most Earth-like in the entire solar system]( URL_0 ), with a pressure of 1 atm and temperature between 0-50 degrees C. There are ideas to create floating habitats there, but again because you can't do any research on the surface scientists are more excited about going to Mars because there is more science potential there.",
"* Venus is nasty, with a hellishly hot and caustic atmosphere that makes it unlikely an probe will live very long * once you escape the Earth's gravitational influence, you are basically coasting, so distance isn't as much of an issue...you wait almost as long for the planets to line up as you do actually taking the trip",
" > venus first Venus's surface temperature is hot enough to melt led, and ignite clothing (if their was oxygen to burn it). The pressure on Venus's surface is around ~1395psi (93x that of earth). Mars is far easier to build ships that will survive on it's surface.",
"Venus is very deadly and a lot of things stop working at 462 °C and high pressure.",
"Venus is so hot that all the spacecraft we've sent to its surface have melted in a matter of hours. If I remember correctly, the average temperature on Venus is roughly 1200 degrees Fahrenheit. It's literally impossible to put anything on the surface, let alone a human, for long enough to study it. Mars, on the other hand, is actually capable of supporting life. Its atmosphere is similar to ours, the temperature ranges from -200 degrees to +60 Fahrenheit, and there is a substantial supply of water, iron, and many other materials on the planet.",
"Venus is about 850 degrees, the atmosphere is about 92 times the earth, so it'll crush you like a grape, and the air is made up of carbon dioxide and sulfuric acid. Read that again.. the *air* is sulfuric acid. Did I mention it's full of active volcanos spewing lava everywhere and non stop lightning storms? In short.. Venus is a deathtrap.. much like all women.",
"Someone has pointed out women are from Venus. Others have pointed out how hostile corrosive and hellish it is. Apparently probes have lasted no more than two hours before being completely destroyed and mangled. Apparently Venus is the feminist home planet.",
"It took me too long to figure out the, \"The mars\" thing..."
] | [
[
"corridor (range of permissible path angles) for landing on Mars is limited, and experience has shown that the path angle is hard to fix (e.g. +/- 0.5 deg). This limits entry into the atmosphere to less than 9 km/s. On this assumption, a two-year return is not possible for some years, and for some years a delta-v kick of 0.6 to 2.7 km/s at Mars may be needed to get back to Earth.\nNASA published the Design Reference Architecture 5.0 for Mars in 2009, advocating a 174-day transfer to Mars, which is close to Zubrin's proposed trajectory. It cites a delta-v requirement of",
"-26.42263470115722"
],
[
"because all the planets are closer or further away from the Earth at different times, Venus and Mars up to eight times. He encourages Simplicio to make a plan of the planets, starting with Venus and Mercury which are easily seen to rotate about the Sun. Mars must also go about the Sun (as well as the Earth) since it is never seen horned, unlike Venus now seen through the telescope; similarly with Jupiter and Saturn. Earth, which is between Mars with a period of two years and Venus with nine months, has a period of a year which may",
"-25.946287872007815"
],
[
"Mars encounter is unknown although it likely passed Mars at a distance of 6.5 Mars radii. Mars, unlike Jupiter, is not big enough to eject the asteroid from the Solar System; however, the gravitation effect from the encounter on the asteroid's trajectory is uncertain and the asteroid is currently considered 'lost'. Assuming 2007 WD₅ passed Mars safely, its low inclination to the ecliptic of only 2.3 degrees and high eccentricity of 0.6 could cause it to swing close to Mars or Earth for years or decades into the future.",
"-25.408765391330235"
],
[
"toward Mars at one point being a dynamic Earth-like planet). Goal 4: Prepare for the human exploration of Mars A human mission to Mars presents a massive engineering challenge. With Mars' surface containing superoxides and lacking a magnetosphere and an ozone layer to protect from radiation from the Sun, scientists would have to thoroughly understand as much of Mars' dynamics as possible before any action can be taken toward the goal of putting humans on Mars. Challenges Mars exploration missions have historically had some of the highest failure rates for NASA missions, which can be attributed to the immense engineering",
"-25.29029938299209"
],
[
"one-way trip to Mars in a presentation at the International Space Development Conference, arguing that the mission could be done with less difficulty and expense without a return to Earth. In 2006, former NASA engineer James C. McLane III proposed a scheme to initially colonize Mars via a one-way trip by only one human. Papers discussing this concept appeared in The Space Review, Harper's Magazine, SEARCH Magazine and The New York Times. NASA Design Reference Mission 5.0 (2007) NASA released initial details of the latest version conceptual level human Mars exploration architecture in this presentation. The study further developed concepts",
"-25.18979682470672"
],
[
"Magellan greatly improved scientific understanding of the geology of Venus: the probe found no signs of plate tectonics, but the scarcity of impact craters suggested the surface was relatively young, and there were lava channels thousands of kilometers long. After a four-year mission, Magellan, as planned, plunged into the atmosphere on October 11, 1994, and partly vaporized; some sections are thought to have hit the planet's surface. Venus Express Venus Express was a mission by the European Space Agency to study the atmosphere and surface characteristics of Venus from orbit. The design was based on ESA's Mars Express and Rosetta",
"-25.072980624914635"
],
[
"correctly. However, the location of Venus is easily calculable, and professional astronomers report that many of the phone calls they receive from concerned citizens reporting the presence of a UFO are due to observations of the planet. Astronomer Phil Plait, in particular, has suggested that Venus is responsible for a majority of all UFO reports Meteors The brightest meteors known as bolides are long lasting fireballs that leave a trail in the sky which can be visible for up to an hour after passing. Such events are relatively rare but can be witnessed by a large area of the Earth",
"-25.01267168566119"
],
[
"beginning in 2021 but it would be 88 days longer. They stated it would require both a flyby of Venus and Mars. The flight would take the spacecraft within 800 kilometres of the surface of Venus, using the planet for a gravity assist to speed the travel to Mars.\nAccording to a paper written by Tito, \"the mission would require no maneuvers except small course corrections after a trans-Martian injection burn, [and] would allow no aborts. ... [It will] use low Earth orbit launch and crewed-spacecraft technology, outfitted for the long duration of a flight to Mars.\" They speculated that when",
"-25.009302398131695"
],
[
"takes only 7 hours 39 minutes to orbit Mars, while a Martian day is 24 hours 37 minutes long, meaning that Phobos can create two eclipses per Martian day. These are annular eclipses, because Phobos is not quite large enough or close enough to Mars to create a total solar eclipse. Transits caused by Deimos Deimos is too small (about 15 by 10 km (9.3 by 6.2 mi)) and too far from Mars to cause an eclipse. The best an observer on Mars would see is a small spot crossing the Sun's disc. View from Earth Both moons are too small",
"-24.874205000523943"
],
[
"orbit on Mars our planet would appear most luminous near the time of its greatest elongation from the Sun, at about magnitude −1.5. Mars Only about 50° of the martian phase curve can be observed from Earth because it orbits farther from the Sun than our planet. There is an opposition surge but it is less pronounced than that of Mercury. The rotation of bright and dark surface markings across its disk and variability of its atmospheric state (including its dust storms) superimpose variations on the phase curve. R. Schmude obtained many of the Mars brightness measurements used in a",
"-24.86758672533324"
],
[
"of the gravitational effects of the other planets. The closest distance between Earth and Mars will continue to mildly decrease for the next 25,000 years. Habitability and search for life The current understanding of planetary habitability—the ability of a world to develop environmental conditions favorable to the emergence of life—favors planets that have liquid water on their surface. Most often this requires the orbit of a planet to lie within the habitable zone, which for the Sun extends from just beyond Venus to about the semi-major axis of Mars. During perihelion, Mars dips inside this region, but Mars's thin (low-pressure)",
"-24.80610785842873"
],
[
"home journey to Earth. As MR4 falls out of danger from the Sun's gamma rays, Brown ponders of the idea of other life on another planet and sees Venus as a possibility... Synopsis Returning from their unexpected trip to Mars the crew of MR4 intercept a distress signal from Captain Wilson, a U.S astronaut, and must change course for Venus to attempt a rescue in space. However, through the space periscope, Brown sees what appears to be a settlement or a city of some sort. Desperate to investigate, Brown edits Wilson's message and tricks the crew into landing Venus so",
"-24.738256333046593"
],
[
"Expedition Venus Plot summary An unmanned probe returning from Venus crashes in the African desert; a Venusian spore on board thrives in its new environment; a grey mould quickly spreading and killing all it touches. An urgent manned mission to Venus is launched from Lunaville, the now permanent Moon base. Chris Godfrey, Morrey Kant, Serge Smyslov, Tony Hale and Pierre a scientist are sent to try and discover what limits the mould's growth in its natural environment. The plan is to collect samples from the Venusian atmosphere but in the end a forced landing is required...",
"-24.71405660416349"
],
[
"it will enter the region of 5:13 resonance with Venus in 3470 CE. This is because the distance from Earth's orbit will become larger and that from Venus's orbit smaller. A study of long-term stability shows that the alternating resonances will possibly be broken roughly 3 million years from now because of close approaches between Toro and Mars.\nBased on orbital paths, Toro is the best candidate for the source of the Sylacauga meteorite, the first meteorite authenticated to have struck a human, Mrs. Ann Hodges of Sylacauga, Alabama on 30 November 1954. Toro's Earth minimum orbit intersection distance of 0.0506 AU (7,570,000 km), is just",
"-24.639274225803092"
],
[
"AU (13.6 million kilometres or 8.5 million miles) of Mars.\nDue to a high orbital eccentricity, Cruithne's distance from the Sun and orbital speed varies a lot more than the Earth's, so from the Earth's point of view Cruithne actually follows a kidney-bean-shaped horseshoe orbit ahead of the Earth, taking slightly less than one year to complete a circuit of the \"bean\". Because it takes slightly less than a year, the Earth \"falls behind\" the bean a little more each year, and so from our point of view, the circuit is not quite closed, but rather like a spiral loop that moves slowly",
"-24.592842478014063"
],
[
"marginal desert planet. Mars remained a favored destination for fictional travellers down to the early 1960s (see Mars in fiction). Since probes revealed the absence of any indications of intelligent life on Mars, the science fictional Mars has changed to a possible future home for the human race, e.g. through terraforming.\nVenus was never quite so popular as Mars, probably because it obdurately refused to display any surface features (it is covered with sulfuric acid clouds only dimly translucent to visible light), making any statement about its nature disturbingly speculative. In 1918, chemist Svante Arrhenius, deciding that Venus' cloud cover was",
"-24.56034317315789"
],
[
"reach Mars. It was recognised that due to the low surface gravity of all NEAs, moving around on the surface of a NEA would cost very little energy, and thus space probes could gather multiple samples. Overall, it was estimated that about one percent of all NEAs might provide opportunities for human-crewed missions, or no more than about ten NEAs known at the time. A five-fold increase in the NEA discovery rate was deemed necessary to make a manned mission within ten years worthwhile.\nThe first near-Earth asteroid to be visited by a spacecraft was 17 km (11 mi) asteroid 433 Eros when",
"-24.471474621619564"
],
[
"Mars: Colonizing the Red Planet summarizes their rationale for Mars to Stay:\n[Mars to stay] would obviate the need for years of rehabilitation for returning astronauts, which would not be an issue if the astronauts were to remain in the low-gravity environment of Mars. We envision that Mars exploration would begin and proceed for a long time on the basis of outbound journeys only.\nIn November 2010, Keith Olbermann started an interview with Derrick Pitts, Planetarium Director at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, by quoting from the Dirk Schulze-Makuch and Paul Davies article, saying, \"The Astronauts would go to Mars with the",
"-24.47030401841039"
],
[
"1761 and 1769. This method was proposed by Edmond Halley in 1716, although he did not live to see the results. The use of Venus transits was less successful than had been hoped due to the black drop effect, but the resulting estimate, 153 million kilometers, is just 2% above the currently accepted value, 149.6 million kilometers.\nMuch later, the Solar System was \"scaled\" using the parallax of asteroids, some of which, such as Eros, pass much closer to Earth than Venus. In a favourable opposition, Eros can approach the Earth to within 22 million kilometres. Both the opposition of 1901 and",
"-24.44104037375655"
],
[
"Venus probes for the possibility of landing in liquid water. It was not until Venera 4 and Mariner 5 reached Venus (October 18–19, 1967) that it was confirmed beyond doubt that Venus was actually an extremely hot, dry desert planet with sulfuric acid in its atmosphere. Stories about wet tropical Venus vanished at that point, except for intentionally nostalgic \"retro-sf\", a passing which Brian Aldiss and Harry Harrison marked with their 1968 anthology Farewell Fantastic Venus.\nAs scientific knowledge of Venus advanced, so science fiction authors endeavored to keep pace, particularly by conjecturing human attempts to terraform Venus. For instance James",
"-24.40655465061718"
],
[
"for Mars first they make good time and land with high spirits.\nThe Martians are not happy to see them, however. There has always been a bitter rivalry between the two worlds, and Mars has a reputation for winning the classic at all costs and through any means, scrupulous or otherwise. When they try to refuel the Last Hope they discover their shipment of fuel has somehow disappeared from the warehouse in which it was stored. A long drawn out search finally locates the missing fuel in a pile of garbage that was ready for destruction. Jerry, Dick, and Tod all",
"-24.401034964364953"
],
[
"a number of times since 2003, often showing an altered image of twin moons over the Nilov Monastery, and may continue to do so, always announcing an imminent close Earth–Mars approach. The content of the original email, although almost entirely correct for August 27, 2003, has falsely been redated to announce a new close Earth–Mars approach—the real close approach was in 2003 only—also misinterpreting the original e-mail by saying that Mars will look as large as the Moon. The later e-mails are incorrect, as Mars will not come as close to Earth as it did in 2003 until August 28,",
"-24.384348868450616"
],
[
"as the Venusian fleet has intercepted it. \"Oh,\" the cook says, \"this planet will be colonized, but by Venus . . . and if you're still alive, you will see,\" he reaches up to remove his hat to reveal a third eye in the center of his forehead, \"just how much we differ.\"",
"-24.37654328579083"
],
[
"closest approach being 5,768 km at 17:01 UT. It was the twelfth spacecraft to reach Venus and the eighth to return data from the planet, as well as the first mission to succeed in broadcasting images of Venus back to Earth. Mariner 10 built upon observations made by Mariner 5 six years earlier; importantly, Mariner 10 had a camera whereas the prior mission lacked one. As Mariner 10 veered around Venus, from the planet's night side to daylight, the cameras snapped the probe's first image of Venus, showing an illuminated arc of clouds over the north pole emerging from darkness. Engineers",
"-24.359283764264546"
],
[
"Transit of Venus by Maureen Hunter). Under the influence of the Royal Society Ruđer Bošković travelled to Istanbul, but arrived too late.\nUnfortunately, it was impossible to time the exact moment of the start and end of the transit because of the phenomenon known as the \"black drop effect\". This effect was long thought to be due to Venus's thick atmosphere, and initially it was held to be the first real evidence that Venus had an atmosphere. However, recent studies demonstrate that it is an optical effect caused by the smearing of the image of Venus by turbulence in the Earth's",
"-24.3518781485036"
],
[
"Venus contains almost 1000 impact craters. However, unlike some planets in our system, Venus' thick atmosphere creates a strong shield that decelerates, flattens, and can fracture incoming projectiles. The Venusian surface is devoid of small craters (≤30–50 km in size) because of the effect the atmosphere has on small bodies. Depending on the angle of impact, velocity, size, and strength of the approaching body, the atmosphere may tear and crush the projectile, essentially melting it in the air. This is an important observation for studies of the surface of Venus, as crater are used to determine relative ages and to approximate",
"-24.313094555865973"
],
[
"the planet Mars. A 2012 study suggests that marsquakes may occur every million years. This suggestion is related to evidence found then of Mars's tectonic boundaries. A tremor believed to be a possible marsquake was first measured by NASA's InSight lander on April 6, 2019, which was one of the lander's key science goals. Venusquake A venusquake is a quake that occurs on the planet Venus.\nA venusquake may have caused a new scarp and a landslide to form. An image of the landslides was taken in November 1990 during the first flight around Venus by the Magellan spacecraft. Another image",
"-24.229248889372684"
],
[
"Venus In Situ Atmospheric and Geochemical Explorer Overview If selected for development, VISAGE would have launched in December 2024 with a targeted flyby of Venus in May 2025, and Venus arrival in December 2025. A carrier spacecraft would deploy the lander five days before it flew by Venus. The atmosphere of Venus at the surface has an average temperature of 450 °C and is highly acidic and corrosive, which severely limits the time a lander can function. The VISAGE lander would function autonomously while descending (1 hour) and would operate on the surface for additional 3.5 hours, and it would",
"-24.211663413210772"
],
[
"equivalent to the time needed to survive a journey to Mars and exceeding that needed for Venus.",
"-24.18988402380819"
],
[
"delicate maneuvering.\nThe expected travel time of the Hope Probe is about 200 days at a speed of up to 40,000 kilometres per hour (11 km/s) on its journey of 60 million kilometres. Upon arrival at Mars, it will study the atmosphere of Mars for two years. Its unique placement in orbit around Mars will provide a new type of data to build \"the first truly holistic models\" of the Martian atmosphere. The data is expected to provide reasons for the decay of the atmosphere to a level where it is now too thin to allow liquid water to exist. The Hope",
"-24.120623660972342"
],
[
"these probes: \"Venus launch is hardly a sensible endeavor: it delays manned flight and decreases Rocket Force battle-readiness\" (\"Пуск на Венеру - затея едва ли разумная: она задерживает полет человека и снижает боеспособность ракетных войск\"). Indeed, the first Venus mission failed - the Venera spacecraft was trapped in Earth's orbit. The second Venera, launched 12 February 1961, missed its target by 100,000 kilometers, which was a success for 1961 technology. Gagarin's flight By 5 April 1961, Kamanin was still indecisive, ranking Gagarin and Titov equally fit for the flight. Three days later, he recommended Gagarin, with Titov as backup. After",
"-23.930369297231664"
],
[
"can be applied to multiple phenomena in the Solar System. Mars problem Jupiter's grand tack resolves the Mars problem by limiting the material available to form Mars. The Mars problem is a conflict between some simulations of the formation of the terrestrial planets which end with a 0.5–1.0 Earth-mass planet in its region, much larger than the actual mass of Mars: 0.107 Earth-mass, when begun with planetesimals distributed throughout the inner Solar System. Jupiter's inward migration alters this distribution of material, driving planetesimals inward to form a narrow dense band with a mix of materials inside 1.0 AU, and leaves",
"-23.91692967148265"
],
[
"say that other Martians moved to the Earth's poles where the climate is more Mars-like.\nJulie, Walter, Eric Eden, and some others take a German flying machine to the arctic. There, Walter shows them the active Martian pit and explains what all the red weed is there for: it's removing the air, which is why the Earth's climate has been changing. He thinks with the Jovians watching, they are forced to merely colonize, and that humans should work with them instead of against.\nWhen Earth-Mars opposition comes around again, the Martians do not launch any cylinders. The war of the worlds is",
"-23.90254498575814"
],
[
"entered a period of freefall. As a result, the lander struck the surface of Venus at about 16.5 m/s (37 mph) at 05:37:10 UTC. The landing coordinates are 5°S 351°E.\nThe probe appeared to go silent on impact but recording tapes kept rolling. A few weeks later, upon a review of the tapes by the radio astronomer Oleg Rzhiga another 23 minutes of very weak signals were found on them. The spacecraft had landed on Venus and probably bounced onto its side, leaving the medium gain antenna not aimed correctly for strong signal transmission to Earth.\nThe probe transmitted information to Earth for 53",
"-23.89692085511342"
],
[
"great predictability and interest. Close approaches to Earth and Mercury In this current era, the nearest that Venus comes to Earth is just under 40 Gm.\nBecause the range of heliocentric distances is greater for the Earth than for Venus, the closest approaches come near Earth's perihelion. The Earth's declining eccentricity is increasing the minimum distances. The last time Venus drew nearer than 39.5 Gm was in 1623, but that will not happen again for many millennia, and in fact after 5683 Venus will not even come closer than 40 Gm for about 60,000 years.\n\nThe orientation of the orbits of the two",
"-23.888326979300473"
],
[
"the nightside ionosphere on Mars. Mars 7 probe separated prematurely from the carrying vehicle due to a problem in the operation of one of the onboard systems (attitude control or retro-rockets) and missed the planet by 1,300 kilometres (8.7×10⁻⁶ au). Mariner program In 1964, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory made two attempts at reaching Mars. Mariner 3 and Mariner 4 were identical spacecraft designed to carry out the first flybys of Mars. Mariner 3 was launched on November 5, 1964, but the shroud encasing the spacecraft atop its rocket failed to open properly, dooming the mission. Three weeks later, on November 28,",
"-23.883995761309052"
],
[
"Venus had been the target of a chase by an Air Force F-51 several weeks before and there were similarities between this sighting and the Mantell Incident. So...the word 'Venus' went out. Mantell had unfortunately been killed trying to reach the planet Venus.\" An Air Force major who was interviewed by several reporters following Mantell's crash \"flatly stated that it was Venus.\"\nIn 1952 USAF Captain Edward Ruppelt, the supervisor of Project Blue Book, Project Sign's successor, was ordered to reinvestigate the Mantell Incident. Ruppelt spoke with Dr. J. Allen Hynek, an astronomer at Ohio State University and scientific consultant to",
"-23.874317517754207"
],
[
"Mars 3 were physically tethered probes; Sojourner was dependent on the Mars Pathfinder base station for communication with Earth; MER-A & B and Curiosity were on their own. As of August 2019, Curiosity is still active, while Spirit, Opportunity, and Sojourner completed their missions before losing contact.",
"-23.845963368105004"
],
[
"why the decision to write Packing for Mars was not a random adventure that Roach decided to embark on. \"I had no idea until I started this book that when you're heading to the moon or to Mars, you're essentially coasting. I thought it was like a car where you'd have your foot on the gas the entire time, and I used to think, 'Jesus, that's a lot of gas.' \" By the end of her book, she was able to vividly describe and make understandable the many nitty-gritty details that would normally be overlooked. She does this by addressing",
"-23.830977864563465"
],
[
"imperative to prevent the introduction to Mars of contaminants from Earth; according to Fobos-Grunt Chief Designer Maksim Martynov, the probability of the probe accidentally reaching the surface of Mars was much lower than the maximum specified for Category III missions, the type assigned to Fobos-Grunt and defined in COSPAR's planetary protection policy (in accordance with Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty). On Phobos The planned landing site at Phobos was a region from 5°S to 5°N, 230° to 235°E. Soil sample collection would begin immediately after the lander touched down on Phobos, with collection lasting 2–7 days. An emergency mode",
"-23.808865017163043"
],
[
"of Mars (at 1.66 AU) which also makes it a Mars-crosser.\nThe sooty surface of 1998 QE₂ suggested that it might have previously been a comet that experienced a close encounter with the Sun. However, the Tisserand parameter with respect to Jupiter (TJ=3.2) does not make it obvious whether 1998 QE₂ was ever a comet, since cometary TJ values are typically below 3. Earth approach On May 31, 2013, 1998 QE₂ approached within 0.039 AU (5,800,000 km; 3,600,000 mi) (15 lunar distances) of Earth at 20:59 UT (4:59 pm EDT). This was the closest approach the asteroid will make to Earth for at least the",
"-23.78185961127747"
],
[
"Orbit of Mars Mars has an orbit with a semimajor axis of 1.524 astronomical units (228 million kilometers), and an eccentricity of 0.0934. The planet orbits the Sun in 687 days and travels 9.55 AU in doing so, making the average orbital speed 24 km/s.\nThe eccentricity is greater than that of every other planet except Mercury, and this causes a large difference between the aphelion and perihelion distances—they are 1.6660 and 1.3814 AU. Changes in the orbit Mars is in the midst of a long-term increase in eccentricity. It reached a minimum of 0.079 about 19 millennia ago, and will",
"-23.771322251530364"
],
[
"The Day Mars Invaded Earth Plot NASA successfully lands a robotic surveyor on Mars. The rover begins to explore, but after just a few minutes it is completely destroyed by what appears to be a high energy surge. At exactly the same instant back at mission control, Dr. Dave Fielding (Kent Taylor), in charge of the project, suddenly feels oddly disconnected and not himself; he shakes it off and then goes to face the crowd of expectant reporters. Right after he leaves, his exact body double is sitting at his desk.\nDave then leaves for a vacation and flies to California",
"-23.76154420117382"
],
[
"challenges of these missions as well as some bad luck. With many of the goals of the MEP involving entry, descent, and landing of spacecraft (EDL) on the surface of Mars, factors like the planet's atmosphere, uneven surface terrain, and high cost of replicating Mars-like environments for testing come into play. Atmosphere Compared to the Earth, the atmosphere of Mars is about 100 times thinner. As a result, if a landing craft were to descend into Mars' atmosphere, it would decelerate at a much lower altitude, and depending on the object's mass, may not have enough time to reach terminal",
"-23.75274547425215"
],
[
"comprehensive phase curve analysis performed by A. Mallama.\nBecause the orbit of Mars is considerably eccentric its brightness at opposition can range from magnitude −3.0 to −1.4. The minimum brightness is about magnitude +1.6 when Mars is on the opposite site of the Sun from the Earth. Rotational variations can elevate or suppress the brightness of Mars by 5% and global dust storms can increase its luminosity by 25%. Gas giants The outermost planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) are so distant that only small portions of their phase curves near 0° (full phase) can be evaluated from the Earth. That",
"-23.737148289597826"
],
[
"intersect, thus avoiding the Tychonic conclusion in respect of the Martian orbit that there are no solid celestial spheres on the ground that they cannot possibly interpenetrate. But on the other hand the orbits of Mercury and Venus would obviously intersect the Martian orbit in Reimers' illustration of his model, and indeed also intersect Jupiter's orbit.\nHowever Kepler discovered Tycho had posited intersecting Martian and Solar orbits because he had mistakenly concluded from his data that at opposition Mars was closer to the Earth than the Sun was. The source of the error was a research assistants' mistaken calculation of Mars's",
"-23.718146620696643"
],
[
"25 February 2007, the craft was scheduled for a low-altitude flyby of Mars, to correct the trajectory. This was not without risk, as the estimated altitude of the flyby was a mere 250 kilometres (160 mi). During that encounter, the solar panels could not be used since the craft was in the planet's shadow, where it would not receive any solar light for 15 minutes, causing a dangerous shortage of power. The craft was therefore put into standby mode, with no possibility to communicate, flying on batteries that were originally not designed for this task. This Mars manoeuvre was therefore nicknamed",
"-23.70003271033056"
],
[
"to hold extra fuel. Ares performs a Venus flyby reminiscent of the Manned Venus Flyby NASA planned in the aftermath of the original Apollo program, but done in this timeline for gravitational assistance, and finally lands at Mangala Valles on March 27, 1986.\nHowever, as a side effect, a number of uncrewed probes – including the Viking program, Pioneer Venus project, Mariner 10, Pioneers 10 and 11, and the Voyager program – are cancelled so that their funding can be redirected to the crewed Mars mission, although another Mariner orbiter is sent to Mars to help prepare for the crewed landing.",
"-23.681923724074295"
],
[
"earlier project which received some significant planning by NASA included a manned fly-by of Venus in the Manned Venus Flyby mission, but was cancelled when the Apollo Applications Program was terminated due to NASA budget cuts in the late 1960s. Reasons for interplanetary travel The costs and risk of interplanetary travel receive a lot of publicity — spectacular examples include the malfunctions or complete failures of unmanned probes such as Mars 96, Deep Space 2 and Beagle 2 (the article List of Solar System probes gives a full list).\nMany astronomers, geologists and biologists believe that exploration of the Solar System",
"-23.65674669155851"
],
[
"Mars offers greater potential than Earth's satellite as a place for habitation:\nIf we are going to put a few people down there and ensure their appropriate safety, would you then go through all that trouble and then bring them back immediately, after a year, a year and a half? ... They need to go there more with the psychology of knowing that you are a pioneering settler and you don't look forward to go back home again after a couple of years.\nA comprehensive statement of a rationale for \"Mars to Stay\" was laid out by Dr. Aldrin in a May",
"-23.645349487662315"
],
[
"for the visit, though remarking that \"was almost not enough time [...] presenting answers to these complex and technical questions about our mission really took the team of about 140 people many long and hard-worked days.\"\nThroughout the year of the final, renewed focus and attention was drawn on Venus, following the selection of DAVINCI and VERITAS. Contemporary public and media interest in Venus had escalated after the successful second orbital insertion attempt of Akatsuki in December 2015, and its subsequent early data returns from the planet through the year afterward. Both VERITAS and DAVINCI were featured prominently in the media",
"-23.632105629891157"
],
[
"on the moon. Book IV: Mars on Earth 14 years later, the Martians are still on Earth but no one knows where. Carolyne, Walter's ex, comes to Julie and asks her to look after him. Julie heads to the Amersham pits to visit him.\nAt the Redoubt, Walter takes Julie a half mile into the earth to the underground Martian city. He speculates that this is how they live on Mars, that they have no secrets because of their telepathy, and that they are all treated as equals. The British Martians built a canon and shot themselves back to Mars; reports",
"-23.61657222476788"
],
[
"but more a point of departure, one that places humankind on a trajectory to homestead Mars and become a two-planet species\". In August 2015, Aldrin, in association with the Florida Institute of Technology, presented a \"master plan\", for NASA consideration, for astronauts, with a \"tour of duty of ten years\", to colonize Mars before the year 2040.",
"-23.53765679328353"
],
[
"space is claimed to be the best way to ensure the survival of humans as a species. Other reasons for colonizing space include economic interests, long-term scientific research best carried out by humans as opposed to robotic probes, and sheer curiosity. Venus is the second largest terrestrial planet and Earth's closest neighbor, which makes it a potential target. Difficulties Venus also presents several significant challenges to human colonization. Surface conditions on Venus are difficult to deal with: the temperature at the equator averages around 450 °C (723 K; 842 °F), higher than the melting point of lead, which is 327 °C. The atmospheric pressure",
"-23.523857119231252"
],
[
"as of 1916 Waldemar Kaempffert (editor of Scientific American and later Popular Science Monthly) was still vigorously defending the Martian canals theory against skeptics. Spacecraft evidence The arrival of the United States' Mariner 4 spacecraft in 1965, which took pictures revealing impact craters and a generally barren landscape, was the final nail in the coffin of the idea that Mars could be inhabited by higher forms of life, or that any canal features existed. A surface atmospheric pressure of 4.1 to 7.0 millibars (410 to 700 pascals), 0.4% to 0.7% of Earth atmospheric pressure, and daytime temperatures of −100 degrees",
"-23.520889352075756"
],
[
"System objects if Jupiter's migration was slow and smooth. The ν₅ secular resonance crosses the orbits of the terrestrial planets exciting their eccentricities. While Jupiter and Saturn slowly approach their 2:1 resonance the eccentricity of Mars reaches values that can result in collisions between planets or in Mars being ejected from the Solar System. Revised versions of the Nice model beginning with the planets in a chain of resonances avoid this slow approach to the 2:1 resonance. However, the eccentricities of Venus and Mercury are typically excited beyond their current values when the ν₅ secular resonance crosses their orbits. The",
"-23.513319472549483"
],
[
"best way to go is on \"one-way\" colonization flights and no government will likely sanction such a risk. The timing for this could well be within the next 20 years. It will fall within the hands of a small group of tech billionaires who view such missions as the way to leave their mark on humanity.\nIn March 2011, Apollo 14 pilot Edgar Mitchell and Apollo 17's geologist Harrison Schmitt, among other noted Mars exploration advocates published an anthology of Mars to Stay architectures titled, A One Way Mission to Mars: Colonizing the Red Planet\". From the publisher's review:\nAnswers are provided",
"-23.509778790874407"
],
[
"them into a highly elliptical orbit which would typically bring them back to Earth for a re-entry two to three days later. Beyond that time the SM engine would not have enough propellant to bring the CSM back to Earth before the SM batteries ran out of power: it would literally be 'Venus or Bust'.\nAfter a successful S-IVB burn, the spacecraft would pass approximately 3000 miles from the surface of Venus about four months later. The flyby velocity would be so high that the crew would only have a few hours for detailed study of the planet. At this point,",
"-23.500884173467057"
],
[
"several Venera and Vega spacecraft have landed on the surface of Venus. The Huygens probe successfully landed on Saturn's moon, Titan.\nNo manned missions have been sent to any planet of the Solar System. NASA's Apollo program, however, landed twelve people on the Moon and returned them to Earth. The American Vision for Space Exploration, originally introduced by President George W. Bush and put into practice through the Constellation program, had as a long-term goal to eventually send human astronauts to Mars. However, on February 1, 2010, President Barack Obama proposed cancelling the program in Fiscal Year 2011. An",
"-23.44821261393372"
],
[
"the surface of the planet Mars were temporarily doubled, and were associated with an aurora 25 times brighter than any observed earlier, due to a massive, and unexpected, solar storm in the middle of the month.",
"-23.442908635246567"
],
[
"Venus and Earth is approximately four minutes, which is too long to control from Earth in real time, so the rover would be parked most of the time performing observations with the sail slack, while the ground controllers examine the terrain and decide the next target.\nIf selected for funding, the relay orbiter could also host some science instruments.",
"-23.436803708784282"
],
[
"and back to Earth on a 501-day round trip, with no landing planned on Mars. The mission would have taken advantage of an infrequently occurring free return trajectory—a unique orbit opportunity which occurs only once every fifteen years—and will allow the space capsule to use the smallest possible amount of fuel to get it to Mars and back to Earth. The two-person American crew – a man and a woman – will orbit around Mars at a distance of 100 miles (160 km) of the surface. \"If anything goes wrong, the spacecraft should make its own way back to Earth —",
"-23.41157244812348"
],
[
"last Mars opposition occurred on July 27, 2018, at a distance of about 58 million km (36 million mi). The next Mars opposition occurs on October 13, 2020, at a distance of about 63 million km (39 million mi). The average time between the successive oppositions of Mars, its synodic period, is 780 days; but the number of days between the dates of successive oppositions can range from 764 to 812.\nAs Mars approaches opposition it begins a period of retrograde motion, which makes it appear to move backwards in a looping motion relative to the background stars. The duration of this retrograde motion is about 72 days. Absolute,",
"-23.387719757505693"
],
[
"May, and another of Venus and Mars on 10 May when their angular separation was only 18 arcminutes. A series of conjunctions between the Moon and, in order, Saturn, Mars and Venus took place on 14 May, although it was not possible to observe all these in darkness from any single location on the Earth. 2007 A conjunction of the Moon and Mars took place on 24 December 2007, very close to the time of the full Moon and at the time when Mars was at opposition to the Sun. Mars and the full Moon appeared close together in the",
"-23.382908870931715"
],
[
"well-documented on the Moon, and there is evidence of past quakes on Venus, but current seismic activity of Mars has not been definitely detected. Some estimates suggest that marsquakes occur as rarely as once every million years or more. Nevertheless, compelling evidence has been found that Mars has in the past been seismically active, with clear magnetic striping over a large region of southern Mars. Magnetic striping on Earth is often a sign of a region of particularly thin crust splitting and spreading, forming new land in the slowly separating rifts; a prime example of this being the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.",
"-23.372290270985104"
],
[
"of the Moon, Venus appears smaller, and travels more slowly across the face of the Sun, because it is much farther away from Earth.\nTransits of Venus are among the rarest of predictable astronomical phenomena. They occur in a pattern that generally repeats every 243 years, with pairs of transits eight years apart separated by long gaps of 121.5 years and 105.5 years. The periodicity is a reflection of the fact that the orbital periods of Earth and Venus are close to 8:13 and 243:395 commensurabilities.\nThe last transit of Venus was on 5 and 6 June 2012, and was the last",
"-23.34229385475919"
],
[
"habitat pictured in science fiction. Interplanetary spaceflight Mars requires less energy per unit mass (delta V) to reach from Earth than any planet except Venus. Using a Hohmann transfer orbit, a trip to Mars requires approximately nine months in space. Modified transfer trajectories that cut the travel time down to four to seven months in space are possible with incrementally higher amounts of energy and fuel compared to a Hohmann transfer orbit, and are in standard use for robotic Mars missions. Shortening the travel time below about six months requires higher delta-v and an exponentially increasing amount of fuel, and",
"-23.34085023109219"
],
[
"of Mars) to change its orbit and return to pass by the Earth in October 2013. It used Earth's gravity to help slingshot itself toward the Jovian system in a maneuver called a gravity assist. The spacecraft received a boost in speed of more than 3.9 km/s (8,800 mph), and it was set on a course to Jupiter. The flyby was also used as a rehearsal for the Juno science team to test some instruments and practice certain procedures before the arrival at Jupiter. Insertion into jovian orbit Jupiter's gravity accelerated the approaching spacecraft to around 210,000 km/h (130,000 mph). On July 5,",
"-23.325491936469916"
],
[
"and the vernal equinox; farther from the equator they tend to happen closer to the winter solstice. In either case, the two intervals when transits can take place occur more or less symmetrically before and after the winter solstice (however, the large eccentricity of Mars's orbit prevents true symmetry).\nObservers on Mars can also view lunar eclipses of Phobos and Deimos. Phobos spends about an hour in Mars's shadow; for Deimos it is about two hours. Surprisingly, despite its orbit being nearly in the plane of Mars's equator and despite its very close distance to Mars, there are some occasions when",
"-23.27576839289395"
],
[
"of humans visiting Mars in the future.",
"-23.275410584756173"
],
[
"near aphelion to only about 0.37 AU when Mars is near perihelion. Close approaches to Earth Mars comes closer to Earth than any other planet save Venus at its nearest—56 versus 40 million km. The distances have been declining over the years, and in 2003 the minimum distance was 55.76 Gm, nearer than any such encounter in almost 60,000 years (57617 BC). This modern record will be beaten in 2287, and the record before 3000 will be set in 2729 at 55.65. By 4000, the record will stand at 55.44. The distances will continue to decrease for about 24,000 years. Historical importance Until",
"-23.25971098174341"
],
[
"Venus and Earth. It seems to have been co-orbital with Venus for only the last 7,000 years, and is destined to be ejected from this orbital arrangement about 500 years from now. During this time, its distance to Venus has been and will remain larger than about 0.2 AU (3·10⁷ km). Potentially hazardous asteroid 2002 VE₆₈ is included in the Minor Planet Center list of Potentially Hazardous Asteroids (PHAs) because it comes relatively frequently to within 0.05 AU of Earth. Approaches as close as 0.04 AU occur with a periodicity of 8 years due to its near 8:13 resonance with Earth. 2002 VE₆₈",
"-23.24705175869167"
],
[
"Origin The Mars hoax originated from an e-mail message in 2003, sometimes titled \"Mars Spectacular\", with images of Mars and the full moon side by side:\nThe Red Planet is about to be spectacular! This month and next, Earth is catching up with Mars in an encounter that will culminate in the closest approach between the two planets in recorded history. The next time Mars may come this close is in 2287. Due to the way Jupiter's gravity tugs on Mars and perturbs its orbit, astronomers can only be certain that Mars has not come this close to Earth in the",
"-23.244944267789833"
],
[
"Venus' surface. Venera 7 The Venera 7 probe was the first spacecraft to successfully soft land on another planet (Venus) and to transmit data from there back to Earth. Mariner 9 Upon its arrival at Mars on November 13, 1971, Mariner 9 became the first space probe to maintain orbit around another planet. Mars 3 First soft landing on Mars (December 2, 1971) The lander began transmitting to the Mars 3 orbiter 90 seconds after landing. After 20 seconds, transmission stopped for unknown reasons. Sojourner First successful rover on Mars. Spirit and Opportunity The Mars Exploration Rovers, Spirit and Opportunity",
"-23.242413231128012"
],
[
"around the present time Mars made its closest approach to Earth and maximum apparent brightness in nearly 60,000 years, 55,758,006 km (0.37271925 AU; 34,646,419 mi), magnitude −2.88, on August 27, 2003, at 9:51:13 UTC. This occurred when Mars was one day from opposition and about three days from its perihelion, making it particularly easy to see from Earth. The last time it came so close is estimated to have been on September 12, 57,617 BC, the next time being in 2287. This record approach was only slightly closer than other recent close approaches. For instance, the minimum distance on August 22, 1924, was 0.37285 AU,",
"-23.240647134487517"
],
[
"one or more robotic probe landers would separate from the main craft and land on Venus.\nDuring the rest of the mission the crew would perform astronomical studies of the Sun and Mercury, which they would approach within 0.3 astronomical units. TMK-MAVR A variation of the Soviet Union's TMK mission planning for a manned mission to Mars involved a flyby of Venus on the return voyage, and was given the code name \"MAVR\" (MArs - VeneRa), meaning Mars - Venus. However, the TMK program was cancelled after the N1 rocket that was needed to loft the mission failed to fly successfully.",
"-23.22301507150405"
],
[
"the paper, \"One thousand days non-stop at sea - Lessons for a mission to Mars\" outlining a \"1000-day voyage without touching land or receiving supplies from other craft. The goals of this expedition include the evaluation of equipment, supplies, and humans under conditions of isolation and confinement that will resemble some of those of the initial Mars voyage.\" The Port of New York In the fall of 1997, Stowe began using Pier 63 as a base of operations, located in the Chelsea section of Manhattan, New York City at a marina operated by John Krevey. He promoted his one thousand",
"-23.211995794263203"
],
[
"less expensive than most current Mars missions as it consists only of a carrier vehicle with 6 probes attached. No orbiter is assumed. Instead the probes take advantage of existing Mars orbiters for communications relay. The number of probes is intended to provide a certain degree of mission redundancy in case some of them do not land successfully or fail. Scientific objectives The scientific objectives of the BOLD mission are: to identify the unknown oxidant in the Martian soil, which was postulated after the Viking program, and to probe whether there is extant life near the Martian surface. In contrast",
"-23.18725890183123"
],
[
"apoapsis of 310,000 km), it will be able to take close-up photographs of the planet, and should also confirm the presence of both active volcanoes as well as lightning. Proposed missions The Venus In-Situ Explorer, proposed by NASA's New Frontiers program is a proposed probe which would aid in understanding the processes on the planet that led to climate change, as well as paving the way towards a later sample return mission.\nA craft called the Venus Mobile Explorer has been proposed by the Venus Exploration Analysis Group (VEXAG) to study the composition and isotopic measurements of the surface and the atmosphere,",
"-23.182817622146104"
],
[
"back to Magellan.\nMars is their next stop. While they pass close to Earth they learn that the Sun-tap transmissions have been traced and they point to Pluto as their destination. On Mars the men discover that the Sun-tap station has been built underneath a Martian city. Again Burl shuts down the alarm and then the station as the other men on his team take pictures and set a tactical atomic bomb to destroy the place. On their way out Boulton fires his gun at what looks like another alarm and is hit by a bolt of",
"-23.140379576281703"
],
[
"Shukrayaan-1 Overview Based on the success of Chandrayaan and the Mangalyaan, ISRO has been studying the feasibility of future interplanetary missions to Mars and Venus, the closest planetary neighbours to Earth. The mission concept to Venus was first presented at a Tirupati space meet in 2012. The Government of India, in its budget for 2017–18 gave the Department of Space a 23% increase. Under the space sciences section, the budget mentions provisions \"for Mars Orbiter Mission II and Mission to Venus\", and following the 2017–18 request for grants, it was authorized to complete preliminary studies. From 2016 to 2017, ISRO",
"-23.13600830521318"
],
[
"Solar and Martian orbits must intersect in all geoheliocentric models. Thus the question of whether the daily parallax of Mars was ever greater than that of the Sun was crucial to whether Wittich's (and indeed also Praetorius's and Ursus's) model was observationally tenable or not. It seems Tycho Brahe eventually came to the conclusion by 1588 that Mars does come nearer to the Earth than the Sun is, albeit contradicting his earlier conclusion by 1584 that his observations of Mars at opposition in 1582-3 established it had no discernible parallax, whereas he put the Sun's parallax at 3 arcminutes. Thus",
"-23.12919003458228"
],
[
"missions. The probe's main objective was the long-term observation of the Venusian atmosphere, which it is hoped will also contribute to an understanding of Earth's atmosphere and climate. It also made global maps of Venerean surface temperatures, and attempted to observe signs of life on Earth from a distance.\nVenus Express successfully assumed a polar orbit on April 11, 2006. The mission was originally planned to last for two Venusian years (about 500 Earth days), but was extended to the end of 2014 until its propellant was exhausted. Some of the first results emerging from Venus Express include evidence of past",
"-23.129123129634536"
],
[
"to Mars, the Mars Orbiter Mission, or Mangalyaan, reached the planet on 24 September 2014 completing its 300-day journey. While ISRO has been researching for a Mars mission for many years, the project was only approved by the government in August 2012. ISRO took over a year to work on the spacecraft and bring the project to implementation stage. The Mars Orbiter Mission was launched on 5 November 2013 from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, on the country's east coast. After travelling 670 million kilometres, Mangalyaan is now set to study the surface features, morphology, mineralogy",
"-23.121617730881553"
],
[
"about half that of the Earth. Mars is located closer to the asteroid belt, so it has an increased chance of being struck by materials from that source. Mars is also more likely to be struck by short-period comets, i.e. those that lie within the orbit of Jupiter. In spite of this, there are far fewer craters on Mars compared with the Moon, because the atmosphere of Mars provides protection against small meteors. Some craters have a morphology that suggests the ground became wet after the meteor impacted. Nomenclature of impact craters Features on Mars are named from a variety",
"-23.07606451585889"
],
[
"slowly. Despite the 30-hour orbit of Deimos, 2.7 days elapse between its rise and set for an equatorial observer, as it slowly falls behind the rotation of Mars.\nBecause the orbit of Phobos is below synchronous altitude, the tidal forces from the planet Mars are gradually lowering its orbit. In about 50 million years, it could either crash into Mars's surface or break up into a ring structure around the planet.\nThe origin of the two moons is not well understood. Their low albedo and carbonaceous chondrite composition have been regarded as similar to asteroids, supporting the capture theory. The unstable orbit",
"-23.069004329212476"
],
[
"after intercepting Mars, it must change its speed by another 2.3 km/s in order to match Mars' orbital speed around the Sun and enter an orbit around it. For comparison, launching a spacecraft into low Earth orbit requires a change in speed of about 9.5 km/s. Hohmann transfers For many years economical interplanetary travel meant using the Hohmann transfer orbit. Hohmann demonstrated that the lowest energy route between any two orbits is an elliptical \"orbit\" which forms a tangent to the starting and destination orbits. Once the spacecraft arrives, a second application of thrust will re-circularize the orbit at the new location.",
"-23.055945169122424"
],
[
"its azimuth at about 3:00 a.m.\nBy the end of August when the two planets are closest, Mars will rise at nightfall and reach its highest point in the sky at 12:30 a.m. That's pretty convenient to see something that no human being has seen in recorded history. So, mark your calendar at the beginning of August to see Mars grow progressively brighter and brighter throughout the month. Share this with your children and grandchildren. NO ONE ALIVE TODAY WILL EVER SEE THIS AGAIN\nAlthough the e-mail itself is correct except for the statement that \"it may be as long as 60,000",
"-23.043719331966713"
],
[
"Mars is visible from Earth all night, high and fully lit, but the ones of special interest happen when Mars is near perihelion, because this is when Mars is also nearest to Earth. One perihelic opposition is followed by another either 15 or 17 years later. In fact every opposition is followed by a similar one 7 or 8 synodic periods later, and by a very similar one 37 synodic periods (79 years) later. In the so-called perihelic opposition Mars is closest to the Sun and is particularly close to Earth: Oppositions range from about 0.68 AU when Mars is",
"-23.031240172684193"
],
[
"transit of Venus was in 1953, and the next will be in 2051; the corresponding dates are 1814 and 2081 for transits of Earth, and 767 and 2684 for transits of Mars. Rotation and axial tilt The rotation period of Ceres (the Cererian day) is 9 hours and 4 minutes. It has an axial tilt of 4°. This is small enough for Ceres's polar regions to contain permanently shadowed craters that are expected to act as cold traps and accumulate water ice over time, similar to the situation on the Moon and Mercury. About 0.14% of water molecules released from the",
"-23.026832926261704"
],
[
"a light albedo feature clearly visible from Earth. Due to the smaller mass of Mars, the probability of an object colliding with the planet is about half that of Earth. Mars is located closer to the asteroid belt, so it has an increased chance of being struck by materials from that source. Mars is more likely to be struck by short-period comets, i.e., those that lie within the orbit of Jupiter. In spite of this, there are far fewer craters on Mars compared with the Moon, because the atmosphere of Mars provides protection against small meteors and surface modifying processes",
"-23.012180039891973"
],
[
"to Mars, but with the length of the journey, the crew decide that the only way to get home is to find water on Mars.\nThankfully, MR4 has landed within a hundred miles of the polar ice cap so the group set off, Brown too, believing there to be life on Mars. Encountering Lichens, crevasses and other perils, Brown is devastated when he discovers no intelligent life and feels cheated by the others. In doing so, he intends to leave the others behind on the planet. However, lichens manage to infiltrate MR4, stopping Brown and giving the Rocket crew a chance",
"-22.994561536514084"
],
[
"High Altitude Venus Operational Concept High Altitude Venus Operational Concept (HAVOC) is a set of crewed NASA mission concepts to the planet Venus. All human portions of the missions would be conducted from lighter-than-air craft or from orbit. Background Venus is a planet with a runaway greenhouse effect, with surface temperatures and pressure of 873 °F (467 °C) and 93 bars (9,300 kPa) respectively. Conventional rocket engines will not work at those pressures. Hence, human missions to Venus have historically been thought impractical, if not impossible. However, Venus has advantages for crewed travel, such as Earth-like gravity (.90 Earth gravity), an atmosphere that",
"-22.975982068339363"
],
[
"of 6.884 kilometers per second with respect to Mars. During cruise, the spacecraft was stowed inside an aeroshell capsule and a segment known as the cruise stage provided power and communications with Earth. Landing zone The target landing zone was a region near the south pole of Mars, called Ultimi Scopuli, because it featured a large number of scopuli (lobate or irregular scarps). Landing attempt On December 3, 1999, Mars Polar Lander encountered Mars while mission operators began preparing for landing operations. At 14:39:00 UTC, the cruise stage was jettisoned, beginning a planned communication dropout until the spacecraft",
"-22.96898838043853"
],
[
"the space craft did successfully touch down on the surface of Mars. The UK Space Agency on 16 January 2015 indicated that Beagle 2 had indeed reached the surface of Mars on 25 December 2003, but had failed to deploy fully. Images taken by the HiRISE camera on NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) identified clear evidence for the lander and convincing evidence for key entry and descent components on the surface of Mars within the expected landing area of Isidis Planitia (an impact basin close to the equator).\nRecent research into photographs taken of the landing site by a Mars orbiter",
"-22.946527900116052"
],
[
"December 9, 2003, efforts to orient the craft to prepare it for a December 14, 2003, main thruster orbital insertion burn failed, and efforts to save the mission were abandoned. The small thrusters were fired on December 9, moving the closest approach distance to 1000 km so that the probe would not inadvertently impact on Mars and possibly contaminate the planet with Earth bacteria, since the orbiter had not been intended to land and was therefore not properly sterilized. Mars flyby The spacecraft flew by Mars on December 14, 2003, and went into a roughly 2-year heliocentric orbit. Intended Mars mission",
"-22.913347552530468"
],
[
"at Mars on October 11, 1999, at 7:45:14 UT, but a malfunctioning valve during the Earth swingby resulted in a loss of fuel and left the spacecraft with insufficient acceleration to reach its planned trajectory. Two course correction burns on December 21 used more propellant than planned, leaving the spacecraft short of fuel. New mission plan The new plan was for Nozomi to remain in heliocentric orbit for an additional four years, including two Earth flybys in December 2002 and June 2003, and encounter Mars at a slower relative velocity in December 2003. First Earth flyby On April 21, 2002,",
"-22.894881582818925"
],
[
"but rendezvous before or after a flyby of the planet with another spacecraft. Mars flyby rendezvous was evaluated at NASA's Manned Spacecraft Center in the 1960s. At that time NASA developed designs for a combination of a Mars lander, short-stay surface habitat, and ascent vehicle called a Mars Excursion Module (MEM); the ascent stage performed the rendezvous with another spacecraft that did a flyby of Mars without entering orbit or landing. Compared to MOR, a flyby rendezvous means one spacecraft does not have to orbit Mars, so the resources needed on a return journey to Earth are not taken in",
"-22.89046760299243"
],
[
"at an estimated development cost of US$10 billion. In October 2016, President Barack Obama renewed U.S. policy to pursue the goal of sending humans to Mars in the 2030s, and to continue using the International Space Station as a technology incubator in that pursuit. The NASA Authorization Act of 2017 directed NASA to get humans near or on the surface of Mars by the early 2030s. Astronomy on Mars With the presence of various orbiters, landers, and rovers, it is possible to practice astronomy from Mars. Although Mars's moon Phobos appears about one-third the angular diameter of the full moon",
"-22.882052751199808"
],
[
"Men, humanity is forced to migrate to Venus hundreds of millions of years in the future when astronomical calculations show that the Moon will soon spiral down to crash into Earth. Stapledon describes Venus as being mostly ocean and having fierce tropical storms. Works such as C. S. Lewis's 1943 Perelandra and Isaac Asimov's 1954 Lucky Starr and the Oceans of Venus drew from a vision of a Cambrian-like Venus covered by a near-planet-wide ocean filled with exotic aquatic life. Swamp A clement twilight zone on a synchronously rotating Mercury, a swamp‐and‐jungle Venus, and a canal‐infested Mars, while all classic",
"-22.88039828580804"
]
] |
6op0u2 | If satellite phones provide near universal coverage and have been around for such a long time, why didn't they become the norm? | [
"There are multiple reasons but one of the biggest is the cost to make and receive calls. From Wikipedia: > > > The cost of making voice calls from a satellite phone varies from around $0.15 to $2 per minute, while calling them from landlines and regular mobile phones is more expensive. Costs for data transmissions (particularly broadband data) can be much higher. Rates from landlines and mobile phones range from $3 to $14 per minute with Iridium, Thuraya[22] and Inmarsat being some of the most expensive networks to call. The receiver of the call pays nothing, unless they are being called via a special reverse-charge service. > > > Making calls between different satellite phone networks is often similarly expensive, with calling rates of up to $15 per minute. > > > Calls from satellite phones to landlines are usually around $0.80 to $1.50 per minute unless special offers are used. Such promotions are usually bound to a particular geographic area where traffic is low. > > > Most satellite phone networks have pre-paid plans, with vouchers ranging from $100 to $5,000. Most people are not going to pay that much for themselves much less buy satellite phones for their kids.",
"The cost associated with transmitting data too and from space is insanely high. Commercially, data is multiplexed together and sent in a giant stream from land to space, and then back again at the distant end. It's like a giant super-highway of data. That's cool, efficient, and fast. An individual stream of data going from the satellite to JUST YOUR PHONE is like building a super-highway to every single home in the countryside - it's still possible, but the return on the investment just isn't worth it. The resident of that home (user of the sat phone) has to pay for that highway and now can't afford to drive to work. Satellite communications providers like Direct TV have one major up-link to the bird, and then a single down-link. When you pint your receiving dish, you're just listening in to whatever's already being broadcast, you're not changing the requirement of the signal in any way. A sat phone requires a direct connection from the satellite to you, and you're the only one who can use that receiver at that frequency on that satellite at that time. Limited bandwidth + expensive cost of building/launching the satellite = high cost of calls.",
"There is a significant time delay in satellite phones and that makes them less desirable than cell phones The satellites are generally in geostationary orbit 32000 km above earth which means it takes about 1/8 seconds for the signal from Earth to get to it. If you're on a satellite phone and calling someone else on a satellite phone on the same satellite there is a 0.25 second lag in each direction. When you stop speaking they'll hear you stop speaking 0.25 seconds later, begin their reply, and you'll hear it 0.25 seconds later, leading to an extra half second before you hear them reply. If it has to go phone-satellite-base station-satellite-phone then there is a full second of lag, the signal will have travelled 256,000 kilometers! This is undesirable for standard users Your standard cell signal travels a few kilometers to a tower then on fiber then to a tower then to the phone. The circumference of the Earth is 40,000 km, even with crappy routing you won't force the signal to travel more than 80,000 round trip for a worst case lag of just 0.3 seconds if you call someone as far away as possible. Still only 60% of the lag of calling your neighbor on a satphone",
"First, pagers aren't satellite based as far as I know. They use local radio signals just like cell phones. People think satellites are used for everything but fact is most of your telecom comes from tons of wires and radio antennas spread across the globe. Look up undersea cables if you want a good time. Second, in addition to line of sight issues, satellites are really far away. It takes longer for radio waves to go up to space, back down, and to your destination than it does to just go across the planet's surface to your destination. Even at the speed of light, you're talking about a perceptible delay that can be annoying when you're trying to have a conversation.",
"Unreliable in adverse weather. I had satellite once. Everytime it got cloudy, connection would go to shit.",
"1. It's much more expensive to launch a satellite that pop up another cell tower. 2. There is a significant lag on calls. From experience, this is really annoying."
] | [
[
"programming to subscribers, direct satellite broadcasts presented the opportunity of providing multichannel programming directly to subscribers' homes via small satellite dish and decoder packages. In 1984, Sky began negotiations with TDF of France, with a view to using the company's planned high-powered satellites for direct-to-home broadcasting. However, nothing came of those negotiations.\nIn Britain (where cable television had not yet developed as much as in Central and Northern Europe), market research gave Sky a 13% audience share in cable homes, surpassing both BBC2 and Channel 4 in those homes. Its children's programming (then the channel's most successful field) increased to a",
"-30.949290548251156"
],
[
"to become common after the widespread installation of cable television systems in the 1970s and 1980s; early premium channels were most often movie broadcasters such as the US-based Home Box Office and Cinemax, both currently owned by Time Warner. Signals were obtained for distribution by cable companies using C-band satellite dish antennae of up to ten feet in diameter; the first satellite signals were originally unencrypted as extremely few individual end-users could afford the large and expensive satellite receiving apparatus.\nAs satellite dishes became smaller and more affordable, most satellite signal providers adopted various forms of encryption in order to limit",
"-30.3295548609276"
],
[
"On 26 April 1982, the first satellite channel in the UK, Satellite Television Ltd. (later Sky One), was launched. Its signals were transmitted from the ESA's Orbital Test Satellites. Between 1981 and 1985, TVRO systems' sales rates increased as prices fell. Advances in receiver technology and the use of gallium arsenide FET technology enabled the use of smaller dishes. Five hundred thousand systems, some costing as little as $2000, were sold in the US in 1984. Dishes pointing to one satellite were even cheaper. People in areas without local broadcast stations or cable television service could obtain good-quality reception with",
"-30.064944842695695"
],
[
"some government agencies desire to own and control entire satellite platforms, hosted payloads have not been widely accepted by government space planners, despite the fact that a large proportion of government satellite communications is over commercially owned and operated satellites. \nFor example, according to Space Commerce, over 80% of all U.S. government and military satellite communications goes through commercial services. \nHosted payloads give government agencies the ability to own and control a portion of a satellite's capacity. \nIn 2007, the US Department of Defense projected that satellite demand for the next 10–13 years would increase much more rapidly than",
"-29.89593309753218"
],
[
"feeds via satellite through the late 1970s to the early 1980s) due to some stations not being equipped yet with ground station receiving equipment to receive the networks' satellite feeds, and due to the broadcast networks' contractual obligations with AT&T up until the breakup in 1984, when the networks immediately switched to satellite exclusively. This was due to several reasons — the much cheaper rates for transmission offered by satellite operators that were not influenced by the high tariffs set by AT&T for broadcast customers, the split of the Bell System into separate RBOCs, and the end of contracts that the",
"-29.71514504834522"
],
[
"cable across the United States in the 1970s and 80s, terrestrial television broadcasts have been in decline; in 2013 it was estimated that about 7% of US households used an antenna. A slight increase in use began around 2010 due to a switchover to digital terrestrial television broadcasts, which offer pristine image quality over very large areas, and offered an alternate to CATV for cord cutters. Overview Satellite television is a system of supplying television programming using broadcast signals relayed from communication satellites. The signals are received via an outdoor parabolic reflector antenna usually referred to as a satellite dish",
"-29.634771435878065"
],
[
"established in 1980.\nEarly satellite television systems were not very popular due to their expense and large dish size. The satellite television dishes of the systems in the late 1970s and early 1980s were 10 to 16 feet (3.0 to 4.9 m) in diameter, made of fibreglass or solid aluminum or steel, and in the United States cost more than $5,000, sometimes as much as $10,000. Programming sent from ground stations was relayed from eighteen satellites in geostationary orbit located 22,300 miles (35,900 km) above the Earth. TVRO/C-band satellite era, 1980–1986 By 1980, satellite television was well established in the USA and Europe.",
"-29.60711785568492"
],
[
"medium-power transmitters, seventy-six low-power transmitters, and twenty-three transposers. Regular satellite transmissions began in 1982 (the same year colour transmission began).\nBy 1994 some 6 million people were receiving television broadcasts via satellite, and the number was expected to increase rapidly throughout the rest of the decade. Cable television was even more prolific, with an estimated 12 to 15 million subscribers in 1994. Besides Doordarshan, Zee TV—an independent station broadcasting from Mumbai since 1992—uses satellite transmissions. In fact, because Doordarshan is the only network that is permitted to broadcast television signals domestically, Zee TV and other entrepreneurs broadcast their Indian-made videotapes via",
"-29.568738228110305"
],
[
"They are also very expensive to deploy and therefore each satellite must serve many users. Additionally, the very long paths of geostationary satellites cause information latency that makes many real-time applications unfeasible.\nAs a solution to the last-mile problem, satellite systems have application and sharing limitations. The ICE which they transmit must be spread over a relatively large geographical area. This causes the received signal to be relatively small, unless very large or directional terrestrial antennas are used. A parallel problem exists when a satellite is receiving.\nIn that case, the satellite system must have a very great information capacity in order",
"-29.545387873344225"
],
[
"cell phones has outpaced any rise in landline telephones. Between 1998 and 2008, Africa added only 2.4 million landlines. During this same time the number of mobile phone lines that have been subscribed to has skyrocketed. Between 2000 and 2008, cell phone use has risen from fewer than 2 in 100 people to 33 out of 100. It is more difficult to install landline copper wires to every user, than it is to install mobile wireless towers that people can connect to from anywhere. There has also been substantial decline of landline phones in Indian subcontinent,",
"-29.481220286895223"
],
[
"US$3,000, the network's primary concern initially was cutting production and distribution costs. As satellite transmission was only used for rare special events at the time (the seminal Aloha from Hawaii had just unveiled the technology earlier in 1973), the show was sent from coast to coast over the terrestrial microwave facilities (also used for long-distance telephone calls as well as broadcast video & audio at the time) of AT&T Long Lines and it reportedly took NBC the entire first year of Tomorrow broadcasting before they succeeded in getting lower usage tariffs from AT&T.\nUnique and often revealing one-on-one exchanges were the",
"-29.33314130324834"
],
[
"the population and internet access 90%, some rural and remote areas in developed countries are still reliant on satellite communications. Uses Most commercial communications satellites, broadcast satellites and SBAS satellites operate in geostationary orbits. Communications Geostationary communication satellites are useful because they are visible from a large area of the earth's surface, extending 81° away in both latitude and longitude. They appear stationary in the sky, which eliminates the need for ground stations to have movable antennas. This means that Earth based observers can erect small, cheap and stationary antennas that are always directed at the desired satellite. However, latency",
"-29.295356116816038"
],
[
"and does not have to turn to \"track\" the satellite. Satellite feed became common in the 1970s, when there were enough satellites in orbit that a consumer market for satellite use started in television. This open market for satellite space spawned a flurry in mobile satellite uplink trucks for hire, making possible the television viewing of live events all over the world. The first satellite trucks were allocated frequencies in the C band (5.700-6.500 GHz) which required large 2 meter dishes. In the 1980s frequencies in the Kᵤ band (12 to 18 GHz). were authorized, which",
"-29.23685954951543"
],
[
"satellite television became increasingly prevalent, specialty channels emerged, including channels entirely devoted to advertising, such as QVC, Home Shopping Network, and ShopTV Canada. On the Internet from the 1990s With the advent of the ad server, online advertising grew, contributing to the \"dot-com\" boom of the 1990s. Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering everything from coupons to free Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, some websites, including the search engine Google, changed online advertising by personalizing ads based on web browsing behavior. This has led to other similar efforts and an increase in interactive advertising.\nThe",
"-29.043827266110384"
],
[
"Commercial use of space History The first commercial use of satellites may have been the Telstar 1 satellite, launched in 1962, which was the first privately sponsored space launch, funded by AT&T and Bell Telephone Laboratories. Telstar 1 was capable of relaying television signals across the Atlantic Ocean, and was the first satellite to transmit live television, telephone, fax, and other data signals. Two years later, the Hughes Aircraft Company developed the Syncom 3 satellite, a geosynchronous communications satellite, leased to the Department of Defense. Commercial possibilities of satellites were further realized when the Syncom 3, orbiting near the International",
"-29.035683909336512"
],
[
"later for worldwide communications. During this infancy, satellites were low orbiting meaning that satellites were available only for short durations; often measured in 5-15 minute intervals. Geostationary satellites were not available for military use until some years later. Although the satellite tracking capability was a success, it did have its problems in these early periods. The use of unproven gyroscopes to keep the satellite dish stable due to the ship's rolling and pitching in stormy and salty conditions while tracking the low orbiting satellites was a challenge for the electronics crew, often spending many hours tweaking and adjusting",
"-28.99405611030602"
],
[
"telephones to an earth station, where they are then transmitted a receiving satellite dish via a geostationary satellite in Earth orbit. Improvements in submarine communications cables, through the use of fiber-optics, caused some decline in the use of satellites for fixed telephony in the late 20th century, but they still exclusively service remote islands such as Ascension Island, Saint Helena, Diego Garcia, and Easter Island, where no submarine cables are in service. There are also some continents and some regions of countries where landline telecommunications are rare to nonexistent, for example Antarctica, plus large regions of Australia, South America,",
"-28.736705591312784"
],
[
"phones connect directly to a constellation of either geostationary or low-Earth-orbit satellites. Calls are then forwarded to a satellite teleport connected to the Public Switched Telephone Network . Television As television became the main market, its demand for simultaneous delivery of relatively few signals of large bandwidth to many receivers being a more precise match for the capabilities of geosynchronous comsats. Two satellite types are used for North American television and radio: Direct broadcast satellite (DBS), and Fixed Service Satellite (FSS).\nThe definitions of FSS and DBS satellites outside of North America, especially in Europe, are a bit more ambiguous.",
"-28.735132526453526"
],
[
"were seeing dishes as something positive since some people would never have cable service, and the industry was starting to recover as a result. Scrambling also led to the development of pay-per-view events. On November 1, 1988, NBC began scrambling its C-band signal but left its Kᵤ band signal unencrypted in order for affiliates to not lose viewers who could not see their advertising. Most of the two million satellite dish users in the United States still used C-band. ABC and CBS were considering scrambling, though CBS was reluctant due to the number of people unable to receive local network",
"-28.68840666126016"
],
[
"with a large retractable antenna. More recent satellite phones are similar in size to a regular mobile phone while some prototype satellite phones have no distinguishable difference from an ordinary smartphone. Satphones are popular on expeditions into remote areas where terrestrial cellular service is unavailable.\nA fixed installation, such as one used aboard a ship, may include large, rugged, rack-mounted electronics, and a steerable microwave antenna on the mast that automatically tracks the overhead satellites. Smaller installations using VoIP over a two-way satellite broadband service such as BGAN or VSAT bring the costs within the reach of leisure vessel owners. Internet",
"-28.486347516316528"
],
[
"allow the government a way to reduce many risks when it comes to program funding, launch delays and operational concerns.\nAs of March 2010, eighteen commercial satellites that had the capability to carry U.S. government piggyback payloads have been placed into production, but only one is expected to host a payload because the government has yet to have a policy on the matter.\nThe role of hosted payloads in the government has been increasing over the years. In 2007, Department of Defense's projected satellite demand for the next 10–13 years shows a rise in satellite demand but a gap in actual capability.",
"-28.442601250248117"
],
[
"at almost all locations on the Earth, can be implemented (receiver-side) a modest cost and complexity, with modern electronics, and require only a few dozen satellites to provide worldwide coverage. As a result of these advantages, satellite navigation has led to almost all previous systems falling from use. LORAN, Omega, Decca, Consol and many other systems disappeared during the 1990s and 2000s. The only other systems still in use are aviation aids, which are also being turned off for long-range navigation while new differential GPS systems are being deployed to provide the local accuracy needed for blind landings. International regulation",
"-28.440635472404665"
],
[
"and Europe was then possible between just 136 people at a time, and reliant on high frequency radios and an undersea cable.\nConventional wisdom at the time was that it would require too much rocket power to place a satellite in a geosynchronous orbit and it would not survive long enough to justify the expense, so early efforts were put towards constellations of satellites in low or medium Earth orbit. The first of these were the passive Echo balloon satellites in 1960, followed by Telstar 1 in 1962. Although these projects had difficulties with signal strength and tracking, that could be",
"-28.370802033986365"
],
[
"resolval of global issues. Satellite global networks Communication satellites are an important part of global networks. However, there are specific low Earth orbit (LEO) global satellite constellations, such as Iridium, Globalstar and Orbcomm, which are comprised by dozens of similar satellites which are put in orbit at regularly spaced positions and form a mesh network, sometimes sending and receiving information directly among themselves. Using VSAT technology, satellite internet access has become possible. Mobile wireless networks It is estimated that 80% of the global mobile market uses the GSM standard, present in more than 212 countries and territories. Its ubiquity makes",
"-28.31178458510658"
],
[
"home satellite or regional cable coverage) still are designated under this classification, these stations were primarily popularized between the late 1970s and the 1990s, in large part because of their carriage of sporting events from local professional sports franchises and theatrical feature films, offerings that were common of the time among independent stations that composed the superstation concept. These signals were also popular among C-band satellite subscribers in rural areas where broadcast signals could not be picked up off-air.\nIndividual radio stations have also been redistributed via satellite as superstations through cable radio services offered by television providers and standalone satellite",
"-28.18439800690885"
],
[
"of AT&T in 1984, when the networks switched exclusively to satellite distribution on Satcom 1 (and later satellites), due to the much lower transmission costs, as well as due to AT&T's divestiture itself.\nThe reason that Satcom 1 was so widely used by both cable and broadcast TV networks is that it had twice the communications capacity of the competing Westar 1 (24 transponders as opposed to Westar 1's 12), which resulted in lower transponder usage costs in general.",
"-28.145482414856815"
],
[
"EchoStar Mobile Applications The EU Telecoms Commissioner, Viviane Reding, has commented, \"Mobile satellite services have huge potential: they can enable Europeans to access new communication services, particularly in rural and less populated regions.\"\nSolaris Mobile primarily intends to provide mobile TV and interactive services to handheld and vehicle receivers. For in-vehicle use, the mobile satellite receivers could also double as web browsers providing full Internet access, and deliver interactive services such as online reservations, emergency warnings, or toll payments.\nSolaris claims the technology brings a \"fully-fledged TV experience\" to mobile television, unavailable with purely terrestrial systems, delivering high-quality live TV, viable",
"-28.107143479903243"
],
[
"we have to address both satellites and rockets.\" \"Smaller satellites are crucial to lowering the cost of space-based Internet and communications.\"\nIn February 2015, SpaceX asked the FCC to consider future innovative uses of the Ka-band spectrum before the FCC commits to 5G communications regulations that would create barriers to entry, since SpaceX is a new entrant to the satellite communications market. The SpaceX non-geostationary orbit communications satellite constellation will operate in the high-frequency bands above 24 GHz, \"where steerable earth station transmit antennas would have a wider geographic impact, and significantly lower satellite altitudes magnify the impact of aggregate interference from",
"-28.087423533190304"
],
[
"for Direct-to-Home satellite reception, making satellite the country’s leading platform for digital television. The number of satellite homes across Russia continues to grow, increasing by 25% between 2011 and 2013 from 8 million to 12.6 million. 10% of these homes receive signals from more than one satellite position, taking the total number of antennas to 13.8 million. Cable television Cable television was introduced in the 2000s, and grew significantly in the early 2010s. Cable operators began upgrading their networks to DVB-C and adding new services such as video on demand, catch-up-TV and others. In 2012, cable television accounted for more",
"-27.96420574546937"
],
[
"In 2012, India had about 148 million TV homes of which 126 million has access to cable and satellite services.\nFollowing the economic reforms in the 1990s, satellite television channels from around the world—BBC, CNN, CNBC, and other private television channels gained a foothold in the country. There are no regulations to control the ownership of satellite dish antennas and also for operating cable television systems in India, which in turn has helped for an impressive growth in the viewership. The growth in the number of satellite channels was triggered by corporate business houses such as Star TV group and Zee",
"-27.815327998410794"
],
[
"not lose viewers who could not see their advertising. Most of the two million satellite dish users in the United States still used C-band. ABC and CBS were considering scrambling, though CBS was reluctant due to the number of people unable to receive local network affiliates. The piracy on satellite television networks in the US led to the introduction of the Cable Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act of 1992. This legislation enabled anyone caught engaging in signal theft to be fined up to $50,000 and to be sentenced to a maximum of two years in prison. A repeat offender",
"-27.716151887481374"
],
[
"launched. It was a medium earth orbit satellite designed to help facilitate high-speed telephone signals. Although it was the first practical way to transmit signals over the horizon, its major drawback was soon realized. Because its orbital period of about 2.5 hours did not match the Earth's rotational period of 24 hours, continuous coverage was impossible. It was apparent that multiple MEOs needed to be used in order to provide continuous coverage. Geostationary orbit (GEO) To an observer on Earth, a satellite in a geostationary orbit appears motionless, in a fixed position in the sky. This is because it",
"-27.667090698405445"
],
[
"Mission, the most recent Landsat satellite, was launched on 11 February 2013. In 1977, the first real time satellite imagery was acquired by the United States's KH-11 satellite system.\nAll satellite images produced by NASA are published by NASA Earth Observatory and are freely available to the public. Several other countries have satellite imaging programs, and a collaborative European effort launched the ERS and Envisat satellites carrying various sensors. There are also private companies that provide commercial satellite imagery. In the early 21st century satellite imagery became widely available when affordable, easy to use software with access to satellite imagery databases",
"-27.658088714437326"
],
[
"1990s, satellites have become the preferred observation platforms because of their favorable observation-time/cost ratio. Nevertheless, high-flying observation airplanes and ground-based telescopes are also used to obtain data, especially for optical and near-infrared observations.\nNew observation techniques using satellites has necessitated the recording, processing and accessible storage of high data fluxes over long periods of time. This demanding task is performed by a data processing group, which has grown quickly in the last decade. Special data centers were established for the large satellite projects.\nBesides the many successes, there have also been disappointments. The malfunctioning of the Ariane carrier rockets on test launches",
"-27.640864868068093"
],
[
"using a geostationary communications satellite to transmit HBO to cable providers throughout the United States. Other television broadcasters at the time were hesitant about uplinking their feeds to satellite due to fears that the satellites may inadvertently shut down or jettison out of their orbit, as well as due to the cost of purchasing downlink receiver dishes, which in 1974, were sold for as much as $75,000. Seeing satellite transmission as the only viable option to expand HBO's reach, Gerald Levin allocated $6.5 million to lease transponder space on the Westar 1 satellite for a five-year term. The Time-Life board",
"-27.602501355548156"
],
[
"Europe. In 1983 Eutelsat launched its first satellite to be used for telecommunications and TV distribution\nInitially established to address satellite telecommunications demand in Western Europe, Eutelsat rapidly developed its infrastructure to expand coverage to additional services (i.e. TV) and markets, such as Central and Eastern Europe in 1989, and the Middle East, the African continent, and large parts of Asia and the Americas from the 1990s.\nEutelsat was the first satellite operator in Europe to broadcast television channels direct-to-home. It developed its premium neighbourhood of five Hot Bird satellites in the mid-1990s to offer capacity that would be able to attract",
"-27.582456487499257"
],
[
"of receiving satellite transmissions from 35 or more C- and Kᵤ-band satellites simultaneously. Early history In 1945 British science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke proposed a worldwide communications system which would function by means of three satellites equally spaced apart in earth orbit. This was published in the October 1945 issue of the Wireless World magazine and won him the Franklin Institute's Stuart Ballantine Medal in 1963.\nThe first public satellite television signals from Europe to North America were relayed via the Telstar satellite over the Atlantic ocean on 23 July 1962, although a test broadcast had taken place almost two",
"-27.565280575387078"
],
[
"satellite reportedly was much greater than the first. In mid-1987 both satellites were still functioning. With these satellites in place China's domestic satellite communication network went into operation, facilitating television and radio transmissions and providing direct-dial longdistance telephone, telegraph, and facsimile service. The network had ground stations in Beijing, Urumqi, Hohhot, Lhasa, and Guangzhou, which also were linked to an Intelsat satellite over the Indian Ocean.\nTelegraph development received lower priority than the telephone network largely because of the difficulties involved in transmitting the written Chinese language. Computer technology gradually alleviated these problems and facilitated further growth in this area. By",
"-27.485761361529512"
],
[
"of satellite dishes relative to the local levels of income, terrestrial channels have the highest penetration, and there is minimal penetration of pay-TV.\nUntil recently, Al Jazeera and Al Arabiya were the most popular channels for news and information about events in Yemen, however Suhail TV gained in popularity after the political uprisings. A survey conducted by the BBC in 2010, revealed that only 14% of viewers preferred to watch Yemeni state-run TV rather than international satellite channels, suggesting strong preference for satellite channels from overseas.",
"-27.484400272891435"
],
[
"their nationwide debut in 1975, to Satcom 1 in February 1976). Cable television networks relay signals to ground-based cable television headends using satellites, which allowed cable TV to enter into the suburban and metropolitan markets, thus allowing HBO to accumulate 1.6 million subscribers by the end of 1977.\nA notable legal battle involved Ted Turner suing RCA to get a Satcom 1 transponder in 1980 for the launch of CNN on June 1, 1980. CNN had been scheduled for a Satcom 3 transponder but that satellite failed to reach geosynchronous orbit upon its launch on December 7, 1979.\nShortly after its launch,",
"-27.4664950634251"
],
[
"satellite due to promotional commitments in the USA at the time.",
"-27.455170701143288"
],
[
"Channel) were among the first to use satellite television to deliver programming. Taylor Howard of San Andreas, California became the first person to receive C-band satellite signals with his home-built system in 1976.\nIn the US, PBS, a non-profit public broadcasting service, began to distribute its television programming by satellite in 1978.\nIn 1979, Soviet engineers developed the Moskva (or Moscow) system of broadcasting and delivering of TV signals via satellites. They launched the Gorizont communication satellites later that same year. These satellites used geostationary orbits. They were equipped with powerful on-board transponders, so the size of receiving parabolic antennas of downlink",
"-27.373335597496407"
],
[
"as small as 20 inches to be used. This great decrease of dish size also allowed satellite dishes to be installed on vehicles. Dishes this size are still in use today. Television stations, however, still prefer to transmit their signals on the C-band analog with large dishes due to the fact that C-band signals are less prone to rain fade than Kᵤ band signals.",
"-27.333375810678262"
],
[
"any satellite broadcasts from foreign sources.\nThe situation in Europe differs somewhat, due to the much greater linguistic diversity in that region and due to the use of standardized DVB receivers capable of receiving multiple providers and free-to-air signals. North American providers normally lock their subscribers into \"package receivers\" unable to tune outside their one package; often the receivers are sold at artificially low prices and the subscription cost for programming is increased in order to favour new subscribers over existing ones. Providers are also notorious for using sales tactics such as bundling, in which to obtain one desired channel a",
"-27.301874997396226"
],
[
"July 26, 1963.\nThe world's first commercial communications satellite, called Intelsat I and nicknamed \"Early Bird\", was launched into geosynchronous orbit on April 6, 1965. The first national network of television satellites, called Orbita, was created by the Soviet Union in October 1967, and was based on the principle of using the highly elliptical Molniya satellite for rebroadcasting and delivering of television signals to a network of twenty ground downlink stations each equipped with a parabolic antenna 39 feet (12 m) in diameter. The first commercial North American satellite to carry television transmissions was Canada's geostationary Anik 1, which was launched on",
"-27.28547330221045"
],
[
"television of the future, with European TV manufacturers in a privileged position to provide the equipment required.\nHowever, the Astra satellite system was also starting up at this time (the first satellite, Astra 1A was launched in 1989) and that operated outside of the EU’s MAC requirements, due to being a non-DBS satellite. Despite further pressure from the EU (including a further Directive originally intended to make MAC provision compulsory in TV sets, and a subsidy to broadcasters to use the MAC format), most broadcasters outside Scandinavia preferred the lower cost of PAL transmission and receiving equipment.\nIn the 2000s, the use",
"-27.279150904814742"
],
[
"is often used to provide internet access at speeds up to 120 Mbps.\nIt is estimated that there are about 7.5 million subscribers, the largest operator being NET followed by smaller operators; however, it is less popular than direct-broadcast satellite due to the difficulty and expense of expanding the cable network.\nA major problem is cable television piracy, with an unknown number of users using the service illegally. Colombia Cable Television was introduced in 1992 in the city of Santamarta Chile Cable television was first demonstrated in Chile in the early 1960s, and was formally introduced in 1986 in the commune",
"-27.241794766006933"
],
[
"watching an event on the other side of the world. In addition, the transmissions were not continuous, being restricted to 30 minutes, since the low orbit of the satellite made it difficult for the receiving and transmitting antennas to pick up its signal. Its 2¼-W transmitter had such weak signals that the ground stations had to magnify them 10 billion times through 30-m-diameter parabolic antennas.\nSince this time, thousands of satellites have been launched in Earth orbit, mostly for military, scientific and telecommunications purposes.",
"-27.23681336911909"
],
[
"first satellite coverage provided by Eutelsat / Skylogic, was connected in broadband using the state frequencies, so that hospitals, schools, municipalities, operated without charges, stating the principle, then decided in UNGAID, that public services must be able to take advantage of public broadband networks.\nSambaina soon arouses international attention, including the visit of Jeffrey Sachs, director of the UN Millenium Project and Special Advisor of the Secretary General Kofi Annan, who proclaimed him in 2006 the first and only one of its kind, Millennium Village towards which both UNDP and the Millennium Challenge Corporation USA will launch support programs.\nIn support",
"-27.235801783226634"
],
[
"the risk of unconventional programs, because new distribution routes provide opportunities to make money on shows that fail to achieve high ratings during network runs. Internet distribution also provides a venue for additional and supplemental programming.\nBefore the multi-channel transition, only signals broadcast over the air could be received on television in the home. Later, a range of possibilities developed. Cable television and satellite television became common mechanisms of delivery, and companies such as AT&T and Verizon also joined the competition of distribution during the mid-2000s. In 2006, broadband internet distribution of video became overwhelmingly popular, which diminished the domination of",
"-27.159511561238105"
],
[
"the 1990s combined with the proliferation of communications satellites in the 2000s allowed for public digital transmission without the need for cables. This technology led to digital television, GPS, and satellite radio through the 1990s and 2000s.\nComputers continued to become smaller and more powerful, to the point where they could be carried. In the 1980s and 1990s, laptops were developed as a form of portable computers, and PDAs could be used while standing or walking. Pagers existing since the 1950s, were largely replaced by mobile phones beginning in the late 1990s, providing mobile networking features to some computers. Now",
"-27.12132676825877"
],
[
"the frequencies and power needed for communication.\nLive satellite communication was developed in the 1960s by NASA, which called it Syncom 1-3. It transmitted live coverage of the 1964 Olympics in Japan to viewers in the United States and Europe. On April 6, 1965, the first commercial satellite was launched into space, Intelsat I, nicknamed Early Bird.\nThe first commercial VSATs were C band (6 GHz) receive-only systems by Equatorial Communications using spread spectrum technology. More than 30,000 60 cm antenna systems were sold in the early 1980s. Equatorial later developed a C band (4/6 GHz) two-way system using 1 m x 0.5 m antennas",
"-27.084102089104988"
],
[
"dishes continued to be used, however. In December 1988 Luxembourg's Astra 1A satellite began transmitting analog television signals on the Kᵤ band for the European market. This allowed small dishes (90 cm) to be used reliably for the first time.\nIn the early 1990s, four large American cable companies founded PrimeStar, a direct broadcasting company using medium power satellites. The relatively strong Kᵤ band transmissions allowed the use of dishes as small as 90 cm for the first time. On 4 March 1996 EchoStar introduced Digital Sky Highway (Dish Network). This was the first widely used direct-broadcast satellite television system and allowed dishes",
"-27.074245535472073"
],
[
"Big Picture that were often aired on American television. The last episode was produced in 1971.\nOn 18 December 1958, with Air Force assistance, the Signal Corps launched its first communications satellite, Project SCORE, demonstrating the feasibility of worldwide communications in delayed and real-time mode by means of relatively simple active satellite relays.\nThe Vietnam War's requirement for high-quality telephone and message circuits led to the Signal Corps' deployment of tropospheric-scatter radio links that could provide many circuits between locations more than 200 miles apart. Other developments included the SYNCOM satellite communications service, and a commercial fixed-station system known as the Integrated",
"-27.07265404545251"
],
[
"US in the early 1990s, four large cable companies launched PrimeStar, a direct broadcasting company using medium power satellites. The relatively strong transmissions allowed the use of smaller (90 cm) dishes. Its popularity declined with the 1994 launch of the Hughes DirecTV and Dish Network satellite television systems.\nDigital satellite broadcasts began in 1994 in the United States through DirecTV using the DSS format. They were launched (with the DVB-S standard) in Australia in late 1995, and in 1996 in European countries including France, Italy and the Netherlands, as well as Japan. Digital DVB-S broadcasts in the United Kingdom and Ireland started",
"-27.034295399937037"
],
[
"switchover, some people struggled to receive the digital transmissions as power levels were very low from some transmitters. Satellite When Direct-To-Home satellite broadcasting first came to the UK, there was competition between Sky Television and BSB, each which used competing technologies. Sky used the already common PAL picture format, and shared space on the Astra 19.2°E Pan-European cluster of satellites, whereas BSB used D-MAC carrier modulation, a bespoke system designed by the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA). Alongside this, at the heart of the BSB advertising campaign was the 'Squarial', a diamond-shaped flat Satellite antenna, much smaller and (supposedly) aesthetically pleasing",
"-27.03206944615522"
],
[
"continued to be updated and new generations released. Access to television programming has evolved from computer and television access, to also include mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. Apps for mobile devices started to become available via app stores in 2008. These mobile apps allow users to view content on mobile devices that support the apps. After 2010 traditional cable and satellite television providers began to offer services such as Sling TV, owned by Dish Network, which was unveiled in January 2015. DirecTV, another satellite television provider launched their own streaming service, DirecTV Now, in 2016. In",
"-26.922911492842104"
],
[
"computer ownership in the US rose from 15% to 35%. Cell phones of the early-1990s and earlier ones were very large, lacked extra features, and were used by only a few percent of the population of even the wealthiest nations. Only a few million people used online services in 1990, and the World Wide Web had only just been invented. The first web browser went online in 1993 and by 2001, more than 50% of some Western countries had Internet access, and more than 25% had cell phone access. Eurostars The opening of the Channel Tunnel between France and the",
"-26.911287576424456"
],
[
"Satcom 1 was the first satellite used by broadcast TV networks in the United States. The networks ABC, NBC, and CBS distributed their programming content to some local affiliate stations, which had before relied on AT&T's terrestrial microwave and coaxial networks to distribute & relay programming (although NBC used it on an experimental basis for this purpose in the late 1970s). The networks fed to both Satcom 1 and AT&T's network at the same time (for the benefit of those stations who hadn't yet been equipped with earth station equipment for reception of the satellite) up until the breakup",
"-26.885798859830174"
],
[
"ATM and Frame Relay no longer play the prominent role they once did. Wireless broadband access Wireless broadband is used to provide both fixed and mobile Internet access with the following technologies. Satellite broadband Satellite Internet access provides fixed, portable, and mobile Internet access. Data rates range from 2 kbit/s to 1 Gbit/s downstream and from 2 kbit/s to 10 Mbit/s upstream. In the northern hemisphere, satellite antenna dishes require a clear line of sight to the southern sky, due to the equatorial position of all geostationary satellites. In the southern hemisphere, this situation is reversed, and dishes are pointed",
"-26.842480697188876"
],
[
"but only by 28 per cent of users 55 and older. According to the Arab Youth Survey, in 2016, 45 per cent of the young people interviewed considered social media as a major source of news.\nSatellite television has continued to add global or transnational alternatives to national viewing options for many audiences. Global news providers such as the BBC, Al Jazeera, Agence France-Presse, RT (formerly Russia Today) and the Spanish-language Agencia EFE, have used the internet and satellite television to better reach audiences across borders and have added specialist broadcasts to target specific foreign audiences. Reflecting a more outward",
"-26.82404469687026"
],
[
"Goonhilly Satellite Earth Station, linked with Telstar and received the first live transatlantic television broadcasts from the United States. The facility continued to be used to transmit global pictured from around the world to viewers in the UK. Unfortunately, the facility will be closed in 2008.\nAlthough satellite television was gradually available throughout the 1980s, it was only available to owners of large dishes and the channels were intended to supply cable networks across Europe and domestic reception was not the prime audience. In 1989, Sky Television plc's direct-to-home four channel service started (now Sky Digital) and was followed by the",
"-26.8212884255081"
],
[
"most current amateur satellites are launched into fairly low Earth orbits, and are designed to deal with only a limited number of brief contacts at any given time. Some satellites also provide data-forwarding services using the X.25 or similar protocols. Internet access After the 1990s, satellite communication technology has been used as a means to connect to the Internet via broadband data connections. This can be very useful for users who are located in remote areas, and cannot access a broadband connection, or require high availability of services. Military Communications satellites are used for military communications applications, such as Global",
"-26.81537721600398"
],
[
"broadcast satellite, a household could receive channels from all over the world. Now with the World Wide Web, smart phones, tablet devices, smart televisions and other digital media devices, billions of people are now able to access media content that was once tied to particular communications media (print, broadcast) or platforms (newspapers, magazines, radio, television, cinema). Justice Justice in communication studies includes, but is not limited to, the concern with democratic process and fostering democratic publics . Jurgen Habermas theorized of public sphere (in The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere) as the space that is created whenever matters of",
"-26.796071599441348"
],
[
"world was about 1.26 billion. The number of landline subscribers continuously decreases due to upgrades in digital technology and the conveniences that come with switching to wireless (cellular) or Internet-based alternatives. Fixed phone A fixed phone line (a line that is not a mobile phone line) can be hard-wired or cordless and typically refers to the operation of wireless devices or systems in fixed locations such as homes. Fixed wireless devices usually derive their electrical power from the utility mains electricity, unlike mobile wireless or portable wireless, which tend to be battery-powered. Although mobile and portable systems can be used",
"-26.757055151449094"
],
[
"the EU manufacturers but would also not have direct access to the technology, and hence would always be behind with new developments.\nIn the UK, the Independent Broadcasting Authority developed a variant, D-MAC, which had marginal audio channel improvements, and insisted on its use by the satellite service to be licensed by itself. On the continent of Europe, satellite TV manufacturers standardised on another variant, D2-MAC, which used less bandwidth and was compatible with the extensive existing European cable systems.\nWith the launch of BSB the IBA became a member of the secret \"MAC Club\" of European organisations which owned patents on",
"-26.743740563601932"
],
[
"was coined in 1978 during the beginning of the satellite television industry, and came to refer to dish antennas that send and/or receive signals from communications satellites. Taylor Howard of San Andreas, California adapted an ex-military dish in 1976 and became the first person to receive satellite television signals using it.\nThe first satellite television dishes were built to receive signals on the C-band analog, and were very large. The front cover of the 1979 Neiman-Marcus Christmas catalog featured the first home satellite TV stations on sale. The dishes were nearly 20 feet (6.1 m) in diameter. The satellite dishes of the",
"-26.701622000531643"
],
[
"Chinese company which launched in 2009 has managed to reach about 800,000 households in October 2011.\nIn 2010, ZAP launched in Angola, providing digital satellite television mainly for Portuguese speaking countries in sub-Saharan Africa.\nSatellite television has been far more successful in Africa than cable, primarily because the infrastructure for cable television does not exist and would be expensive to install since majority of Africans cannot afford paid cable television. Furthermore, maintaining a cable network is expensive due to the need to cover larger and more sparsely populated areas though there are some terrestrial pay-TV and MMDS services. Nigeria Traditionally DStv had",
"-26.6955974509292"
],
[
"Broadcasting System (TBS), and Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN, later The Family Channel) were among the first to use satellite television to deliver programming. Taylor Howard of San Andreas, California became the first person to receive C-band satellite signals with his home-built system in 1976. PBS, a non-profit public broadcasting service, began to distribute its television programming by satellite in 1978. On October 18, 1979, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) began allowing people to have home satellite earth stations without a federal government license. The front cover of the 1979 Neiman-Marcus Christmas catalogue featured the first home satellite TV stations on",
"-26.66191470164631"
],
[
"thereby make a significant contribution to the security of all nations.\nAdditionally, companies such as GeoEye and DigitalGlobe have provided commercial satellite imagery in support of natural disaster response and humanitarian missions.\nDuring the 1950s, a Soviet hoax had led to American fears of a bomber gap. In 1968, after gaining satellite photography, the United States' intelligence agencies were able to state with certainty that \"No new ICBM complexes have been established in the USSR during the past year.\" President Lyndon B. Johnson told a gathering in 1967:\nI wouldn't want to be quoted on this ... We've spent $35 or $40 billion",
"-26.621397494835037"
],
[
"built-in GPS capabilities and mapping apps on smartphones largely replaced stand-alone satellite navigation devices, and paper maps became less common. Mobile gaming on smartphones greatly grew in popularity, allowing many people to use them in place of handheld game consoles, and some companies tried creating game console/phone hybrids based on phone hardware and software. People frequently have chosen not to get fixed-line telephone service in favor of smartphones. Music streaming apps and services have grown rapidly in popularity, serving the same use as listening to music stations on a terrestrial or satellite radio. Streaming video services are easily accessed via",
"-26.606247321420597"
],
[
"satellite communications, it was launched by NASA from Cape Canaveral on July 10, 1962, the first privately sponsored space launch. Relay 1 was launched on December 13, 1962, and became the first satellite to broadcast across the Pacific on November 22, 1963.\nThe first and historically most important application for communication satellites was in intercontinental long distance telephony. The fixed Public Switched Telephone Network relays telephone calls from land line telephones to an earth station, where they are then transmitted a receiving satellite dish via a geostationary satellite in Earth orbit. Improvements in submarine communications cables, through the use of",
"-26.559878278148062"
],
[
"one set) received only over-the-air TV. When the number of people subscribing to cable or satellite who also had TVs that only used an antenna, an estimated 70 million TVs would need upgrading. Implementing the program In 2006, the NTIA let people see its plan for distributing coupons and comment on it. The plan prohibited people with cable or satellite service from requesting coupons. In order to get two coupons, consumers had to state that they had two television sets. In an effort to limit misconduct, coupon requests would be only be taken between January 1, 2008 and",
"-26.528949521456525"
],
[
"the organization routinely delivers information to people in areas lacking electricity, telephone or Internet service. Historic plans for service development Since uninterrupted line of sight reception may be difficult in the urban areas, a need was identified to install terrestrial repeating transmitters to rebroadcast the satellite signals in the largest metropolitan areas of intended mobile DARS markets. The company had been licensed to build networks of terrestrial repeaters in Italy, Switzerland and Germany. With this addition, the system could have provided more reliable broadcast services to receivers in automobiles. 1worldspace had planned to start providing mobile radio and data",
"-26.480270374473548"
],
[
"that time for the transmission of television channels,not available because of local reception problems.\nThe first transatlantic telephone cable to use optical fiber was TAT-8, based on Desurvire optimized laser amplification technology. It went into operation in 1988.\nIn the late 1990s through 2000, industry promoters, and research companies such as KMI, and RHK predicted massive increases in demand for communications bandwidth due to increased use of the Internet, and commercialization of various bandwidth-intensive consumer services, such as video on demand. Internet protocol data traffic was increasing exponentially, at a faster rate than integrated circuit complexity had increased under Moore's Law. Transmitter",
"-26.44752399533172"
],
[
"is noteworthy because Comcast SportsNet Philadelphia continues to distribute its signal to cable television providers through terrestrial infrastructure using only microwave and fiber optic relays, and is not uplinked to satellite. A controversial guideline imposed by the Federal Communications Commission (known as the \"terrestrial exception\"), that was implemented in 1992 to encourage investments in local programming, stated that a television channel does not have to make its programming available to satellite providers if it does not use satellites for their transmission.\nThis guideline has allowed Comcast to block DirecTV and Dish Network from carrying Comcast SportsNet Philadelphia. This issue resulted in",
"-26.444668403011747"
],
[
"reception to certain groups (such as hotels, cable companies, or paid subscribers) or to specific political regions. Early encryption attempts such as Videocipher II were common targets for pirate decryption as dismayed viewers saw large amounts of formerly-unencrypted programming vanishing. Nowadays some free-to-air satellite content in the USA still remains, but many of the channels still in the clear are ethnic channels, local over-the-air TV stations, international broadcasters, religious programming, backfeeds of network programming destined to local TV stations or signals uplinked from mobile satellite trucks to provide live news and sports coverage.\nSpecialty channels and premium movie channels are most",
"-26.429555641501793"
],
[
"packages requiring their SuperDish antenna, due to Dish Network needing more capacity to carry local television stations per the FCC's \"must-carry\" regulations, and for more bandwidth to carry HDTV channels.\nA direct broadcast satellite is a communications satellite that transmits to small DBS satellite dishes (usually 18 to 24 inches or 45 to 60 cm in diameter). Direct broadcast satellites generally operate in the upper portion of the microwave Kᵤ band. DBS technology is used for DTH-oriented (Direct-To-Home) satellite TV services, such as DirecTV and DISH Network in the United States, Bell TV and Shaw Direct in Canada, Freesat and Sky in",
"-26.390737446221465"
],
[
"to digital television, take-up of the help scheme has been surprisingly low. This may be partly due to the high percentage of homes already receiving satellite TV in the absence, before switchover, of any Freeview transmissions. Additionally, many householders who met the age criteria but had no special needs did not require the enhanced set-top box, or a replacement aerial (most of the population lives within a few kilometres of the transmitter) and therefore had no reason to pay the £40 flat fee. Helping Hand Campaign The Helping Hand Campaign urged people to tell those aged over 75 and disabled",
"-26.375321553847243"
],
[
"later years, J. C. R. Licklider remembered the difficulty in arranging such satellite links during his second ARPA tour:\n\nWhen I was [at ARPA in 1974-1975], we were trying to set up a satellite link with Britain, and to deal with British General Post Office, or whatever that's called, was just a totally different experience to me from anything else. They wanted us to buy insurance covering their whole plant, practically, in case our IMPs set fire, or something, to their equipment. It was really weird. Their worst fear was that somebody in Europe would call up, through some kind of",
"-26.369064406961115"
],
[
"superstations Even though superstations remained reasonably popular among cable and satellite subscribers, in no small part because of team-based sports broadcasts, various changes to the television industry beginning in the 1990s (especially the proliferation of cable-originated program services) as well as existing distant signal policies (such as the syndication exclusivity rules) precipitated the decline in their viability. As early as 1986, with the launch of the Fox Broadcasting Company, a handful of the intrastate superstations – such as KMSP-TV (channel 9, now a Fox owned-and-operated station) in Minneapolis–St. Paul, KSHB-TV (channel 41, now an NBC affiliate) in Kansas City and",
"-26.355313687868602"
],
[
"satellite television programming than TVRO arose in the 1980s. Satellite television services, first in Europe, began transmitting Kᵤ band signals in the late 1980s. On 11 December 1988 Luxembourg launched Astra 1A, the first satellite to provide medium power satellite coverage to Western Europe. This was one of the first medium-powered satellites, transmitting signals in Kᵤ band and allowing reception with small(90 cm) dishes for the first time ever. The launch of Astra beat the winner of the UK's state Direct Broadcast Satellite licence, British Satellite Broadcasting, to the market, and accelerated its demise. 1990s to present By 1987, nine channels",
"-26.317124778312063"
],
[
"satellite technology to bring current events into consumers' homes as the event occurs. Events that used to take hours or days to become common knowledge in towns or in nations are fed instantaneously to consumers via radio, television, mobile phone, and the internet.\nSpeed of news transmission, of course, still varies wildly on the basis of where and how one lives. Newspaper Most large cities in the United States historically had morning and afternoon newspapers. With the addition of new communications media, afternoon newspapers have shut down and morning newspapers have lost circulation. Weekly newspapers have somewhat increased. In more and",
"-26.307617548573035"
],
[
"an undersea cable.\nConventional wisdom at the time was that it would require too much rocket power to place a satellite in a geostationary orbit and it would not survive long enough to justify the expense, so early efforts were put towards constellations of satellites in low or medium Earth orbit. The first of these were the passive Echo balloon satellites in 1960, followed by Telstar 1 in 1962. Although these projects had difficulties with signal strength and tracking, that could be solved through geostationary satellites, the concept was seen as impractical, so Hughes often withheld funds and support.\nBy 1961, Rosen",
"-26.299619584955508"
],
[
"of the commercial take-up of broadcast mobile TV had been \"over-optimistic, and the demise of Virgin's mobile TV service reflects that\".\n\"After all, why pay a subscription fee to receive the same TV content on your mobile that you already get at home? Particularly when people don't watch TV on mobiles for more than a few minutes at a time.\n\"Most mobile TV viewing is for just a few minutes. To be commercially successful, you have to provide a combination of live news, sports updates and video-on-demand made-for-mobile content which is instantly engaging. Simply broadcasting linear TV to mobiles is not the",
"-26.283204202743946"
],
[
"Central. Higher capacity satellite dishes In spite of all this capacity, EchoStar still needed to fulfill the dream of nationwide high-definition television and conceived the DISH 1000 system to receive signals from 110°W, 119°W, and 129°W orbital locations. Originally, DISH Network high-definition subscribers required two separate satellite dishes. Currently, DISH Network subscribers can receive nationwide HDTV channels using the 129°W orbital location or 61.5°W orbital location. Because of issues with low signal strength, the older model DISH 1000 has been replaced with the DISH 1000.2. The 1000.2 has a 10% larger reflector for better signal strength and an integrated LNB",
"-26.244723653566325"
],
[
"available handheld mobile phone. From 1983 to 2014, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to over seven billion—enough to provide one for every person on Earth. In first quarter of 2016, the top smartphone developers worldwide were Samsung, Apple, and Huawei, and smartphone sales represented 78 percent of total mobile phone sales. For feature phones (slang: “dumbphones”) as of 2016, the largest were Samsung, Nokia, and Alcatel. History A handheld mobile radio telephone service was envisioned in the early stages of radio engineering. In 1917, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt filed a patent for a \"pocket-size folding telephone with a very thin",
"-26.21990259284439"
],
[
"by cable television networks rather than received by home viewers. Early satellite television receiver systems were largely constructed by hobbyists and engineers. These early TVRO systems operated mainly on the C-band frequencies and the dishes required were large; typically over 3 meters (10 ft) in diameter. Consequently, TVRO is often referred to as \"big dish\" or \"Big Ugly Dish\" (BUD) satellite television.\nTVRO systems were designed to receive analog and digital satellite feeds of both television or audio from both C-band and Kᵤ-band transponders on FSS-type satellites. The higher frequency Kᵤ-band systems tend to resemble DBS systems and can use a smaller",
"-26.21384184938688"
],
[
"Communications Satellite Act of 1962 Goals of the act The act aimed to join together private communication companies in order to make satellites more obtainable. Disagreement with the passing of the act Democratic Senator Russell B. Long of Louisiana said of the act, \"When this bill first started out I thought it was as crooked as a dog's hind leg. I am now convinced that that would be a compliment. This bill is as crooked as a barrel of snakes.\" The American Telephone and Telegraph Company argued that using space for communications was just a modern representation",
"-26.19295870629867"
],
[
"satellite television migrating to the Sirius and Thor satellites.\nInitially the basic channels were free-to-air. This caused several rights problems since viewers throughout Europe were able to see very much acquired English language programming as well as sports for free on the Nordic channels, although the channels only held broadcasting rights for specific countries. One way of avoiding that was to switch from PAL to the D2-MAC standard, hardly used anywhere outside the Nordic region. An unencrypted channel could still be seen in all the Nordic satellite homes, so eventually all channels went encrypted (several of them only being available in",
"-26.180126805562395"
],
[
"of the idea that geostationary satellites would be ideal telecommunications relays. He first described this in a letter to the editor of Wireless World in February 1945 and elaborated on the concept in a paper titled Extra-Terrestrial Relays – Can Rocket Stations Give Worldwide Radio Coverage?, published in Wireless World in October 1945. The geostationary orbit is now sometimes known as the Clarke Orbit or the Clarke Belt in his honour.\nIt is not clear that this article was actually the inspiration for the modern telecommunications satellite. According to John R. Pierce, of Bell Labs, who was involved in the Echo",
"-26.1748537490148"
],
[
"deliver it to the LNBF.\nModern dishes intended for home television use are generally 43 cm (18 in) to 80 cm (31 in) in diameter, and are fixed in one position, for Ku-band reception from one orbital position. Prior to the existence of direct broadcast satellite services, home users would generally have a motorised C-band dish of up to 3 m in diameter for reception of channels from different satellites. Overly small dishes can still cause problems, however, including rain fade and interference from adjacent satellites. Europe In Europe, the frequencies used by DBS services are 10.7–12.75 GHz on two polarisations H (Horizontal) and",
"-26.165617524096888"
],
[
"satellite capacity provides a fully redundant contribution connection.\nMonitoring of the signal allows for fast and effective changes before problems affect the service. E.g. uplink power may be automatically increased during adverse weather conditions.\nSES provides an example service that provides permanent delivery of live and recorded TV and radio signals to the company's Luxembourg uplink facility (used for 15 satellites, serving over 120 million viewers) from almost any location across Europe. Technology Whereas satellite contribution links may be provided using transmission in Kᵤ band (or even C band) frequencies, it is increasingly common to use the higher frequency Ka-band uplink and",
"-26.16195280913962"
],
[
"received analog signals transmitted in the C-band spectrum from FSS type satellites, and required the use of large dishes. Consequently, these systems were nicknamed \"big dish\" systems, and were more expensive and less popular.\nThe direct-broadcast satellite television signals were earlier analog signals and later digital signals, both of which require a compatible receiver. Digital signals may include high-definition television (HDTV). Some transmissions and channels are free-to-air or free-to-view, while many other channels are pay television requiring a subscription.\nIn 1945 British science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke proposed a worldwide communications system that would function by means of three satellites equally",
"-26.160985518932648"
],
[
"European telecom market saw market liberalization, new regulatory frameworks, better 2G network technology, and a subsequent jump in wireless subscriber numbers. Though the new 2G networks more efficiently managed the limited frequency bands allocated to wireless service, new mobile entrants were still limited by their ability to access frequency bands in a restricted spectrum.\nWith European markets newly open to competition and new technology enabling better service and cheaper handsets, there was a massive surge in demand for cellular phones. In the midst of this swell, Sense Communications fought for access to mobile network operator (MNO) spectrum in Scandinavia in 1997.",
"-26.142233525558822"
],
[
"to phone Nigerian prime minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa from a ship on August 23, 1963.\nThe first satellite placed in a geostationary orbit was Syncom 3, which was launched by a Delta D rocket in 1963. With its increased bandwidth, this satellite was able to transmit live coverage of the Summer Olympics from Japan to America. Geostationary orbits have been in common use ever since, in particular for satellite television.\nToday there are hundreds of geostationary satellites providing remote sensing and communications.\nAlthough most populated land locations on the planet now have terrestrial communications facilities (microwave, fiber-optic), with telephone access covering 96% of",
"-26.132546958860985"
],
[
"1A, the first satellite to provide medium power satellite coverage to Western Europe. This was one of the first medium-powered satellites, transmitting signals in Kᵤ band and allowing reception with small dishes (90 cm). The launch of Astra beat the winner of the UK's state Direct Broadcast Satellite licence holder, British Satellite Broadcasting, to the market.\nIn the US in the early 1990s, four large cable companies launched PrimeStar, a direct broadcasting company using medium power satellite. The relatively strong transissions allowed the use of smaller (90 cm) dishes. Its popularity declined with the 1994 launch of the Hughes DirecTV and Dish Network",
"-26.123391963437825"
],
[
"also adopted this pioneering system architecture. Receiver technology The receiver is designed to mitigate and retain signal quality in hostile signal conditions and the relatively weak signal levels from distant satellites. Because the satellites are not all geostationary they appear and disappear over the horizon. Terrestrial signals are present only in major cities to augment the satellite signals.\nApproximately five chipset versions were built by Agere and approximately 4 versions were built by STMicroelectronics after the initial prototypes, although all of the early receivers included an Agere chipset known as Northstar. This platform enjoyed the highest volume of chipsets to date,",
"-26.04411945091306"
],
[
"After pulling together some very limited funding from a few local East Tennessee small business men and individuals around Knoxville SAH began the search for affordable satellite distribution time. Early operations The technical difficulties caused by the hills and valleys of East Tennessee and prohibitive cost-per-mile across the vast expanses of the rural flatlands west of the Mississippi had created a pent up demand for television programing. Homeowners many of whom had no access to cable and a minimal number of off-air television channels were looking for a way to receive some of the same programs their urban cousins had",
"-26.03025857020839"
],
[
"simple, are one reason why they are very popular with organisations that need to manage a large number of remote mobile units. Selcall is widely used, though is becoming superseded by much more sophisticated digital systems. Conventional telephone use Mobile radio telephone systems such as Mobile Telephone Service and Improved Mobile Telephone Service allowed a mobile unit to have a telephone number allowing access from the general telephone network, although some systems required mobile operators to set up calls to mobile stations. Mobile radio telephone systems before the introduction of cellular telephone services suffered from few usable channels, heavy congestion,",
"-26.01630068283157"
]
] |
3iws8a | Why are new models of cars released the year before the actual year of the model? (I.e 2016 cars released in 2015). | [
"It's typically based on the year it ends production, not starts. For instance many 2015 models start production in mid/late 2014 and stop production in early/mid 2015. There's a lot of exceptions to this and it's largely marketing driven more than anything.",
"Cars' age us dictated by their model year. The year it was built. So if you're building/releasing a car towards the end of the year, it will appear to be a year old in only a month or a couple months. Cars depreciate in value steeply each year, so if you find a car that was 2014 December and another that was 2015 January, you will mentally consider those cars to be a year different in age, even though it's only a couple weeks.",
"They can call it anything, there is no law saying it has to be the actual year. They could release a 2020 car.",
"Yarr, ye forgot yer searchin' duties, for ['twas asked by those what came before ye!]( URL_0 )"
] | [
[
"it. Other major changes to the model range usually coincided with the launch of the new model year. The practice of beginning production of next year's model before the end of the year is also a long standing tradition in America, for example the 1928 model year of the Ford Model A began production in October 1927 and the 1955 model year of the Ford Thunderbird began production in September 1954.\nFor regulation purposes (such as VIN numbering and EPA emissions certification), government authorities allow cars of a given model year to be sold starting on January 1 of the previous",
"-37.623980935895815"
],
[
"use a model year up to two years ahead of the date that the vehicle was manufactured. Other countries In other countries, it is more common to describe the age of a car by its generation instead of the specific year, using terms such as \"third generation\", \"Mark III\" or the manufacturer's code for that generation (such as \"BL\" being the code for a Mazda 3 built between November 2008 and June 2013). \nIn Europe, the lesser use of model years as a descriptor is partly because since the 1980s many vehicles are introduced at the Geneva Motor Show in",
"-37.1703684842214"
],
[
"calendar year. For example, this means that a 2019 model year vehicle can legally go on sale on January 1, 2018. This has resulted in a few cars in the following model year being introduced in advertisements during the NFL Super Bowl in February. A notable example of an \"early\" model year launch would be the Ford Mustang, introduced as an early 1965 model (informally referred to as \"1964½\") in April 1964\nat the World's Fair, several months before the usual start of the 1965 model year in August 1964.\nFor recreational vehicles, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission allows a manufacturer to",
"-37.061328410869464"
],
[
"their new models at a high-profile time of year. Imported cars in the U.S. and Canada from other countries typically adopt the model year convention in the U.S. and Canada, even when this system is not used for the same cars when sold in other countries.\nThe concept of yearly styling updates (a practice adopted from the fashion industry) was introduced to General Motors' range of cars by Alfred P. Sloan in the 1920s. This was an early form of planned obsolescence in the car industry, where yearly styling changes meant consumers could easily discern a car's newness, or lack of",
"-36.44136620729114"
],
[
"being a hot seller. Compared to 15,000 units sold in 2004, only 10,000 units of the model year of 2007 were sold. This trend continued to worsen for the refreshed model year of 2008 due in part to a price increase.\nOnly 6,345 units of the model year 2008 were sold, and the model year 2009 sales through July 2009 were a mere 2,135 units. Due to decreasing sales, and heightened competition from the Ford Escape, Ford announced that a shortened 2010 model year would be the last sold in Mexico. However, a year later, Ford had announced the new EcoSport",
"-36.208230480900966"
],
[
"Model year The model year (MY) is a method of describing the version of a product which has been produced over multiple years. The model year is sometimes the same as the calendar year in which the product was manufactured, however the model year can be up to two years different from the actual year.\nA common usage of model years is for automobiles in the United States and Canada. In other countries, automobiles are more often described by their generation instead of model year. United States and Canada The practice of identifying revisions of automobiles by their model year is",
"-35.727000396931544"
],
[
"For example, Maryland defines historic vehicles as 20 calendar years old or older and they \"must not have been substantially altered, remodeled or remanufactured from the manufacturers original design\" while West Virginia defines motor vehicles manufactured at least 25 years prior to the current year as eligible for \"classic\" car license plates.\nDespite this, at many American classic car shows, automobiles typically range from the 1920s to the 1970s. Recently, many 1980s and even early 1990s cars are considered being \"classic automobiles\". Examples of cars at such shows include the Chevrolet Bel-Air, Ford Model T, Dodge Charger, Ford Deuce Coupe,",
"-34.057178600574844"
],
[
"years. 1.28 million new cars were sold during the period, a rise of 10% compared to the same period in 2013. In 2014, more than 1.5 million cars were produced, the highest since 2007. from 2020 In 2019, Honda announced that its Swindon plant will close by 2021. Production forecast The Financial Times has forecast that annual UK vehicle production will exceed its historic peak level (achieved in 1972) by 2017. Their forecasted production levels for 2014 to 2017 are: 2014: 1,724,000 units; 2015: 1,864,000 units; 2016: 1,993,000 units and 2017: 2,062,000 units. Inactive marques Currently inactive British automotive marques",
"-33.351237184309866"
],
[
"strongest in Canada and the United States. The letters \"MY\" precedes the year (eg MY2019) indicates that it is the model year, however even without this prefix it is usually the model year (instead of the calendar year) that is being referred to.\nThe new model year typically begin with the fourth quarter of the preceding year. This was partly due to the advertising of a new model being coordinated with the launch of the new television season in late September, because of the heavy dependence between television to offer products from automakers to advertise, and the car companies to launch",
"-33.30737416469492"
],
[
"year letter changing on 1 January each year meant that car retailers soon started to notice that buyers would tend to wait until the New Year for the new letter to be issued, so that they could get a \"newer\" car. This led to major peaks and troughs in sales over the year, and to help flatten this out somewhat the industry lobbied to get the scheme changed, so that the change of year letter occurred on 1 August rather than 1 January. This was done in 1967, when \"E\" suffixes ran only from 1 January to 31 July, before",
"-33.21659207949415"
],
[
"The year in the list below indicates when the model was last updated.",
"-33.01355414115824"
],
[
"International Car of the Year The International Car of the Year (ICOTY) awards are one of several annual \"car of the year\" awards around the world for new automobile models judged to be the best of their generation. This one is presented by the United States magazine Road & Travel Magazine. Awards are given under ten different categories to new vehicles manufactured internationally and available on the US market. The awards ceremony is attended by 600 industry leaders and media on the evening before Press Days at the North American International Auto Show (NAIAS). The awards have been presented",
"-32.67414351407206"
],
[
"sold in addition to the newer Mark 5, due to higher pricing of the fifth generation in some countries such as Colombia, China, Canada, Dominican Republic, Mexico, Brazil and Argentina. Like its second generation predecessor, the Mark 4 continues to be manufactured and marketed in China by Volkswagen Group's joint venture partner FAW-Volkswagen.\nIn October 2006, Volkswagen re-released the fourth generation car in Canada (for the 2007 model year) as the City Jetta. The move was made to allow Volkswagen to be more competitive with the rest of the compact class as the fifth generation Jetta had moved upscale versus much",
"-32.615666734578554"
],
[
"since 2016. They are expected to be replaced by the R179 cars, but no time frame has been set due to ongoing delays in the delivery of the cars.",
"-32.605486056439986"
],
[
"place. A turning point occurred in the late 1970s, when rising fuel costs and government fuel economy regulations caused all car classes to shrink, and in many cases to blur. Automakers moved previously \"full-size\" nameplates to smaller platforms such as the Ford LTD II and the Plymouth Fury. A comparison test by Popular Science of four intermediate sedans (the 1976 AMC Matador, Chevrolet Malibu, Ford Torino, and Dodge Coronet) predicted that these will be the \"big cars of the future.\" By 1978, General Motors made its intermediate models smaller.\nNew \"official\" size designations in the U.S. were introduced by the EPA,",
"-32.4030313330004"
],
[
"introduced the Ford Explorer, 1991 being the first model year. Fords Explorer became the best selling SUV on the market; out selling both the Chevy Blazer and Jeep Cherokee\nJapanese cars continued to be highly successful during the decade. The Honda Accord vied with the Taurus most years for being the best-selling car in the United States during the early part of the decade. Although launched in 1989, the luxury brands Lexus and Infiniti began car sales of 1990 model year vehicles and saw great success. Lexus would go on to outsell Mercedes-Benz and BMW in the United States by 1991,",
"-32.2541023723752"
],
[
"in only sixteen cars being rebuilt. Of the sixteen, only twelve cars received the complete overhaul, while four were only partially rebuilt. These four, affectionately referred to as \"Super 17's\" by many, received the same mechanical and electrical improvements, seats, body work, and paint scheme as the remaining twelve, but retained several of their 1949 attributes, including original interior and exterior lighting, all-steel body panels, and operator's controls, as well as retaining their original numbers. The 4000-series cars that received the complete overhaul were essentially completely new vehicles built within the old car's body. All new",
"-32.07759488397278"
],
[
"ensure you don't make your vehicle appear newer than it is.\" However, you are able to put 1955 registered private number plates on a 1949 registered vehicle as there is no year indicator to determine the age of release.\nAs many vehicles registered before 1963 have been scrapped, some of their \"dateless\" pre-1963 registration numbers have been transferred to other vehicles as personal plates. They can be valuable, and can also be used to conceal the age of an older vehicle. Many vintage and classic cars no longer bear their original index marks due to the owners being offered high premiums",
"-32.022768061375245"
],
[
"British Motor Industry Heritage Trust in December of that year. A total of 5,387,862 cars had been manufactured, nearly 1.6 million of which were sold in Britain, although the majority of these were sold at least 20 years before the Mini's demise, meaning that the majority of those sold had been scrapped before the end of the original Mini's production life.\nAfter the last of the Mini production had been sold, the 'Mini' name passed to BMW ownership. Mini Hatch, the new model made by BMW, is technically unrelated to the old car but retains the classic transverse four-cylinder, front-wheel-drive",
"-31.986418699554633"
],
[
"in the use of computers, most software had not been tested to ensure correct behavior on an era change. Furthermore, testing was complicated by the fact that the new era name was not revealed until April 1, 2019. Therefore, errors were expected from software that did not anticipate a new era. Classic Mac OS The control panel in Classic Mac OS version 7 only allows the date to be set as high as December 31, 2019, although the system is able to continue to advance time beyond that date. Year 2031 Palm OS uses both signed integers with the 1970",
"-31.966595372068696"
],
[
"March, the Frankfurt Motor Show in September or the Paris Motor Show in September. New models have increasingly been launched in June or July. VIN encoding The Vehicle Identification Number (VIN) scheme, mandatory serial number for each vehicle which is used in many countries, includes the model year of the vehicle as the 10th digit. The actual date that the vehicle was produced is not part of the VIN, however it is often shown on the manufacturer's build plate.",
"-31.93301885551773"
],
[
"to about 8,000 units spanning between 2008 and 2012. 1,219 cars were manufactured in calendar year 2013; 1,645 in calendar year 2014; and 2,638 in calendar year 2015.\n2016 saw production of 2,247 vehicles, and about 1,600 were made in 2017.Total production of all variants was about 17,300 vehicles.\nThroughout the modern California's history (2008 to 2017), only 3 cars were built with manual transmission, including one order from the UK. California 30 - 2012 update On 15 February 2012, Ferrari announced the California 30, an updated model that was lighter and more powerful. While the Pininfarina design remained, the changes included",
"-31.893418178660795"
],
[
"of around one car per week, 105 Series 4 cars were manufactured. The last car was produced during January 1990.\n81 remain registered in the United Kingdom as of 2011, down only slightly from 94 in 1994, but 32 of the surviving examples are SORN.",
"-31.86808297978132"
],
[
"new automobiles. The company has two different shifts that last from 8–10 hours (depending on the economy and the demand for new automobiles). As of 2002, up to 211,000 new vehicles can be manufactured and assembled within a typical year.\nIn 2013, Ford announced an investment of C$700-million to upgrade the plant to manufacture vehicles of global platform with the assistance from the governments of Canada and Ontario of C$140-million worth to the project. The plant assembled 255,924 vehicles in 2012, and 258,358 vehicles in 2013.",
"-31.771058357029688"
],
[
"Cars (franchise) History The Cars franchise began with the 2006 Pixar film, Cars. The film was Pixar's least well received by reviewers with a 75% on Rotten Tomatoes, until the sequel was released and received a 38%. Cars 3 received a 69%, a major improvement over the second film.\nThe short Mater and the Ghostlight was released as an extra on the Cars DVD on November 7, 2006. A series of shorts called Cars Toons were produced and aired on the Disney Channel to keep interest up. The brand had sold nearly $10 billion in merchandise by the time of its",
"-31.770201973617077"
],
[
"2012 Model Year car, with delivery beginning in February 2012. Only 50 units were sold in the US. R8 LMS Evolution (2010) Changes to the 2010 R8 LMS include the improvement of the engine cooling system capacity, suspension revisions, a race-optimised electronics and exhaust systems, and a 6-speed transmission that can be inspected through an opening in the housing without the need to dismantle the entire assembly. Previous variants could be upgraded via an update kit.\nThe first deliveries of the car were made to the American-owned United Autosports team from Yorkshire in England. R8 LMS ultra (2012–2015) Unveiled at the",
"-31.752584655070677"
],
[
"model was replaced. Cars after the Type 190 use names three digits long with a zero in the middle, beginning with the 201, abandoning Peugeot's original procedure of naming each new model with a successive ordinal number. Cars of the 20x class would be smaller than cars of the 30x or 40x class, and cars of the same class would be usually replaced by the next ordinal number (e.g. the 201 was replaced with the Peugeot 202).",
"-31.60932893754216"
],
[
"vehicles built during this time are classified as model year 2006 (10th digit in VIN is a 6.)\nThe program was cancelled May 12, 2006 because GM decided to withdraw technical and financial support for future engineering and recertification. The Hummer brand On June 2, 2009, General Motors attempted a sale of its Hummer brand to a Chinese company, Tengzhong, as part of its bankruptcy settlement. GM stated at the time that it hoped the sale would save about 3,000 jobs in the US.\nOn February 24, 2010, General Motors announced that the company was shutting down its Hummer brand due to",
"-31.56836932047736"
],
[
"top-level EX, and went on sale in the fall of 2018 as a 2019 model year vehicle.",
"-31.30784674838651"
],
[
"update For the 2013 model year, Scion made a few enhancements including remodeled front and rear bumpers and a few interior upgrades including the optional BeSpoke radio. New colors are Absolutely Red and Nautical Blue Metallic (Absolutely Red was available in 2009 as RS 6.0). Stingray Metallic and Elusive Blue Metallic colors were dropped (Stingray Metallic was a very expensive color and Toyota no longer offers it on any model). Sales of the 2013 model began in February 2013. 2014 model year update Sales for the 2014 model began in December 2013. No major changes for this model year. All",
"-31.300805776496418"
],
[
"cars, partly due to the boxy styling of economy cars declining at the end of the 1980s.\nMany long-running nameplates that obtained their start as econoboxes have since moved upscale. For example, the Austin Mini and VW Beetle have been revived as enthusiasts luxury cars, rather than cheap transportation for the masses. Meanwhile, the Toyota Corolla, Nissan Sentra and the Honda Civic started as subcompact econoboxes but are now on the high-end of the compact size line.",
"-31.291179448366165"
],
[
"production cap of 25 vehicles per year, however, this was later reduced to 100 vehicles plus 10 Launch Editions.\nOn 31 July 2019, W Motors announced via social media that the final 5 Launch Editions of the car had been sold to an anonymous Japanese businessman. News sources later revealed the buyer as Tetsumi Shinchi. This means that at least 10 vehicles have been allocated.\nSeveral sources also noted that Shinchi's Launch Editions would be debuted at the Mega Supercar Motor Show in 2021.",
"-31.247152160620317"
],
[
"Update 1.13, released on February 28, 2018. While both the first and third generations are available in every game starting from Gran Turismo 2 with the exception of Gran Turismo Sport until update 1.13. The future On March 8, 2017, automotive website and magazine EVO had revealed that Toyota has expressed the desire to have a performance range of cars whose heart has been referred to as \"The Three brothers\" by Tetsuya Tada, chief of Toyota Gazoo Racing. This includes a lightweight, and mid-engined sports car, rumored to be a spiritual, if not a direct, successor to the MR2 brand.",
"-31.161583379398508"
],
[
"the demand for the Model S is so high that there was a five-month waiting list, and as a result of the shortage, a used market has appeared.\nIn October 2013 an all-electric car was the best selling car in the country for a second month in a row. This time was the Nissan Leaf with 716 units sold, representing a 5.6% of new car sales. In December 2013, with 553 units sold and a 4.9% market share, the Model S was the top selling new car in the country for the second time in 2013. A total of 1,986 new",
"-30.99316716415342"
],
[
"However, it is customary for the last two or three digits of any new number to serve as the vehicle's unique number for internal purposes. For some individual small companies there is nevertheless no trace of the new numbers to be found.",
"-30.92286519741174"
],
[
"European Car of the Year Current rules Eligible cars are new models released in the twelve months prior to the award. The award is not restricted to European cars, but nominees must be available in at least five European countries, and have expected sales of 5,000 a year.\nNominees are judged on the following criteria: design, comfort, safety, economy, handling, performance, functionality, environmental requirements, driver satisfaction and price. Technical innovation and value for money are also important factors.\nA shortlist of seven cars is selected by a simple vote. For the final round of voting, each jury member has 25 points to",
"-30.905906135129044"
],
[
"Ford Five Hundred from 2008.\nIt was determined that Ford's strategy to redesignate new cars in the lineup with new names beginning with the letter F, as in Ford Focus, Ford Fusion, and Ford Freestyle, was not a good marketing move, as some of the renamed cars had highly recognizable iconic names. Car buyers in the U.S. did not associate the new F names with Ford, and were confused by the name changes. Mulally believed that the Taurus had an immediately strong brand equity, and that it would take years for consumers to have a similar recognition of the Five Hundred.\nThe",
"-30.886204448295757"
],
[
"introduced in the preceding Winter 2014 update.\nUpdate 1.1.0 in November 2013 added four new cars, including the Renault Clio R.S. 200 EDC and the Ferrari F430. An update in January 2014 added five new cars, including the Lamborghini Gallardo LP560-4 and the W Motors Lykan HyperSport.\nThe Great Wall update in February 2014 added four new cars, including the SRT 2013 Dodge Challenger SRT8 and the McLaren P1. An update in May 2014 added the SSC Tuatara. An update in June 2014 added eight new cars, including the Ford 2006 GT, the Mercedes-Benz CLK GTR AMG, and the Hennessey Venom",
"-30.85458540151012"
],
[
"car.\nOf the buyback, 138,000 had been completed by 18 February 2017 with 150,000 more to be returned. 52,000 chose to keep their cars. 67,000 diesel cars from model year 2015 were cleared for repairs, but left uncertainty about the future of 325,000 \"Generation One\" diesel VWs from the 2009-2014 model years, which use the \"lean NO\n x trap\" and would be harder to repair.\nIn March 2018, Reuters reported that 294,000 cars from the buyback program have been stored at 37 regional US staging sites; some of the first reported sites included: Colorado Springs, Colorado; Pontiac, Michigan; Baltimore, Maryland; San",
"-30.80285523290513"
],
[
"the 2010 model year except new colors.\nAlongside the second generation Hayabusa, Suzuki developed the new B-King, a naked bike in the streetfighter mold, using the same engine but with a different intake and exhaust. Sales Typically, a new sportbike model sells well in its first year, and then sees its numbers decline every year as it grows older. The Hayabusa reversed this pattern, selling in greater numbers every year from the 1999 launch through the 2008 revision. From its debut in 1999 to June 2007 over 100,000 Hayabusas were sold worldwide. In the United States in each of the years",
"-30.748686147853732"
],
[
"BYD S8 Sales In 2009 the car sold 96 models, and only seven cars in the full 2010 fiscal year. Production has now ceased. In all, the car sold only 103 models.",
"-30.748042049614014"
],
[
"200 new vehicles were released. 2009 and 2010 In 2009, Mattel released 42 New Models, 12 Treasure Hunts, 12 Track Stars, 24 Mystery Cars, 10 Segment Series of 10 cars, and introduced the Indy Car Series drivers.\nMattel released its first ever 3D CGI animated episodic television series called Hot Wheels Battle Force 5. The US-version of the series was debut on Cartoon Network on August 29, 2009. 2011 2011 saw the release of 244 cars beginning with the 2011 New Car Series which includes the Lamborghini Gallardo LP570-4 Superleggera, Custom 2011 Camaro, and the DeLorean time machine from the",
"-30.726178652141243"
],
[
"differences between the new series and the old. First, the models were no longer spray painted by hand. Second, the new models were made in a slightly bigger scale of 1:55. Models were now numbered in a four digit system – the first two designating the price range. Small cars traditionally had numbers that start in 10 or 13, but later on 08 and 14 were added. Larger vehicles including helicopters have various price range designations from 16 up. The second two digits are the model numbers within each price range. This uniform numbering system has since been applied to",
"-30.715389841934666"
],
[
"are a lot more expensive than in the past. But racers are very resourceful. These teams will find a way to make it work.\" Future NASCAR is currently developing the Generation 7 car, which is slated for a 2021 launch date. The rules package of the 2019 season will serve as the starting point of the new car's development. In addition, the Gen-7 is meant to attract new original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) to compete with Chevrolet, Ford, and Toyota. On October 7, 2019, it was announced that the car, now known as the Next Gen car, began its first testing",
"-30.694517206400633"
],
[
"were sold in nearly a decade. As recently as early 2007, almost 15 years after the last examples were sold, 96,421 examples were still reported to be in circulation, and four years on, as the 20th anniversary of its demise approaches, the number remaining on Britain's roads is likely to be still well into five figures. It compares particularly well to many other popular small cars in Britain of its era, particularly the British-built Austin Metro and Italian Fiat Uno. K11 The second incarnation of the Micra, the K11, was launched in the UK at the end of 1992, with",
"-30.658286769175902"
],
[
"2013 model year the sales price in the U.S. started at US$32,000 for the base model and US$39,525 for the advanced trim before any applicable government incentives. All trims had a US$760 delivery fee. In October 2013 Toyota announced a price reduction for the 2014 model year Prius Plug-in, cutting US$2,000 off the base price, and US$4,620 for the advanced version, in order to boost flagging sales. There were no changes in the vehicle content as compared to the 2013 model, and the price reduction took effect in November 2013, when deliveries of the new model year began. The 2017",
"-30.652902521076612"
],
[
"all American automobile manufacturers; the largest were offered by Cadillac, Lincoln, Imperial and Buick. During the 1970s, many examples were denoted by a \"Brougham\" trim level (in North America, Buick and Lincoln were the sole American nameplates not to offer one). \nFollowing the oil crises of the 1970s and 1980s, many American-produced cars underwent downsizing, coinciding with a shift by consumers away from glamour alone towards quality, feature content, and fuel economy. In 1991 and 1992, respectively, General Motors and Ford would introduce redesigned full-size cars for the last time. After the 1996 model year, General Motors phased out production",
"-30.612827149161603"
],
[
"on the Chevrolet Malibu, became optional on 4 cylinder models. GM revised the G6 in the middle of 2009, creating a \"2009.5\" model year. Changes consisted of a revised front and rear fascia as well as a revision of the dashboard, most notably adding an updated radio with Bluetooth capability. Coupes and convertibles ceased production at the end of the 2009 model year, making examples with the 2009.5 changes fairly rare. Subsequent to this model's introduction, General Motors entered bankruptcy, and announced that the G6 sedan would be discontinued in 2010. Most other Pontiac models had been discontinued, but",
"-30.590741043444723"
],
[
"from 1983's average of around 20 to about 10 cars by the end. When the series was terminated it was effectively replaced by a short-lived BRDC C2 Championship for prototypes.",
"-30.570359559031203"
],
[
"cars were sold during the first quarter of 2014, making the Model S the best selling new car in Norway during 2014 so far, capturing a 5.6% market share of new car sales. The Renault Zoe was officially launched in the Norwegian market in April 2014, and unlike other European countries, the Zoe is sold with the battery pack included.\nDuring the first half of 2014, the Model S, with 3,136 units sold, ranked as the second best selling new car in Norway with a market share of 4.3% of new car sales; and also was the top selling plug-in electric",
"-30.545513918274082"
],
[
"the Lancer and Major were replaced by the Morris Major Elite which was powered by a 1,622 cc (99.0 cu in) engine. North American exports 1959 Series I Riley One-Point-Fives were exported to North America by BMC in an attempt to capitalize on the growing imported car market. While not a sales success, a number of the cars remain on the road in the hands of collectors. As was a common practice in many jurisdictions, some cars were titled as 1960 model year cars because that was the year of their initial registration. Running changes The badging for the One-Point-Five was changed early",
"-30.515022447449155"
],
[
"years after the Mazda Luce in 1966.\nAt the Mark II's introduction in the late 1960s, Toyota was known as a small, economy car manufacturer. The Mark II allowed Toyota to establish itself as a more mainstream, international automaker and pursue new market opportunities. The Corona Mark II was sold as a larger companion to the Corona, while still being smaller than the Crown. The Mark II introduced a comfortable front-engine, rear-drive vehicle that was larger than older Toyotas while maintaining an affordable price and better fuel economy than vehicles with larger straight-six and V8 engines, and shared most of its",
"-30.34877854050137"
],
[
"alone to provide Citroën's large family or executive car in the model range.\nThe last DS came off the production line on 24 April 1975 - the manufacturer had taken the elementary precaution of building up approximately eight months of inventory of the \"break\" (estate/station wagon) version of the DS, to cover the period till the autumn of 1975, when the estate/station wagon version of the CX would be introduced. Development The DS always maintained its size and shape, with easily removable, unstressed body panels, but certain design changes did occur.\nDuring the 20-year production life improvements were made on an ongoing",
"-30.33489817528607"
],
[
"position of second-ranked automaker for the past 56 years, being relegated to third in North American sales after being overtaken by Toyota in 2007. That year, Toyota produced more vehicles than GM although GM still outsold Toyota. At that time, GM had 77 consecutive calendar years of top sales. For the first quarter of 2008, Toyota finally overtook GM in sales.\nIn the North American market, the Detroit automakers retained the top three spots, though their market share is dwindling. Honda passed Chrysler for the fourth spot in 2008 US sales. Since then, because of Toyota's controversy surrounding their recent",
"-30.309866013703868"
],
[
"starting in the first half of 2014. The new car is 98 mm longer, 44 mm wider, and 7 mm taller than the outgoing model, with a 28 mm longer wheelbase and an increase in track width (+42 mm front and +34 mm rear). The increase in size results in a larger interior and a boot volume increase to 211 litres. Development and production Before BMW's ownership, the traditional Mini had been made at both Cowley, Oxfordshire and Longbridge, Birmingham. In time, production was rationalised to just Longbridge and so this was where the last of the cars were made,",
"-30.303651659050956"
],
[
"model year will be the CT5 mid-size luxury sedan, replacing the CTS. It debuted at the 2019 New York International Auto Show and is expected to go on sale in the fall of 2019. Motorsport Before the outbreak of World War II, Cadillac (like most manufacturers) participated in various types of motorsport. Many Allard automobiles used Cadillac engines.\nIn the 1950s, Cadillac (like all American manufacturers at the time) participated in the NASCAR Grand National Series. The brand disappeared from the series by the 1960s.\nCadillac powered the Cadillac Northstar LMP a Le Mans Prototype in the early years of the",
"-30.28125592204742"
],
[
"lower numbers. In recent years the majority of cars advertised for sale in the UK have been imported from the US, with the number of registered cars in the UK rising from 330 in 2014 to 409 in late 2018.\nRestoration and maintenance costs are comparatively low for such a rare car, with many parts being available as all the tooling and parts stock was bought from Jensen by a UK company.\nThe ubiquitous Lotus 907 engine also has a plentiful supply of parts.",
"-30.278297992656007"
],
[
"eight new cars, including the BMW M2, the McLaren Mercedes MP4-25, and the Arash AF10. The Lunar New Year 2017 update in January 2017 added five new cars, including the Mercedes-Benz SLK 55 AMG Special Edition and the Lamborghini Aventador SV. The Car Blueprints update in March 2017 added six new cars, including the Chevrolet Corvette Grand Sport and the McLaren MP4-31.\nThe Porsche Update, which rolled out in the first week of June 2017, marks the first appearance of Porsche in the game series, with the addition of five Porsche cars; previous games in the series featured Ruf models in",
"-30.253660755231977"
],
[
"major car launch by Ford under the new \"One Ford\" policy for the 2010s was the third generation Focus in the spring of 2011. For Europe, the Focus featured a lesser model range than its predecessors, with only a five-door hatchback and five-door estate being sold there were no saloon or three-door hatchback versions although the former bodystyle was sold in some European nations. The larger Mondeo had been facelifted the previous autumn but this did little to halt dwindling sales over the next three years. Early 2013 saw the launch of a new-generation Kuga. \nIn 2013, Ford announced that",
"-30.213412276702"
],
[
"models also expanded from the initial coupés and sedans to taxis, buses, trucks, construction and other commercial vehicles. Even a steam engine and an ocean liner were offered. As new models were issued, each was assigned a number up to 110, replacing an existing model.\nIn the early 1980s, Tomy experienced financial difficulties, and in 1983 the domestic model line was reduced to only 80 models (nos. 1 – 80). These models were mainly packaged in picture boxes that had black background with yellow flaps. Later, new models came in a box with a red and white background (Rixon 2005, 99).",
"-30.127827735850587"
],
[
"not the same as the copyright date for the design of the entire car.) The date is usually the year before the car was first introduced, but it is sometimes the same year. For example, a car in the 2001 First Editions series called Evil Twin, was released in 2001 but the year dated on the bottom of the car is 2000.\nSince the year 2008, Hot Wheels cars have a code stamped into the base. This is a \"base code\". This base code can be used to identify exactly when an individual car was produced in the Hot Wheels factory.",
"-30.12417122536135"
],
[
"first time. The Astra was Britain's third-best selling car that year, while the Vectra and the Zafira (a compact MPV launched in 1999) were just outside the top 10. The second-generation Vectra was launched in 2002 and was further improved over earlier Vectras, but was still hardly a class-leader, and now had to be content with lower sales due to a fall in popularity of D-sector cars, although a facelift in 2005 sparked a rise in sales.\nIn 2003, Vauxhall Omega production ended after nine years, with no direct replacement, while the Meriva mini-MPV was launched. Perhaps the most important Vauxhall",
"-30.095093901036307"
],
[
"Model 3 was the \"Best Resale Value Award\" winner of all automobiles in the US market \"with a projected 69.3% resale value after 36 months and 48.7% after 60 months.\" Awards Popular Mechanics named the Tesla Model 3 as the magazine's 2018 Car of the Year. Model 3 was given the 2018 Design of the Year award by Automobile magazine.\nIn the United Kingdom, Model 3 was named 2019 Car of the Year by Auto Express magazine, and 2020 Car of the Year by Parkers magazine, where it was also named \"Best Electric Car\" and \"Best Company Car\", and won the",
"-30.057497700909153"
],
[
"Toyota Global ranking Toyota, which earlier was the world's third-largest automotive manufacturer behind American General Motors and Ford, produced for the first time in history more vehicles than Ford in 2005, and in 2006 even more than General Motors and has been the world's largest automotive manufacturer since then, except in 2011 when, triggered by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, it fell to the number 3 position behind General Motors and German Volkswagen Group. 1920s–1930s In 1924, Sakichi Toyoda invented the Toyoda Model G Automatic Loom. The principle of jidoka, which means the machine stops itself when a problem",
"-30.05054552888032"
],
[
"to keep up with modern standards, the last version was equipped with fuel injection and a catalytic converter, meeting Euro2 emission standards.\nSince the original model in 1969, constant change in automobile size meant that the 1310 was a compact sedan by the end of its production, despite having started life as a mid-size car. For a few months in 2004, Dacia offered three different small sedan models simultaneously.\nThe model scored solid sale numbers right up to its last day of production, mainly due to its low price, value for money, and easy and inexpensive maintenance. The sedan (\"Berlina\") and the",
"-30.0393701212015"
],
[
"the UK, where more than 2.3 million new cars were registered in 1989, but that figure fell to less than 1.6 million in 1991 (a drop of more than 30% in just two years). In Japan the XM was sold through Mazda's Eunos dealership chain, part of an effort to minimize the appearance of Japan's automobile market being closed to imports. It was also offered by Citroën's traditional importer Seibu Motor, who kept selling the XM by themselves after the Eunos brand was discontinued in 1996.\nThe market for executive cars made by volume manufacturers (Ford, Opel, etc.) was on the",
"-29.999699722393416"
],
[
"and Storage Facility in Burnaby.\nIn 2013, the oldest 114 Mark I cars began being refurbished to extend their intended lifespan another fifteen years, from 2011 to 2026. The refurbishment included an interior and exterior repainting (in the current blue–grey TransLink livery), removal of seats to increase capacity, and the replacement of various systems. As of July 2017, these original cars were all repainted, but not all refurbished. The project, which will ultimately see all Mark I cars updated, is expected to be finished in April 2020.\nAs of October 22, 2016, leading up to the opening of the Evergreen Extension on December 2,",
"-29.96980515215546"
],
[
"new \"Racing Car Pack\" DLC, there are 14 new touring cars that are based on cars in the game like the Honda CR-Z and the Toyota Prius. Also, there is a newer version of the Red Bull X2010 called the X2011. On December 20, 2011, Polyphony Digital released \"Car Pack 2\" which features 2 new Volkswagen vehicles, the Golf R and Scirocco R, the new 2012 Nissan GT-R Black Edition and the 2011 Mini Cooper S. On January 9, 2012, PD has released a concept video for the upcoming Acura NSX for the North American International Auto Show. However, Kazunori",
"-29.96502483729273"
],
[
" vehicles in December 2008.\nIn 2017 it was proposed to order additional middle cars to extend sets, with this taking place by 2023. No new driving cars would be ordered but as many services operate with two units joined currently it would be possible to reconfigure and release more units. Deliveries Supplied by Mitsui of Japan for approximately €400 million, the fleet was built by a partnership between Rotem of South Korea and Tokyu Car Corporation of Japan, who supplied the bogies. The first sets were delivered in March 2007, while the final sets were delivered in April 2012.\nIn March",
"-29.94254981400445"
],
[
"are new designs based on the original, the British cars are continuations of the original designs. The company officially reopened its business and began production in September 2018.",
"-29.94192803138867"
],
[
"and packages with fewer options for 2017. The new models debuted midyear 2016 as 2016.5 models. The new models included Touring, Limited Platinum, 200S Alloy Edition, and 200C Platinum, which replaced the Limited (Touring) and 200C (200C Platinum) models respectively. The 2017 model year production run was exactly four months, with enough dealer supply to last through midyear 2017. Discontinuation After its first year in production, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles CEO Sergio Marchionne said the Chrysler 200 would \"run its course\" under the current Compact US Wide architecture, pointing to the car being discontinued. While in his initial announcement of this",
"-29.939356686067185"
],
[
"50 years after closing down his grandson, Christian Borgward, together with his partner Karlheinz L. Knöss and with assistance from Chinese investors unveiled the company's first new car in over 40 years, the BX7 at the 2015 International Motor Show in Frankfurt.",
"-29.909698907868005"
],
[
"cars as fuel and money became increasingly worrisome problems after the 1973 oil crisis and the continuing double-digit domestic inflation.\nLacking the financial resources for a full redesign, AMC dropped the large Ambassador after 1974, while the Matador was discontinued after 1978, around the same time as Ford moved their full-size nameplates to a smaller platform. The downsized 1977 Chevrolet Impala also spelled doom for large intermediates from AMC and Chrysler. American Motors responded to the declining demand for large cars by introducing a new nameplate in 1978, the AMC Concord. The Concord was an upmarket restyling and positioning of the",
"-29.909460334471078"
],
[
"vehicle. However, Congressional action to rescind that regulation, which led automakers to discontinue the device and permitted dealers and garages to disconnect the device on cars so-equipped.\nSales dropped to 86,582 units thanks to an aging design, continued recession resulting from the 1973-74 energy crisis, substantially higher prices for all 1975-model cars due to that year's safety and emission control regulations, and intense competition from Ford's Cougar and Elite, and Chrysler Corporation's two new entries in this class including the Chrysler Cordoba and Dodge Charger SE.\nModel mix was 64,581 base J models, 7,146 SJs, and 14,855 of the new LJ. 1976 A",
"-29.905548177601304"
],
[
"the best-selling new car in Japan for three consecutive years, 2013 through 2015, the Toyota Aqua is considered the most successful nameplate launch in the Japanese market of the last 20 years. United States Sales of the Prius c began in the U.S. in March 2012, at a price starting at US$18,950 plus a US$760 destination charge. After three days in the American market, the carmaker announced that the Prius c became \"one of Toyota's fastest-selling vehicles.\" During its first month in the market, the Prius c sold 4,875 units, accounting for 17.0% of the Prius family sales in the",
"-29.902865471027326"
],
[
"sales of a single model regardless of its power source, with 1,493 units sold, surpassing the Ford Sierra, which sold 1,454 units in May 1986. In July 2016, when new car registrations are break down by type of powertrain, for the first time a plug-in hybrid, the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, listed as the top selling new car. In September 2016, the Tesla Model X ranked as the top selling new car model in Norway when registrations are broken down by type of powetrain. The BMW i3 was the top selling new passenger car in November 2016.\nThe Nissan Leaf, with 12,303",
"-29.875050735194236"
],
[
"it because of its Japanese rather than US-manufacture. A prototype Dodge Viper was substituted. 1994–1997 Z15A (2WS) and Z16A (4WS) Second generation models were internally designated Z15A (2WS) and Z16A (4WS) and featured a revised front bumper to accommodate projector beam headlights and small, round projector fog lights. They were presented in August 1993 in Japan and gradually made their way to other markets as the first generation cars sold out. Some markets didn't get a second generation car until 1996, such as the UK. The caps on the hood were replaced with integrated sheet metal blisters, and revised side",
"-29.86454179789871"
],
[
"merely rebadged versions of other cars available on the market, and sales figures generated by the disguised versions reinforced this. That is, the version of the car produced by the original manufacturer far surpassed the sales figures for the rebadged version.\nPoor sales of the rebadged cars and an unwillingness to embrace the forced relationship led to dissolution of UAAI. This occurred in March 1996. Production ended later in the year, although a large enough stockpile remained for some vehicles to remain in showrooms until 1997. Holden Apollo Introduced in 1989, the Holden Apollo was basically a badge-engineered Toyota Camry sedan",
"-29.820968198328046"
],
[
"an operating system for Review is pretty lackluster. There's nothing new as such and there's nothing we can really say that is going to change your opinion from its predecessor, 15.04. Therefore, we recommend you to upgrade either out of habit and according to your regular upgrade schedule rather than out of a specific necessity for a specific feature of this release. Because there is really nothing that could possibly differentiate it from the older, yet still very stable 15.04 release. But if you're going to stick with 15.04 for a little longer, we do recommend that you look at",
"-29.818715035449713"
],
[
"CX and the DS, which both raised the bar of automotive performance for other manufacturers.\nWith total sales over its lifetime of just 330,000 units in 11 years, and the fact that its replacement Citroën C6 was not launched until the end of 2005 (despite being scheduled for launch in 2001), the XM might be considered a failure. By the second half of the 1990s, sales were in sharp decline, but Citroën did not end production of the car until 2000.\nDespite its common roots with the Peugeot 605, the XM may still emerge as a collectible car, as the DS and",
"-29.805945341591723"
],
[
"1949 model year, finding it cheaper to sell and ship the cars to third-party vendors for customization.\nDespite its popularity with taxi firms, DeSoto being the second most popular manufacturer to the industry leader Checker, Chrysler's planned 1955 restyle and the spin-off of Chrysler's Imperial into its own distinct series spelled the end of the long-wheelbase Suburban at the end of the 1954 model year.",
"-29.80448425549548"
],
[
"Last automobiles produced The automobiles that came after the diversification process began, including the redesigned compact Lark (1959) and the Avanti sports car (1962), were based on old chassis and engine designs. The Lark, in particular, was based on existing parts to the degree that it even used the central body section of the company's 1953–58 cars, but was a clever enough design to be popular in its first year, selling over 130,000 units and delivering a $28.6 million profit to the automaker. \"S-P rose from 56,920 units in 1958 to 153,844 in 1959.\"\nHowever, Lark sales began to drop precipitously after",
"-29.792497765854932"
],
[
"1 January 1989. All vehicles changed to it (an exception was made for antique cars that keep the district system) and keep the same registration number for life. If a vehicle is, e.g., changed to commercial vehicle it gets commercial plates but they have the same registration number. All plates in the new system have validation stickers in the middle that indicate the year the vehicle is due for safety inspection.\nVanity plates are allowed that do not conflict with the new system. Some use it for their old district plate number but must use the new design, except for antique",
"-29.78766798216384"
],
[
"(100 km/h) was reduced to 6.7 seconds. 2014 model year update (2013–2017) in North American market Similar updates as those referred to as \"facelift\"-updates in the European market took place in the North American market as the 2014-model updates for the Ford Fiesta. These updates were first present in the Ford Fiesta 2014 (year model). The 2014 Ford Fiesta features redesigned front and rear fascias (whereas the 2013 year and previous models in North American market do not have the trapezoidal, facelift grille). \nThe SFE package based on the SE model includes a 1.0-litre three-cylinder EcoBoost engine. As of February",
"-29.779018651868682"
],
[
"launch of more competitive new products, including the New Beetle in 1998, the VW brand was back on firmer ground. Volkswagen of America went on to sell 355,648 cars in 2001, its best year since 1973. 2000s In the 2000s sales tapered off somewhat due to competition, quality issues and delays in product introductions, and VW's U.S. sales for 2005 totaled 224,195 – a reduction of about 37 percent from four years earlier. New models for the 2006 and 2007 model years, such as the Passat, Rabbit, and GTI resulted in a sales growth of 4.9% for 2006",
"-29.773143880069256"
],
[
"that to bear. Considering year one a development year, as with all of the one-year wonders, year two certainly would have had much more to offer. Alas St. Yves relates that his 1993 budget had actually been approved by Mazda USA in October 1992 but for Mazda Corporation to announce a month later they were pulling out of racing: “The 4-rotor engine was the only component of the car that came from Japan. We were informed a few days later that they were discontinuing the experimental engine program, which was the 4-rotor, and that was the demise of the RX-792P",
"-29.766256947543297"
],
[
"Renault replaces the 9/11 range with the R19. Launch of the Peugeot 405 in estate form.\n1989 - The Citroen CX saloon is discontinued after 15 years and replaced by the XM, which is voted European Car of the Year. The last Peugeot 305 models are built.\n1990 - Launch of the Renault Clio, a new small hatchback, which will eventually replace the R5. It is voted European Car of the Year. Citroen ends production of the 2CV after 42 years, the last two of which saw the car produced in Portugal.\n1991 - Peugeot partly replaces its hugely popular 205 with the",
"-29.74725140427472"
],
[
"slightly smaller 106, while Citroen re-enters the medium-sized hatchback market with its ZX, the first of two replacements for the ageing BX. The final versions of the CX are built after a production run of 17 years, with the estate model being axed two years after the saloon, to make way for the new XM estate. Peugeot launches a new entry-level model, the 106.\n1992 - PSA Peugeot Citroen establishes joint venture with Dongfeng Motor Corporation in China. Renault enters the city car market with the Twingo, which is only built for left-hand drive markets. Renault replaces the eight-year-old R25 with",
"-29.72645605960861"
],
[
"will remain in service until the 2030s. 7000-series The new 7000-series cars will replace the 2600-series and 3200-series cars and expand the fleet. The order is for 400 cars, with options for another 446 cars. If all options are picked up, the 846 car order will cost $1.3 billion. 10 prototype cars for testing to be delivered in late 2019 and then delivery of the production cars beginning in 2021. On March 9, 2016, the contract was awarded to CRRC Sifang America, with a bid that is $226 million lower than Bombardier's. However, on April 12, 2016, it",
"-29.689788931631483"
],
[
"total number of recalled vehicles in 2014 to 12.8 million worldwide, 11.1 million of which were in the United States.\nOn June 16, 2014, GM announced they were recalling 3.4 million more cars, all of which were produced from 2000 to 2004. They also announced that they intended to replace the cars' keys, because if they did not, the ignition switches could rotate, causing the car's engines to shut off, disabling power steering.\nOn June 30, 2014, GM announced they were going to recall 8.45 million additional cars, almost all of which were being recalled for defective ignition switches. This announcement brought",
"-29.67499887685699"
],
[
"and four-door sedan; the hatchbacks and wagon were discontinued. The interior was redesigned, including new seats, a new dashboard design with message center on top of the dashboard, ambient lighting, dashboard panels that simulate brushed aluminum, and Ford's voice-controlled Sync audio/Bluetooth system. Also included in the redesign was a support beam behind the dashboard for extra structural rigidity.\nThough informally considered as the second generation, it was never officially referred to as such by Ford since its platform was the same as the first generation. Third generation (2011–2018) For the third generation, Ford reunited both international and North American models by",
"-29.666771879739827"
],
[
"Ford Mondeo (first generation) Model Year changes May 1994\nA revised model line up was introduced as part of Ford launching a new 24v V6 engine version in the 24v and Ghia trim levels.\nMinor changes were made to the estate roof luggage rails design, the fuel flap/boot release handle surround was removed, the drivers under dash glove box lid was removed and black bumper paint details changed to be full body colour on all models, thinner 3 piece side door strips replaced the previous wide mouldings on some models.\nA revised MTX75 gearbox has hydraulic clutch operation and an electronic speedometer and",
"-29.662199715385213"
],
[
"cars replaced the old.",
"-29.64830221864395"
],
[
"of old models and convert the company into the assembly and production of cars on behalf of foreign automakers.",
"-29.633624812588096"
],
[
"such a bad reputation that the 1985 model year was their last. The J-body cars, namely the Chevrolet Cavalier and Pontiac Sunbird, took their place, starting with the 1982 model year. Quality was better, but still not exemplary, although good enough to survive through three generations to the 2005 model year. They were produced in a much-improved Lordstown Assembly plant, as were their replacements, the Chevrolet Cobalt and Pontiac Pursuit/G5. 1981–present Roger B. Smith served as CEO throughout the 1980s. GM profits struggled from 1981 to 1983 following the late 1970s and early 1980s recession. In 1981,",
"-29.629208847065456"
],
[
"the world, with 322 million motor vehicles registered at the end of September 2018. The United States has the highest vehicle ownership per capita in the world, with 832 vehicles in operation per 1000 people in 2016. Also, China became the world's largest new car market in 2009. In 2011, a total of 80 million cars and commercial vehicles were built, led by China, with 18.4 million motor vehicles manufactured. European Union The 27 European Union (EU-27) member countries had a fleet of over 256 million in 2008, and passenger cars accounted for 87% of the union's fleet. The five largest",
"-29.616888128046412"
],
[
" \nIn late 2016, 20 years after the original launched, Ford relaunched the Ka as the Ka+ which would now be a five-door hatchback made in India but hasn't enjoyed the popularity of the original car. Around the same time, a facelifted Kuga launched. \n2017 saw the big-selling Fiesta enter its seventh-generation. It retained the dimensions of its predecessor but with new styling and more new features than ever before while new additions to the range includes an upmarket Vignale version as well as an SUV-inspired version called the Active. \n20 years after the original model launched,",
"-29.611289605498314"
],
[
"the SN95 redesign), 104.2 inches (1983–1988 Thunderbird/Cougar), 105.5 inches (\"standard\"; sedans/wagons), and 108.5 inches (\"long\"; 1980 Thunderbird/Cougar XR7/ Continental Mark VII/ Lincoln Mark VII/ Lincoln Continental). 1983 model year changes During the early 1980s, the Fox platform would be involved in major changes to many Ford nameplates. In the marketplace, redesigns of the Ford Granada, Ford Thunderbird, and Mercury Cougar had been poorly received by consumers, leading to a collapse in sales for all three nameplates from 1980 to 1982. In addition, fuel prices had stabilized to the point where consumers had shifted back to full-size cars, leading",
"-29.604163624579087"
],
[
"cars had the highest sales. However, sales have been in decline in recent years, falling from 70,000 sales per month in 2014 to 47,000 sales per month in 2016.\nIn Italy, A-segment cars represented 14.9% of car sales in the first half of 2018.\nAs of 2019, only few A-segment cars had successes outside Europe, such as Hyundai Grand i10, Kia Picanto, Suzuki Celerio (also sold under Maruti brand), Ford Figo, smart fortwo, Citroen C1, Peugeot 108, modern Fiat 500 and BMW Mini. Current models The top five selling A-segment cars in Europe are the Fiat 500, Fiat Panda, Volkswagen Up!, Toyota",
"-29.588622415671125"
],
[
"Opel Insignia Production In December 2006, What Car? announced that Vauxhall was to ditch the Vectra nameplate from the previous model. Then General Motors Europe president, Carl-Peter Forster, leaked the news to BusinessCar, explaining that the all new car would be \"a radical departure\" from the current model, and that the \"Vectra\" name would be dropped to reflect this change.\nIn March 2007, What Car? reported the car would première at the 2008 British International Motor Show. Previously, it was thought it would première at the 2008 Geneva Motor Show. In October 2005, Auto Express produced computer generated images, which showed",
"-29.587306800705846"
]
] |
2brrav | Why don't we see clearly without goggles underwater? | [
"There's a very fine thin layer of salty water over your eyes, which protects your eyes and cleans them from dust and other small particles. When this protective layer gets in contact with another fluid, it will flow together. This is just what fluids do (*#justfluidthings*). The thin layer is now distorted and your eye cant make up for the light distortion, causing your vision to go blurry. Wearing goggles prevent the water from touching your eye. This also happens when you cry, even with goggles on. Source: Not a doctor, but I know chemistry and stuff",
"From what I understand, light travels differently through air and through water. Our eyes developed for vision in air, and are unable to focus accurately under water. Some people have trained themselves to purposely \"unfocus\" their eyes while underwater to attain better visual acuity.",
"Our eyes are \"calibrated\" for the index of refraction in air. When a ray of light passes from air into the lens of our eye, the change in the index of refraction of air to that of the lens bends it just the right amount to focus it properly on your retina. The amount of bend is determined by the difference in the index of refraction between the two mediums (air and lens) . Because water has a different index of refraction, when light passes from water into your lens the lens doesn't bend the light enough to focus properly on your retina. Goggles fix this by letting the light transition from water to a little bit of air through a flat surface, which minimizes distortion from that change. Then the light proceeds to your eyeball through the normal air-lens transition, and everything looks good.",
"I remember reading about an island where the people had adapted to living around the ocean for so long they can actually see underwater clearly."
] | [
[
"deep side of the glass, they would become scared and they would tense up and be afraid to move. However, when they were moved to the shallow side they would relax and jump onto the visually shallow surface. This showed that visual sense, instead of the ability of the animal to feel the stableness of the glass, was in control. Criticisms One of the criticisms of the visual cliff study was whether the research in the study really supported the hypothesis that depth perception was innate in humans. One issue was about the glass over the deep part of the",
"-29.020841407007538"
],
[
"fixed, manoeuvrable sail and water skiing, where a powerboat is used to pull a skier.\nBeneath the surface, freediving is necessarily restricted to shallow descents. Pearl divers have traditionally greased their skins, put cotton in their ears and clips on their noses and dived to 40 feet (12 m) with baskets to collect oysters. Human eyes are not adapted for use underwater but vision can be improved by wearing a diving mask. Other useful equipment includes fins and snorkels, and scuba equipment allows underwater breathing and hence a longer time can be spent beneath the surface. The depths that can be reached",
"-28.665730083128437"
],
[
"if in close proximity, when the recipient can feel the shape of the signaller's hand and thereby identify the signal being given. At night the signal can be illuminated by the diver's light. Hand signals are the primary method of underwater communication for recreational scuba divers, and are also in general use by professional divers, usually as a secondary method.\nDivers who are familiar with a sign language such as American sign language and equivalents may find it useful underwater, but there are limitations due to the difficulty of performing some of the gestures intelligibly underwater with gloved hands and often",
"-28.099350039847195"
],
[
"diver can feel with his hands while proceeding along the pattern. When visibility is better, it depends on the distance at which the target can be seen from the pattern, or detected by sonar or magnetic field anomalies. In all cases the search pattern should completely cover the search area without excessive redundancy or missed areas. Overlap is needed to compensate for inaccuracy and sensor error, and may be necessary to avoid gaps in some patterns. Diver searches Diver searches are underwater searches carried out by divers. There are a number of techniques in general use by Commercial, Scientific, Public",
"-27.923826860438567"
],
[
"enhanced sight to zoom-in on an object that is far away, his eyes often become completely white, with no visible irises or pupils. Thanks to his enhanced vision and reflexes, he can accurately perceive objects in motion that a normal person would see only as a blur. Miguel's hearing is also enhanced, though not to the extent of his vision.\nSpinnerets in his forearms enable him to fire an organic adhesive substance from the top of his wrists, usable in a wide variety of ways. Like the original Spider-Man (Peter Parker), Spider-Man 2099 can travel at high speeds swinging on \"web-lines\"",
"-27.898451607878087"
],
[
"can see to the sides plus width of the target in good visibility. Care must be taken to always shift the movable jackstay in the same direction. This can be easily confused in low visibility, so a compass can be used to prevent this problem.\nThe divers then repeat this process until they find the object or run out of fixed jackstay, time or air. When a diver finds the object he should signal this to the other diver by rope pulls. The second diver can join him to confirm the finding and mark it or continue the search. If the",
"-27.439277893630788"
],
[
"displaying proper lighting for such, to inform other vessels that a single-handed boat is not able to perform avoidance maneuvers because the crew is asleep. No legal cases have arisen to date to adjudicate whether or not such an approach is legal, because single-handed sailing is rare and examples of collisions caused by single-handed sailing are difficult to find.\nFinally, sensor technology has reached the point where a proper watch can be maintained by electronics that alert humans. In fact the COLREGs require electronic watch-keeping if technologies such as radar are aboard the vessel. Unmanned ocean-going drones already exist and will",
"-26.649338158240425"
],
[
"from Jacques-Yves Cousteau's 1953 book The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure. Limitations The primary difficulty in underwater camera usage is sealing the camera from water at high pressure, while maintaining the ability to operate it. The diving mask also inhibits the ability to view the camera image and to see the monitoring screen clearly through the camera housing. Previously the size of the video camera was also a limiting factor, necessitating large housings to enclose the separate camera and record deck. This results in a larger volume which creates extra buoyancy requiring a corresponding use",
"-26.53307454730384"
],
[
"in the area, as well as the technology used. To simplify, passive sonar \"sees\" around the ship using it. On a submarine, nose-mounted passive sonar detects in directions of about 270°, centered on the ship's alignment, the hull-mounted array of about 160° on each side, and the towed array of a full 360°. The invisible areas are due to the ship's own interference. Once a signal is detected in a certain direction (which means that something makes sound in that direction, this is called broadband detection) it is possible to zoom in and analyze the signal received (narrowband analysis). This",
"-26.494757435342763"
],
[
"of the way, protected from strong water flow, contamination and snags, and where the diver can notice if it leaks—but remains accessible without requiring the use of hands, as divers can pick up the mouthpiece by dipping their chin. This arrangement is slightly more cumbersome to use and requires greater skill to wear, deploy and recover. Benefits may not outweigh disadvantages for open water divers in relatively low hazard conditions. Donating the octopus The octopus is usually clearly marked, the convention is a yellow hose and yellow second stage though a luminescent green is sometimes favoured. Many dive equipment",
"-25.976146270753816"
],
[
"that provides a natural, clean and healthy glow is acceptable. In Canada, eye makeup must be smaller than a circle made by the swimmers thumb and forefinger, and be used solely for \"natural enhancement\".\nUnderwater speakers ensure that swimmers can hear the music and aid their ability to synchronize with each other. Routines are prepared and set to counts in the music, to further ensure synchronization. Coaches use underwater speakers to communicate with the swimmers during practice. Goggles, though worn during practice, are not permitted during routine competition. Figures A standard meet begins with the swimmers doing \"figures\", which are progressions",
"-25.929728126095142"
],
[
"allowing the boat to approach with caution while the diver ascends. The search pattern is controlled by the skipper of the boat, and may follow a GPS defined route. If the visibility is good enough or the water shallow, the divers can search while towed at the surface. Searches using hand held submersible sonar transponders Active (transponders that emit a signal and measure the return signal strength to determine obstructions in a given direction) or passive (transponders which measure a signal emitted by the target) sonar can be used by divers on underwater searches.\nA signal transmitter attached to the target",
"-25.546698232763447"
],
[
"their eyes and move it slowly towards the picture, maintaining focus on the finger at all times, until they are correctly focused on the spot that will allow them to view the illusion.\nStereoblindness, however, is not known to permit the usages of any of these techniques, especially for persons in whom it may be, or is, permanent.",
"-25.52049194528081"
],
[
"dolphin named Zoom appears in one of the screens. If the Neptune touches Zoom, one of two beneficial effects happen: either the Neptune's Oxygen is restored to full, or (if the Neptune currently has full Oxygen) the Neptune gets one extra Tank. The player is limited to six Tanks. In many cases, when the player reaches the screen where Zoom is located, Zoom will immediately attempt to swim off-screen, and the player must catch him before he escapes; if Zoom escapes the player this way, he will not respawn unless the player loses a Tank or reloads the game. Zoom",
"-25.34475323749939"
],
[
"in clearing the ears before being allowed to dive. Because of the potential for side effects of the valsalva maneuver, scuba divers and free-divers may train to exercise the muscles that open the Eustachian tubes in a gentler manner. The French underwater association (Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins) has produced a series of exercises using the tongue and soft palate to assist a diver in clearing their ears by these techniques. These recommendations were based on work done at the Médecine du sport, Bd st Marcel, Paris.\nWith practice it is possible to close the nostrils hands-free by contracting",
"-25.22282558795996"
],
[
"swim the entire way back out. The underwater navigation through the cave system may be difficult and exit routes may be at considerable distance, requiring the diver to have sufficient breathing gas to make the journey. The dive may also be deep, resulting in potential deep diving risks.\nVisibility can vary from nearly unlimited to low, or non-existent, and can go from one extreme to the other in a single dive. While a less-intensive kind of diving called cavern diving does not take divers beyond the reach of natural light (and typically no deeper than 100 feet (30 m)), and penetration not",
"-25.147739213192835"
],
[
"is sometimes applied to the inside to help cut down on glare. The slits are made narrow not only to reduce the amount of light entering but also to improve the visual acuity. The greater the width of the slits the larger the field of view. Terminology Like other Inuit language words, such as inukhuk/inuksuk, a different word may be used in different dialects. In the Kivalliq dialect, ilgaak (ᐃᓪᒑᒃ) is used, while the North Baffin dialect uses iggaak (ᐃᒡᒑᒃ). Both words are also used to refer to sunglasses.\nIn Central Yup'ik, snow goggles are called nigaugek, while in Cup'ig they",
"-25.099187141517177"
],
[
"the use to move the mouse to control the flashlight in order to show a number of deep sea animals, such as jellyfish, gulper eels and squids This again worked on the basic skill of controlling the pointer by the use of moving the mouse. Once all of the animals have been illuminated, an animation showed the scuba diver traveling along holding onto an ascending whale's fin. Point-and-click In the next activity, set on a coral reef, the user was required to move the pointer to the puffer fish, and then click the mouse button on the fish. The user",
"-25.06673451347524"
],
[
"by staring at a fixed single point of light (ground light or a star) in a totally dark and featureless background. The reason why this visual illusion occurs is because of very small movements of the eyes. In conditions with poor visual cues accompanied by a single source of light, these eye movements are interpreted by the brain as movement of the object being viewed. This illusion can cause a misperception that such a light is on a collision course with the aircraft.\nPlanets or stars in the night sky can often cause the illusion to occur. ",
"-24.997870342689566"
],
[
"Upside down goggles Upside down goggles, also known as \"invertoscope\" by Russian researchers, are an optical instrument that inverts the image received by the retinas upside down. It is used to study human visual perception, particularly psychological process of building a visual image in the brain. Objects viewed through the device appear upside down and mirrored. They are constructed using sets of optical right-angle prisms, Dove prisms, or a mirror plus right-angle prisms with unequal catetus. Purpose Upside down goggles can be used to demonstrate human adaptation to inverted vision, and as a method of preventing motion sickness. Hubert Dolezal",
"-24.953232817468233"
],
[
"vessels where it may be too dark due to low natural light or turbid water to see the way to the side of the hull. The bottom of the largest ships is mostly flat and featureless, exacerbating the problem. Only surface supplied diving is authorised for this work in most jurisdictions, as this not only secures the diver's breathing gas supply, but also provides a guideline to the exit point. The use of mechanised bottom scrubbing devices which are steered along the hull surface by a diver and scrub it with rotary brushes has been linked with high release of",
"-24.80948672273371"
],
[
"whale is sufficiently inquisitive about whatever it is viewing. Generally, the whale does not appear to swim by fluke propulsion to maintain its \"elevated\" position while spyhopping, instead relying on exceptional buoyancy control and positioning with pectoral fins. Typically the whale's eyes will be slightly above or below the surface of the water, enabling it to see whatever is nearby on the surface. The great white shark and oceanic whitetip shark have also been known to spyhop.\nSpyhopping often occurs during a \"mugging\" situation, where the focus of a whale's attention is on a boat, such as whale-watching tours, which they",
"-24.70687042582358"
],
[
"Underwater searches Underwater searches are procedures to find a known or suspected target object or objects in a specified search area under water. They may be carried out underwater by divers, manned submersibles, remotely operated underwater vehicles, or autonomous underwater vehicles, or from the surface by other agents, including surface vessels, aircraft and cadaver dogs.\nA search method attempts to provide full coverage of the search area. This is greatly influenced by the width of the sweep which largely depends on the method used to detect the target. For divers in conditions of zero visibility this is as far as the",
"-24.43664914375404"
],
[
"perched on a 37-metre (120 ft) ledge, as \"disastrous\". Pitch-black conditions with large furniture drifting around made the rescue operation hazardous. Divers would find a path into the ship and tie down obstacles such as mattresses, before making noise to alert trapped people. The divers worked in pairs for safety and searched each assigned area slowly in a zig-zag manner. The search dives were planned as 40 minutes in duration, with sufficient extra compressed air in the scuba tanks in case of emergency. The divers had two headlamps positioned on their helmets because underwater visibility varied from approximately 5 to 60 cm.",
"-24.36252389178844"
],
[
"is masked by a larger object on the sea bed when approach from one side, and particularly where only one diver is available to do the search. Safety It is important to note that divers should be well trained before attempting this type of search. Solo divers should be used only when a risk assessment indicates that the risks are acceptable, and preferably should indicate their position with a surface marker or be in communication with the surface by line or voice. Snag-line search When the object of the search is large enough and of suitable form to snag a",
"-24.354901646496728"
],
[
"of being run down and of being lost at the surface. It also provides an additional flotation device in case of fatigue. Signalling the boat If the boat cannot see a diver at the surface, the diver can use several methods to be more visible, and once seen, can indicate to the boat whether they are in difficulty or not. Diving from an anchored boat When using the anchor line to control ascents and descents, a \"tag line\" (or \"lead line\") may be used between the anchor line and the stern of the vessel, to allow secure transfer between these",
"-24.35031299944967"
],
[
"from a fixed reference, or will be surfacing in an area with boat traffic, or need to indicate their position to the dive boat or surface team.\nA group of moored surface marker buoys may be used to demarcate an area in which diving is taking place. This is more likely to be used by commercial, scientific or public service divers to cordon off a work or search area, or an accident or crime scene. Ultrasonic wearables The Buddy-Watcher is a wrist mounted buddy alert device which sends an ultrasonic signal when a key is pressed, for at least 20 metres",
"-24.29629099671729"
],
[
"recommended to use upside down goggles for \"nausea adaptation\" for space travel.\nThey can also be used to train spatial abilities and possibly cognitive functions. Effect Under normal circumstances, an inverted image is formed on the retina of the eye. With the help of upside down goggles, the image on the retina of the observer's eyes is turned back (straightened) and thus the space around the observer looks upside down. History George M. Stratton designed first upside down goggles for psychological experiment. His device used short-focus lenses. Stratton used a one-tubus, monocular device because this also reverses left and right and",
"-24.25188241180149"
],
[
"of American, Australian, British, French, German, Greek, Italian and Spanish swimming and diving equipment manufacturers. Meanwhile, in 1957, the US monthly product-testing magazine Consumer Reports concludes that \"snorkel-masks have some value for swimmers lying on the surface while watching the depths in water free of vegetation and other similar hazards, but they are not recommended for a dive 'into the blue'\". According to an underwater swimming equipment review in the British national weekly newspaper The Sunday Times in December 1973, \"the mask with inbuilt snorkel is doubly dangerous (...) A ban on the manufacture and import of these masks is",
"-24.06117777246982"
],
[
"up and down) will appear to move in depth, either toward or away from the viewer.\nBecause the Pulfrich effect depends on motion in a particular direction to instigate the illusion of depth, it is not useful as a general stereoscopic technique. For example, it cannot be used to show a stationary object apparently extending into or out of the screen; similarly, objects moving vertically will not be seen as moving in depth. Incidental movement of objects will create spurious artifacts, and these incidental effects will be seen as artificial depth not related to actual depth in the scene. Many",
"-23.9497125238413"
],
[
"38-passenger (now 40-passenger) seating area was positioned below the water level. Portholes along the sides allowed guests to view the many underwater sights. Above the seating area was the conning tower, where the operator stood and controlled the sub's speed. The \"diving\" effect was made by bubble screens and using the waterfalls at the entrance to the caves that led the submarines into the cleverly disguised show building. The bubble jets can be seen from outside if one were to look just past the loading dock. In case of a broken porthole, a cushion in the conning tower could be",
"-23.7316934610717"
],
[
"been coined in the 1880s by French ophthalmologist Émile Javal, who used a mirror on one side of a page to observe eye movement in silent reading, and found that it involves a succession of discontinuous individual movements. Function Humans and many animals do not look at a scene in fixed steadiness; instead, the eyes move around, locating interesting parts of the scene and building up a mental, three-dimensional 'map' corresponding to the scene (as opposed to the graphical map of avians, that often relies upon detection of angular movement on the retina). When scanning immediate surroundings or reading, human",
"-23.67801283625886"
],
[
"propel itself underwater. While swimming, the head was held up but the neck was drawn in. This species was capable of banking, veering, and turning underwater. The great auk was known to dive to depths of 76 metres (249 ft) and it has been claimed that the species was able to dive to depths of 1 kilometre (3,300 ft). To conserve energy, most dives were shallow. It also could hold its breath for 15 minutes, longer than a seal. Its ability to dive so deeply reduced competition with other alcid species. The great auk was capable of accelerating underwater, then shooting out",
"-23.619594574905932"
],
[
"data. If one were to be able to observe nothing other than the stick in the water, with no previous information, it would appear that the stick was bent. Visual depth in particular is a set of inferences, not an actual experience of the space between things in a radial direction outward from the observation point. If all empirical evidence is based upon observation then the entire developed memory and knowledge of every perception and of each sense may be as skewed as the bent stick. Since objects with different qualities are experienced from each of the different perspectives there",
"-23.593667201290373"
],
[
"they dive from land or from a surface boat, rarely or never from an underwater craft, and willingly advertise their presence for their own safety; but recent multiplication in sport rebreather use may have changed that somewhat.\nIn the past, when scuba diving was less common, many non-divers, including police, patrol and guards, knew little about diving and did not know of this difference in diving gear, but described all divers as \"frogmen\". One result was an incident in the inter-ethnic crisis in Cyprus in 1974 when a tourist was arrested for suspected spying because \"frogman's kit\" was found in his",
"-23.58343350351788"
],
[
"Towed searches One or two divers can be towed behind a boat at speeds up to 3.5 or 4 km per hour to do visual searches. They steer and control their depth by using a tow board, which may be equipped with a safety quick disconnect mechanism and drop-floats to mark targets.\nSuitable for searching large area in good visibility for a large target. The diver must be careful not to ascend too quickly. When a target is seen the diver will disconnect the board and send up a marker buoy, which will indicate the position of the target and the diver,",
"-23.558178660285193"
],
[
"out because of his passion for the ocean.\nIn Toulon, where he was serving on the Condorcet, Cousteau carried out his first underwater experiments, thanks to his friend Philippe Tailliez who in 1936 lent him some Fernez underwater goggles, predecessors of modern swimming goggles. Cousteau also belonged to the information service of the French Navy, and was sent on missions to Shanghai and Japan (1935–1938) and in the USSR (1939).\nOn 12 July 1937 he married Simone Melchior, with whom he had two sons, Jean-Michel (born 1938) and Philippe (1940–1979). His sons took part in the adventures of the Calypso. In 1991,",
"-23.546091442811303"
],
[
"for universal use, which are taught to diving students early in their entry level diving courses. Hand signals may also have more than one variation that may benefit when one hand is occupied, or in limited visibility. Underwater slates Underwater slates are useful when there is more detailed information to communicate or remember. A large variety of designs are available. Some clip to the divers BCD, some fit into pockets, some integrated with other units such as the compass and some attach to the wrist or forearm with bungee straps. The basic parts comprise just an underwater",
"-23.524139165587258"
],
[
"Department of Fish and Game, to capture sea otters underwater for a relocation program, successfully used a net cage apparatus front-mounted on a Dacor Scooter diver propulsion vehicle steered by a diver with a silent bubbleless closed circuit oxygen rebreather. It is not known if a similar larger device has ever been used to capture divers underwater. Suction A suction device might make an area suction effect in the open, or might be a suction tube extended at the frogman, who may be sucked against an opening and so held, or may be sucked inside.\nSuch devices on a small scale",
"-23.494901720318012"
],
[
"lights could be observed. The ship continued sailing on her course and the Chatham Light was expected to be seen, but due to poor visibility no lights were seen again, nor could they hear a whistling buoy off the Old Harbor bar. After consulting his log, captain Bunnell came to conclusion that he probably overtravelled on his current path, and ordered the vessel to turn in-shore for a short time to try to find the lights. He also ordered the crew to make sounding and it showed it was still deep enough to continue sailing. \n After a while, at",
"-23.47155996283982"
],
[
"could see on the water, below the ship in the air, one precisely like it. Just then another ship was seen in the air, only this one was a steamship, and was bottom-upwards, as the captain had said these mirages generally appeared. Soon after, the steamship itself came in sight. The sailors were now convinced, and never afterwards believed in phantom-ships.\nAnother optical effect known as looming occurs when rays of light are bent across different refractive indices. This could make a ship just off the horizon appear hoisted in the air. Adaptations There is a 20-foot one-design high-performance two-person monohull",
"-23.435884596954565"
],
[
"teeth and maintain a seal around it with the lips. Over a long dive this can induce jaw fatigue, and for some people, a gag reflex. Various styles of mouthpiece are available off the shelf or as customised items, and one of them may work better if either of these problems occur.\nThe frequently quoted warning against holding one's breath on scuba is a gross oversimplification of the actual hazard. The purpose of the admonition is to ensure that inexperienced divers do not accidentally hold their breath while surfacing, as the expansion of gas in the lungs could over-expand the lung",
"-23.41989216770162"
],
[
"a zoomed-in bird's eye view. The camera can be rotated using the left analog stick and the map scrolled as desired, although only features (e.g. monsters) which characters can currently see are shown. In dimly lit environments, torches or the use of darkvision are required to achieve full visibility.\nThe game uses a menu-based action system, where a character is selected and his or her actions are then selected from a series of branching menu options. In \"exploration mode\", where no monsters are currently nearby, characters can take turns in any order, with the same character able to act again and",
"-23.41435008638655"
],
[
"is a simple device which uses a mirror in a box to create an illusion in which the sensory system perceives that it is seeing two hands instead of one, therefore allowing the sensory system to control the \"phantom limb\". By doing this, the sensory system can gradually get acclimated to the amputated limb, and thus alleviate this syndrome. Other animals Hydrodynamic reception is a form of mechanoreception used in a range of animal species.",
"-23.354868461814476"
],
[
" They can normally be used coming into and out of the channel. When lit, they are also usable at night. Customarily, the upper mark is up-hill from the lower (forward) mark. The mariner will know the geometry of the marks/lights from the navigational chart and can understand that when \"open\" (not one above the other) the ship needs to be navigated to \"close\" the marks (so one is above the other) and be in the preferred line of the channel.\nIn some cases, the lead marks/lights are provided by lasers, as in the laser channel under the Tasman Bridge on",
"-23.287906758487225"
],
[
"ship. To address this, cameras are sometimes placed in the front of the vessel to cover the missing field of view.\nBlind spots exist where areas behind the sail are obscured from the view of a helmsman on a sailboat or windsurfer. This is especially true when they are heeled over; consequently, transparent windows are sometimes sewn into the sails.",
"-23.238125241012312"
],
[
"medium of air, causing a transformation that conforms to the shape around it, sending this signal back to the eye. An analogy to describe this phenomenon is offered by Hunayn:\nIf a person is walking in the dark and holds a stick in his hand and stretches it out full length before him, and the stick encounters an object which prevents it from advancing further, he knows immediately by analogy that the object preventing the stick from advancing is a solid body which resists anything that comes up against it...it is the same with vision.\nIn other words, the air acts as",
"-23.17507476301398"
],
[
"dipping sonar can be on the aircraft or on ship. Dipping sonar has the advantage of being deployable to depths appropriate to daily conditions. Helicopters have also been used for mine countermeasure missions using towed sonars such as the AQS-20A. Underwater communications Dedicated sonars can be fitted to ships and submarines for underwater communication. Ocean surveillance For many years, the United States operated a large set of passive sonar arrays at various points in the world's oceans, collectively called sound surveillance system (SOSUS) and later integrated undersea surveillance system (IUSS). A similar system is believed to have been operated",
"-23.15928854746744"
],
[
"and to avert the possibility of a collision with the dive boat which may be unable to maneuver out of the way. Surface marker buoys Permanently buoyant or inflatable surface marker buoys may be used to identify and/or mark the presence of a diver below. These may be moored, as a shotline, and indicate the general area with divers, or tethered to one of the divers by a line, indicating the location of the group to people at the surface. This type of buoy is usually brightly coloured for visibility, and may be fitted with one of the diving flag",
"-23.056899923885794"
],
[
"sound device so that their movements can be tracked from aboard the research vessel. Such vessels themselves are equipped with state -of-art navigational instruments, such as satellite navigation systems, and global positioning systems that keep the vessel in a live position relative to a sonar beacon on the bottom of the ocean. Oceanographic submersibles Because of the high pressure, the depth to which a diver can descend without special equipment is limited. The deepest recorded made by a skin diver is 127 m (417 ft). Revolutionary new diving suits, such as the \"JIM suit,\" allows divers to reach depths up to",
"-23.035261221055407"
],
[
"effect to the swimline visual search, and the techniques can be combined. Depth contour search Steeply sloping bottoms can sometimes be effectively searched by divers swimming at constant depth, following the contours of the bottom. Depth control may be by gauge, but is very effectively managed by towing a surface marker buoy with the line length set to the desired depth, provided that the surface is not too rough. Communication Most public safety divers and many recreational divers communicate by line signals while conducting searches underwater. By surface vessels Surface vessels can search underwater using sonar and magnetometer detection equipment.",
"-22.99952560220845"
],
[
"the eyes in any direction to relocate gaze direction (the direction of sight that corresponds to the fovea), but normally saccades do not rotate the eyes torsionally. (Torsion is clockwise or counterclockwise rotation around the line of sight when the eye is at its central primary position; defined this way, Listing's law says that, when the head is motionless, torsion is kept at zero.)\nHead-fixed saccades can have amplitudes of up to 90° (from one edge of the oculomotor range to the other), but in normal conditions saccades are far smaller, and any shift of gaze larger than about 20° is",
"-22.993445565516595"
],
[
"special hardware is required; most people can perceive the effect more quickly than when using cross-eyed and parallel viewing techniques. Furthermore, it offers stereo-like depth also to people with limited or no vision in one eye.\nDisadvantages of wiggle stereoscopy are that it does not provide true binocular depth perception; it is not suitable for print media, being limited to displays that can alternate between the two images, and it is difficult to appreciate details in images that are constantly in motion. Number and timing of images Most wiggle images use only two images, yielding a jerky image. A smoother image",
"-22.980327982833842"
],
[
"the diver(s).\nENOS is designed for emergencies associated with a diver(s) surfacing too far from the boat to swim back. For example, when divers have been swept away from their vessel by a current or when they can't see the boat because of poor weather. \nTo send an emergency signal, the diver switches on the transmitter. This will send the signal and the diver's GPS position back to the boat's receiver. \nWhen the receiver picks up the diver's alert, it automatically determines the boat's GPS position and calculates the vessel's distance and bearing to the diver's position. The results are",
"-22.97811739280587"
],
[
"Argument from illusion Overview Naturally-occurring illusions best illustrate the argument's points, a notable example concerning a stick: I have a stick, which appears to me to be straight, but when I hold it underwater it seems to bend and distort. I know that the stick is straight and that its apparent flexibility is a result of its being seen through the water, yet I cannot change the mental image I have of the stick as being bent. Since the stick is not in fact bent its appearance can be described as an illusion. Rather than directly perceiving the stick, which",
"-22.975751064601354"
],
[
"dip in the ocean floor or has just left it behind. The resulting distortion depends on both the speed of the vessel and how often the image is updated by the echo sounder. Fish arches With the Fish Symbol feature disabled, an angler can learn to distinguish between fish, vegetation, schools of baitfish or forage fish, debris, etc. Fish will usually appear on the screen as an arch. This is because the distance between the fish and the transducer changes as the boat passes over the fish (or the fish swims under the boat). When the fish",
"-22.900184241414536"
],
[
"seafloor or floating in the water column, because dolphins can use their echolocative abilities to detect mines. The sea lion team retrieved test equipment such as fake mines or bombs dropped from planes usually out of reach of divers who would have to make multiple dives. MK6 protects harbors and ships from enemy divers, and was operational in the Gulf War and Vietnam War. The dolphins would swim up behind enemy divers and attach a buoy to their air tank, so that they would float to the surface and alert nearby Navy personnel. Sea lions would hand-cuff the enemy, and",
"-22.87512606085511"
],
[
"obtain an accurate position. The periscope—a retractable tube with a prism system that provides a view of the surface—is only used occasionally in modern submarines, since the visibility range is short. The Virginia-class and Astute-class submarines use photonics masts rather than hull-penetrating optical periscopes. These masts must still be deployed above the surface, and use electronic sensors for visible light, infrared, laser range-finding, and electromagnetic surveillance. One benefit to hoisting the mast above the surface is that while the mast is above the water the entire sub is still below the water and is much harder to detect visually or",
"-22.86758510954678"
],
[
"Alternobaric vertigo In aviation and underwater diving, alternobaric vertigo is dizziness resulting from unequal pressures being exerted between the ears due to one Eustachian tube being less patent than the other. Causes This might have occurred due to barotrauma of descent, and/or the effects of nasal decongestants. It is due to unequal increase in middle ear pressures on ascent, is usually mild, and most often cleared by further ascent. When the pressures in both ears reach ambient levels, the stimulus for the dizziness stops. Although most often mild, the vertigo can persist until the diver reaches the surface continuing the",
"-22.826959463884123"
],
[
"sport diving intruders may keep away on seeing visible clearly marked patrol boats and surface barriers. Shooting Ordinary bullet-firing firearms may be useful (as a lethal weapon) against divers on the surface or men in boats or ashore, but underwater are inaccurate and very short range.\nShotguns (probably pump-action, when used as a security squad weapon) may be effective when the target is out of water, but are even less useful underwater and barrel is likely to explode.\nSpecial underwater firearms have been designed for use underwater: see #Underwater firearms below Depth charge A depth charge is effective, and may be lethal,",
"-22.803265173221007"
],
[
"While this has been depicted in many stories and legends, there is no clear evidence that this has ever happened. Luring ships to wreck with false lights There are legends that some ships were deliberately lured into danger by a display of false lights. John Viele, retired U. S. Navy officer and author of a history of wrecking in the Florida Keys, states that such tricks simply would not work. He points out that mariners interpret a light as indicating land, and so avoid them if they cannot identify them. Moreover, oil lanterns cannot be seen very far over water",
"-22.78942215544521"
],
[
"impaired. Sighted players can also play, as all players must play while wearing opaque goggles, making all play sightless and \"evening the playing field.\" The blind game is best played on a regulation inline surface with two orienting, tactile zone lines, each 60 feet from the goal line. Either 5v5 or 4v4 skaters, each plus goalies, are both good games. \nThe puck and goals each have a sounding device that enable the players to hear the puck and orient themselves to direction on the playing surface. The players constantly communicate to their teammates regarding their actions and positions on the",
"-22.72711408813484"
],
[
"touch the other players without being able to see them, while the other players scatter and try to avoid the person who is \"it\", hiding in plain sight and sometimes teasing them to influence them to change direction.\nBlind man's buff is ideally played in an area free of dangerous obstructions so that the \"It\" player will not suffer injury from tripping over or hitting something. History A version of the game was played in Ancient Greece where it was called \"copper mosquito.\"\nThe game is played by children in Bangladesh known as Kanamachi meaning blind fly. One individual is blind-folded in",
"-22.724044470116496"
],
[
"touch, yet he has not yet obtained the experience, that what affects his touch so or so, must affect his sight so or so; or that a protuberant angle in the cube, that pressed his hand unequally, shall appear to his eye as it does in the cube.\"—I agree with this thinking gentleman, whom I am proud to call my friend, in his answer to this problem; and am of opinion that the blind man, at first sight, would not be able with certainty to say which was the globe, which the cube, whilst he only saw them; though he",
"-22.70011143363081"
],
[
"when a US Navy diver descended to 2,000 feet (610 m) in one of these articulated, pressurized suits.\nAt great depths, no light penetrates through the water layers from above and the pressure is extreme. For deep sea exploration it is necessary to use specialist vehicles, either remotely operated underwater vehicles with lights and cameras or manned submersibles. The battery-operated Mir submersibles have a three-man crew and can descend to 20,000 feet (6,000 m). They have viewing ports, 5,000-watt lights, video equipment and manipulator arms for collecting samples, placing probes or pushing the vehicle across the sea bed when the thrusters would stir",
"-22.67740240204148"
],
[
"whichever light they saw as a consistent part of the scanning process. \nIn one experiment a light was placed on the nose of one of the tortoises. It appeared that the robot was looking at itself in a mirror. Its light began flickering and the robot started shaking as if excited to see itself in the mirror. Walter argued that if this behavior were seen in an animal it \"might be accepted as evidence of some degree of self-awareness.\" \nWhen presented with certain stimuli, even outside of their programmed range of experience, they responded consistently, as if they",
"-22.649575093819294"
],
[
"reaches the other fixed jackstay, at which point he will signal to the other diver that he has reached this point by a pull signal on the movable jackstay.\nWhen both divers are at the fixed jackstays they will shift the movable jackstay along the fixed jackstays by an agreed distance depending on conditions. The distance should be large enough to reduce excessive overlap, but small enough that there is no risk of missing the target between traverses. This usually means that the distance is between the reach of the divers searching by feel in low visibility, and the distance they",
"-22.620063154085074"
],
[
"air or floating. This would not be lifelike since it ignores gravity. Its movement needs to fit nature’s laws, thus falling on the ground and then bouncing in a specific direction, according to its initial place and applicable forces.\nGoing further would be adding every human sense: sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch. Several works have been done (or are undergoing) to try to simulate each one. For example, haptic technology attempts to emulate physical contact by taking advantage of a user's sense of touch by applying forces, vibrations, or motions to the user. Development Although almost anything can be considered",
"-22.60306701133959"
],
[
"unmanned submersible vehicles, Remote Operating Vehicles (\"ROVs\"), and exposure suits. Sound Navigation and Ranging (\"Sonar\") and magnetometers are used for detection of treasure. Hand tools, probes, screens, containers, shovels, metal detectors, and sifters are useful for land treasure hunting (Smith, 1971). The Evinrude Aquanaut is a portable floating diving unit that feeds air directly to the divers without need of tanks on the divers.\nIn diving, masks allow for improved vision, fins increase swimming speeds, safety vests provide lifesaving assistance, diver's flags alert others of a diver's location, wetsuits conserve body heat and also provide skin protection, weight belts",
"-22.50489119143458"
],
[
"lethal methods against any suspicious underwater sighting or sonar echo in areas not officially closed to sport divers. Any routine patrol investigation of all \"unidentified frogman\" reports would have had to stop because any genuine reports of intruders would be swamped in ever more reports of civilian sport divers who were not in military areas.\nFor a long time it would be easy for diving professionals and other experienced divers to distinguish a sport diver with an open-circuit scuba such as an aqualung from a combat frogman with a rebreather; and legitimate civilian divers are normally fairly easy to detect because",
"-22.48553422797704"
],
[
"induce jaw fatigue, and for some people, a gag reflex. Various styles of mouthpiece are available off the shelf or as customised items, and one of them may work better if either of these problems occur.\nThe frequently quoted warning against holding one's breath on scuba is a gross oversimplification of the actual hazard. The purpose of the admonition is to ensure that inexperienced divers do not accidentally hold their breath while surfacing, as the expansion of gas in the lungs could over-expand the lung air spaces and rupture the alveoli and their capillaries, allowing lung gases to get into the",
"-22.475210194679676"
],
[
"a gasket to prevent water from entering from the stem opening. The stem incorporates a clutch to protect it from lateral forces. This clutch gives the stem a wobbly feel as it doesn't engage unless you pull the crown away from the watch.\nThe watch includes a rotating bezel which is used to mark the time you first submersed. The dial and hands are luminescent so that the watch can be read in the darkness of ocean depths. Amphibia Raketa There have been a few designs of Raketa's Amphibian watches. The first versions were much larger than the",
"-22.467827231856063"
],
[
"with a message, but this is unlikely to be noticed unless a special arrangement has been made.\nOther minor emergency signals include the use of mirrors, inflatable signal tubes, floating streamers, compressed air sirens, whistles and other noisemakers to alert the surface support personnel of a problem.\nVHF radios and personal emergency locator beacons are available which can transmit a distress signal to nearby vessels and are pressure resistant to recreational diving depths, so they can be carried by a diver and activated at the surface if out of sight of the boat. Flags A diver down flag, or scuba flag,",
"-22.38414801444742"
],
[
"Mouse Practice Gameplay The opening screen showed the scuba diver on a motorboat at sea inviting the user to join him as he was going exploring underwater. To get started, the user had to move the mouse so that the pointer was on the scuba diver—this required the skill of using the mouse to control the position of the pointer. One the arrow has moved the diver, he jumps into the ocean, an animation then showed the scuba diver descending. Controlling the pointer The next activity was to use a flashlight to look around while in the deep sea, requiring",
"-22.370858675433738"
],
[
"ends of the flange there are two tabs with enlarged ends, which are gripped between the teeth. Most recreational diving regulators are fitted with a mouthpiece. In twin-hose regulators and rebreathers, \"mouthpiece\" may refer to the whole assembly between the two flexible tubes. A mouthpiece prevents clear speech, so a full-face mask is preferred where voice communication is needed.\nIn a few models of scuba regulator the mouthpiece also has an outer rubber flange that fits outside the lips and extends into two straps that fasten together behind the neck. This helps to keep the mouthpiece in place if the user's",
"-22.35386583802756"
],
[
"his 16th attempt, Burgess became the second person to swim across the English Channel, and the first one to use goggles. His motorcycle goggles leaked water, but they protected his eyes from water splashes during his breaststroke-only swim. In the 1920s Burgess was hired by the Olympian gold medalist and world record holder Gertrude Ederle, who in 1926 became the first woman to cross the English Channel. Around the same time Burgess bought a summer home at Cap Gris Nez near Calais, as a summer base to train channel swimmers from 1922 to 1934, while his main residence was at",
"-22.30110643664375"
],
[
"came. That mouthpiece has an outer flap that goes outside the lips and is extended into straps fastened behind the neck.\n(That makes the mouthpiece much securer against coming out or leaking. In a test when diving with an open-circuit aqualung that had that sort of strapped-in mouthpiece, the diver went limp as if unconscious, to test the mouthpiece, and as a result he rolled belly-up, and his cheeks inflated, and the mouthpiece tried to float out, but its strap and outer flap kept it in and watertight.)\nThe breathing bag makes the diver very stern-heavy, but that can be cured by",
"-22.275144557352178"
],
[
"on, shutting off their lights, darting away in an unpredictable direction, and then blinking their lights rapidly on and off. Little else is known about the biology of this fish.",
"-22.25221923389472"
],
[
"to have a spare light source in case the primary light fails. If penetrating a wreck, a guideline tied off before entering a wreck and run out inside the wreck is advisable. A guideline can help a diver to find the way out more easily in case of low visibility. For penetration diving, a reserve of breathing gas sufficient to allow the diver to exit the wreck and make a safe ascent in the event of any reasonably foreseeable single failure of equipment is required by training agencies' protocols and scientific codes of practice. Most wreck",
"-22.222176228790772"
],
[
"the approximate position of the search target is known, but the divers have no facilities for setting up a position marker or search lines, but have a compass and the skills to use it effectively. The pattern is not greatly affected by obstructions and potential snags, bur works best with targets that are relatively easy to see, and that usually implies fairly large size and fairly good visibility. The gap between the parallel legs is chosen for easy counting and sufficient overlap to provide a good chance of spotting the target.\nThe pattern is not suited to water where there is",
"-22.213969516335055"
],
[
"existed.\nThe development of scuba gear allowed researchers to visually explore the oceans as it contains a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus allowing a person to breathe while being submerged 100 to 200 feet into the ocean. Submersibles were built like small submarines with the purpose of taking marine scientists to deeper depths of the ocean while protecting them from increasing atmospheric pressures that cause complications deep under water. The first models could hold several individuals and allowed limited visibility but enabled marine biologists to see and photograph the deeper portions of the oceans. Remotely operated underwater vehicles are now used with",
"-22.210979702442273"
],
[
"in Bedknobs and Broomsticks. Afterwards they have an underwater adventure with cartoon fish which turn menacing.",
"-22.207998939527897"
],
[
"must listen for sounds of the animatronics breathing. This can determine whether to use the flashlight or close the doors. If the player hears breathing at the side doors, they should close the door and wait for the animatronics to walk away. However, if the player shuts the doors too early, the animatronics will jump scare the player when the door is opened. If there is no breathing, the player uses the flashlight to ward off the animatronics. If the player flashes the flashlight while an animatronic is in the doorway, the player will be jump scared. The closet",
"-22.139950904180296"
],
[
"Mirror is concerned with vision, the way we see—or sometimes refuse to see—what's right in front of us, and what can happen when we open our eyes.\"",
"-22.126739340717904"
],
[
"be centered on the deep fovea of only one eye at a time, most falcons when diving use a spiral path to approach their prey after they have locked on to a target individual. The alternative of turning the head for a better view slows down the dive by increasing drag while spiralling does not reduce speeds significantly. Edges and shapes When an object is partially blocked by another, humans unconsciously tend to make up for it and complete the shapes (See Amodal perception). It has however been demonstrated that pigeons do not complete occluded shapes. A study based on",
"-22.115783844928956"
],
[
"game, the person wears clear glasses and can see their own body, the computer-generated objects appearing to be in the real world with them.",
"-22.10639447486028"
],
[
"lenses, I think I choose them because it makes me feel like I'm in the space of the film, I'm surrounded. My prevalent vision is full of detail, and that's what I like about it. It's actually harder to do, it's harder to light. The other thing I like about wide-angle lenses is that I'm not forcing the audience to look at just the one thing that is important. It's there, but there's other things to occupy, and some people don't like that because I'm not pointing things out as precisely as I could if I was to use a",
"-22.106135630980134"
],
[
"normal tweezers or fine instruments to grasp small objects. It opens only a small part of the mouth. So you can even grasp objects in small tubes and position them precisely. Ideal during soldering, when it is difficult to accurately position small components. In veterinary medicine the Hartmann, ear polypus forcep is used to remove awns or epilate hairs of dogs ears. The design reduces the natural tremor (shaking).",
"-22.09803510690108"
],
[
"it is necessary to use a guideline to find the way back to the anchor, because usually there is no boat handler on the surface to pick up the divers if they surface away from the boats.\nAfter the dive, the divers must board the canoe or kayak without capsizing it. Small items of equipment will usually be placed into the canoe while the diver is still in the water, but the scuba set will either be passed up to a person already on board, or loaded after the diver is back on board.\nGetting into a kayak is the reverse of",
"-22.089038700447418"
],
[
"of the spins is to avoid staring at moving objects, such as people who are dancing or ceiling fans. Instead, it helps to stare at a non-moving object and slowly blink a few times. However, it will make things worse to keep one's eyes closed for an extended period. In minor cases of the spins, simply sitting alone in a quiet place or taking a walk is all it takes to make them subside.\nThe best ways to avoid the spins are to continuously keep monitoring one's alcohol intake, which involves limiting one's intake to a reasonable level and to eat",
"-22.08804241989128"
],
[
"easily, and too tight may result in discomfort or pain. Correct positioning of the strap around the back of the head will reduce the risk of dislodging and facilitate clearing.\nWhen entering the water while wearing the mask, the diver may need to manually prevent water impact from dislodging or knocking off the mask. Alternatively, a diver can enter the water with the mask off and then put it on or use an entry method which does not result in fast water flow over the mask. Wearing the mask pushed up onto the forehead while out of the water or on",
"-22.024634073895868"
],
[
"Swedish goggles Assembly Swedish goggles require complete user assembly, which results in a fit that is specifically tailored to their owner. Proper assembly generally requires some skill and practice, as well as precision. Before assembly, the inside edges of the lenses are often filed down to remove any sharp edges and thus improve comfort.\nThe first step in building a set of Swedish goggles is to construct a nose piece. Nose pieces can feature a variety of designs, some of the most popular are the included string threaded through the included rubber tube, a short length of the included strap (which",
"-22.023409394940245"
],
[
"bubbles\". Great Lakes diver Steve Harrington cautions that \"divers must be certain of their abilities and equipment\" when diving the Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve.",
"-21.99971458662185"
],
[
"their buoyancy compensators attached to their diving cylinders and put them into the water to float while remaining tethered to the boat. Then they put on their masks, fins, and weight belts, slide overboard, and put on their scuba sets while floating. Once the divers are ready, they descend and proceed with the dive. The boat may be tethered to the divers via their surface marker buoy system if they are drift diving, or it may be anchored or fastened to a mooring buoy if one is available at the dive site.\nIn places where the visibility is less than excellent",
"-21.976445060092374"
],
[
" A pair of Phantom Eyes, one relieving the other after days of constant flight, could provide the Navy with continuous long range communications.",
"-21.96032019762788"
],
[
"other versions, the binoculars were not in the locker, but were left behind in his cabin, or he took them along with him when he left the ship, as they were his personal set of binoculars. The absence of binoculars being a factor in the sinking of the Titanic, became a point of investigation in the subsequent inquiries into the sinking.\nThe lookouts at the time of the collision, Frederick Fleet and Reginald Lee, maintained during the inquiries that they were informed they were to have no binoculars during the voyage. Fleet, when asked by a commission of inquiry composed of",
"-21.958995957276784"
],
[
"for dives where poor visibility may make it difficult to return to the starting point, and there is a safety or operational requirement to return to that point.\nOther dives where it is necessary or highly desirable to return to a starting point: This may include dives where a shot line or anchor line is to be used for ascent, and other dives where a specific exit point is chosen for safety or convenience. Working divers may use a guide line to allow confident and efficient movement to, from and around the workplace. This may also be referred to as a",
"-21.91585296622361"
],
[
"be taken literally but as a hint or euphemism. Both eyes (bat/flutter) To close and open, or \"wink\", both eyes is usually an involuntary action known as a \"blink\". Though if done intentionally, in a particular way (such as once slowly or a few times in a row quickly), while giving a sweet or suggestive look with the eyes, often with the head tilted or at an angle in combination with the shoulders, is known as to \"bat an eyelash\", \"bat/batting eyelashes\", or \"flutter/fluttering eyelashes\". This is done as a way of flirting, showing interest, or in an attempt to",
"-21.885162798476813"
],
[
"may allow a person to obtain a better view of his or her own floaters. The head may be tilted in such a way that one of the floaters drifts towards the central axis of the eye. In the sharpened image the fibrous elements are more conspicuous.\nThe presence of retinal tears with new onset of floaters was surprisingly high (14%; 95% confidence interval, 12–16%) as reported in a meta-analysis published as part of the Rational Clinical Examination Series in the Journal of the American Medical Association. Patients with new onset flashes and/or floaters, especially when associated with visual loss or",
"-21.883792554261163"
],
[
"Sonar Scan: Players' Submarines have sonar scanning systems, which can search the enemy's waters. The scan will search a square of nine spaces, three rows by three columns. When the scan is complete, the player will be told whether anything was found or not. If something was found, however, they will not be given the precise location of the craft, just that there is something there. Players can perform as many scans as they wish (one per turn), as long as their Submarine has not been sunk. Version 1 Recon Planes: Unlike the sonar sweep, which",
"-21.839279767882545"
]
] |
71w1ci | Why is it bearable to look down from thousands of feet in the air, but terrifying to look down from only about 50 feet or so? | [
"Possibly abstraction. At 50', you see a likely fatal fall. At 40,000' you see an abstract landscape which is pretty. At some point your mind may turn \"oh shit, I'm going to fall and die because I'm high up\" into \"that's interesting.\"",
"Part of it might be the angle you are looking down from. Off a roof or rock wall you might have the opportunity to look directly downwards whereas in a plane you are restricted to looking from a certain angle. Another aspect might be the conditions. In a plane you are sitting in a cushioned seat in a temperature controlled area. Out on the roof or rock wall, you are possibly exposed to the wind and other elements making you feel more like you will take a fall.",
"Being on an airplane is so high it barely seems real, not real enough for your self-preservation instincts to kick in. Also, you are not standing, there is no uneven surface, or open air, which are also cues to be afraid you might fall.",
"Not everyone is like you, some people freak out at both, and some don't mind either! Typically in a plane you feel somewhat safe - you don't feel like you will suddenly fall. You are usually also sitting down which does feel more secure. If you are on a balcony looking down, or standing by a window in a tall building, you are feeling somewhat less secure and in your mind you may feel more likely to \"fall\" which causes the strange sensations of fear."
] | [
[
"[...] don’t look too far ahead, look at your feet and you’ve probably got everything you need right there\".",
"-29.97623048600508"
],
[
"waist or in the air, or if she lands on two feet. In addition, deductions are taken if the man finishes the element on two feet, there is poor height or distance on the twist, poor speed at take-off or landing. Further, serious scratching on take off, touch down with the free foot, and missing a 1/4 or more of a revolution could result in deductions.",
"-28.38003347889753"
],
[
"a noisy burst of flying while expending amounts of energy that they prefer not to. To make this an easier task, they will attempt to approach the branch from an uphill location so as to not need to gain as much altitude in flight. This technique is also used when they need to vacate quickly to avoid danger, in that they will fly downhill, so as to be able to cover greater distances before the need to touch down. When roosting they will not grip the branch with their toes, but rest on their folded legs. This is the reason",
"-28.129891512762697"
],
[
"and, less commonly, gooseberries. Deaths Palisade Head is maintained in its natural state, and has few guard rails. As a result, it is possible to get very close to a sheer cliff ledge, that drops straight down approximately 300 feet. It is important to remember that this cliff is very dangerous. We know of at least two accidental deaths, caused by people getting too close to the edge. \nOn September 11, 2017, a fourteen-year-old girl lost her balance and fell to her death from the top of the cliff. \nIn April 2010, a forty-eight-year-old woman fell",
"-28.01775254590757"
],
[
"Fear of falling The fear of falling (FOF), also referred to as basophobia (or basiphobia), is a natural fear and is typical of most humans and mammals, in varying degrees of extremity. It differs from acrophobia (the fear of heights), although the two fears are closely related. The fear of falling encompasses the anxieties accompanying the sensation and the possibly dangerous effects of falling, as opposed to the heights themselves. Those who have little fear of falling may be said to have a head for heights. Basophobia is sometimes associated with astasia-abasia, the fear of walking/standing erect.",
"-27.9073647496989"
],
[
"glass on the deep end, but even with this assurance would not crawl on the glass. These results, although unable to prove that this fear is innate, indicate that most human infants have well developed depth perception and are able to make the connection between depth and the danger that accompanies falling. Elderly persons For a long time, the fear of falling was merely believed to be a result of the psychological trauma of a fall, also called \"post-fall syndrome\". This syndrome was first mentioned in 1982 by Murphy and Isaacs, who noticed that after a fall, ambulatory",
"-27.71140227006981"
],
[
"and meet me. Some parachutists can land on their feet, but usually I take a fall. The landing speed is about twelve miles per hour (19 km/h), and the jar is about the same as you would get if you jumped off a fifteen-foot (4.6 m) wall,' said Miss Burns. 'In the air you can lose height more rapidly by pulling a handful of cords which causes the 'chute to sideslip. There are four red cords which you can pull on the ground to spill the air out so you are not dragged too far.' Mr. Felix Mueller, a licensed parachutist, instructed",
"-27.65410332218744"
],
[
"ear. This is because the ears are susceptible to Boyle's Law.\nThere are also other profiles, such a hypoxia training profile, where the chamber ascends to an altitude of 25,000 ft. Upon arriving at 25,000 ft, students are removed from their oxygen supply two at a time, for around 2 to 3 minutes. During this time, they will be asked to complete simple tasks such as copying shapes on a piece of paper. They are asked during the time off oxygen how they feel. After being placed back on oxygen, they will understand how their judgement was impaired during the time that they",
"-27.576266896678135"
],
[
"raised, 150 metres downstream from where she had fallen in. Due to poor visibility as a result of heavy rain, the other members of her group had been unable to see her from where they were standing. There were two adults in the group. A member of the helicopter crew explained: \"There were two people waving their jackets and pointing into the river. Initially we thought 'Why are they not in the water helping?' what looked like a child face down in the water. Seeing the fast-flowing river, and how dangerous it would have been for them, there was no",
"-27.154039468707197"
],
[
"these objects can not be seen as too close, since there is always a limit of the parallax range for comfortable viewing.\nIf a scene is viewed through a window the entire scene would normally be behind the window, if the scene is distant, it would be some distance behind the window, if it is nearby, it would appear to be just beyond the window. An object smaller than the window itself could even go through the window and appear partially or completely in front of it. The same applies to a part of a larger object that is smaller",
"-27.05799330517766"
],
[
"crouching when you're on it, you will be pushed up a little and can jump higher. Reception Alice O'Connor of Rock, Paper, Shotgun said of Thinking with Time Machine \"For those lacking in some of the social niceties, it’s perhaps the closest we’ll get to playing Portal 2 co-op.”",
"-26.961090928758495"
],
[
"from multiple injuries caused by falling.\nJuly 23, 2013, Cole Hancock, age 10, hiking with his dad, Kim Hancock, fell 150 feet off of a cliff on Mount Hood. Brain damaged, initially, Cole couldn't speak one word, but two days later was speaking in whole sentences. He was treated at Doernbecher Children's Hospital.\nOn August 3, 2013, six snowboarders were scouting a location to shoot video. They were exploring an area of White River Glacier at about 8,100 feet (2,500 m) elevation when they found a natural tunnel in ice and walked through it. The first, Collin Backowski, 25,",
"-26.954082637326792"
],
[
"on to the trunk of a tree or the underside of branches. Climbing involves stretching out their two front legs and then bringing up their two back legs, which results in an awkward hopping. They can glide more than 100 m with minimal loss in elevation. When threatened they either climb higher up or remain motionless. These animals are quite helpless if on the forest floor. Behaviour and ecology The Sunda flylemur is a skillful climber, but is helpless when on the ground. Its gliding membrne connects from the neck, extending along the limbs to the tips of the fingers,",
"-26.851863376039546"
],
[
"against falling. Even with a 540mm terrace step many spectators become uncomfortable and start to feel the impact of vertigo. An ideal maximum terrace step height that will avoid most people feeling insecure is 450mm. Sightlines in plan The C-Value considers the sightlines in the vertical plane. The sightlines in the horizontal plane need to be considered for the front row spectators in the instance where they look acutley sideways, typically adjacent far end corner flag. At the extreme end of the front row, spectators could have their view from one of their eyes blocked by the head of the",
"-26.83127180772135"
],
[
"the McTwist after McGill. McGill recounted his experience in Sweden in a 2004 Thrasher article:\n\n“Okay,” I thought, “if I could just get past the 400-degree mark I could bail out to my knees and not land on my head.” After a couple dozen tries it happened and I landed one with speed, just like that ... Before long everybody showed up, saying, “Okay, let’s see it.” So I did, but it wasn’t half-way up the wall as they all suspected; it was about four-feet out, which was actually easier for me to see what I was doing. Lance [Mountain] proceeded",
"-26.720600405475125"
],
[
"wanted to know how to dive into the base because I was getting strawberries on my knees and strawberries on my ass ... I was thinking about head-first versus feet-first, and wondering which would save my body. With head-first I worried about pounding my shoulders and my hands, and with feet-first I would worry about my knees and my legs. I felt that running was more important to me, with my legs, so I started going head-first. I got my [low-to-the-ground] technique from airplanes ... I was on a plane and asleep and the plane bounced and when we landed",
"-26.705384992732434"
],
[
"peak was officially recognized in 2010 to be at an elevation of 8,848 m (29,029 ft) with the usual presence of snow and ice. Above about 8,000 m (26,247 ft), which is approaching the cruising altitude of pressurized commercial jetliners, the air pressure is so low that the amount of available oxygen to breathe is less than one-third than at sea level, and there are significantly lower ambient air temperatures. The lack of oxygen, in addition to the extreme cold, leaves climbers bewildered and very weak, makes them very susceptible to hypothermia or getting frostbite, and can cause them to succumb to altitude sickness",
"-26.692866898549255"
],
[
"Hansen, Hall and Harris.\nFor stricken climbers above 8,000 m (26,247 ft) some experienced climbers have said that if you cannot walk at such a high altitude, you might as well be on the moon in terms of a possible successful rescue. That is why the area above 8,000 m (26,247 ft) is referred to as the \"death zone\". Even attempting to move a dead climber's body takes significant effort, and the recovery of a dead climber's body at high altitude is a monumental effort at a very slow pace. The recovery sometimes must be abandoned, and risks the lives of those attempting",
"-26.690486285922816"
],
[
"respected and highest part of the body. This also influences how Thais sit when on the ground—their feet always pointing away from others, tucked to the side or behind them. Pointing at or touching something with the feet is also considered rude. It was reported in the Thai press that pedestrians were prohibited from climbing stairs to the Victory Monument BTS Station when a royal motorcade was due to pass on the road beneath because, according to Thai custom, feet cannot be at any point above the head of a royal family member.\nSince a serene disposition is valued, conflict and",
"-26.65534756812849"
],
[
"of people using the slant of the roof rather than the true horizon.\nThese visual illusions include balls rolling uphill and people leaning farther than normally possible without falling down. Psychologists at Berkeley state that all of the misperceptions stem from the simple fact that the house is slanted at a 20 degree angle. Professor William Prinzmetal states, “When the perceiver's body also is tilted, the distorting impact on vision is greatly magnified- up to two or three times.” Another point he makes is that distorted orientation causes other senses to fall back while your visual senses become",
"-26.549882856779732"
],
[
"apt to make one feel somewhat nervous; and the first glimpse of bright daylight that breaks upon us, relieves us from a natural anxiety as to the chances we run of being crushed by the fall of some twenty tons of chalk from above, or being precipitated into twenty feet of water beneath, with the doors of the carriages locked and no \"Nautilus belt\" around our waists and not even a child's caul in our pocket. This relief is however temporary, for the light only breaks in through a gap in the tunnel, and some more experienced traveller informs us",
"-26.527797762246337"
],
[
"is the exact vanishing point. He seems to be paused, one foot resting on a step while his weight is on his other leg on a different step. It is unknown if he is coming or going from the stairs.",
"-26.52508197267889"
],
[
"such a crash, and that it was not unusual for animals to drag remains away. NTSB report and findings On March 5, 2009, the NTSB issued its report and findings. It states that the plane crashed at an elevation of about 10,000 feet (3,000 m), 300 feet (90 m) below the crest of the ridge. The elevation of peaks in the area exceeded 13,000 feet (4,000 m). However, the density altitude in the area at the time and place of the crash was estimated to be 12,700 feet (3,900 m). The aircraft, a tandem two-seater, was nearly 30 years old and Fossett had flown",
"-26.442187399661634"
],
[
"The Horror of the Heights Synopsis The story is told through a blood-stained notebook discovered on the edge of a farm in Withyham. The notebook is written by a Mr. Joyce-Armstrong, and the first two and last pages are missing; the notebook is thus dubbed the \"Joyce-Armstrong Fragment\".\nJoyce-Armstrong, a brave aviator, had been curious over the deaths of certain pilots who tried to break the current height record of 30,000 feet. Recent casualties involve some strange deaths – one, Hay Connor, died after landing while he was still in his plane, while another, Myrtle, was discovered with his head missing.",
"-26.415902056149207"
],
[
"Don't Look Down (film) Production The film used locations in Vancouver and at the University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George in Canada. Plot The film starts with Carla, her sister and her boyfriend on a road trip in the cliffs. After a freak accident when Carla's sister falls from a cliff, Carla develops a fear of heights. In an effort to overcome her phobia she joins a support group, but when the other members of the group begin dying one by one, Carla begins to suspect she was the real target of the accident.",
"-26.312927556107752"
],
[
"descend a staircase, an animal properly trained to exhibit intelligent disobedience will refuse to move unless the person issues a specific code word or command that lets the animal know the person is aware they are about to descend stairs. This command will be specific for staircases, and the animal will not attribute it to stepping off a curb or up onto a sidewalk or stoop. In a similar circumstance, if the person believes they are in front of a step and they wish to go down, but they are in fact standing in front of a dangerous precipice (for",
"-26.28147379378788"
],
[
"stairs, she looks straight into the lens. The expression on her face changes to the one of wide-eyed horror that was displayed on the faces of the man and woman outside. She closes her eyes and collapses. E checks on where the man had been, but O has made his escape. His coat tails are seen flying up the stairs.\nE chases after him and finds him at the top of the first flight. He looks around to see if there is anyone about. Satisfied, he turns left and, not without some difficulty, opens the door to a room and enters.",
"-26.213544657526654"
],
[
"only method at your disposal—threatening to push him off the cliff—would doom you both? Answer: You start dancing, closer and closer to the edge. That way, you don't have to convince him that you would do something totally irrational: plunge him and yourself off the cliff. You just have to convince him that you are prepared to take a higher risk than he is of accidentally falling off the cliff. If you can do that, you win.\" Arms and Influence (1966) Schelling's theories about war were extended in Arms and Influence, published in 1966. The blurb states that it \"carries",
"-26.193171524850186"
],
[
"arduous and demanding climb. If however, your position is known then escape is virtually impossible. The constant noise of falling water drowns out any approaching sounds and your only way out is the same as the way in. Your pursuers would be on you in seconds before you could take a step – you'd be caught like a rat in a trap. On the whole though it makes a perfect hiding place and one can imagine avoiding detection indefinitely and in complete safety. That said, Charles Stewart of Ardsheal was known to have been a large man of great personal",
"-26.148833324201405"
],
[
"Pasang Lama (who had been stranded without an ice axe) secured to his harness. \"I can just about imagine how you might pull it off,\" writes Ed Viesturs in K2: Life and Death on the World's Most Dangerous Mountain. \"You kick each foot in solid, plant the axe, then tell the other guy to kick with his own feet and punch holds with his hands. Don't move until he's secure. Still, if Pasang had come off [i.e., 'fallen'], he probably would have taken Chhiring with him. Talk about selfless!\"\nTwo members of the South Korean expedition, Kim Jae-soo and Go Mi-Young,",
"-26.099012535065413"
],
[
"main staircase that some people feel they are forced to avoid, and one curator is reported to have found the \"tiptoeing tracks of human feet in the undisturbed dust of the top floor landing\".",
"-26.09222587145632"
],
[
"supported on some very, very tall steel columns underneath this little seating area. The ground sloped away, precipitously, to Roosevelt Boulevard and the East River. The frightening thing about it was this thing was constructed all of metal grating. When you went out there, you could look down and see through. It was very unsubstantial. Rudolph loaned me that apartment once, when he was out of town and I was doing something in New York. I stayed there. I went out on this bird walk to the little seating area, and it was really scary. I mentioned this to Rudolph",
"-26.004929838178214"
],
[
"and with a variety of manipulations. The original work was done on perceived slant of hills and perceived distance to targets. Hills look steeper and targets look farther away when wearing a heavy backpack. In addition to walking, many other actions influence perception such as throwing, jumping, falling, reaching, grasping, kicking, hitting, blocking, and swimming. In addition to perceived slant and perceived distance, other aspects of perception are influenced by ability such as size, shape, height, and speed. These results have been documented in athletes such as softball players, golfers, tennis players, swimmers, and people skilled",
"-25.99010126874782"
],
[
"medium of air, causing a transformation that conforms to the shape around it, sending this signal back to the eye. An analogy to describe this phenomenon is offered by Hunayn:\nIf a person is walking in the dark and holds a stick in his hand and stretches it out full length before him, and the stick encounters an object which prevents it from advancing further, he knows immediately by analogy that the object preventing the stick from advancing is a solid body which resists anything that comes up against it...it is the same with vision.\nIn other words, the air acts as",
"-25.952584197642864"
],
[
"failing eyesight / use of bifocals; inappropriate, loose, or poor-fitting footwear\nPreventive measures: warning signs\nFor certain professions such as stunt performers and skateboarders, falling and learning to fall is part of the job. Intentionally caused falls Injurious falls can be caused intentionally, as in cases of defenestration or deliberate jumping. Height and severity The severity of injury increases with the height of the fall but also depends on body and surface features and the manner of the body's impacts against the surface. The chance of surviving increases if landing on a highly deformable surface (a surface that is easily bent, compressed,",
"-25.904549892980867"
],
[
"stand up I need first to hold on to something and think about the positioning of my legs. If I were to just start walking I would fall. I have to get my brain to find my legs and then I will usually take a test step, but I say something at the time to anyone who might be watching to distract from what I'm really doing. Then I'll find places to grab as I walk and talk, sometimes even walking backwards because I have more control that way. People have no idea that I'm doing this. But when I'm",
"-25.898338583792793"
],
[
"\"I had a mid-air crack-up in my glider and I lived through that; so did the other guy. Miracle as it was, it took his wing right off and smashed my whole nose. I thought, 'Well, we're just going down' and then, suddenly, 'Hey, man, you're still flying!' And I cleared the rubbish away and I'm still flying! So, there was a big, steep place on the mountain ahead. I just flew right up and just glided in. I took a tremendous chance cuz my tail surfaces were gone and I knew that any minute I'd lose control, eh? But,",
"-25.8757894722512"
],
[
"view for over 30 feet (9 meters), are often incorrectly called whiteouts. Hazards Whiteout conditions pose threats to mountain climbers, skiers, aviation, and mobile ground traffic. Motorists, especially those on large high-speed routes, are also at risk. There have been many major multiple-vehicle collisions associated with whiteout conditions. One motorist may come to a complete stop when he or she cannot see the road, while the motorist behind is still moving.\nLocal, short-duration whiteout conditions can be created artificially in the vicinity of airports and helipads due to aircraft operations. Snow on the ground can be stirred up by helicopter rotor",
"-25.77540319482796"
],
[
"flies (for they tried the experiment with a snipe). You cannot conceive what that sensation of cutting the air was; the motion is as smooth as possible, too. I could either have read or written; and as it was, I stood up, and with my bonnet off 'drank the air before me.' The wind, which was strong, or perhaps the force of our own thrusting against it, absolutely weighed my eyelids down. When I closed my eyes this sensation of flying was quite delightful, and strange beyond description; yet strange as it was, I had a perfect sense of security,",
"-25.74021240649745"
],
[
"horror, that will have you scratching your head more than jumping out of your seat\", ultimately rating it 2/5 stars. The Scotsman called it \"a trickily plotted and slickly made effort that nevertheless can't quite make its premise fly in gripping enough fashion\".",
"-25.72766621070332"
],
[
"a long time. Most of the time you don't even realize you're holding onto something, it's just a quiet whisper in the back. We're very good at distracting ourselves, which is a way of escaping, but there's no real way to escape yourself in the end. The more you try to escape yourself the more you'll be hideously confronted by whatever you're running away from, so I think it's better to face it head on.\"",
"-25.69985889473901"
],
[
"others. There were kids who were very worried; and I tried to buoy them up a bit. 'Don't worry,' I told them. 'Nothing will happen, we're safe here. 'Don't you see they could never get right up here? There's one thousand of us; if they try to climb, we'll see them, we'll shoot the shit out of them.\" \nWhen 3 PARA's B Company (under Major Mike Argue) fixed bayonets to storm the Argentine 1st Platoon positions on Mount Longdon, they found themselves running into a minefield. British sappers subsequently counted some 1,500 anti-personnel mines that Lieutenant Diego Arreseigor's platoon of",
"-25.69493671465898"
],
[
"I did a renversement and attacked — my only defense.\nImmediately, of course, I was separated from our group, which continued. It would not have been so bad had my motor not been touched at the first volley. It worked only intermittently causing loss of height. We had a wild fight almost to the ground. I did all sorts of stunts to avoid fire on the line of flight. The enemy flew well. We missed collision twice by inches. I was badly raked by cross fire; music of bullets striking motor and cables. ",
"-25.662916040877462"
],
[
"will increase someone's height and reach. It is used often to make someone appear taller, whether in an engagement, or when measuring one's height. It is also used to reach objects that are higher up than one cannot reach when on one's heels. Quietness Walking only on the balls of the foot greatly reduces the surface area of the foot on the ground, allowing what does touch the ground to be more carefully placed, which is useful for avoiding twigs, and also for a more quiet walking. The disadvantage is that it will also focus the weight, which leaves greater",
"-25.655581356753828"
],
[
"height (although the height is not specified in rule) and is falling. So, for example, a lifted shot at the goal which is still rising as it crosses the goal line (or would have been rising as it crossed the goal line) can be legitimately followed up by any of the attacking team looking for a rebound.\nIn general even potentially dangerous play is not penalised if an opponent is not disadvantaged by it or, obviously, not injured by it so that he cannot continue. A personal penalty, that is a caution or a suspension, rather than a team penalty, such",
"-25.582837285415735"
],
[
"depends on vibrations in the earth, this sense provides Toph a distinct advantage when facing other Earthbenders in combat, who require contact with the ground in any fight. Toph is disadvantaged against airbending opponents who require minimal contact with the ground, and vulnerable to any attacks initiated in mid-air. Terrain that impairs Toph's ability to sense vibrations also hinders her abilities; she has some difficulty with sand, which constantly lacks solidity, preventing her from accurately \"feeling\" her surroundings. Because Toph relies on sensation in her feet to perform Earthbending, she becomes truly \"blind\" if the soles of her feet are",
"-25.576985831692582"
],
[
"nearly 90 degree bank to wind up 600 meters behind this group. It was just as I got the leader in my sights and gave him a burst that I got a sensation of that something was behind me. That sensation made me turn right and look behind me, and what it was I do not know to this day. Perhaps I had seen something. But inexplicable as it was, there I now saw less than 100 meters behind me the huge nose of a Sabre and the blasts and tracers of its six machine guns firing at me. Without",
"-25.573721602442674"
],
[
"If near the surface one may try to thrust an arm, leg or object above the surface. If possible, victims should try to break free once the snow stops. If unable to move one should not struggle except to enlarge the air space.\n\"You can't dig yourself out. If you could dig yourself out, few people would die in avalanches. Avalanche debris instantly entombs you in place, as if you were frozen in concrete, and most of the time you can't even move your fingers. Sometimes, if it's a small avalanche with soft debris, and they have a hand near",
"-25.561174304573797"
],
[
"large back legs and pushing against the substrate (the ground, a twig, a blade of grass or whatever else they are standing on); the reaction force propels them into the air. They jump for several reasons; to escape from a predator, to launch themselves into flight, or simply to move from place to place. For the escape jump in particular there is strong selective pressure to maximize take-off velocity, since this determines the range. This means that the legs must thrust against the ground with both high force and a high velocity of movement. A fundamental property of muscle",
"-25.53518031304702"
],
[
"more like 40 miles, so he'd been blown off course, it was late and he was in the dark,\" said Vernon. \"He didn't exactly know where he was I guess. They think he was doing a turn to the west to line up with the Vancouver runway and he flew into the mountain because he didn't realize he was over Nanaimo and not over the water.\"\nVernon says apparently the plane clipped a snag a couple hundred feet away prior to going down. A newspaper report at the time stated that the plane hit a mountainside cliff, burst into flames, then",
"-25.451748280594984"
],
[
"so it is might be reasonable for that person to allow retro-bolting of their climb. The FA may feel that at the time they ascended the climb, the conditions were right for a scary climb, but now they wish to open the line up to more people and let the route have more traffic.\nSome of the climbers in the For camp may feel that action is needed and bolts are added to the climb without consensus. This will generally result in the bolts being chopped (removed), but sometimes the bolts remain intact and the climb becomes accepted in",
"-25.448803388339"
],
[
"a window, they are likely to see only the stationary interior of the plane due to the small window sizes and during flights at night. Another factor is that while in flight, the view out of windows may be blocked by clouds, preventing passengers from seeing the moving ground or passing clouds. Seasickness Seasickness is a form of terrestrial motion sickness characterized by a feeling of nausea and, in extreme cases, vertigo experienced after spending time on a watercraft such as a boat or ship. It is essentially the same as carsickness, though the motion of a watercraft tends",
"-25.40556554554496"
],
[
"above sea level, it's the roof top of the world. The summit to Everest even involves immense risk to life, as year after year there has been numerous deaths and loss of limbs due to frostbite. In 2016 alone there has been around five deaths already and more than 30 climbers sick due to frostbite and high altitude sickness. \nReinhold Messener, one of the greatest mountaineers ever, aptly describes the journey to the Everest.\n\"When I rest I feel utterly lifeless except that my throat burns when I draw breath...I can scarcely go on. No despair, no happiness, no anxiety. I",
"-25.329073112807237"
],
[
"31 July. Gallotti wrote in his diary: \nOn the final slope, which was incredibly steep looking, first one tiny dot, and then a second, slowly made their way up. I may see many more things in this life, but nothing will ever move me in this same way. I cried silently, the teardrops falling on my chest.\n They took a few photos and a brief movie film as the sun was setting. Lacedelli wanted to go down as soon as possible but Compagnoni said he wanted to spend the night on the summit. Only after being threatened with Lacedelli's ice-axe",
"-25.323899015435018"
],
[
"was flying in the lead ship, and I was flying on his wing. When it was announced that it was going to be done in broad daylight at noontime, as a matter-of-fact, at low altitude, something like 5000 feet over the most heavily defended target in the Pacific almost ... most of us went away shaking our heads. Many of us believed we wouldn't come back from it. Anyway, we went over the target and all of us got attacked. I was shot up. Nobody was injured, fortunately, but the airplane was kind of banged up a little bit. We had to",
"-25.262098494538805"
],
[
"on to the tree with one hand, tore off some leaves and flowers with the other, and fearlessly scattered them, looking down on his ascent. On such tree trunks one must not climb too high because of vertigo; if one loses his composure, he can slide down the tree, rather than fall.\" \nFriedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778–1852) describes both pole and mast climbing in his seminal work of 1816 on gymnastic apparatus and exercises.",
"-25.240679762675427"
],
[
"many deaths due to rock climbing, so it is sometimes called \"mountain of death\". Beginners can easily reach the lower elevation ski area of mountain by using the aerial tramway rising to 1319m.\nJapan offers a high level of support with helicopter trained mountain rescue teams, though with high wind there is always the chance that they cannot be deployed. Along the upper ridges there are two safety huts. One is the emergency hut for 2-3 near Ichinokura-dake (一ノ倉岳), which may be hard to find on deep snow and therefore unusable. The much larger \"Shoulder Hut\" below the summit of Tanigawa-Dake",
"-25.192031332408078"
],
[
"I land. Defenders say 'Wow, he's quick,' but they don't know that where I'm going is predetermined. He's basing it on quickness, but the jump is to set him up. Before I come down, I make my move. When you jump, you turn as you land. Boom! The defender can't react because he's waiting for you to come down to defend you. Now, the first time when you showed that quickness, he has to react to that quickness, so you can fake baseline and go the other way with your jump hook. All this is part of the Dream Shake.",
"-25.188469323969912"
],
[
"and there are not very many people who could pull that look off.\"",
"-25.167870648991993"
],
[
"enter the water vertically, it is proper to jump leaning slightly forward, keeping your point of entry in view. Extend your arms for balance. As you fall, gradually tuck in your arms, and bring together your legs. A gradual backward rotation throughout the jump will bring you from your initial forward position to complete a vertical entry. Common errors include backward over rotation and not tucking in arms or legs. Keep legs straight with a slight bend at the knees. Locking your legs when taking the pencil shape will cause impact on the knees. Generally, the highest jump that should",
"-25.129207900346955"
],
[
"of altitude are severe (atmospheric pressure is 40% of sea-level at the summit), the use of supplemental oxygen is not common. Altitude sickness will affect most climbers to some extent, depending on the degree of acclimatization. Although the normal climb is technically easy, multiple casualties occur every year on this mountain (in January 2009 alone five climbers died). This is due to the large numbers of climbers who make the attempt and because many climbers underestimate the objective risks of the elevation and of cold weather, which is the real challenge on this mountain. Given the weather conditions close to",
"-25.11933117528679"
],
[
"of nervousness or haste.\nTo say the least, a fight at close range is absorbing as a spectacle. No man wants to take his eyes from it until that time comes when he makes up his mind to run away. To deliberately stand up and turn your back to a battle is in itself hard work. To deliberately stand up and turn your back to a battle and hear immediate evidences of the boundless enthusiasm with which a large company of the enemy shoot at you from an adjacent thicket is, to my mind at least, a very great feat. One",
"-25.112383917090483"
],
[
"bent his entire body (rather than just the arm) like a straw in one fluid motion to raise the ball and then release it at the highest point of his arm's arching motion. Combined with his long arms and great height—7 ft 2 in (2.18 m)—the skyhook was difficult for a defender to block without committing a goaltending violation. It was a reliable and feared offensive weapon and contributed to his high lifetime field goal percentage of 0.559. He was adept at shooting the skyhook with either hand, which made him even more difficult to defend against, though as a right-handed player, he",
"-25.08716265374096"
],
[
"eye) written about in the yōkai explanatory book Yōkai Majin Seirei no Sekai (1977) by Norio Yamada. It states that these have eyes on the front of each knee, and they can easily walk around in the dark but often bump into things in the daytime.",
"-25.02707729776739"
],
[
"behaviours that humans observe most frequently, which has resulted in a large amount of scientific literature on the subject and a popular tourism industry. Breaching and lunging A breach or a lunge is a leap out of the water, also known as cresting. The distinction between the two is fairly arbitrary: cetacean researcher Hal Whitehead defines a breach as any leap in which at least 40% of the animal's body clears the water, and a lunge as a leap with less than 40% clearance. Qualitatively, a breach is a genuine jump with an intent to clear the water, whereas a",
"-24.981024758591957"
],
[
"slippery simply due to the numbers of visitors wearing them away. On the climb up to the top, you are likely to see hundreds, if not thousands, of small piles of rocks from 3-10 in number. These piles are left there by the visitors as a form of a memento.",
"-24.909862101383624"
],
[
"speed of the object was approximately 15 m/s (34 mph), and that it was flying about 700–800 meters above the ground. When the object reached Height 611, it started to descend and then crashed into the hill. All witnesses but one say there was no sound when the object reached the ground.\nThe process of the descent was described differently by eyewitnesses. Some said the object fell down with a flash and was not visible after that; others claimed it oscillated in altitude above the hill, radiating light of varying intensity as it went up and down. The light given",
"-24.88535421306733"
],
[
"If a place looks dangerous, he can see that it is so, he takes care and there are no accidents.",
"-24.84875352261588"
],
[
"which it never occurs. There are very few symptoms at or below 5,500 m (18,000 ft) unless patients had predisposing medical conditions or had dived recently. There is a correlation between increased altitudes above 5,500 m (18,000 ft) and the frequency of altitude DCS but there is no direct relationship with the severity of the various types of DCS. A US Air Force study reports that there are few occurrences between 5,500 m (18,000 ft) and 7,500 m (24,600 ft) and 87% of incidents occurred at or above 7,500 m (24,600 ft). High altitude parachutists may reduce the risk of altitude DCS if they flush nitrogen",
"-24.809109094152518"
],
[
"conditions and the severe cold (due to an atmospheric low near the top of Everest that day), with Sharp being almost dead in a hypothermic coma, and that at that elevation, one has to be conscious and able to walk to even attempt a rescue.\nMaxime Chaya reached the summit at around 6:00 am on 15 May 2006. During his descent Chaya and the Sherpa he was with, Dorjee, encountered Sharp a little after 9:00 am, noticed he was shivering, and tried to help him; he also notified the Himex expedition manager Russell Brice over the group's radio. Chaya had not",
"-24.78473006375134"
],
[
"area as they often lean out and pivot from side to side before jumping. Once in the air, they form an \"X\" with their limbs by spreading their long arms forward and out and their long legs backward and out, causing their membrane to stretch into a square-like shape and glide down at angles of 30 to 40 degrees. They manoeuvre with great efficiency in the air, making 90 degree turns around obstacles if needed. Just before reaching a tree, they raise their flattened tails to abruptly change their trajectory upwards and point all of their limbs forward in",
"-24.760096822370542"
],
[
"they thought they were. Instead, they overshot Essendon and, unable to see through the heavy fog, crashed into Mount Dandenong a few hundred metres from the summit.\nExactly what happened in the last few minutes before the crash is disputed. There are claims that the pilots may have seen the mountain coming and tried to turn the aircraft away, inadvertently making the situation worse by adjusting from a flight path through a gap between two peaks to a path directly into one of them.\nThere is also strong evidence that the pilots were becoming unsure of their position. According to Macarthur Job's",
"-24.72099895530846"
],
[
"because the two leading men were partially hidden from our sight by an intervening mass of rock. Poor Croz had laid aside his axe, and in order to give Mr. Hadow greater security was absolutely taking hold of his legs and putting his feet, one by one, into their proper positions. From the movements of their shoulders it is my belief that Croz, having done as I have said, was in the act of turning round to go down a step or two himself; at this moment Mr. Hadow slipped, fell on him, and knocked him over.\nThe weight of the",
"-24.696494872274343"
],
[
"several times. Early on in the film, Ferguson faints while climbing a step-ladder. There are numerous references throughout the film to fear of heights and falling.",
"-24.69145957713772"
],
[
"her whole body to lean dangerously over the edge, a harness is sometimes used. She explains: \"Of course it is not a safe situation. But I always try to be careful.\"\"",
"-24.685934081848245"
],
[
"It may be dangerous to stray too far off the clearly marked path. There has been one fatality at the falls in recent years, and a Memorial Trail-Marker is there to mark it. The ledges are steep, the fall is long, and the current below is swift. Caution is advised at all times.",
"-24.667060788109666"
],
[
"unexpectedly. To go back down the rider leans forward or pushes down with the feet. Turning is accomplished by pointing the knees in the direction desired; the hydrofoil will follow. To jump, the rider leans even farther back. This will give the rider a somewhat stable base to perform aerial tricks for example. Dangers Submerged hazards such as trees can be struck by the hydrofoil as low as 3 feet below the surface of the water, causing the rider to fall without warning. Such a fall can be the same as colliding with an object, with the rider impacting the",
"-24.656850081286393"
],
[
"day. Some slopes were so steep one had to worry about sliding off backwards. Our instructors prodded us along and didn't allow pauses. He cautioned that once you stop, you won't be able to restart. Mountain climbing is like crossing a desert and imagining mirages. The next step poses great difficulty but the crest seems mercifully in sight. As one finally nears what appears the elusive top, another \"false crest\" appears, and then another and another.\nThis was tough duty. Our Commando instructor, Captain Hoar, a veteran of the Dieppe Raid, was a career soldier. British officers, prim and proper, carried",
"-24.64378375938395"
],
[
"expeditions, referred to as Sherpas, and who are more acclimatized to higher altitudes, use supplementary oxygen at higher altitudes. Many climbers lose their lives due to the debilitating effects of very limited oxygen at high altitudes, and because the rescue of someone who is not mobile at high altitudes is extremely difficult and potentially fatal for both the rescuer and the climber. Even for someone in trouble who is able to walk at high altitudes, rescue can be a monumental undertaking given that simple tasks, such as picking up a wrapper, can be a significant effort. However, the rescue of",
"-24.63664722943213"
],
[
"person's normal weight incorporates this gravitational acceleration. When a person feels weightless at the top of a loop or while going down a hill, they are in free fall. However, if the top of a hill is curved more narrowly than a parabola, riders will experience negative Gs and be lifted out of their seats, experiencing the so-called \"butterfly\" sensation. Difference between wood and steel coasters A wooden coaster has a track consisting of thin laminates of wood stacked together, with a flat steel rail fixed to the top laminate. Steel coasters use tubular steel, I beam or box section",
"-24.551630984962685"
],
[
"part of a thousand feet so much up and down that a man standing on their edges is fool enough to think he can jump from top to bottom.\n\"What see you when you get there ? \" asked Edwards.\n\"Creation!\" said Natty, dropping the end of his rod into the water, and sweeping one hand around him in a circle, \"all creation, lad.\" \nThe same year the hotel later to become the Catskill Mountain House was built at the spot. DeWitt Clinton was an early visitor. In 1824, the Hunter Turnpike, forerunner of today's Route 23A, was cut through Kaaterskill",
"-24.546579694608226"
],
[
"descent to 600 m (2,000 ft). Having informed ATC of their situation, the crew received a ground proximity warning. Instead of making an urgent climb, the crew delayed any attempt to climb until 1–2 seconds before impact.\nThe aircraft crashed into Dolan Mountain, at an altitude of 690 m (2,260 ft), 30 km (19 mi; 16 nmi) from Almaty airport, disintegrating and catching fire. At the time of the accident there was cumulo-nimbus cloud cover at an altitude of 3,000–4,500 m (9,800–14,800 ft) with cloud tops of 7,000–8,000 m (23,000–26,000 ft) and a visibility of 10 km (6.2 mi; 5.4 nmi).",
"-24.51110959741345"
],
[
"Mount (grappling) Variations of the mount A mount which is very high up on the opponent's chest is referred to as a high mount, and a very low one on the abdomen or even thighs as a low mount. A high mount can be used to pin one of the opponents arms under the knee, so as to prevent him or her from defending effectively. This however might increase the risk of the opponent being able to escape the back door, in which he or she is able to move under the opponent and escape the mount. A too low",
"-24.509765144553057"
],
[
"in a duffel bag. A soldier and a retarded man are among those killed. The boy thinks it is \"creepy.\"\nNow the man has reached the spot where he has to turn around, and the boy has to get out. Before he gets out the man asks the boy to look under his seat for a flashlight. As the boy is looking the narrator says to himself that he is too tired and he does not want to clean the seat. The reason for this would be because he was going to kill him while he was looking away, but the",
"-24.507615206821356"
],
[
"This suggests the feet could belong to other people who have jumped from the bridge . Level of rarity Decomposition may separate the foot from the body because the ankle is relatively weak, and the buoyancy caused by air either inside or trapped within a shoe would allow it to float away. According to Simon Fraser University entomologist Gail Anderson, extremities such as the hands, feet, and head often detach as a body decomposes in the water, although they rarely float.\nHowever, finding feet and not the rest of the bodies has been deemed unusual. Finding two feet has been given",
"-24.47613755450584"
],
[
"deep side of the glass, they would become scared and they would tense up and be afraid to move. However, when they were moved to the shallow side they would relax and jump onto the visually shallow surface. This showed that visual sense, instead of the ability of the animal to feel the stableness of the glass, was in control. Criticisms One of the criticisms of the visual cliff study was whether the research in the study really supported the hypothesis that depth perception was innate in humans. One issue was about the glass over the deep part of the",
"-24.470527577446774"
],
[
"We are counted once/To climb the rungs/'til limbs give way/(Or sight diminished)/To the extent/We are blind to the heights/We might have gained/Through clouds and sky/On our standing-rung;/When, having properly/Reached a destiny,/(We should have seen)/We step off in faith/(Or jump forward)/In our unfolding—/As a sprinter who springs/And finds his pace/In the gait of a level run—/And the ultimate/Finish-line.\nOther poems, such as the title poem \"Sleeping with Rilke\" and \"Atlantis Rising,\" are avant-garde and narrative, reminiscent of Richard Wilbur's earlier description of Steinhardt's poems as being exploratory in nature.\nIn 2011 Steinhardt began to appear in several television segments on KPLR Channel 11",
"-24.459374463142012"
],
[
"dangers mountaineers face include falling rocks, falling ice, snow-avalanches, the climber falling, falls from ice slopes, falls down snow slopes, falls into crevasses, and the dangers from altitude and weather. Weather The primary dangers caused by bad weather center on the changes it causes in snow and rock conditions, making movement suddenly much more arduous and hazardous than under normal circumstances.\nWhiteouts make it difficult to retrace a route while rain may prevent taking the easiest line only determined as such under dry conditions. In a storm the mountaineer who uses a compass for guidance has a great advantage over a",
"-24.448056584980804"
],
[
"back or continue on due to the steepness of the terrain, often then facing the problems of bad weather/hypothermia; persons attempt a climb that requires knowledge or equipment they do not possess and attempt a manoeuvre that result in a serious or fatal fall; persons become lost or disoriented, often due to change of weather, lose the trail or attempt to take a shortcut and suffer a serious or fatal fall.",
"-24.40391811378504"
],
[
"persons falling or jumping.\" Descending the gallery stairway Charles Straub had a seat in the family circle close to the stairway; he was in the company of his friend Joseph Kreamer. He remembered, \"we could hardly run down the stairs; we were crowded down.\" Though at first he saw no smoke, by the time he had been carried down to the last flight, it had grown thicker. There he tripped and people fell on top of him. By then the last flight of stairs was dark and full of smoke. Straub struggled up and stumbled forward. He estimated that about",
"-24.390789449447766"
],
[
"feet from his body. He also has antennae that allow him to sense in what direction is any person he's seen before currently is located; these antennae also allow him to pierce any disguise as he instantly knows if the person he's looking at is the same as who they appear to be (regardless of shape changing or mind switching). He can also alter the shape of his body in limited ways. Typically this is limited to making himself flat enough to fit through any crack but on a few occasions, he also stretched his body a few feet. On",
"-24.362773405897315"
],
[
"we bounced and it woke me up. Then the next flight I had the same pilot and the plane went down so smooth. So I asked the pilot why, and he said when you land a plane smooth, you get the plane elevated to the lowest position you can and then you smooth it in. Same with sliding ... If you dive when you're running straight up then you have a long distance to get to the ground. But the closer you get to the ground the less time it will take ... I was hitting the dirt so smooth,",
"-24.34144298150204"
],
[
"San Diego Medical Examiner Jonathan Lucas stated that \"because there was evidence that she went over the balcony in a non-vertical position, she may have struck her head on the balcony on the way down.\" Werner Spitz, an expert witness who testified during the trial of Casey Anthony, said it was a possibility, stating, \"When the body first dropped, she doesn't necessarily jump to her death, so she would drop directly downward and she could easily hit against the side of the structure from which she is hanging.\" However, he noted that to draw stronger conclusions he would have preferred",
"-24.324685651576146"
],
[
"better condition than they were found. Injuries and deaths Concerns have been raised by law enforcement and fire and rescue teams of the risk in jumping off high buildings. They argue that practitioners are needlessly risking damage to both themselves and rooftops by practicing at height, with police forces calling for practitioners to stay off the rooftops. Some practitioners of Parkour agree that such behaviour should be discouraged.\nBecause parkour philosophy is about learning to control oneself in interaction with the environment, many parkour experts tend to view serious physical injury as a deviation from true parkour. Daniel Ilabaca, co-founder of",
"-24.324506957163976"
],
[
"wearing a silver suit so they decided to film me walking along an overhead ledge as though I was a spaceman who'd just landed. It was very high up and I suddenly looked down at the ground. That was a mistake because I just froze. I had this terror of falling and I just froze completely, like a cat does when it gets stuck up a tree.\"\nIn the UK, the band performed the song on the music show Top of the Pops and The Roger Whittaker Show. In Belgium, they performed it on the TV show Popshop. In 1972, the",
"-24.312081622774713"
],
[
"The requirement for sure-footedness is usually only mentioned when speaking about routes on which no special climbing ability is required. It is also not necessarily the case that someone with climbing experience is automatically sure-footed.\nNor does sure-footedness imply a head for heights, something that is often stated as a requirement for using mountain paths. In this context, a head for heights means having the ability to negotiate exposed sections of a route without feeling unduly frightened. However, it is no accident that both requirements are often referred to together because, on exposed routes, the consequences of falling are likely to",
"-24.303768032812513"
],
[
"to move as fast as I could. I could tell that people had been completely disembodied and I could feel bones of the people that had been hit by those bursts of bullets or shells, I could feel their ribs crushing. Then I would get up again and continue....\nWhen this witness climbed out of a window, he was seen by a guard who shot at him. He then pretended to be dead and managed to escape the following morning. The other witness quoted above spent the night under a heap of bodies; the next morning, he watched as the soldiers",
"-24.284828613337595"
],
[
"of the climb, when the weather worsened. Božić, Viki Grošelj, Carlos Carsolio and Zvonko Požgaj were only able to touch the summit, because standing on it would have been impossible due to high winds. On the way back, the team got lost in the snowstorm, but ultimately managed to get to base four, where they found Boris Sedej and Boštjan Kekec. The latter was in distress, showing symptoms of hypoxia, his condition worsening. Due to the urgency of the situation, Sedej, Požgaj and Božić descended with Kekec through the snowstorm. Soon Kekec was unable to walk and became unresponsive, and",
"-24.28356881038053"
],
[
"as a spectacle. No man wants to take his eyes from it until that time comes when he makes up his mind to run away. To deliberately stand up and turn your back to a battle is in itself hard work. To deliberately stand up and turn your back to a battle and hear immediate evidences of the boundless enthusiasm with which a large company of the enemy shoot at you from an adjacent thicket is, to my mind at least, a very great feat. One need not dwell upon the detail of keeping the mind carefully upon a slow",
"-24.254488563292398"
],
[
"of the runway.\nOne eyewitness was Richard Gardner, then five years old. He recalled in adulthood:\nI'll never forget, it looked like confetti, looked like silver confetti. The remaining airframe floated down right in front of us. It just came down like a leaf. And then the two engines, like two missiles, shot out of the airframe and hurtled in the direction of the airshow. There was a sort of silence, then people, one or two people screamed but mostly it was just a sort of shock. You could hear some people sort of whimpering which was quite shocking.\nSixty-three years later, speaking",
"-24.22203084875946"
]
] |
3jbthf | Ethics vs Morals | [
"Ethics are the comprehension and understanding of morals. It's like the difference between anthropology and actually being a human. One is study, the other is application. To quote a famous example: The ethical man knows that it is wrong to cheat on his spouse, the moral man doesn't cheat on his spouse.",
"Ethics are based on the social contract, we decide together on expectations of how to treat one another. Morals are based on a belief system independent of other people's belief systems. They are more subjective, yet treated as more universal. At least that's how I see the difference.",
"Ethics are intended to be a group discussion of the concept of right and wrong conduct. It is intended to determine what is best for all participants even if it is against the beliefs of a few. For example some might consider the idea that a group of people can set the prices on related products to the same cost for the benefit of that group and the detriment of another group by forming an Oligarchy. While the group that sets the price have no moral quarrel with agreeing with their business partners to set prices to the same amount the people who were purchasing these products would find it unfair, hence unethical. Morals are what determine what should be believed to be right and wrong and the guiding actions between doing the right thing. In the above example of the Oligarchy, the moral quandary the business partners might have is \"is it okay to make it more difficult for people to purchase what they need for the sole sake of benefiting me?\" This is a moral quandary because instead of an action it is focused on a question of values, determining whether making life difficult for others is okay if it makes your life better. Ethics aims to make things as fair as possible for all people. Morals aim to determine what is right and what is wrong. That's why they seem so similar because generally most people assume what is fair is also right.",
"Let me explain it as clearly and concisely as I can. Ethics is the value-theoretical study of the good. This contrasts it with aesthetics, the value-theoretical study of the beautiful. It also contrasts it with fields such as epistemology (the study of knowledge) and metaphysics (the study of reality), which are not value-theoretical at all (that is, they do not concern themselves with issues of value, such as \"better\", \"worse\", etc). You'll often hear that ethics is the study of justified action or something like that, but this is a misleading characterisation of ethics. While this is a true statement about ethical theories such as consequentialism (which judges actions solely based on their consequences) and deontology (which judges actions based on duties they adhere to, principles they follow, or other such things, and maybe consequences as well depending on the specific theory), it is not true about virtue-centred ethical theories, in which the central focus is on the agent's character rather than on their actions. Nor is it true about care-centred ethical theories, in which the focus is on relationships between people (again, less about specific actions here). Of course, both virtue and care ethics can recommend courses of action, but that is not their central focus. Morality, on the other hand, is something else. It's a subset of ethical thought, sure, but beyond that, it's a nebulously-at-best defined term. This is why it's not used quite as much in formal contexts. It can mean one of several things. For example, when we say \"morality\", we could be referring to the common ethical rules of a particular group of people - their common morality. Ever heard of \"social mores\"? Well, this is it. On the other hand, \"morality\" can be used to mean something roughly equivalent to spiritual purity. There's often a sense that contravening morals in some way taints the agent. On the third hand, some draw the distinction at the place of other-regarding considerations (thinking about other people). For example, a character-centred virtue theorist may say that it is ethically desirable to have a great deal self-control. But this is often not in the field of morality because it often has nothing to do with other people, but just with you, the subject. This same virtue-theorist may say that generosity, for example, being an other-regarding virtue lands within the field of morality. I'd avoid the use of a term like \"morality\" without a solid definition, because it can mean so many differen things to different people.",
"The tl;dr version: Moral: You don't steal from someone because it would make you feel guilty (and depending on your religion, affect your 'soul'). Ethical: You don't steal from someone because it harms them, and sets a bad precedent for everyone else. e: Naturally, most things that are immoral, you can find an ethical reason for them being wrong too. If you ever find something that's 'immoral' that doesn't have an ethical basis, you should think about why (and thus, if the moral basis is false).",
"**Basically**, there is no difference. **A fuller, more nuanced answer** follows. (1) *Most philosophers use the terms interchangeably*, i.e. regard 'ethics' and 'morals' (/'morality') as different words for the same thing. Yet (2) *some philosophers distinguish the two*. One version of the distinction is as follows. (2.i) Morality is a subset of ethics. For morality is about obligations and prohibitions – about what one should and should not do, whereas ethics is about how to live and what to value; and there is more to living and valuing and obligations and prohibitions. Here is another version of the distinction. (2.ii) Morality is one particular ethic or type of ethics, i.e. one more or less particular way understanding of how to live. (Bernard Williams, drawing upon Nietzsche, holds something like this.) A third version of the distinction: (2.iii) morality is the part of ethics that is universally binding, whereas ethics is somehow relative to groups. (Habermas holds something like this.) (3) *Etymology.* The word ‘ethics’ derives from (or is at least related to) several ancient Greek words: *ethos*, meaning character, way of life; *ethikos*, meaning of good character; and *ta ethika*, meaning the study of those things, i.e. ethics. The word ‘morality’ derives, I think, from the Latin *moralis*, which was (again: I think) first coined in order to translate *ta ethika*. Any linguists / historians around? More could and should be said, too, about the common usage of the English words ‘ethics’ and ‘morality’. Any sociolinguists around? Properly sorting all this out – getting fully clear on how the two concepts (ethics and morality) interrelate - would take some work. Source: I'm heavily involved in this stuff, although this is my first full-ish attempt on your particular question.",
"Ethics study what is wrong and what is right, moral is what makes you do the right thing. Used pretty much interchangeably nowadays though"
] | [
[
"such as deontological ethics and consequentialism. An example of normative ethical philosophy is the Golden Rule, which states that: \"One should treat others as one would like others to treat oneself.\"\nImmorality is the active opposition to morality (i.e. opposition to that which is good or right), while amorality is variously defined as an unawareness of, indifference toward, or disbelief in any particular set of moral standards or principles. Ethics Ethics (also known as moral philosophy) is the branch of philosophy which addresses questions of morality. The word \"ethics\" is \"commonly used interchangeably with 'morality,' and sometimes it is used more",
"-33.11304319021292"
],
[
"narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition, group, or individual.\" Likewise, certain types of ethical theories, especially deontological ethics, sometimes distinguish between ethics and morals: \"Although the morality of people and their ethics amounts to the same thing, there is a usage that restricts morality to systems such as that of Immanuel Kant, based on notions such as duty, obligation, and principles of conduct, reserving ethics for the more Aristotelian approach to practical reasoning, based on the notion of a virtue, and generally avoiding the separation of 'moral' considerations from other practical considerations.\" Tribal and territorial Celia",
"-33.10527160222409"
],
[
"Morality Morality (from Latin: moralis, lit. 'manner, character, proper behavior') is the differentiation of intentions, decisions and actions between those that are distinguished as proper and those that are improper. Morality can be a body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a particular philosophy, religion or culture, or it can derive from a standard that a person believes should be universal. Morality may also be specifically synonymous with \"goodness\" or \"rightness\".\nMoral philosophy includes meta-ethics, which studies abstract issues such as moral ontology and moral epistemology, and normative ethics, which studies more concrete systems of moral decision-making",
"-33.098819849663414"
],
[
"History of ethics Ethics is the branch of philosophy that examines right and wrong moral behavior, moral concepts (such as justice, virtue, duty) and moral language. Various ethical theories pose various answers to the question \"What is the greatest good?\" and elaborate a complete set of proper behaviors for individuals and groups. Ethical theories are closely related to forms of life in various social orders. Origins The epic poems that stand at the beginning of many world literatures, such as the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh, Homer's Iliad and the Icelandic Eddas, portray a set of values that suit the strong",
"-32.54388208393357"
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[
"six different principle ethics are often considered as crucial to take into account when faced with an ethical decision: the principle of autonomy, which relates to the client's right to control their own life, decisions, future, etc.; nonmaleficence, which translates to doing no harm to the client; somewhat oppositely, beneficence, which means doing good for or promoting the welfare of your client; justice, referring to fairness and equality on the part of the professional; fidelity, which requires the professional to fulfill a responsibility of faithfulness and trust; and veracity, which means being truthful and honest with clients.\nThe newest 2014 edition",
"-32.23421340377536"
],
[
"is a difference between moral and natural goods. Moral goods are those that have to do with the conduct of persons, usually leading to praise or blame. Natural goods, on the other hand, have to do with objects, not persons. For example, the statement \"Mary is a good person\" uses 'good' very differently than in the statement \"That is good food\".\nEthics is mainly focused on moral goods rather than natural goods, while economics has a concern in what is economically good for the society but not an individual person and is also interested in natural goods. However, both moral and",
"-32.0374337779358"
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[
"Child lying Morality Morality (from the Latin moralitas \"manner, character, proper behavior\") is the differentiation of intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are \"good\" (or right) and those that are \"bad\" (or wrong). The philosophy of morality is ethics. A moral code is a system of morality (according to a particular philosophy, religion, culture, etc.) and a moral is any one practice or teaching within a moral code. Morality may also be specifically synonymous with \"goodness\" or \"rightness.\" Immorality is the active opposition to morality (i.e. opposition to that which is good or right), while amorality is variously defined",
"-32.028821245301515"
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[
"and both married two other philosophers. Morality as known to all According to Gert, his theory counts as a natural law theory because he holds that all moral agents must be able to understand morality in order to count as moral agents. In other words, \"moral judgments can only be made about those who know what kind of behavior morality prohibits, requires, discourages, encourages, and allows.\" Why be moral? On Gert's view, there are several reasons to act morally. The primary one is i) that someone else will be harmed. While it is rational not to care",
"-31.896894142919336"
],
[
"that uses evidence from biology, primatology, anthropology, psychology, neuroscience, and other areas to classify and describe moral behavior.\nEthical naturalism encompasses any reduction of ethical properties, such as 'goodness', to non-ethical properties; there are many different examples of such reductions, and thus many different varieties of ethical naturalism. Hedonism, for example, is the view that goodness is ultimately just pleasure. Criticisms Ethical naturalism has been criticized most prominently by ethical non-naturalist G. E. Moore, who formulated the open-question argument. Garner and Rosen say that a common definition of \"natural property\" is one \"which can be discovered by sense observation or experience,",
"-31.86976836656686"
],
[
"Thus, he concluded that ideas of morality should come from a form of higher mental reason, with nature viewed as an independent phenomenon.\nEvolutionary ethics is not the only way to involve nature with ethics. For example, there are ethically realist theories like ethical naturalism. Related to ethical naturalism is also the idea that ethics are best explored, not just using the lens of philosophy, but science as well (a science of morality). Valluvar Thiruvalluvar, a South Indian poet-philosopher and the author of the Kural, a non-denominational Classical Tamil work on secular ethics and morality, is believed to have lived about",
"-31.808100706723053"
],
[
"same principle, in a personal spiritual relationship to the universe. Ethics themselves proceed from the need to respect the wish of other beings to exist as one does towards oneself. Even so, Schweitzer found many instances in world religions and philosophies in which the principle was denied, not least in the European Middle Ages, and in the Indian Brahminic philosophy.\nFor Schweitzer, mankind had to accept that objective reality is ethically neutral. It could then affirm a new Enlightenment through spiritual rationalism, by giving priority to volition or ethical will as the primary meaning of life. Mankind had to choose to",
"-31.578846852877177"
],
[
"branch of philosophy that addresses topics such as goodness, beauty and justice. Value theory includes ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, feminist philosophy, philosophy of law and more. Ethics Ethics, or \"moral philosophy\", studies and considers what is good and bad conduct, right and wrong values, and good and evil. Its primary investigations include how to live a good life and identifying standards of morality. It also includes meta-investigations about whether a best way to live or related standards exists. The main branches of ethics are normative ethics, meta-ethics and applied ethics.\nA major area of debate involves consequentialism, in which actions",
"-31.333873978466727"
],
[
"determining what behavior helps or harms sentient creatures\". The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy states that the word \"ethics\" is \"commonly used interchangeably with 'morality' ... and sometimes it is used more narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition, group or individual.\" Paul and Elder state that most people confuse ethics with behaving in accordance with social conventions, religious beliefs and the law and don't treat ethics as a stand-alone concept.\nThe word ethics in English refers to several things. It can refer to philosophical ethics or moral philosophy—a project that attempts to use reason to answer various kinds of",
"-31.139621849230025"
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[
"to be applied regardless of a person's actual desires, thoughts or goals, and regardless of the situation in which a person finds him- or herself. Moralism is the practice of not only reducing living values to reified morals, but of considering oneself better than others because one has subjected oneself to morality (self-righteousness), and of proselytizing for the adoption of morality as a tool of social change\". Living up to morality means sacrificing certain desires and temptations (regardless of the actual situation you might find yourself in) in favor of the rewards of virtue.\nTherefore, \"[r]ejecting Morality involves constructing a critical",
"-31.038678506782162"
],
[
"the branch of ethics that investigates the set of questions that arise when considering how one ought to act, morally speaking. Normative ethics is distinct from meta-ethics because normative ethics examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions, while meta-ethics studies the meaning of moral language and the metaphysics of moral facts. Normative ethics is also distinct from descriptive ethics, as the latter is an empirical investigation of people's moral beliefs. To put it another way, descriptive ethics would be concerned with determining what proportion of people believe that killing is always wrong, while normative ethics is concerned with",
"-31.031494112103246"
],
[
"Ethics Defining ethics The English word \"ethics\" is derived from the Ancient Greek word ēthikós (ἠθικός), meaning \"relating to one's character\", which itself comes from the root word êthos (ἦθος) meaning \"character, moral nature\". This word was transferred into Latin as ethica and then into French as éthique, from which it was transferred into English.\nRushworth Kidder states that \"standard definitions of ethics have typically included such phrases as 'the science of the ideal human character' or 'the science of moral duty'\". Richard William Paul and Linda Elder define ethics as \"a set of concepts and principles that guide us in",
"-30.946248179610848"
],
[
"Contemporary ethics Ethics is, in general terms, the study of right and wrong. It can look descriptively at moral behaviour and judgements; it can give practical advice (normative ethics), or it can analyse and theorise about the nature of morality and ethics.\nContemporary study of ethics has many links with other disciplines in philosophy itself and other sciences. Normative ethics has declined, while meta-ethics is increasingly followed. Abstract theorizing has in many areas been replaced by experience-based research. Practical and theoretical areas Psychology, sociology, politics, medicine and neurobiology are areas which have helped and been helped in progress in ethics. Within",
"-30.77506112345145"
],
[
"whether it is correct to hold such a belief. Hence, normative ethics is sometimes called prescriptive, rather than descriptive. However, on certain versions of the meta-ethical view called moral realism, moral facts are both descriptive and prescriptive at the same time.\nTraditionally, normative ethics (also known as moral theory) was the study of what makes actions right and wrong. These theories offered an overarching moral principle one could appeal to in resolving difficult moral decisions.\nAt the turn of the 20th century, moral theories became more complex and were no longer concerned solely with rightness and wrongness, but were interested in many",
"-30.71343963057734"
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[
"virtue ethics, a moral theory first propounded by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. He is considered the preeminent Thomist political philosopher. He holds that \"modern philosophy and modern life are characterized by the absence of any coherent moral code, and that the vast majority of individuals living in this world lack a meaningful sense of purpose in their lives and also lack any genuine community\". He recommends a return to genuine political communities where individuals can properly acquire their virtues.\nOutside academic philosophy, political and social concerns took center stage with the Civil Rights Movement and the writings of Martin Luther",
"-30.587280554580502"
],
[
"ethical questions. As the English philosopher Bernard Williams writes, attempting to explain moral philosophy: \"What makes an inquiry a philosophical one is reflective generality and a style of argument that claims to be rationally persuasive.\" Williams describes the content of this area of inquiry as addressing the very broad question, \"how one should live\". Ethics can also refer to a common human ability to think about ethical problems that is not particular to philosophy. As bioethicist Larry Churchill has written: \"Ethics, understood as the capacity to think critically about moral values and direct our actions in terms of such values,",
"-30.580489758125623"
],
[
"intuition—because of the obvious differences in beliefs among societies, which he said provided evidence of the lack of any innate, intuitive power. Morality and evolution Some evolutionary biologists believe that morality is a natural phenomenon that evolves by natural selection. In this case, morality is defined as the set of relative social practices that promote the survival and successful reproduction of the species, or even multiple cooperating species. R. M. Hare Some philosophers, for example R. M. Hare (1919–2002), argue that moral propositions remain subject to human logical rules, notwithstanding the absence of any factual content, including those",
"-30.466226357501"
],
[
"hence, ethics does not center around divine commands. Instead, ethics is humanistic and utilitarian: it focuses on improving social functioning and human flourishing. On the other hand, social welfare is not a mere aggregate of individual welfare; rather, there is a collective \"social good\" embodying values that everyone wants, like peace and stability. In general, African ethics is social or collectivistic rather than individualistic and united in ideology. Cooperation and altruism are considered crucial. African ethics places more weight on duties of prosocial behaviour than on rights per se, in contrast to most of Western ethics. Africana philosophy Africana philosophy",
"-30.45122094161343"
],
[
"ethics seeks to explain various kinds of moral phenomena wholly or partly in genetic terms. Ethical topics addressed include altruistic behaviors, an innate sense of fairness, a capacity for normative guidance, feelings of kindness or love, self-sacrifice, incest-avoidance, parental care, in-group loyalty, monogamy, feelings related to competitiveness and retribution, moral \"cheating,\" and hypocrisy.\nA key issue in evolutionary psychology has been how altruistic feelings and behaviors could have evolved, in both humans and nonhumans, when the process of natural selection is based on the multiplication over time only of those genes that adapt better to changes in the environment of the",
"-30.426507450756617"
],
[
"the moral world by a deductive process with the fundamental idea of knowledge and being; it offers a view of the entire world of human action which at all events aims at being exhaustive; it presents an arrangement of the matter of the science which tabulates its constituents after the model of the physical sciences; and it supplies a sharply defined treatment of specific moral phenomena in their relation to the fundamental idea of human life as a whole. Schleiermacher defines ethics as the theory of the nature of the reason, or as the scientific treatment of the effects produced",
"-30.38848288365989"
],
[
"than four decades. He has discovered a scientifically-based morality called \"moral physics,\" which is based on a series of maxims, in which the underlying assumption is that morals are laws of nature.\nThe existence of objective morality has been debated since the times of Aristotle and Plato. Dr. Dario Salas Sommer puts forth the concept that ‘moral laws’ exist for both individuals and nations. Who follows the moral rules will prosper and who violates them will be punished. In his book ‘Moral of the 21st Century’ he proves that acting in accordance with the principles of morality is not only",
"-30.342373631545343"
],
[
"Science of morality The science of morality may refer to various forms of ethical naturalism grounding morality in rational, empirical consideration of the natural world. It is sometimes framed as using the scientific approach to determine what is right and wrong, in contrast to the widespread belief that \"science has nothing to say on the subject of human values\". Overview Moral science may refer to the consideration of what is best for, and how to maximize the flourishing of, either particular individuals or all conscious creatures. It has been proposed that \"morality\" can be appropriately defined on the basis",
"-30.330351781041827"
],
[
"Evolution of morality The evolution of morality refers to the emergence of human moral behavior over the course of human evolution. Morality can be defined as a system of ideas about right and wrong conduct. In everyday life, morality is typically associated with human behavior, and not much thought is given to the social conducts of other creatures. The emerging fields of evolutionary biology and in particular sociobiology have argued that, though human social behaviors are complex, the precursors of human morality can be traced to the behaviors of many other social animals. Sociobiological explanations of human behavior",
"-30.226225071324734"
],
[
"Ethical decision Elongated Man Vs. The Flash The words \"Elongated Man\" and \"The Flash\" are frequently used interchangeably and relate to the \"wrong\" and \"right\" conduct. Ethics refer to behavior customary in a culture or society, whereas Morals refer to personal standards of right and wrong. Morals do not change as a person moves from one society to the next, while ethics could change with the addition and loss of community members. Business ethics is associated with the creation and application of moral standards in a business setting. Development of ethical decision-making Ethical decisions come from a place",
"-30.205591333215125"
],
[
"Goodness and morality in biology The issue of good and evil in the human visuality, often associated with morality, is regarded by some biologists (notably Edward O. Wilson, Jeremy Griffith, David Sloan Wilson and Frans de Waal) as an important question to be addressed by the field of biology.",
"-30.03895907464903"
],
[
"moral ideas across many ethnic groups. In a number of African cultures, ethics is centered on a person's character, and saying \"he has no morals\" translates as something like \"he has no character\". A person's character reflects the accumulation of her deeds and her habits of conduct; hence, it can be changed over a person's life. In some African cultures, \"personhood\" refers to an adult human who exhibits moral virtues, and one who behaves badly is not considered a person, even if he is considered a human.\nWhile many traditional African societies are highly religious, their religions are not revealed, and",
"-30.013764968898613"
],
[
"our moral code is fundamentally flawed; that the current code of ethics predominant in modern societies, shaped largely by divine command theory (most religion, especially Western religion), is based on false promises of eternal salvation or threats of damnation, not on a morality inherent to the human condition. Personal life Schweitzer and his wife, Sally Schweitzer, live in Central Texas, moving there following his service at the White House. Schweitzer is a pilot who owns and operates his personal aircraft. He and his wife Sally are avid scuba divers, often travelling the globe to explore new wildlife.",
"-30.004521784954704"
],
[
"consistent descriptions of complex situations and difficult decisions. It is considered to be important because, to those who practice the ethical tradition in which the descriptions are applied, it answers the big question: \"How should we live?\"\nThe very questions presupposes that we can define \"how\" (method), \"should\" (ambition), \"we\" (a group seeking consensus), \"live\" (beings with bodies).\nWithout this context, ethics is generally just talk implying moral judgement - called normative ethics, and covered again in separate article.\nThe remainder of this article is about practical approaches to ethical decisions that are observed in ordinary people's daily lives and in politics",
"-29.99694637666107"
],
[
"functions of moral principles are consistent with all the essential characteristics of any legal system. He is also a leading proponent of the legal positivist argument that law and morality are separable, arguing against the position of natural-law theory, which portrays legal requirements as a species of moral requirements. According to him, even though the existence of a legal system in any sizeable society is essential for the realization of fundamental moral values, law is not inherently moral either in its effects or in its motivational underpinnings. Moral realism as a moral doctrine Influenced by the theories of Ronald Dworkin,",
"-29.93461405020207"
],
[
"and ethics Whether or not the relationships between animals found in nature and between people in early human evolution can provide a basis for human morality is a persistently unresolved question. Thomas Henry Huxley wrote in Evolution and Ethics in 1893 that people make a grave error in trying to create moral ideas from the behavior of animals in nature. He remarked:\nThe practice of that which is ethically best — what we call goodness or virtue — involves a course of conduct which, in all respects, is opposed to that which leads to success in the cosmic struggle for existence.",
"-29.91869073516864"
],
[
"Moral A moral (from Latin morālis) is a message that is conveyed or a lesson to be learned from a story or event. The moral may be left to the hearer, reader, or viewer to determine for themselves, or may be explicitly encapsulated in a maxim. A moral is a lesson in a story or in real life. Finding morals As an example of an explicit maxim, at the end of Aesop's fable of the Tortoise and the Hare, in which the plodding and determined tortoise won a race against the much-faster yet extremely arrogant hare, the stated moral is",
"-29.917435817362275"
],
[
"of categories. Ethics The information on his Ethics is scanty. He tried to supplement the Platonic doctrine at various points, and at the same time to give it a more direct applicability to life. He distinguished from the good and the bad something which is neither good nor bad. Following the ideas of his Academic predecessors, he viewed the good as that which should be striven after for itself, that is, which has value in itself, while the bad is the opposite of this. Consequently, that which is neither good nor bad is what in itself is neither to be",
"-29.782098268100526"
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[
"reason exists to consider morality as over and above other urges.\nAccording to Thomas Dixon, \"Religions certainly do provide a framework within which people can learn the difference between right and wrong.\" \"Morality does not rely on religion\" A man's ethical behavior should be based effectually on sympathy, education, and social ties and needs; no religious basis is necessary. Man would indeed be in a poor way if he had to be restrained by fear of punishment and hopes of reward after death.\n— Albert Einstein, \"Religion and Science,\" New York Times Magazine, 1930\nVarious commentators have stated that morality does not require religion",
"-29.741147039923817"
],
[
"Ethics, in general, commenting on the actions of the moral virtues.\nIt was later mentioned by Robert Flint in 1904 in a review of Bourdeau's Théorie des sciences.\nThe modern definition of the word was first given by Alfred V. Espinas (1844–1922), the French philosopher and sociologist; he was the forerunner of the Polish school of the science of efficient action. The Austrian school of economics was based on a philosophical science of the same kind.\nWith a different spelling, the word was used by the English psychologist Charles Arthur Mercier (in 1911), and proposed by Knight Dunlap to John B. Watson as",
"-29.73535965422525"
],
[
"Moralism Moralism is a philosophy that arose in the 19th century that concerns itself with imbuing society with a certain set of morals, usually traditional behaviour, but also \"justice, freedom, and equality\". It has strongly affected American and British culture, concerning private issues such as the family unit and sexuality, as well as issues that carry over into the public square, such as the temperance movement. History In tracing the origins of moralism, sociologist Malcolm Waters writes that \"Moralism emerged from a clash between the unrestrained character of frontier expansionism, a middle-class, Protestant emphasis on respectability cultivated in small-town America",
"-29.695795462233946"
],
[
"is a generic human capacity.\" Ethics can also be used to describe a particular person's own idiosyncratic principles or habits. For example: \"Joe has strange ethics.\" Meta-ethics Meta-ethics is the branch of philosophical ethics that asks how we understand, know about, and what we mean when we talk about what is right and what is wrong. An ethical question pertaining to a particular practical situation—such as, \"Should I eat this particular piece of chocolate cake?\"—cannot be a meta-ethical question (rather, this is an applied ethical question). A meta-ethical question is abstract and relates to a wide range of more specific",
"-29.682733519992325"
],
[
"that moral agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest. It differs from psychological egoism, which claims that people do only act in their self-interest. Ethical egoism also differs from rational egoism, which holds merely that it is rational to act in one's self-interest. However, these doctrines may occasionally be combined with ethical egoism.\nEthical egoism contrasts with ethical altruism, which holds that moral agents have an obligation to help and serve others. Egoism and altruism both contrast with ethical utilitarianism, which holds that a moral agent should treat one's self (also known as the subject) with no higher",
"-29.669807626341935"
],
[
"way people do make moral judgments rather than the way they should make them. While some ethical pragmatists may have questioned the distinction between normative and descriptive truth, the theory of pragmatic ethics itself does not conflate them any more than science conflates truth about its subject matter with current opinion about it. Moral ecology Moral ecology is a variation of pragmatic ethics which additionally supposes that morality evolves like an ecosystem, and ethical practice should therefore include strategies analogous to those of ecosystem management (e.g. protecting a degree of moral diversity). The term \"moral ecology\" has been used since",
"-29.652053871555836"
],
[
"talk about right and wrong, we are talking about matters of fact.\nThe ontology of ethics is about value-bearing things or properties, i.e. the kind of things or stuff referred to by ethical propositions. Non-descriptivists and non-cognitivists believe that ethics does not need a specific ontology since ethical propositions do not refer. This is known as an anti-realist position. Realists, on the other hand, must explain what kind of entities, properties or states are relevant for ethics, how they have value, and why they guide and motivate our actions. Normative ethics Normative ethics is the study of ethical action. It is",
"-29.620444176733145"
],
[
"moral values and how much impact they may have on us. The problem with morality, according to Nietzsche, is that those who were considered \"good\" were the powerful nobles who had more education, and considered themselves better than anyone below their rank. Thus, what is considered good is relative. A \"good man\" is not questioned on whether or not there is a \"bad\", such as temptations, lingering inside him and he is considered to be more important than a man who is considered \"bad\" who is considered useless to making the human race better because of the morals we have",
"-29.5687578702873"
],
[
"and the progress of societies. Blasi, A. (2009). In philosophy Philosopher David Hume and psychologist Jonathan Haidt both claim that morality is based more on perceptions than on logical reasoning. This means that people's morality is based more on their emotions and feelings than on a logical analysis of any given situation. Hume regards morals as linked to passion, love, happiness, and other emotions and therefore not based on reason. Haidt agrees, arguing that reasoning concerning a moral situation or idea follows an initial intuition. Haidt's fundamental stance on moral reasoning is that \"moral intuitions (including moral emotions) come",
"-29.549433703825343"
],
[
"different kinds of moral status. During the middle of the century, the study of normative ethics declined as meta-ethics grew in prominence. This focus on meta-ethics was in part caused by an intense linguistic focus in analytic philosophy and by the popularity of logical positivism. Virtue ethics Virtue ethics describes the character of a moral agent as a driving force for ethical behavior, and it is used to describe the ethics of Socrates, Aristotle, and other early Greek philosophers. Socrates (469–399 BC) was one of the first Greek philosophers to encourage both scholars and the common citizen to turn their",
"-29.52438200978213"
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[
"their worst, not guide them towards achieving their best. In other words, someone who follows all these prohibitions has just barely avoided being a criminal, not acted as a positive influence on the world. They conclude that rational ethics can lead to a fully expressed ethical life, while religious prohibitions are insufficient.\nThat does not mean secular ethics and religion are mutually exclusive. In fact, many principles, such as the Golden Rule, are present in both systems, and some religious people, as well as some Deists, prefer to adopt a rational approach to ethics. Humanist Manifestos The Humanist Manifestos are three",
"-29.504286522977054"
],
[
"individuals possess four \"intuitive ethics\", stemming from the process of human evolution as responses to adaptive challenges. They labelled these four ethics as suffering, hierarchy, reciprocity, and purity. According to Haidt and Joseph, each of the ethics formed a cognitive module, whose development was shaped by culture. They wrote that each module could \"provide little more than flashes of affect when certain patterns are encountered in the social world\", while a cultural learning process shaped each individual's response to these flashes. Morality diverges because different cultures utilize the four \"building blocks\" provided by the modules differently. This article",
"-29.460633652137403"
],
[
"also sees ethics as what \"ought to be\" in the social world, as opposed to seeing what \"is\" as a current state of affairs that is unchangeable. According to Cohen, only God falls into both categories of what \"is\" and what \"ought to be\". According to Cohen, ethics are equivalent to what ought to be. Jewish feminist ethicists have use Cohen's Kantian ideas by expressing their ideals for equality for women in Judaism as what ought to be. Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud, an Austrian psychologist and psychoanalyst who lived from 1856 to 1939. Freud's psychology still serves as the basis",
"-29.402447053813376"
],
[
" Possessing these virtues is what makes one moral, and one's actions are a mere reflection of one's inner morality. To the virtue philosopher, action cannot be used as a demarcation of morality, because a virtue encompasses more than just a simple selection of action. Instead, it is about a way of being that would cause the person exhibiting the virtue to make a certain \"virtuous\" choice consistently in each situation. There is a great deal of disagreement within virtue ethics over what are virtues and what are not. There are also difficulties in identifying what",
"-29.3892104330007"
],
[
"in terms of any natural properties. How, then, can we know that anything is good and how can we distinguish good from bad? \nMoral epistemology, the part of epistemology (and/or ethics) that studies how we know moral facts and how moral beliefs are justified, has proposed an answer. British epistemologists, following Moore, suggested that humans have a special faculty, a faculty of moral intuition, which tells us what is good and bad, right and wrong. \nEthical intuitionists assert that, if we see a good person or a right action, and our faculty of moral intuition is sufficiently developed and unimpaired,",
"-29.376862821402028"
],
[
"Ethical intuitionism Ethical intuitionism (also called moral intuitionism) is a family of views in moral epistemology (and, on some definitions, metaphysics). At minimum, ethical intuitionism is the thesis that our intuitive awareness of value, or intuitive knowledge of evaluative facts, forms the foundation of our ethical knowledge.\nThe view is at its core a foundationalism about moral knowledge: it is the view that some moral truths can be known non-inferentially (i.e., known without one needing to infer them from other truths one believes). Such an epistemological view implies that there are moral beliefs with propositional contents; so it implies",
"-29.3681027663406"
],
[
"Boden point out, however, that prominent mathematicians studying decision making in the 18th century used \"moral\" to mean \"subjective\", which may cloud the true ethical significance in the term.\nThe concept of moral hazard was the subject of renewed study by economists in the 1960s and then did not imply immoral behavior or fraud. Economists would use this term to describe inefficiencies that can occur when risks are displaced or cannot be fully evaluated, rather than a description of the ethics or morals of the involved parties.\nRowell and Connelly offer a detailed description of the genesis of the term",
"-29.366234004788566"
],
[
"or evil in the world. These differ from moral rules, which are requirements that people avoid performing certain kinds of actions which produce harms to others. Morality encourages, but does not require, people to live up to moral ideals. Examples of moral ideals are the objectives of reducing the incidence of domestic violence or of breast cancer.\nWhat Gert calls utilitarian ideals are objectives to increase the amount of good in the world. For example, the objective of giving poor children extra presents for Christmas. Categorizing Gert's moral theory Although his moral system shares similarities to deontology,",
"-29.358606509573292"
],
[
"in ethical naturalism, that there are objective, discoverable laws of morality inherent to the human condition, of which humans may have imperfect knowledge. Others have adopted ethical subjectivism in the sense of meta-ethics – the idea that ethics are a social construct – but nonetheless by way of utilitarianism advocate imposing a set of universal ethics and laws that create the type of society in which they wish to live, where people are safe, prosperous, and happy. These competing resolutions represent different answers to a question similar to the original dilemma: \"Is something inherently ethical or unethical, or",
"-29.277693691314198"
],
[
"Some evolutionary biologists, particularly sociobiologists, believe that morality is a product of evolutionary forces acting at an individual level and also at the group level through group selection (although to what degree this actually occurs is a controversial topic in evolutionary theory). Some sociobiologists contend that the set of behaviors that constitute morality evolved largely because they provided possible survival or reproductive benefits (i.e. increased evolutionary success). Humans consequently evolved \"pro-social\" emotions, such as feelings of empathy or guilt, in response to these moral behaviors.\nOn this understanding, moralities are sets of self-perpetuating and biologically driven behaviors which encourage human cooperation.",
"-29.276686563709518"
],
[
"Ethical formalism Ethical formalism is a type of ethical theory which defines moral judgments in terms of their logical form (e.g., as \"laws\" or \"universal prescriptions\") rather than their content (e.g., as judgments about what actions will best promote human well-being). The term also often carries critical connotations. Kant, for example, has been criticized for defining morality in terms of the formal feature of being a \"universal law\", and then attempting to derive from this formal feature various concrete moral duties.\nEthical formalism is related to, but not identical to, Harry J. Gensler's relatively recent (circa 1996) theory of formal ethics.",
"-29.24945914570708"
],
[
"to be practiced: the very word ethics implies \"ethos\". That is to say that the virtues are, and necessarily must be, grounded in a particular time and place. What counts as virtue in 4th-century Athens would be a ludicrous guide to proper behavior in 21st-century Toronto, and vice versa. To take this view does not necessarily commit one to the argument that accounts of the virtues must therefore be static: moral activity—that is, attempts to contemplate and practice the virtues—can provide the cultural resources that allow people to change, albeit slowly, the ethos of their own societies. MacIntyre appears to",
"-29.240365456673317"
],
[
"Master–slave morality Master morality Nietzsche defined master morality as the morality of the strong-willed. Nietzsche criticizes the view (which he identifies with contemporary British ideology) that good is everything that is helpful, and bad is everything that is harmful. He argues proponents of this view have forgotten the origins of its values and it is based merely on a non-critical acceptance of habit: what is useful has always been defined as good, therefore usefulness is goodness as a value. He continues explaining that in the prehistoric state \"the value or non-value of an action was derived from its consequences\" but",
"-29.214226948097348"
],
[
"moral status. Grau argues that if moral status is to depend on a particular trait, then it must be shown why a particular trait is somehow worthy of basing moral status upon it. It cannot be because humans value it, since humans also value human beings, so it would need to be shown why a certain trait is somehow \"better\" than any other. In the absence of an impartial observer to tell us what those traits should be (Grau notes that there is also no guarantee that said impartial observer would say humans shouldn't value other humans), there is no",
"-29.20718751527602"
],
[
"Legal moralism Legal moralism is the theory of jurisprudence and the philosophy of law which holds that laws may be used to prohibit or require behavior based on society's collective judgment of whether it is moral. It is often given as an alternative to legal liberalism, which holds that laws may only be used to the extent that they promote liberty. The debate between moralism and liberalism attracted much attention following the publication by the UK Parliament of the Wolfenden Report in 1957, which recommended that homosexuality should be decriminalised on the basis that the function of the law \"is",
"-29.197575320024043"
],
[
"Moral intellectualism Moral intellectualism or ethical intellectualism is a view in meta-ethics according to which genuine moral knowledge must take the form of arriving at discursive moral judgements about what one should do.\nOne way of understanding this is that if we know what is right, we will do what is right. However, it can also be interpreted as the understanding that a rationally consistent worldview and theoretical way of life, as exemplified by Socrates, is superior to the life devoted to a moral (but merely practical) life.",
"-29.12402656825725"
],
[
"involve morality. This is because some goals may be morally neutral, or (if they exist) against what is moral. A poisoner might realize his victim has not died and say, for example, \"I ought to have used more poison,\" since his goal is to murder. The next challenge of a moral realist is thus to explain what is meant by a \"moral ought\". Discourse ethics Proponents of discourse ethics argue that the very act of discourse implies certain \"oughts\", that is, certain presuppositions that are necessarily accepted by the participants in discourse, and can be used to further derive prescriptive",
"-29.1147632971406"
],
[
"Virtue ethics Key concepts The western tradition's key concepts derive from ancient Greek philosophy. These theories include arete (excellence or virtue), phronesis (practical or moral wisdom), and eudaimonia (flourishing).\n\nA virtue is generally agreed to be a character trait, such as a habitual action or settled sentiment. Specifically, a virtue is a positive trait that makes its possessor a good human being. A virtue is thus to be distinguished from single actions or feelings. Rosalind Hursthouse says: \nA virtue such as honesty or generosity is not just a tendency to do what is honest or generous, nor is it to",
"-29.103557288835873"
],
[
"Philosophy\" (1958) argued that duty-based conceptions of morality are conceptually incoherent for they are based on the idea of a \"law without a lawgiver\". She claims a system of morality conceived along the lines of the Ten Commandments depends on someone having made these rules. Anscombe recommends a return to the eudaimonistic ethical theories of the ancients, particularly Aristotle, which ground morality in the interests and well being of human moral agents, and can do so without appealing to any such lawgiver.\nJulia Driver in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy explains:\n\nAnscombe's article Modern Moral Philosophy stimulated the development of virtue ethics",
"-29.05885424959706"
],
[
"they apply to others—more stringent ones, in fact—plainly cannot be taken seriously when they speak of appropriateness of response; or of right and wrong, good and evil.\nIn fact, one of the, maybe the most, elementary of moral principles is that of universality, that is, If something's right for me, it's right for you; if it's wrong for you, it's wrong for me. Any moral code that is even worth looking at has that at its core somehow. Religion Religion and morality are not synonymous. Morality does not depend upon religion although for some this is \"an almost automatic assumption\". According",
"-29.040374131771387"
],
[
"make another distinction: between moral and non-moral goods. A non-moral good is something that is desirable for someone or other; despite the name to the contrary, it may include moral goods. A moral good is anything which an actor is considered to be morally obligated to strive toward.\nWhen discussing non-moral goods, one may make a useful distinction between inherently serviced and material goods in the marketplace (or its exchange value), versus perceived intrinsic and experiential goods to the buyer. A strict service economy model takes pains to distinguish between the goods and service guarantees to the market, and that",
"-29.03278881474398"
],
[
"absolutist morality, yet we maintain that objective standards emerge, and ethical values and principles may be discovered, in the course of ethical deliberation.\nMany Humanists adopt principles of the Golden Rule. Some believe that universal moral standards are required for the proper functioning of society. However, they believe such necessary universality can and should be achieved by developing a richer notion of morality through reason, experience and scientific inquiry rather than through faith in a supernatural realm or source.\nFundamentalists correctly perceive that universal moral standards are required for the proper functioning of society. But they erroneously believe that God is the",
"-29.005138541193446"
],
[
"to objective facts, independent of human opinion; to error theory, which denies that any moral propositions are true in any sense; and to non-cognitivism, which denies that moral sentences express propositions at all. The most common forms of ethical subjectivism are also forms of moral relativism, with moral standards held to be relative to each culture or society (c.f. cultural relativism), or even to every individual. The latter view, as put forward by Protagoras, holds that there are as many distinct scales of good and evil as there are subjects in the world. Moral subjectivism is that species of moral",
"-29.004917646961985"
],
[
"altruism, are intrinsic, and whether some, such as acquisitiveness, should be classified as vices or virtues. Types of study Ethical value may be regarded as a study under ethics, which, in turn, may be grouped as philosophy. Similarly, ethical value may be regarded as a subgroup of a broader field of philosophic value sometimes referred to as axiology. Ethical value denotes something's degree of importance, with the aim of determining what action or life is best to do, or at least attempt to describe the value of different actions. \nThe study of ethical value is also included in value theory.",
"-28.98061368091294"
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[
"claims that compared to other virtues, contemplation requires the least in terms of possessions and allows the most self-reliance, \"though it is true that, being a man and living in the society of others, he chooses to engage in virtuous action, and so will need external goods to carry on his life as a human being\". Book X. Chapter 9: The need for education, habituation and good laws Finally, Aristotle repeats that the discussion of the Ethics has not reached its aim if it has no effect in practice. Theories are not enough. However, the practice of virtue requires good",
"-28.90991503756959"
],
[
"deity. Some include virtue ethics, social contract, Kantian ethics, utilitarianism, and Objectivism. Sam Harris has proposed that moral prescription (ethical rule making) is not just an issue to be explored by philosophy, but that we can meaningfully practice a science of morality. Any such scientific system must, nevertheless, respond to the criticism embodied in the naturalistic fallacy.\nPhilosophers Susan Neiman\nand Julian Baggini\n(among others) assert that behaving ethically only because of divine mandate is not true ethical behavior but merely blind obedience. Baggini argues that atheism is a superior basis for ethics, claiming that a moral basis external to religious imperatives is",
"-28.84920043917373"
],
[
"about ethics:\nAnother man comes and alters the phrase: leaving out moral, and putting in common, in the room of it. He then tells you, that his common sense teaches him what is right and wrong, as surely as the other's moral sense did: meaning by common sense, a sense of some kind or other, which he says, is possessed by all mankind: the sense of those, whose sense is not the same as the author's, being struck out of the account as not worth taking.\n This was at least to some extent opposed to the Hobbesian approach, still today normal",
"-28.826846913609188"
],
[
"(a position known as \"moral universalism\"): there can be no relativism. Moreover, morals are not natural features of the world; they are prescriptive. Nevertheless, moral judgments can be evaluated in logical terms of truth and falsity.\nAccording to Kohlberg, someone progressing to a higher stage of moral reasoning cannot skip stages. For example, an individual cannot jump from being concerned mostly with peer judgments (stage three) to being a proponent of social contracts (stage five). On encountering a moral dilemma and finding their current level of moral reasoning unsatisfactory, however, an individual will look to the next level. Realizing the limitations",
"-28.826068442780524"
],
[
"An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation Overview Bentham was the first major philosopher to develop and defend a utilitarian theory of ethics. Like John Stuart Mill, whom he greatly influenced, Bentham believed that happiness or pleasure is the only thing that is good for its own sake. He believed that humans, by nature, are motivated exclusively by the desire for pleasure (a view known as psychological hedonism), and that ethically they should seek to maximize pleasure (a view known as \"ethical hedonism\"). In The Principles of Morals and Legislation, Bentham seeks to determine what a system of",
"-28.82418252568459"
],
[
"difficult term for moral philosophy. Throughout the history of moral philosophy, there has been an oscillation between attempts to define morality in terms of consequences leading to happiness and attempts to define morality in terms that have nothing to do with happiness at all. \nIn the Nicomachean Ethics, written in 350 BCE, Aristotle stated that happiness (also being well and doing well) is the only thing that humans desire for their own sake, unlike riches, honour, health or friendship. He observed that men sought riches, or honour, or health not only for their own sake but also in order",
"-28.823190169234294"
],
[
"Modern Moral Philosophy \"Modern Moral Philosophy\" is an article on moral philosophy by G. E. M. Anscombe, originally published in the journal Philosophy, vol. 33, no. 124 (January 1958).\nThe article has influenced the emergence of contemporary virtue ethics, especially through the work of Alasdair MacIntyre. Notably, the term \"consequentialism\" was first coined in this paper. Criticism John Wardle argued that Anscombe misrepresented Henry Sidgwick's understanding of the concept of humility when she concludes that it is \"a species of untruthfulness\".",
"-28.819153720727627"
],
[
"ultimate truth as ignorant and without grounds. On Reality A veritistic view of reality is rather basic. That which can be perceived by the five senses is that which exists. On Ethics Veritistic ethics would advocate that humans have an inherent view of that which is right or wrong. This is demonstrated in law and government. The only humans lacking any type of self morals or ethical inclination are those with a mental or psychological dysfunction. Veritism consequently suggests that there are numerous cultural factors which influence behavior concerning ethics, sometimes in a negative way. Veritistic thinking also attributes action",
"-28.808738261112012"
],
[
"Ethical naturalism Overview It is important to distinguish the versions of ethical naturalism which have received the most sustained philosophical interest, for example, Cornell realism, from the position that \"the way things are is always the way they ought to be\", which few ethical naturalists hold. Ethical naturalism does, however, reject the fact-value distinction: it suggests that inquiry into the natural world can increase our moral knowledge in just the same way it increases our scientific knowledge. Indeed, proponents of ethical naturalism have argued that humanity needs to invest in the science of morality, a broad and loosely defined field",
"-28.806657911351067"
],
[
"This type of ethics consists of conversations about ideas in civic or community contexts marked by diversity of perspectives requiring thoughtful public engagement. This discourse is made up of differing insights that helps to shape the public's engagement with one another. This type of discourse is meant to protect and to promote the public good. For public discourse ethics to be successful there must be an effective level of civility between people or persons involved. It was Sigmund Freud who once said, \"civilization began the first time an angry person cast a word instead of a rock\" and that statement",
"-28.791464534238912"
],
[
"morals as the law of self-preservation. Francis Hutcheson's theory of universal benevolence and Adam Smith's idea of mutual sympathy (now empathy) he combines under the law of society. But, as these laws appear as the means rather than the end of human destiny, they remain subordinate to a supreme end, and the supreme end of perfection.\nIn the political part of his system Ferguson follows Montesquieu, and pleads the cause of well-regulated liberty and free government. His contemporaries, with the exception of Hume, regarded his writings as of great importance (see Sir Leslie Stephen, English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, Cambridge",
"-28.790678265562747"
],
[
"difference between conduct and behavior that is malum in se, malum prohibitum, and good practice. Sometimes ethical codes include sections that are meant to give firm rules, but some offer general guidance, and sometimes the words are merely aspirational.\nIn sum, a code of ethics is an attempt to codify \"good and bad behavior\".",
"-28.755448994692415"
],
[
"right and wrong behavior. The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics however states that religion and morality \"are to be defined differently and have no definitional connections with each other\". Some believe that religions provide poor guides to moral behavior. Various commentators, such as Richard Dawkins (The God Delusion), Sam Harris (The End of Faith) and Christopher Hitchens (God Is Not Great) are among those who have asserted this view. Consequentialism \"Consequentialists\", as described by Peter Singer, \"start not with moral rules, but with goals. They assess actions by the extent to which they further those goals.\" Singer also notes that",
"-28.744108949787915"
],
[
"Ethics (Scientology) According to the Church of Scientology, ethics may be defined as the actions an individual takes on himself to ensure his continued survival across the dynamics. It is a personal thing. When one is ethical, it is something he does himself by his own choice.\nAccording to founder L. Ron Hubbard's teachings, Scientology ethics is predicated on the idea that there are degrees of ethical conduct. Good and evil The Church's official position declares that \"the logic of Scientology ethics is inarguable and based upon two key concepts: good and evil\", and goes on to state that \"nothing is",
"-28.730835140508134"
],
[
"the style of Rée, whom Nietzsche classifies as an \"English psychologist\" (using \"English\" to designate an intellectual temperament, as distinct from a nationality). First Treatise: \"'Good and Evil', 'Good and Bad'\" In the \"First Treatise\", Nietzsche demonstrates that the two pairs of opposites \"good/evil\" and \"good/bad\" have very different origins, and that the word \"good\" itself came to represent two opposed meanings. In the \"good/bad\" distinction, \"good\" is synonymous with nobility and everything which is powerful and life-asserting; in the \"good/evil\" distinction, which Nietzsche calls \"slave morality\", the meaning of \"good\" is made the antithesis of the original aristocratic",
"-28.722243516502203"
],
[
"of Forms. Aristotle says that while both \"the truth and one's friends\" are loved, \"it is a sacred thing to give the highest honor to the truth\". The section is yet another explanation of why the Ethics will not start from first principles, which would mean starting out by trying to discuss \"The Good\" as a universal thing that all things called good have in common. Aristotle says that while all the different things called good do not seem to have the same name by chance, it is perhaps better to \"let go for now\" because this attempt at precision",
"-28.712401497206884"
],
[
"practical questions. For example, \"Is it ever possible to have secure knowledge of what is right and wrong?\" is a meta-ethical question.\nMeta-ethics has always accompanied philosophical ethics. For example, Aristotle implies that less precise knowledge is possible in ethics than in other spheres of inquiry, and he regards ethical knowledge as depending upon habit and acculturation in a way that makes it distinctive from other kinds of knowledge. Meta-ethics is also important in G.E. Moore's Principia Ethica from 1903. In it he first wrote about what he called the naturalistic fallacy. Moore was seen to reject naturalism in ethics, in",
"-28.67888719495386"
],
[
"moral goodness. Moral goodness is defined differently then the idea of natural good, the difference between these is important in the concept of disinterested benevolence. Our own pleasures are different from the pleasure we assume from the goodness of helping others.\nNatural good is concerned only with the self, with no relation to having a witness (a person in which you are helping). Therefore natural good does not fit the definition of disinterested benevolence, but moral goodness does. Moral goodness is defined as having an onlooker who may participate in the emotions of the perpetrator. To encompass moral goodness you are",
"-28.655643166042864"
],
[
"moral reasoning, and superior as a basis for understanding human choices than any prior linguistic or meta-ethical concept. This perspective is now commonly called the ethics of care.\nLawrence Kohlberg, famous for work on moral development as a part of human development, eventually joined Gilligan in starting a descriptive ethics of relationship conduct in what they called the ethical community or just community. This was in effect a community of practice which, at least in Kohlberg's conception, had a core epistemic community of those trusted to define and resolve the disputes between members, and to facilitate the growth of moral development,",
"-28.644270432138"
],
[
"others, which can provide a person with thoroughly non-selfish concerns and motivations, indeed, what contemporary theorists would call, altruistic concern. Virtue ethics The first-order moral theory that emerges from the second Enquiry is a form of virtue ethics. According to Hume, the kinds of things that our moral sentiments apply to—the things of which we approve and disapprove—are not particular actions or events. Rather, we ultimately judge the character of a person—whether they are a virtuous or vicious person.\nHume ultimately defends a theory according to which the fundamental feature of virtues is \"...the possession of mental qualities, 'useful' or 'agreeable'",
"-28.596878346565063"
],
[
"moral self is situated in a broader, socio-cognitive self-theory consisting of self-organizing, proactive, self-reflective, and self-regulative mechanisms. Three major sub-functions are operating in this self-regulatory system in which moral agency is grounded. The first sub-function is self-monitoring of one's conduct, which is the initial step of taking control over it. \"Action gives rise to self-reactions through a judgmental function in which conduct is evaluated against internal standards and situational circumstances\". Thus, moral judgments evoke self-reactive influence. The self-reactive and judgmental mechanisms constitute the second and third sub-function.\nGenerally, moral standards are adopted to serve as guides for good behavior and as",
"-28.550584645883646"
],
[
"constitutivism in ethics, arguing that moral standards arise from the nature of action.\nThe following is a partial list of Velleman's publications.",
"-28.52067004336277"
],
[
"Moral hierarchy A moral hierarchy is a hierarchy by which actions are ranked by their morality, with respect to a moral code. \nIt also refers to a relationship – such as teacher/pupil or guru/disciple – in which one party is taken to have greater moral awareness than the other; or to the beneficial hierarchy of parent/child or doctor/patient. Kohlberg Kohlberg's stages of moral development have been read as creating a hierarchy of increasing moral complexity, ranging from the premoral at the bottom, through the midrange of conventionalism, up to the apex of self-selected morality.\nIn similar fashion, Robin Skynner viewed moral",
"-28.51595664796332"
],
[
"actions are right or wrong and shied away from meta-ethics, which focuses more on logic and language.\nIn Part I of Reasons and Persons Parfit discussed self-defeating moral theories, namely the self-interest theory of rationality and two ethical frameworks: common-sense morality and consequentialism. He posited that self-interest has been dominant in Western culture for over two millennia, often making bedfellows with religious doctrine, which united self-interest and morality. Because self-interest demands that we always make self-interest our supreme rational concern and instructs us to ensure that our whole life goes as well as possible, self-interest makes temporally neutral requirements. Thus it",
"-28.514167068642564"
],
[
"careful of the opposite - absolute moral relativism, which simply dismisses the concept of ethics entirely by stating there is no such thing as certain rightness. Right versus right A simple, practical view is that ethics balances \"right versus right\": if there's a dispute we care to hear, then each side must have some right on it. However, this presupposes some instinctive moral core of the individual that must recognize right and wrong, else we do not have two individuals asserting \"right\" and requiring ethical help: if either in fact secretly believes themselves \"wrong\" then they are",
"-28.50600465456955"
],
[
"accountability. Furthermore, they should be authentic and a role model. Aristotle identified pride (megalopsuchia, variously translated as proper pride, greatness of soul and magnanimity) as the crown of the virtues, distinguishing it from vanity, temperance, and humility. In the philosophy of law Dworkin argues that moral principles that people hold dear are often wrong, even to the extent that certain crimes are acceptable if one's principles are skewed enough. To discover and apply these principles, courts interpret the legal data (legislation, cases etc.) with a view to articulating an interpretation that best explains and justifies past legal practice. All interpretation",
"-28.478916825709348"
],
[
"Morality in Islam General principle Islamic secondary sources and later Islamic scholarly works have made detailed discussions and laid down detailed instructions on moral issues. However, some general principles can be found in case of following morality. One typical Islamic teaching on morality is that imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is permissible and just; but forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded the highest excellence. Another principle is that whatever is good and beneficial for mankind is morally good, and vice versa.",
"-28.467894619563594"
],
[
"and virtue. Harris states that there is no virtue involved in performing activities that one is instructed to. \nThere are two further criticisms of moral enhancement. Firstly, the distinction between right and wrong is highly context-dependent. For example, in the case of self-defense, harming another person can potentially be morally justifiable, as it might be the best compromise of welfare. He suggests that it is unclear as to whether moral enhancement would be nuanced enough to take such situations into account. Secondly, he points out that there is an element of value judgement when one makes a choice between 'right'",
"-28.437995857791975"
],
[
"Personal values are things that are important to individuals that are shaped by one's specific upbringing, religious beliefs, cultural background, and personal experiences. Societal values are things that are comprehensively held by a broader number of people, like a community, that align closely to the society's culture and beliefs. Personal values are unique to individuals and thus are not an appropriate basis for professional ethics. Ethics can be defined as a system of moral values that distinguish rules for behavior based on an individual's or groups' ideas of what is good and bad. Police ethics are the rules for behavior",
"-28.41128922518692"
],
[
"origins of ethics and morality.",
"-28.399998001928907"
]
] |
6roka4 | Why is everyone that pleads "not guilty" in a court case, but later found guilty, not also given a perjury charge (along with their initial charges)? | [
" > Why is everyone that pleads \"not guilty\" in a court case, but later found guilty, not also given a perjury charge (along with their initial charges)? A plea is not sworn testimony from the defendant, it is just the demand of \"prove it\" to the prosecution. Also it would act to derail the intended operation of the legal process; if you are going to be charged with perjury if you lose then why not lie your ass off at every opportunity? If you win you get off and if you lose you are going to be convicted of perjury for defending yourself anyway. And that is what it really comes down to: You have a *right to a legal defense*. To charge you with perjury just for pleading not guilty would violate your fundamental right to legal defense and would be a violation of human rights. You gotta' watch out for those.",
"\"Not guilty\" doesn't necessarily mean \"I didn't do it.\" Sometimes the defendant may be arguing that although they did the deed, the act itself was not a crime. I killed him, but it was self defense. I took the money, but it was mine to begin with. My brain tumor impaired my judgement. I was following orders.",
"In the US you aren't required to incriminate yourself; it's the prosecutor's job to prove you are guilty. You have an initial arraignment, at which the charges against you are established, your rights are explained to you, and you submit your plea. If you say you are guilty, the case goes straight to sentencing. If you say you are not guilty, you get your day in court. A 'guilty' plea doesn't necessarily mean you are guilty; it means you accept the fact that the prosecutors *do* have enough evidence to convince a jury that you are guilty. A 'not guilty' plea doesn't necessarily mean you are not guilty; it means you *do not* accept the fact that the prosecutors will be able to convince a jury that you did everything you are accused of. Since there is often a laundry-list of charges sought against you, 'not guilty' might just mean that you don't believe that they will be able to make some *specific* charge stick, even if you are found guilty of the rest of the charges. If you plead guilty at the arraignment, you are accepting everything you are charged with up-front as a package deal. So if you think that while you are technically guilty of breaking the law there are extenuating circumstances, and believe that a jury will agree with you, you plead not guilty and go to trial. If you hope to work out some sort of plea agreement, you plead not guilty and you go to trial. If you are totally guilty and you hope to weasel out of it, you plead not guilty and you go to trial. Pleading guilty, you're up against established sentencing guidelines and whatever mood the judge is in; pleading not guilty, you're (probably) up against a jury of your peers. All of that said, if you plead not guilty and it turns out to be a complete waste of the court's time because everything but your plea shows that you really *are* guilty, the judge can and sometimes will punish you for that. But (in our system) on its own pleading 'not guilty' is not perjuring yourself, because you are not legally required to help them prosecute you.",
"Just to add on to what was already said here, a charge of purgery would require a completely separate trial as its not the same as what ever you were charged with and can't you can't be charged with it before its happened (charges have to be filed before the trial starts). It would basically double court proceedings of guilty people for little to no real gain to the public interest.",
"Pleading Not Guilty doesn't mean \"I didn't do it\". It means (in effect) \"I am exercising my right to presumed innocence, and am requiring the prosecution to prove their case against me beyond reasonable doubt\". So there's nothing that is a 'lie' about that.",
"One reason: The initial not guilty plea is entered at the very beginning of a case - sometimes in the same court appearance when a defendant is assigned their court appointed lawyer. It is not advisable to do much of anything in court without talking to a lawyer. It is very common for defendants to appear and be told by a public defender on duty that everyone gets a not guilty plea at the beginning because that first hearing is just the beginning for potentially dozens of people. Getting into a back and forth with the prosecutor and the judge at such an early stage a) risks tactical errors by defendants who haven't talked to a lawyer yet and b) would take forever in cities and medium to large towns. If you're curious, go sit in your county's arraignment court for an afternoon then chat with the clerk. It'll be eye opening. Practices vary from place to place so don't assume it's the same in New Mexico as it is in New Jersey, but you'll leave way more informed about our criminal system. Perhaps obvious disclaimer: This answer centers on USA law only.",
"Don't know about the US, but in Sweden the defendant is explicitly never under oath. Even when testifying. You can lie about the colour of the sky and it's not illegal.",
"* a plea is not sworn testimony * you can honestly believe you are not guilty and still be convicted, like when the case revolves around self-defense vs. murder * an innocent person might be tempted to plead guilty to avoid a perjury charge * a guilty person who pleads not guilty would have no reason not to lie about everything else * being punished for a not guilty plea is a form of self-incrimination, being compelled to admit your guilt"
] | [
[
"that O. J. Simpson or Julius Rosenberg was \"guilty\" or \"not innocent\" is taken as an actual judgment by the whole society that they must act as if they were so. By corollary, the ruling that such a person is \"not guilty\" may not be so taken, due to the asymmetry in the assumption that one is assumed innocent until proven guilty, and prefers to take the risk of freeing a guilty party over convicting innocents. Still others—often, but not always, theists of one type or another—believe that the origin of guilt comes from violating universal principles of right and",
"-33.10953440294543"
],
[
"is in the interest of both suspects to confess and testify against the other suspect, irrespective of the innocence of the accused. Arguably, the worst case is when only one party is guilty: here, the innocent one has no incentive to confess, while the guilty one has a strong incentive to confess and give testimony (including false testimony) against the innocent.\nA 2009 study by the European Association of Law and Economics observed that innocent defendants are consistently more likely than guilty defendants to reject otherwise-favorable pleas proposals, even when theoretically disadvantageous to do so, because of perceived unfairness, and would",
"-31.2331976466412"
],
[
"the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence.\nNo one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.\nArticle 12 \nNo one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence,",
"-30.968387822504155"
],
[
"On the other hand, if you are not sure that the accused is guilty, you must find him or her not guilty.",
"-30.83403740444919"
],
[
"their clients into pleading guilty to a lesser offense. As a result, people who might have been acquitted because of lack of evidence, but also who are in fact truly innocent, will often plead guilty to the charge. Why? In a word, fear. And the more numerous and serious the charges, studies have shown, the greater the fear. That explains why prosecutors sometimes seem to file every charge imaginable against defendants.\nThis tactic is prohibited in some other countries—for example in the United Kingdom the prosecutor's code states:\nProsecutors should never go ahead with more charges than are necessary just to encourage",
"-30.593239426829314"
],
[
"On 16 March 2005, Justice Ian Josephson found the two accused not guilty on all counts because the evidence was inadequate:\nI began by describing the horrific nature of these cruel acts of terrorism, acts which cry out for justice. Justice is not achieved, however, if persons are convicted on anything less than the requisite standard of proof beyond a reasonable doubt. Despite what appear to have been the best and most earnest of efforts by the police and the Crown, the evidence has fallen markedly short of that standard.\nIn a letter to the Attorney General of British Columbia, Malik demanded",
"-30.49667383125052"
],
[
"defendant was probably actually innocent.\" That concern is reflected, for example, in the \"fundamental value determination of our society that it is far worse to convict an innocent man than to let a guilty man go free.\"\nA fundamental error occurs whenever there is a failure to prove beyond a reasonable doubt every element of the charged offense. In United States v. McClelland, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit held that \"the failure to properly instruct the jury on [the required] element of a crime constitutes fundamental error\".\nA fundamental error occurs whenever a defendant stands convicted",
"-30.178899570688372"
],
[
"suspects are more likely to waive their rights than those who are guilty, so therefore Miranda rights in most cases do not protect accused innocents from interrogation (article 1). Through the use of minimization, when an investigator justifies the crime with possible excuses to make it easier to confess to, and the use of the false evidence ploy, mentioning evidence that proves the suspect guilty (which actually does not exist), many innocent people end up confessing to crimes they have not committed. Most people cannot recognize a false confession, because confessions are trusted and a jury or judge would see",
"-30.142922860133694"
],
[
"offence to be presumed innocent until proven guilty according to law. It establishes that the burden of proof of guilt in criminal cases is carried by the prosecutor, who must prove the accused's guilt beyond reasonable doubt. It is widely-acknowledged common law that the prosecution must prove guilt even when an affirmative defence is argued. A provision requiring an accused person to disprove the existence of a presumed fact, that fact being an important element of the offence in question (e.g. the presumption of supply) generally violates the presumption of innocence in section 25(c). Section 5 Section 5 provides that",
"-30.058629903553992"
],
[
"or she is very likely guilty. On the other hand, it is virtually impossible to prove anything to an absolute certainty when dealing with the reconstruction of past events and the Crown does not have to do so.\n\nWhat then is reasonable doubt? A reasonable doubt is an honest and reasonable uncertainty left in your mind about the guilt of the accused after you have given careful and impartial consideration to all of the evidence. In summary, if, after careful and impartial consideration of the evidence, you are sure that the accused is guilty you must find him or her guilty.",
"-29.968943629413843"
],
[
"was held that the accused was guilty, notwithstanding that his statement is inadmissible in law, but logically relevant to the question to be decided, that is the witness’s credibility. The court relied upon Hawkins \"…though the evidence signify nothing to the merits of the cause and is immaterial, yet, if it has a direct tendency to material, it is equally criminal in its own nature, and equally tends to abuse the administration of justice, and there does not seem to be any reason why it should not be equally punishable\".\nIt is submitted that once a person has been lawfully",
"-29.966765400968143"
],
[
" In Gay, the South Carolina Supreme Court had ruled that the defendant's evidence could not raise a \"reasonable inference\" of his innocence \"in view of the strong evidence\" of his guilt, particularly the forensic evidence. Similarly, in the present case, the court applied the rule that \"where there is strong evidence of [a defendant's] guilt, especially where there is strong forensic evidence, the proffered evidence about a third party's alleged guilt\" may (or perhaps must) be excluded.\nThis rule was in error, the Court wrote, because it required the trial judge to focus on the strength of the prosecution's",
"-29.932251461348642"
],
[
"the side of innocence has remained constant. In Blackstone's Commentaries The phrase, repeated widely and usually in isolation, comes from a longer passage, the fourth in a series of five discussions of policy by Blackstone:\nFourthly, all presumptive evidence of felony should be admitted cautiously, for the law holds that it is better that ten guilty persons escape than that one innocent suffer. And Sir Matthew Hale in particular lays down two rules most prudent and necessary to be observed: 1. Never to convict a man for stealing the goods of a person unknown, merely because he will give no account",
"-29.930780611379305"
],
[
"presumption that a person is innocent until proven guilty, individuals accused of crimes should not be presumed incompetent simply because a doctor or psychiatrist labels them as such. Mental incompetence should be assessed like any other form of incompetence, i.e., by purely legal and judicial means with the right of representation and appeal by the accused.\nIn an analogy to birth control, Szasz argued that individuals should be able to choose when to die without interference from medicine or the state, just as they are able to choose when to conceive without outside interference. He considered suicide to be among the",
"-29.920426569668052"
],
[
"Law and Article 11 of the Bill of Rights provides that anyone charged with a criminal offence shall have the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty according to law. This presumption is well established under the common law; the much-celebrated case of Woolmington v DPP laid down the basic criminal law principle that it is the duty of the prosecution to prove the defendant's guilt subject to the defence of insanity and statutory exceptions. If, at the end of and on the whole of the case, there is a reasonable doubt as to whether the defendant committed the",
"-29.87166315392824"
],
[
"guilty (a \"false negative\"). Definition Forst divides errors of impunity into two categories. The first category is made up of those that are like car accidents: the community may be able to do more to prevent them, but generally prefers to consider them beyond the reach of the criminal justice system to do so. About half of all felony victimizations in the U.S. are not reported to the police, and many of those that are reported are committed by skillful, elusive offenders. The second category is made up of those errors that are real, unambiguous, significant, and avoidable. Examples include",
"-29.82703353924444"
],
[
"unanimity requirement, hung juries are not a possibility. After all questions posed have been answered this way, the jurors and judges draw up the motivation for the verdict, which must contain the main reasons as to why the accused is found guilty. In case the accused is found guilty, the three judges may declare a mistrial if all three of them agree the jurors are sorely mistaken either as to questions of fact or questions of law, as discovered during the drawing up of the motivation. This will result in the case being suspended and subjected to a new trial",
"-29.82424142529635"
],
[
"of Criminal Procedure, for instance, state, \"If a defendant refuses to enter a plea or if a defendant organization fails to appear, the court must enter a plea of not guilty.\" Similarly, if a defendant attempts to enter an unorthodox plea (a \"creative plea\"), this will usually be interpreted as a plea of not guilty. One example of this is a defendant accused of a crime committed while protesting nuclear power, who gave his plea as \"I plead for the beauty that surrounds us\".\nUntil 1772, English law stated that if a defendant refused to plead guilty or not guilty, the",
"-29.786794213041674"
],
[
"go free than for one innocent to be convicted (basically Blackstone's formulation).\nAccordingly, Rumpole's credo is \"I never plead guilty\", although he has qualified that credo by stating on several occasions that he is morally bound to enter a guilty plea if he knows for a fact that the defendant is guilty of the crime of which he/she is accused. (In fact, he enters a plea of guilty on behalf of his clients in \"Rumpole's Last Case\".) But if there is any doubt whatsoever in Rumpole's mind about the facts surrounding the commission of the crime – even if the defendant",
"-29.77705141561455"
],
[
"reasons, e.g. that on average it might be factually more complicated to establish guilt beyond a reasonable doubt in the more severe cases.\nBoth in the \"solemn\" and the \"summary\" acquittals, not proven is interpreted as indicating that the jury or judge, respectively, is not convinced of the innocence of the accused; in fact, they may be morally convinced that the accused is guilty, but do not find the proofs sufficient for a conviction. One reason for this is the rule that in such cases the evidence for the prosecution must be corroborated in order to permit a conviction.",
"-29.712699946161592"
],
[
"been actually committed\".\nIn the American legal system, the concept has its outgrowth in several principles. Many jurisdictions hold as a legal rule that a defendant's out-of-court confession, alone, is insufficient evidence to prove the defendant's guilt beyond reasonable doubt. A corollary to this rule is that an accused cannot be convicted solely upon the testimony of an accomplice. Some jurisdictions also hold that without first showing independent corroboration that a crime happened, the prosecution may not introduce evidence of the defendant's statement. Murder investigation Corpus delicti is one of the most important concepts in a murder investigation. When a person",
"-29.655264939996414"
],
[
"favour of the accused (as a 'no'). If only six jurors (being half of the jury) or less vote 'yes', the accused is acquitted. If at least eight jurors (a qualified majority) vote 'yes', the accused is found guilty. In case the accused is only found guilty by a simple majority of the jurors (meaning seven voted 'yes' and five 'no'), the three judges decide on the question. The accused is found guilty if a majority of the judges (two of three) considers the accused guilty as well, otherwise the accused is acquitted on that question. Since there is no",
"-29.50104997472954"
],
[
"so that now the \"not guilty\" verdict has become the normal one when a jury is not persuaded of guilt and the \"not proven\" verdict is only used when the jury is not certain of innocence or guilt. It is absolutely central to Scottish and English law that there is a presumption of innocence. It is not a trivial distinction since any shift in the burden of proof is a significant change which undermines the safeguard for the citizen. Non-trial juries Besides petit juries for jury trials and grand juries for issuing indictments, juries are sometimes used in non-legal or",
"-29.431464241584763"
],
[
"be to enter a guilty plea. The Court ruled that the defendant can enter such a plea \"when he concludes that his interests require a guilty plea and the record strongly indicates guilt.\" The Court allowed the guilty plea with a simultaneous protestation of innocence only because there was enough evidence to show that the prosecution had a strong case for a conviction and the defendant was entering such a plea to avoid this possible sentencing. The Court went on to note that even if the defendant could have shown that he would not have entered a guilty plea \"but",
"-29.38760260269555"
],
[
"not guilty' or 'I am innocent,' they are not denying the act; they are only denying guilt.\" Sapir claims that it is almost impossible for a guilty person to say \"I didn't do it.\" He asserts that guilty people tend to speak in even greater circumlocutions by saying things like \"I had nothing to do with it\" or \"I am not involved in that\". Criticism Aldert Vrij, one of the leading authorities on detection of deception (DOD) techniques, points out that most studies of the technique did not rely on the ground truth being established and thus examiners could not",
"-29.30134843844644"
],
[
"a message of, \"Guilt implies wrong-doing. I feel I have done no wrong. I may have violated some specific laws, but I am guilty of doing no wrong. I therefore plead not guilty.\" A plea of no contest is sometimes regarded as a compromise between the two. One defendant accused of illegally protesting nuclear power, when asked to enter his plea, stated, \"I plead for the beauty that surrounds us\"; this is known as a \"creative plea,\" and will usually be interpreted as a plea of not guilty.\nWhen the Committee for Non-Violent Action sponsored a protest in August 1957, at",
"-29.28821188666916"
],
[
"accused to the police would only be admissible in evidence if the prosecution could establish that it had been voluntary. An admission or confession is only voluntary if made in the exercise of a free choice about whether to speak or remain silent:\nIn R v Leckey (1943) CAR 128 the Court of Criminal Appeal said:\n... an innocent person might well, either from excessive caution or for some other reason, decline to say anything when charged and cautioned, and if it were possible to hold that out to a jury as a ground on which they might find a man guilty,",
"-29.25447494967375"
],
[
"court).\nIn adversarial systems, the defendant may plead \"guilty\" or \"no contest,\" in exchange for reduced sentences, a practice known as plea bargaining, or a plea deal, which is an extremely common practice in the United States. In theory, the defendant must allocute or \"voice\" his or her crimes in open court, and the judge must believe the defendant is telling the truth about his or her guilt. In an inquisitorial system, a confession of guilt would not be regarded as ground for a guilty verdict. The prosecutor is required to provide evidence supporting a guilty verdict. But this requirement is",
"-29.244413879248896"
],
[
"to have not committed the crime itself, but at the same time may claim that if the defendant had committed the crime, the act was excused for a reason such as insanity or intoxication, or was justified due to provocation or self defense. However, a jury will naturally be suspicious if a defendant claims the benefits of, for example, both alibi and self defense.",
"-29.24075685095886"
],
[
"factually innocent\" because he \"was tried before a jury of his peers, with the full panoply of protections that our Constitution affords criminal defendants. At the conclusion of that trial, the jury found [Herrera] guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.\" O'Connor reiterated the majority's conclusion that the execution of an innocent person was not unconstitutional by assuming that there was no constitutional issue raised:\nConsequently, the issue before us is not whether a State can execute the innocent. It is, as the Court notes, whether a fairly convicted and therefore legally guilty person is constitutionally entitled to yet another judicial proceeding",
"-28.962352830737473"
],
[
"was not enough evidence. If you cannot prove what the crime was, you cannot determine what the punishment should be.\" She added, \"I'm not saying that I believe the defense,\" but that \"it's easier for me logically to get from point A to point B\" via the defense argument, as opposed to the prosecution argument. Ford believed George Anthony was \"dishonest.\" She said the jury \"was sick to [their] stomachs to get [the not-guilty] verdict\" and that the decision process overwhelmed them to the point where they did not want to talk to reporters afterwards. Juror number two, a 46-year-old",
"-28.9403133635642"
],
[
"is unique in having three possible verdicts for a criminal trial: \"guilty\", \"not guilty\" and \"not proven\". Both \"not guilty\" and \"not proven\" result in an acquittal.\nThe 'not proven' verdict in modern Scots criminal law can be described as an historical accident. Historically, there were no set forms for verdicts used by early juries, and their role was simply to find the guilt or innocence of the accused. The role of the jury changed when it became customary in the Justice Court to compose lengthy indictments, where facts were listed which culminated in a statement of the punishable character of",
"-28.920683485339396"
],
[
" Thus, there might be a single plaintiff or witness for the prosecution, which the jury or judge believes is both truthful and trustworthy, but no other witness or circumstances against the accused. By Scottish law, the accused then should be acquitted, but often will be so by the verdict not proven. Use in other jurisdictions Since 1989, in the Italian juridical system, there are five modes of acquittal available. Two of these correspond roughly to the Scottish not guilty and not proven, respectively.\nIn general, the Scottish verdict has not been permanently adopted outside its home country, but it was",
"-28.91217433050042"
],
[
"inferred to be guilty by exercising their right to silence, it no longer confers the protection intended by such a right. In the United States, the Fifth Amendment has been interpreted to prohibit a jury from drawing a negative inference based on the defendant's invocation of his right not to testify, and the jury must be so instructed if the defendant requests.\nLord Devlin in The Judge said: \"It can also be argued that two prejudiced searchers starting from opposite ends of the field will between them be less likely to miss anything than the impartial searcher starting at the middle.\"",
"-28.88894211051229"
],
[
"to the Constitution mandates unanimity for a guilty verdict in a federal court jury trial. Notwithstanding this, many U.S. states do require jury unanimity for a finding of guilty; for example, article 21 of the Maryland Constitution's Declaration of Rights states:\nThat in all criminal prosecutions, every man hath a right to be informed of the accusation against him; to have a copy of the Indictment, or charge, in due time (if required) to prepare for his defence; to be allowed counsel; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have process for his witnesses; to examine the witnesses for",
"-28.861417881598754"
],
[
"when a person suspected of a crime is indicted by a grand jury or otherwise charged with the offense by a government official called a prosecutor or district attorney.\nA criminal case may in some jurisdictions be settled before a trial through a plea bargain. Typically, in a plea bargain, the defendant agrees to plead guilty to a lesser charge than that which was originally brought by the grand jury or prosecutor. A defendant who goes to trial risks greater penalties than would normally be imposed through a plea bargain. Common elements Legal cases, whether criminal or civil, are premised on",
"-28.84720279130852"
],
[
"to 28.\nProponents of reform argue that the \"not proven\" verdict is widely regarded as an acquittal used when the judge or jury does not have enough evidence to convict but is not sufficiently convinced of the accused person's innocence to bring in a \"not guilty\" verdict. Essentially, the judge or jury is unconvinced that the suspect is innocent, but guilt has not been proven \"beyond reasonable doubt\". Conversely, its opponents argue that a two-verdict system would lead to an increase in wrongful convictions. Scottish rape crisis centres have expressed concern that scrapping \"not proven\", a disproportionately common verdict in rape",
"-28.780603290797444"
],
[
"declared four of the defendants not guilty, and asked the judge to declare a mistrial for the other three, as they could not agree on a verdict. The six who were acquitted were not released, but were held pending an additional charge of \"lying in wait\" with intent to commit murder. Luzenberg admitted that without a murder conviction, he would be forced to drop the \"lying in wait\" charges. But all nine men were returned to the prison—a decision which would prove fatal for some of them.\nThe jurors were given the option to leave by a side door, but chose",
"-28.71764627698576"
],
[
"the defendant believed, or may have believed, that he was being attacked or that a crime was being committed, and that force was necessary to protect himself or to prevent the crime, then the prosecution have not proved their case. If however the defendant's alleged belief was mistaken and if the mistake was an unreasonable one, that may be a peaceful reason for coming to the conclusion that the belief was not honestly held and should be rejected. Even if the jury come to the conclusion that the mistake was an unreasonable one, if the defendant may genuinely have",
"-28.707263542914006"
],
[
"a speedy public trial, by an impartial jury of the country, without the unanimous consent of which jury he cannot be found guilty; nor can he be compelled to give evidence against himself; nor can any man be justly deprived of his liberty except by the laws of the land, or the judgment of his peers.\nX. That the people have a right to hold themselves, their houses, papers, and possessions free from search and seizure, and therefore warrants without oaths or affirmations first made, affording a sufficient foundation for them, and whereby any officer or messenger may be commanded or",
"-28.697581431391882"
],
[
"if a defendant voluntarily testifies at the trial that he did not commit the crime, his confession may be introduced to challenge his credibility, to \"impeach\" the witness, even if it had been obtained without the warning.\nIn Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada (2004), the Supreme Court ruled 5–4 that being required to identify oneself to police under states' stop and identify statutes is not an unreasonable search or seizure, and is not necessarily self-incrimination. Explicit invocation In June 2010, the Supreme Court ruled in Berghuis v. Thompkins that a criminal suspect must now invoke the right to",
"-28.632696242202655"
],
[
"which are nowhere adequately described. And I cannot think that such pleading should find toleration in any criminal action. An indictment ought to set out with fair certainty the charge to which the accused must respond. If crime has been committed, a fairly capable prosecuting officer can definitely describe it.\nMcReynolds argued that the disagreement existed between the district court and court of appeals justified a refusal to uphold the indictment.\nHere, we have an example of what seems to me inordinate difficulty unnecessarily thrust upon the accused. An experienced trial judge was unable to find proper description of crime in any",
"-28.546216112503316"
],
[
"conduct to which thousands of defendants had pleaded guilty did not constitute a crime at the time that conduct was undertaken.",
"-28.501136002261774"
],
[
"people in 25 states were released from death row when new evidence of their innocence emerged. Whether all of these exonerations are cases of actual innocence rather than technical exonerations of the defendants due to legal issues in their cases that allow their convictions to be legally quashed is disputed by death penalty supporters.\nStatistics likely understate the actual problem of wrongful convictions because once an execution has occurred there is often insufficient motivation and finance to keep a case open, and it becomes unlikely at that point that the miscarriage of justice will ever be exposed. In the case of",
"-28.50052531172878"
],
[
"led to a conviction. The Supreme Court, however, overturned the conviction. It was held that in the first trial, since the defense had not presented any evidence that there was no robbery, the jury's acquittal had to be based on the conclusion that the defendant's alibi was valid. Since one jury had held that the defendant was not present at the crime scene, the State could not re-litigate the issue. Retrial after acquittal Once acquitted, a defendant may not be retried for the same offense: \"A verdict of acquittal, although not followed by any judgment, is a bar to a",
"-28.485876105243733"
],
[
"and determine that the plea is voluntary and did not result from force, threats, or promises (other than promises in a plea agreement).\" The actual voluntariness is suspect, in that it is common for prosecutors to threaten to seek more prison time unless the defendant agrees to plead guilty. For this reason, common law courts historically took a negative view of guilty pleas.",
"-28.478628379438305"
],
[
"Criminal Law Act 1827 Part I: Mode of trial This part of the act stated - \"if any Person not having Privilege of Peerage, being arraigned upon any Indictment for Treason, Felony or Piracy, shall plead thereto a plea of \"Not guilty\", he shall by such Plea, without any further Form, be deemed to have put himself upon the Country for Trial\". Before this enactment, defendants who pleaded \"Not Guilty\" to a charge of felony were formally obliged to choose their mode of trial, in a standard exchange with the clerk of the court: \"How wilt thou be tried?\"",
"-28.456309218832757"
],
[
"any person who he reasonably believes will be charged with or whom he reasonably suspects of being guilty of—\n(a) any offence for which the sentence is fixed by law or for which a person may (on a first conviction for that offence) be sentenced to imprisonment; or\n\n(b) any offence, if it appears to the police officer that service of a summons is impracticable because—\n\n(i) the name of the person is unknown to, and cannot readily be ascertained by, the police officer;\n\n(ii) the police officer has reasonable grounds for doubting whether a name given by the person",
"-28.441202696689288"
],
[
"proceedings against him. Without it, though he be not guilty, he faces the danger of conviction because he does not know how to establish his innocence.\nJustice Black's opinion showed a similar argument that that of the Court's from Powell v. Alabama, the guiding hand of counsel can prevent an innocent man from being imprisoned falsely. From this point on, all defendants on trial for criminal charges were guaranteed the right to a lawyer, no matter what their financial situation looks like. The Court's decision in this case overturned the previous understanding of legal counsel set by the Court in Betts",
"-28.4389319717302"
],
[
"serious, prosecutors often can still bluff defense attorneys and their clients into pleading guilty to a lesser offense.\nAs a result, people who might have been acquitted because of lack of evidence, but also who are in fact truly innocent, will often plead guilty to the charge. Why? In a word, fear. And the more numerous and serious the charges, studies have shown, the greater the fear. That explains why prosecutors sometimes seem to file every charge imaginable against defendants.\nThe theoretical work based on the prisoner's dilemma is one reason why, in many countries, plea bargaining is forbidden. Often, precisely the",
"-28.43474203516962"
],
[
"admitting it the trial judge had made an error of law resulting in a miscarriage of justice. Voluntariness of the interview The court quoted from a 1948 judgment of future Chief Justice of Australia Owen Dixon, followed unanimously by the High Court of Australia in later decisions, in which he said that:\n\"At common law a confessional statement made out of court by an accused person may not be admitted in evidence against him upon his trial for the crime to which it relates unless it is shown to have been voluntarily made. This means substantially that it has been made",
"-28.384657236783823"
],
[
"to have committed the offence for which he is being tried. On the other hand, the mere fact that the evidence adduced tends to show the commission of other crimes does not render it inadmissible if it be relevant to an issue before the jury, and it may be so relevant if it bears upon the question whether the acts alleged to constitute the crime charged in the indictment were designed or accidental, or to rebut a defence which would otherwise be open to the accused. The statement of these general principles is easy, but it is obvious that it",
"-28.361565012135543"
],
[
"crime or who does not actually admit his guilt. In federal courts, such plea may be accepted as long as there is evidence that the defendant is actually guilty.\"\nThe Alford guilty plea is \"a plea of guilty containing a protestation of innocence\". The defendant pleads guilty, but does not have to specifically admit to the guilt itself. The defendant maintains a claim of innocence, but agrees to the entry of a conviction in the charged crime. Upon receiving an Alford guilty plea from a defendant, the court may immediately pronounce the defendant guilty and impose sentence as if the defendant",
"-28.337603075066"
],
[
"\"conspiring to commit murder\" and \"murder\". Both charges typically have facts distinct from each other. A person can be charged with \"conspiring to commit murder\" even if the murder never actually takes place if all facts necessary to support the charge can be demonstrated through evidence. Further, a person convicted or acquitted of murder can, additionally, be tried on conspiracy as well if it has been determined after the conviction or acquittal that a conspiracy did, in fact, take place. Retrial after mistrial Mistrials are generally not covered by the double jeopardy clause. If a judge dismisses the case or",
"-28.329818020887615"
],
[
"in R v Windle [1952] 2 QB 826. Insanity at the time of the trial If a defendant at the time of trial claims he is insane, this hinges on whether or not he is able to understand the charge, the difference between \"guilty\" and \"not guilty\" and is able to instruct his lawyers. If he is unable to do these things, he can be found \"unfit to plead\" under Section 4 of the Criminal Procedure (Insanity) Act 1964. In that situation, the judge has wide discretion as to what to do with the defendant, except in cases of murder,",
"-28.298411003226647"
],
[
"juries, because they entail arguing both that the defendant did and did not commit the crime alleged. An English perspective Much of U.S. criminal law is derived from the English common law, whose standard analysis is that (with the exception of strict liability offenses) a crime is made up of two parts: (i) the guilty act (actus reus) (ii) and the guilty intention (mens rea). A court examines the issues in sequence since there is little point in establishing intent if the accused did not commit the act. The court will convict only if the actus and the",
"-28.291060979938266"
],
[
"innocent until the Crown has proved his or her guilt. The presumption of innocence means that the accused does not have to give or call any evidence and does not have to establish his or her innocence.\nThe Crown must prove that the accused is guilty beyond reasonable doubt. Proof beyond reasonable doubt is a very high standard of proof which the Crown will have met only if, at the end of the case, you are sure that the accused is guilty.\n\nIt is not enough for the Crown to persuade you that the accused is probably guilty or even that he",
"-28.276449591416167"
],
[
"would be unfair to incriminate him on the basis of something he would not have said had he been aware of his rights. The court held that the correct rule of practice had not been observed, and that, since the remaining evidence was not convincing, the conviction ought to be set aside.\nWhen the issue arises, the court is obliged to establish whether there is a proper basis for the claim that the accused cannot answer without incriminating himself. The court must be satisfied on reasonable grounds that the answer may incriminate the witness. In Magmoed v Janse van Rensburg, a",
"-28.25064566626679"
],
[
"States, do not go to trial, which may lead to injustice when the defendant has an unskilled or overworked attorney, which is likely to be the case when the defendant is poor. In addition, proponents of inquisitorial systems argue that the plea bargain system causes the participants in the system to act in perverse ways, in that it encourages prosecutors to bring charges far in excess of what is warranted and defendants to plead guilty even when they believe that they are not.",
"-28.240087503829272"
],
[
"of presumption of innocence, and, therefore, such evidence was inadmissible (other than on five clearly defined grounds). Thus, \"the state cannot prove against a defendant any crime not alleged in the indictment, either as a foundation for a separate punishment, or as aiding the proofs that he is guilty of the crime charged.\"\nThe decision was notable in its impact on the rules of admissibility of evidence. Over one hundred years later, Judge Rosenblatt of the New York Appeals Court stated that the Molineux decision was a \"landmark case\" which led to the precedent that:\na criminal case should be tried",
"-28.212013520293112"
],
[
"and with a judicial conscience in deciding the period in which a guilty criminal will be incarcerated in prison.\nNonetheless, our courts have evolved a general flexible rule propounded through numerous decided cases that where an accused person pleads guilty without contesting the charge or charges against him in a trial which might consume many days, involving prosecutors, witnesses, documents, police officers and chemists the courts lean in favour of imposing a reduced sentence. A \"plea of guilty\" achieves the disposal of a criminal case with lightning speed. Every contest and trial leads to a backlog of undisposed criminal cases clogging",
"-28.20497141031956"
],
[
"out that it is only effective if a jury finds it to be compelling evidence of innocence or a substantial mitigating factor. When this occurs, there is no reason to exclude claims of abuse from the trial proceedings. Wilson has argued that the problem lies not in the employment of excuses as legal defenses, but in the intermingling of social science, which seeks to explain human behavior, with criminal law, which seeks to judge behavior. Although many citizens advocate severe penalties as a means of reducing crime, a number of studies have shown that the juror's desire to realize that",
"-28.195783605595352"
],
[
"pointed to a conviction, the jury would simply refuse to apply the law to an accused for whom it had sympathy. Alternatively, a jury who feels antipathy towards an accused might convict despite a law which points to acquittal. To give a harsh, but I think telling example, a jury fueled by the passions of racism could be told that they need not apply the law against murder to a white man who had killed a black man. Such a possibility need only be stated to reveal the potentially frightening implications of Mr. Manning's assertions. ...\nIt is no doubt true",
"-28.19190458371304"
],
[
"defendant was found guilty of attempted murder. The fact that the intended crime was impossible for the defendant to commit was not considered a defense for the charge of attempting to commit a felony, in this case murder.\nThe defendant then appealed his judgment of conviction and sentence. Decision On appeal, the Supreme Court of Missouri affirmed Mitchell's conviction and sentence, holding that the objective itself was criminal in nature and only a circumstance unknown to the defendant prevented its completion. The court held that a person who shoots into the bed of another person on purpose, believing that person to",
"-28.17817489267327"
],
[
"character that one would be willing to rely and act upon it without hesitation in the most important of one's own affairs. However, it does not mean an absolute certainty. The standard that must be met by the prosecution's evidence in a criminal prosecution is that no other logical explanation can be derived from the facts except that the defendant committed the crime, thereby overcoming the presumption that a person is innocent unless and until proven guilty.\nIf the trier of fact has no doubt as to the defendant's guilt, or if their only doubts are unreasonable doubts, then the prosecutor",
"-28.17494875970442"
],
[
"be irretrievably prejudiced, is – whatever the justification for such denial – incompatible with the rights of the accused under Article 6.\" United States The Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides that no person shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself or herself. At trial, the prosecution can neither call the defendant as a witness, nor comment on the defendant's failure to testify. Whether to testify or not is exclusively the privilege of the defendant, although defendants were originally not allowed to testify on their own behalf at all. An 1864",
"-28.170033737522317"
],
[
"guilty, as there has been a valid gift; however, if the donor is found to be mentally incapable so that there is not a valid contract and transfer of property, then the defendant should only be guilty if what the defendant did was dishonest by the standards of ordinary decent people and the defendant realised this. He held that the same principle should apply even where the vitiating factor was something else: undue influence or duress, for example.\nLord Hutton therefore allowed the appeal and held that their convictions should be quashed.\nLord Hobhouse concurred.",
"-28.16353183751926"
],
[
"to their verdict as additional commentary on their verdict. The 'not proven' verdict may be given when a jury is not prepared to utter 'not guilty' or where the jury has lingering doubts; however if eight jurors cannot agree on an accused's guilt or on an alternative verdict, then the accused will be acquitted.\nCases in the High Court are prosecuted in the public interest by the Lord Advocate, who is usually represented in such cases by Advocates Depute. A private prosecution can be brought before the High Court, but this is very rare and difficult as it requires the concurrence",
"-28.13208893414412"
],
[
"if the court thinks that there is any valid reason why the plea of guilty should not stand. Plea of not guilty If the accused gives a plea explanation, in terms of section 115 of the CPA, he is asked by the presiding officer whether anything not placed in issue by the plea explanation may be formally recorded as an admission under section 220. If it is so recorded, it is the same as any other section 220 admission.\nEven if the accused does not so agree, the admissions remain evidential material, and are similar to informal admissions; indeed, they have",
"-28.12754622889497"
],
[
"appeared. The accused, if a member, could clear himself by his own oath, unless he had revealed the secrets of the Fehme. If he were one of the uninitiated it was necessary for him to bring forward witnesses to his innocence from among the initiated, whose number varied according to the number on the side of the accuser, but twenty-one in favour of innocence necessarily secured an acquittal. The only punishment which the secret court could inflict was death. If the accused appeared, the sentence was carried into execution at once; if he did not appear, it was quickly made",
"-28.105069025215926"
],
[
"he would not be able to verify the agreements made in the settlement. The settlement cannot be used as evidence of guilt in future civil and criminal cases.\nThe settlement cannot prevent criminal investigation or criminal proceeding, neither can non-disclosure agreements. Bribery to not testify in a trial is felony, and accepting such bribes is also a felony. Verdict The jury deliberated for about thirty-two hours over seven days. On one initial vote, nine jurors voted to acquit Jackson, while three voted guilty. On June 13, 2005, they returned a verdict of not guilty on all charges.\nJurors found the prosecuting case",
"-28.09492292052164"
],
[
"he killed him intentionally, you can't say he's guilty....you can't put the man in jail even though in our hearts we felt he was guilty.\" The juror said that she felt like she owed Martin's parents an apology because she felt she had let them down. Notable responses On the eve of the verdict, criminal law experts interviewed by CNN agreed that acquittal was likely. Christopher Darden, trial prosecutor in the O.J. Simpson murder case, said the prosecution's case lacked evidence: \"[J]ust about everything the prosecution has asserted in this case has been addressed by the defense and refuted. ...",
"-28.084467680033413"
],
[
"Trial of the facts Under the law of England and Wales regarding insanity and unfitness to plead, once a court has determined that the defendant is subject to a disability that prevents their trial progressing, there may be a \"trial of the facts\" in which the truth of the allegations against the defendant, as opposed to their guilt or innocence of a crime, is to be determined. The court's options are: to order an absolute discharge; a supervision order; or a hospital order (with or without a restriction order).\nThe trial is not a criminal trial to determine guilt or otherwise;",
"-28.077120256806666"
],
[
"I shall never, under any pretext, pervert the law nor promote injustice because of kinship, relationship, friendship, envy, hatred or fear, or for the sake of gifts or presents or other reasons, nor shall I find an innocent person guilty or a guilty person innocent. Furthermore, I shall not, before pronouncing a judgment or thereafter, reveal to the parties or to anyone else anything about the deliberations that the Court has held behind closed doors. All of this I wish to and shall fulfil faithfully, honestly and as an earnest judge, without deceit and intrigue, so help me God, in",
"-28.058816044882406"
],
[
"the line in furtherance of a conspiracy. And if they are caught in the lie, guilty criminal defendants can be set free because of otherwise unwarranted acquittals, or because the evidence is tossed at a suppression hearing. And, of course, when the police lie under oath, innocent people can be convicted and jailed. Hundreds of convictions have been set aside as a result of such scandals.\nSome sources say it is both a police and prosecutorial problem, and is a systemic response to the fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine recognized in Mapp v. Ohio. Other authors have drawn a connection",
"-28.012795573144103"
],
[
"It is not sufficient to merely allege that an individual is guilty of high treason because of his thoughts or imaginations; there must be an overt act indicating the plot.\nA second form of high treason defined by the Treason Act 1351 was having sexual intercourse with \"the King's companion, or the King's eldest daughter unmarried, or the wife of the King's eldest son and heir.\" If the intercourse is not consensual, only the rapist is liable, but if it is consensual, then both parties are liable. Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard, wives of Henry VIII, were found guilty of treason",
"-27.976119598461082"
],
[
"Since he does not take an oath and since he is not technically a witness, if a defendant tells a lie, he is not committing perjury.\nA defendant can also choose to make spontaneous statements to the Judge; he can tell whatever he wishes to tell and can choose not to answer any questions. In this case too, a defendant can lie without consequences. Evidence For a defendant to be convicted, the Judge must be internally convinced (Italian law requires the Judge's intimo convincimento); because of that, there are no rules that predetermine the weight to be attributed to any given",
"-27.97108007373754"
],
[
"is not entered as \"guilty,\" a PBJ does not legally count as a conviction for a crime, and therefore the defendant is spared some hardships of having a criminal record, e.g. for purposes of job applications he or she does not have to disclose it as a conviction, though a full criminal background check will still reveal the case.\nThe defendant, however, is still placed on probation and can be compelled to pay a monetary fine or other restitution, enroll in a drug rehabilitation program, work community service hours, and/or less frequently, sentenced to imprisonment or alternative confinement. If",
"-27.95599064081034"
],
[
"court that the criminal defendant does not wish to contest the state's accusations and will acquiesce in the imposition of punishment.\" Lichon v American Universal Insurance Co., 435 Mich 408, 417 (1990). A nolo contendere plea may be appropriate \"where the defendant would not be able to supply a sufficient factual basis for a guilty plea because he or she was intoxicated on the night of the incident, where there is the possibility of future civil litigation resulting from the offense, or where a defendant cannot remember the events which led to his or her being charged with a crime\".",
"-27.950478160433704"
],
[
"free to change his or her evidence at trial. Whether the accused pleads guilty or not, a trial will be conducted. Unlike the adversarial system, the conviction and sentence to be served (if any) will be released by the trial jury together with the president of the trial bench, following their common deliberation.\nThere are many exceptions in both directions. For example, most proceedings before U.S. federal and state agencies are inquisitorial in nature, at least the initial stages (e.g., a patent examiner, a social security hearing officer, and so on), even though the law to be applied is developed through",
"-27.92611566130654"
],
[
"of the defendants. Defense requested that the jury be polled, and so the word \"Guilty\" was uttered seventy-two times, once for each defendant from each juror.\nThe local newspaper noted that it was the first time in the recorded history of common law of the United States and England that six people were convicted of murder on a single indictment. On appeal, the judge awarded Zechman a new trial, based on the lack of direct evidence presented by the Commonwealth against him personally. He was acquitted in his second trial on essentially the same evidence. The other five defendants were sentenced",
"-27.92217711846024"
],
[
"extra courses and other forfeits, or admitting guilt and accepting a lighter \"sentence\". The study found that as expected from court statistics, around 90% of accused subjects who were actually guilty chose to take the plea-bargain and plead guilty. It also found that around 56% of subjects who were actually innocent (and privately knew it) also to take the plea-bargain and plead guilty, for reasons including avoiding formal quasi-legal processes, uncertainty, possibility of greater harm to personal future plans, or deprivation of home environment due to remedial courses. The authors stated:\nPrevious research has argued that the innocence problem is minimal",
"-27.918435671805128"
],
[
"who also expressed their dismay.\nOthers, such as Sean Hannity of the Fox News Channel, felt the verdict was fair because the prosecution did not have enough evidence to establish guilt or meet its burden of proof beyond a reasonable doubt. Hannity said that the verdict was legally correct, and that all of the evidence that was presented by the prosecution was either impeached or contradicted by the defense. John Cloud of Time magazine echoed these sentiments, saying the jury made the right call: \"Anthony got off because the prosecution couldn't answer [the questions],\" Cloud stated. \"Because the prosecutors had so",
"-27.906626746349502"
],
[
"tried to have the jury instructed that if they found he committed bigamy with the only intention of following his religion, then he must be found not guilty. The trial court refused this request and instructed the jury that if they found that Reynolds, under religious influence, \"deliberately married a second time, having a first wife living, the want of consciousness of evil intent—the want of understanding on his part that he was committing crime—did not excuse him, but the law inexorably, in such cases, implies criminal intent.\"\nAfter being found guilty by the lower court, Reynolds appealed to the Utah",
"-27.897735413047485"
],
[
"dangers of conviction merely because of their poverty. Whether a man is innocent cannot be determined from a trial in which, as here, denial of counsel has made it impossible to conclude, with any satisfactory degree of certainty, that the defendant's case was adequately presented.\nBlack said in his dissent that the denial of counsel based on financial stability makes it so that those in poverty have an increased chance of conviction, which is not equal protection of the laws under the Fourteenth Amendment. During his dissent, Black cited also Johnson v. Zerbst, making the point that had the proceedings of",
"-27.892458198519307"
],
[
"a plea of not guilty by an accused, there must be an order committing them for trial in the Supreme Court.\nUnlike some other Australian states, Tasmania does not have an intermediate court division between the Supreme Court and the Magistrates Courts (such as a \"District Court\" or a \"County Court\").",
"-27.853786671475973"
],
[
"mens are shown beyond reasonable doubt. If convicted, the accused may contest either or both of the findings of actus or mens. England does not have the specific concept of \"actual innocence\" but the courts are concerned to ensure that an innocent person is not subject to a criminal penalty. The appeal process will not impose an onus of proof of \"beyond reasonable doubt\" to show innocence, but (even if the process takes years) a court will allow new evidence to be adduced if it tends to show that the accused did not (or could not) commit the crime.",
"-27.83247604058124"
],
[
"evidence presented at trial.\nAs a result of judicial investigation and defendants being able to have judicial proceedings dismissed on procedural grounds during the examining phase, cases where the evidence is weak tend not to reach the trial stage. Conversely, the guilty plea and plea bargaining were until recently unknown to French law. They are accepted only for crimes for which the prosecution seeks a sentence not exceeding one year imprisonment. Therefore, most cases go to trial, including cases where the prosecution is almost sure to gain a conviction. In countries such as the United States, the latter cases would be",
"-27.82010502158664"
],
[
"trial? Is a judgment of conviction void when a deposition has been read against a person on trial for crime because he was not confronted with the witness, or because the indictment did not inform him with sufficient clearness of the nature and cause of the accusation? Decision The high court confessed that it is not always very easy to determine what matters go to the jurisdiction of court so as to make its action when erroneous a nullity. But the general rule is that when the court has jurisdiction by law of the offense charged, and of the party",
"-27.810443661670433"
],
[
"charged with treason. This charge proved to be critical in determining the result of his case because it entitled him to several rights that were not given to criminals who had attempted to kill an ordinary person. First of all, the testimony of two witnesses, instead of just one, was needed to prove him guilty, since this was not an ordinary crime (The Treason Act 1800 was passed in July 1800 to make treason by attempting to kill the King subject to the same rules of evidence and procedure as a normal murder trial). Second and more importantly, he",
"-27.77708239183994"
],
[
"of crime. And even if the false evidence were legally inadmissible yet this need not prevent its being regarded as ‘material’ enough to form the subject of an indictment for perjury. There is, for instance, a rule that when a witness answered answers are to be taken as final, so that no other witness can legally be brought to contradict them. Yet if, by a breach of this rule, some second witness be permitted to give this contradiction, and he gave it falsely, he may be indicted for perjury; for, so soon as the contradiction was admitted,",
"-27.770672221864515"
],
[
"lack uniform scientific standards.\nIn about 25% of DNA exoneration cases, innocent people were coerced into making false confessions. Many of these false confessors went on to plead guilty to crimes they did not commit (usually to avoid a harsher sentence, or even the death penalty) Another instance for misidentification is when a \"show-up\" procedure occurs. This is where a suspect is shown at the scene of a crime in a poorly lit lot or in a police car. Someone might also misidentify when they learn more about the suspect; it may cause them to change their description.\nGovernment misconduct, inadequate legal",
"-27.765148401151237"
],
[
"not be necessary to show that the accused person was guilty of any particular act tending to show a purpose prejudicial to the safety or interests of the State, and, notwithstanding that no such act is proved against him, he may be convicted if, from the circumstances of the case, or his conduct, or his known character as proved, it appears that his purpose was a purpose prejudicial to the safety or interests of the State; and if any sketch, plan, model, article, note, document, or information relating to or used in any prohibited place within the meaning of this",
"-27.762922533467645"
],
[
"Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court.\nSection 1 of the Crimes Act of 1790 provided that\nif any person or persons, owing allegiance to the United States of America, shall levy war against them, or shall adhere to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort within the United States or elsewhere, and shall be thereof convicted, on confession in open court, or on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act of treason whereof he or they shall stand indicted,",
"-27.75789971940685"
],
[
"accused must be summoned and examined under the same conditions granted to the prosecution; any evidence in favor of the accused must be acknowledged; the accused may rely on the help of an interpreter if they do not understand or speak the language of the proceedings.\n4. In criminal trials, evidence may only be established according to the principle of confrontation between parties. No defendant may be proven guilty on the basis of testimony given by witnesses who freely and purposely avoided cross-examination by the defense.\nDuring the trial, all the witnesses must bear testimony once again, as must the experts. Plus,",
"-27.7347433640316"
],
[
"know what you are doing and you did know that when you entered a plea of guilty the other day. Do you want to let that plea of guilty stand, or do you want to withdraw it and plead not guilty?\nDefendant Brady: I want to let that plea stand, sir\nThe Court: You understand that, in doing that, you are admitting and confessing the truth of the charge contained in the indictment and that you enter a plea of guilty voluntarily, without persuasion, coercion of any kind? Is that right?\nDefendant Brady: Yes, your Honor.\nThe Court: And you do do that?\nDefendant Brady:",
"-27.73074109092704"
],
[
"person presenting such an indictment must be bound by recognizance to prosecute or give evidence against the accused, or alternatively had judicial permission (as specified) so to do.\nIf an indictment was found in the absence of the accused, and he/she was not in custody and had not been bound over to appear at assizes or sessions, then process was issued to bring that person into court, as it is contrary to the English law to \"try\" an indictment in the absence of the accused.\nThe grand jury's functions were gradually made redundant by the development of committal proceedings in magistrates' courts",
"-27.729642652746406"
],
[
"guilty or innocent of a crime, if the defence can persuade a jury that reasonable doubt exists over the credibility of a confession then the jury is likely to disregard the confession. If the defence can show that the confession was made under such duress that most people would make such a confession, then the jury is likely to question the confession's credibility. Usually the more duress that can be shown to have been used by law enforcement by the defence, the less weight most juries will place on confessions. In Britain partly to protect the individual against police brutality",
"-27.72649980065762"
],
[
"it has agreed. . . . If the jury cannot agree on all counts as to any defendant, the jury may return a verdict on those counts on which it has agreed. . . . If the jury cannot agree on a verdict on one or more counts, the court may declare a mistrial on those counts. A hung jury does not imply either the defendant's guilt or innocence. The government may retry any defendant on any count on which the jury could not agree.\"\nJuries in criminal cases are generally, as a rule, required to reach a unanimous verdict, and",
"-27.71778639839613"
],
[
"provision that convicts morally innocent individuals as a means to control a certain area of crime is inconsistent with the principles of fundamental justice. She further noted that this form of constructive culpability was not proportional and so it could not be justified through judicial discretion.\nAs a remedy, the Court severed the infringing words from the text so that to secure a conviction, it must be proved that the accused knew the girl was under fourteen (or was wilfully blind to that fact).",
"-27.714498911191185"
]
] |
8ohjly | If humans can only hear sounds between 20Hz and 20,000Hz, how does it matter if headphones and speakers have frquency ranges that are greater than 20-20,000? | [
"We can feel frequencies below our audible range. Some film producers/directors use \"infrasound\", as in, sound that has a frequency of below 20hz to introduce suspension or fear in the audience to enhance a scene. When you are walking on a suspension bridge and it sways, you can feel that, its still vibration, just not audible. If the bridge vibrated hard enough and fast enough, you would hear it as it would push and pull the air fast enough to make it audible. In terms of headphones, the effect of infrasound and sounds above 20khz are negligable. That's because the drivers \\(speakers\\) in your headphones are more than likely too small a diameter to accurately produce those frequencies to a sound pressure level \\(db\\) that you would be able to \"feel\".",
"The short answer is that it doesn't matter. No, you cannot perceive frequencies higher than 20 kHz, either by hearing or by vibrotactile perception (feeling it). Depending on your age, you might not be able to hear above 15-16 kHz. There are several reasons we can't hear above these frequencies. The primary one is because the physical organ of hearing doesn't resonate at these frequencies. The organ of hearing lies along a membrane which is narrow and stiff at one end, where it resonates more with high frequencies, and floppy and wide at the other end, where it resonates more with low frequencies. It's much like piano strings. It's a pretty basic physical system in that sense. Above around 20 kHz, you're not going to get a lot of sympathetic vibration along the membrane. Secondly, cells (and attached nerves) are arranged along this membrane which are activated basic on frequency, with cells and nerves at the short, stiff end coded for high frequencies, and cells at the other end coded for low frequencies. This \"tonotopic\" organization is preserved all the way to the auditory cortex. As we age, we lose cells and nerves coded for high frequencies first, which is why by out teen years we start to be unable to hear up to 20 kHz. There is really no vibrotacile perception of high frequencies. It may be possible, but the level would have to be extreme, way above any potential output of an earphone. The other thing to consider is that most sound files aren't going to have information in frequencies above around 20 kHz. The sampling rate of CDs is 44.1 kHz, making the Nyquist frequency (above which no information is coded), 22.05 kHz. This gets into signal processing stuff, but essentially the way the digital information is preserved is such that you aren't sampling fast enough to accurately encode frequencies above about 22 kHz. The sampling rate of CDs for example was chosen at 44.1 kHz because humans cannot hear above 20 kHz, so it didn't need to be any higher. There will also be a low-pass filter used which will further restrict frequency information above the Nyquist frequency in order to avoid something called aliasing. The short of that is: even if we could hear above 20 kHz, and even if headphones can reliably produce these frequencies, even if drivers can pump fast enough to create these, there aren't frequencies that high present in most common audio formats. Very low frequencies you can feel, sure - but most music doesn't contain frequencies below 20 Hz (most won't go below probably 50 Hz), so again, unlikely to matter if the headphones can go super low. As with many audiophile things, the extended frequency range of most fancy headphones is just kind of a dick swinging contest.",
"One way to make performance better in the audible range is to make performance acceptable well beyond the audible range. Just like you might want a car that can go 150 miles per hour just because it will go from 60 - 80 for passing much better than a car that can barely get up to the speed limit. An audio amplifier or speaker that is capable of playing much louder than you need and at frequencies much higher than you need will sound better at the levels and frequencies you actually listen to.",
"The response range of headphones is the point where response decreases by some amount, usually -3dB. That's a 50% reduction in sound pressure (but less than a 50% reduction in perceived loudness). Now, \"theoretically\", you wouldn't want performance to decrease at *all* throughout the entire audible range. If you produced speakers where that was the case, the point where response *did* decrease would be outside of the audible range. In reality, headphones/speakers never perform perfectly flat within that range, nor are those extreme frequencies any more important than other aspects of their behavior. But they have practical designs which don't stop working at *exactly* 20hz or 20khz, sometimes a design that performs well in that range will also reach quite a bit higher. So, showing off those ratings is partly a pissing contest, as others noted. But one thing I will note is it suggests they **actually measured** the frequency response. If I see 20hz-20khz on a $20 pair of earbuds, I know they guessed (or lied) about that and who knows what else they guessed/lied about. Let's say they did have good frequency response, what are the chances of 20hz-20khz being the range instead of 21hz-19khz, or 18hz-21khz, both of which would be equally good?",
"In general, anything that low you feel (not hear) and anything that high you can't hear anyhow. However, consumers tend to be attracted to big numbers... bigger is better right? Marketing people know this and so always find away to ensure the products for sale have the biggest numbers possible... even if they are irrelevant. In a similar way, large vacuum cleaners (aka \"ShopVacs\") are advertised with misleading HP figures. \"6.25 Peak HP\"... emphasis on the *peak*. There are 745W in a HP. That is about 4400W... you'd need a 35A circuit at 120V for that! Bigger numbers sell... not a lie, but not the whole (or relevant) truth either.",
"Very large pipe organs (think cathedral type installations) sometimes have a whole set of pedals which operate pipes with tones below 20hz. There is interaction between these inaudible frequencies and those higher up that cause a change in the quality of the sound. The music sounds more full and carries out into large spaces better. This works for a live performance or an analog recording. Digital recordings and playback are limited by their samples. In standard digital recording and playback, the sub-sonic sounds are not recorded and wont be properly played back. For what its worth, most peoples hearing falls in the 30hz- 15khz range and not 20-20k.",
"So, basically you can feel sounds above or below the range and those sounds can harmonize with sounds in the spectrum of hearable sounds. Therefore it matters.",
"I'm seeing some good answers, but there is one concept being left out. A lot of instruments, especially stringed instruments like piano or guitar have something called subharmonic frequencies. Basically what happens is, the reason why a note is given its name is because of how many vibrations a second that note is played. The most standard example is most Western music is based on A440. What that means is that the A note vibrates 440 times a second. The B note vibrates about 494, etc etc. Just an aside, that concept is kind of a cool thing to look into on it's own, but I don't want to bog this post down. The thing is, that when something like a string vibrates, it doesn't just move back and forth. Within the string are smaller vibrations. They look like [this]( URL_0 ). Those are the subharmonic frequencies. When you listen to a string, you're not really listening to a single note, but a BBQ sauce of notes that create the tone and color of the note. And like BBQ sauce where some of the flavors aren't tasted directly, some of the subharmonic frequencies are going to be too high pitched to be heard on their own, but they do influence to lower pitches that are in range.",
"For earphones, it doesn't matter at all. Heck, most amps filter out frequencies outside that spectrum anyway, as there is no use wasting power on sound that cannot be heard. For speakers, going above 20 kHz is useless, but you can feel the \"rumble\" of frequencies below 20 Hz, even if you can't hear them. You mostly feel this in your chest, so there is no reason to have it in headphones. Another reason you don't want higher frequencies is that they can cause the membrane of the speaker to \"ripple\", instead of moving back and forth as a solid unit. This distorts the audible sound, so you do not want that. So, just another reason to cut high frequencies.",
"There's no reason to have headphone speakers stop at exactly 20,000 Hz. Sure, we could do it by installing a low pass filter, but why? We can't hear the frequencies anyway. Basically high quality headphone manufacturers produce headphones to match whatever audio frequency curve they want within the design limitations of the headphone/drivers, matching the frequencies between 20 and 20,000 Hz as best they can. Whatever is \"extra\" is exactly that. Extra. They don't care about anything above or below that range, and it'd be more expensive to install a low pass filter. Therefore, to save money, they don't."
] | [
[
"is focused on frequencies that we can't hear as well and less of it is focused on frequencies that we can hear. The result is that where the ear is most critical the quantization error can be reduced greatly and where our ears are less sensitive the noise is much greater. This can give a perceived noise reduction of 4 bits compared to straight dither. While 16-bit audio is typically thought to have 96 dB of dynamic range (see quantization distortion calculations), it can actually be increased to 120 dB using noise-shaped dither. Noise shaping and 1-bit converters",
"-30.84830953128403"
],
[
"20 Hz within 3 dB. While a loudspeaker must use a relatively large (often 15\" or 18\") speaker driver to reproduce low frequencies, headphones can accurately reproduce bass and sub-bass frequencies with speaker drivers only 40-50 millimeters wide (or much smaller, as is the case with in-ear monitor headphones). Headphones' impressive low-frequency performance is possible because they are so much closer to the ear that they only need to move relatively small volumes of air.\nMarketed claims such as 'frequency response 4 Hz to 20 kHz' are usually overstatements; the product's response at frequencies lower than 20 Hz is typically very small. \nHeadphones are also useful",
"-30.29385077022016"
],
[
"travels about 4.5 times faster in water than in air, and at a similarly higher speed in body tissues, and therefore the interval between a sound reaching the left and right inner ears is much smaller than in air, and the brain is less able to discriminate the interval which is how direction of a sound source is identified. Some sound localisation is possible, though difficult.\nThis bypassing of the middle ear also affects the frequency sensitivity of the ear. Sound is also reflected in proportion to the change of density or elasticity (mismatch of acoustic impedance) when passing through",
"-30.279831016785465"
],
[
"the equal-loudness contours (i.e. 20 micropascals, approximately the quietest sound a young healthy human can detect), but is standardised in an ANSI standard to 1 kHz. Standards using different reference levels, give rise to differences in audiograms. The ASA-1951 standard, for example, used a level of 16.5 dB SPL (sound pressure level) at 1 kHz, whereas the later ANSI-1969/ISO-1963 standard uses 6.5 dB SPL, with a 10 dB correction applied for older people. Other primates Several primates, especially small ones, can hear frequencies far into the ultrasonic range. Measured with a 60 dB SPL signal, the hearing range for the Senegal bushbaby is 92 Hz–65 kHz,",
"-29.840660651563667"
],
[
"decreases with age. Within this range, the human ear is most sensitive between 2 and 5 kHz, largely due to the resonance of the ear canal and the transfer function of the ossicles of the middle ear.\nFletcher and Munson first measured equal-loudness contours using headphones (1933). In their study, test subjects listened to pure tones at various frequencies and over 10 dB increments in stimulus intensity. For each frequency and intensity, the listener also listened to a reference tone at 1000 Hz. Fletcher and Munson adjusted the reference tone until the listener perceived that it was the same loudness as the test",
"-29.594877136289142"
],
[
"The magnitude of the interaural time difference is greater the more the signal comes from the side of the head. Thus, this time delay allows humans to accurately predict the location of incoming sound cues. Interaural level difference is caused by the difference in sound pressure level reaching the two ears. This is because the head blocks the sound waves for the further ear, causing less intense sound to reach it. This level difference between the two ears allows humans to accurately predict azimuth of an auditory signal. This effect only occurs at sounds that are high frequency. Spectral cue",
"-29.558276445386582"
],
[
"measure of how different two stimuli must be for the subject to notice that they are not the same. Hearing The absolute threshold of hearing is the minimum sound level of a pure tone that an average ear with normal hearing can hear with no other sound present. The absolute threshold relates to the sound that can just be heard by the organism.\nThe threshold of hearing is generally reported as the RMS sound pressure of 20 μPa (micropascals) = 2×10⁻⁵ pascal (Pa). It is approximately the quietest sound a young human with undamaged hearing can detect at 1,000 Hz.",
"-29.46668268633948"
],
[
"Sound pressure Examples The lower limit of audibility is defined as SPL of 0 dB, but the upper limit is not as clearly defined. While 1 atm (194 dB Peak or 191 dB SPL) is the largest pressure variation an undistorted sound wave can have in Earth's atmosphere, larger sound waves can be present in other atmospheres or other media such as under water, or through the Earth.\nEars detect changes in sound pressure. Human hearing does not have a flat spectral sensitivity (frequency response) relative to frequency versus amplitude. Humans do not perceive low- and high-frequency sounds as well as",
"-29.43664762075059"
],
[
"audio can be 120 dB or more with noise-shaped dither, taking advantage of the frequency response of the human ear. Dynamic range and headroom Dynamic range is the difference between the largest and smallest signal a system can record or reproduce. Without dither, the dynamic range correlates to the quantization noise floor. For example, 16-bit integer resolution allows for a dynamic range of about 96 dB. With the proper application of dither, digital systems can reproduce signals with levels lower than their resolution would normally allow, extending the effective dynamic range beyond the limit imposed by the resolution. The use of techniques",
"-29.280191851081327"
],
[
"different sound pressure levels. It also shows that humans with normal hearing are most sensitive to sounds around 2–4 kHz, with sensitivity declining to either side of this region. A complete model of the perception of loudness will include the integration of SPL by frequency.\nHistorically, loudness was measured using an \"ear-balance\" audiometer in which the amplitude of a sine wave was adjusted by the user to equal the perceived loudness of the sound being evaluated. Contemporary standards for measurement of loudness are based on summation of energy in critical bands. Hearing loss When sensorineural hearing loss (damage to the cochlea or",
"-29.113205924164504"
],
[
"shape, volume, and furnishings. This means the sound reaching a listener's ears consists not only of sound directly from the speaker system, but also the same sound delayed by traveling to and from (and being modified by) one or more surfaces. These reflected sound waves, when added to the direct sound, cause cancellation and addition at assorted frequencies (e.g., from resonant room modes), thus changing the timbre and character of the sound at the listener's ears. The human brain is very sensitive to small variations, including some of these, and this is part of the reason why a loudspeaker system",
"-28.87735853646882"
],
[
"localisation At low frequencies, where the wavelength is large compared to the human head, an incoming sound diffracts around it, so that there is virtually no acoustic shadow and hence no level difference between the ears. In this range, the only available information is the phase relationship between the two ear signals, called interaural time difference, or ITD.\nEvaluating this time difference allows for precise localisation within a cone of confusion: the angle of incidence is unambiguous, but the ITD is the same for sounds from the front or from the back. As long as the sound is not totally unknown",
"-28.804743559332564"
],
[
"more complex than a single bump, affects a broad frequency spectrum, and varies significantly from person to person.\nA pair of HRTFs for two ears can be used to synthesize a binaural sound that seems to come from a particular point in space. It is a transfer function, describing how a sound from a specific point will arrive at the ear (generally at the outer end of the auditory canal). Some consumer home entertainment products designed to reproduce surround sound from stereo (two-speaker) headphones use HRTFs. Some forms of HRTF-processing have also been included in computer software to simulate surround",
"-28.68044348526746"
],
[
"the sound of an explosion, earthquake, a rocket launch, or submarine depth charges. The human ear is not very sensitive to sounds at these low frequencies, so it takes a tremendous amount of amplification for the human ear to hear them. Further, sounds at these frequencies are more felt in the body, rather than heard. As well, since they are sound effects, they may have a longer duration or sustain than many low-pitched musical notes, which makes them harder to reproduce accurately.\nIt is a formidable challenge for an amplifier, subwoofer speakers, and cabinet to reproduce these sound effects at a",
"-28.615248565547518"
],
[
"the human hearing range. Some dolphins and bats, for example, can hear frequencies up to 100,000 Hz. Elephants can hear sounds at 14–16 Hz, while some whales can hear infrasonic sounds as low as 7 Hz (in water). Measurement A basic measure of hearing is afforded by an audiogram, a graph of the absolute threshold of hearing (minimum discernible sound level) at various frequencies throughout an organism's nominal hearing range.\nBehavioural hearing tests or physiological tests can be used to find hearing thresholds of humans and other animals. For humans, the test involves tones being presented at specific frequencies (pitch) and intensities (loudness).",
"-28.60019251704216"
],
[
"Hearing loss Hearing standards Human hearing extends in frequency from 20–20,000 Hz, and in intensity from 0 dB to 120 dB HL or more. 0 dB does not represent absence of sound, but rather the softest sound an average unimpaired human ear can hear; some people can hear down to −5 or even −10 dB. Sound is generally uncomfortably loud above 90 dB and 115 dB represents the threshold of pain. The ear does not hear all frequencies equally well; hearing sensitivity peaks around 3000 Hz. There are many qualities of human hearing besides frequency range and intensity that cannot easily be measured quantitatively. But for",
"-28.51355481246719"
],
[
"or with the potential to cause noise-induced hearing loss.\nA more rigorous exploration of the lower limits of audibility determines that the minimum threshold at which a sound can be heard is frequency dependent. By measuring this minimum intensity for testing tones of various frequencies, a frequency dependent absolute threshold of hearing (ATH) curve may be derived. Typically, the ear shows a peak of sensitivity (i.e., its lowest ATH) between 1–5 kHz, though the threshold changes with age, with older ears showing decreased sensitivity above 2 kHz.\nThe ATH is the lowest of the equal-loudness contours. Equal-loudness contours indicate the sound",
"-28.428916178243526"
],
[
"the horizontal axis, most commonly on a logarithmic scale, and a linear dBHL scale on the vertical axis.\nFor humans, normal hearing is between −10 dB(HL) and 15 dB(HL), although 0 dB from 250 Hz to 8 kHz is deemed to be 'average' normal hearing.\nHearing thresholds of humans and other mammals can be found by using behavioural hearing tests or physiological tests.\nAn audiogram can be obtained using a behavioural hearing test called Audiometry. For humans the test involves different tones being presented at a specific frequency (pitch) and intensity (loudness). When the person hears the sound they raise their hand or press a button",
"-28.165137818315998"
],
[
"those of the noise or signal alone. For a binaural unmasking stimulus, the differences between the interaural parameters of the signal and noise mean that there will be a different vector summation at each ear. Consequently, regardless of the stimulus construction, there tend to be fluctuations in both the level and phase differences of the stimuli at the listener's ears.\nExperiments have examined which of these cues the auditory system can best detect. These have shown that, at low frequencies (specifically 500 Hz), the auditory system is most sensitive to the interaural time differences. At higher frequencies, however, there seems to",
"-28.04034724109806"
],
[
"nearly linear at the low-frequency end.\nThe intensity range of audible sounds is enormous. Human ear drums are sensitive to variations in the sound pressure, and can detect pressure changes from as small as a few micropascals (µPa) to greater than 100 kPa. For this reason, sound pressure level is also measured logarithmically, with all pressures referenced to 20 µPa (or 1.97385×10⁻¹⁰ atm). The lower limit of audibility is therefore defined as 0 dB, but the upper limit is not as clearly defined. The upper limit is more a question of the limit where the ear will be physically harmed",
"-28.009783935558517"
],
[
"or sound waves at frequencies below 20 hertz. Sounds at those frequencies are inaudible to the human ear. Due to its inherent properties, infrasound can travel distances of many hundreds of kilometers. Infrasound signals can result from volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, gravity waves, opening and closing of doors, forcing windows to name a few.\nThe entire infrasound detection system consists of the following components: a speaker (infrasound sensor) as a microphone input, an order-frequency filter, an analog to digital (A/D) converter, and finally an MCU, which is used to analyse the recorded signal.\nEach time a potential intruder tries enter into a house,",
"-27.843485696590506"
],
[
"can cause a partial loss of low frequency information, making the resulting sound somewhat \"tinny.\" This negative effect can be heard on any stereo speaker system, but makes headphone listening particularly un-natural sounding. This is because the lead vocalist or performer's audio waveform would be attempting to partially cancel itself inside the listener's head, confusing the brain's audio positioning sense.\nDue to complicated interaction of phase and frequency it is difficult to predict exactly how the reduction from two channels to one will affect the sound of a particular instrument. Therefore mono sound from a true mono mix is",
"-27.77988482699584"
],
[
"humans perceive speech sounds. Due to the anatomical features of the auditory system distorting the speech signal, humans do not experience speech sounds as perfect acoustic records. For example, the auditory impressions of volume, measured in decibels (dB), does not linearly match the difference in sound pressure.\nThe mismatch between acoustic analyses and what the listener hears is especially noticeable in speech sounds that have a lot of high-frequency energy, such as certain fricatives. To reconcile this mismatch, functional models of the auditory system have been developed. The larynx The larynx, commonly known as the \"voice box\", is a cartilaginous structure",
"-27.74990720290225"
],
[
"noise limits the true number of bits that can be used in quantization. Few analog systems have signal to noise ratios (SNR) exceeding 120 dB. However, digital signal processing operations can have very high dynamic range, consequently it is common to perform mixing and mastering operations at 32-bit precision and then convert to 16- or 24-bit for distribution. Speech sampling Speech signals, i.e., signals intended to carry only human speech, can usually be sampled at a much lower rate. For most phonemes, almost all of the energy is contained in the 100 Hz–4 kHz range, allowing a sampling rate of 8 kHz. This",
"-27.72050923918141"
],
[
"2003, when ISO revised the standard on the basis of recent assessments by research groups worldwide. Side versus frontal presentation Equal-loudness curves derived using headphones are valid only for the special case of what is called side-presentation, which is not how we normally hear. Real-life sounds arrive as planar wavefronts, if from a reasonably distant source. If the source of sound is directly in front of the listener, then both ears receive equal intensity, but at frequencies above about 1 kHz the sound that enters the ear canal is partially reduced by the masking effect of the head, and also highly",
"-27.68701099557802"
],
[
"duration of a sound. The relationship between SPL and loudness of a single tone can be approximated by Stevens's power law in which SPL has an exponent of 0.67. More precise measurements, a model known as the Inflected Exponential function, indicate that loudness increases with a higher exponent at low and high levels and with a lower exponent at moderate levels.\nThe sensitivity of the human ear changes as a function of frequency, as shown in the equal-loudness graph. Each line on this graph shows the SPL required for frequencies to be perceived as equally loud, and different curves pertain to",
"-27.62990534072742"
],
[
"sound playback from loudspeakers.\nHumans have just two ears, but can locate sounds in three dimensions – in range (distance), in direction above and below, in front and to the rear, as well as to either side. This is possible because the brain, inner ear and the external ears (pinna) work together to make inferences about location. This ability to localize sound sources may have developed in humans and ancestors as an evolutionary necessity, since the eyes can only see a fraction of the world around a viewer, and vision is hampered in darkness, while the ability to localize a sound",
"-27.606768797151744"
],
[
"flow of sounds coming from a human, in real time, is a difficult task for a computer, mostly because of the great variability of speech. The same word, spoken by the same person may sound different depending on local acoustics, volume, the previous word, whether or not the speaker has a cold, etc.. It becomes even harder when the speaker has a different accent. Nevertheless, great strides have been made in the field since Davis, Biddulph, and Balashek designed the first \"voice input system\" which recognized \"ten digits spoken by a single user with 100% accuracy\" in 1952. Currently, the",
"-27.528787989751436"
],
[
"is simply attenuating some frequencies of the ambient noise in the environment, including air flowing within the resonator and sound originating within the human body itself, more than others.\nThe human ear picks up sounds made by the human body as well, including the sounds of blood flowing and muscles acting. These sounds are normally discarded by the brain; however, they become more obvious when louder external sounds are filtered out. This occlusion effect occurs with seashells, cups, or hands held over one's ears, and also with circumaural headphones, whose cups form a seal around the ear, raising the acoustic impedance",
"-27.525039531523362"
],
[
"Infrasound Infrasound, sometimes referred to as \n'low-frequency sound', is sound that is lower in frequency than 20 Hz or cycles per second, the \"normal\" limit of human hearing. Hearing becomes gradually less sensitive as frequency decreases, so for humans to perceive infrasound, the sound pressure must be sufficiently high. The ear is the primary organ for sensing infrasound, but at higher intensities it is possible to feel infrasound vibrations in various parts of the body.\nThe study of such sound waves is sometimes referred to as infrasonics, covering sounds beneath 20 Hz down to 0.1 HZ. and rarely to 0.001 HZ. People use this frequency",
"-27.504631109302863"
],
[
"level of sound presented to a human listener. Psychoacoustic analysis reveals that sound pressure level is a less than ideal predictor of human reception of noise, so efforts have been made since the 1960s to apply loudness metrics instead, which can incorporate other factors such as spectral and temporal auditory masking and level-dependent frequency weighting to more accurately track human reception. Integration of individual sounds into an auditory or dose estimate has traditionally followed an extension of Stevens's power law which applies simple power or energy summation such that a sound lasting twice as long is considered of equal impact",
"-27.32310165418312"
],
[
"common than headphone listening.\nIt is possible to change the spatial effects of stereo sound on headphones, to better approximate the presentation of speaker reproduction, by using frequency-dependent cross-feed between the channels.\nHeadsets can have ergonomic benefits over traditional telephone handsets. They allow call center agents to maintain better posture without needing to hand-hold a handset or tilt their head sideways to cradle it. Dangers and risks Using headphones at a sufficiently high volume level may cause temporary or permanent hearing impairment or deafness. The headphone volume often has to compete with the background noise, especially in loud places such as subway",
"-27.28264434344601"
],
[
"Information gathered from the hair cells is sent via the auditory nerve for processing in the brain.\nThe commonly stated range of human hearing is 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Under ideal laboratory conditions, humans can hear sound as low as 12 Hz and as high as 28 kHz, though the threshold increases sharply at 15 kHz in adults, corresponding to the last auditory channel of the cochlea. Humans are most sensitive to (i.e. able to discern at lowest intensity) frequencies between 2,000 and 5,000 Hz. Individual hearing range varies according to the general condition of a human's ears and nervous system. The range shrinks during life,",
"-27.258339235908352"
],
[
"in this frequency range can easily bend around corners by diffraction, the speaker aperture does not have to face the audience, and subwoofers can be mounted in the bottom of the enclosure, facing the floor. This is eased by the limitations of human hearing at low frequencies; such sounds cannot be located in space, due to their large wavelengths compared to higher frequencies which produce differential effects in the ears due to shadowing by the head, and diffraction around it, both of which we rely upon for localization clues.\nTo accurately reproduce very low bass notes without unwanted resonances",
"-27.23132293962408"
],
[
"range). Sounds outside this range are considered infrasound (below 20 Hz) or ultrasound (above 20 kHz) Although hearing requires an intact and functioning auditory portion of the central nervous system as well as a working ear, human deafness (extreme insensitivity to sound) most commonly occurs because of abnormalities of the inner ear, rather than in the nerves or tracts of the central auditory system. Balance Providing balance, when moving or stationary, is also a central function of the ear. The ear facilitates two types of balance: static balance, which allows a person to feel the effects of gravity, and dynamic balance, which",
"-27.175828125094995"
],
[
"in the median plane – that is, to determine whether a sound comes from a source at the same elevation as the ears or from a source that is higher or lower, or even in back of the head. Binaural sound cues, including the phasing or time of the sound's arrival at each ear and the sound's relative intensity at the two ears (known respectively as ITD and ILD) enable a listener to determine a sound's lateral location (whether it is on the left, right, or straight ahead). But two sounds at different elevations can present identical ITD and ILD",
"-27.146380949299783"
],
[
"frequencies through but not other frequencies (Pickles 1982). Damage to the cochlea and the outer hair cells in the cochlea can impair the ability to tell sounds apart (Moore 1986). This explains why someone with a hearing loss due to cochlea damage would have more difficulty than a normal hearing person in distinguishing between different consonants in speech.\nMasking illustrates the limits of frequency selectivity. If a signal is masked by a masker with a different frequency to the signal, then the auditory system was unable to distinguish between the two frequencies. By experimenting with conditions where one",
"-26.992920486963968"
],
[
"velocity, such as sound in air). The wavelength of a sound is the distance between any two consecutive matching points on the waveform. The audible frequency range for young humans is about 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Hearing of higher frequencies decreases with age, limiting to about 16 kHz for adults, and even down to 3 kHz for elders. Anatomy of the ear Given the simple physics of sound, the anatomy and physiology of hearing can be studied in greater detail. Outer ear The Outer ear consists of the pinna or auricle (visible parts including ear lobes and concha), and the auditory meatus",
"-26.98283021512907"
],
[
"2003, ISO 226 was revised as equal-loudness contour using data collected from 12 international studies. Sound localization Sound localization is the process of determining the location of a sound source. The brain utilizes subtle differences in loudness, tone and timing between the two ears to allow us to localize sound sources. Localization can be described in terms of three-dimensional position: the azimuth or horizontal angle, the zenith or vertical angle, and the distance (for static sounds) or velocity (for moving sounds). Humans, as most four-legged animals, are adept at detecting direction in the horizontal, but less so in the vertical",
"-26.941385379584972"
],
[
"precise hearing ability could arise from a small ear structure. Normal animals detect and locate sounds using the interaural time difference (ITD) and the interaural level difference (ILD). The ITD is the difference in the time it takes sound to reach the ear. ILD is the difference in sound intensity measure between both ears. At maximum, the ITD would only reach about 1.5 microseconds and the ILD would be less than one decibel. These small values make it hard to sense the differences. To solve these issues, researchers studied the mechanical aspects of flies’ ears. They found that they have",
"-26.935980346635915"
],
[
"background level of an average home living area) may start to interfere with understanding conversation (about 60db).\nMasking of high frequency tinnitus (>6,000hz) is difficult because of the resonance characteristics of the human ear as well as high frequency limitations of in-ear devices. The ear has a resonance frequency (highest frequency response) at 3,000hz and rolls off at a very steep 26db/octave on the high frequency side. Unfortunately, most tinnitus is associated with hearing loss, and most hearing loss and tinnitus is high frequency. Most maskers are limited to about 6khz of effective output. Higher frequency output",
"-26.73866606685624"
],
[
"usually also expressed in dB(A), although the presence of high levels of low frequency noise does not justify this. Audio reproduction and broadcasting equipment Although the A-weighting curve, in widespread use for noise measurement, is said to have been based on the 40-phon Fletcher-Munson curve, research in the 1960s demonstrated that determinations of equal-loudness made using pure tones are not directly relevant to our perception of noise. This is because the cochlea in our inner ear analyses sounds in terms of spectral content, each 'hair-cell' responding to a narrow band of frequencies known as a critical band. The high-frequency bands",
"-26.716748888633447"
],
[
"they perceive sounds between 3,000 and 4,000 Hz, as shown in the equal-loudness contour. Because the frequency response of human hearing changes with amplitude, three weightings have been established for measuring sound pressure: A, B and C. A-weighting applies to sound pressures levels up to 55 dB, B-weighting applies to sound pressures levels between 55 dB and 85 dB, and C-weighting is for measuring sound pressure levels above 85 dB.\nIn order to distinguish the different sound measures a suffix is used: A-weighted sound pressure level is written either as dBA or LA. B-weighted sound pressure level is written either as dBB",
"-26.709774486720562"
],
[
"person's left ear to the right ear; such a noise coming directly from the front will be easily reduced by an active system but coming from the side will tend to cancel at one ear while being reinforced at the other, making the noise louder, not softer. High frequency sounds above 1000 Hz tend to cancel and reinforce unpredictably from many directions. In some, the most effective noise reduction in three-dimensional space involves low frequency sounds. Commercial applications of 3-D noise reduction include the protection of aircraft cabins and car interiors, but in these situations, protection is mainly limited to the",
"-26.682607856579125"
],
[
"20 kHz) is due to limitations of the middle ear. Auditory sensation can occur if high‐intensity ultrasound is fed directly into the human skull and reaches the cochlea through bone conduction, without passing through the middle ear.\nChildren can hear some high-pitched sounds that older adults cannot hear, because in humans the upper limit pitch of hearing tends to decrease with age. An American cell phone company has used this to create ring signals that supposedly are only audible to younger humans, but many older people can hear the signals, which may be because of the considerable variation of age-related deterioration in",
"-26.6473977312271"
],
[
"to one side of the head will have a higher intensity, or be louder, at the ear nearest the sound source. One can therefore create the illusion of a sound source emanating from one side of the head merely by adjusting the relative level of the sounds that are fed to two separated speakers or headphones. This is the basis of the commonly used pan control.\nInteraural Phase Difference (IPD) refers to the difference in the phase of a wave that reaches each ear, and is dependent on the frequency of the sound wave and the interaural time differences (ITD).\nOnce the",
"-26.62808361137286"
],
[
"The ability to hear frequencies separately is known as frequency resolution or frequency selectivity. When signals are perceived as a combination tone, they are said to reside in the same critical bandwidth. This effect is thought to occur due to filtering within the cochlea, the hearing organ in the inner ear. A complex sound is split into different frequency components and these components cause a peak in the pattern of vibration at a specific place on the cilia inside the basilar membrane within the cochlea. These components are then coded independently on the auditory nerve which transmits sound",
"-26.55494779271976"
],
[
"where it peaks to +12.2 dB at 6.3 kHz, the region in which we appear to be extremely sensitive to noise. While it has been said (incorrectly) that the difference is due to a requirement for assessing noise intrusiveness in the presence of programme material, rather than just loudness, the BBC report makes clear the fact that this was not the basis of the experiments. The real reason for the difference probably relates to the way in which our ears analyse sounds in terms of spectral content along the cochlea. This behaves like a set of closely spaced filters with a",
"-26.550610289428732"
],
[
"They also noted that the precedence effect is an important factor in the perception of stereophonic sound.\nWallach et al. did not systematically vary the intensities of the two sounds, although they cited research by Langmuir et al. which suggested that if the second-arriving sound is at least 15 dB louder than the first, the precedence effect breaks down.\nThe \"Haas effect\" derives from a 1951 paper by Helmut Haas.\nIn 1951 Haas examined how the perception of speech is affected in the presence of a single, coherent sound reflection. To create anechoic conditions, the experiment was carried out on the rooftop of",
"-26.54852481134003"
],
[
"the basis that the latter used headphones. However, the ISO report actually lists the latter as using \"compensated\" headphones, though it doesn't make clear how Robinson-Dadson achieved \"compensation\". Relevance to sound level measurement and noise measurement The A-weighting curve—in widespread use for noise measurement—is said to have been based on the 40-phon Fletcher–Munson curve. However, research in the 1960s demonstrated that determinations of equal-loudness made using pure tones are not directly relevant to our perception of noise. This is because the cochlea in our inner ear analyzes sounds in terms of spectral content, each \"hair-cell\" responding to a narrow band",
"-26.536259660191718"
],
[
"in the brain) is present, the perception of loudness is altered. Sounds at low levels (often perceived by those without hearing loss as relatively quiet) are no longer audible to the hearing impaired, but sounds at high levels often are perceived as having the same loudness as they would for an unimpaired listener. This phenomenon can be explained by two theories, called loudness recruitment and softness imperception.\nLoudness recruitment posits that loudness grows more rapidly for certain listeners than normal listeners with changes in level. This theory has been accepted as the classical explanation.\nSoftness imperception, a term coined by Mary Florentine",
"-26.52516890061088"
],
[
"to mimic ears on humans. In many cases, microphones are separated the same distance as ears are on humans, and microphones are surrounded by ear-shaped cups to get similar reverb as human ears.\nViewing and hearing such ASMR videos that comprise ambient sound captured through binaural recording has been compared to the reported effect of listening to binaural beats, which are also alleged to precipitate pleasurable sensations and the subjective experience of calm and equanimity.\nBinaural recordings are made specifically to be heard through headphones rather than loudspeakers. When listening to sound through loudspeakers, the left and right ear can both hear",
"-26.461144353961572"
],
[
"the sound coming from both speakers. By distinction, when listening to sound through headphones, the sound from the left earpiece is audible only to the left ear, and the sound from the right ear piece is audible only to the right ear. When producing binaural media, the sound source is recorded by two separate microphones, placed at a distance comparable to that between two ears, and they are not mixed, but remain separate on the final medium, whether video or audio.\nListening to a binaural recording through headphones simulates the binaural hearing by which people listen to live sounds. For the",
"-26.41059677011799"
],
[
"3000 or 6000 Hz. The symptoms of NIHL are usually presented equally in both ears.\nThis typical 4000 Hz notch is due to the transfer function of the ear. As does any object facing a sound, the ear acts as a passive filter, although the inner ear is not an absolute passive filter because the outer hair cells provide active mechanisms. A passive filter is a low pass: the high frequencies are more absorbed by the object because high frequencies impose a higher pace of compression-decompression to the object. The high frequency harmonics of a sound are more harmful to the inner-ear.\nHowever, not",
"-26.306108158940333"
],
[
"found that vuvuzelas can have a negative effect when a listener's eardrums are exposed to the instrument's high-intensity sound. The vuvuzelas produce an average sound pressure of 113 dB(A) at two metres (7 ft) from the device opening. The study finds that subjects should not be exposed to more than 15 minutes per day at an intensity of 100 dB(A). The study assumes that if a single vuvuzela emits a sound that is dangerously loud to subjects within a two-metre (7 ft) radius, and numerous vuvuzelas are typically blown together for the duration of a match, it may put spectators at a significant risk",
"-26.232246532439603"
],
[
"to the central auditory system within the brain. This is where sound is perceived. Different groups of hair cells are responsive to different frequencies. Hair cells at or near the base of the cochlea are most sensitive to higher frequency sounds while those at the apex are most sensitive to lower frequency sounds. There are two known biological mechanisms of NIHL from excessive sound intensity: damage to the structures called stereocilia that sit atop hair cells and respond to sound, and damage to the synapses that the auditory nerve makes with hair cells, also termed \"hidden hearing loss\". Hair cell",
"-26.230983800254762"
],
[
"allow fair comparison of different systems they must be made using a measuring instrument that responds in a way that corresponds to how we hear sounds. From this, three requirements follow. Firstly, it is important that frequencies above or below those that can be heard by even the best ears are filtered out and ignored by bandwidth limiting (usually 22 Hz to 22 kHz). Secondly, the measuring instrument should give varying emphasis to different frequency components of the noise in the same way that our ears do, a process referred to as ‘weighting’. Thirdly, the rectifier or detector that is used to",
"-26.223496342194267"
],
[
"two ears and thereby extracting the small differences that can exist in the time of arrival of a wavefront at the two ears, thus localizing the sound. This neurocomputational model that explains how auditory systems can register and analyze small differences in the arrival time of sounds at the two ears in order to estimate the direction of sound sources became known as the Jeffress model.\nThe Jeffress model was used as an accepted explanatory basis for many of the facts of binaural hearing for more than 60 years, and it has repeatedly been shown to be conceptually correct, although not",
"-26.194857804628555"
],
[
"entire frequency range). Speakers with very wide, or rapidly increasing directivity at high frequencies, can give the impression that there is too much treble (if the listener is on axis) or too little (if the listener is off axis). This is part of the reason why on-axis frequency response measurement is not a complete characterization of the sound of a given loudspeaker. Other speaker designs While dynamic cone speakers remain the most popular choice, many other speaker technologies exist. Moving-iron loudspeakers The moving iron speaker was the first type of speaker that was invented. Unlike the newer dynamic (moving coil)",
"-26.178548868338112"
],
[
"So when one hears a sound from the voicing continuum, their brain perceives it by trying to match it with what it would have had to do to produce it. Since the only thing they can produce is /ba/ or /pa/, they will perceive any of the synthetic stimuli along the continuum as either /ba/ or /pa/, whichever it is closer to. A similar CP effect is found with ba/da; these too lie along a continuum acoustically, but vocally, /ba/ is formed with the two lips, /da/ with the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge, and our anatomy",
"-26.152569950761972"
],
[
"relative phases of those frequencies. While the human ear is not as sensitive to the phase of audio frequencies (involving delays of less than 1/30 second), music professionals may favor certain equalizers because of how they affect the timbre of the musical content by way of audible phase artifacts. High-pass and low-pass filters A high-pass filter is a filter, an electronic circuit or device, that passes higher frequencies well but attenuates (cuts or decreases) lower frequency components. A low-pass filter passes low-frequency components of signals while attenuating higher frequencies. Some audiophiles use a low-pass filter in the signal chain before",
"-26.14746138919145"
],
[
"then analyzed further up in the neurological system where the perception of sound takes place.\nThe auditory system also works in tandem with the neural system so that the listener is capable of spatially locating the direction from which a sound source originated. This is known as the Haas or Precedence effect and is possible due to the nature of having two ears, or auditory receptors. The difference in time it takes for a sound to reach both ears provides the necessary information for the brain to calculate the spatial positioning of the source.",
"-26.108711212233175"
],
[
"to which the ear is less sensitive at lower sound pressure levels. Normalization Loudness normalization is a specific type of audio normalization that equalizes perceived level such that, for instance, commercials do not sound louder than television programs. Loudness normalization schemes exist for a number of audio applications. Measurement Historically Sone (loudness N) and Phon (loudness level L) units have been used to measure loudness.\nA-weighting follows human sensitivity to sound and describes relative perceived loudness for at quiet to moderate speech levels, around 40 phons.\nRelative loudness monitoring in production is measured in accordance with ITU-R BS.1770 in units of LKFS.\nWork",
"-26.068669693777338"
],
[
"examines health and nutritional status of adults and children in the United States. While there is no perfect way to pinpoint hearing loss from excessive noise, researchers look for audiometric notches in a hearing test—dips in the ability to hear certain frequencies—as signs of possible NIHL. As of 2011 data, approximately 24% adults age 20-69 in the United States has an audiometric notch. This data identified differences in NIHL based on age, gender, race/ethnicity, and whether or not a person is exposed to noise at work. Among people aged 20–29, 19.2% had an audiometric notch, compared to 27.3% of",
"-26.048856450768653"
],
[
"Although a particular sound is heard similarly by people of different cultures, it is often expressed through the use of different consonant strings in different languages. For example, the snip of a pair of scissors is cri-cri in Italian, riqui-riqui in Spanish, terre-terre or treque-treque in Portuguese, krits-krits in modern Greek, cëk-cëk in Albanian, and katr-katr in Hindi. Similarly, the \"honk\" of a car's horn is ba-ba (Han: 叭叭) in Mandarin, tut-tut in French, pu-pu in Japanese, bbang-bbang in Korean, bært-bært in Norwegian, fom-fom in Portuguese and bim-bim in Vietnamese. Onomatopoeic effect without onomatopoeic words An onomatopoeic effect can also",
"-26.03566456818953"
],
[
"half of the ECC88, 250 Ω for an E188CC (both have gₘ = 12.5 mA/V) and as low as 65 Ω for a tride-connected D3a (gₘ = 40 mA/V).\nIn the audio frequency range (below 1–100 kHz), \"1/f\" noise becomes dominant, which rises like 1/f. (This is the reason for the relatively high noise resistamnce of the EF86 in the above example.) Thus, tubes with low noise at high frequency do not necessarily have low noise in the audio frequency range. For special low noise audio tubes, the frequency at which 1/f noise takes over is reduced as far as possible, maybe",
"-26.018527226056904"
],
[
"recommends that people who are regularly exposed to hazardous noise have their hearing tested once a year, or every three years otherwise. Measurement Audiograms are produced using a piece of test equipment called an audiometer, and this allows different frequencies to be presented to the subject, usually over calibrated headphones, at any specified level. The levels are, however, not absolute, but weighted with frequency relative to a standard graph known as the minimum audibility curve which is intended to represent a 'normal' hearing. This is not the best threshold found for all subjects, under ideal test conditions, which is",
"-25.99212225334486"
],
[
"the lateral and medial ridges of the cochlear duct, which together with the tectorial membrane make up the organ of Corti. Function Neurons within the ear respond to simple tones, and the brain serves to process other increasingly complex sounds. An average adult is typically able to detect sounds ranging between 20 and 20,000 Hz. The ability to detect higher pitch sounds decreases in older humans.\nThe human ear has evolved with two basic tools to encode sound waves; each are separate in detecting high and low frequency sounds. Georg von Békésy (1899-1972) employed the use of a microscope in order to",
"-25.980533739508246"
],
[
"volley theory, at frequencies below 1000 Hz and place theory at frequencies above 5000 Hz. For sounds with frequencies between 1000 and 5000 Hz, both theories come into play so the brain can utilize the basilar membrane location and the rate of the impulse. Experimental evidence Due to the invasiveness of most hearing related experiments, it is difficult to use human models in the study of the auditory system. However, many findings have been revealed in cats and guinea pigs. Additionally, there are few ways to study the basilar membrane in vivo. Sound Stimuli Many revolutionary concepts regarding hearing and encoding sound in",
"-25.873998941970058"
],
[
"usually positioned at ±30° with respect to the listener, thereby including 60°, only 1/6 of the horizontal circle, with the listener at the center. Human hearing can locate sound from directions not only in a 360° circle, but a full sphere.\nAmbiophonics eliminates speaker crosstalk and its deleterious effects. Using ambiophonics, auditory images can extend in theory all the way to the sides, at ±90° left and right and including the front hemi-circle of 180°, depending on listening acoustics and to what degree the recording has captured the interaural level differences (ILD) and the interaural time differences (ITD) that characterize two-eared",
"-25.869242359069176"
],
[
"depending on the type of sound. The measured curves for pure tones, for instance, are different from those for random noise. The ear also responds less well to short bursts, below 100 to 200 ms, than to continuous sounds such that a quasi-peak detector has been found to give the most representative results when noise contains click or bursts, as is often the case for noise in digital systems. For these reasons, a set of subjectively valid measurement techniques have been devised and incorporated into BS, IEC, EBU and ITU standards. These methods of audio quality measurement are used by",
"-25.796370717696846"
],
[
"more than double the maximum frequency of the human hearing range and cannot be heard without the assistance of a bat detector.",
"-25.75920992344618"
],
[
"stations, aircraft, and large crowds. Extended periods of exposure to high sound pressure levels created by headphones at high volume settings may be damaging to hearing; Nearly 50% of teenagers and young adults (12 to 35 years old) in middle and high income countries listen to unsafe levels of sound on their personal audio devices and smartphones. however, one hearing expert found in 2012 (before the worldwide adoption of smartphones as the main personal listening devices) that \"fewer than 5% of users select volume levels and listen frequently enough to risk hearing loss.\" The International Telecommunication Union recently published \"Guidelines",
"-25.74771328899078"
],
[
"to the nearest object and relays it to an Arduino board. The Arduino board then processes the measurements and then plays a tone (150–15000 Hz) for the respective distance (2 cm to 4 m) till the data from the next ultrasonic pulse (distance) comes in. This cycle is repeated almost every 5 milliseconds. The person hears sound that changes according to the distance to the nearest object. The head provides a 195-degree swivel angle and the ultrasonic sensor detects anything within a 15-degree angle. Using systematic, cognitive and computational approach of neuroscience, with the hypothesis that the usage of the occipital lobe",
"-25.674345467996318"
],
[
"same phoneme if on the same side of the boundary. Participants take longer to discriminate between two sounds falling in the same category of VOT than between two on opposite sides of the phoneme boundary, even if the difference in VOT is greater between the two in the same category. Identification In a categorical perception identification task, participants often must identify stimuli, such as speech sounds. An experimenter testing the perception of the VOT boundary between /p/ and /b/ may play several sounds falling on various parts of the VOT continuum and ask volunteers whether they hear",
"-25.65011898044031"
],
[
"listening to a group of children at a school playground.\nThe multiple sounds odontocetes make are produced by passing air through a structure in the head called the phonic lips. The structure is analogous to the human nasal cavity, but the phonic lips act similarly to human vocal cords, which in humans are located in the larynx. As the air passes through this narrow passage, the phonic lip membranes are sucked together, causing the surrounding tissue to vibrate. These vibrations can, as with the vibrations in the human larynx, be consciously controlled with great sensitivity. The vibrations pass through the tissue",
"-25.618049309996422"
],
[
"environment, but also the fact that both the ear and the brain are involved in a person’s listening experience.\nThe inner ear, for example, does significant signal processing in converting sound waveforms into neural stimuli, so certain differences between waveforms may be imperceptible. Data compression techniques, such as MP3, make use of this fact. In addition, the ear has a nonlinear response to sounds of different intensity levels; this nonlinear response is called loudness. Telephone networks and audio noise reduction systems make use of this fact by nonlinearly compressing data samples before transmission, and then expanding them for playback.",
"-25.604976736096432"
],
[
"language perceive sounds that are acoustically different as the same, if the sound comes from the underlying phoneme and does not contribute to changes in semantic meaning. Furthermore, speakers of languages are attentive to sounds, particularly if the same two sounds come from different phonemes. Such differentiation is an example of how various observational frames of reference leads to different patterns of attention and perception.\nWhorf was also influenced by gestalt psychology, believing that languages require their speakers to describe the same events as different gestalt constructions, which he called \"isolates from experience\". An example is how the action of cleaning",
"-25.602034330833703"
],
[
"sound with a missing fundamental, the human brain still receives information for all frequencies, including the fundamental frequency which does not exist in the sound. This implies that sound is encoded by neurons firing at all frequencies of a harmonic, therefore, the neurons must be locked in some way to result in the hearing of one sound. Hearing loss and deafness Congenital deafness or sensorineural hearing loss is an often used model for the study of the inner ear regarding pitch perception and theories of hearing in general. Frequency analysis of these individuals’ hearing has given insight on common deviations",
"-25.599493440269725"
],
[
"of humans (the cochlea) into narrow frequency bands. The resulting signals convey information at different time scales to more central auditory structures. A dichotomy between slow \"temporal envelope\" cues and faster \"temporal fine structure\" (TFS) cues has been proposed to explore several aspects of auditory perception including speech intelligibility in quiet or against competing sound sources.\nStarting from the late nineties, Lorenzi conducted a research program on auditory perception combining signal processing, psychophysical, electrophysiological and computational methods based on this envelope/TFS dichotomy. He examined the role of these two cues in sound discrimination and identification and auditory scene analysis, how these",
"-25.58851477090502"
],
[
"usually beginning at around age of eight with the upper frequency limit being reduced. Women typically experience a lesser degree of hearing loss than men, with a later onset. Men have approximately 5 to 10 dB greater loss in the upper frequencies by age 40.\nAudiograms of human hearing are produced using an audiometer, which presents different frequencies to the subject, usually over calibrated headphones, at specified levels. The levels are weighted with frequency relative to a standard graph known as the minimum audibility curve, which is intended to represent \"normal\" hearing. The threshold of hearing is set at around 0 phon on",
"-25.523162024095654"
],
[
"Hearing range Hearing range describes the range of frequencies that can be heard by humans or other animals, though it can also refer to the range of levels. The human range is commonly \ngiven as 20 to 20,000 Hz, although there is considerable variation between individuals, especially at high frequencies, and a gradual loss of sensitivity to higher frequencies with age is considered normal. Sensitivity also varies with frequency, as shown by equal-loudness contours. Routine investigation for hearing loss usually involves an audiogram which shows threshold levels relative to a normal.\nSeveral animal species are able to hear frequencies well beyond",
"-25.50465613551205"
],
[
"decreasing frequency. This compression is observable in the equal-loudness-level contours, and it implies that even a slight increase in level can change the perceived loudness from barely audible to loud. Combined with the natural spread in thresholds within a population, its effect may be that a very low-frequency sound which is inaudible to some people may be loud to others.\nOne study has suggested that infrasound may cause feelings of awe or fear in humans. It has also been suggested that since it is not consciously perceived, it may make people feel vaguely that odd or supernatural events are taking place.\nA",
"-25.49532110497239"
],
[
"noise is approximately 40 dB, a factor of 100 less than a typical EGG signal from an adult voice.\nIn addition, by using multiple channels simultaneously, the technique can be made easier to use and more reliable by giving the user an indication of the correct positioning of the electrodes, and providing a quantitative measure of vertical movements of the larynx during voice production.\nElectroglottograph signals have also been used in stroboscope synchronization, voice fundamental frequency tracking, tracking vocal fold abductory movements and the study of the singing voice.\nElectroglottographic wavegrams are a new technique for displaying and analyzing EGG signals. This technique provides",
"-25.483279503299855"
],
[
"G0, regardless of the number of valves. A talented musician may be able to play lower than G0 utilizing the pedal range of the bugle, but these notes would be felt more than heard due to the limitations of the human ear.",
"-25.458000697864918"
],
[
"the SOC approximately 0.2 ms following the initial cochlear excitation. This ~0.2 second time measurement is important for comparing the contralateral (opposite side) and ipsilateral (same side) stimulation necessary in sound localization in the horizontal plane, and is key in distinguishing the location of low frequency sounds. Structure For every principal neuron there is one calyx, and for most GBC axons there is only a single calyx, although there are exceptions to this pairing. This in general creates a one-to-one ratio between GBCs, the calyces of Held, and the principal neurons. The calyx of Held encompasses the principal neuron with",
"-25.448617689828666"
],
[
"usually have a smaller than normal dynamic range between the level of the weakest detectable sound and the level at which sounds become uncomfortably loud. To compress the large range of sound levels encountered in everyday life into the small dynamic range of the hearing-impaired person, hearing aids apply amplitude compression, which is also called automatic gain control (AGC). The basic principle of such compression is that the amount of amplification applied to the incoming sound progressively decreases as the input level increases. Usually, the sound is split into several frequency “channels”, and AGC is applied independently in each channel.",
"-25.446292478148052"
],
[
"field experience have shown a very good correlation with occupational deafness in the frequency range of human speech. It is also used when measuring low-level noise in audio equipment, especially in the United States. In Britain, Europe and many other parts of the world, broadcasters and audio engineers more often use the ITU-R 468 noise weighting, which was developed in the 1960s based on research by the BBC and other organizations. This research showed that our ears respond differently to random noise, and the equal-loudness curves on which the A, B and C weightings were based are really only",
"-25.438211739092367"
],
[
"range, and is particularly important should you wish to record sounds that are quiet. The measure is often stated in dB(A), which is the equivalent loudness of the noise on a decibel scale frequency-weighted for how the ear hears, for example: \"15 dBA SPL\" (SPL means sound pressure level relative to 20 micropascals). The lower the number the better. Some microphone manufacturers state the noise level using ITU-R 468 noise weighting, which more accurately represents the way we hear noise, but gives a figure some 11–14 dB higher. A quiet microphone typically measures 20 dBA SPL or 32 dB SPL 468-weighted. Very quiet microphones have",
"-25.437916730355937"
],
[
"usage 20 Hz is considered the normal low-frequency limit of human hearing. When pure sine waves are reproduced under ideal conditions and at very high decibels, a human listener will be able to identify tones as low as 12 Hz (G–1). Audio tracks known as bass tests use sub-bass frequencies which are used to test or to demonstrate the capabilities of audio equipment. High-end subwoofers can accurately reproduce sound to about 18 Hz ±2 dB.\nSub-bass energy is popular in dance music, where the low frequencies involve energy from the kick drum (bass drum), the bass guitar and electronic synthesizers and drum machines. Particular genres",
"-25.42217225593049"
],
[
"in a crowd of people. A person might also frequently ask others to speak more slowly, clearly and loudly. They might also withdraw from conversations or avoid some social settings because everything sounds muffled, even when there are loud noises. Sensorineural Deafness indicates that the patient has difficulty hearing not due to environmental factors, but through genetic mutation in the KCNJ10 gene. This gene affects the potassium channel count and their productivity in several parts of the body.\nSince the main mutation for EAST syndrome is in the KCNJ10 gene, it affects the potassium channels found in the inner ear cells.",
"-25.405779969587456"
],
[
"affecting clarity of speech. NIHL can affect either one or both ears. Unilateral hearing loss causes problems with directional hearing, affecting the ability to localize sound. Tinnitus Tinnitus is described as hearing a sound when an external sound is not present. Noise-induced hearing loss can cause high-pitched tinnitus. An estimated 50 million Americans have some degree of tinnitus in one or both ears; 16 million of them have symptoms serious enough for them to see a doctor or hearing specialist. As many as 2 million become so debilitated by the unrelenting ringing, hissing, chirping, clicking, whooshing or screeching, that they",
"-25.386189260607352"
],
[
"the highest audio frequency the headphone could reproduce.\nSquegging is an oscillation that builds up and dies down with a much longer time constant than the fundamental frequency of the oscillation. A self-quenching oscillator circuit oscillates at two or more frequencies at the same time. Unwanted squegging In an audio amplifier, all forms of oscillation are generally unwanted. Poor design and layout can sometimes lead to squegging in such an amplifier. As always, this arises from a combination of high and low frequency oscillations. Poor layout or poor shielding leads to high-frequency oscillations where the output has",
"-25.326370730646886"
],
[
"synaptic level from brain stem to cortex. These cells are predominantly excited by stimulation of one ear and predominantly inhibited by stimulation of the other ear, such that the magnitude of their response is determined in large part by the intensities at the 2 ears. This gives rise to the concept of resonant damping. Interaural level difference (ILD) is best for high frequency sounds because low frequency sounds are not attenuated much by the head. ILD (also known as Interaural Intensity Difference) arises when the sound source is not centred, the listener's head partially shadows the ear opposite to the",
"-25.32435904745944"
],
[
"Therefore, people with hearing loss may find softer sounds more intrusive when fitted with hearing aids that simply amplify all soft sounds to threshold. Binaural Loudness Summation Florentine's most recent work has been on binaural loudness summation, and her research with Michael J. Epstein has indicated that, in more ecologically valid experiments, the binaural loudness summation ratio is found to be significantly lower than previously thought.",
"-25.322331960720476"
],
[
"source, diminishing the intensity of the sound in that ear (particularly at higher frequencies). The pinnae filters the sound in a way that is directionally dependent. This is particularly useful in determining if a sound comes from above, below, in front, or behind.\nInteraural time and level differences (ITD, ILD) play a role in azimuth perception but can’t explain vertical localization.\nAccording to the duplex theory, ITDs have a greater contribution to the localisation of low frequency sounds (below 1 kHz),while ILDs are used in the localisation of high frequency sound.\nThe ILD arises from the fact that,a sound coming from a source located",
"-25.31320692668669"
],
[
"signals of Quad LPs popular in the 1970s were at 30 kHz to be out of the range of human hearing. The average human auditory system is sensitive to frequencies from 20 Hz to a maximum of around 20,000 Hz. The upper and lower frequency limits of human hearing vary per person. High frequency sensitivity decreases as a person ages, a process called presbycusis. By contrast, hearing damage from loud noise exposure typically makes it more difficult to hear lower frequencies, such as three kHz through six kHz. Production For the first several decades of disc record manufacturing, sound was recorded directly on",
"-25.27682665013708"
],
[
"at the ears are not the stereo microphone signals which are coming from the loudspeakers, and are called \"interchannel\" signals (Δ L and Δ t). These signals are normally not mixed. Loudspeaker signals are different from the sound arriving at the ear. See the article \"Binaural recording for earphones\". X-Y technique: intensity stereophony Here there are two directional microphones at the same place, and typically placed at 90° or more to each other. A stereo effect is achieved through differences in sound pressure level between two microphones. Due to the lack of differences in time-of-arrival and phase ambiguities, the sonic characteristic of",
"-25.268795366871927"
],
[
"Phonemic contrast Phonemes and allophones Different phonetic realizations of the same phoneme are called allophones. Specific allophonic variations, and the particular correspondences between allophones (realizations of speech sound) and phonemes (underlying perceptions of speech sound) can vary even within languages. For example, speakers of Quebec French often express voiceless alveolar stops (/t/) as an affricate. An affricate is a stop followed by a fricative and in this case sounds like the English 'ch' sound. While this is an allophone of a single phoneme to speakers of Quebec French, to speakers of Belgian French this is heard as a stop followed",
"-25.2313671966549"
],
[
"I didn't say 'fis,' I said 'fis'.\" In some cases, the sounds produced by the child are actually acoustically different, but not significantly enough for others to distinguish – because those sounds are not phonemically unique to speakers of the language.\nThough phonemic disorders are often considered language disorders in that it is the language system that is affected, they are also speech sound disorders in that the errors relate to use of phonemes. This makes them different from specific language impairment, which is primarily a disorder of the syntax (grammar) and usage of language rather than the sound system. However,",
"-25.223000813974068"
]
] |
3dko68 | why is pee only yellow or clear? | [
"[Here's the Cleveland Clinic's guide to pee]( URL_0 ). Lots of colorful information in there.",
"My pee was black one time. Like coffee straight out the pot. I had to go to the hospital because my feces was light grey as well. Turns out my gall bladder was killing my pancreas and I wasn't getting any bile in my intestines.",
"It's not only yellow or clear. It can be [brown]( URL_1 ) if you're super dehydrate or have something like rhabdo, liver failure, or kidney failure. It can also be red if you're suffering from [hematuria]( URL_0 ). I've heard stories of people consuming mass quantities of food dye and urinating other colors but I wouldn't advise it. You can also take certain supplements (B12) and make your urine neon yellow/green. Be happy you only pee yellow or clear.",
"Heme (makes up blood) is broken down and urobilin, yellow in color, results that is then excreted as waste from the body. The more hydrated you are, the more dilute this chemical is in your urine.",
"To many of those sonic the hedgehog popsicles they used to sell in ice cream trucks and it will be blue.",
"Silly side question. Can taking excess vitamins cause your pee to change colour? When I take my morning vitamins I always get bright yellow colour pee, I have just assumed that its excess water soulable vitamins being removed.",
"You can pee blue if you take some methylene blue. It is sometimes used by chemists to prank each other."
] | [
[
"medication, porphyria, intra-abdominal bleeding, vaginal bleeding, neoplasm located in either bladder or kidneys pathways.\nIf urine looks dark yellow or similar to orange color, the causative factors might be recent uses of vitamin B-containing nutrient supplement, carotene, phenazopyridine, rifampin, warfarin and laxative.\nThe causation or contributing factors of the urine color change to green or blue are those artificial colors seen in foods and drugs, or bilirubin medicines such as methylene blue, and urinary tract infections. Diagnosis Doctor may prescribe some tests to help get the full picture of the situation, such as blood tests, liver function tests, ultrasound for kidneys and",
"-35.29395533041679"
],
[
"Abnormal urine color Cause Infection, disease, medicines, or food can all affect urine color temporarily. For instance, cloudy or milky urine usually accompanied by bad smell possibly indicates urinary tract infection, excessive discharge of crystals, fat, white blood cells, red blood cells, or mucus.\nDark urine that looks brown but clear might be a warning sign of a serious liver disease like hepatitis or cirrhosis. In which, an excess of bilirubin being discharged through urine.\nIn case the urine looks in pink, red, or lighter brown is generally caused by beets, blackberries, certain food colorings, hemolytic anemia, renal impairment, urinary tract infection,",
"-34.40807379761827"
],
[
"excreted in the urine where it is converted to an oxidized form, urobilin, which gives urine its characteristic yellow color. Drugs Enterohepatic circulation also means that some molecules which would not otherwise be very toxic can become so because of this recycling process. Pharmacokinetic Models of enterohepatic circulation Pharmacokinetic models of the enterohepatic circulation process has been summarized in a recent article.",
"-34.28235916653648"
],
[
"Urine-indicator dye Urine-indicator dye is a substance which is supposed to be able to react with urine to form a coloured cloud in a swimming pool or hot tub, thus indicating the location of people who are urinating while they are in the water. A 2015 report from the National Swimming Pool Foundation called this \"the most common pool myth of all time\", with nearly half of Americans surveyed by researchers believing that the dye existed.\nUrine is difficult to detect as many of the naturally occurring compounds within urine are unstable and react freely with common disinfectants like chlorine, creating",
"-33.20419170112291"
],
[
"urine, typically to a dark orange to reddish color. This effect is common and harmless, and indeed a key indicator of the presence of the medication in the body. Users of phenazopyridine are warned not to wear contact lenses, as phenazopyridine has been known to permanently discolor contact lenses and fabrics. Some may be mistakenly concerned that this indicated blood in the urine.\nPhenazopyridine can also cause headaches, upset stomach (especially when not taken with food), or dizziness. Less frequently it can cause a pigment change in the skin or eyes, to a noticeable yellowish color. This is due to a",
"-32.435437109699706"
],
[
"Uroerythrin Urinary pigments Pigments excreted in urine are partially absorbed by urate sediments ( sedimentum latrerium ), which consists of cell debris and sedimented urinary components formed when the acidified urine is stored below room temperature. These urate sediments looks reddish or pink due to the presence of a main pigment first introduced by Simons in 1842 as uroerythrin, Clinical significance From early clinical observations it is known that uroerytrhin is present in every urine and increased amounts are observed in pathological states, e.g. metabolic disorders with high fever or tissue degradation. Chemical structure The chemical structure of most of",
"-32.19849364180118"
],
[
"urine with ferric chloride. The excess phenylpyruvic acid in the urine of an individual with PKU would produce a bright green colour when reacting with the ferric chloride. Infants do not excrete high enough concentrations of this compound to give a positive test result, thus delaying their diagnosis, and allowing irreversible damage to take place. Guthrie's disabled son had driven his interest in causes of mental retardation, the diagnosis of his niece with PKU turned his attention to preventable causes. Others working with children who had PKU asked Guthrie to focus on a test that would",
"-31.760817197704455"
],
[
"sodium is contained in the tablets sold in Australia and New Zealand.\nBerocca causes urine to turn deep yellow in colour – this is due to the excess vitamin B₂ (also known as Riboflavin, with \"flavus\" meaning \"yellow\" in Latin) being passed via urine.\nBerocca's effervescent tablets contain small quantities of aspartame (phenylalanine). Marketing Berocca ran a series of television commercials in Australia and New Zealand throughout the 1980s and 1990s, using the slogan \"B-B-B-Berocca gives you back your B-B-Bounce\".\nA recent marketing campaign in Australia for Berocca Performance with the slogan \"Release the inner geek\" targets high school students studying for exams.\nIn",
"-31.5309644829249"
],
[
"urine is performed when a urinary tract infection is suspected, as bacteria in the urine are unusual otherwise. A microscopic examination of the urine may be helpful to identify organic or inorganic substrates and help in the diagnosis.\nThe color and volume of urine can be reliable indicators of hydration level. Clear and copious urine is generally a sign of adequate hydration. Dark urine is a sign of dehydration. The exception occurs when diuretics are consumed, in which case urine can be clear and copious and the person still be dehydrated. Source of medications Urine contains proteins and other substances that",
"-31.101264993136283"
],
[
"from the appearance of “healthy” urine, the more likely it is to be diseased and the worse the disease becomes.\nIn Aphorism works, it was noted that urine lacking color could indicate diseases of the brain – some today think that this author who made this statement was meaning to refer to chronic renal failure or even diabetes. It was also suggested that the appearance of blood within urine could indicate vessels of the kidney to have burst, potentially due to necrosis of blood arteries or vessels. Furthermore, doctors noted that if bubbles formed on top of urine, the kidneys were",
"-30.937247760419268"
],
[
"Purple urine bag syndrome Purple urine bag syndrome, or PUBS is a medical syndrome where purple discoloration of urine occurs in people with urinary catheters and co-existent urinary tract infection. Bacteria in the urine produce the enzyme indoxyl phosphatase. This converts indoxyl sulfate in the urine into the red and blue colored compounds indirubin and indigo. The most commonly implicated bacteria are Providencia stuartii, Providencia rettgeri, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Escherichia coli, Morganella morganii, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Signs and symptoms People with purple urine bag syndrome usually do not complain of any symptoms. Purple discoloration of urine bag is often",
"-30.684888186631724"
],
[
"from santonin is due to respiratory paralysis, and post-mortem examination revealed in one instance a contracted and empty right ventricle, and about an ounce of liquid, black blood in the left heart, an inflamed duodenum, and inflamed patches in the stomach (Kilner).\n. . .\nSantonin often produces a singular effect upon the vision, causing surrounding objects to appear discolored, as if they were yellow or green, and occasionally blue or red; it also imparts a yellow or green color to the urine, and a reddish-purple color if that fluid be alkaline. Prof. Giovanni was led to believe that the apparent yellow",
"-30.34152417141013"
],
[
"the color and other attributes of urine as indicators of certain diseases. Abdul Malik Ibn Habib of Andalusia d.862 AD, mentions numerous reports of urine examination throughout the Umayyad empire. Diabetes mellitus got its name because the urine is plentiful and sweet. The name uroscopy refers to any visual examination of the urine, including microscopy, although it often refers to the aforementioned prescientific or protoscientific forms of urine examination. Clinical urine tests today duly note the gross color, turbidity, and odor of urine but also include urinalysis, which chemically analyzes the urine and quantifies its constituents. A culture of the",
"-29.925047772499966"
],
[
"by the passage of fresh red blood rectally, especially in the absence of bloody vomiting. Isolated melena may originate from anywhere between the stomach and the proximal colon. Other A number of foods and medications can turn the stool either red or black. Bismuth found in many antacids may turn stools black as may activated charcoal. Blood from the vagina or urinary tract may also be confused with blood in the stool. Diagnostic approach Diagnosis is often based on direct observation of blood in the stool or vomit. Although fecal occult blood testing has been used in an emergency",
"-29.83419850298378"
],
[
"Splay (physiology) In physiology, splay is the difference between urine threshold (the amount of a substance required in the kidneys before it appears in the urine) and saturation, or TM, where saturation is the exhausted supply of renal reabsorption carriers. In simpler terms, splay is the concentration difference between a substance's maximum renal reabsorption vs. appearance in the urine. Splay is usually used in reference to glucose; other substances, such as phosphate, have virtually no splay at all. Splay appears to occur because kidney nephrons do not have the same tubular maximum for glucose (TmG) therefore some nephrons may excrete",
"-29.810675926681142"
],
[
"to improve the color and flavor of tomato paste, sauces, desserts, jams and jellies, ice cream, candy, and breakfast cereals, among other applications.\nThe chemical adipic acid rarely occurs in nature, but happens to occur naturally in beetroot. Safety The red colour compound betanin is not broken down in the body, and in higher concentrations may temporarily cause urine or stools to assume a reddish colour, in the case of urine a condition called beeturia. Although harmless, this effect may cause initial concern due to the visual similarity to what appears to be blood in the stool, hematochezia (blood passing through",
"-29.800269055413082"
],
[
"diet and health. Normally it is semisolid, with a mucus coating. A combination of bile and bilirubin, which comes from dead red blood cells, gives feces the typical brown color.\nAfter the meconium, the first stool expelled, a newborn's feces contain only bile, which gives it a yellow-green color. Breast feeding babies expel soft, pale yellowish, and not quite malodorous matter; but once the baby begins to eat, and the body starts expelling bilirubin from dead red blood cells, its matter acquires the familiar brown color.\nAt different times in their life, human beings will expel feces of different colors and textures.",
"-29.648096630175132"
],
[
"substance which is red-coloured. The secretion is sometimes referred to as \"blood sweat\", but is neither blood nor sweat. This secretion is initially colourless and turns red-orange within minutes, eventually becoming brown. Two distinct pigments have been identified in the secretions, one red (hipposudoric acid) and one orange (norhipposudoric acid). The two pigments are highly acidic compounds. They inhibit the growth of disease-causing bacteria, and their light absorption peaks in the ultraviolet range, creating a sunscreen effect. All hippos, even those with different diets, secrete the pigments, so it does not appear that food is the source of the pigments.",
"-29.572785647376804"
],
[
"number of different secretions are associated with the vulva, including urine (from the urethral opening), sweat (from the apocrine glands), menses (leaving from the vagina), sebum (from the sebaceous glands), alkaline fluid (from the Bartholin's glands), mucus (from the Skene's glands), vaginal lubrication from the vaginal wall and smegma. Smegma is a white substance formed from a combination of dead cells, skin oils, moisture and naturally occurring bacteria, that forms in the genitalia. In females this thickened secretion collects around the clitoris and labial folds. It can cause discomfort during sexual activity as it can cause the clitoral glans to",
"-29.571940404362977"
],
[
"particles and destroy the bubbles and dilute the deposits and confuse the situation,” (The Late Greco-Roman and Byzantine Contribution to the Evolution of Laboratory Examinations of Bodily Excrement. Part1: Urine, Sperm, Menses and Stools, Pavlos C. Goudas). Lighting Since identifying the color of the urine is essential for a proper diagnosis, the lighting is crucial. This is a very complicated step in the uroscopy test. The doctor must not visually examine the urine in an overly lit location, because it will make the urine seem too bright. He can not examine the urine in a poorly lit location, because he",
"-29.40921752763097"
],
[
"inch of microfoam, creating a meniscus. Key to the beverage is the crema being coaxed into the meniscus resulting in a uniform dark brown colour across the top of the beverage. Allowing the beverage to stand before drinking enhances the experience as the meniscus thickens and adds texture to each sip, resulting in distinct sip rings/tide marks as the beverage is consumed.\nAccording to a survey of industry commentators, a flat white has several defining characteristics, chief among which is a thin layer of velvety microfoam (hence the ‘flat’ in flat white), as opposed to the significantly thicker layer of foam",
"-29.393082601833157"
],
[
"and progesterone. The discharge is usually white or slightly gray, and may have a musty smell. The normal discharge of pregnancy does not contain blood or cause itching. The pH of the vaginal discharge in pregnancy tends to be more acidic than normal due to increased production of lactic acid. This acidic environment helps to provide protection from many infections, though conversely it also makes women more susceptible to vaginal yeast infections. Menopause With the drop in estrogen levels that comes with menopause, the vagina returns to a state similar to pre-puberty. Specifically, the vaginal tissues thin, become less elastic;",
"-29.358201229348197"
],
[
"Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria Signs and symptoms The classic sign of PNH is red discoloration of the urine due to the presence of hemoglobin and hemosiderin from the breakdown of red blood cells. As the urine is more concentrated in the morning, this is when the color is most pronounced. This phenomenon mainly occurs in those who have the primary form of PNH, who will notice this at some point in their disease course. The remainder mainly experience the symptoms of anemia, such as tiredness, shortness of breath, and palpitations.\nA small proportion of patients report attacks of abdominal pain, difficulty",
"-29.308571733316057"
],
[
"Beeturia Beeturia is the passing of red or pink urine after eating beetroots or foods colored with beetroot extract or beetroot pigments. The color is caused by the excretion of betalain (betacyanin) pigments such as betanin. The coloring is highly variable between individuals and between different occasions, and can vary in intensity from invisible to strong. The pigment is sensitive to oxidative degradation under strongly acidic conditions. Therefore, the urine coloring depends on stomach acidity and dwell time as well as the presence of protecting substances such as oxalic acid. Beeturia is often associated with red or pink feces. Cause",
"-29.20906516845571"
],
[
"chemicals in urine by microscopic examination of the appearance of crystals in it. He shows how the appearance of crystals of the same chemical can vary greatly under differing conditions, and especially how the appearance changes with disease. Urinary Deposits became a standard text on the subject; there were five editions between 1844 and 1857. In the fourth edition Bird added a recommendation to wash out the bladder in cases of alkaline urine, after an experiment by Snow showed that stale urine became alkaline when fresh urine was slowly dripped into it. Bird knew that alkaline",
"-29.133415085147135"
],
[
"result in a colour change to greyish-green, aniline causes a lavender to reddish-brown colour, and phenol a purplish pink to reddish brown. On the cap cuticle, nitric acid causes an orange-salmon colour, sulphuric acid creates orange-red, ammonia usually makes brown, and a potassium hydroxide solution usually makes orange. Similar species Italian cook and author Antonio Carluccio reports this is one of the most common fungi brought to him to identify, having been mistaken for an edible species. Young specimens can be confused with many edible boletes, though as the pores become more pink the species becomes easier to identify. Some",
"-29.08100106303027"
],
[
"red colour while providing Vitamin E, folic acid, vitamin K and in a lesser extent Vitamin B. Among the minerals, the paprika Tap de Cortí supplies calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and potassium. It also has a wealth of non-nutrient compounds, such as the polyphenols, which give it strong antioxidant power, and lycopene (which is also found in tomatoes), with strong anticancer action.\nIn addition, Capsiate Capsicum extract is obtained from Tap de Cortí, which contains spicy substances (capsinoids), with the ability to increase the metabolism, thus increasing energy consumption and diminishing accumulation of fat in the body. Conservation and care To get",
"-28.932562758171116"
],
[
"cerebrospinal fluid. Since the substance itself is red, this high distribution is the reason for the orange-red color of the saliva, tears, sweat, urine, and feces. About 60% to 90% of the drug is bound to plasma proteins. Use in biotechnology Rifampicin inhibits bacterial RNA polymerase, thus it is commonly used to inhibit the synthesis of host bacterial proteins during recombinant protein expression in bacteria. RNA encoding for the recombinant gene is usually transcribed from DNA by a viral T7 RNA polymerase, which is not affected by rifampicin. History In 1957, a soil sample from a pine forest on the",
"-28.86130027938634"
],
[
"I believe, to their chemical individuality different human beings differ widely in their liability to individual maladies, and to some extent in the signs and symptoms which they exhibit”.\nAlkaptonuria is a rare familial disease of organic acid metabolism that is best known for the darkening of urine from yellow to brown to black after it is exposed to the air. In later life, individuals with this disease develop arthritis characterized by deposition of brown pigment in joint cartilage and connective tissue. Garrod studied the recurrence patterns in several families, realized it followed an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance, and postulated",
"-28.763384736390435"
],
[
"(notably Mountain Dew), energy and sports drinks, and pastries. It is also widely used in liquid and bar soap, shampoo, cosmetics and medicines. Sometimes it is mixed with blue dyes to color processed products green.\nIt is typically labelled on food packages as \"color\", \"tartrazine\", or \"E102\". In the United States, because of concerns about possible health problems related to intolerance to tartrazine, its presence must be declared on food and drug product labels.\nAnother popular synthetic yellow coloring is Sunset Yellow FCF (also known as 'orange yellow S, FD&C yellow 6 and C.I. 15985) It is manufactured from aromatic hydrocarbons from",
"-28.64724696714802"
],
[
"color changes associated with the oxidation of diphenylamine.\nIn a related application, diphenylamine is oxidized by nitrate to give a similar blue coloration in the diphenylamine test for nitrates. Dyes Several azo dyes including Metanil Yellow, Disperse Orange 1, and Acid orange 5 are derivatives of diphenylamine. Toxicity In animal experiments diphenylamine was rapidly and completely absorbed after ingestion by mouth. It underwent metabolism to sulphonyl and glucuronyl conjugates and was rapidly excreted mainly via urine. Acute oral and dermal toxicity were low. Diphenylamine can cause severe irritation to the eyes. It was not a skin irritant, and it has not",
"-28.592309882631525"
],
[
"as it ages.\nyellowing also occurs due to the acidic sizing Bleaching of recycled pulp Hydrogen peroxide and sodium dithionite are used to increase the brightness of deinked pulp. The bleaching methods are similar for mechanical pulp in which the goal is to make the fibers brighter. Extraction or washing All bleaching agents used to delignify chemical pulp, with the exception of sodium dithionite, break lignin down into smaller, oxygen-containing molecules. These breakdown products are generally soluble in water, especially if the pH is greater than 7 (many of the products are carboxylic acids). These materials must be removed between",
"-28.590752792180865"
],
[
"observed in the butt (bottom) of the medium.\nA bacterium that is a non-lactose fermenter and ferments glucose, initially causes a yellow slant/yellow bottom (acid/acid reaction) after 8 hours but then converts to a red slant/yellow bottom after 24 hours (alkali/acid reaction). Whereas if it ferments both lactose and glucose, it results in a yellow/yellow tube and remains that way due to the large amount of acid produced in the reaction. Blackening of the bottom due to H₂S production may mask the acid reaction (yellow) in the bottom of the tube. Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi may result in blackening of",
"-28.57851448954898"
],
[
"a yellow color in solution which can be measured spectrophotometrically.\nNormally, children and adolescents have higher Alkaline Phosphatase levels than adults due to an increase in bone growth. ALP is especially high during a period of growth spurt which occurs are different ages in boys and girls.",
"-28.554137021579663"
],
[
"is present in veins, and can be seen during blood donation and when venous blood samples are taken. This is because the spectrum of light absorbed by hemoglobin differs between the oxygenated and deoxygenated states.\nBlood in carbon monoxide poisoning is bright red, because carbon monoxide causes the formation of carboxyhemoglobin. In cyanide poisoning, the body cannot utilize oxygen, so the venous blood remains oxygenated, increasing the redness. There are some conditions affecting the heme groups present in hemoglobin that can make the skin appear blue – a symptom called cyanosis. If the heme is oxidized, methemoglobin, which is more brownish and",
"-28.492021189165825"
],
[
"a large number of disinfection by-product (DBP) compounds from the original organic chemicals in urine.\nIn an article published in 2000, Snopes confirmed such a dye did not exist. However a study published by the University of Alberta in 2017 identified urine in hot tubs and swimming pools based on other markers such as acesulfame potassium, used extensively as an artificial sweetener, being passed chemically unchanged in urine, and not suffering from DBP-related changes in water.\nRumours of the origin of urine indicator-dye go back at least as far as 1958, and the story is commonly told to children by parents who",
"-28.45156148314709"
],
[
"the test was inconclusive because precipitates other than copper arsenite can produce the same green colour.\nBird did not limit himself to challenging his future brother-in-law. In 1834, Bird and Brett published a paper on the analysis of blood serum and urine, in which they argued against some work by Prout. Prout had said (in 1819) that the pink sediment in urine was due to the presence of ammonium purpurate, but Bird's tests failed to verify this. Though Bird was still only a student and Prout held great authority, Prout felt it necessary to reply to the challenge.",
"-28.32420047240157"
],
[
"in the color of the urine.\nStudies have shown that the extract from cascara bark also contains a substance called emodin, which may contribute to the laxative effect, due to its excitation of smooth muscle cells in the large intestine. Preparation The bark is collected in the spring or early summer, when it easily peels from the tree. Once stripped from the tree, the bark must be aged for at least 1 year before use, because fresh cut, dried bark causes vomiting and violent diarrhea. This drying is generally done in the shade to preserve its characteristic yellow color. This process",
"-28.24724883925228"
],
[
"Urine Urine is a liquid by-product of metabolism in humans and in many other animals. Urine flows from the kidneys through the ureters to the urinary bladder. Urination results in urine being excreted from the body through the urethra.\nThe cellular metabolism generates many by-products which are rich in nitrogen and must be cleared from the bloodstream, such as urea, uric acid, and creatinine. These by-products are expelled from the body during urination, which is the primary method for excreting water-soluble chemicals from the body. A urinalysis can detect nitrogenous wastes of the mammalian body.\nUrine has a role in the earth's",
"-28.15721689799102"
],
[
"cannot transport oxygen, is formed. In the rare condition sulfhemoglobinemia, arterial hemoglobin is partially oxygenated, and appears dark red with a bluish hue.\nVeins close to the surface of the skin appear blue for a variety of reasons. However, the factors that contribute to this alteration of color perception are related to the light-scattering properties of the skin and the processing of visual input by the visual cortex, rather than the actual color of the venous blood.\nSkinks in the genus Prasinohaema have green blood due to a buildup of the waste product biliverdin. Hemocyanin The blood of most mollusks – including",
"-28.088779262412572"
],
[
"where it is commonly known as a \"red hot\" or \"red snapper\". It is usually grilled or boiled as is common in the UK.",
"-28.087414220004575"
],
[
"workouts. Dehydration is one of the biggest factors that can give almost immediate feedback from the body by producing very dark-colored urine. Anatomy Exertional rhabdomyolysis results from damage to the intercellular proteins inside the sarcolemma. Myosin and actin break down in the sarcomeres when ATP is no longer available due to injury to the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Damage to the sarcolemma and sarcoplasmic reticulum from direct trauma or high force production causes a high influx of calcium into the muscle fibers increasing calcium permeability. Calcium ions build up in the mitochondria, impairing cellular respiration. The mitochondria are unable to produce enough",
"-28.078988389344886"
],
[
"of urea by urease penetrates through a special selective membrane to the layer impregnated with the indicator composition . Accordingly, the color change occurs directly during the enzymatic reaction. This avoids the influence of the pH value of the sample (gastric biopsy) on the result of a selective urease test, which virtually eliminates the occurrence of false-positive results. If the pH value of the sample is shifted to the acidic side, for example, in the case of increased acidity of gastric juice, this also does not distort the result of the selective urease test . Limitations There is evidence to",
"-28.063494865462417"
],
[
"burns, as it carries out acid hydrolysis with proteins (amide) and fats (ester), which consequently decomposes living tissue (e.g. skin and flesh). Concentrated nitric acid stains human skin yellow due to its reaction with the keratin. These yellow stains turn orange when neutralized. Systemic effects are unlikely, however, and the substance is not considered a carcinogen or mutagen.\nThe standard first-aid treatment for acid spills on the skin is, as for other corrosive agents, irrigation with large quantities of water. Washing is continued for at least 10–15 minutes to cool the tissue surrounding the acid burn and to prevent secondary damage.",
"-28.05832071803161"
],
[
"cephalopods and gastropods – as well as some arthropods, such as horseshoe crabs, is blue, as it contains the copper-containing protein hemocyanin at concentrations of about 50 grams per liter. Hemocyanin is colorless when deoxygenated and dark blue when oxygenated. The blood in the circulation of these creatures, which generally live in cold environments with low oxygen tensions, is grey-white to pale yellow, and it turns dark blue when exposed to the oxygen in the air, as seen when they bleed. This is due to change in color of hemocyanin when it is oxidized. Hemocyanin carries oxygen in extracellular fluid, which",
"-28.00200690035126"
],
[
"Pink cat The colour pink is not a naturally-occurring pigment in cat fur, but several instances of vividly pink cats have been reported by the media, sometimes as a result of interference with chemicals or dyes rather than any natural genetics. Additionally, several fictional pink cats have been used in popular culture. Pink dyes In September 2005, a cat, Brumas, briefly left his owners in Launceston, Cornwall, UK and returned with his fur coloured pink. The cause of the colour change was not identified, but Brumas was examined by the RSPCA and found to have no toxins.\nIn September 2010, a",
"-27.904663167639228"
],
[
"that show the use of urine from cows fed on mango leaves. Several studies in 2017 and 2018, including a re-examination of the sample supplied by Mukharji to Hooker confirm that Mukharji was accurate in his observation and highlights the origins of Indian yellow from urine by identifying metabolic studies on animals demonstrating euxanthic acid production through glucuronidation pathways in the liver. Modern alternatives The replacement for the original pigment (which was not entirely resistant to light), synthetic Indian yellow hue, is a mixture of nickel azo, hansa yellow, and quinacridone burnt orange. It is also known as azo yellow",
"-27.882807676716766"
],
[
"which 84% are unchanged alectinib and 6% are M4. Less than 1% are found in the urine. Chemistry Alectinib has a pKₐ of 7.05. It is used in form of the hydrochloride, which is a white to yellow-white lumpy powder.",
"-27.87338268154417"
],
[
"that black liquorice confectionery causes their stools to become green, although this is probably due to the blue food colouring used by many manufacturers.\nAlexander the Great supplied his troops with rations of liquorice root whilst marching because of its thirst-quenching qualities.\nAn excessive amount of black liquorice consumption can cause a chloride-resistant metabolic alkalosis. Red liquorice In many countries there is also a product sometimes known as red liquorice which is extruded in a way to resemble liquorice strings but made with main flavourings other than liquorice, such as strawberry, cherry, raspberry, or cinnamon. More recently similar products have been introduced",
"-27.858114379021572"
],
[
"phosphorus that is aged or otherwise impure is also called yellow phosphorus. When exposed to oxygen, white phosphorus glows in the dark with a very faint tinge of green and blue. It is highly flammable and pyrophoric (self-igniting) upon contact with air. White phosphorus has a density of 1.823 g/cm³, is soft (MH 0.5) as wax, pliable and can be cut with a knife. It melts at 44.15 °C and, if heated rapidly, boils at 280.5 °C; it otherwise remains solid and transforms to violet phosphorus at 550 °C. It has a body-centred cubic structure, analogous to that of manganese, with unit cell comprising",
"-27.83470852152095"
],
[
"achlorhydria in the stomach, to test adequacy of vagotomy ( post adequate vagotomy, gastric acid secretion is abolished) and to detect presence of ectopic gastric tissue, as it changes colour from red to black at a pH less than 3. Should acid not be present in the stomach, it would remain red. Typical uses and safety The most common applications for chromoendoscopy are the following: identification of squamous cell carcinomas or dysplasia of the esophagus, identification of Barrett's esophagus and dysplasia, identification of early gastric cancer, characterization of colonic polyps and colorectal cancer, and in screening for dysplasia in individuals",
"-27.832121743442258"
],
[
"Valium, LA Rochas, Forget Pill, and Circles. Rohypnols comes as a pill that dissolves in liquids. Some are small, round, and white. Newer pills are oval and green-gray in color. When slipped into a drink, a dye in these new pills makes clear liquids turn bright blue and dark drinks turn cloudy. But this color change might be hard to see in a dark drink, like cola or dark beer, or in a dark room.\nIn one 2002 survey of 53 women who used Rohypnol recreationally, 10% said they were physically or sexually assaulted while under its influence. If enough of",
"-27.82508261917974"
],
[
"a tanning agent, however, much larger quantities are used. After canthaxanthin is consumed, it is deposited throughout the body, including in the layer of fat below the skin, which turns an orange-brown color. These types of tanning pills have been linked to various side effects, including hepatitis and canthaxanthin retinopathy, a condition in which yellow deposits form in the retina of the eye. Other side effects including damage to the digestive system and skin surface have also been noted. The FDA withdrew approval for use of canthaxanthin as a tanning agent, and has issued warnings concerning its use. DHA-based products",
"-27.80616409337381"
],
[
"pronotum is yellowish with a narrow transverse slightly darker band in the middle, and an anterior submarginal row of punctures that are irregular.",
"-27.715457682556007"
],
[
"phenol red, a pH indicator for detecting acid produced by mannitol-fermenting staphylococci. Staphylococcus aureus produces yellow colonies with yellow zones, whereas other coagulase-negative staphylococci produce small pink or red colonies with no colour change to the medium. If an organism can ferment mannitol, an acidic byproduct is formed that causes the phenol red in the agar to turn yellow. It is used for the selective isolation of presumptive pathogenic (pp) Staphylococcus species.",
"-27.70002124720486"
],
[
"pheomelanin (also known as lipochrome), is dominant within the iris. Pheomelanin is also found on individuals with green eyes in much smaller amounts. This is because green eyes have a strong presence of both melanin and pheomelanin. Often in poor lighting, one may mistake amber eyes for brown. This also happens when viewed from far away or in pictures with poor lighting as well. However, in natural or well lit areas, it is very easy to tell the difference between the two colors. Another common mistake people make is referring to amber eyes as hazel. Although similar, hazel eyes",
"-27.687981886207126"
],
[
"BV. The discharge in BV has a characteristic strong fishy odor, which is caused by the relative increase in anaerobic bacteria.[1] The discharge is typically thin and grey, or occasionally green. It sometimes is accompanied by burning with urination. Itching is rare. The exact reasons for the disruption of vaginal flora leading to BV are not fully known. However, factors associated with BV include antibiotic use, unprotected sex, douching, and using an intrauterine device (IUD). The role of sex in BV is unknown, and BV is not considered an STI. The diagnosis of BV is made by a health care",
"-27.677828582178336"
],
[
"the fact of urea being found in urine and cigarette smoke, and that sodium hydroxide is found in hair removal products.",
"-27.667308287826017"
],
[
"urinate 4 times per day, and the urine should be a light yellow color.\nA constant supply is needed to replenish the fluids lost through normal physiological activities, such as respiration, perspiration and urination. Food contributes 0.5 to 1 l/day, and the metabolism of protein, fat, and carbohydrates produces another 0.25 to 0.4 l/day, which means that 2 to 3 l/day of water for men and 1 to 2 l/day of water for women should be consumed as fluid to meet the Recommended Daily Intake (RDI). Trace elements In terms of mineral nutrients intake, it is unclear what the drinking water",
"-27.632632829452632"
],
[
"which there is no distinction between black and yellow bile, and in which phlegm has a very different meaning. It was believed that these were the basic substances from which all liquids in the body were made. Robin Fåhræus (1921), a Swedish physician who devised the erythrocyte sedimentation rate, suggested that the four humours were based upon the observation of blood clotting in a transparent container. When blood is drawn in a glass container and left undisturbed for about an hour, four different layers can be seen. A dark clot forms at the bottom (the \"black bile\"). Above the clot",
"-27.60894527385244"
],
[
"compounds pass through the kidneys without being fully broken down before exiting the body. Turbidity Turbid (cloudy) urine may be a symptom of a bacterial infection, but can also be caused by crystallization of salts such as calcium phosphate. pH The pH normally is within the range of 5.5 to 7 with an average of 6.2. In persons with hyperuricosuria, acidic urine can contribute to the formation of stones of uric acid in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder. Urine pH can be monitored by a physician or at home.\nA diet which is high in protein from meat and dairy, as",
"-27.60365287028253"
],
[
"color, texture), according to the state of the diet, digestive system and general health. Normally human feces are semisolid, with a mucus coating. Small pieces of harder, less moist feces can sometimes be seen impacted in the distal (final or lower) end. This is a normal occurrence when a prior bowel movement is incomplete, and feces are returned from the rectum to the large intestine, where water is absorbed.\nIn the medical literature, the term \"stool\" is more commonly used than \"feces\".\nHuman feces together with human urine are collectively referred to as human waste or human excreta. Containing human feces, and",
"-27.590944977477193"
],
[
"that the oxidizing urine was producing ammonia, but the technique reminds us how foul-smelling was the dyer's art.\nThe colorant was downgraded to a shading glaze and fell out of use in the illuminator's palette by the turn of the seventeenth century, with the easier availability of less fugitive mineral-derived blue pigments.\nTurnsole was used as a food colorant, mentioned in Du Fait de Cuisine which suggests steeping it in milk. The French Cook by François Pierre La Varenne (London 1653) mentions turnsole grated in water with a little powder of Iris.\nHerbals indicated that the plant grows on sunny, well-drained Mediterranean slopes",
"-27.55244434258202"
],
[
"red plants, such as red cabbage, which contain anthocyanin pigments. The composition of different betalain pigments can vary, resulting in strains of beetroot which are yellow or other colors in addition to the familiar deep red. Some of the betalains in beets are betanin, isobetanin, probetanin, and neobetanin (the red to violet ones are known collectively as betacyanin). Other pigments contained in beet are indicaxanthin and vulgaxanthins (yellow to orange pigments known as betaxanthins). Indicaxanthin has been shown as a powerful protective antioxidant for thalassemia and prevents the breakdown of alpha-tocopherol (Vitamin E).\nBetacyanin in beetroot may cause red urine",
"-27.549901030201"
],
[
"Spring peeper Anatomy and physiology Spring peepers are tan or brown with a dark cross that roughly forms an X on their dorsa (thus the Latin name crucifer, meaning cross-bearer), though sometimes the marking may be indistinct. They have a body length between less than 25 mm (0.98 in) to 38 mm (1.5 in) and a mass between 3 and 5 g (0.11 and 0.18 oz).\nThe species has large toe pads for climbing, although it is more at home amid the loose debris of the forest floor.\nThe color variations of P. crucifer are mostly tan, brown, olive green, and gray. Females are lighter-colored, while males",
"-27.542018967731565"
],
[
"depends on the ratio of red and yellow pigments. Therefore, the distinction between these chromatophore types is not always clear.\nMost chromatophores can generate pteridines from guanosine triphosphate, but xanthophores appear to have supplemental biochemical pathways enabling them to accumulate yellow pigment. In contrast, carotenoids are metabolised and transported to erythrophores. This was first demonstrated by rearing normally green frogs on a diet of carotene-restricted crickets. The absence of carotene in the frogs' diet meant that the red/orange carotenoid colour 'filter' was not present in their erythrophores. This made the frogs appear blue instead of green. Iridophores and leucophores Iridophores, sometimes",
"-27.51806041416421"
],
[
"twenty different uroscopy flasks with urine of different colors aligned around the border of the circle. Each flask has a line that connects it to a summary of a particular disease. This allowed doctors to have a quick reference guide to twenty different types of urine. Temperature The temperature at which the urine is examined is a very important factor to consider in the process of uroscopy. When a patient urinates, the urine will be warm, so it is necessary for it to stay warm for proper evaluation. The external temperature should be the same as the internal temperature. When",
"-27.446999893407337"
],
[
"higher concentrations of urea and other waste products. The difference in the oxygen content of arterial blood and venous blood is known as the arteriovenous oxygen difference.\nMost medical laboratory tests are conducted on venous blood, with the exception of arterial blood gas tests. Venous blood is obtained for lab work by venipuncture (also called phlebotomy), or by finger prick for small quantities. Color The color of human blood ranges from bright red\nwhen oxygenated to a darker red when deoxygenated. It owes its color to hemoglobin, to which oxygen binds. Deoxygenated blood is darker due to the difference in shape of",
"-27.39838187021087"
],
[
"with volatile solids comprising 75–85% of total solids. Urea is the largest constituent of the solids, constituting more than 50% of the total. On an elemental level, human urine contains 6.87 g/L carbon, 8.12 g/L nitrogen, 8.25 g/L oxygen, and 1.51 g/L hydrogen. The exact proportions vary with individuals and with factors such as diet and health. In healthy persons, urine contains very little protein; an excess is suggestive of illness. Odor Sometime after leaving the body, urine may acquire a strong \"fish-like\" odor because of contamination with bacteria that break down urea into ammonia. This odor is not present",
"-27.39309220807627"
],
[
"guano and urine also occurs as a mineral in very arid conditions. In some classifications, In the Dana and Strunz classifications, amber is considered an organic mineral, but this classification is not approved by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA). Other sources call it a mineraloid because it has no crystal structure. Carbon Mineral Challenge As of 2016, the IMA recognized ten hydrocarbon minerals, ten miscellaneous organic minerals, 21 oxalates and over two dozen other salts of organic acids. However, Robert Hazen and colleagues analyzed the known species of carbon-bearing minerals using a statistical technique called the Large Number of Rare",
"-27.384737685966684"
],
[
"as when one of the constituents is the oxidizing agent potassium dichromate. The color change of the solution from orange to green is not definite, therefore an indicator such as sodium diphenylamine is used. Analysis of wines for sulfur dioxide requires iodine as an oxidizing agent. In this case, starch is used as an indicator; a blue starch-iodine complex is formed in the presence of excess iodine, signalling the endpoint.\nSome redox titrations do not require an indicator, due to the intense color of the constituents. For instance, in permanganometry a slight persisting pink color signals the endpoint of",
"-27.36576222095755"
],
[
"diseases also affect the production of semen. Men who are infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) produce lower semen volume. Color Semen normally has a whitish-gray color. It tends to get a yellowish tint as a man ages. Semen color is also influenced by the food we eat: foods that are high in sulfur, such as garlic, may result in a man producing yellow semen. Presence of blood in semen (hematospermia) leads to a brownish or red colored ejaculate. Hematospermia is a rare condition.\nSemen that has a deep yellow color or is greenish in appearance may be due to",
"-27.326169640437"
],
[
"medication. Brown semen is mainly a result of infection and inflammation of the prostate gland, urethra, epididymis and seminal vesicles. Other causes of unusual semen color include sexually transmitted infections such as gonorrhea and chlamydia, genital surgery and injury to the male sex organs. Fructose level Fructose level in the semen may be analysed to determine the amount of energy available to the semen for moving. WHO specifies a normal level of 13 μmol per sample. Absence of fructose may indicate a problem with the seminal vesicles. pH According to one lab test manual normal pH range is 7.1-8.0;",
"-27.324744235229446"
],
[
"Hematochrome Hematochrome is a yellow, orange, or (most commonly) red biological pigment present in some green algae, especially when exposed to intense light. It is a name used mainly in older literature. Hematochrome is a mixture of carotenoid pigments and their derivates.",
"-27.188587100463337"
],
[
"common in elderly people. Pheomelanin Pheomelanins (or phaeomelanins) impart a pink to red hue, depending upon the concentration. Pheomelanins are particularly concentrated in the lips, nipples, glans of the penis, and vagina. When a small amount of brown eumelanin in hair, which would otherwise cause blond hair, is mixed with red pheomelanin, the result is orange hair, which is typically called \"red\" or \"ginger\" hair. Pheomelanin is also present in the skin, and redheads consequently often have a more pinkish hue to their skin as well.\nIn chemical terms, pheomelanins differ from eumelanins in that the oligomer structure incorporates benzothiazine and",
"-27.13981346401488"
],
[
"Anthocyanin Anthocyanins (also anthocyans; from Greek: ἄνθος (anthos) \"flower\" and κυάνεος/κυανοῦς kyaneos/kyanous \"dark blue\") are water-soluble vacuolar pigments that, depending on their pH, may appear red, purple, blue or black. Food plants rich in anthocyanins include the blueberry, raspberry, black rice, and black soybean, among many others that are red, blue, purple, or black. Some of the colors of autumn leaves are derived from anthocyanins.\nAnthocyanins belong to a parent class of molecules called flavonoids synthesized via the phenylpropanoid pathway. They occur in all tissues of higher plants, including leaves, stems, roots, flowers, and fruits. Anthocyanins are derived from anthocyanidins by",
"-27.128704412956722"
],
[
"Those that can are often red in color due to the presence of large amounts of hemoglobin, which greatly increases the amount of oxygen carried to cells. Because the concentration of oxygen within this zone is low, most species construct tunnels or borrows in which they can hide and make the minimum movements necessary to circulate water through, drawing oxygen to them without expending much energy. Fish and other vertebrates Fish have a range of physiological tolerances that are dependent upon which species they belong to. They have different lethal temperatures, dissolved oxygen requirements, and spawning needs that are",
"-27.128696926753037"
],
[
"Indican Biosynthesis A reaction, similar to the above-mentioned is seen in the normal population, who excrete small amounts of the chemical in their urine. Normal urine reacting to hydrogen peroxide does at times produce a bluish tinge.\nTryptophan is first converted to indole (excreted in faeces), then to indican by bacteria in the gut. Indican, being water-soluble, is then excreted through the urine. Following absorption from the gut, indole is converted to 3-hydroxy indole (indoxyl or indican) in the liver, where it is again then conjugated with sulfuric acid or glucoronic acid through normal xenobiotic metabolism pathways. It is then transported",
"-27.12461184267886"
],
[
"swimming pool test kits.\nChlorine can result in the bleaching of the dye in the absence of thiosulfate to inhibit the oxidizing chlorine. High levels of bromine can convert phenol red to bromophenol red (dibromophenolsulfonephthalein, whose lowered pKₐ results in an indicator with a range shifted in the acidic direction – water at pH 6.8 will appear to test at 7.5). Even higher levels of bromine (>20 ppm) can result in the secondary conversion of bromophenol red to bromophenol blue with an even lower pKₐ, erroneously giving the impression that the water has an extremely high pH despite being dangerously low.",
"-27.088158826431027"
],
[
"symptoms of a lower urinary tract infection. Rarely, the urine may appear bloody or contain visible pus in the urine. Children In young children, the only symptom of a urinary tract infection (UTI) may be a fever. Because of the lack of more obvious symptoms, when females under the age of two or uncircumcised males less than a year exhibit a fever, a culture of the urine is recommended by many medical associations. Infants may feed poorly, vomit, sleep more, or show signs of jaundice. In older children, new onset urinary incontinence (loss of bladder control) may occur. Elderly",
"-27.06332362389594"
],
[
"and thick brown, it can be soaked in a light solution of persimmon at second time instead of water. Or it can get black color if it is soaked in iron oxide solution at second time. So the color of garot depends on the catalyzer—limewater, iron oxide solution, vinegar—, water, and the amount of sunshine. Advantages of garot Garot has come into the spotlight as healthful and convenient clothing. It has moth proof, waterproof, antimicrobial properties. Also Gal-ot prevents putrefaction, so it doesn't rot if stored in damp conditions. The thick, dense wave can help protect against sharp environmental hazards,",
"-27.059218303475063"
],
[
"greens, and yellows. Blue does not appear to feature. Natural dyes produce variations in color, which are particularly obvious on older Bibibaffs.",
"-27.0400020372399"
],
[
"acid is absorbed through the skin in harmful amounts, it may cause irritation, redness, and pain. Nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea are symptoms of tannic acid ingestion and prolonged exposure may cause liver damage. Upon inhalation, tannic acid may cause respiratory tract irritation. Crocodilian coloration Skin color in Crocodilia (crocodiles and alligators) is very dependent on water quality. Algae-laden waters produce greener skin, while tannic acid in the water from decay of leaves from overhanging trees (which produces some types of blackwater rivers) often produce darker skin in these animals. General references The Merck Index, 9th edition, Merck & Co., Rahway,",
"-26.989697470446117"
],
[
"discontinuation of entacapone. Urine color 10% of people taking entacapone experience a change in urine color to orange, red, brown, or black. This side effect is due to entacapone metabolism and excretion in the urine and shown to not be harmful. Sudden sleep onset People have reported sudden sleep onset while engaging in daily activities without prior warning of drowsiness. In controlled studies, patients on entacapone had a 2% increased risk of somnolence compared to placebo. Low blood pressure Episodes of orthostatic hypotension have been shown to be more common at the start of entacapone use due to increased levels",
"-26.986165466969396"
],
[
"may make it difficult to identify in the field. The flesh is white to pale yellow, and it stains reddish to burgundy when cut or bruised. This staining is most prominent at the junction of the cap and the stipe. Further exposure over the course of 20–60 minutes results in the flesh becoming grayish to blackish. The flesh has no distinctive door or taste. The pore surface is initially dull yellow, and sometimes ages to dingy olive-brown. Unlike many other boletes, it does not turn blue when bruised, although it may have natural blue-green stains. The pores are circular, measuring",
"-26.943008287169505"
],
[
"yellow or green. It is seen in cases of bronchiectasis, lung abscess, an advanced stage of bronchitis, or acute upper respiratory tract infection (common cold, laryngitis).",
"-26.91646287911135"
],
[
"Keriorrhea Keriorrhea (oily diarrhea, oily orange diarrhea, anal leakage, orange oily leakage) is the production of greasy, orange-colored stools which results from the consumption of indigestible wax esters found in oil fish and escolar.",
"-26.89287549961591"
],
[
"dioxins, and is classified as a human carcinogen by the US Environmental Protection Agency. \nIf not bound chemically to a biological surface such as soil, leaves or grass, Agent Orange dries quickly after spraying and breaks down within hours to days when exposed to sunlight and is no longer harmful. Toxicology Due to its fat-soluble nature, TCDD enters the body through physical contact or ingestion. Dioxin easily accumulates in the food chain. Dioxin enters the body by attaching to a protein called the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a transcription factor. When TCDD binds to AhR, the protein moves to the",
"-26.85616191328154"
],
[
"yellow.\"\nFinally, synesthetes are quite precise in the color mappings that they experience, which can lead them to make quite detailed comparisons of their colors:\nI came back from college on a semester break, and was sitting with my family around the dinner table, and – I don't know why I said it – but I said, \"The number five is yellow.\" There was a pause, and my father said, \"No, it's yellow-ochre.\" And my mother and my brother looked at us like, 'this is a new game, would you share the rules with us?'\"\nAnd I was dumbfounded. So I thought, \"Well.\"",
"-26.855496484204195"
],
[
"urine. Følling obtained urine samples from the children and, after many tests, he found that the substance causing the odor in the urine was phenylpyruvic acid. The children, he concluded, had excess phenylpyruvic acid in the urine, the condition which came to be called phenylketonuria (PKU).\nThis abnormal condition reflects an inability to break down the amino acid phenylalanine due to an hereditary deficiency of the necessary enzyme which is called phenylalanine hydroxylase. Perspective Føllings discovery provided the basis for the so-called metabolic screening of newborns. Today a screening blood test for PKU is done on newborns to detect the disease.",
"-26.840902552270563"
],
[
"Carnotite Occurrence Carnotite is a bright to greenish yellow mineral that occurs typically as crusts and flakes in sandstones. Amounts as low as one percent will color the sandstone a bright yellow. The high uranium content makes carnotite an important uranium ore. It is a secondary vanadium and uranium mineral usually found in sedimentary rocks in arid climates.\nIn the United States it is an important ore of uranium in the Colorado Plateau region of the United States where it occurs as disseminations in sandstone and concentrations around petrified logs. It also occurs in the U.S. states of Wyoming, Colorado, South",
"-26.840706364280777"
],
[
"Red shiners are found naturally in a variety of aquatic habitats, including backwaters, creek mouths, streams containing sand and silt substrates, riffles, and pools. They are tolerant of areas of frequent high turbidity and siltation, but they tend to avoid waters with high acidity. Red shiner are habitat generalists in that they are adapted to favor a wide range of environmental conditions that are not ideal to most other fish species. These include habitats degraded by human disturbance, and those with poor water quality (such as polluted waterways), natural physiochemical extremes, and seasonally intermittent flows. Range The red shiner is",
"-26.799309749272652"
],
[
"the majority of genera within the phylum actually do not contain chloroplasts and are colourless. Generally these species are small, free swimming and exhibit a vibrant green colour. What sets the genus apart from other photosynthetic species is the presence of its rigid cytoskeleton (although some species have semi-rigid or plastic cytoskeleton) made up of pellicular strips and its predominantly flat, leaf-shaped structure. Many different species express secondary fusion of these pellicular strips and many of the strips have a variety of shapes including S-shaped, A-shaped, M-shaped or plateau.\nThe pellicles forms a shell around the cytoskeleton covering the whole cell",
"-26.787346509299823"
],
[
"solid colorless substances which are insoluble in water and substantially not basic. They react with concentrated sulfuric acid to form a violet or dark blue compounds. History Phenylhydrazine and 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine have were used historically in analytical chemistry to detect and identify compounds with carbonyl groups. Phenylhydrazine was used to study the structure of carbohydrates, because the reaction of the sugar's aldehyde groups lead to well crystallizing phenylhydrazones or osazones.",
"-26.78693599451799"
],
[
"the liver as part of the urea cycle. Bilirubin, a waste product derived from blood cells, is passed through bile and urine with the help of enzymes excreted by the liver. The passing of bilirubin via bile through the intestinal tract gives mammalian feces a distinctive brown coloration. Distinctive features of the mammalian kidney include the presence of the renal pelvis and renal pyramids, and of a clearly distinguishable cortex and medulla, which is due to the presence of elongated loops of Henle. Only the mammalian kidney has a bean shape, although there are some exceptions, such as the multilobed",
"-26.782458491041325"
],
[
"Stannous chloride, citric acid, borax, or gelatin may be added to regulate the formation of the precipitate. For shades of purple, lime is added to the alum; thus, the traditional crimson color is guaranteed not only by carminic acid but also by choice of its chelating metal salt ion.\nCarmine may be prepared from cochineal, by boiling dried insects in water to extract the carminic acid and then treating the clear solution with alum. Other common substances such as cream of tartar, stannous chloride, or potassium hydrogen oxalate can also be used to effect the precipitation, but aluminum is needed for",
"-26.766835802263813"
],
[
"the red blood cell when hemoglobin binds to it (oxygenated) verses does not bind to it (deoxygenated). Human blood is never blue.\nThe blue appearance of surface veins is caused mostly by the scattering of blue light away from the outside of venous tissue if the vein is at 0.5 mm deep or more. Veins and arteries appear similar when skin is removed and are seen directly.",
"-26.751763908716384"
],
[
"mammalian cells can be quickly overgrown by bacterial contamination. This usually results in an acidification of the medium, turning it yellow. Many biologists find this a convenient way to rapidly check on the health of tissue cultures. In addition, the waste products produced by the mammalian cells themselves will slowly decrease the pH, gradually turning the solution orange and then yellow. This color change is an indication that even in the absence of contamination, the medium needs to be replaced (generally, this should be done before the medium has turned completely orange).\nSince the color of phenol red can interfere with",
"-26.75051325315144"
],
[
"groups present in organic substances, mainly bio-derived. Chloramines, compared to free chlorine, are both less effective as a sanitizer and, if not managed correctly, more irritating to the eyes of swimmers. Chloramines are responsible for the distinctive \"chlorine\" smell of swimming pools. Some pool test kits designed for use by homeowners do not distinguish free chlorine and chloramines, which can be misleading and lead to non-optimal levels of chloramines in the pool water.\nThere is also evidence that exposure to chloramine can contribute to respiratory problems, including asthma, among swimmers. Respiratory problems related to chloramine exposure are common and prevalent among",
"-26.742415755419643"
],
[
" so there are concerns Red 2G may ultimately interfere with blood haemoglobin, as well as cause cancer. Inks It is also used as a dye for coatings, inks, paper, crepe paper, and fine tissue. Histology Red 2G can be also used for staining in histology, though rarely, e.g. as a component of Masson's trichrome. Potential health risks In July 2007, the EFSA established that E128 is potentially carcinogenic because it forms aniline in the body when consumed. The pressure group, The Food Commission, said there had been concerns about Red 2G going back decades and it was suspected",
"-26.7285444240988"
]
] |
3qqj3w | What exactly is fire, in detail? How can light and heat come from something we can't really touch? | [
"Fire isn't really a thing that creates light and heat, it is the light and heat that results from a process. When something is burning, it's a chain reaction of combustion, which is basically a fuel (the material that's burning) combining with oxygen in a chemical process that creates a bunch of heat. This process and all of the heat released by it creates a pocket of gas that's so hot that it glows and emits light. And that glowing gas is the flame that we see .",
"When a candle or wood burns, the first thing that happens is heat causes volatiles to vaporize. Then those volatile gases mix with oxygen in the air right above the wick/wood and oxidize. This releases energy and keeps the whole process going. So what is emitting light? Two things. First, there is chemiluminescence from the reaction, and that makes a bluish light. For a gas burner, this might be the only flame you see. But there is also yellow light that flickers above the blue light with wood and candles. That yellow light is from soot. It gets sucked up by the air currents, heated up so that it glows with blackbody radiation (just like hot iron or glass does), and then floats in the air a bit before cooling. That is why the yellow tips of the flame flicker so much - the soot is being blown up. On the ISS, the microgravity means you never get a nice directed airflow, since the lighter hot air doesn't rise. Because of that, no air currents means no soot drawn up means no yellow flame. [See some pictures here.]( URL_0 )",
"Fire is a rapid oxidation process that releases enough energy to sustain the rapid oxidation process. When a piece of wood catches on fire, there are 3 things that must be in place: 1. Heat (energy to \"fuel\" the reaction 2. An oxidizer (in most cases atmospheric oxygen) 3. Fuel (the substance being oxidized) Heating up a log will take smaller fuels (grasses, leaves, etc.) catching fire to to heat it up. As the log heats up, it undergoes a process called pyrolysis, which is when the organic oils and other components are heated to the point they off-gas from the log. This off gassing is what forms smoke. When enough heat is present in the smoke and an ignition source is provided (like a spark or an open flame), the smoke will begin to react with oxygen in the air, and oxidize. This oxidation reaction occurs quickly and releases large quantities of heat, electromagnetic energy (light, IR), and less complex organic compounds. To summarize, visible flame is created when smoke begins to rapidly oxidize, giving off light, heat, and combustion byproducts. If you have any additional questions or need any clarification, I'd be happy to answer Source- Career Firefighter with thousands of hours of fire behavior and other fire service instruction and training.",
"Fire is 4th state of matter known as plasma. Room Temperature Examples 1)Solid - Ice, steel, wood, etc. 2)Liquid - Water, Oil, Alcohol 3)Gas - Air, Oxygen, Nitrogen, etc. 4)Plasma - NTP and Atmospheric plasmas, very uncommon Each element and combination of elements changes between states of matter as the temperature changes. Cold starting at 1 to very hot at 4.",
"What you physically see as fire is a mass transition of electrons, excited and bouncing into higher energy states due to the energy released from the chemical reaction of carbon combining with oxygen (and nearby excited air molecules, which bounce further away from the source). Each electron naturally relaxes from that high energy state and, in doing so, releases a single photon of exactly the same energy of the energy difference of the two states. A photon's energy level determines it's color, so for an incredibly hot fire, the color nearest the chemical reaction tends to be blue/violet, the highest energy photons that are still visible. As you look away from the source (as the nearby excited air molecules start to dissipate their energy, and so impart less energy to excite the photons) it transitions backwards through the rainbow until it becomes red/orange on the outer visible area, which are the lowest energy visible photons. Wood, however, only really gives enough energy through its chemical reaction with oxygen (which only begins when you kickstart it with enough heat, then keeps itself going) for, at most, yellow photons to be created, which is why you usually only see yellow to orange to red.",
"When something combustible (like wood products, for example) gets really hot, it breaks down into multiple parts, some of which is a gas. Especially when heated, this gas is lighter than the air around it (also aided by the convection of the air warming up and cooling down around it) so it will always travel opposite in direction to the pull of gravity. The density difference is also why the gas appears to stick together. This gas, being really hot (and therefore energized), reacts with the surrounding oxygen. One of the products of this reaction is light energy, which is what you see.",
"What you see in fire is the excited gases escaping from a chemical reaction at the source of the fire and expelling energy in the form of light and heat. (so yes it is a thing) The combustion reaction varies by material is usually O2 (Oxygen from the air) and the material (usually containing Hydrocarbons ie lots of Carbon, Oxygen and Hydrogen). The result is CO2 (carbon dioxide) + H2O vapor+CO (carbon MONoxide) and leftover material that is superheated ash and junk. The reaction itself being the breakdown of a complex or high energy state with a lot of bonds/bonding energy to a lower energy state (simpler molecules with fewer bonds), is ejecting A LOT of energy causing nearby material to also heat up and breakdown. This is why fire spreads - it's a chain reaction of exothermic reactions. The bright part of the fire is the superheated gases that are expelling energy in the form of light and heat (the color is dependent on the material being burnt - lots of physics/chemistry here). The gas generation means it's initially pushed out in all directions. Being super hot is also super light so it's gets pushed up by the denser colder air around it. As it cools and settles into it's final form (there are a lot of intermediate states) it no longer gives of light, just soot and ash.",
"The heat and light are not coming from the fire that you see. The heat and light are coming from the thing that is burning. Remember, that every molecule contains huge amounts of chemical and atomic energy. Fire just means that the substance which is burning has gotten hot enough that it set off a reaction to release some of that chemical energy. Molecules got too hot to hold together, and so they are breaking up into smaller molecules and atoms, releasing energy that previously held them together in the form of heat and light. The fire that you see is only the pattern of that light being released.",
"Alan Alda had a contest who could explain this best. This youtube video was the winner (worth a watch): URL_0 Flame challenge: URL_1 ",
"Heat is essentially atoms and molecules vibrating/moving. Energy is essentially what makes stuff happen. Without any energy, nothing would happen. When we burn things, we are taking them apart on a very small level and recombining them. They react with the air and create new stuff, for example exhaust, karbondioxide and ash. The stuff that is binding these small parts, atoms, together into slightly bigger parts, molecules, is a form of energy. When a condition is filled, for example if it gets hot enough, bonds can start breaking. When this happens, energy is released. Energy never dissapears, it can only be changed into a different form of energy. This means that when the energy is no longer in these bonds, it must go somewhere. And it goes to making everything around it move more, so it gets hotter. Fire is just one of these reactions. It can happen when some things react with oxygen. For example if you light a piece of firewood on fire, you start a reaction. Or, if you eat something, there are small reactions like this in you that make you able to benefit from the energy in the food.",
"One thing I didn't see mentioned is the shape of a flame is defined by the velocity of the fuel and oxygen source, and the dispersion of the heat. So if you think of a bunson burner, it gives you a that nice shape due to the flow of the fuel going up. Some of it sticks to the sides and slows down, which is why it is longer at the center. If you think of a campfire, that shape is mostly the energy from the heat dispersing towards the sky since that is colder (really simple version) and I am very rusty on that part of my combustion theory.",
"In simple terms, it's a self-sustaining chemical reaction that only needs heat, a fuel source, and oxygen to exist. If you ask any firefighter, he'll tell you it's a [living animal]( URL_0 ) that breathes and eats, and goes where it wants. Source: firefighter",
"You know how metal glows when it gets really hot? When gas gets really hot it will glow too. We call that glowing gas fire."
] | [
[
"It is not really fire, for fire is an excess of heat and a sort of ebullition; but in reality, of what we call air, the part surrounding the earth is moist and warm, because it contains both vapour and a dry exhalation from the earth.\nAccording to Aristotle, the four elements rise or fall toward their natural place in concentric layers surrounding the center of the earth and form the terrestrial or sublunary spheres.\nIn ancient Greek medicine, each of the four humours became associated with an element. Yellow bile was the humor identified with fire, since both were hot and",
"-35.93243812250148"
],
[
"Fire Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. Slower oxidative processes like rusting or digestion are not included by this definition.\nFire is hot because the conversion of the weak double bond in molecular oxygen, O₂, to the stronger bonds in the combustion products carbon dioxide and water releases energy (418 kJ per 32 g of O₂); the bond energies of the fuel play only a minor role here. At a certain point in the combustion reaction, called the ignition point, flames are produced.",
"-35.31263758712157"
],
[
"as clover.\nFire has been used by humans in rituals, in agriculture for clearing land, for cooking, generating heat and light, for signaling, propulsion purposes, smelting, forging, incineration of waste, cremation, and as a weapon or mode of destruction. Flame A flame is a mixture of reacting gases and solids emitting visible, infrared, and sometimes ultraviolet light, the frequency spectrum of which depends on the chemical composition of the burning material and intermediate reaction products. In many cases, such as the burning of organic matter, for example wood, or the incomplete combustion of gas, incandescent solid particles called soot produce the",
"-33.60518457847138"
],
[
" The flame is the visible portion of the fire. Flames consist primarily of carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen and nitrogen. If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma. Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color of the flame and the fire's intensity will be different.\nFire in its most common form can result in conflagration, which has the potential to cause physical damage through burning. Fire is an important process that affects ecological systems around the globe. The positive effects of fire include stimulating growth and maintaining various ecological systems.\nThe negative",
"-33.49266427574912"
],
[
"fire the element with the smallest number of sides, and Plato regarded it as appropriate for the heat of fire, which he felt is sharp and stabbing, (like one of the points of a tetrahedron).\nPlato’s student Aristotle (384 - 322 BCE) did not maintain his former teacher's geometric view of the elements, but rather preferred a somewhat more naturalistic explanation for the elements based on their traditional qualities. Fire the hot and dry element, like the other elements, was an abstract principle and not identical with the normal solids, liquids and combustion phenomena we experience:\n What we commonly call fire.",
"-33.15575887013347"
],
[
"Flame A flame (from Latin flamma) is the visible, gaseous part of a fire. It is caused by a highly exothermic reaction taking place in a thin zone. Very hot flames are hot enough to have ionized gaseous components of sufficient density to be considered plasma. Mechanism Color and temperature of a flame are dependent on the type of fuel involved in the combustion, as, for example, when a lighter is held to a candle. The applied heat causes the fuel molecules in the candle wax to vaporize. In this state they can then readily react with oxygen in the",
"-32.8584910108475"
],
[
"to the properties of fire, containing an excess of heat. Now in fire we may consider three things.\nFirst, the movement which is upwards and continuous. This signifies that they are borne inflexibly towards God.\nSecondly, the active force which is \"heat,\" which is not found in fire simply, but exists with a certain sharpness, as being of most penetrating action, and reaching even to the smallest things, and as it were, with superabundant fervor; whereby is signified the action of these angels, exercised powerfully upon those who are subject to them, rousing them to a like fervor, and cleansing them wholly",
"-31.40348150767386"
],
[
"few seconds. Hot objects Solid objects that are hot can also cause contact burns, especially by children who intentionally touch things that they are unaware are too hot to touch. Such burns imprinted on the skin usually form a pattern that resembles the object. Sources of burns from solid objects include ashes and coal, irons, soldering equipment, frying pans and pots, oven containers, light bulbs, and exhaust pipes. Prevention Education is an important tool for children on how to prevent getting burned by fire or getting scalded. In that act, firefighters and community leaders are often employed in schools and",
"-31.311141861544456"
],
[
"sources may burn. By turning the electrical source off, the fire can be fought by one of the other class of fire extinguishers. Metal Class D fires involve combustible metals - especially alkali metals like lithium and potassium, alkaline earth metals such as magnesium, and group 4 elements such as titanium and zirconium.\nMetal fires represent a unique hazard because people are often not aware of the characteristics of these fires and are not properly prepared to fight them. Therefore, even a small metal fire can spread and become a larger fire in the surrounding ordinary combustible materials. Certain metals burn",
"-31.22413037403021"
],
[
"as is said in the Metaphysics Bk. II. 2. What moreover is the greatest in its way, in another way is the cause of all things of its own kind (or genus); thus fire, which is the greatest heat, is the cause of all heat, as is said in the same book (cf. Plato and Aristotle). Therefore there exists something that is the cause of the existence of all things and of the goodness and of every perfection whatsoever—and this we call God.",
"-30.991316104744328"
],
[
"had brought with it from the previous century.\nUnfortunately, this new age of chemical enlightenment was fraught with blind alleys. Johann Becher and phlogiston In 1667 the German scientist Johann Becker proposed that fire was caused by an ethereal, odourless, tasteless, colourless, weightless entity called phlogiston. The idea was that phlogiston causes things to burn, reducing them to their pure form. For example, burning wood releases phlogiston, leaving the pure form of wood – ash, therefore wood is composed of ash (pure wood) and phlogiston.\nPhlogiston was accepted as scientific truth, paralysing the scientific community's ability to discover more, true elements. ",
"-30.871510566037614"
],
[
"Fire (wuxing) Attributes In Chinese Taoist thought, Fire attributes are considered to be dynamism, strength, and persistence; however, it is also connected to restlessness. The fire element provides warmth, enthusiasm, and creativity; however, an excess of it can bring aggression, impatience, and impulsive behavior. In the same way, fire provides heat and warmth; however, an excess can also burn.\nIn Chinese Medicine, fire is associated with negative emotions of hate and the positive emotion is joy. \nThe organs associated with the Fire element are the Heart (yin) and small intestine (yang), tongue and a body's pulse. Astrology The element plays",
"-30.84094681183342"
],
[
"in discovering the alleged laws of nature. For example:\n...our opponent claims that the agent of the burning is the fire exclusively; this is a natural, not a voluntary agent, and cannot abstain from what is in its nature when it is brought into contact with a receptive substratum. This we deny, saying: The agent of the burning is God, through His creating the black in the cotton and the disconnexion of its parts, and it is God who made the cotton burn and made it ashes either through the intermediation of angels or without intermediation. For fire is",
"-30.655022226725123"
],
[
"Firekeeper Overview In many ancient civilizations the open flame has served as both a central spiritual or religious symbol, as well as played a central role in basic human survival. Similarly, those entrusted with tending this flame often held a sacred role in the culture. This role continues in some traditional cultures into the present day. \nA sacred fire is often a place for the offering of prayers, herbs, food, and sacrifices of artwork. An eternal or perpetual flame provides hot coals for the kindling of other fires in the community. A sacred fire is usually kept separate from any",
"-30.586438419531987"
],
[
"Firefighter Fire suppression A fire burns due to the presence of three elements: fuel, oxygen and heat. This is often referred to as the fire triangle. Sometimes it is known as the fire tetrahedron if a fourth element is added: a chemical chain reaction which can help sustain certain types of fire. The aim of firefighting is to deprive the fire of at least one of those elements. Most commonly this is done by dousing the fire with water, though some fires require other methods such as foam. Firefighters are equipped with a wide variety of equipment for this purpose",
"-30.492151591577567"
],
[
"air and gas to funnel the flame through. Fire rocks come in many different colors and range in sizes from a half-inch to an inch. Use Fire rock is noted for its ability to withstand high temperatures of direct heat for prolonged periods of time. Unlike river rock, which is non-porous and highly explosive when heated, fire rock is considered a porous substance that is capable of releasing heat through tiny holes in its outer layer. Damp fire rocks have been known to \"pop\" and throw pea sized pieces of rock as they heat. The moisture that is caught in",
"-29.99462448811755"
],
[
"to the brain, strain to the heart, and injury to other organs.\nFor a burn to be classified as electrical, electricity must be the direct cause. For example, burning a finger on a hot electric steam iron would be thermal, not electrical. According to Joule's first law: electricity passing through resistance creates heat, so there is no current entering the body in this type of burn. Likewise, a fire that is ruled to be \"electrical\" in origin, does not necessarily mean that any injuries or deaths are due to electrical burns. Unless someone was injured at the exact moment that",
"-29.910508290166035"
],
[
"flame is a radiant emission from the newly formed water molecules. The water molecules are in an excited state on initial formation and then transition to a ground state; the transition releasing thermal radiation. When burning in air, the temperature is roughly 2000 °C (the same as natural gas). Historically, carbon has been the most practical carrier of energy, as hydrogen and carbon combined are more volumetrically dense, although hydrogen itself has three times the energy density per weight as methane or gasoline. Although hydrogen is the smallest element and thus has a slightly higher propensity to leak from venerable",
"-29.855472383613233"
],
[
"(fire from a distance)\". King is the first person to give the idea a name as neither the term pyrokinesis nor any other term describing the idea have been found in prior works. Parapsychologists describe pyrokinesis as the ability to excite the atoms within an object until they generate enough energy to burst into flame. Science fiction works define pyrokinesis as speeding up the movement of molecules in order to increase temperature. History A. W. Underwood, a 19th-century African-American, achieved minor celebrity status with the purported ability to set items ablaze. Magicians and scientists have suggested concealed pieces of phosphorus",
"-29.812249222894025"
],
[
"dephlogisticated air, capable of combining with more phlogiston and thus supporting combustion for longer than ordinary air. History of phlogiston theory Empedocles had formulated the classical theory that there were four elements: water, earth, fire and air, and Aristotle reinforced this idea by characterising them as moist, dry, hot and cold. Fire was thus thought of as a substance and burning was seen as a process of decomposition which applied only to compounds. Experience had shown that burning was not always accompanied by a loss of material and a better theory was needed to account for this. Johann Joachim",
"-29.699042023799848"
],
[
"Heat torch A heat torch is a tool or device that is used to heat up a substance quickly, whether it is air, metal, plastic, or other materials. Heat torches typically provide a way to quickly heat a concentrated area of material for uses such as molding, metallurgy, hardening, and solidification. Medical industry Heat torches can be found in various medical instruments such as blood analyzers. In one application, a heat torch was installed inside a blood analyzer to make film cuvettes in real time, allowing blood to be stored and tested on board the instrument. Jewelry making (lapidary) Commonly",
"-29.67809717883938"
],
[
"thousands of years ago.\nFire has also been used for centuries as a method of torture and execution, as evidenced by death by burning as well as torture devices such as the iron boot, which could be filled with water, oil, or even lead and then heated over an open fire to the agony of the wearer.\nBy the Neolithic Revolution, during the introduction of grain-based agriculture, people all over the world used fire as a tool in landscape management. These fires were typically controlled burns or \"cool fires\", as opposed to uncontrolled \"hot fires\", which damage the soil. Hot fires destroy",
"-29.618522822958766"
],
[
"nearly invisible flame and the risk of spilling burning fuel can cause burns.",
"-29.541708575648954"
],
[
"to light great fires (Greek: λαμπρατζια) in schools or church yards. The fires are made up of scrap wood, gathered usually by enthusiastic young boys which scour their neighbourhoods for them, in order to make their fire as great as it can be (and bigger than the neighbouring one). More than often this competition leads to fights happening over scraps of wood and the police or fire department being called to put out the fires that have gone out of control. It is customary for a small doll representing Judas Iscariot to be burnt. The same thing happens on Crete,",
"-29.526121762683033"
],
[
"include friction, as in case of matches, heating an electrical wire, a flame (propagation of fire), or a spark (from a lighter or from any starting electrical device). There are also many other ways to bring sufficient activation energy including electricity, radiation, and pressure, all of which will lead to a temperature rise. In most cases, heat production enables self-sustainability of the reaction, and enables a chain reaction to grow. The temperature at which a liquid produces sufficient vapor to get a flammable mix with self-sustainable combustion is called its flash-point. Extinction of the fire To stop a combustion reaction,",
"-29.381673972296994"
],
[
"experiences friction (heat) to start a fire. The ensuing combustion is highly exothermic, which releases heat. The overall change in internal energy does not reveal the mode of energy transfer and quantifies only the net work and heat. The difference between initial and final states of the system’s internal energy does not account for the extent of the energy interactions transpired. Therefore, internal energy is a state function (i.e. exact differential), while heat and work are path functions (i.e. inexact differentials) because integration must account for the path taken.",
"-29.09334657585714"
],
[
"Man, in north and mid Wales, and in parts of Ulster. F. Marian McNeill says that a force-fire (or need-fire) was the traditional way of lighting them, but notes that this method gradually died out. Likewise, only certain kinds of wood were traditionally used, but later records show that many kinds of flammable material were burnt. It is suggested that the fires were a kind of imitative or sympathetic magic—they mimicked the Sun, helping the \"powers of growth\" and holding back the decay and darkness of winter. They may also have served to symbolically \"burn up and destroy all harmful",
"-29.017547074647155"
],
[
"fundamental substance, he presents fire as the divine cosmos. Fire is both a substance and a motivator of change, it is active in altering other things. Heraclitus describes it as \"the judging and convicting of all things.\" Judgment here is literally \"to separate\" (κρίνειν krinein). \nIn antiquity this was interpreted to mean that eventually all things will be consumed by fire, a doctrine called ecpyrosis. Hippolytus, from whom we get the quotation, sees it as a reference to divine judgment and Hell. However, he removes the human sense of justice from his concept of God: \"To God all things are",
"-28.994389997809776"
],
[
"fire', had been the first to hit upon the term pneuma, or 'spirit', to describe it. Like fire, this intelligent 'spirit' was imagined as a tenuous substance akin to a current of air or breath, but essentially possessing the quality of warmth; it was immanent in the universe as God, and in man as the soul and life-giving principle. Clearly it is not a long step from this to the 'Holy Spirit' of Christian theology, the 'Lord and Giver of life', visibly manifested as tongues of fire at Pentecost and ever since associated—in the Christian as in the Stoic mind—with",
"-28.982042798306793"
],
[
"Cool flame A cool flame is a flame having maximal temperature below about 400 °C (752 °F). It is usually produced in a chemical reaction of a certain fuel-air mixture. Contrary to conventional flame, the reaction is not vigorous and releases very little heat, light, and carbon dioxide. Cold fires are difficult to observe and are uncommon in everyday life, but they are responsible for engine knock – the undesirable, erratic, and noisy combustion of low-octane fuels in internal combustion engines. History Cool flames were accidentally discovered in the 1810s by Sir Humphry Davy, who was inserting a hot platinum wire into",
"-28.94518805065536"
],
[
"air, which gives off enough heat in the subsequent exothermic reaction to vaporize yet more fuel, thus sustaining a consistent flame. The high temperature of the flame causes the vaporized fuel molecules to decompose, forming various incomplete combustion products and free radicals, and these products then react with each other and with the oxidizer involved in the reaction. Sufficient energy in the flame will excite the electrons in some of the transient reaction intermediates such as the methylidyne radical (CH) and diatomic carbon (C₂), which results in the emission of visible light as these substances release their excess energy (see",
"-28.94024678011192"
],
[
"water and fire is [a function of] the mutually [responsive] movement [相動] of yin and yang of the same qi. (6.2, tr. Major et al. 2010:216-217) \nAnother Chapter 6 passage illustrates how resonance is in harmony with the Dao, and admits that even someone with \"enlightened understanding\" cannot explain the mysterious forces of magnetism, optics, enzymes, and heliotropism. \nNow if one were to accept [that] fire can burn wood and use it to melt metal, that would [follow] the movement of the Way. But if one were to accept [that] lodestone can attract iron and use it to attract tile,",
"-28.870346481031447"
],
[
"Firelighter A firelighter is a small, solid fuel tablet for fire making. Firelighters marketed as consumer products may be used to start a wood or coal fire in a fireplace, wood-burning stove, or solid-fuel portable stove.\nAs a hazardous material, firelighters are assigned a UN number: 2623 (\"Firelighters; solid with flammable liquid\").",
"-28.85274694385589"
],
[
"fire has no flame and there are only embers, it deviates slightly them, so as to leave uncovered or only covered a few ashes, soil, sand; in this hot sand or hot ashes these, we practice a hollow round, 4 to 5 cm depth and width such that it can contain the flour mixture and water; poured this mixture into the hollow; it is slightly dry to the surface by passing a short distance above him for a short time in the grassland fire flame; then covered with ashes of bread, and put an ember bed above the ash. When",
"-28.67536345917324"
],
[
"and thus feed back into more fires. Globally today, as much as 5 million square kilometres – an area more than half the size of the United States – burns in a given year.\nThere are numerous modern applications of fire. In its broadest sense, fire is used by nearly every human being on earth in a controlled setting every day. Users of internal combustion vehicles employ fire every time they drive. Thermal power stations provide electricity for a large percentage of humanity.\nThe use of fire in warfare has a long history. Fire was the basis of all early thermal weapons.",
"-28.65623492503073"
],
[
"any accident to be put out, … it is not to be lighted again from another fire, but new fire is to be gained by drawing a pure and unpolluted flame from the sunbeams. They kindle it generally with concave vessels of brass, formed by hollowing out an isosceles rectangular triangle, whose lines from the circumference meet in one single point. This being placed against the sun, causes its rays to converge in the centre, which, by reflection, acquiring the force and activity of fire, rarefy the air, and immediately kindle such light and dry matter as they think fit",
"-28.629926575433274"
],
[
"fire itself. This also serves to expand the area and the intensity of the firestorm. Violent, erratic wind drafts suck movables into the fire and as is observed with all intense conflagrations, radiated heat from the fire can melt asphalt, some metals, and glass, and turn street tarmac into flammable hot liquid. The very high temperatures ignite anything that might possibly burn, until the firestorm runs low on fuel.\nA firestorm does not appreciably ignite material at a distance ahead of itself; more accurately, the heat desiccates those materials and makes them more vulnerable to ignition by embers or firebrands, increasing",
"-28.54280777632357"
],
[
"believed fire gave rise to the other three elements: \"All things are an interchange for fire, and fire for all things, just like goods for gold and gold for goods.\" He had a reputation for obscure philosophical principles and for speaking in riddles. He described how fire gave rise to the other elements as the: \"upward-downward path\", (ὁδὸς ἄνω κάτω), a \"hidden harmony\" or series of transformations he called the \"turnings of fire\", (πυρὸς τροπαὶ), first into sea, and half that sea into earth, and half that earth into rarefied air. This is a concept that anticipates both the four",
"-28.532690708059818"
],
[
"generate work). Common flames In daily life, the vast majority of flames one encounters are those caused by rapid oxidation of hydrocarbons in materials such as wood, wax, fat, plastics, propane, and gasoline. The constant-pressure adiabatic flame temperature of such substances in air is in a relatively narrow range around 1950 °C. This is because, in terms of stoichiometry, the combustion of an organic compound with n carbons involves breaking roughly 2n C–H bonds, n C–C bonds, and 1.5n O₂ bonds to form roughly n CO₂ molecules and n H₂O molecules.\nBecause most combustion processes that happen naturally occur in the open",
"-28.457321945687"
],
[
"Control of fire by early humans The control of fire by early humans was a turning point in the cultural aspect of human evolution. Fire provided a source of warmth, protection, improvement on hunting and a method for cooking food. These cultural advances allowed human geographic dispersal, cultural innovations, and changes to diet and behavior. Additionally, creating fire allowed human activity to continue into the dark and colder hours of the evening.\nClaims for the earliest definitive evidence of control of fire by a member of Homo range from 1.7 to 0.2 million years ago (Mya). Evidence for the 'microscopic traces",
"-28.400584773975424"
],
[
"Fire air In the history of chemistry, fire air was postulated to be one of two fluids of common air. This theory was positioned in 1775 by Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. In Scheele’s Chemical Treatise on Air and Fire he states: \"air is composed of two fluids, differing from each other, the one of which does not manifest in the least the property of attracting phlogiston, whilst the other, which composes between the third and fourth part of the whole mass of the air, is peculiarly disposed to such attraction.\" These two constituents of common air Scheele called Foul",
"-28.36258997178811"
],
[
"for millennia. Historically, it was limited in use only by the distribution of technology required to make a spark. Heat derived from wood is still common throughout much of the world. Early examples included a fire constructed inside a tent. Fires were constructed on the ground, and a smoke hole in the top of the tent allowed the smoke to escape by convection.\nIn permanent structures and in caves, hearths were constructed or established—surfaces of stone or another noncombustible material upon which a fire could be built. Smoke escaped through a smoke hole in the roof.\nIn contrast to civilizations in",
"-28.33864185080165"
],
[
"which it is burnt, a question which was answered in the negative. Other observations made by Frankland at the time formed the starting-point of a series of experiments which yielded far-reaching results. He noticed that at the summit the candle gave a very poor light, and was thereby led to investigate the effect produced on luminous flames by varying the pressure of the atmosphere in which they are burning. He found that pressure increases luminosity, so that hydrogen, for example, the flame of which gives no light in normal circumstances, burns with a luminous flame under a pressure of ten",
"-28.324734521927894"
],
[
"flame as the starting point for all other flame adjustments because it is so easily defined. This flame is attained when welders, as they slowly open the oxygen valve on the torch body, first see only two flame zones. At that point, the acetylene is being completely burned in the welding oxygen and surrounding air. The flame is chemically neutral. The two parts of this flame are the light blue inner cone and the darker blue to colorless outer cone. The inner cone is where the acetylene and the oxygen combine. The tip of this inner cone is the hottest",
"-28.297866701643215"
],
[
"one of the three elements of the fire-triangle has to be removed.\nWithout sufficient heat, a fire cannot begin, and it cannot continue. Heat can be removed by the application of a substance which reduces the amount of heat available to the fire reaction. This is often water, which absorbs heat for phase change from water to steam. Introducing sufficient quantities and types of powder or gas in the flame reduces the amount of heat available for the fire reaction in the same manner. Scraping embers from a burning structure also removes the heat source. Turning off",
"-28.074608954717405"
],
[
"Wax fire A wax fire is created when melted or boiling wax is doused in water. The ensuing reaction creates a large fireball or enlarges the flame of the already existing fire incredibly. Only a small amount of wax and water is needed to create a wax fire. Chemistry behind the reaction Following the basic rules of the fire triangle, for a reaction to take place three ingredients are required: oxygen, fuel, and heat. In the case of wax melted down, only the top surface has access to oxygen, so the fire progresses slowly. When water is added to the",
"-28.00614826742094"
],
[
"in contact with air or water (for example, sodium), which exacerbates this risk. Generally speaking, masses of combustible metals do not represent great fire risks because heat is conducted away from hot spots so efficiently that the heat of combustion cannot be maintained. In consequence, significant heat energy is required to ignite a contiguous mass of combustible metal. Generally, metal fires are a hazard when the metal is in the form of sawdust, machine shavings or other metal \"fines\", which combust more rapidly than larger blocks. Metal fires can be ignited by the same ignition sources that would start",
"-27.93367296809447"
],
[
"electrical equipment) and Class D fires (in which the burning material is combustible metals). The less-commonly-used Class K (known outside the United States as Class F) refers to fires involving cooking oil or fat; these materials are technically part of Class B.\nFires are classified by the proper extinguishing agent. While water is used on Class A fires, using water on a Class B fire (such as a grease fire) is extremely dangerous. This is because burning grease is hotter than the boiling point of water (212 degrees Fahrenheit or 100 degrees Celsius); when water is placed on grease, it",
"-27.681927932891995"
],
[
"objects such as steam pipes, light bulbs, hotplates, and recently extinguished bunsen burners are able to ignite its vapours.\nIn addition some solvents, such as methanol, can burn with a very hot flame which can be nearly invisible under some lighting conditions. This can delay or prevent the timely recognition of a dangerous fire, until flames spread to other materials. Explosive peroxide formation Ethers like diethyl ether and tetrahydrofuran (THF) can form highly explosive organic peroxides upon exposure to oxygen and light. THF is normally more likely to form such peroxides than diethyl ether. One of the most susceptible solvents is",
"-27.678009806666523"
],
[
"Fire investigation Investigating fires In common with many forensic disciplines, one of the early tasks of fire investigation is often to determine whether or not a crime has been committed. The difficulty of determining whether arson has occurred arises because fire often destroys the key evidence of its origin. Many fires are caused by defective equipment, such as shorting of faulty electrical circuits. Car fires can be caused by faulty fuel lines, and spontaneous combustion is possible where organic wastes are stored.\nA fire investigator looks at the fire remains, and obtains information to reconstruct the sequence of events leading up",
"-27.666330528387334"
],
[
"fire is heated up quicker and able to burn faster allowing the fire to burn more area in a period of time up a slope, even without wind, than just on flat ground. Impact on humans Many areas had to be evacuated due to the fire as it approached populated areas. The fire was also fought by thousands of firefighters and some groups of specialized firefighters, called hot shotshot shots. Hot Shots are groups brought into an area to contain a wildfire. Eight helicopters with buckets attached filled with water mixed with a retardant were used to contain the",
"-27.634608000109438"
],
[
"that are invisible to the naked eye. This explains why they may frequently false alarm from the fumes emitted from the red-hot heating elements of a toaster, before the presence of visible smoke, yet they may fail to activate in the early, low-heat smoldering stage of a fire.\nSmoke from a typical house fire contains hundreds of different chemicals and fumes. As a result, the damage caused by the smoke can often exceed that caused by the actual heat of the fire. In addition to the physical damage caused by the smoke of a fire – which manifests itself in the",
"-27.624679718137486"
],
[
"heat. Scheele speculated that his fire air or oxygen (which he found the active part of air, estimating it to compose one quarter of air) combined with the phlogiston in objects to produce either light or heat (light and heat were presumed to be composed of differing proportions of phlogiston and oxygen).\nWhen other chemists later showed water is produced when burning hydrogen and that rusting of metals added weight to them and that passing water over hot iron gave hydrogen, Scheele modified his theory to suggest that oxygen was the salt (or \"saline principle\" of water), and that when added",
"-27.589448181621265"
],
[
"events that start fires. Fires spread very quickly, and a flaming building can ignite people or other buildings. Fires will only go out if all sources of fuel are consumed, or if the fire itself is extinguished by fire watches. Fires can spread over small boundaries of water.\nIn most RTS games, fire appears on buildings as an indicator of damage; for example, if a building is damaged enough it would catch fire, but not necessarily sustain damage from that fire. In some games, such as Starcraft, some buildings damaged to a certain extent will catch fire and continue to take",
"-27.56608510419028"
],
[
"combustion and produce a blast wave. A piece of paper (made from wood) catches on fire quite easily. A heavy oak desk is much harder to ignite, even though the wood fibre is the same in all three materials.\nCommon sense (and indeed scientific consensus until the mid-1700s) would seem to suggest that material \"disappears\" when burned, as only the ash is left. In fact, there is an increase in weight because the combustible material reacts (or combines) chemically with oxygen, which also has mass. The original mass of combustible material and the mass of the oxygen required for combustion",
"-27.469568918320874"
],
[
"allow more soot to be completely oxidized after they are produced than diffusion flames on Earth, because of a series of mechanisms that behave differently in micro gravity when compared to normal gravity conditions. These discoveries have potential applications in applied science and industry, especially concerning fuel efficiency.\nIn combustion engines, various steps are taken to eliminate a flame. The method depends mainly on whether the fuel is oil, wood, or a high-energy fuel such as jet fuel. Temperatures of flames by appearance It is true that objects at specific temperatures do radiate visible light. Objects whose surface is at a",
"-27.466163074830547"
],
[
"\"bi\" (fire) is in its name, they have been surmised to be different from simply the flames of combustion, and is a different type of luminescent body. It is especially of note that in the past, these phenomena were not strange.\nIn China in the BC era, it was said that \"from the blood of human and animals, phosphorus and oni fire (onibi) comes\". The character 燐 at that time in China could also mean the luminescence of fireflies, triboelectricity, and was not a word that indicated the chemical element \"phosphorus\".\nMeanwhile, in Japan, according to the explanation in the \"Wakan Sansai",
"-27.449179233517498"
],
[
"occurs when electrons flow through the flame burning, which the ignition controller senses and knows the flame is there, keeping the gas valve open. If the appliance loses gas or the flame goes out, the ignition controller doesn't see the flame, closing the gas valve.\nA red-hot surface can also be used to provide ignition. Such igniters are often made of silicon carbide, silicon nitride, or another material that is durable under prolonged exposure to extreme heat. Hot-surface igniters are commonly used in cooking ovens, boilers, and modern gas furnaces.\nA disadvantage to modern alternatives requiring high voltage is that the appliances",
"-27.442614177358337"
],
[
"heat or open flame.",
"-27.37255845911568"
],
[
"the fire rock creates air pockets that can easily split the rock when heated. Fire rocks must be stored away from high moisture areas and kept dry to keep this problem from occurring. Eco Friendly Because fire rock does not emit any carbon dioxide when heated, it is considered an eco-friendly burning solution. Fire rock can be used multiple times and when cared for can be burned for years on end. It produces no ash, which cuts back on the number of toxins in the home. Aztec Translation The aztec civilisation named their children after these rocks to strike",
"-27.32724490655528"
],
[
"influences\". Accounts from the 18th and 19th centuries suggest that the fires (as well as their smoke and ashes) were deemed to have protective and cleansing powers. In Moray, boys asked for bonfire fuel from each house in the village. When the fire was lit, \"one after another of the youths laid himself down on the ground as near to the fire as possible so as not to be burned, and in such a position as to let the smoke roll over him. The others ran through the smoke and jumped over him\". When the bonfire burnt down, they scattered",
"-27.32557908313902"
],
[
"Adiabatic flame temperature In the study of combustion, there are two types of adiabatic flame temperature depending on how the process is completed: the constant volume and constant pressure; both of which describe temperature that combustion products theoretically can reach if no energy is lost to the outside environment.\nThe constant volume adiabatic flame temperature is the temperature that results from a complete combustion process that occurs without any work, heat transfer or changes in kinetic or potential energy. Its temperature is higher than the constant pressure process because no energy is utilized to change the volume of the system (i.e.,",
"-27.313840361588518"
],
[
"Fire point The fire point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the vapour of that fuel will continue to burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an open flame of standard dimension. At the flash point, a lower temperature, a substance will ignite briefly, but vapor might not be produced at a rate to sustain the fire. Most tables of material properties will only list material flash points. Although in general the fire points can be assumed to be about 10 °C higher than the flash points, although this is no substitute for",
"-27.289961121277884"
],
[
"intense heat they project in a parallel beam against any object they choose by means of a polished parabolic mirror of unknown composition, much as the parabolic mirror of a light-house projects a beam of light. But no one has absolutely proved these details. However it is done, it is certain that a beam of heat is the essence of the matter. Heat, and invisible, instead of visible light. Whatever is combustible flashes into flame at its touch, lead runs like water, it softens iron, cracks and melts glass, and when it falls upon water, incontinently that explodes into steam.\n— The",
"-27.268490469432436"
],
[
"the audience. Preferably, use wood although other combustibles may be used as necessary for starting the fire or controlling the kind of smoke. The fire may be of any size, but it should not be the kind which is associated with another object, such as a candle or a cigarette lighter. The lights may be turned out.\nAfter the fire is burning, the builder(s) may sit by and watch it for the duration of the composition; however, he (they) should not sit between the fire and the audience in order that its members will be able to see and enjoy the",
"-27.174679744290188"
],
[
"you can't find out anything about a fire while it's blazing. It's like a love affair.\" She says, \"you mean you never really understand it while it's flaming?\" and he replies, \"it just happens… and later on…\" She continues, \"when it dies down…\" and he finishes, \"you find the reason for it… in the ashes.\"\nSearching for clues in the smoldering ruins of Acme Fur, Fletcher runs into an old adversary, fire chief Mulligan (Robert Middlemass) and sees Adrienne who tells him that she wants to be a fireman. He puts a fireman's hat on her head and administers a mock",
"-27.120981704909354"
],
[
"a fire cannot begin, and it cannot continue. With a decreased oxygen concentration, the combustion process slows. Oxygen can be denied to a fire using a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher, a fire blanket or water. Multi-scale fire triangles for wildland fires In the context of wildland fire, the fire triangle can be scaled up to apply to understand fire spread over landscapes (scales of days and several km) and recurrence of fire over time (scales of decades and hundreds of km). Thus, while heat is important to ignite a flame, topography is important for aiding fire spread especially by",
"-27.11245754227275"
],
[
"Firewater (fire fighting) Firewater refers to water that has been used in firefighting and requires disposal. In many cases it is a highly polluting material and requires special care in its disposal. Description In many fire fighting situations, large quantities of water remain after the fire has been extinguished. This firewater contains materials present in the building and also contains dissolved and particulate materials from combustion processes and materials generated through quenching.\nFire water can be particularly polluting when the building or site being extinguished itself contains potentially polluting materials such as pesticides, organic and inorganic chemical reagents, fertilizers, etc. Certain",
"-27.077742299064994"
],
[
"on fire, then places it in the censer and extinguishes the flame. After the glowing sparks traverse the entire briquette, it is ready to have incense placed on it.\nFor direct-burning incense, the tip or end of the incense is ignited with a flame or other heat source until the incense begins to turn into ash at the burning end. Flames on the incense are then fanned or blown out, with the incense continuing to burn without a flame on its own.\nCensers made for stick incense are also available; these are simply a long, thin plate of wood, metal, or ceramic,",
"-27.03772501536878"
],
[
"combustion) may actually evolve more total heat than an explosive which detonates rapidly (i.e. fast combustion). In the former, slow combustion converts more of the internal energy (i.e. chemical potential) of the burning substance into heat released to the surroundings, while in the latter, fast combustion (i.e. detonation) instead converts more internal energy into work on the surroundings (i.e. less internal energy converted into heat); c.f. heat and work (thermodynamics) are equivalent forms of energy. See Heat of Combustion for a more thorough treatment of this topic.\nWhen a chemical compound is formed from its constituents, heat may either be absorbed",
"-27.034050478599966"
],
[
"The fire was reintroduced at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam, and it has been part of the modern Olympic Games ever since. According to legend, the torch's flame has been kept burning, ever since the first Olympics.\nFor the ancient Greeks, fire had divine connotations - it was thought to have been stolen from the gods by Prometheus. Therefore, fire was also present at many of the sanctuaries in Olympia, Greece. A fire permanently burned on the altar of Hestia in Olympia, Greece. During the Olympic Games, which honored Zeus, additional fires were lit at his temple and that of",
"-27.001337772526313"
],
[
"occupants, where 85% of all fire deaths take place. Fireworks are another notable cause of fire burns, especially by adolescent males on Independence Days. The most common cause of injury by fire or flame by children is touching candle flame. In some regions, such as the western United States, getting burned by wildfires are common, especially by firefighters who are trying to fight forest fires. Wildfires can suddenly shift due to changing wind directions, making it harder for firefighters and eyewitnesses to avoid getting burned.\nIf clothing the person wears catches fire, third-degree burn can develop in the matter of just",
"-26.83941761647293"
],
[
"clear that the fire was seen as having protective powers. Similar rituals were part of May Day, Midsummer or Easter customs in other parts of the British Isles and mainland Europe. According to Frazer, the fire rituals are a kind of imitative or sympathetic magic. According to one theory, they were meant to mimic the Sun and to \"ensure a needful supply of sunshine for men, animals, and plants\". According to another, they were meant to symbolically \"burn up and destroy all harmful influences\".\nFood was also cooked at the bonfire and there were rituals involving it. Alexander Carmichael wrote that",
"-26.835619496705476"
],
[
"material relative to the flame. Mechanism When the fuel in a flame combusts, the energy released by the combustion process is deposited in combustion products, usually molecular fragments called free radicals. The combustion products are excited to a very high temperature called the adiabatic flame temperature (that is, the temperature before any heat has been transferred away from the combustion products). This temperature is usually much higher than the temperature of the air in the flame or which an object inserted into the flame can reach. When the combustion products lose this energy by radiative emission, the radiation can thus",
"-26.816388060338795"
],
[
"Spark (fire) A spark is an incandescent particle. Sparks may be produced by pyrotechnics, by metalworking or as a by-product of fires, especially when burning wood. Pyrotechnics In pyrotechnics, charcoal, iron filings, aluminum, titanium and metal alloys such as magnalium may be used to create sparks. The quantity and style of sparks produced depends on the composition and pyrophoricity of the metal and can be used to identify the type of metal by spark testing. In the case of iron, the presence of carbon is required, as in carbon steel — about 0.7% is best for large sparks.",
"-26.813434600248"
],
[
"Fire rock Fire rock is manufactured lava rock that is sold in various shapes and sizes, and is used as a medium for retaining direct heat. Fire rocks are used in natural gas fireplaces or in natural gas or propane burning fire pits. It may be used as the main fuel distributor or as padding for fire glass to go on top. Fire rocks are proven to increase combustion efficiency and maintain a desirable aesthetic quality. They also are known for dispersing the flame of the fireplace or fire pit well, by allowing for gaps that act as channels for",
"-26.795123766292818"
],
[
"Thermal fluids Thermodynamics Thermodynamics is the science of energy conversion involving heat and other forms of energy, most notably mechanical work. It studies and interrelates the macroscopic variables, such as temperature, volume and pressure, which describe physical, thermodynamic systems. Combustion Combustion is the sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat and conversion of chemical species. The release of heat can result in the production of light in the form of either glowing or a flame. Fuels of interest often include organic compounds (especially hydrocarbons) in the gas, liquid or",
"-26.777955690355157"
],
[
"effects of fire include hazard to life and property, atmospheric pollution, and water contamination. If fire removes protective vegetation, heavy rainfall may lead to an increase in soil erosion by water. Also, when vegetation is burned, the nitrogen it contains is released into the atmosphere, unlike elements such as potassium and phosphorus which remain in the ash and are quickly recycled into the soil. This loss of nitrogen caused by a fire produces a long-term reduction in the fertility of the soil, which only slowly recovers as nitrogen is \"fixed\" from the atmosphere by lightning and by leguminous plants such",
"-26.713176414894406"
],
[
"being the symbol delta, which is also the classical symbol for fire. Conversion symbolized can be good, for example, refining raw crudities to gold, as seen in The Devil. Conversion can also be bad, as in The Tower, symbolizing a downfall due to anger. Fire is associated with the suit of rods/wands, and as such, represents passion from inspiration. As an element, fire has mixed symbolism because it represents energy, which can be helpful when controlled, but volatile if left unchecked. Modern witchcraft Fire is one of the five elements that appear in most Wiccan traditions influenced by the Golden",
"-26.702303131402005"
],
[
"be burned and destroyed, yielding still more liquified fat, in a cyclic process known as the \"wick effect\" or the \"candle effect\".\nAccording to Nickell and Fischer's investigation, nearby objects often remained undamaged because fire tends to burn upward, but burns laterally with some difficulty. The fires in question are relatively small, achieving considerable destruction by the wick effect, and relatively nearby objects may not be close enough to catch fire themselves (much as one can closely approach a modest campfire without burning). As with other mysteries, Nickell and Fischer cautioned against \"single, simplistic explanation for all unusual burning deaths\" but",
"-26.681884466292104"
],
[
"Fire triangle Oxidizer The oxidizer is the other reactant of the chemical reaction. In most cases, it is the ambient air, and in particular one of its components, oxygen (O₂). By depriving a fire of air, it can be extinguished; for example, when covering the flame of a small candle with an empty glass, fire stops; to the contrary, if air is blown over a wood fire with bellows, the fire is activated by the introduction of more air. In certain torches, gaseous oxygen is introduced to improve combustion.\nSome chemicals, such as fluorine gas, perchlorate salts such as ammonium perchlorate,",
"-26.66598929889733"
],
[
"of the building. A secondary function is as a radiator of stored heat. The metal is heated by the fire, and then that heat is radiated into the room. The thick iron keeps the heat which would otherwise be lost and gives back this heat to the room. A fireback thus may increase the efficiency of the fire. Wood fires have low efficiency, and for those that prefer the atmosphere of an open wood fire the fireback helps to minimise this problem. The thicker the fireback, the longer (and softer) this radiative effect. \nIn parts of southern Belgium and",
"-26.62340214755386"
],
[
"The Habit of Fire Concept In an interview with Ultimate Metal.com, Jeff said that \"The Habit of Fire is a concept album about the living energy in a human being that has become our archetype of survival... ...The fire itself represents an energy or spirit that can never be taken down by outside forces. The lyrical themes are based around a 12-million people metropolis within a post-dictatorship country, heading down into chaos due to the people's inability to adapt with the global winds of change.\" Recording In the same interview, Jeff said that the recording process was only the second",
"-26.579855369694997"
],
[
"The region of chemical heat release, the flame, whose thickness can be given as δL, exists following the preheat region and its length is dependent upon mass flux, surface properties, and equivalence ratio. Beyond the flame, where minimal chemical heat release occurs, heat is convectively transferred from the post combustion gasses into the solid. Heat then conducts and radiates through the solid structure upstream through the flame. Within the preheating region, heat is again convectively transferred from the solid structure to the gas.",
"-26.551725037650613"
],
[
"and not ignite into flames, unlike invasive species of annual grasses that contribute to a fire's spreading.",
"-26.54601447127061"
],
[
"Fire clay Fire clay is a range of refractory clays used in the manufacture of ceramics, especially fire brick. The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines fire clay very generally as a \"mineral aggregate composed of hydrous silicates of aluminium (Al₂O₃·2SiO₂·2H₂O) with or without free silica.\" Properties High-grade fire clays can withstand temperatures of 1,775 °C (3,227 °F), but to be referred to as a \"fire clay\" the material must withstand a minimum temperature of 1,515 °C (2,759 °F). Fire clays range from flint clays to plastic fire clays, but there are semi-flint and semi-plastic fire clays as well. Fire clays consist of natural",
"-26.517805287636293"
],
[
"small spark which shines and in an instant is extinguished, and it alone can give us no idea of that blaze, that conflagration, that ocean of light. I believe in revelation, but in that living revelation which surrounds us on every side, in that voice, mighty, eternal, unceasing, incorruptible, clear, distinct, universal as is the being from whom it proceeds, in that revelation which speaks to us and penetrates us from the moment we are born until we die. What books can better reveal to us the goodness of God, His love, His providence, His eternity, His glory, His wisdom?",
"-26.452714760263916"
],
[
"devices that emits flames. Another way to light fireworks is by using a device called a punk. A punk is a long, thin piece of wood covered in a substance that burns very slowly, producing only heat, with no flame. A port fire is a smoldering compound as a powder compressed in a stiff paper tube. The most complicated method used to ignite consumer fireworks is to use electronic ignition. This is the preferred method of many professional pyrotechnicians worldwide because of the vast improvement in operator safety. There are a few electronic ignition (often called \"e-fire\") systems that use",
"-26.45268365877382"
],
[
"the flame temperature, so that it fuses and then solidifies as it cools, and ash if its melting point is above the flame temperature. Protection and prevention Wildfire prevention programs around the world may employ techniques such as wildland fire use and prescribed or controlled burns. Wildland fire use refers to any fire of natural causes that is monitored but allowed to burn. Controlled burns are fires ignited by government agencies under less dangerous weather conditions.\nFire fighting services are provided in most developed areas to extinguish or contain uncontrolled fires. Trained firefighters use fire apparatus, water supply resources such as",
"-26.442019317182712"
],
[
"flames and not simply delaying the fire. Through molecular modification fibres carbonize and therefore extinguish the flame. The resulting products are hypoallergenic and biodegradable.",
"-26.438515715723042"
],
[
"take shelter during a fire, although the heat and smoke may actually attract some of them, to their peril. Microbial organisms in the soil vary in their heat tolerance but are more likely to be able to survive a fire the deeper they are in the soil. A low fire intensity, a quick passing of the flames and a dry soil will also help. An increase in available nutrients after the fire has passed may result in larger microbial communities than before the fire. The generally greater heat tolerance of bacteria relative to fungi makes it possible for soil microbial",
"-26.36628019454656"
],
[
"temperature when burnt in free air, the risk is lower should the performer come in contact with the flame. Kerosene is generally not recommended as fuel for indoor fire dancing, as it produces an unpleasant (to some) odor, which becomes poisonous in sufficient concentration. Ethanol was sometimes used instead, but the flames it produces look less impressive, and its lower flash point poses a high risk. In industry As a petroleum product miscible with many industrial liquids, kerosene can be used as both a solvent, able to remove other petroleum products, such as chain grease, and as a lubricant, with",
"-26.353825441678055"
],
[
"not require an external ignition source, such as a spark or hot material.\nHarry Julius Emeléus was the first to record their emission spectra, and in 1929 he coined the term \"cold flame\". Mechanism Whereas in a usual flame molecules break down to small fragments and combine with oxygen producing carbon dioxide (i.e. burn), in a cool flame, the fragments are relatively large and easily recombine with each other. Therefore, much less heat, light and carbon dioxide is released; the combustion process is oscillatory and can sustain for a long time. A typical temperature increase upon ignition of a cool flame",
"-26.326856884435983"
],
[
"proven to be the best choice. The brightly visible flames (due to the substantial volatile component) give more radiant heat transfer than anthracite coal or charcoal. \nContact with the products of combustion, which may add undesirable elements to the subject material, is used to advantage in some processes. Control of the fuel/air balance can alter the exhaust gas chemistry toward either an oxidizing or a reducing mixture, and thus alter the chemistry of the material being processed. For example, cast iron can be puddled in an oxidizing atmosphere to convert it to the lower-carbon mild steel or",
"-26.28511399240233"
],
[
"The Fire When It Comes \"The Fire When It Comes\" is a fantasy short story by American writer Parke Godwin. It was first published in the January 1981 issue of The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction. Plot summary A young couple rents an apartment that is haunted by the ghost of an actress. Reception \"The Fire When It Comes\" won the 1982 World Fantasy Award for Best Novella, and was a finalist for the 1981 Nebula Award for Best Novelette and the 1982 Hugo Award for Best Novelette.\nKirkus Reviews considered it to be \"dandy\", judging it to",
"-26.254705975065008"
],
[
"assertion (eventually found to be incorrect) of Carlisle Spedding, the paper's author, that \"this sort of Vapour, or damp Air, will not take Fire except by Flame; Sparks do not affect it, and for that Reason it is frequent to use Flint and Steel in Places affected with this sort of Damp, which will give a glimmering Light, that is a great Help to the Workmen in difficult Cases.\"\n Spedding invented a \"steel mill\", in which a flint was held against a rapidly rotated steel disc, producing a stream of sparks giving some illumination. A second worker was needed to",
"-26.24821943033021"
],
[
"others are already burning.",
"-26.197720664320514"
],
[
"motion of particles, and what causes it to produce light.\nAccording to Descartes, the motion, or agitation, of these particles is what gives substances their properties (i.e. their fluidity and hardness). Fire is the most fluid and has enough energy to render most other bodies fluid whereas the particles of air lack the force necessary to do the same. Hard bodies have particles that are all equally hard to separate from the whole.\nBased on his observations of how resistant nature is to a vacuum, Descartes deduced that all particles in nature are packed together such that there is no",
"-26.166236828255933"
],
[
"explosion, but it had not been found possible to transmit the flame to a slow-burning substance like wood. While Walker was preparing a lighting mixture on one occasion, a match which had been dipped in it took fire by an accidental friction upon the hearth. He at once appreciated the practical value of the discovery, and started making friction matches. They consisted of wooden splints or sticks of cardboard coated with sulfur and tipped with a mixture of sulfide of antimony, chlorate of potash, and gum. The treatment with sulfur helped the splints to catch fire, and the odor was",
"-26.146686219901312"
],
[
"Fire striker A fire striker is a piece of carbon steel from which sparks are struck by the sharp edge of flint, chert or similar rock. It is a specific tool used in firemaking. History In early times, percussion firemaking was often used to start fires. Before the advent of steel, a variety of iron pyrite or marcasite was used with flint and other stones to produce a high-temperature spark that could be used to create fire. There are indications that the \"Iceman\" called Ötzi may have used iron pyrite to make fire.\nFrom the Iron Age forward, until the invention",
"-26.138743869727477"
]
] |
5m9asi | How come when you're sick you can blow your nose and they'll be completely empty and 5 minutes later they're full and dripping. How does mucus generate so quickly and where is it even made. | [
"The mucus comes directly from the surface of your nose, called a mucous membrane because it produces mucus to protect itself and as lubrication. This mucus is a combination of long, stringy proteins and water, which allows it to stick to most surfaces. We produce a ton of it while we have upper respiratory tract infections like the common cold because our immune systems are trying to isolate the virus causing the infection and prevent more from getting in. This measure isn't actually that effective, as it only slows down viruses and bacteria can swim right through it, but we do it anyway. Allergies do the same thing because they are an attempt by the immune system to attack something that isn't actually a disease, like pollen. We are less clear on why allergies happen, but some hypothesize that they occur due to infants and children living in environments that are far too clean. Their immune systems don't have anything to fight, so they start fighting random things instead.",
"Some of the immediate fullness you feel is not mucus instantly generating, but your sinuses swelling back up and blocking the nasal passages. See, your sinuses are inflamed when you're sick. When you blow your nose, you kind of flex them as well so they get a bit narrower to let stuff out. Then when you're done blowing/flexing those muscles, they swell back up. That's why you can repeatedly blow your nose, have just a little bit come out, but still feel like you need to blow again.",
"^(i think part of your confusion is that you may not fully know the anatomy of the nasal cavity. the nasal cavity has a large surface area which aids in its function of moistening and warming air you inhale. mucus is also produced here by goblet cells which are interspersed amongst the nasal epithelium.) [^(here's a picture of the nasal cavity which might give you perspective on how large of a surface it is in there.)]( URL_0 )",
"Not sure if posting this too late but I had some follow up questions. I never really seem to breathe out of both of my nostrils. One seems to always have a swollen nodule and it is usually my left notril. Sometimes throughout the day they will switch sides. I am wondering if it is a common occurrence. Second to that is I always have what I am guessing is post nasal drip. Throughout the day I have to cough to clear my throat of mucus and to me it seems totally gross. People think I am sneezing. When I first wake up in the morning I have to cough quite violently because I will have a small dried gobbet stuck to the back of my throat and it will take quite a while to get cleared up. Sometimes I give myself a sore throat because of it. It is always dark brown or green in color and maybe about 2 cm in length. Doctor put me on some anti-histamines last month but they didn't do a thing. I figured it had something to do with being a smoker but I quit smoking cigarettes in 2013 and still have the issue. Then again I do vape. Been having this problem now for maybe 13 years now. Edit: Thank you so much for the feedback guys. Suppose I will be asking to be referred to an ENT soon about the drip.",
"Your body is responding to a stimulus - \"I am sick/foreign bodies detected\". It then goes into security mode. SHUT. DOWN. EVERYTHING. While your skin does a great job at keeping most everything out, you obviously have openings all over. Your nose is one such place, but unlike your ears or mouth, it cannot be closed off/is closed off already (you have to breath). So our mucus membrane produces mucus. It does this already, and just like your ear wax its job is to keep foreign stuff out of your body (for the most part). When you get sick, your body doesn't want any more bad things getting in because it's already fighting one thing. This is when you are arguably at your weakest. So it produces extra mucus to keep the entrance stopped up. Unfortunately your body has no way of knowing just how far to take its defense. It is an all or nothing response. So even if it is a virus you will be over in a day, or simple pollen in the air, it turns things up to 11 and SHUTS. DOWN. EVERYTHING. But to be honest, I'd rather go hard on something than take that chance. Then again, that's how things like auto-immune diseases pop up.",
"Follow up question: if this is a result of narrowing and expanding nasal passages, and certain people have more narrow sinuses so they need surgery, what is the evolutionary advantage of this? How did so many people (like myself) end up with chronic stuffiness and swollen sinuses? How would that be evolutionary advantageous?",
"Mucus is water plus a protein called mucosin. You only need to add a small amount of mucosin to a lot of water to make a lot mucus. It's like gelatin you only need to add a teaspoon to a lot of water and it turns into jelly.",
"To answer the where it is produced part, the lining of the respiratory tract is made mostly of a type of epithelia (classification of cells) called pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. The mucous is produced by goblet cells which are part of the epithelium. The cilia are tiny hair like projections that face the cavity or whatever they are lining and sweep the mucous around, usually toward an exit such as the nose or throat. The mucous serves to trap dust, debris and germs which would otherwise enter our respiratory system and cause infection.",
"There is a lot of misinformation and poor terminology going around. The sinuses are really just voids in your bones, and typically do not change significantly in size. They don't produce most of the mucus that comes out when you blow your nose. The sinus *tissues* (their lining) can become inflamed and sensitive, perhaps due to infection, not suprising since they are dark, moist, and flesh-lined structures deep in your body, perfect so microorganisms can thrive. Making things worse, most of the sinuses have only small 'openings' to the rest of the nasal cavity. It is actually the turbinate structures and their tissues which people are describing as 'expanding' (swelling) and 'blocking the nose'. These structures and other surfaces in the nasal cavity produce most of the mucus that comes out. URL_0 ",
"In addition to what u/frommerman said, there are also these kind of balloon things in the back of your nostrils called turbinates, which normally warm and moisturize the air you suck in through your nose. That feeling that your nose is stuffed and you can only breath out of one nostril? That's not so much mucus as it is these turbinates swelling up, blocking the passage of your nostrils.",
"One more thing that I haven't seen in the comments... excess tears drain into the nasal cavity... so if you're having trouble putting your contact lenses in and your eyes water a lot, you'll want to blow your nose. So I guess if you're sick and you're eyes are watering, that contributes a lot to your runny nose.",
"A lot of people are answering how, but here's why. Your mucus acts for two reasons. It acts as a protective barrier against some germs and helps to expel things already trapped. So while your mucus can generate very quickly, it adjusts the pace to keep the nose at an uncomfortable level without overfilling it. The same property as ferrets; their sent is intentionally maintained, so when bathed too frequently, their glands overporduce and lead to more intense sent than would be typically present.",
"Hey maybe someone can help me here. It has now been 8 years straight of steady mucus drip down the back of my throat. It is very literally never not there. At all times. I'm now 33, started at 25. What could be causing this? Can I do anything to stop it? I've kind of taken it as 'this is my life now' but it'd be nice to get rid of.",
"I was going to ask this myself recently! Another question: Why is it that congestion can switch sides so quickly? One minute my left nostril is completely stopped up with no air passing through. Then it'll switch and my right will be closed. How's that happen?",
"Related question: When I have a stuffy nose I end up usually taking over the counter nasal spray like Afrin, which works, but doesn't last very long. Is there anything I can use that is just as (or more) effective?",
"Can I add a follow up question? (Or perhaps 2 if you wanna be picky) Why, sometimes, does only one nostril feel stuffy or drippy and the other one is totally clear?",
"Sort of a follow-up for any docs in the audience. From what I understand, a virus like the common cold enters through your nose (usually) and progresses into your lungs from there. This results in mucus production. And if you're producing mucus and sleeping on your back, you get post-nasal drip, which sucks ass. So when I'm coming down with a cold, I always ensure that I sleep on my sides. This definitely helps with the post-nasal drip, but my question is whether it prevents the virus from progressing into the lungs. If I let my body produce mucus to trap the virus, and I don't let that mucus drip into the back of my throat, does that improve my recovery from the virus? It *seems* like my colds have gotten less severe since I instituted this policy, but maybe that's just because removing the misery of post-nasal drip is enough to make a cold more bearable.",
"I work with GI pathogens so I can't claim to be an expert in respiratory infections. In GI infections the body upregulates processes to poop. It hopes to flush out the bacteria or at least reduce the burden to a manageable level. Salmonella take advantage of this as a way to shed the host and hopefully make it to a new host. Sometimes salmonella will actively promote these processes as well. Bacteria and viruses must also take advantage of processes like this in the respiratory system. It sounds reasonable for mucous to produce as a way to drain the body of the intruder and at the same time this provides an excellent route of escape. For example if you have the flu then the more times you blow your nose the more chances the virus has to get on your hands or out in the air and spread.",
"At the tiniest levels cellular messengers causes surrounding tissues that make up the nasopharyngeal openings aka sinuses to become inflamed. Once that happens the body naturally does its best to halt/slow down progression of any bacteria or viruses by producing more phlegm from epithelial goblet cells than usual. This is why when you are sick, your mucus is colored rather than being white or clear. Normally mucus production is stable to keep the membranes in our nasal cavities and airways moist and protected but when we get sick the cells that are responsible for mucus production is more responsive.",
"Your body always makes 1-1.5 Liters of mucus per day. Typically this mucus is thin and drains down to your stomach with little effect. When you get sick, the body sends lots of white blood cells to your mucus membrane, thickening the mucus and changing its color. When the tissue swells with white blood cells and your mucus thickens, it cannot all drain backwards, so it starts coming out of the front. source: URL_0 ",
"Congested noses aren't actually (entirely) from snot - they're from swollen sinuses. Blowing your nose is like pressing on swolen skin - the blood will be squeezed out into the rest of your veins, but eventually they'll get swolen with blood again in about under a minute.",
"Are you able to have any surgeries that will sear your sinuses shut so they won't produce as much? Because that would be awesome.",
"Is it worse to swallow the mucus? I have allergies and always need to blow my nose, the mucus never seems to go away...."
] | [
[
"expelled via spitting. The epithelium lining the respiratory tract is covered in small hairs called cilia. These beat rhythmically out from the lungs, moving secreted mucus foreign particles toward the laryngopharynx upwards and outwards, in a process called mucociliary clearance, they prevent mucus accumulation in the lungs. Macrophages in the alveoli are part of the immune system which engulf and digest any inhaled harmful agents.\nHair in the nostrils plays a protective role, trapping particulate matter such as dust. The cough reflex expels all irritants within the mucous membrane to the outside. The airways of the lungs contain rings of muscle.",
"-30.070841744858626"
],
[
"fluids in this way may also occur if a particularly high volume of liquid is regurgitated, or during vigorous coughing, for example being caused by the accidental inhalation of water. Due to the action of coughing preventing the uvula from blocking the nasopharynx, liquid may be expelled back through the nose. Society and culture In some parts of Africa, including Ethiopia and Eritrea, the uvula or a section of it is ritually removed by a traditional healer. In this case, the uvula may be noticeably shortened. It is not thought to contribute to velopharyngeal inadequacy, except in cases where",
"-29.815972379741652"
],
[
"suspended in the air for long periods of time. They infect others via the upper and lower respiratory tracts.\" Diseases that are commonly spread by coughing or sneezing include bacterial meningitis, chickenpox, common cold, influenza, mumps, strep throat, tuberculosis, measles, rubella, whooping cough, SARS and leprosy. Droplet \"Droplet transmission occurs when respiratory droplets generated via coughing, sneezing or talking contact susceptible mucosal surfaces, such as the eyes, nose or mouth. Transmission may also occur indirectly via contact with contaminated formites with hands and then mucosal surfaces. Respiratory droplets are large and are not able to remain suspended in",
"-28.652377883434383"
],
[
"taken for more than a few days. Therefore, you should only take nasal sprays when discomfort cannot be remedied by other methods, and never for more than three days.\nIf an infant is unable to breathe because of a plugged nose, a nasal aspirator may be useful to remove the mucus. The mucus might be thick and sticky, making it difficult to expel from the nostril.",
"-28.52293045436818"
],
[
"defecating. Tenesmus may be noticed when taking rectal temperature. Fluid faeces are olive green to brown. Examination of the mouth shows ulceration of the buccal mucosae, especially on the inner face of the lips, and neighboring gum. There can be periodontitis or serous nasal exudate and conjunctivitis. Evolution of acute cases Nasal discharge becomes mucopurulent and may obstruct the nose. A dry, fitful coughing develops. Death occurs from 5 to 10 days after the onset of the fever. Some animals may recover, but a dry, stertorous coughing often persists for some days. Besides coughing, there is intensive labial dermatitis with",
"-28.42721576504846"
],
[
"liquid prior to reaching the colon. The colon absorbs water, leaving the remaining material as a semisolid stool. If the colon is damaged or inflamed, however, absorption is inhibited, and watery stools result.\nDiarrhea is most commonly caused by a myriad of viral infections but is also often the result of bacterial toxins and sometimes even infection. In sanitary living conditions and with ample food and water available, an otherwise healthy patient typically recovers from the common viral infections in a few days and at most a week. However, for ill or malnourished individuals diarrhea can lead to severe",
"-28.416602451692597"
],
[
"be aspirated into the lungs over the course of at least two deep breaths. A liquid suspension of particles in saline solution is usually used, in a typical volume of 50 μL. Sometimes the substance is introduced into the larynx instead of the pharynx to avoid contamination from food particles and other contaminants present in the mouth.",
"-28.362927848364052"
],
[
"a condition called shock, and respiratory failure may occur, which can be fatal within 36 to 72 hours. If an exposure to abrin by inhalation is not fatal, the airway can become sensitized or irritated. Ingestion Swallowing any amount of abrin can lead to severe symptoms. Early symptoms include nausea, vomiting, pain in the mouth, throat, and esophagus, diarrhea, dysphagia (trouble swallowing), and abdominal cramps and pain. As the symptoms progress, bleeding and inflammation begins in the gastrointestinal tract. The affected person can vomit up blood (hematemesis), have blood in their feces, which creates a black, tarry stool called melena,",
"-27.872408162485954"
],
[
"used up, the smoke should also be dispersed. It may be difficult for the patient to bear the odour of the smoke at first, but once he gets used to such a smell, it does not really matter. Whenever the patient feels that there is phlegm in his throat, he is advised to cough and spit it out. If the patient is greatly affected by the symptoms, it will be good if his spittle is thick and if he can spit it out. When the patient is less affected by the wicked ch'i, he does not have much phlegm to",
"-27.827718754770103"
],
[
"induce a cough reflex and sneezing. These responses cause air to be expelled forcefully from the trachea or nose, respectively. In this manner, irritants caught in the mucus which lines the respiratory tract are expelled or moved to the mouth where they can be swallowed. During coughing, contraction of the smooth muscle in the airway walls narrows the trachea by pulling the ends of the cartilage plates together and by pushing soft tissue into the lumen. This increases the expired airflow rate to dislodge and remove any irritant particle or mucus.\nRespiratory epithelium can secrete a variety of molecules that aid",
"-27.82170024932202"
],
[
"side of the body that is closer to the ground). Bloat At this stage, the microorganisms residing in the human gut begin to digest the tissues of the body, excreting gases that cause the torso and limbs to bloat, and producing foul-smelling chemicals including putrescine and cadaverine. Cells in tissues break down and release hydrolytic enzymes, and the top layer of skin may become loosened, leading to skin slippage. Decomposition of the gastrointestinal tract results in a dark, foul-smelling liquid called \"purge fluid\" that is forced out of the nose and mouth due to gas pressure in the intestine. The",
"-27.785612120424048"
],
[
"not directly absorbed through the mucous membranes is collected in mucus and swallowed (this \"drip\" is considered pleasant by some and unpleasant by others).\nIn a study of cocaine users, the average time taken to reach peak subjective effects was 14.6 minutes. Any damage to the inside of the nose is because cocaine highly constricts blood vessels – and therefore blood and oxygen/nutrient flow – to that area. Nosebleeds after cocaine insufflation are due to irritation and damage of mucus membranes by foreign particles and adulterants and not the cocaine itself; as a vasoconstrictor, cocaine acts to reduce bleeding.\nRolled up banknotes, hollowed-out",
"-27.63699561985777"
],
[
"as the fluid returns through the nose and mouth. The infant may become cyanotic (turn bluish due to lack of oxygen) and may stop breathing as the overflow of fluid from the blind pouch is aspirated (sucked into) the trachea. The cyanosis is a result of laryngospasm (a protective mechanism that the body has to prevent aspiration into the trachea). Over time respiratory distress will develop.\nIf any of the above signs/symptoms are noticed, a catheter is gently passed into the esophagus to check for resistance. If resistance is noted, other studies will be done to confirm the diagnosis. A catheter",
"-27.484495670657452"
],
[
"that affects smokers and asthmatics, hoarseness that turns into toneless voice, ageusia (loss of taste), and anosmia (loss of smell); later on, sinus and nose pain develops. With more severe inhalation exposure, the airway becomes inflamed, pneumonia develops, and the respiratory epithelium can begin to have necrosis and slough off, forming a pseudomembrane that can occlude the airway. This occlusion can be fatal, as can the pneumonia.\nSkin contact with nitrogen mustard in low concentrations causes symptoms beginning with redness, then moving to blistering, itching, and burning pain. More severe exposure can cause necrosis (cell death) in the blisters, and systemic",
"-27.41752821569571"
],
[
"ulcers on the mucous membranes may create discharge. Due to lymph node swelling and developing lung lesions, breathing can become loud and labored.\nThe acute phase has passed when the papules become necrotic and scabs start to form. These scabs can last up to 6 weeks and typically leave a star-shaped scar. The presence of the skin lesions can lead to movement restriction of the animal, oropharynx lesions impact feeding and drinking ability, and lesions on the udder interfere with suckling. Secondary pneumonia is another common symptom, which is often fatal. In endemic areas morbidity is around 70-90% while SPV",
"-27.35547141781717"
],
[
"during endoscopy\" by Nai-Liang Li, et al., Canadian Journal of Gastroenterology, 2011, Feb; volume 25(2): pages 68–72.]. Rhinorrhea can also be the side effect of several genetic disorders, such as primary ciliary dyskinesia. Treatment In most cases treatment for rhinorrhea is not necessary since it will clear up on its own—especially if it is the symptom of an infection. For general cases nose-blowing can get rid of the mucus buildup. Though blowing may be a quick-fix solution, it would likely proliferate mucosal production in the sinuses, leading to frequent and higher mucus buildups in the nose. Alternatively, saline nasal sprays",
"-27.34965930072849"
],
[
"defined clinically as a persistent cough that produces sputum (phlegm) and mucus, for at least three months in two consecutive years. Chronic bronchitis is often the cause of \"smoker's cough\". The tobacco smoke causes inflammation, secretion of mucus into the airway, and difficulty clearing that mucus out of the airways. Coughing helps clear those secretions out. May be treated by quitting smoking. May also be caused by pneumoconiosis and long-term fume inhalation. Gastroesophageal reflux In people with unexplained cough, gastroesophageal reflux disease should be considered. This occurs when acidic contents of the stomach come back up into the esophagus. Symptoms",
"-27.341882208784227"
],
[
"small doses (called the tidal volume), by breathing in (inhalation) and out (exhalation) through the respiratory airways, a set of relatively narrow and moderately long tubes which start at the nose or mouth and end in the alveoli of the lungs in the chest. Air moves in and out through the same set of tubes, in which the flow is in one direction during inhalation, and in the opposite direction during exhalation.\nDuring each inhalation, at rest, approximately 500 ml of fresh air flows in through the nose. Its is warmed and moistened as it flows through the nose and pharynx. By",
"-27.302601262068492"
],
[
"Gastroenteritis Signs and symptoms Gastroenteritis usually involves both diarrhea and vomiting. Sometimes, only one or the other is present. This may be accompanied by abdominal cramps. Signs and symptoms usually begin 12–72 hours after contracting the infectious agent. If due to a virus, the condition usually resolves within one week. Some viral infections also involve fever, fatigue, headache and muscle pain. If the stool is bloody, the cause is less likely to be viral and more likely to be bacterial. Some bacterial infections cause severe abdominal pain and may persist for several weeks.\nChildren infected with rotavirus usually make a full recovery",
"-27.233207045849667"
],
[
"toxicity, which causes malaise, vomiting, exhaustion, and fever. Skin exposure that causes symptoms over more than 25% of the body area is often fatal. Though ingestion is uncommon, nitrogen mustard can burn the GI tract and cause nausea, vomiting, hemorrhagic diarrhea, and abdominal pain.\nNitrogen mustard exposure does not cause symptoms until several hours to several days afterwards, but more severe exposure causes symptoms sooner. With severe exposure, eye injury can manifest within 1-2 hours, airway damage within 2-6 hours, and skin damage within 6-12 hours (sooner in hot or humid weather). Mild exposure takes longer to manifest symptoms: eye injury",
"-27.15774549399066"
],
[
"the diaphragm muscle and stops the person who has ingested it from breathing. People who live longer than 24 hours typically survive, although possibly after a coma lasting several days.\nThe source of tetrodotoxin in puffers has been a matter of debate, but it is increasingly accepted that bacteria in the fish's intestinal tract are the source.\nSaxitoxin, the cause of paralytic shellfish poisoning and red tide, can also be found in certain puffers. Philippines In September 2012, the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources in the Philippines issued a warning not to eat puffer fish, after local fishermen died upon consuming",
"-27.113964203963405"
],
[
"benzisothiazolin-3-one. Severe skin burns are very rare. Inhalation is a minor route of exposure, but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort, an unpleasant taste in the mouth, or tingling and irritation in the throat. Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis. Superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate. Death has been reported after deliberate overdose. Ingestion of Roundup ranging from 85 to 200 ml (of 41% solution) has resulted in death within hours of ingestion, although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms.",
"-27.054779583442723"
],
[
"More water-soluble gases (e.g. chlorine, ammonia, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen chloride) dissolve in the upper airway and immediately cause mucous membrane irritation, which may alert people to the need to escape the exposure. Permanent damage to the upper respiratory tract, distal airways, and lung parenchyma occurs only if escape from the gas source is impeded. Less soluble gases (e.g. nitrogen dioxide, phosgene, ozone) may not dissolve until they are well into the respiratory tract, often reaching the lower airways. These agents are less likely to produce early warning signs (phosgene in low concentrations has a pleasant odor), are more likely to",
"-27.052083761864196"
],
[
"he was force-fed: \nThe feeding pipe was thick, thicker than my nostril, and would not go in. Blood came gushing out of my nose and tears down my cheeks, but they kept pushing until the cartilages cracked. I guess I would have screamed if I could, but I could not with the pipe in my throat. I could breathe neither in nor out at first; I wheezed like a drowning man — my lungs felt ready to burst. The doctor also seemed ready to burst into tears, but she kept shoving the pipe farther and farther down. Only when it",
"-27.049814738911664"
],
[
"bleeding from the nose, eyes, and mouth; death frequently occurred within 3 to 4 days. Some also describe the afflicted during this period as having spotted skin and gastrointestinal hemorrhaging, leading to bloody diarrhea, as well as bleeding from the eyes, mouth, and vagina. The onset was often rapid, and without any precursors that would suggest one was sick. The disease was characterized by an extremely high level of virulence, with death often occurring within a week of one becoming symptomatic. Due to the virulence and effectiveness of the disease, recognizing its existence in the archaeological record has been difficult.",
"-26.96546528991894"
],
[
"reached my stomach could I resume breathing, carefully. Then she poured some slop through a funnel into the pipe that would choke me if it came back up. They held me down for another half-hour so that the liquid was absorbed by my stomach and could not be vomited back, and then began to pull the pipe out bit by bit.\n\"The unfortunate patients had their mouth clamped shut, had a rubber tube inserted into their mouth or nostril. They keep on pressing it down until it reaches your esophagus. A china funnel is attached to the other end of the",
"-26.94187195777704"
],
[
"the transported mucus is either swallowed or coughed up. This movement towards the pharynx is either upward from the lower respiratory tract or downwards from the nasal structures clearing the mucus that is constantly produced. \nEach cilium is about 7 μm in length, and is fixed at its base. Its beat has two parts the power stroke, or effector stroke, and the recovery stroke. The movement of the cilia takes place in the periciliary liquid which is a little shorter in depth than the height of an extended cilium. This allows the cilia to penetrate the mucous layer during its",
"-26.88695489627753"
],
[
"Allergic salute Process The upwards wiping of the nose and nostrils allows for running mucus to be wiped off quickly and easily. Also, as the nostrils are being pushed up the air passages through the nose become temporarily propped open. This is especially beneficial if the air passages are swollen and the nostrils are itchy due to irritations such as allergic rhinitis.\nThe mucus that is wiped onto the hand will most likely carry bacteria and other germs which could then in turn be passed along to other people. Habitual as well as fast or rough saluting may also result in",
"-26.69629749194064"
],
[
"muscles in which gastric contents are forcefully expelled through the mouth because of coordinated movements of the small bowel, stomach, esophagus, and diaphragm. Diagnosis requires that the child be between 1 and 12, the regurgitation must be two or more times per day for three or more weeks, and there is a strong involuntary effort to vomit, hematemesis, aspiration, apnea, failure to thrive, or abnormal posturing. This is transient problem, possibly cause to the immaturity of gastrointestinal motility.",
"-26.586120454463526"
],
[
"Empty nose syndrome Signs and symptoms There are no objective physical examination findings that definitely diagnose ENS. Generally, one or more turbinates may be reduced or absent when viewed in medical imaging or via endoscope with no sign of physical obstruction, the mucosa will be dry and pale, and there may be signs of secondary infection. \nSymptoms of ENS include a sensation of being unable to breathe, a feeling of nasal obstruction and dryness, and crusting, oozing, and foul smells inside the nose from infections. A person with ENS may complain of pain in their nose or face,",
"-26.541153059337375"
],
[
"lungs from which they cannot be expelled. Serious and sometimes fatal diseases such as silicosis are a result from working with certain powders without adequate respiratory protection.\nAlso, if powder particles are sufficiently small, they may become suspended in the atmosphere for a very long time. Random motion of the air molecules and turbulence provide upward forces that may counteract the downward force of gravity. Coarse granulars, on the other hand, are so heavy that they fall immediately back to the ground. Once disturbed, dust may form huge dust storms that cross continents and oceans before settling back to the surface.",
"-26.506583454542124"
],
[
"diverticulum may also result in halitosis due to aging food retained in the esophagus. Stomach The stomach is considered by most researchers as a very uncommon source of bad breath. The esophagus is a closed and collapsed tube, and continuous flow of gas or putrid substances from the stomach indicates a health problem—such as reflux serious enough to be bringing up stomach contents or a fistula between the stomach and the esophagus—which will demonstrate more serious manifestations than just foul odor.\nIn the case of allyl methyl sulfide (the byproduct of garlic's digestion), odor does not come from the stomach, since",
"-26.501082438033336"
],
[
"of inhaling abrin, common symptoms include fever, cough, airway irritation, chest tightness, pulmonary edema (excess fluid accumulated in the lungs), and nausea. This makes breathing difficult (called dyspnea), and the skin might turn blue in a condition called cyanosis, putting the person in respiratory distress. Excess fluid in the lungs can be diagnosed by x-ray or by listening to the chest with a stethoscope. As the effects of abrin progress, a person can become diaphoretic (sweating heavily) and fluid can build up further. Their blood pressure may drop dramatically, keeping oxygen from reaching the brain and other vital organs in",
"-26.41945558423322"
],
[
"Rhinorrhea Signs and symptoms Rhinorrhea is characterized by an excess amount of mucus produced by the mucous membranes that line the nasal cavities. The membranes create mucus faster than it can be processed, causing a backup of mucus in the nasal cavities. As the cavity fills up, it blocks off the air passageway, causing difficulty breathing through the nose. Air caught in nasal cavities, namely the sinus cavities, cannot be released and the resulting pressure may cause a headache or facial pain. If the sinus passage remains blocked, there is a chance that sinusitis may result. If the mucus backs",
"-26.3715002694712"
],
[
"also compounds known to be respiratory irritants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and nitrogen tetroxide (N₂O₄). While low NO₂ concentrations can cause coughing, labored breathing, and/or nausea, high concentrations can cause fluid to fill the lungs, which can result in death.\nExposure Conditions/Scenarios/Causal Pathways\nHazardous gas concentrations are generally highest within the first 48 hours after silage has been added to the container, but may still be present for roughly four weeks. The hazardous gases produced from fermenting silage (NO₂ and NO₄) are heavier than air and typically can be reduced in silos by means of opening the containers chute",
"-26.341524203169683"
],
[
"Silicosis Pathophysiology When small silica dust particles are inhaled, they can embed themselves deeply into the tiny alveolar sacs and ducts in the lungs, where oxygen and carbon dioxide gases are exchanged. There, the lungs cannot clear out the dust by mucous or coughing.\nWhen fine particles of crystalline silica dust are deposited in the lungs, macrophages that ingest the dust particles will set off an inflammatory response by releasing tumor necrosis factors, interleukin-1, leukotriene B4 and other cytokines. In turn, these stimulate fibroblasts to proliferate and produce collagen around the silica particle, thus resulting in fibrosis and the formation",
"-26.335828351708187"
],
[
"the typical whoop. A coughing spell may last a minute or more, producing cyanosis, apnoea, and seizures. However, when not in a coughing fit, the patient does not experience trouble breathing. This is because B. pertussis inhibits the immune response, so very little mucus is generated in the lungs.\nA prolonged cough may be irritating and sometimes a disabling cough may go undiagnosed in adults for many months. Prevention Pertussis vaccine has been widely used since the second half of the 20th century. The first vaccines were whole-cell vaccines, composed of chemically inactivated bacteria. They are being replaced by acellular vaccines,",
"-26.285275761818184"
],
[
"develop gaps and leak fluid through the skin; if the skin is cooled, the vessels constrict and leak less. If plant material with urushiol is burned and the smoke then inhaled, this rash will appear on the lining of the lungs, causing extreme pain and possibly fatal respiratory difficulty. If poison ivy is eaten, the mucus lining of the mouth and digestive tract can be damaged. An urushiol rash usually develops within a week of exposure and can last 1–4 weeks, depending on severity and treatment. In rare cases, urushiol reactions may require hospitalization.\nUrushiol oil can remain active for several",
"-26.228749677640735"
],
[
"fine particles. Because of their small size, inhaled particles may easily penetrate deep into the lungs. The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the exhaust stimulate nerves in the lungs, causing reflex coughing, wheezing and shortness of breath. The rough surfaces of these particles makes it easy for them to bind with other toxins in the environment, thus increasing the hazards of particle inhalation.\nA study of particulate matter (PM) emissions from transit buses running on ULSD and a mixture of biodiesel and conventional diesel (B20) was reported by Omidvarborna and coworkers, where they conclude PM emissions appeared lower in cases",
"-26.13026197641375"
],
[
"exposure can produce organ damage. Repeated or prolonged inhalation of vapors may lead to chronic respiratory irritation.",
"-26.08451216566391"
],
[
"many organs may be affected in severe cases. In general, symptoms can appear anywhere between several hours to several days after exposure. Initial symptoms of abrin poisoning by inhalation may occur within 8 hours of exposure but a more typical time course is 18–24 hours; they can prove fatal within 36–72 hours. Following ingestion of abrin, initial symptoms usually occur rapidly, but can take up to five days to appear.\nThe later signs and symptoms of exposure are caused by abrin's cytotoxic effects, killing cells in the kidney, liver, adrenal glands, and central nervous system. Inhalation Within a few hours",
"-26.026989287774995"
],
[
"is inhaled, the smoke paralyzes the cilia, causing mucus to enter the lungs. Frequent smoking, over time causes the cilia hairs to die and can no longer filter mucus. Tar from the smoke inhaled enters the lungs, turning the pink-coloured lungs black. The accumulation of this tar could eventually lead to lung cancer, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a common lower respiratory disease that can be caused by exposure to harmful chemicals, or prolonged use of tobacco. This disease is chronic and progressive, the damage to the lungs is irreversible",
"-25.994953081168205"
],
[
"by direct transmission (when an infected person sneezes mucus directly into the eyes, nose or mouth of another person); the airborne route (when someone inhales the aerosols produced by an infected person coughing, sneezing or spitting) and through hand-to-eye, hand-to-nose, or hand-to-mouth transmission, either from contaminated surfaces or from direct personal contact such as a handshake. The relative importance of these three modes of transmission is unclear, and they may all contribute to the spread of the virus. In the airborne route, the droplets that are small enough for people to inhale are 0.5 to 5 µm in diameter and inhaling",
"-25.9944538102136"
],
[
"excess tears are produced, the liquid drains through the inner corner of the eyelids, through the nasolacrimal duct, and into the nasal cavities. As more tears are shed, more liquid flows into the nasal cavities, both stimulating mucus production and hydrating any dry mucus already present in the nasal cavity. The buildup of fluid is usually resolved via mucus expulsion through the nostrils. Head trauma If caused by a head injury, rhinorrhea can be a much more serious condition. A basilar skull fracture can result in a rupture of the barrier between the sinonasal cavity and the anterior cranial fossae",
"-25.97132634573427"
],
[
"just one droplet might be enough to cause an infection. Although a single sneeze releases up to 40,000 droplets, most of these droplets are quite large and will quickly settle out of the air. How long influenza survives in airborne droplets seems to be influenced by the levels of humidity and UV radiation, with low humidity and a lack of sunlight in winter aiding its survival.\nAs the influenza virus can persist outside of the body, it can also be transmitted by contaminated surfaces such as banknotes, doorknobs, light switches and other household items. The length of time the virus will",
"-25.966351472449844"
],
[
"still try to get your breath, so when you were trying to breathe in through your mouth you are sucking the water in, and if you try to breathe in through your nose, you are sniffing the water in. It was continual, a slow process, and at the end of it you basically feel like you are suffocating.\"\nFive hours later, when the ordeal was almost at an end, a captain from the Royal Army Medical Corps was brought in to examine him. This individual recorded that there were \"no injuries ... no bruising anywhere\". As Holden's legal team demonstrated, his",
"-25.945755415566964"
],
[
"may leak air, a rare but very serious condition that leads to progressive subcutaneous emphysema. Air can leak out of the pleural space through an incision made for a thoracotomy to cause subcutaneous emphysema. On infrequent occasions, the condition can result from dental surgery, usually due to use of high-speed tools that are air driven. These cases result in usually painless swelling of the face and neck, with an immediate onset, the crepitus (crunching sound) typical of subcutaneous emphysema, and often with subcutaneous air visible on X-ray.\nOne of the main causes of subcutaneous emphysema, along with pneumothorax, is",
"-25.870602981016418"
],
[
"will be no purulent discharge. There may be regional lymphadenitis.\nWhen pus forms, the pressure increases, with increasing pain, until it spontaneously drains and relieves the pain. When pus drains into the mouth, a bad taste and smell are perceived. Usually drainage occurs via the periodontal pocket, or else the infection may spread as a cellulitis or a purulent odontogenic infection. Local anatomic factors determine the direction of spread (see fascial spaces of the head and neck). There may be systemic upset, with an onset of malaise and pyrexia. Diagnosis Periodontal abscesses may be difficult to distinguish from periapical abscesses. Since",
"-25.845741958687086"
],
[
"than is mucus and can be troublesome for the individual to excrete from the body. Phlegm is a juicy secretion in the airway during disease and inflammation. Phlegm usually contains mucus with virus, bacteria, other debris, and sloughed-off inflammatory cells. Once phlegm has been expectorated by a cough, it becomes sputum. Removing phlegm Excessive phlegm creation can be troublesome. There are basically two ways to get rid of excess phlegm: swallowing or spitting.\nPhlegm naturally drains down into the back of the throat and can be swallowed. Once in the stomach, the acids and digestive system will remove the phlegm and",
"-25.825411301371787"
],
[
"the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine and colleagues, concluded that the spread of diseases by means of vuvuzelas was possible. McNerney found tiny droplets at the bottom of a vuvuzela that can carry flu and cold germs that are small enough to stay suspended in the air for hours, and can enter into the airways of a person's lungs. The vuvuzelas can infect others on a greater scale than coughing or shouting.\nThe vuvuzelas have the potential to cause noise-induced hearing loss. Prof James Hall III, Dr Dirk Koekemoer, De Wet Swanepoel and colleagues at the University of Pretoria",
"-25.811738336306007"
],
[
"easily passed from the body, either by burping or flatulence. Such preparations do not decrease the total amount of gas generated in or passed from the colon, but make the bubbles larger and thereby allowing them to be passed more easily.\nOther drugs including prokinetics, lubiprostone, antibiotics and probiotics are also used to treat bloating in patients with functional bowel disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome, and there is some evidence that these measures may reduce symptoms.\nA flexible tube, inserted into the rectum, can be used to collect intestinal gas in a flatus bag. This method is occasionally needed in a",
"-25.788675397492625"
],
[
"is present; infection can follow eating food or breathing air near an episode of vomiting, even if cleaned up. The viruses continue to be shed after symptoms have subsided and shedding can still be detected many weeks after infection.\nVomiting, in particular, transmits infection effectively, and appears to allow airborne transmission. In one incident, a person who vomited spread infection across a restaurant, suggesting that many unexplained cases of food poisoning may have their source in vomit. In December 1998, 126 people were dining at six tables; one woman vomited onto the floor. Staff quickly cleaned up, and people continued eating.",
"-25.776314760472815"
],
[
"to the lungs and then spreads into the lungs (tracheobronchial tree). The symptoms appear in the upper chest region (substernal and carinal regions). This begins as a mild tickle on inhalation and progresses to frequent coughing. If breathing increased partial pressures of oxygen continues, patients experience a mild burning on inhalation along with uncontrollable coughing and occasional shortness of breath (dyspnoea). Physical findings related to pulmonary toxicity have included bubbling sounds heard through a stethoscope (bubbling rales), fever, and increased blood flow to the lining of the nose (hyperaemia of the nasal mucosa). X-rays of the lungs show little change",
"-25.7402929791308"
],
[
"nasal strip help to flare the nostrils and keep the airway open. Nasal flaring usually seen in children, happens when breathing is difficult. Swollen conchae can also cause obstruction and may be treated surgically by a turbinectomy. Most conditions of nasal congestion also cause a loss of the sense of smell (anosmia). This may also occur in other conditions, for example following trauma, in Kallmann syndrome or Parkinson's disease. A blocked sinus ostium, an opening from a paranasal sinus, will cause fluid to accumulate in the sinus.\nIn children the nose is a common site of foreign bodies. The nose is",
"-25.72829550403185"
],
[
"tissues. Exposure to high concentrations can cause bronchiolar and alveolar edema and airway destruction resulting in respiratory distress or failure. Although ammonia has a pungent odor, it also causes olfactory fatigue or adaptation, reducing awareness of prolonged exposure. Sulfur mustard Sulfur mustard was used as a chemical weapon in World War I and more recently in the Iran–Iraq War. Sulfur mustard is a vesicant alkylating agent with strong cytotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic properties. After exposure, victims show skin irritations and blisters. This agent also causes respiratory tract lesions, bone marrow depression, and eye damage, the epithelial tissues of these organs",
"-25.718964803665585"
],
[
"excessive parasympathetic and vagal activity that slows the heart and decreases perfusion of the brain. The sympathetic irritant effect is exploited to counteract these vagal parasympathetic effects and thereby reverse the faint. Risks Ammonia gas is toxic in large concentrations for prolonged periods and can be fatal. Since smelling salts produce only a small amount of ammonia gas, no adverse health problems from their situational use have been reported. If a high concentration of ammonia is inhaled too close to the nostril, it might burn the nasal or oral mucosa. The suggested distance is 10–15 centimetres (4–6 in).\nThe use of",
"-25.577314694863162"
],
[
"to light), severe pain, corneal ulceration, and blindness.\nInhalation of chlormethine damages the upper and lower airways sequentially, with more severe exposures causing faster damage that afflicts lower parts of the respiratory tract. Early symptoms include rhinorrhea (runny nose), epistaxis (nosebleed), toneless voice, sneezing, barking cough, and dyspnea (in smokers and asthmatics). Later symptoms include pain in the nose/sinuses and inflammation of the airway. In severe cases, there may be epithelial necrosis throughout the respiratory tract, causing pseudomembrane formation, which can obstruct the airway. Pneumonia may develop and prove fatal.\nSkin exposure mainly causes erythema (redness) and vesication (blistering) at first, but",
"-25.546024223951463"
],
[
"if the bag-valve-mask is left on for more than five minutes, air may be introduced into the stomach. At that point, a nasogastric tube should be inserted to take the accumulated air out. During this process, practitioners must carefully position and maneuver the bag-valve-mask in order to keep airways open. An oropharyngeal airway is used during bag-valve-mask ventilation to prevent oropharynx soft tissues from blocking the airway. An oropharyngeal airway may cause gagging and vomiting. Therefore, an oropharyngeal airway must be sized appropriately. It should be as long as distance between corner of patient’s mouth and angle of the jaw",
"-25.518180869748903"
],
[
"the constituents. The body naturally produces a quart of phlegm every day to capture and clear substances in the air and bacteria from the nose and throat. Distinction between mucus and phlegm Contrary to popular misconception and misuse, mucus and phlegm are not always the same. Mucus Mucus is a normal protective layering around the airway, eye, nasal turbinate, and urogenital tract. Mucus is an adhesive viscoelastic gel produced in the airway by submucosal glands and goblet cells and is principally water. It also contains high-molecular weight mucous glycoproteins that form linear polymers. Phlegm Phlegm is more related to disease",
"-25.501026706298944"
],
[
"may last from one day to more than a week.\nGastroenteritis caused by viruses may last one to two days. Most people recover easily from a short episode of vomiting and diarrhea by drinking clear fluids to replace the fluid that was lost and then gradually progressing to a normal diet. But for others, especially infants and the elderly, the loss of bodily fluid with gastroenteritis can cause dehydration, which can be a life-threatening illness unless it is treated and fluids in the body are replaced.",
"-25.497851049065503"
],
[
"exposure itself. Even if the victim does not hold their breath, venting through the windpipe may be too slow to prevent the fatal rupture of the delicate alveoli of the lungs. Eardrums and sinuses may also be ruptured by rapid decompression, and soft tissues may be impacted by bruises seeping blood. If the victim somehow survives, the stress and shock would accelerate oxygen consumption leading to hypoxia at a rapid rate. At the extreme low pressures encountered at altitudes above about 63,000 feet (19,000 m), the boiling point of water becomes less than normal body temperature. This measure of altitude is",
"-25.482509250359726"
],
[
"visible greenish cloud and strong odour, making it easy to detect. It was water-soluble, so the simple expedient of covering the mouth and nose with a damp cloth was effective at reducing the effect of the gas. It was thought to be even more effective to use urine rather than water, as it was known at the time that chlorine reacted with urea (present in urine) to form dichloro urea.\nChlorine required a concentration of 1,000 parts per million to be fatal, destroying tissue in the lungs, likely through the formation of hypochlorous and hydrochloric acids when dissolved in the water",
"-25.480035484113614"
],
[
"Infants with the disease usually die by the age of 3 due to respiratory infections. The patient must be under constant surveillance because they can suffer from aspiration or lack the ability to change from the passageway to their lungs versus their stomach and their spit travels to the lungs causing bronchopneumonia. The patient also lacks the ability to cough and therefore must undergo a treatment to shake up their body to remove the mucus from the lining of their lungs. Medication is also given to patients to lessen their symptoms including seizures.\nCurrently the government is testing several",
"-25.47640106221297"
],
[
"treatment, and inducing vomiting does not help, and can make it worse. According to poison specialist Brad Dahl, \"even two mouthfuls wouldn't be that dangerous as long as it goes down to your stomach and stays there or keeps going.\" The US CDC's Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry says not to induce vomiting, lavage, or administer activated charcoal. Inhalation for intoxication Inhaled (huffed) gasoline vapor is a common intoxicant. Users concentrate and inhale gasoline vapour in a manner not intended by the manufacturer to produce euphoria and intoxication. Gasoline inhalation has become epidemic in some poorer communities and",
"-25.470801806353847"
],
[
"and excess mucus. This causes difficulty in breathing, and coughing as the lower respiratory tract tries to get rid of the fluid in the lungs. You can be more prone to developing this infection if you have asthma, flu, heart disease, or cancer\nBronchitis is another common infection that takes place in the lower respiratory tract. It is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. There are two forms of this infection: acute bronchitis, which is treatable and can go away without treatment, or chronic bronchitis, which comes and goes, but will always affect one's lungs. Bronchitis increases the amount of mucus",
"-25.45325454954218"
],
[
"airways can manifest itself later as well, due to fine particles of zinc chloride and traces of phosgene. In high concentrations the smoke can be very dangerous when inhaled. Symptoms include dyspnea, retrosternal pain, hoarseness, stridor, lachrymation, cough, expectoration, and in some cases haemoptysis. Delayed pulmonary edema, cyanosis or bronchopneumonia may develop. The smoke and the spent canisters contain suspected carcinogens.\nThe prognosis for the casualties depends on the degree of the pulmonary damage. All exposed individuals should be kept under observation for 8 hours. Most affected individuals recover within several days, with some symptoms persisting for up to 1–2 weeks.",
"-25.452893183217384"
],
[
"may be delayed by up to four hours; however, if the dose is fatal, symptoms are usually present within 17 minutes of ingestion. Paresthesia of the lips and tongue is followed by developing paresthesia in the extremities, hypersalivation, sweating, headache, weakness, lethargy, incoordination, tremor, paralysis, cyanosis, aphonia, dysphagia, and seizures. The gastrointestinal symptoms are often severe and include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain; death is usually secondary to respiratory failure. There is increasing respiratory distress, speech is affected, and the victim usually exhibits dyspnea, cyanosis, mydriasis, and hypotension. Paralysis increases, and convulsions, mental impairment, and cardiac arrhythmia may occur.",
"-25.438456792424404"
],
[
"bifluoride dust can cause burning, coughing, and sneezing, as a result of irritating the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. Exposure of the compound to the eyes can cause redness, itching, and watering. In severe cases, exposure to sodium bifluoride can result in death. It can take between 0 and 24 hours for the effects of sodium bifluoride poisoning to be noticeable.\nExposure to sodium bifluoride repeatedly or over a long time can result in fluorosis. Sodium bifluoride is not known to be carcinogenic. Biological and environmental role Sodium bifluoride does not bioaccumulate. It typically only remains in the environment for several days.",
"-25.399445422965073"
],
[
"discouraged. In high doses, wormseed oil causes irritation of skin and mucous membranes, nausea, vomiting, constipation, headache, vertigo, tinnitus, temporary deafness and blindness. Prolonged action induces depression of the central nervous system and delirium which transits into convulsions and coma. Long-term effects include pulmonary edema (fluid accumulation in the lungs), hematuria, and albuminuria (presence of red blood cells and proteins in the urine, respectively) and jaundice (yellowish pigmentation of the skin). Fatal doses of wormseed oil were reported as one teaspoon for a 14-month-old baby (at once) and daily administration of 1 mL over three weeks to a 2-year-old child. Ascaridole",
"-25.381822882660344"
],
[
"or nerve sprouting leads to abnormal sweating and salivating. It can also include discharge from the nose when smelling certain food.\nRarely, Frey's syndrome can result from causes other than surgery, including accidental trauma, local infections, sympathetic dysfunction and pathologic lesions within the parotid gland.\nAn example of such, rare trauma or localized infection; can be seen in situations where a hair follicle has become ingrown and is causing trauma or localized infection near or over one of the branches of the auriculotemporal nerve. Diagnosis Diagnosis is made based on clinical signs and symptoms and a starch iodine test, called the Minor",
"-25.37524755584309"
],
[
"protect body openings such as the lungs, intestines, and the genitourinary tract. In the lungs, coughing and sneezing mechanically eject pathogens and other irritants from the respiratory tract. The flushing action of tears and urine also mechanically expels pathogens, while mucus secreted by the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract serves to trap and entangle microorganisms.\nChemical barriers also protect against infection. The skin and respiratory tract secrete antimicrobial peptides such as the β-defensins. Enzymes such as lysozyme and phospholipase A2 in saliva, tears, and breast milk are also antibacterials. Vaginal secretions serve as a chemical barrier following menarche, when they become slightly",
"-25.357328638550825"
],
[
"(approx. 8 ounces) of clean tap water. In very rare instances, amoeba Naegleria fowleri infection can occur if amoeba enters the body through the nose, therefore water used for nasal irrigation should be sterile. Note that clean tap water is not necessarily a sterile liquid. Eyes Eye drops are saline-containing drops used on the eye. Depending on the condition being treated, they may contain steroids, antihistamines, sympathomimetics, beta receptor blockers, parasympathomimetics, parasympatholytics, prostaglandins, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), antibiotics or topical anesthetics. Eye drops sometimes do not have medications in them and are only lubricating and tear-replacing solutions.\nSyringe designed saline drops",
"-25.350651504661073"
],
[
"surface contaminated with droplets from an infected patient's sneeze or cough or inhales those droplets themselves. At the same time, if the droplets come in contact with the healthy person's mouth, eye, or nose, the healthy person also risks becoming ill. Other types of high-risk events include diarrhea and vomiting, which can very easily contaminate a HCW with bacteria or fluid that contains the SARS disease through indirect contact. Regarding coming into contact with contaminated surfaces or fomites, many HCWs had habits of wearing jewelry, eating lunch on site or in designated cafeterias, wearing glasses, using makeup,",
"-25.294956188314245"
],
[
"a more widespread rash and longer fever, and they are more likely to experience complications, such as varicella pneumonia.\nBecause watery nasal discharge containing live virus usually precedes both exanthem (external rash) and enanthem (oral ulcers) by 1 to 2 days, the infected person actually becomes contagious one to two days before recognition of the disease. Contagiousness persists until all vesicular lesions have become dry crusts (scabs), which usually entails four or five days, by which time nasal shedding of live virus ceases. The condition usually resolves by itself within a couple of weeks. The rash may, however, last for up",
"-25.265352118101873"
],
[
"These harmful chemicals can be inhaled (in the case of air fresheners) or applied (in the case of perfumes). The substances diffuse into the brain rapidly, as they are lipophilic and readily transported across the blood–brain barrier. This is a result of increased membrane solubility and local blood flow, with central nervous system (CNS) solvent uptake being further increased with high levels of physical activity. When they are not detoxified immediately, the symptoms of toxic encephalopathy begin to emerge. However, in chronic situations, these effects may not become severe enough to be noticed until much later. Increased exposure time and",
"-25.25623176732188"
],
[
"part of inferior meatus. Posterior bleeds are often prolonged and difficult to control. They can be associated with bleeding from both nostrils and with a greater flow of blood into the mouth.\n Sometimes blood flowing from other sources of bleeding passes through the nasal cavity and exits the nostrils. It is thus blood coming from the nose but is not a true nosebleed, that is, not truly originating from the nasal cavity. Such bleeding is called pseudoepistaxis (pseudo + epistaxis). Examples include blood coughed up through the airway and ending up in the nasal cavity, then dripping out. Initial treatment",
"-25.242942622004193"
],
[
"of patients can experience excessive bleeding afterwards — the risk period lasts up to two weeks. This could require packing or cautery, but is generally handled safely and without compromise of the ultimate surgical result. Septal perforation and septal hematoma are possible, as is a decrease in the sense of smell. Temporary numbness of the front upper teeth after surgery is common. Sometimes the numbness extends to the upper jaw and the tip of the nose. This almost always resolves within several months. \nThe nasal tissues should mostly stabilize within 3-6 months post-surgery, although shifting is still possible for",
"-25.23246186911274"
],
[
"(tears), blepharospasm (eyelid twitching), irritation, itching, burning pain, dry feeling, and sometimes miosis (pinpoint pupils). More severe vapor exposure can also cause swelling and fluid buildup (edema) in the eyelids, increased pain, and redness. Very severe exposure to vapor or exposure to liquid can cause photophobia (aversion to light), corneal ulceration, and blindness.\nInhaling the vapor causes symptoms that begin in the upper airway and expand to the lower airway. Increased concentrations cause worse symptoms. Mild inhalation exposure causes rhinorrhea (runny nose), sneezing, barking cough (a harsh cough that sounds somewhat like a dog barking), epistaxis (nosebleed), dyspnea (shortness of breath)",
"-25.170845500278574"
],
[
"the existing mucus layer. Mucins are stored in granules inside the goblet cells before being released to the lumen of the organ. Mucin secretion in the airway may occur via regulated secretion. Secretion may be stimulated by irritants such as dust and smoke, especially in the airway. Other stimuli are microbes such as viruses and bacteria.\nAnomalies in the number of goblet cell are associated with changes in the secretion of mucins, which can result in many of the abnormalities seen in asthma patients, such as clogged airways due to mucus production, and eventual loss of lung function. Overexpression of MUC5AC alone does",
"-25.146266627640216"
],
[
"Most anterior nosebleeds (from Kiesselbach's plexus) can be stopped by applying direct pressure, which helps by promoting blood clots. Those who suffer a nosebleed should first attempt to blow out any blood clots and then apply pressure for at least five minutes and up to 20 minutes. Pressure should be firm and tilting the head forward helps decrease the chance of nausea and airway obstruction as seen in the picture on the right. When attempting to stop a nosebleed at home, the head should not be tilted back. Swallowing excess blood can irritate the stomach and cause vomiting. Vasoconstrictive medications",
"-25.12094199731655"
],
[
"amount of mucus accumulating in the middle ear, often impairing hearing to a degree. This condition is known as otitis media with effusion.\nA patulous Eustachian tube is a rare condition in which the Eustachian tube remains intermittently open, causing an echoing sound of the person's own heartbeat, breathing, and speech. This may be temporarily relieved by holding the head upside down.\nSmoking can also cause damage to the cilia that protect the Eustachian tube from mucus, which can result in the clogging of the tube and a buildup of bacteria in the ear, leading to a middle ear infection.\nRecurring and chronic",
"-25.09755932396729"
],
[
"connected via the nose. The tubes can then be removed after a few days once it is clear that the condition is improving. Dehydration may result during an episode of acute pancreatitis, so fluids will be provided intravenously. Opioids may be used for the pain. Early feeding does not appear to cause problems and may result in an ability to leave hospital sooner. Severe acute pancreatitis Severe pancreatitis can cause organ failure, necrosis, infected necrosis, pseudocyst, and abscess. If diagnosed with severe acute pancreatitis, people will need to be admitted to a high dependency unit or intensive care unit. It",
"-25.094162501867686"
],
[
"The local irritation of these areas can lead to conjunctivitis, itching, tearing, rhinitis, sneezing, asthmatic attacks, bronchitis, and coughing. \nThe literature suggests that nail dust can be a respiratory sensitizer, which is defined as a substance that when breathed in can trigger an irreversible allergic reaction in the respiratory system. Sensitization does not usually take place immediately, but rather after months or years of exposure to the agent. Once sensitized, even the smallest amount of the substance can trigger asthma, rhinitis, or conjunctivitis that may exhibit the following symptoms: coughing, wheezing, chest tightness, runny",
"-25.09329519759558"
],
[
"into direct contact with bodily fluids from people that had become infected with yellow fever. He started by making incisions on his arms and smearing infected vomit into the cuts; he then proceeded to pour it onto his eyeballs. He continued in his attempts to infect himself by frying the vomit and inhaling the fumes, and finally, when he did not become ill, he resorted to drinking the vomit undiluted. Endeavoring to prove that other bodily fluids yielded the same results, Ffirth progressed on from vomit, also smearing his body with blood, saliva, and urine. He still failed to contract",
"-25.09020330876774"
],
[
"Mustard plaster Uses Mustard plasters were used for aches and pains, including rheumatism, arthritis, and sore muscles. It was also used for chest congestion. Side effects If left in place for too long, it can produce significant first-degree burns to the skin.\nFumes might cause nausea.",
"-25.08982381586975"
],
[
"an hour or more. If no longer exposed to the gas, a victim will return to normal health quickly. This can be helped with intake of extra fluids, vitamins, and sugars.\nToxic over-exposure starts at 9% to 12% concentrations, the heart rate drops further, the victim may have more shallow breathing or stop all together, they do not respond to any outside stimulation and may begin to involuntarily gasp, belch or vomit, which can lead to aspiration if the victim is not turned on his side. This constitutes a medical emergency and requires prompt action. It is advised to move",
"-25.089128154439095"
],
[
"Cyclic vomiting syndrome Signs and symptoms Sufferers may vomit or retch 6–12 times in an hour and an episode may last from a few hours to over three weeks and in some cases months, with a median episode duration of 41 hours. Acid, bile and, if the vomiting is severe, blood may be vomited. Some sufferers will ingest water to reduce the irritation of bile and acid on the esophagus during emesis. Between episodes, the sufferer is usually normal and healthy otherwise but can be in a weak state of fatigue or experience muscle pain. In approximately half of",
"-25.076892414819667"
],
[
"Eating mucus Health Mucophagy, despite its benefits on one's immunity, comes with some health risks due to the potential physical aggravation resulting from the action of nose picking, and the germs on fingers and in mucus. Picking one's nose can cause upper airway irritation as well as other injuries including nasal septal perforation (a \"through-and-through defect\" of the cartilage separating the nostrils), and epistaxis (nosebleed). In a study by Andrade and Srihari, 25% of subjects were ailed by nose bleeds, 17% with nasal infections, and 2% with damage more serious than bleeding. W. Buzina studied the fungal diversity in nasal",
"-25.057548794109607"
],
[
"release histamine and cause pain, swelling, scarring, and interfere with healing. Research has shown a proliferation of nerve fibers is present in the bladders of people with IC which is absent in the bladders of people who have not been diagnosed with IC.\nRegardless of the origin, most people with IC/BPS struggle with a damaged urothelium, or bladder lining. When the surface glycosaminoglycan (GAG) layer is damaged (via a urinary tract infection (UTI), excessive consumption of coffee or sodas, traumatic injury, etc.), urinary chemicals can \"leak\" into surrounding tissues, causing pain, inflammation, and urinary symptoms. Oral medications like pentosan polysulfate and",
"-25.04498581894586"
],
[
"an enema can cause electrolyte imbalance (with repeated enemas) or ruptures to the bowel or rectal tissues resulting in internal bleeding. However, these occurrences are rare in healthy, sober adults. Internal bleeding or rupture may leave the individual exposed to infections from intestinal bacteria. Blood resulting from tears in the colon may not always be visible, but can be distinguished if the feces are unusually dark or have a red hue. If intestinal rupture is suspected, medical assistance should be obtained immediately. Frequent use of enemas can cause laxative dependency. \nThe enema tube and solution may stimulate the vagus nerve,",
"-24.977548266782833"
],
[
"skin, but may irritate the respiratory tract or mucous membranes. Dust or vapor of the compound can irritate or damage the eyes.",
"-24.959405364505074"
],
[
"of severe vomiting and diarrhea often leads to severe dehydration. Next, shortness of breath and chest pain may occur, along with swelling, headaches, and confusion. In about half of the cases, the skin may develop a maculopapular rash, a flat red area covered with small bumps, five to seven days after symptoms begin. Bleeding In some cases, internal and external bleeding may occur. This typically begins five to seven days after the first symptoms. All infected people show some decreased blood clotting. Bleeding from mucous membranes or from sites of needle punctures has been reported in 40–50% of cases. This",
"-24.933493745957094"
],
[
"Krytox tubes, \"May cause mild skin and eye irritation. Contact with very hot surfaces (above 500°F/260°C) can generate fumes which can cause coughing or respiratory irritation. Large amounts could lead to lung damage which might not be apparent for several hours. These fumes may also cause flu-like symptoms.\"",
"-24.927930847203243"
],
[
"up through the Eustachian tube, it may result in ear pain or an ear infection. Excess mucus accumulating in the throat or back of the nose may cause a post-nasal drip, resulting in a sore throat or coughing. Additional symptoms include sneezing, nosebleeds, and nasal discharge. Cold temperature Rhinorrhea is especially common during winter months and certain low temperature seasons. Cold-induced rhinorrhea occurs due to a combination of thermodynamics and the body's natural reactions to cold weather stimuli. One of the purposes of nasal mucus is to warm inhaled air to body temperature as it enters the body. In order",
"-24.92413127098189"
],
[
"through the wall, potentially causing a perforation). See gastrointestinal wall.\nSome drugs, as tablets, can irritate this mucous membrane, especially drugs taken for arthritis and muscular disorders, steroids, and aspirin. A gastric erosion may also occur because of emotional stress, or as a side effect of burns or stomach injuries. See acute gastritis. Symptoms There is basically one symptom of gastric erosion: bleeding from the area where the stomach lesion is. Bowel movements may contain blood. Vomit may be bloody as well, but a gastric erosion may not cause vomiting. Blood may be black because it will be partially digested. Loss",
"-24.90557333284596"
],
[
"much like burping, but helps the body pass gas through the anus, not the mouth. Bacteria present in the intestinal tract cause gas to be expelled from the anus. They produce the gas as food is digested and moved from the small intestine. This gas builds up and causes swelling or bloating in the abdominal area before it is released. Constipation A common gastrointestinal problem is constipation—infrequent bowel movements, hard stools, or strain during the movements—which causes serious cases of bloating. Since most cases of constipation are temporary, simple lifestyle changes, such as getting more exercise and increasing one's intake",
"-24.898306662638788"
],
[
"Entry points for the virus include the nose, mouth, eyes, open wounds, cuts and abrasions. Ebola may be spread through large droplets; however, this is believed to occur only when a person is very sick. This contamination can happen if a person is splashed with droplets. Contact with surfaces or objects contaminated by the virus, particularly needles and syringes, may also transmit the infection. The virus is able to survive on objects for a few hours in a dried state, and can survive for a few days within body fluids outside of a person.\nThe Ebola virus may be able to",
"-24.873187178496664"
],
[
"vinegar solutions, which are used to either suffocate or burn the infection, often leaving extensive scars. The remedies, while sometimes successful, are not guaranteed to actually kill the infection, often only eliminating visible symptoms temporarily. Even though the infection may no longer be symptomatic, it can still be easily transmitted to other individuals. Because of this, it is recommended that wrestlers attempting to treat skin infections use conventional medicine, as prescribed by a physician. Significant outbreaks HSV-1 (July 1989) – An outbreak of Herpes Simplex was reported at a four-week high school wrestling camp in Minneapolis, which",
"-24.86468681669794"
],
[
"cicutoxin poisoning start 15–60 minutes after ingestion and are vomiting, convulsions, widened pupils, salivation, excess sweating and the patient may go into a coma. Other described symptoms are cyanosis, amnesia, absence of muscle reflexes, metabolic acidosis and cardiovascular changes which may cause heart problems and central nervous system problems which manifest themselves as convulsions and either an overactive or underactive heart. Due to an overactive nervous system respiratory failure occurs which may cause suffocation and accounts for most of the deaths. Dehydration from water loss due to vomiting can also occur. If untreated, the kidneys can also fail,",
"-24.855868641170673"
],
[
"feel pressure and slight cramping in the lower abdomen, but the patient will feel better afterward when the air leaves the colon. Preparation The colon and rectum must be completely empty for flexible sigmoidoscopy to be thorough and safe, thus the patient must drink only clear liquids for 12 to 24 hours beforehand. This includes bouillon or broth, gelatin, strained fruit juice, water, plain coffee, plain tea, or diet soft drinks. The night before or right before the procedure, the patient receives a laxative and an enema, which is a liquid solution that washes out the intestines. \nNo sedation is",
"-24.852931079718473"
]
] |
57tygz | How and why does sterilization of a wound cause pain as a response, when we are essentially helping the body by destroying germs and ceasing infection. | [
"Because your nerve endings, which are also being mercilessly subject to your sterilization routine, don't understand the nuance of wound treatment.",
"We didn't evolve to have medicine. It used to be when you got a serious wound you died or maybe lived if it somehow healed. The reason we have pain is to give us a reason to avoid physical damage to ourselves. Furthermore, realize that sterilization techniques aren't all that hot on the body for real, after all. Pouring alcohol on a wound will kill germs, yeah. But it also kills your cells - this hurts. Alcohol is a strong chemical. It's just more devastating to pools of bacteria than it is to your body. Other VERY new chemicals, like antibiotics, are not necessarily damaging to you in the very specific ways in which they damage bacteria. The techniques we use today have not been around for anywhere near the timespans needed for evolution to induce any sort of acceptance and revocation of the associated pain. Contrast with wolves. Wolves lick each others' wounds and this is known to have a beneficial effect on healing. Over a long time, wound licking has become entrenched in their instinct by evolution.",
"the wound has exposed living nerves. The same stuff that kills germs will also affect your exposed nerves. We know thats a worthwhile tradeoff, our nerves are not so smart.",
"The nerves inside us, forced to contend with sudden exposure to the outside world due to an injury, don't deal in ideas like 'this will prevent you from getting an infection'. They just do what they always do, which is alert the brain whenever something goes horribly wrong. We fight germs and hopefully prevent or diminish infection by applying something to the wound that has detergent properties (i.e. soap) and/or antibiotic properties. Soap is great on the skin, but deeper inside a wound it is a chemical that clearly doesn't belong, so the nerves start complaining. The 'bio' part of antibiotic means living things, as in 'biology'. Since we are also living things, the introduction of an antibiotic substance is as foreign, to the nerves inside us, as other harmful things like bacteria would be if left unchecked. Our brains know that cleaning the wound will result in a better future. Our nerves just react to what is happening right now, and the things we do to clean wounds often feel, to internal nerves, just as bad as the things we hope to prevent.",
"First, because there are exposed nerve endings. Second, you may be using something for sterilisation that really shouldn't be used for that - like alcohol or peroxide. Those will destroy *everything*, including healthy tissue. Soap and warm water usually don't really hurt that much."
] | [
[
"high concentration of an antiseptic may cause tissue damage or slow the process of wound healing. Consequently, antiseptics are most effective when used at the correct concentration—a high enough concentration to kill harmful bacteria, fungi or viruses, but a low enough concentration to avoid damage to the tissue.",
"-35.99198769690702"
],
[
"the healing of chronic wounds. Some researchers have experimented with the use of tea tree oil, an antibacterial agent which also has anti-inflammatory effects. Disinfectants are contraindicated because they damage tissues and delay wound contraction. Further, they are rendered ineffective by organic matter in wounds like blood and exudate and are thus not useful in open wounds.\nA greater amount of exudate and necrotic tissue in a wound increases likelihood of infection by serving as a medium for bacterial growth away from the host's defenses. Since bacteria thrive on dead tissue, wounds are often surgically debrided to",
"-35.29357555531897"
],
[
"produced by neutrophils and other leukocytes damage cells and prevent cell proliferation and wound closure by damaging DNA, lipids, proteins, the extracellular matrix (ECM), and cytokines that speed healing. Neutrophils remain in chronic wounds for longer than they do in acute wounds, and contribute to the fact that chronic wounds have higher levels of inflammatory cytokines and ROS. Since wound fluid from chronic wounds has an excess of proteases and ROS, the fluid itself can inhibit healing by inhibiting cell growth and breaking down growth factors and proteins in the ECM. This impaired healing response is considered uncoordinated.",
"-34.76776956941467"
],
[
"to remove an infection in a wound or on the skin. MPPT, therefore, functions as passive immunotherapy. It has no antibacterial effects, but it can remove antibiotic-resistant infections and it will not contribute to the creation of new antimicrobial resistance. Effects of MPPT on wound healing MPPT has been evaluated in a preclincial wound healing model and in a 266 patient comparative clinical study, which included a wide range of wound types. The study found that MPPT reduced the time to achieving an infection-free and healing wound by 60% compared to a topical antibiotic (genamicin) and to the antiseptic",
"-34.723376383655705"
],
[
"Abrasion (medical) Treatment The abrasion should be cleaned and any debris removed. A topical antibiotic (such as neomycin or bacitracin) should be applied to prevent infection and to keep the wound moist. Dressing the wound is beneficial because it helps keep the wound from drying out, providing a moist environment conducive for healing. If the abrasion is painful, a topical analgesic (such as lidocaine or benzocaine) can be applied, but for large abrasions. a systemic analgesic may be necessary. Avoid exposing abraded skin to the sun as permanent hyperpigmentation can develop. Healing The gallery below shows the healing process for",
"-34.160606294026366"
],
[
"the wound.\nEarly work on wound healing showed that granulation tissue taken from a wound could contract in vitro (or in an organ bath) in a similar fashion to smooth muscle, when exposed to substances that cause smooth muscle to contract, such as adrenaline or angiotensin.\nMore recently it has been shown that fibroblasts can transform into myofibroblasts with photobiomodulation.\nAfter healing is complete, these cells are lost through apoptosis and it has been suggested that in several fibrotic diseases (for example liver cirrhosis, kidney fibrosis, retroperitoneal fibrosis) that this mechanism fails to work, leading to persistence of the myofibroblasts, and consequently expansion",
"-33.50211076960841"
],
[
"antibacterial use, debridement, irrigation, vacuum-assisted closure, warming, oxygenation, moist wound healing (the term pioneered by George D. Winter), removing mechanical stress, and adding cells or other materials to secrete or enhance levels of healing factors.\nThe challenge of any treatment is to address as many adverse factors as possible simultaneously, so each of them receives equal attention and does not continue to impede healing as the treatment progresses. Preventing and treating infection To lower the bacterial count in wounds, therapists may use topical antibiotics, which kill bacteria and can also help by keeping the wound environment moist,\nwhich is important for speeding",
"-33.08221383438649"
],
[
"surgery. Infection Infection will complicate healing of surgical wounds and is commonly observed. Most infections are present within the first 30 days after surgery. Surgical wounds can become infected by bacteria, regardless if the bacteria is already present on the patient's skin or if the bacteria is spread to the patient due to contact with infected individuals. Wound infections can be superficial (skin only), deep (muscle and tissue), or spread to the organ or space where the surgery occurred. Fascia dehiscence The surgical site or wound may allow the passage of air into the body. This most often occurs after",
"-33.048643799018464"
],
[
"or induced vomiting may be used. For wound infections, infected material may be removed surgically. Botulinum antitoxin is available and may be used to prevent the worsening of symptoms, though it will not reverse existing nerve damage. In severe cases, mechanical respiration may be used to support patients suffering from respiratory failure. The nerve damage heals over time, generally over weeks to months. With proper treatment, the case fatality rate for botulinum poisoning can be greatly reduced.\nTwo preparations of botulinum antitoxins are available for treatment of botulism. Trivalent (A,B,E) botulinum antitoxin is derived from equine sources using whole antibodies. The",
"-32.97660022348282"
],
[
"is impaired for chronic wounds. This dysregulation results in insufficient M2 macrophages and its corresponding growth factors that aid in wound repair. With a lack of these growth factors/anti-inflammatory cytokines and an overabundance of pro-inflammatory cytokines from M1 macrophages chronic wounds are unable to heal in a timely manner. Normally, after neutrophils eat debris/pathogens they perform apoptosis and are removed. At this point, inflammation is not needed and M1 undergoes a switch to M2 (anti-inflammatory). However, dysregulation occurs as the M1 macrophages are unable/do not phagocytose neutrophils that have undergone apoptosis leading to increased macrophage migration and inflammation.\nBoth M1 and",
"-32.93390745090437"
],
[
"infections. Neutrophils, fighting off a bacteria, will release hydrolytic enzymes which will also attack the surrounding tissues.",
"-32.89117809380332"
],
[
"generally breaks down at a rate predicted to correspond with tissue healing, but is hastened in the presence of bacteria. In the absence of other known metabolic factors which inhibit healing and may have contributed to suture dehiscence, sub-acute infection should be suspected and the protocol of obtaining wound cultures followed by treatment with the appropriate antibiotics should be undertaken. Dehiscence can also be caused by inadequate undermining (cutting the skin away from the underlying tissues) of the wound during surgery, excessive tension on the wound edges caused by lifting or straining, or the wound being located on a",
"-32.883172945308615"
],
[
"reperfusion injury, and bacterial colonization. Ischemia Ischemia is an important factor in the formation and persistence of wounds, especially when it occurs repetitively (as it usually does) or when combined with a patient's old age. Ischemia causes tissue to become inflamed and cells to release factors that attract neutrophils such as interleukins, chemokines, leukotrienes, and complement factors.\nWhile they fight pathogens, neutrophils also release inflammatory cytokines and enzymes that damage cells. One of their important jobs is to produce Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) to kill bacteria, for which they use an enzyme called myeloperoxidase. The enzymes and ROS",
"-32.81657964452097"
],
[
"immunofluorescence may be required, to rule out cancer, but also if a systemic disease is suspected. Ulcers caused by local trauma are painful to touch and sore. They usually have an irregular border with erythematous margins and the base is yellow. As healing progresses, a keratotic (thickened, white mucosa) halo may occur. Treatment Treatment is cause-related, but also symptomatic if the underlying cause is unknown or not correctable. It is also important to note that most ulcers will heal completely without any intervention. Treatment can range from simply smoothing or removing a local cause of trauma, to address underlying factors",
"-32.80154767437489"
],
[
"knife cuts have a high risk of becoming infected. The bacteria enters the host through wounds and invades the xylem where it multiplies via binary fission. If colonization is successful, the bacteria may plug the xylem vessels. In advanced stages of infection, the bacteria will move out of the vessels and break down the surrounding parenchyma tissue before moving into new vessels. The bacteria may also invade the roots and cause them to deteriorate.\nC. sepidonicus spreads by contaminated soil, surfaces, infected seed, wash waters, infected potato waste, etc. It can survive on warehouse walls, boxes, bags etc. On machinery in",
"-32.741213544401035"
],
[
"injecting the drug subcutaneously, which is highly damaging to tissue and frequently leads to chronic ulcers. Children who are repeatedly seen for a wound that does not heal are sometimes found to be victims of a parent with Munchausen syndrome by proxy, a disease in which the abuser may repeatedly inflict harm on the child in order to receive attention.\nPeriwound skin damage caused by excessive amounts of exudate and other bodily fluids can perpetuate the non-healing status of chronic wounds. Maceration, excoriation, dry (fragile) skin, hyperkeratosis, callus and eczema are frequent problems that interfere with the integrity of",
"-32.40506325295428"
],
[
"effect of the reflex is to prevent the damage caused by excessive cytokine production. Therapeutic potential Evidence from experimental disease models of arthritis, colitis, sepsis, hemorrhagic shock, and congestive heart failure indicate that electrical stimulation of the vagus nerve can prevent or reverse these diseases. It may be possible to implant nerve stimulators to replace anti-inflammatory drugs that target cytokine activity (e.g. anti-TNF and anti-IL-1 antibodies).",
"-32.36592740783817"
],
[
"CALCRL Wounds In wounds, CGRP receptors found in nerve cells deactivate the immune system, to prevent collateral damage in case of a clean wound (common case). However, when a wily pathogen such as those causing necrotizing fasciitis are involved, this is the wrong response. In very preliminary research, nerve blockers like e.g. lidocaine or botox have been demonstrated to block CGRP cascade, thereby allowing immune system involvement and control of pathogens, resulting in complete control and recovery. Structure CALCRL associated with RAMP1 produces the CGRP receptor which is a trans-membrane protein receptor that is made up of four",
"-32.34489218782983"
],
[
"However, soluble mediators of the immune system (growth factors), cell-based therapies and therapeutic chemicals can propagate coordinated healing.\nIt has been suggested that the three fundamental factors underlying chronic wound pathogenesis are cellular and systemic changes of aging, repeated bouts of ischemia-reperfusion injury, and bacterial colonization with resulting inflammatory host response. Bacterial colonization Since more oxygen in the wound environment allows white blood cells to produce ROS to kill bacteria, patients with inadequate tissue oxygenation, for example those who suffered hypothermia during surgery, are at higher risk for infection. The host's immune response to the presence of bacteria prolongs inflammation,",
"-32.30856908785063"
],
[
"from intravenous drug injection, insulin injection, animal and insect bites, catheter insertion over the skin, or a fistula connecting skin to the internal body organs. Skin infections such as abscess and ulcers can also complicate necrotizing fasciitis. Spreading of infection through blood has been suggested for those with streptococcal pharyngitis. For infection of the perineum and genitals (Fournier gangrene), trauma, surgery, urinary tract infection, stones, and Bartholin gland abscess are the usual causes.\nThe risk of developing necrotizing fasciitis from a wound can be reduced by good wound care and handwashing. Bacteria Types of soft-tissue necrotizing infection can be divided into",
"-32.207107595670095"
],
[
"of injury There are several mechanisms of nerve injury including mechanical lesions, ischemia, immunologic attack, metabolic disorder, toxic agents, and exposure to radiation. The most common mechanism of injury is nerve compression in which external pressure causes decreased blood flow to the nerve and deformation of the nerve fibers. Repeated or prolonged compression of the nerve results in ischemia and ultimately edema above and below the source of the pressure (I). The thinning of myelin sheaths or focal demyelination are the main consequences of the injury that lead to conduction blockage. Treatment and recovery The entire nerve is involved in",
"-32.177115089703875"
],
[
"remove the residues from the disinfectants. This is the reason why needles and syringes are not sterilized in this way, as the residues left by the chemical solution that has been used to disinfect them cannot be washed off with water and they may interfere with the administered treatment. Although formaldehyde is less expensive than glutaraldehydes, it is also more irritating to the eyes, skin and respiratory tract and is classified as a potential carcinogen.\nOther sterilization methods exist, though their efficiency is still controversial. These methods include gas, UV, gas plasma, and chemical sterilization with agents such as peroxyacetic acid",
"-32.1606389761655"
],
[
"induce scarring. The effects of this method are typically similar to other, simpler forms of scarification; as a result there has been little research undertaken on this method. Dangers/cautions Scarification produces harm and trauma to the skin; thus it is considered to be unsafe by many. Infection is a concern. Not only do the materials for inducing the wounds need to be sanitary, but the wound needs to be kept clean, using antibacterial solutions or soaps often, and having good hygiene in general. It is not uncommon, especially if the wound is being irritated, for a local infection to",
"-32.1434604681599"
],
[
"delays healing, and damages tissue. Infection can lead not only to chronic wounds but also to gangrene, loss of the infected limb, and death of the patient. More recently, an interplay between bacterial colonization and increases in reactive oxygen species leading to formation and production of biofilms has been shown to the generate chronic wounds.\nLike ischemia, bacterial colonization and infection damage tissue by causing a greater number of neutrophils to enter the wound site. In patients with chronic wounds, bacteria with resistances to antibiotics may have time to develop. In addition, patients that carry drug resistant bacterial",
"-32.1221221833257"
],
[
"when one is wounded, thrombin cleaves the fibrinogen, which forms clots. As a result, the wound is ‘closed’ by these clots and recovery of the epithelial cells of the skin can take place. This is the natural process necessary for tissue repair. The venom batroxobin also induces clots, but does this with or without tissue damage. This is because batroxobin isn’t inhibited by specific cofactors like thrombin is. These clots can block a vein and hinder blood flow. The differences between thrombin and batroxobin in binding fibrinogen Fibrinogen is a dimeric glycoprotein, which contains two pairs of Aα-, Bβ- peptide",
"-32.116322739457246"
],
[
"from cautery or traction can lead to chronic pain, however this can be difficult to determine. Chronic compression of the nerve root by a persistent agent such as disc, bone (osteophyte) or scarring can also permanently damage the nerve root. Epidural scarring caused by the initial pathology or occurring after the surgery can also contribute to nerve damage. In one study of failed back patients, the presence of pathology was noted to be at the same site as the level of surgery performed in 57% of cases. The remaining cases developed pathology at a different level,",
"-32.10850151977502"
],
[
"damage to the host at the point of entry through the skin, leaving a wound vulnerable to secondary infections. As the larvae migrate through the skin, an inflammatory response, dermatitis, is often stimulated, which can be exacerbated in hosts which have hypersensitive responses. Further damage is caused when the larvae leave the circulation and enter the lung, with the amount of damage dependent on the extent of the infection; pneumonia and coughing are common consequences. Damage once in intestine Once in the gut, A. caninum attaches to and ingests the mucosal lining along with some consumption of blood;",
"-32.03593818221998"
],
[
"and fluid into the tissue (edema), which manifests itself as swelling (tumor). Some of the released mediators such as bradykinin increase the sensitivity to pain (hyperalgesia, dolor). The mediator molecules also alter the blood vessels to permit the migration of leukocytes, mainly neutrophils and macrophages, outside of the blood vessels (extravasation) into the tissue. The neutrophils migrate along a chemotactic gradient created by the local cells to reach the site of injury. The loss of function (functio laesa) is probably the result of a neurological reflex in response to pain.\nIn addition to cell-derived mediators, several acellular biochemical cascade systems",
"-32.01670390947402"
],
[
"Hypertrophic scar Cause Mechanical tension on a wound has been identified as a leading cause for hypertrophic scar formation.\nWhen a normal wound heals, the body produces new collagen fibres at a rate which balances the breakdown of old collagen. Hypertrophic scars are red and thick and may be itchy or painful. They do not extend beyond the boundary of the original wound, but may continue to thicken for up to six months. They usually improve over one or two years, but may cause distress due to their appearance or the intensity of the itching; they can also",
"-32.01094042666955"
],
[
"trauma and ulceration are xerostomia (dry mouth – as saliva usually lubricates the mucous membrane and controls bacterial levels) and epithelial atrophy (thinning, e.g., after radiotherapy), making the lining more fragile and easily breached. Stomatitis is a general term meaning inflammation within the mouth, and often may be associated with ulceration.\nPathologically, the mouth represents a transition between the gastrointestinal tract and the skin, meaning that many gastrointestinal and cutaneous conditions can involve the mouth. Some conditions usually associated with the whole gastrointestinal tract may present only in the mouth, e.g., orofacial granulomatosis/oral Crohn's disease.\nSimilarly, cutaneous (skin) conditions can also involve",
"-32.00792324409849"
],
[
"and pain signals to the brain. \nPancoast tumor pain has been effectively treated with dorsal root entry zone (DREZ) lesioning – damaging a region of the spinal cord where peripheral pain signals cross to spinal cord fibers. This is major surgery, carrying the risk of significant neurological side effects.\nCingulotomy involves cutting the fibers that carry signals directly from the cingulate gyrus to the entorhinal cortex in the brain. It reduces the unpleasantness of pain (without affecting its intensity), but may have cognitive side effects. Intrathecal infusion Delivery of an opioid such as morphine, hydromorphone, fentanyl, sufentanyl or meperidine directly into the",
"-31.99863990029553"
],
[
"pain and systemic symptoms. Apart from pain, the symptoms include cardiac dysfunction and respiratory depression. The rash lasts for several months. Antivenom administered within a few hours relieves the pain somewhat, reduces the severity of the rash, and improves other symptoms. In extreme cases, cardiopulmonary resuscitation can be effective if started promptly.",
"-31.97570670885034"
],
[
"Ligneous conjunctivitis Pathogenesis Histopathological findings from affected humans indicate that wound healing is impaired due to a deficiency in plasmin-mediated extracellular fibrinolysis. Episodes may be triggered by minor trauma, eye surgery, or by systemic events such as infections or antifibrinolytic therapy. Histology shows amorphous subepithelial deposits of eosinophilic material consisting predominantly of fibrin. Treatment Ligneous conjunctivitis may be managed by topical treatments of plasminogen, topical and subconjunctival fresh frozen plasma, and fibrinolytic therapy.",
"-31.900653873068222"
],
[
"the deliberate injury of a nerve by the application of chemicals (in which case the procedure is called \"neurolysis\") or physical agents such as freezing or heating (\"neurotomy\"). These interventions cause degeneration of the nerve's fibers and temporary interference with the transmission of pain signals. In these procedures, the thin protective layer around the nerve fiber, the basal lamina, is preserved so that, as a damaged fiber regrows, it travels within its basal lamina tube and connects with the correct loose end, and function may be restored. Surgically cutting a nerve severs these basal lamina tubes, and without them to",
"-31.89254818453628"
],
[
"remove the devitalized tissue. Debridement and drainage of wound fluid are an especially important part of the treatment for diabetic ulcers, which may create the need for amputation if infection gets out of control. Mechanical removal of bacteria and devitalized tissue is also the idea behind wound irrigation, which is accomplished using pulsed lavage.\nRemoving necrotic or devitalzed tissue is also the aim of maggot therapy, the intentional introduction by a health care practitioner of live, disinfected maggots into non-healing wounds. Maggots dissolve only necrotic, infected tissue; disinfect the wound by killing bacteria; and stimulate wound healing. ",
"-31.819392971723573"
],
[
"of the infection being spread can be reduced through behaviors such as avoiding touching an active outbreak site, washing hands frequently while the outbreak is occurring, not sharing items that come in contact with the mouth, and not coming into close contact with others (by avoiding kissing, oral sex, or contact sports).\nBecause the onset of an infection is difficult to predict, lasts a short period of time and heals rapidly, it is difficult to conduct research on cold sores. Though famciclovir improves lesion healing time, it is not effective in preventing lesions; valaciclovir and a mixture of acyclovir and",
"-31.799916924035642"
],
[
"(and the all fibroblast cells within the wound site perish. Without fibroblasts, the wound site cannot regenerate extracellular matrix and epidermis skin cells cannot proliferate over the wound site. Therefore, without dermal fibroblasts the skin cannot properly recover from injury. Yet, by differentiating mesenchymal stem cells from other regions of the body and injecting them into the wound site, scientists can restore dermal fibroblasts to burned regions of the body. By restoring fibroblasts to the burned regions, the body can restore the ECM within the wound site and recover from the injury. As noted \"The injured dermis is also",
"-31.753542367048794"
],
[
"(swelling) around the ulcer. Chronic trauma may produce an ulcer with a keratotic (white, thickened mucosa) margin. Malignant lesions may ulcerate either because the tumor infiltrates the mucosa from adjacent tissues, or because the lesion originates within the mucosa itself, and the disorganized growth leads to a break in the normal architecture of the lining tissues. Repeat episodes of mouth ulcers can be indicative of an immunodeficiency, signaling low levels of immunoglobulin in the oral mucous membranes. Chemotherapy, HIV, and mononucleosis are all causes of immunodeficiency/immunosuppression with which oral ulcers may become a common manifestation. Autoimmunity is also a cause",
"-31.724688083100773"
],
[
"inhibitors, and anticonvulsants. The second lines of drugs to treat pain are non-steroidal anti-inflammatories, tramadol, and opioids. Other techniques used to facilitate healing of the nerve and pain are either static or dynamic splinting that can both help protect the injured part as well as improve function. Sometimes surgery is an option, although the prognosis is still very poor of regaining function of the affected nerve. The goal of surgery is to join healthy nerve to unhealthy nerve. The most common surgical techniques include external neurolysis, end-to-end repair, nerve grafting, and nerve transfer from somewhere else in the body. Prognosis",
"-31.643714391306276"
],
[
"that died from infectious diseases. Certain poisons, such as potassium cyanide or strychnine, may also delay putrefaction, while chronic alcoholism will speed it.\nExternal injuries: Antemortem or postmortem injuries can speed putrefaction as injured areas can be more susceptible to invasion by bacteria. Embalming Embalming is the process of preserving human remains by delaying decomposition. This is acquired through the use of embalming fluid, which is a mixture of formaldehyde, methanol, and various other solvents. The most common reasons to briefly preserve the body are for viewing purposes at a funeral and for medical or religious practices. Research Body farms subject",
"-31.631483068398666"
],
[
"particulate matter from the surface of granulating wounds and, as the dressing becomes moist, iodine is released. The product thus has the dual effect of cleansing the wound and exerting a bactericidal action. The bactericidal mechanism of cadexomer iodine is effective against Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and may prevent MRSA proliferation in the wound bed. This is especially significant because bacteria populations have shown no sign of developing a resistance to iodine since it was first used for wound treatment in the middle of the 19th century. Uses In addition to other manufacturers, Smith & Nephew distributes cadexomer iodine as",
"-31.55846000341262"
],
[
"general, cutaneous infections form within the site of spore penetration between two and five days after exposure. Unlike bruises or most other lesions, cutaneous anthrax infections normally do not cause pain. Nearby lymph nodes may become infected, reddened, swollen, and painful. A scab forms over the lesion soon, and falls off in a few weeks. Complete recovery may take longer.\nCutaneous anthrax is typically caused when B. anthracis spores enter through cuts on the skin. This form is found most commonly when humans handle infected animals and/or animal products.\nCutaneous anthrax is rarely fatal if treated, because the infection area is limited",
"-31.554174786113435"
],
[
"after surgery, pain returns at greater intensity.\nCordotomy involves cutting nerve fibers that run up the front/side (anterolateral) quadrant of the spinal cord, carrying heat and pain signals to the brain.\nPancoast tumor pain has been effectively treated with dorsal root entry zone lesioning (destruction of a region of the spinal cord where peripheral pain signals cross to spinal cord fibers); this is major surgery that carries the risk of significant neurological side effects.\nCingulotomy involves cutting nerve fibers in the brain. It reduces the unpleasantness of pain (without affecting its intensity), but may have cognitive side effects. Hypophysectomy Hypophysectomy is the destruction",
"-31.52554409428558"
],
[
"cytokines, especially during the third and fourth post-wound days. These factors attract cells involved in the proliferation stage of healing to the area. Macrophages may also restrain the contraction phase. Macrophages are stimulated by the low oxygen content of their surroundings to produce factors that induce and speed angiogenesis and they also stimulate cells that re-epithelialize the wound, create granulation tissue, and lay down a new extracellular matrix. By secreting these factors, macrophages contribute to pushing the wound healing process into the next phase. Role in limb regeneration Scientists have elucidated that as well as eating up material",
"-31.50758520794716"
],
[
"non-traumatic). Stop the bleed It is important to stop bleeding (achieve hemostasis) after identifying the cause of internal bleeding. It taking longer to achieve hemostasis in people with traumatic causes (e.g. pelvic fracture) and non-traumatic causes (e.g. gastrointestinal bleeding, ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm) is associated with an increased death rate. \nUnlike with external bleeding, most internal bleeding cannot be controlled by applying pressure to the site of injury. Internal bleeding in the thorax and abdominal cavity (including both the intraperitoneal and retroperitoneal space) cannot be controlled with direct pressure (compression). A patient with acute internal bleeding in the thorax after",
"-31.502263820002554"
],
[
"to irritants. This response depends on the severity and duration of the irritant involved. If the irritant is severe or persists for a sustained amount of time it can cause the odontoblasts to die and cause initiation of an inflammatory response. Odontoblasts The odontoblast cell bodies decrease in number and size before any inflammatory changes occur. The outward flow of tubular fluid can cause the nuclei of odontoblasts to be aspirated into the dentinal tubules. The odontoblasts may also be permanently damaged which causes them to release tissue injury factors which can then influence adjacent odontoblasts and underlying connective tissue.",
"-31.458418417547364"
],
[
"leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI), which inhibits not only proteases but also inflammation and microorganisms like viruses, bacteria, and fungi, may prove to be an effective treatment.\nResearch into hormones and wound healing has shown estrogen to speed wound healing in elderly humans and in animals that have had their ovaries removed, possibly by preventing excess neutrophils from entering the wound and releasing elastase. Thus the use of estrogen is a future possibility for treating chronic wounds. Epidemiology Chronic wounds mostly affect people over the age of 60.\nThe incidence is 0.78% of the population and the prevalence ranges from 0.18 to 0.32%.",
"-31.391474378935527"
],
[
"way that V. vulnificus has been most harmful is with some of the toxins that it creates. These toxins are not part of the infection that V. vulnificus causes but instead they are part of a secondary infection in the GI tract that most certainly will lead to systemic infection. Lastly, V. vulnificus has been seen to cause more harm in patients that have higher levels of iron. Treatment V. vulnificus wound infections have a mortality rate around 25%. In people in whom the infection worsens into sepsis, typically following ingestion, the mortality rate rises to 50%. The majority of",
"-31.370935049664695"
],
[
"(CPB). This alters or, depending on the technique used, destroys the nerves that transmit pain from the abdomen. CPB is a safe and effective way to reduce the pain, which generally reduces the need to use opioid painkillers, which have significant negative side effects.\nOther symptoms or complications that can be treated with palliative surgery are obstruction by the tumor of the intestines or bile ducts. For the latter, which occurs in well over half of cases, a small metal tube called a stent may be inserted by endoscope to keep the ducts draining. Palliative care can",
"-31.36551520304056"
],
[
"shunt infections are often caused by skin bacteria such as Cutibacterium acnes, or in instances of ventriculoperitoneal shunts that perforate the gut, by anaerobes of enteric origin (i.e. Bacteroides fragilis).Clostridium perfringens can cause of brain abscesses and meningitis following intracranial surgery or head trauma.\nThe anaerobes often isolated from brain abscesses complicating respiratory and dental infections are anaerobic Gram-negative bacilli (AGNB, including Prevotella, Porphyromonas, Bacteroides), Fusobacterium and Peptostreptococcus spp. Microaerophilic and other streptococci are also often isolated. Actinomyces are rarely isolated.\nAt the stage of encephalitis, antimicrobial therapy and utilization of measures to lower the increase in the intracranial pressure can prevent",
"-31.36116509092608"
],
[
"by stopping smoking thirty days prior to surgery. The patient's skin can be evaluated for the presence of Staphylococcus areus prior to surgery since this bacterium causes wound infections in postoperative wounds. Treating any other infections prior to surgery also reduces the risks of a postoperative wound infection. Examples of these pre-existing infections are urinary tract infection or lower reproductive system infection. Removing the hair where the skin will be cut helps to reduce the risk of complications, though shaving is not considered to be appropriate and instead depilatories are used. Those who come in contact with the person who",
"-31.34067592167412"
],
[
"the mass effect and enhances the efficacy of the antibiotics. Prognosis The prognosis of the C. koseri infection is 20 to 30% of neonates die, and 75% of survivors have significant neurologic damage such as complex hydrocephalus, neurologic deficits, mental delay, and epilepsy. Control The most effective way to reduce transmission of organisms is regular handwashing.",
"-31.319713229313493"
],
[
"involves addressing any existing infections that may have occurred due to the broken state of the skin. Existing wounds are treated with warm compresses, non-adherent (non-stick) dressing, and topical antibiotic ointment. Immunosuppressive agents are administered in attempt to decrease blistering; this is not often effective. The first medication given aiming to heal the wounds are high dose corticosteroids. This is followed by steroid sparing agents which may reduce steroid intake and therefore lessen the side effects. Skin lesions are more likely to respond to this line of treatment than mucosal lesions. However, a high level of caution is advised",
"-31.303164316224866"
],
[
"Wound dehiscence Wound dehiscence is a surgical complication in which a wound ruptures along a surgical incision. Risk factors include age, collagen disorder such as Ehlers–Danlos syndrome, diabetes, obesity, poor knotting or grabbing of stitches, and trauma to the wound after surgery. Signs Signs of dehiscence can include bleeding, pain, inflammation, fever, or the wound opening spontaneously. An internal wound dehiscence can occur internally as a result of hysterectomy at the site of the vaginal cuff. Cause A primary cause of wound dehiscence is sub-acute infection, resulting from inadequate or imperfect aseptic technique. Coated suture, such as Vicryl,",
"-31.284378775431833"
],
[
"or chlorination, using household bleach (sodium hypochlorite), or by nucleophilic attack using e.g. decontamination solution \"DS2\" (2% NaOH, 70% diethylenetriamine, 28% 2-methoxyethanol). After initial decontamination of the victim's wounds is complete, medical treatment is similar to that required by any conventional burn. The amount of pain and discomfort suffered by the victim is comparable as well. Mustard agent burns heal slowly, and, as with other types of burn, present a risk of sepsis caused by pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The mechanisms behind sulfur mustard's effect on endothelial cells are still being studied, but recent studies have",
"-31.272946582874283"
],
[
"disease has progressed to a point where no other pain treatments are effective. A neurolytic agent such as alcohol, phenol, or glycerol is typically injected into the nervous system. Chemical neurolysis causes deconstructive fibrosis which then disrupts the sympathetic ganglia. This results in a reduction of pain signals being transmitted throughout the nerves. The effects generally last for three to six months.\nCertain neurolysis techniques have been reported to be used in the early 1900’s for the treatment of pain by the neurologist Mathieu Jaboulay. Early reported neurolysis helped treat vasospastic disorders such as arterial occlusive disease before the introduction of",
"-31.241735997551586"
],
[
"slightly more. Prevention Necrotizing fasciitis can be partly prevented by good wound care and handwashing. Treatment Surgical debridement (cutting away affected tissue) is the mainstay of treatment for necrotizing fasciitis. Early medical treatment is often presumptive; thus, antibiotics should be started as soon as this condition is suspected. Tissue cultures (rather than wound swabs) are taken to determine appropriate antibiotic coverage, and antibiotics may be changed in light of results. Besides blood pressure control and hydration, support should be initiated for those with unstable vital signs and low urine output. Surgery Aggressive wound debridement should be performed early, usually as",
"-31.23063087706214"
],
[
"as a consequence of immunosuppressive therapy for other diseases generally have a remission after the dosages of the drugs used in their imunosuppressive treatment regimens are reduced. Most of these patients do not experience a relapse. Traumatic ulceration Most mouth ulcers that are not associated with recurrent aphthous stomatitis are caused by local trauma. The mucous membrane lining of the mouth is thinner than the skin, and easily damaged by mechanical, thermal (heat/cold), chemical, or electrical means, or by irradiation. Mechanical Common causes of oral ulceration include rubbing on sharp edges of teeth, fillings, crowns, false teeth (dentures), or braces",
"-31.22181275888579"
],
[
"adequate nutrition, controlling diabetes, and avoiding certain medications such as prednisone. Sterile strips may also be used to cover the sutures for up to a week. Antibiotics and cleaning the wound may also help. Treatment Once wound dehiscence occurs, it can be treated by allowing granulation, re-cutting and suturing the edges, and providing prophylactic antibiotics. Exposure to the air, debridement, and, if indicated, frequent dressing changes also help.",
"-31.202555364812724"
],
[
"not generally dangerous and the pain will ease considerably within a few hours even if untreated. Complete recovery may take a week or more; in a few cases, victims have reported swelling and/or stiffness persisting for months after envenomation.\nFirst aid treatment consists of immersing the affected area in hot water (as hot as the victim can tolerate without being scalded), which will accelerate denaturation of the protein-based venom. The use of hot water will reduce the pain felt by the victim after a few minutes. Usual experience is that the pain then fades within 10 to 20 minutes, as the",
"-31.181741002874332"
],
[
"personal care applications Glycerin is mildly antimicrobial and antiviral and is an FDA approved treatment for wounds. The Red Cross reports that an 85% solution of Glycerin shows bactericidal and antiviral effects, and wounds treated with Glycerin show reduced inflammation after roughly 2 hours. Due to this it is used widely in wound care products, including Glycerin based Hydrogel sheets for burns and other wound care. It is approved for all types of wound care except third degree burns, and is used to package donor skin used in skin grafts. There is no topical treatment approved for third degree burns,",
"-31.13428859578562"
],
[
"the response to the body after endotoxins are released by the death of harmful organisms in the human body, starts usually during the first day of antibiotic treatment. The reaction increases the person's body temperature, decreases the overall blood pressure (both systolic and diastolic levels), and results in leukopenia and rigors in the body. This reaction can occur during any treatment of spirochete diseases.\nIt is important to realize that syphilis can recur. An individual who has had the disease once, even if it has been treated, does not prevent the person from experiencing recurrence of syphilis. Individuals can be",
"-31.084743875428103"
],
[
"channel the regrowing fibers to their lost connections, a painful neuroma or deafferentation pain may develop. This is why the neurolytic is preferred over the surgical block. Cutting or destruction of nervous tissue Surgical cutting or destruction of peripheral or central nervous tissue is now rarely used in the treatment of pain. Procedures include neurectomy, cordotomy, dorsal root entry zone lesioning, and cingulotomy.\nNeurectomy involves cutting a nerve, and is (rarely) used in patients with short life expectancy who are unsuitable for drug therapy due to ineffectiveness or intolerance. The dorsal root or dorsal root ganglion (that carry mostly sensory signals)",
"-31.059904502675636"
],
[
"antigens in the wound also attract lymphocytes. These immune cells release cytokines, such as IL-1 and TNF-α,which can have multiple actions on further physiologic responses. For example, IL-1 amplifies the immune response by inducing the proliferation of T-cells, increases the phagocytic abilities of monocytes and macrophages, and induces the proliferation of fibroblasts. The disruption of the vascular supply, and the subsequent cellular reactions during the inflammatory and immune reactions, result in multiple changes in the local environment, including decreases in pH, oxygen content and the ionic concentrations for calcium, phosphorus, potassium and sodium. If these conditions persist, a chronic inflammatory",
"-31.027699325000867"
],
[
"by doing a lobectomy or other types of resection and thus stop the bleeding. There has been interest in treatment with antifungal medications such as itraconazole, none has yet been shown to reliably eradicate aspergillomata.\nAlthough most fungi—and especially Aspergillus—fail to grow in healthy human tissue, significant growth may occur in people whose adaptive immune system is compromised, such as those with chronic granulomatous disease, who are undergoing chemotherapy, or who have recently undergone a bone marrow transplantation. Within the lungs of such individuals, the fungal hyphae spread out as a spherical growth. With the restoration of normal defense mechanisms, neutrophils",
"-31.01426716937567"
],
[
"causing death. Treatment The adverse effects from cicutoxin poisoning are gastrointestinal or cardiac nature. With no antidote known, only symptomatic treatments are available, though supportive treatments do substantially improve survival rates. Treatments used include the administration of activated charcoal within 30 minutes of ingestion to reduce the uptake of poison, maintaining an open the airways to prevent suffocation, rehydration to address the dehydration caused by vomiting, and administration of benzodiazepines that enhance the effect of GABA on the GABAA receptor or barbiturates to reduce seizures. Effects on animals The LD₅₀ of cicutoxin for mice is 2.8 mg kg⁻¹ (10.8 μmol kg⁻¹). In",
"-31.01381039127591"
],
[
"an open wound then spreading to the brain. The combination of host immune response and amoebal proteases causes massive brain swelling resulting in death in about 95% of those infected. GAE GAE is caused by amoebic infection of the central nervous system (CNS). It is characterized by neurological symptoms including headache, seizures, and mental-status abnormalities. These worsen progressively over weeks to months, leading to death in most patients. Infection is generally associated with underlying conditions such as immunodeficiency, diabetes, malignancies, malnutrition, systemic lupus erythematosus, and alcoholism. The parasite enters the body through cuts in the skin or by being inhaled",
"-31.00648716006981"
],
[
"occurs through traumatic introductions into the body (i.e. through a wound).\nCunninghamella bertholletiae can infect a wide variety of human tissue types, exhibits hyphal growth in the body and is angioinvasive. Like other Mucorales, under appropriate host conditions, it can grow very aggressively and destroy tissue structure. Typically, initial pathology is from thrombosis and infarction. Common classes of mucormycoses include pulmonary, rhinocerebral (particularly when invasion into the vasculature of the brain is involved), multi-organ, cutaneous, and gastrointestinal (primarily in premature babies and malnourished children). Rhinocerebral infection and gastrointestinal cases are most immediately life-threatening. Pulmonary infections, as well as disseminated infections with",
"-31.00419188424894"
],
[
"physical damage, which can cause pain, loss of sensation, or loss of muscle control. Damage to nerves can also be caused by swelling or bruises at places where a nerve passes through a tight bony channel, as happens in carpal tunnel syndrome. If a nerve is completely transected, it will often regenerate, but for long nerves this process may take months to complete. In addition to physical damage, peripheral neuropathy may be caused by many other medical problems, including genetic conditions, metabolic conditions such as diabetes, inflammatory conditions such as Guillain–Barré syndrome, vitamin deficiency, infectious diseases such",
"-30.966536422231002"
],
[
"eventually produce more pus.\nIn order to eliminate this problem, it is imperative to apply antiseptics at once. Hydrogen peroxide (a near-universal toxin) is not recommended for this task as it increases inflammation and impedes healing. Dressings with cadexomer iodine, silver, or honey have been shown to penetrate bacterial biofilms. Systemic antibiotics are not recommended in treating local infection in a pressure ulcer, as it can lead to bacterial resistance. They are only recommended if there is evidence of advancing cellulitis, bony infection, or bacteria in the blood. Prevention In the United Kingdom, the Royal College of Nursing has published",
"-30.952037908049533"
],
[
"that activates only nonnociceptive nerves can inhibit pain. The pain seems to be lessened when the area is rubbed because activation of nonnociceptive fibers inhibits the firing of nociceptive ones in the laminae. In transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), nonnociceptive fibers are selectively stimulated with electrodes in order to produce this effect and thereby lessen pain.\nOne area of the brain involved in reduction of pain sensation is the periaqueductal gray matter that surrounds the third ventricle and the cerebral aqueduct of the ventricular system. Stimulation of this area produces analgesia (but not total numbing) by activating descending pathways that",
"-30.94999990222277"
],
[
"disposable bag and wash your hands after. Wound healing Wound healing is a complex and fragile process in which the skin repairs itself after injury. It is susceptible to interruption or failure that creates non-healing chronic wounds. Radiation Radiation induces skin reactions in the treated area, particularly in the axilla, head and neck, perineum and skin fold regions. Formulations with moisturising, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial and wound healing properties are often used, but no preferred approach or individual product has been identified as best practice. Soft silicone dressings that act as barriers to friction may be helpful. In breast cancer, calendula cream",
"-30.946584411081858"
],
[
"of ulcers, heartburn or dyspepsia. Such products can cause constipation, because the aluminum ions inhibit the contractions of smooth muscle cells in the gastrointestinal tract, slowing peristalsis and lengthening the time needed for stool to pass through the colon. Some such products are formulated to minimize such effects through the inclusion of equal concentrations of magnesium hydroxide or magnesium carbonate, which have counterbalancing laxative effects.",
"-30.940972540855"
],
[
"antifungals. Side effects Side effects of the oral formulation include itching, nausea, and vomiting. >10% of patients using the oral formulation may have abnormal liver function tests. Side effects include rash, hives, blisters, burning, itching, peeling, redness, swelling, pain or other signs of skin irritation. For this reason, liver function tests should be monitored periodically when taking the oral clotrimazole (troche). When used to treat vulvovaginal candidiasis (yeast infection), <10% of patient have vulvar or vaginal burning sensation. <1% of patients have the following side effects: Burning or itching of penis of sexual partner; polyuria; vulvar itching, soreness, edema, or",
"-30.913459910625534"
],
[
"to perform their metabolic roles, or degraded in excess by cellular or bacterial proteases.\nChronic wounds such as diabetic and venous ulcers are also caused by a failure of fibroblasts to produce adequate ECM proteins and by keratinocytes to epithelialize the wound. Fibroblast gene expression is different in chronic wounds than in acute wounds.\nThough all wounds require a certain level of elastase and proteases for proper healing, too high a concentration is damaging. Leukocytes in the wound area release elastase, which increases inflammation, destroys tissue, proteoglycans, and collagen, and damages growth factors, fibronectin, and factors that inhibit proteases. ",
"-30.91221237240825"
],
[
"and a hematoma may develop. It may leak bile, usually without serious consequences. If severely injured, the liver may cause exsanguination (bleeding to death), requiring emergency surgery to stop the bleeding. Spleen Spleen is the most common cause of massive bleeding in blunt abdominal trauma to a solid organ. Spleen is the most commonly injured organ. The spleen is the second most commonly injured intra-abdominal organ in children. A laceration of the spleen may be associated with hematoma. Because of the spleen's ability to bleed profusely, a ruptured spleen can be life-threatening, resulting in shock. ",
"-30.908011662800163"
],
[
"doses.\nAdditionally, aspirin induces the formation of NO-radicals in the body, which have been shown in mice to have an independent mechanism of reducing inflammation. This reduces leukocyte adhesion, which is an important step in immune response to infection. There is currently insufficient evidence to show that aspirin helps to fight infection.\nMore recent data also suggests that salicylic acid and its derivatives modulate signaling through NF-κB. NF-κB is a transcription factor complex that plays a central role in many biological processes, including inflammation. Reye's syndrome Reye's syndrome is a potentially fatal disease that causes numerous detrimental effects to many organs, especially",
"-30.885215260001132"
],
[
"Postoperative wounds Healing sequence The body responds to postoperative wounds in the same manner as it does to tissue damage acquired in other circumstances. The inflammatory response is designed to create homeostasis. This first step is called the inflammatory stage. The next stage and wound healing is the infiltration of leukocytes and release of cytokines into the tissue. The inflammatory response and the infiltration of leukocytes occur simultaneously. The final stage of postoperative wound healing is called remodeling. Remodeling restores the structure of the tissue and that tissues ability to regain its function. Diagnosis Surgical wounds can begin to open",
"-30.845192009961465"
],
[
"it, and lack of oxygen and nutrients (ischemia) of the downstream tissue. The tissue can become irreversibly damaged, a process known as necrosis. This can affect any organ; for instance, arterial embolism of the brain is one of the cause of stroke. Prevention The use of heparin following surgery is common if there are no issues with bleeding. Generally, a risk-benefit analysis is required, as all anticoagulants lead to an increased risk of bleeding. In people admitted to hospital, thrombosis is a major cause for complications and occasionally death. In the UK, for instance, the Parliamentary Health Select Committee heard",
"-30.83691514583188"
],
[
"by the late 1990s, the autointoxication concept and thereby colon cleansing was being renewed in alternative healthcare, allegedly upon a fictitious basis. Combating alleged myths, some gastroenterologists asserted that \"no evidence\" supports the autointoxication concept that toxins are absorbed from waste in the large intestine.\nIn basic research, if freed from its simplistic reduction to constipation, the autointoxication principle has now been substantially supported as an independent mechanism whereby gastrointestinal microorganisms contain or produce toxins exhibiting systemic effects—as by transmigration into circulation and driving systemic inflammation—effects that include the psychological. Apparent instances of autointoxication associate not merely with constipation,",
"-30.826124352257466"
],
[
"bursting of the fluid from the larvae could lead to allergic reactions in some people. Proper covering of the wound will prevent further infection. Unsterilized objects should not be used to open lesions as this could result in infection. Hyperpigmentation may persist on the skin of the infected area months after infection. Also lack of experience in diagnosing Lund's fly induced myasis could lead to a misdiagnosis of impetigo, insect bites, folliculitis or other skin disorders. Prevention and control Generally, humans are accidental hosts of myasis as a result of Lund’s fly larvae infestation and are therefore less likely to",
"-30.810889732209034"
],
[
"play an essential role. Cutting or destruction of nervous tissue Surgical cutting or destruction of peripheral or central nervous tissue is now rarely used in the treatment of pain. Procedures include neurectomy, cordotomy, dorsal root entry zone lesioning, and cingulotomy.\nCutting through or removal of nerves (neurectomy) is used in people with cancer pain who have short life expectancy and who are unsuitable for drug therapy due to ineffectiveness or intolerance. Because nerves often carry both sensory and motor fibers, motor impairment is a possible side effect of neurectomy. A common result of this procedure is \"deafferentation pain\" where, 6–9 months",
"-30.810155602783198"
],
[
"Since cytokines are produced as part of the immediate immunological response (inflammation), it has been suggested that they may also influence pain. In this way, cytokines may be a logical target for analgesic development. Recently, one study has used an animal model (hind-paw incision) to observe the effects of morphine administration on the acute immunological response. Following hind-paw incision, pain thresholds and cytokine production were measured. Normally, cytokine production in and around the wounded area increases in order to fight infection and control healing (and, possibly, to control pain), but pre-incisional morphine administration (0.1 mg/kg to 10.0 mg/kg) reduced the number of",
"-30.797541316918796"
],
[
"may be more damage to adjacent tissues, slower wound healing and more inflammatory response than the scalpel technique.",
"-30.75986786209978"
],
[
"enzymes and exotoxins that likely cause or increase the severity of certain diseases. Such diseases include food poisoning, septic shock, toxic shock syndrome, and scalded skin syndrome. Almost any organ system can be infected by S. aureus. Squeezing or cutting boils in the danger triangle of the face can be particularly dangerous if done outside a medical setting, as blood vessels in this area drain into the brain and can carry serious infections there.\nAnd when burst, a seemingly solid, whitish colored pus initially appears then the pus and some blood follows. Bacteria Naturally the cause is bacteria such as staphylococci",
"-30.75656851063104"
],
[
"conflicting reports about its efficacy in treating brown recluse bites, and some have suggested it should no longer be used routinely, if at all.\nWound infection is rare. Antibiotics are not recommended unless there is a credible diagnosis of infection.\nStudies have shown that surgical intervention is ineffective and may worsen outcome. Excision may delay wound healing, cause abscesses, and lead to scarring.\nPurportedly application of nitroglycerin stopped necrosis. However, one scientific animal study found no benefit in preventing necrosis, with the study's results showing it increased inflammation and caused symptoms of systemic envenoming. The authors concluded the results of the study did",
"-30.737700709640194"
],
[
"and to protect against invading pathogens, as the wound often does not have an effective skin barrier to act as a first line of defense. Vascularization It is necessary for a network of blood vessels to be established as soon as possible to provide the growing tissue with nutrients, to take away cellular wastes, and transport new leukocytes to the area. Fibroblasts, the main cells that deposit granulation tissue, depend on oxygen to proliferate and lay down the new extracellular matrix.\nIn vascularisation, also called angiogenesis, endothelial cells quickly grow into the tissue from older, intact blood vessels. These",
"-30.734309568273602"
],
[
"(cutting around the ulcer, removing both the ulcer and the surrounding inflamed tissue). Some ulcers may recur in the same location.\nMany patients choose to live with the ulcers and treat the symptoms associated with them through bladder instillations and/or pain medication/therapy.\nPatients with interstitial cystitis may find relief by modifying their diet to remove foods and beverages that trigger symptoms. Caffeinated beverages, particularly coffee (regular and decaf), tea, green tea, soda, artificial sugars and fruit juices. Cranberry juice may also trigger intense pain and discomfort. However, studies about the impact of specific foods and drinks on Hunner's ulcer symptoms are limited.",
"-30.721007015949"
],
[
"wound when hypovolemia or shock is not present. Laboratory diagnostic studies such as a hematocrit, white blood cell count and chemical tests such as liver function tests can also help to determine the efficiency of care . Surgery Surgical intervention may be required but it depends on what organ systems are affected by the wound and the extent of the damage. It is important for care providers to thoroughly check the wound site inasmuch as a laceration of an artery often results in delayed complications sometimes leading to death. In cases where there is no suspicion of bleeding or infection,",
"-30.702062023352482"
],
[
"may serve the same purpose. These products protect the wound by forming a thin film of polymer when the carrier evaporates. Polymers used may include polyvinylpyrrolidone (water based), ethyl cellulose, pyroxylin/nitrocellulose or poly(methylacrylate-isobutene-monoisopropylmaleate) (alcohol based), and acrylate or siloxane polymers (hexamethyldisiloxane or isooctane solvent based).\nIn addition to their use in replacing conventional bandages in minor cuts and scrapes, they have found use in surgical and veterinary offices, as they cause less trauma, and do not have to be removed like sutures (stitches) and staples do. Liquid bandages are increasingly finding use in the field of combat, where they can",
"-30.618435767450137"
],
[
"months. Botox injections cause scarring in the sphincter which may increase the difficulty of later Heller myotomy. This therapy is recommended only for patients who cannot risk surgery, such as elderly people in poor health. Pneumatic dilatation has a better long term effectiveness than botox. Pneumatic dilatation In balloon (pneumatic) dilation or dilatation, the muscle fibers are stretched and slightly torn by forceful inflation of a balloon placed inside the lower esophageal sphincter. There is always a small risk of a perforation which requires immediate surgical repair. Pneumatic dilatation causes some scarring which may increase the difficulty of Heller myotomy",
"-30.61332455226875"
],
[
"effective cure for bloodshot eyes. Risks There are potential health hazards in wound licking due to infection risk, especially in immunocompromised patients. Human saliva contains a wide variety of bacteria that are harmless in the mouth, but that may cause significant infection if introduced into a wound. A notable case was a diabetic man who licked his bleeding thumb following a minor bicycle accident, and subsequently had to have the thumb amputated after it became infected with Eikenella corrodens from his saliva. The practice of metzitzah during circumcision is controversial as it can transmit the herpes virus to the infant.",
"-30.608960492303595"
],
[
"affect wound healing? To heal wounds, cells surrounding the wound must migrate and grow directionally into the wound to cover the defect and restore the barrier. Cells important to heal wounds respond remarkably well to applied electric fields of the same strength that are measured at wounds. The whole gamut of cell types and their responses following injury are affected by physiological electric fields. Those include migration and division of epithelial cells, sprouting and extension of nerves, and migration of leukocytes and endothelial cells. The most well studied cellular behavior is directional migration of epithelial cells in electric fields –",
"-30.605020952629275"
],
[
"damaged require surgical reduction. In a surgical reduction, the surgeon opens the abdomen and manually squeezes (rather than pulls) the part that has telescoped. If the surgeon cannot successfully reduce it, or the bowel is damaged, they resect the affected section. More often, the intussusception can be reduced by laparoscopy, pulling the segments of intestine apart with forceps. Prognosis Intussusception may become a medical emergency if not treated early, as it eventually causes death if not reduced. In developing countries where medical hospitals are not easily accessible, especially when other problems complicate the intussusception, death becomes almost inevitable. When intussusception",
"-30.592295485475915"
],
[
"often sought to guide the embalmer's hand in restoring the body to a more lifelike appearance. Blemishes and discolorations (such as bruises, in which the discoloration is not in the circulatory system, and cannot be removed by arterial injection) occasioned by the last illness, the settling of blood, or the embalming process itself are also dealt with at this time (although some embalmers utilize hypodermic bleaching agents, such as phenol-based cauterants, during injection to lighten discoloration and allow easier cosmetizing). It is also common for the embalmer to perform minor restoration of the deceased's appearance with tissue building chemicals and",
"-30.57519598409999"
],
[
"to stop bleeding. This technique induces localized tissue burning and damage, the zone of which is controlled by the frequency and power of the device.\nSome sources insist that electrosurgery be applied to surgery accomplished by high-frequency alternating current (AC) cutting, and that \"electrocautery\" be used only for the practice of cauterization with heated nichrome wires powered by direct current (DC), as in the handheld battery-operated portable cautery tools. Diathermy risks Burns from electrocautery generally arise from a faulty grounding pad or from an outbreak of a fire. Monopolar electrocautery works because radio frequency energy is concentrated by the surgical instrument's",
"-30.57262884415104"
],
[
"periwound skin. They can create a gateway for infection as well as cause wound edge deterioration preventing wound closure. Pathophysiology Chronic wounds may affect only the epidermis and dermis, or they may affect tissues all the way to the fascia. They may be formed originally by the same things that cause acute ones, such as surgery or accidental trauma, or they may form as the result of systemic infection, vascular, immune, or nerve insufficiency, or comorbidities such as neoplasias or metabolic disorders. The reason a wound becomes chronic is that the body's ability to deal with the damage",
"-30.551720229093917"
],
[
"that aid wound healing. Saliva contains cell-derived tissue factor, and many compounds that are antibacterial or promote healing. Salivary tissue factor, associated with microvesicles shed from cells in the mouth, promotes wound healing through the extrinsic blood coagulation cascade. The enzymes lysozyme and peroxidase, defensins, cystatins and an antibody, IgA, are all antibacterial. Thrombospondin and some other components are antiviral. A protease inhibitor, secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor, is present in saliva and is both antibacterial and antiviral, and a promoter of wound healing. Nitrates that are naturally found in saliva break down into nitric oxide on contact with skin, which",
"-30.546644539652334"
],
[
"disruption may increase the penetration of various substances (including either toxins or antibiotics) into the brain. Antibiotics used to treat meningitis may aggravate the inflammatory response of the central nervous system by releasing neurotoxins from the cell walls of bacteria - like lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Depending on the causative pathogen, whether it is bacterial, fungal, or protozoan, treatment with third-generation or fourth-generation cephalosporin or amphotericin B is usually prescribed. Brain abscess A brain or cerebral abscess, like other abscesses, is caused by inflammation and collection of lymphatic cells and infected material originating from a local or remote infection. A brain abscess",
"-30.53843554595369"
],
[
"the mouth and sometimes only the mouth, sparing the skin. The different environmental conditions (saliva, thinner mucosa, trauma from teeth and food), mean that some cutaneous disorders which produce characteristic lesions on the skin produce only non specific lesions in the mouth. The vesicles and bullae of blistering mucocutaneous disorders progress quickly to ulceration in the mouth, because of moisture and trauma from food and teeth. The high bacterial load in the mouth means that ulcers may become secondarily infected. Cytotoxic drugs administered during chemotherapy target cells with fast turnovers such as malignant cells. However, the epithelia of the mouth",
"-30.52988926756734"
]
] |
qhdm1 | Why do a good amount of gay men have higher voices than the norm? | [
"This has to do with a confirmation bias. Think of it this way. Everyone thinks that toupees are terrible and extremely easy to spot. This is a problem because the only toupees that you spot are the bad ones. The good ones or 'passable' ones go on unnoticed. The same is for gay men. You tend to notice the gay men who fit the stereotype: effeminate voices, metrosexual dress, vaguely flamboyant, yet all of the gays that do not posses these traits often go unnoticed. Or even then you tend to overlook their existence somewhat because the human brain tends to mentally overlook something that doesn't agree with their preconceived notions.",
"half of all people have a higher voice than the norm, and that is a good amount.",
"I really think it's more of a matter of the register gay men allow their voices to go into. They are expressive and their voice follows suit. I, for instance, speak in a fairly high voice, but if I want to I can go lower than my straight friend, despite the fact that he normally talks in a lower register. You know how sometimes you can tell that a guy is making his voice seem lower than it really naturally is? I believe that many straight men do this habitually; many gay men do the opposite. It's a societal pressure on both sides.",
"As a side to the OP – why is there a stereotype that gay men talk in a lisp? I know 6 or so gay men pretty well, and only one really talks like that (I'm pretty sure it's an affectation and he's the only one who really tries that hard to seem effeminate). Obviously a lot of gay men don't have a lisp, but for some reason or another this is a fairly accepted stereotype – listen to a comedian do an impression, for instance. Any thoughts on where this originated (or why people think lisps are effeminate)?",
"Most gay men do not have a higher voice.",
"They don't. They're just the ones you notice more."
] | [
[
"stages in their cycles. It has been found that women have a preference towards more masculine voices during the late-follicular, fertile phase of the menstrual cycle. They are particularly sensitive towards voice pitch and apparent vocal-tract length, which are testosterone-related traits. This effect has been found to be most significant in women who are less feminine (those with low E3G levels), in comparison to women with higher E3G levels. It has been suggested that this difference in preference is because feminine women (those with high E3G levels) are more successful at obtaining investment. It is not necessary for these women",
"-35.14678608553368"
],
[
"they are associated with a person's sexual orientation. A handful of studies have investigated the question of gaydar from the voice. They have found that people can tell who is gay and straight from their voices, but have mostly focused on men (sometimes terming the vocal difference \"gay lisp\"). Detailed acoustic analyses have highlighted a number of factors in a person's voice that are used, one of which is the way that gay and straight men pronounce \"s\" sounds.\nResearch by William T. L. Cox and his colleagues proposed that \"gaydar\" is simply an alternate label for using LGBT stereotypes to",
"-34.61282684770413"
],
[
"their speech styles to conform with their gender role, which men often pick speech styles that reflect the culturally defined standards of masculinity. Gay men may be associated with \"femininity\" in their speech styles because others perceive that their speech performance doesn't conform with their gender.\nFor example, in the west, parodies of gay styles employ resources that are heard as hyper-feminine, supporting that gay speech is feminine. However, because many speech varieties associated with 'masculinity' are learned and not biological, certain gay men may be using a wider variety of speech than a stereotypical 'masculine' male.\nThese stylistic innovations are made",
"-34.033610629849136"
],
[
"considerable room for linguistic research based on sexual orientation, rather than gender. Gay males Linguistics research, particularly within North American English, has revealed a number of phonetically salient features used by many gay men, some of which adhere to stereotypes. Studies have repeatedly confirmed that male American English speakers are recognized as gay by their speech at rates above chance. Relevant features include what is popularly known as a gay lisp: in fact, the articulation of /s/ and /z/ with a higher frequency and longer duration than average speakers. Also, gay men may tend to lower the TRAP and DRESS",
"-32.824294716876466"
],
[
"higher testosterone levels in comparison to females. Testosterone is able to fuel sex drive amongst men and women. Gay couples, therefore together obtain more testosterone thus, ultimately could be a suggestion as to why gay couples have more sexual encounters than lesbian and heterosexual couples. Thus, suggesting that gay couples desire discrepancy involves high sexual desire and high sexual frequency (however, research is needed to confirm this). Despite such reports, literature states that gay men can vary between sexual desire and sexual frequencies, conveying that gay male couples may not always obtain high sexual desires and high sexual frequencies. Even",
"-32.68280999905983"
],
[
"front vowels, especially in \"fun\" or casual social situations. Many gay speech characteristics match those that other speakers use when trying to speak especially clearly or carefully, including (over-)enunciating and widening the vowel spaces in the mouth. The notion that some gay male speech entirely imitates women's speech is inaccurate, though certain vocal qualities are certainly shared between the two speech styles. Research has also shown unique speech of gay men in other languages, such as Puerto Rican Spanish and Flemish Dutch. Lesbians Speech scientist Benjamin Munson confirmed such features among lesbians as the use of lower pitch and more",
"-32.61328239738941"
],
[
"but males tend to be instrumental and competitive. In addition, there are differences in accepted communication behaviors for males and females. To improve communication between genders, people who identify as either male or female must understand the differences between each gender.\nAs found by Cara Tigue (McMaster University in Hamilton, Canada) the importance of powerful vocal delivery for women could not be underestimated, as famously described in accounts of Margaret Thatcher's years in power.) Nonverbal communication Hall published an observational study on nonverbal gender differences and discussed the cultural reasons for these differences. In her study, she noted women smile and",
"-32.31377840816276"
],
[
"to be learned ways of speaking, though their origins and process of adoption by men remain unclear. North American English Linguists have attempted to isolate exactly what makes gay men's English distinct from that of other demographics since the early 20th century, typically by contrasting it with straight male speech or comparing it to female speech. In older work, speech pathologists often focused on high pitch among men, in its resemblance to women, as a defect. Since the gay community consists of many smaller subcultures, it is likely inaccurate to presume all gay male speech falls under a single linguistically",
"-31.941520165350084"
],
[
"of credibility of women speaking out means that women are disadvantaged when reporting sexual harassment gender violence or sexual assault. This lack of credibility is viewed by fourth-wave feminists as endangering the lives of women; they are unable to turn to state institutions for protections. Women have been trying to amplify their own voices as part of this wave.\nThe judiciary frequently does not trust women's voices. According to Varela, this is because \"they consider that we have to show that we have defended ourselves tooth and nail [or that] we even have to go with our heads under our arms",
"-31.851671581855044"
],
[
"university level education. The gay men also had higher incomes than the general population, and tended to work in white collar jobs while straight men tended toward blue collar ones. Because there were not enough female respondents (22), no conclusions could be drawn from them.\nSexually speaking, the same 2006 study by Nordling et al. found that gay males were aware of their S/M preferences and took part in them at an earlier age, preferring leather, anal sex, rimming, dildos and special equipment or uniform scenes. In contrast, straight men preferred verbal humiliation, mask and blindfolds, gags, rubber/latex outfits, caning, vaginal",
"-31.581916173221543"
],
[
"Gay male speech Gay male speech, particularly within North American English, has been the focus of numerous modern stereotypes, as well as sociolinguistic studies. Scientific research has uncovered phonetically significant features produced by many gay men and demonstrated that listeners accurately guess speakers' sexual orientation at rates greater than chance. One feature of the speech is sometimes known as the \"gay lisp\", though researchers acknowledge that it is not technically a lisp. Research does not support the notion that gay speech entirely adopts feminine speech characteristics, but, rather, that it selectively adopts some of those features. Gay speech characteristics appear",
"-31.57100513621117"
],
[
"In young adult women, it was perceived as sounding less trustworthy, less competent, less attractive, and less hireable. The negative evaluation was stronger when the evaluator was also a woman.\nThe national study of 800 listeners across age groups found that people making hiring decisions preferred a voice without vocal fry to one with vocal fry. A limitation of the study was that the vocal fry samples were produced by imitators rather than natural vocal fry speakers. That suggests that more research is needed, as the negative reaction could be attributable to other factors.\nIn native speakers of American English, young women",
"-31.350514934398234"
],
[
"possible by the iterability of speech, and are used to index elements of identity that often do not conform with the gender binary. Conversely, lesbian women already have a wider variety of speech available, yet refrain from using a distinctive style of speech. Masculinity, and speech associated with a heterosexual male, is constrained by cultural expectations for men to avoid 'abjection' (as further elaborated in Gender Trouble); power differences amongst the genders may lead to speakers adopting different speech styles that conform with their identities, or expected gender performances (e.g. adolescent males often use the term 'fag' to police",
"-30.992703404277563"
],
[
"is expected.\" Elizabeth Gordon, in her study of New Zealand, suggested instead that women used higher prestige forms because of the association of sexual immorality with lower-class women. Whatever the cause, women across many cultures seem more likely than men to modify their speech towards the prestige dialect.\nThough women use prestige dialects more frequently than do men, the same gender preference for prestige languages does not seem to exist. A study of diglossic societies by John Angle and Sharlene Hesse-Biber showed that the men were more likely to speak the prestige language than were women. One explanation put forth for",
"-30.703930384202977"
],
[
"they sound more knowledgeable on a certain topic. This way of communication, often correlated with self-promotion, can put men and people with more masculine personas at an advantage because \"self-promotion is a stereotypically masculine communication style involving aggressive displays of confidence that assert one's own superiority\". And even though \"women's abilities to successfully self-promote are often inhibited by fear of backlash or social sanctions for counterstereotypical behavior\", women in technology often feel the need to be more masculine to have their voice heard.\nAnother way this manifests itself is in varying communication styles. A person with a \"competitive communication style\" may",
"-30.661865448237222"
],
[
"That is, to say that women use a particular speaking style more than men do is akin to saying that men are taller than women (i.e., men are on average taller than women, but some women are taller than some men).\nAnother Method is the Matched-guise test. This technique has the listener listen to a pair of words and evaluate them based on personality and dialect. As some groups have shared views on language attitude.",
"-30.598684318596497"
],
[
"the films, men had two of the top three speaking roles, while a woman had the most dialogue in only 22% of films.\nAccording to Neda Ulaby, the test resonates because \"it articulates something often missing in popular culture: not the number of women we see on screen, but the depth of their stories, and the range of their concerns.\" Dean Spade and Craig Willse described the test as a \"commentary on how media representations enforce harmful gender norms\" by depicting women's relationships to men more than any other relationships, and women's lives as important only insofar as they relate to",
"-30.54508923063986"
],
[
"the women, they may create an uncomfortable environment for them. For example, lower pay, more responsibilities, less appreciation as compared to men.\nCommunication is also a contributing factor to the divide between men and women in the workplace. A male to male communication is said to be more direct,\nbut when a man explains a task to a woman, they tend to talk down, or “dumb down” terms. This comes from the stereotype that men are more qualified than women for engineering, causing men to treat women as inferiors instead of equals.\nPart of the male dominance in the engineering field is explained",
"-30.53830056998413"
],
[
"on the experiences of women surveyed. According to the study, women who did not exhibit stereotypical masculine traits, (e.g. aggressiveness, thick skin, lack of emotional expression) and interpersonal communication tendencies are at an inherent disadvantage compared to their male peers. As the ratio of men to women increases in the upper levels of management, women's access to female mentors who could advise them on ways to navigate office politics is limited, further inhibiting upward mobility within a corporation or firm. Furthermore, the frozen middle affects female professionals in western and eastern countries such as the United States and Malaysia, respectively,",
"-30.49166130591766"
],
[
"a California regional sound can be employed by gay men for stylistic effect, including to evoke a \"fun\" or \"partier\" persona . Other characteristics Some other speech features are also stereotyped as markers of gay or bisexual males: carefully enunciated pronunciation, wide pitch range (high and rapidly changing pitch), breathy voice, lengthened fricative sounds, and pronunciation of /t/ as /ts/ and /d/ as /dz/ (affrication), etc. Research shows that gay speech characteristics include many of the same characteristics other speakers use when attempting to speak with special carefulness or clarity, including over-articulating and expanding the vowel spaces in the mouth.",
"-30.316040112520568"
],
[
"men, yet the lack of opportunities afforded to women in society negatively impacts their level of intellect. She argued this is primarily because the scarcity of opportunities does not allow for women to foster and develop this intellect, unlike men who are given extensive opportunities especially in terms of education. \nFurthermore, Kennard expressed to Darwin in their correspondence that women are crucial to society as they work equally as hard as their male counterparts, yet she claimed the major difference between the two sexes is the type of work men and women are socially accepted to carry out and thus",
"-30.230670313816518"
],
[
"males who expressed more feminine qualities than societal standards, racial minorities, and “rural folk.”\nProminent male members of a community would typically be the actors of the womanless performances. Their status would allow for their outlandish performances of stereotypical imitations of the minorities of a community, and the conditions of a community that went against the social norms of the culture in the spirit of entertainment to be accepted by the community with humor, rather than backlash and their masculinity being questioned by a community.",
"-30.204882324280334"
],
[
"and hierarchical. The implicit hierarchy gender stereotype is stronger for men than it is for women, which means men end up with more status and power than women.\nThese status beliefs are \"widely held cultural beliefs that link greater social significance and general competences, as well as positive and negative skills, with one category of social distinction compared to another\" (Ridgeway, 2001 p. 638). Because these are so ingrained in culture, individual accomplishments cannot overcome the disadvantages that come with being in a lower status group. Thomas-Hunt and Phillips (2004) found that female leaders who held expertise were less influential than male",
"-30.025470829103142"
],
[
"fact that they were found to express femininity in non-linguistic ways. This shows that linguistic variables may have different meanings in the context of different styles. Gay styles There is some debate about what makes a style \"gay.\" In stereotypically flamboyant gay speech, the phonemes /s/ and /l/ have a greater duration. People are also more likely to identify those with higher frequency ranges as gay.\nOn the other hand, there are many different styles represented within the gay community. There is much linguistic variation in the gay community, and each subculture appears to have its own distinct features. According to",
"-30.01233532396145"
],
[
"their public response, L.O.O.T. wrote:\nA woman's voice was almost never heard as a woman's voice - it was always filtered through men's voices. So here a guy comes along saying, \"I'm going to be a girl now and speak for girls.\" And we thought, \"No you're not.\" A person cannot just joined the oppressed by fiat.\nSheila Jeffreys labeled transgenderism \"deeply problematic from a feminist perspective\" and stated that \"transsexualism should best be seen in this light, as directly political, medical abuse of human rights.\" She has also written Gender Hurts: A Feminist Analysis of the Politics of Transgenderism, published in",
"-30.002466460740834"
],
[
"also a contributing factor to the divide between men and women in the workplace. A male to male communication is said to be more direct,\nbut when a man explains a task to a woman, they tend to talk down, or “dumb down” terms. This comes from the stereotype that men are more qualified than women for engineering, causing men to treat women as inferiors instead of equals.\nPart of the male dominance in the engineering field is explained by their perception towards engineering itself. A study in 1964 found that both women and men believed that engineering was in fact masculine.\nThe",
"-29.965346226934344"
],
[
"higher than woman psychologically. Lesbians and gay men scored higher than bisexual women and men, and Asian Americans scored higher than African Americans and Latinos. Media portrayal and social change Although there are many negative consequences that arise from LGBT portrayal in media, there are some positive consequences as well. Seeing LGBTs in the media can bring about more acceptance of these people. This is because before LGBT people appeared in media, many people had no idea what they may be like. Because many LGBT people chose not to openly talk about themselves, their peers and families may either have",
"-29.937617319927085"
],
[
"working in these industries are often expected to act more masculine to be taken seriously. Furthermore, the lack of women steers the culture and social norms within many of these industries to become more \"masculine\" and therefore, many women don't have others to model themselves after and as a result feel that they have to change in order to \"fit in\". Communication In STEM industries, meetings and technical discussions are often very knowledge and experience based. In these settings, people with more dominant – and often perceived to be \"masculine\" – personas tend to drive and overpower the conversation because",
"-29.92844146443531"
],
[
"men, on the other hand, “publicly disrupting normative gender expectations arguably remains as, if not more, contentious than homoerotic desires.” In many places, as long as a gay man subscribes to masculine representations and activities, such as wearing traditionally masculine attire and working in manual labor, acceptance comes much more easily. Deviations in appearance, like dressing up in drag, would be seen as very unacceptable, and can result in harassment. Male effeminate expressions and rurality are generally seen as incompatible. Many gay men in rural communities reject femininity and embrace masculine roles. Feminine gays typically face persecution and disapproval from",
"-29.918158793298062"
],
[
"in Cultural Differences It is because of these personal differences, that in studying cultural communication patterns we sometimes find it necessary to speak in stereotypes and generalizations. Just as one might say that Puerto Ricans who speak Spanish tend to use a louder voice than others communicating at the same distance, it would not be fair to say that all Puerto Ricans exhibit the same qualities. There are obviously enormous variations within each culture. These variations can depend on age, gender, geographical location, race, socioeconomic status, and personality. Because there are so many factors to study,",
"-29.899270858382806"
],
[
"at least partially due to active exclusion of women by male speakers.",
"-29.898831617785618"
],
[
"woman's voice was almost never heard as a woman's voice—it was always filtered through men's voices. So here a guy comes along saying, \"I'm going to be a girl now and speak for girls.\" And we thought, \"No you're not.\" A person cannot just join the oppressed by fiat.\nSome radical feminists, such as Andrea Dworkin, Catharine MacKinnon, John Stoltenberg and Monique Wittig, have supported recognition of trans women as women, which they describe as trans-inclusive feminism, while others, such as Mary Daly, Janice Raymond, Robin Morgan, Germaine Greer, Sheila Jeffreys, Julie Bindel, and Robert Jensen, have argued that the transgender",
"-29.829964994452894"
],
[
"to ground academic discipline. Male and female voices are distinctive both solo and in ensemble, and segregated singing has an evolved and established aesthetic. Male voices, unlike female voices, break in early adolescence, and accommodating this break in an educational program is challenging in a coed environment. Coeducation tends to stigmatize males, as is often the case in expressive arts, unlike athletics. In economies Physical sex separation is not popular in many institutions on a tertiary level (between types of institutions), while fields of study or majors are highly gendered, such as later life decisions such as work/care work conflicts.",
"-29.820830577693414"
],
[
"of this, they did not feel as much of a connection with gay culture. Men who had a more feminine appearance were the first to come out of the closet; they were the first to be labelled gay by their peers. They were more likely to face bullying and harassment throughout their lives; many gay men have been taunted using derogatory words that imply feminine qualities, for example, sissy. Effeminate or camp-acting gay men sometimes use what John R. Ballew describes as \"camp humour\", such as referring to one another using female pronouns as \"a funny way of defusing hate",
"-29.816518735082354"
],
[
"cite integrity and equality as masculine values in male-male relationships. Effeminacy Gay men are considered by some to \"deviate from the masculine norm\" and are benevolently stereotyped as \"gentle and refined\", even by other gay men. According to gay human-rights campaigner Peter Tatchell:\nContrary to the well-intentioned claim that gays are \"just the same\" as straights, there is a difference. What is more, the distinctive style of gay masculinity is of great social benefit. Wouldn't life be dull without the flair and imagination of queer fashion designers and interior decorators? How could the NHS cope with no gay nurses, or the",
"-29.792064248176757"
],
[
"one another, which challenges their sexual orientation through gender performance, and reinforces the avoidance of the 'abject' or femininity). 'Masculine' speech is associated with non-feminine sounding speech and because some gay men may not wish to identify with straight masculine speech in some contexts, they may access other speech styles to convey their identity (because the possibilities have two options, 'masculine' or 'feminine,' to be not-'masculine' is often associated with 'feminine'). The boundary between 'masculine' and 'feminine' is maintained by cultural norms and societal orders, that do not permit masculinity to include femininity, the abject.\nLanguage use can also mimic",
"-29.628989099524915"
],
[
"adult women for these parts can be especially useful if an ad campaign or a developed series is expected to run for several years, for while the vocal characteristics of a male child actor would change over time, the voice of an adult female will not. On the downside, a woman would require a higher wage than a child actor.\nThere are also less common instances in which a production has a predominantly female voice cast, some of the actors portraying male characters. The best known example(s) would be Rugrats and its spinoff, All Grown Up! (both shows had an all-female",
"-29.548788669642818"
],
[
"is argued, can help explain why sexual harassment, sexual violence, rape, rising demand for commercial sexual services and other behaviours are almost exclusively male. She has argued that the sex deficit also derives from men naturally having a higher sex drive than women.",
"-29.53975919241202"
],
[
"In a Different Voice Gender Differences Unlike the work which led her to her own studies, Gilligan's In a Different Voice purports to take account of both men and women. She strives to emphasize that women, like men, are capable of thinking and acting in a manner associated with justice, and women with elements more associated with the value of care. Images of Self When Gilligan asked women, \"How would you describe yourself?\" she found that women define who they are by describing relationships. Men defined themselves by separation, or the use of \"I\" statements. She also found that men",
"-29.504918587277643"
],
[
"as voice, body shape, and an assortment of other factors in selecting a partner. Research shows that males tend to prefer feminine women's faces and voices as opposed to women with masculine features in these categories. Furthermore, males also evaluate skin coloration, symmetry, and apparent health, as a means by which the select a partner for reproductive purposes. Males are particularly attracted to femininity in women's faces when their testosterone levels are at their highest, and the level of attraction to femininity may fluctuate as hormone levels fluctuate. Studies on men have also been done to show the effects of",
"-29.4324624917208"
],
[
"in these debates have been argued over time, the recent studies of James N. Druckman, previous professor at the University of Minnesota, determined that the visually-based television may have allowed viewers to evaluate the candidates more on their image (including perceived personality traits), than previous popular mediums which allowed the transmission of voice alone. Termed \"viewer-listener\" disagreement, this phenomenon may still affect the political scene of today. Gender and television While women, who were \"traditionally more isolated than men\" were given equal opportunity to consume shows about more \"manly\" endeavors, men's \"feminine\" sides are tapped by the emotional nature of",
"-29.416421759407967"
],
[
"actually pick up on the pheromones of another.\nOther attributes like, the sound of one's voice has been said to be one of the most prominent factors in how attractive someone is. Generally, women are attracted to men with deeper voices, while men are attracted to women with higher-pitched voices. The color red has also been scientifically proven to be the most attractive color worn by women, according to men.\nIn 2014, Professor Yan Zhang from the Huazhong University in China, conducted a study that was issued in the Personality and Individual Differences (November 2014 issue). The study suggested that people who",
"-29.350134814390913"
],
[
"that where men are typically attributed with social characteristics such as, \"aggressiveness, ambition, and self-confidence,\" women have been deemed \"affectionate, kind, sensitive, and soft-spoken\" and are therefore like to be regarded by an employer as inferior to a man with the same qualifications. Sociopsychological theorists go on to argue that because of these differences, it is difficult for a woman to enter a profession heavily dominated by men because they are likely to be viewed as incompetent or less competent than their male counterparts. It has been argued that this fear of incompetency has led women to embrace more masculine",
"-29.3178130890592"
],
[
"often still perceived as a masculine trait. Therefore, female candidates are running based on gender-opposing stereotypes because that predicts higher likelihood of success than appearing to be a stereotypical woman.\nElections of increasing numbers of women into office serves as a basis for many scholars to claim that voters are not biased towards a candidate's gender. However, it has been shown that female politicians are perceived as only being superior when it comes to handling women's rights and poverty, whereas male politicians are perceived to be better at dealing with crime and foreign affairs. That view lines up with the most",
"-29.30793545395136"
],
[
"for straight women, somewhat for bisexual women, and not at all for lesbians. The study's author theorized that the straight women, aware of the study's purpose, may have been attempting to express their affinity with lesbians by adopting their stereotype of a lower pitch. Another experiment found that listeners indeed were able to accurately judge female speakers on a scale from \"least\" to \"most likely to be a lesbian\" (the slight lesbian and bisexual differences approaching statistical significance), perceiving the straight women as significantly more feminine, bisexual speakers as only slightly more, and lesbians as correlated with lower median pitch,",
"-29.298064893344417"
],
[
"Bruce Dorval in his study of same-sex friend interaction, males tend to change subject more frequently than females. This difference may well be at the root of the conception that women chatter and talk too much. Goodwin observes that girls and women link their utterances to previous speakers and develop each other's topics, rather than introducing new topics.\nHowever, a study of young American couples and their interactions reveal that while women raise twice as many topics as men, it is the men's topics that are usually taken up and subsequently elaborated in the conversation. Listening and attentiveness In a conversation,",
"-29.252133024972863"
],
[
"Perception In terms of perception, the \"gay sound\" in North American English is popularly presumed to involve the pronunciation of sibilants (/s/, /z/, /ʃ/) with noticeable assibilation, sibilation, hissing, or stridency. Frontal, dentalized and negatively skewed articulations of /s/ (the aforementioned \"gay lisp\") are indeed found to be the most powerful perceptual indicators to a listener of a male speaker's sexual orientation, with experiments revealing that such articulations are perceived as \"gayer-sounding\" and \"younger-sounding\".\nGay speech is also widely stereotyped as resembling women's speech. However, on the basis of phonetics, Benjamin Munson and his colleagues' research has discovered that gay male",
"-29.249513369053602"
],
[
"in many Latin American countries, their perceived level of masculinity determines the amount of respect they receive in society. Because homosexual men are associated with feminine attributes, they are perceived with lower level of masculinity, and as a result, they receive less respect than heterosexual men in society. This, in turn, can limit their \"ability to achieve upward social mobility, to be taken seriously, or to hold positions of power\". Also, because homosexuality is seen as taboo or even sinful in many Christian denominations, homosexual men tend to lack a support system, leaving many unable express their true sexuality. To",
"-29.238990058001946"
],
[
"gay, but be as bourgeois and kitschy as the average citizen. They are longing for a cozy little home in which they can inconspicuously live together with their honest and faithful boyfriend in a de facto marriage. The ideal partner has to be clean, honest and natural; an unspent and fresh boy, as kind and playful as a shepherd dog.\nBecause gays are regarded as disturbed and inferior by the philistine, they try to be even more philistine in order to lessen their guilt feelings with an excess of bourgeois virtue. They are politically passive and behave conservatively in return for",
"-29.237234744243324"
],
[
"hair, proportional size, baldness\". Smyth (2004) identified four classic stereotypes of gay men as effeminate, mentally ill, predatory or libido-driven maniacs; these stereotypes arrived in popular discourse during different time periods. This is significant, as if an individual does not interact with LGBT people on a regular basis, they may rely on the mass media for information on LGBT people and LGBT issues and thus retain these stereotypes. Top, bottom and versatile In gay slang, to top means to have anal sex in an insertive capacity (penetrating with one's penis); to bottom means to have anal sex in a receptive",
"-29.182795311906375"
],
[
"in distributions. For example, most males are taller than most females, but an individual female could be taller than an individual male.\nThe most obvious differences between males and females include all the features related to reproductive role, notably the endocrine (hormonal) systems and their physiological and behavioural effects, including gonadal differentiation, internal and external genital and breast differentiation, and differentiation of muscle mass, height, and hair distribution. Evolution of sexual dimorphism in human voice pitch The pitch of a male voice is about half as high in males in comparison to females. Even after controlling for body height and volume,",
"-29.124123554938706"
],
[
"determinant of personnel decisions, but may be a deciding factor when applicants possess similar levels of qualifications. In addition, attractiveness does not provide an advantage if the applicants in the pool are of high quality, but it does provide an advantage in increased hiring rates and more positive job-related outcomes for attractive individuals when applicant quality is low and average.\nVocal Attractiveness\nJust as physical attractiveness is a visual cue, vocal attractiveness is an auditory cue and can lead to differing interviewer evaluations in the interview as well. Vocal attractiveness, defined as an appealing mix of speech rate, loudness, pitch, and variability,",
"-29.104586084198672"
],
[
"of gay male language use often look at middle class European Americans who are out as gay to the exclusion of other subgroups of the LGBTQ community, and hence may draw misleading conclusions about the community as a whole.\nRusty Barrett suggests that the idea of the homogeneous speech community could perhaps be more accurately replaced by one of a queer community based on community spirit or a queer cultural system, since language use varies so greatly. Kulick proposes, instead of studying speech communities that he concludes \"do not and cannot exist\" because of methodological problems, researchers should study \"language and",
"-29.099355624988675"
],
[
"superlatives, inflected intonation, and lisping. Later linguists have re-evaluated Lakoff's claims and concluded that these characterizations are not consistent for women, instead reflecting stereotypes that may have social meaning and importance but that do not fully capture actual gendered language use.\nLinguist David Crystal correlated the use among men of an \"effeminate\" or \"simpering\" voice with a widened range of pitch, glissando effects between stressed syllables, greater use of fall-rise and rise-fall tones, vocal breathiness and huskiness, and occasionally more switching to the falsetto register. Still, research has not confirmed any unique intonation or pitch qualities of gay speech. Some",
"-29.044870947604068"
],
[
"men made, on average, 10% more than similarly employed straight men even when controlling for various other factors. Germany Taking into account age, education, and industry, gay men earn less than heterosexuals even though they tend to be better educated than the average population. Australia An Australian study has shown, that gay men earn 13% less than their straight counterparts. Meanwhile, lesbians earn 13% more than straight women. La Nauze, economist at University of Melbourne, noted: \"There are grounds for concern that workers in Australia, particularly gay men, are discriminated against because of their sexual orientation.\" United States A",
"-28.962004372369847"
],
[
"However, according to this view, all men are \"hard wired\" to be sexually jealous, and therefore gay men should be more upset by sexual infidelity than by emotional infidelity, and that lesbians should be more upset by emotional infidelity than sexual. Recent studies suggest that it may not be an innate mechanism, rather depends on the importance placed on sexual exclusivity. Peplau and Cochran (1983) found that sexual exclusivity was much more important to heterosexual men and women compared to homosexual men and women. This theory suggests that it is not sexuality that may lead to differences but that people",
"-28.93802560052427"
],
[
"available. High sex ratios (more men) are associated with lower SOI scores (more restricted sociosexual orientation), as men must satisfy women’s preference for long-term monogamous relationships if they are to effectively compete for the limited number of women. Low sex ratios (more women) are correlated with more unrestricted sociosexuality, as men can afford to demand more casual sex if they are relatively scarce and in demand. Strategic pluralism theory Strategic pluralism suggests that women evolved to evaluate men on two dimensions: their potential to be a good provider for offspring and their degree of genetic quality. The local environment should",
"-28.928711817367002"
],
[
"to be much more emotional and irrational than men, and thus less suited for many important jobs. However, it has been found that while there is some basis to the stereotype, it does not hold true universally under statistical scrutiny. One survey based in South Africa found that \"over 30 per cent ... are of the opinion that women are too emotional to be able to handle high level leadership positions\"; evidently, stereotypes persist and still take effect.\nStudies show that \"it is common for stereotypical ideas about women's abilities to perform well in leadership positions to inform people's perceptions about",
"-28.925550980959088"
],
[
"see themselves as effeminate, and felt little connection to gay culture. Some effeminate gay men in The Butch Factor felt uncomfortable about their femininity (despite being comfortable with their sexuality), and feminine gay men may be derided by stereotypically-masculine gays.\nFeminine-looking men tended to come out earlier after being labeled gay by their peers. More likely to face bullying and harassment throughout their lives, they are taunted by derogatory words (such as \"sissy\") implying feminine qualities. Effeminate, \"campy\" gay men sometimes use what John R. Ballew called \"camp humor\", such as referring to one another by female pronouns (according to Ballew,",
"-28.916329415224027"
],
[
"that are considered masculine, like outside work and employment outside of the home. The partners’ behaviours do not support gender roles because all the roles performed are done by women. There is not an inherent distinction made between masculine and feminine because women are performing both types of chores. This lack of gender role discrimination would be true in same-sex relationships between two men as well.",
"-28.87163560561021"
],
[
"is the male dominated power dynamic between men and women in the world of sports. “Sexual harassment and abuse in sport stem from abuses of power relations facilitated by an organisational culture that ignores, denies, fails to prevent or even tacitly accepts such problems.” Women in powerful positions, such as successful athletes, are often viewed as too assertive, thus receiving harassment for challenging the preconceived notion of a hierarchy. Targets of sexual harassment are more likely to be female because they may have masculine tendencies, and men feel the need to reassure their “masculine dominance”. In addition, the male dominated",
"-28.841357959638117"
],
[
"of youth. They also favour sexual activities as the fundamental component of a gay relationship. Research by Blumstein and Schwartz depicts that gay men had higher levels of sexual frequencies in comparison to lesbian women throughout all stages of their relationship. Supporting this, it was also found that white homosexual male couples reported higher levels (47%) of copulating more than once in a week compared to lesbians (32%). This was also found amongst gay Black homosexual couples reporting 65% amongst males and 56% amongst females. During the first two years of a gay couples relationship, two-thirds of gay couples had",
"-28.83709383563837"
],
[
"the Big Five personality traits women consistently report higher Neuroticism, agreeableness, warmth (an extraversion facet) and openness to feelings, and men often report higher assertiveness (a facet of extraversion) and openness to ideas as assessed by the NEO-PI-R. Gender differences in personality traits are largest in prosperous, healthy, and egalitarian cultures in which women have more opportunities that are equal to those of men. Differences in the magnitude of sex differences between more or less developed world regions were due to differences between men, not women, in these respective regions. That is, men in highly developed world regions were",
"-28.820526765761315"
],
[
"direct communication styles found in previous studies, plus more backed variants of back vowels, but he noted too that differences between lesbians and straight women are \"even more subtle\" than differences between gay and straight men. In one English-language experiment, listeners were unable to identify female speakers as either lesbian or straight based solely on voice. At the same time, lesbian speech studies have long been neglected, making introductory research difficult. Another study showed that speakers' self-assessed \"familiarity with queer culture\" had a statistically significant correlation with phonetic variation like lower median pitch and faster rate of speech, though mostly",
"-28.767008462455124"
],
[
"Kramer argues that the discussion of masculinity should be opened up \"to include constructions of masculinity that uniquely affect women.\" Masculine women are often subject to social stigma and harassment, although the influence of the feminist movement has led to greater acceptance of women expressing masculinity in recent decades. Women with stereotypically masculine personality traits are more likely to gain access to high-paying occupations than women with feminine personality traits.\nWomen who participate in sports, especially male-dominated sports, are sometimes derided as being masculine. Even though most sports emphasize stereotypically masculine qualities, such as strength, competition, and aggression, women who participate",
"-28.749866745667532"
],
[
"to girls and feel rejecting toward boys which lead to a negative relationship with boys. For this reason, male students will more likely receive lower grade than female students because of teachers' grading bias. There is also a studied from Yarrow, Waxier, and Scott (1971) show that male students will receive more criticism because of their gender. Gender differences in Education based on Teacher's Gender Gender discrimination in education exists as well from differential treatment students receive by either male or female teachers. In Newfoundland, Jim Duffy et al. found teachers may have higher expectations for boys in math and",
"-28.743537513830233"
],
[
"of male and female animals that showed equal wisdom in their actions. From studying the differences of behaviour between classes, she added that socioeconomic level was more likely to make a difference in intelligence between two people than was gender. A man and a woman from the same background are more similar in ability than two men, one a wealthy gentleman and the other a poor farmer. From her conclusions about the capacity of the female intellect, Drake suggests that maybe women were created the weaker vessel because they are meant to think, while stronger men are",
"-28.723874996299855"
],
[
"\"men were preferred for male-dominated jobs (i.e., gender-role congruity bias), whereas no strong preference for either gender was found for female-dominated or integrated jobs\". A 2018 audit study found that high-achieving men are called back more frequently by employers than equally high-achieving women (at a rate of nearly 2-to-1).\nThe European Commission divides discrimination, as it impacts the EU wage gap, into several categories. Direct discrimination is when a woman is paid less than a man for the same job. but according to Harvard Economist, Claudia Goldin, by and large women receive equal pay for equal work in the US.",
"-28.644327799702296"
],
[
"superiority attributed to masculinity, (59). Domestic/sexual violence In many cases, a man's position of superiority over a female partner can lead him to gain control over different aspects of her life. Since women are viewed as subservient to men in many cultures, men often have power to decide whether his wife can work, study, socialize, participate in the community, or even leave the house. With little opportunity for attaining an income, minimal means to get an education, and the few people they have as a support system, many women become dependent on their husbands financially and emotionally. This leaves many",
"-28.62321479106322"
],
[
"directed toward [gay men]\". Ballew has also said this \"can cause [gay men] to become confused in relation to how we feel about being men\".\nSome feminine gay men in the documentary felt uncomfortable about their femininity, even if they were comfortable with their sexuality. Feminine gay men are often looked down upon by stereotypically masculine men in the gay community.\nA study conducted by researchers from the Center for Theoretical Study at Charles University in Prague and The Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic found there are significant differences in the shape of faces of heterosexual and gay men; gay",
"-28.593388052657247"
],
[
"men have masculine features, which they say \"undermined stereotypical notions of gay men as more feminine looking\".\nFollowing a period of non-recognition from the media, gay men have been presented in the media in a stereotypical feminine way, which is open to ridicule (as well as lesbians and transvestites). Films such as Brokeback Mountain challenge this stereotype, though there is disagreement over the definition of the lead characters' sexuality. A newer portrayal of gay men in the LGBT community is as bears—a sub-culture of gay men who celebrate rugged masculinity and \"secondary sexual characteristics of the male: facial hair, body",
"-28.57639205767191"
],
[
"sexes. Cultural beliefs for sexes lays out the inequality at work women face. In Western and Eastern cultures, men are believed to be superior to women, leading to sex inequality in job duties, authority, and pay. Women are seen as requiring protection and care, and it takes away their opportunities at many jobs.\nAnother explanation of sex inequality is that the dominant group will preserve their position, such as men's efforts to preserve their advantages in the workplace. If women are capable of taking on the duties of male dominated jobs, especially “macho” jobs, then men's masculinity will no longer be",
"-28.556313760840567"
],
[
"preferred men with facial hair because they perceived them to be more masculine, sophisticated and mature than clean-shaven men. Similarly, a study performed by Kenny and Fletcher at Memphis State University, which is largely a commuter school and usually is regarded as more conventional than the University of Chicago, suggested that men with facial hair such as moustaches and beards, were perceived as stronger and more masculine by female students. However, the study performed by Feinman and Gill would suggest that this reaction to facial hair is not nationwide, as women studying in the state of Wyoming showed a marked",
"-28.541040745272767"
],
[
"care of the parts of our community that are less powerful. That means low-income LGBT people, transgender people and our community's women, whose rights are getting the crap kicked out of them, parts of our community across the board -- kids, old gay people\" and \"The second thing I would love to see happen is for the LGBT community to use its political power and access to create a more just society for all.\"",
"-28.51257415022701"
],
[
"Kimmel furthers this notion; he says the trope 'you're so gay' indicates that one is devoid of masculinity, rather than being sexually attracted to members of the same sex. Pleck says that to avoid the continuation of male oppression of women and themselves and other men, patriarchal structures, institutions, and discourse must be eliminated from North American society.\nGay men are considered by some to \"deviate from the masculine norm\", and are benevolently stereotyped as \"gentle and refined\" (even among other gay men), and pertain a specific mode of masculinity for themselves, according to human rights activists such as Peter Tatchell,",
"-28.494875950738788"
],
[
"men. People often presume that gay men often conform to the stereotype of leather and chaps, including fisting. Pedophilia and predation It is a common stereotype that gay men are sexual predators or pedophiles. The former perception can lead to a knee-jerk reaction that created the \"gay panic defense\", usually in straight men, who fear being hit on by gay men, and can be either a cause or an expression of homophobia. The perception that a greater proportion of gay than straight men are pedophiles or child sexual abusers is one contributing factor of discrimination against gay teachers, despite the",
"-28.490096939494833"
],
[
"than their male counterparts. Scholars argue that this is the result of a greater sense of civic duty among women than men. In addition, due to their longer life expectancy, women also comprise a larger percentage of registered voters than men. Thus, the effects of even small gender gaps in men's and women's vote choice can be magnified, particularly in close elections.\nWomen, however, continue to have lower levels of political knowledge, interest, and engagement. They are also less likely to run for office and are underrepresented in elected political positions at the local, state, and national levels.",
"-28.39434524218086"
],
[
"with the idea that women discriminate between men on hypothesized fitness cues. The more physically attractive a man is, the higher his fitness, and the better his genes will be. Women are attracted to more masculine traits (e.g. strong jawline, a more muscular body). Indeed, men who are more masculine tend to have a higher number of sexual partners. The Immunocompetence Handicap Hypothesis This hypothesis suggests that secondary sexual characteristics such as a low waist-to-chest ratio or masculine facial features (e.g. strong jawline, larger brow ridge, more muscular) are reliable indicators of mate quality as the hormones that cause",
"-28.392139877891168"
],
[
"personality characteristics for bisexual, heterosexual and homosexual women. Bisexuals were found to have fewer personal insecurities than heterosexuals and homosexuals. This finding defined bisexuals as self-assured and less likely to suffer from mental instabilities. The confidence of a secure identity consistently translated to more masculinity than other subjects. This study did not explore societal norms, prejudices, or the feminization of homosexual males.\nIn a research comparison, published in the Journal of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology, women usually have a better hearing sensitivity than males, assumed by researchers as a genetic disposition connected to child bearing. Homosexual and bisexual women",
"-28.332751825325204"
],
[
"Eagly and Karau (2002) found that women who are leaders are perceived in a less positive manner when compared to male leaders. Eagly and Karau (2002) also showed that women have a more difficult time achieving high status positions in the workplace and in maintaining these positions through achievement and success. Evidence suggests that prejudice towards women in leadership positions occurs more frequently in situations where larger inconsistencies between female gender roles and leadership roles are present.\nEagly (1987) suggest women due to their socially accepted roles are more often perceived in lower status positions than those of their male counterparts.",
"-28.32761998884962"
],
[
"which each make their contributions to society.\nIn a documentary called The Butch Factor, a number of gay men—one of them transgender—were asked about their views on masculinity. The consensus was that showing masculine traits was an advantage, both in and out the closet. For the \"butch\" gay men, this allowed them to conceal their sexual orientation for longer when doing masculine activities such as playing sports, as effeminacy is often incorrectly associated with homosexuality— so much so that they doubted their own sexual orientation; because they did not see themselves as effeminate, they did not feel they were gay. Because",
"-28.318868817485054"
],
[
"not make a person better, a gay can be racist. About what he finds appealing, he comments: \"We gay men are drawn toward a masculine ideal. I can't stand a screaming queen\".\nFor nine years, Jörg Fischer was an active member of the extreme right-wing parties NPD and DVU. During that time he had a relationship with another male party member. Although they had sex many times a week for four years, they never talked about sex or mention the word gay. Fischer left those organizations in 1991 rejecting their anti-immigrant and anti- gay policies. He found a different romantic male",
"-28.31839492725703"
],
[
"capacity (being penetrated). When the terms are used as designations of self-identity, a top may be a man who has a clear preference for topping, and a bottom may be a man who has a clear preference for bottoming; versatile refers to a man who enjoys both and has no clear preference. Studies suggest that most gay men are in this sense versatiles. One study has found that a top is also more likely to act as an insertive partner in other forms of penetrative sex, such as penetrative fellatio and sex toy play.\nBecause in heterosexual penetrative sex a man",
"-28.314334580674767"
],
[
"of androgen (particularly testosterone) are often considered to have a competitive advantage over other women since women statistically have lower levels than men. This difference in androgen levels is the reason many sports requiring athletes compete only among their own sex. However, others argue that expecting women athletes with naturally higher levels of testosterone to lower these levels by medical/pharmaceutical methods completely contradicts the purpose of doping regulations, which require athletes not take any substances that their bodies do not generate naturally.\nIn January 2010 in Miami, instead of succeeding in improving the policies specifying whether an athlete should participate as",
"-28.31105325979297"
],
[
"from in masculine cultures, where self-enhancement leads to self-esteem. Masculine cultures are individualistic, and feminine cultures are more collective because of the significance of personal relationships.\n'The dominant values in a masculine society are achievement and success; the dominant values in a feminine society are caring for others and quality of life'. Albert Ellis In the 1940s, Albert Ellis studied eighty-four cases of mixed births and concluded that 'while the power of the human sex drive may possibly be largely dependent on physiological factors... the direction of this drive does not seem to be directly dependent on constitutional element'. In the",
"-28.276882305654"
],
[
"run for office than men, despite having the same characteristics and qualifications. This is mainly due to two factors, the first is that women are less likely to be encouraged to run for office, and the second, women tend to view themselves less qualified for holding office as opposed to men, even if an individual woman has the same or even higher qualifying attributed than an individual male candidate. Hostile sexists, those who believe powerful women are a threat to men, often hire less qualified men over more qualified women, causing a disadvantage to women that want to gain political",
"-28.26500906131696"
],
[
"\"a funny way of defusing hate directed toward us [gay men]\"); however, such humor \"can cause us [gay men] to become confused in relation to how we feel about being men\". He further stated:\n[Heterosexual] men are sometimes advised to get in touch with their \"inner feminine.\" Maybe gay men need to get in touch with their \"inner masculine\" instead. Identifying those aspects of being a man we most value and then cultivate those parts of our selves can lead to a healthier and less distorted sense of our own masculinity.\nA study by the Center for Theoretical Study at Charles University",
"-28.241828085272573"
],
[
"their daily lives.” Some female scholars of color have written about their perceived need to mask their identity when sharing their voices and opinions. Female Rhetoric scholars of color who have dealt with experiences where they voice their opinions publicly were either challenged or unentitiled to because they were part of a marginalized group. Feminist rhetoric theory works to legitimize the ethnic discourse of women and give it a platform in the academia of rhetoric and writing studies. Challenges Feminist rhetoric scholars have noted the difficulty in including diverse voices in the rhetorical canon. Scholars have argued that changes in",
"-28.23456057452131"
],
[
"\"as a woman\" and also congratulated for being the first woman to have done that? While initially you enjoy the attention, soon enough you should want to be the best at what you do and not be limited by your gender. Thus I gave myself the goal of becoming the best comic rather than best ovary-producing laughter generator. The only way for me to break gender bias and related discrimination is by being so good at my work that I am unavoidable.",
"-28.22295215143822"
],
[
"that makes them inherently unfit for military service, and there is nothing about heterosexuals that makes them inherently unable to work and live with gay people in close quarters.\nHe concluded that heterosexual personnel can overcome their prejudices and adapt to living and working in close quarters with lesbians and gay men and that lesbians and gay men are not inherently less capable of military service than are heterosexual women and men. \"The assumption that heterosexuals cannot overcome their prejudices toward gay people is a mistaken one,\" said Herek.\nIn the 1990s, he conducted the first federally funded scientific study to compare",
"-28.213824179256335"
],
[
"sexual intercourse three of more times a week compared to lesbian couples in a two-year relationship. Even so, during a ten-year relationship 11% of gay couples copulated compared to 1% of lesbian couples signifying that gay couples have higher frequencies of sex. Given that males desire higher levels of sex in comparison to females, it is thus, common to find that gay males, in comparison to heterosexuals and lesbians, have the highest frequencies of sex across all stages of their relationships. Thus, this signifies that gay couples encounter in higher levels of sexual intercourse.\nGiven that there is a lack of",
"-28.195411476306617"
],
[
"as an element within beauty. According to one study (Yee N., 2002), gay men who identify as \"only tops\" tend to prefer shorter men, while gay men who identify as \"only bottoms\" tend to prefer taller men.\nIn romances in Middle English literature, all of the \"ideal\" male heroes are tall, and the vast majority of the \"valiant\" male heroes are tall too. Hairiness Studies based in the United States, New Zealand, and China have shown that women rate men with no trunk (chest and abdominal) hair as most attractive, and that attractiveness ratings decline as hairiness increases. Another study,",
"-28.18956660432741"
],
[
"speech does not simply or categorically imitate female speech.\nIn one Canadian study, listeners correctly identified gay speakers in 62% of cases. A Stanford University experiment analyzed the acoustics of eight males (four straight and four gay), who were recorded reading passages, through the perception of listener-subjects and tasked these listeners with categorizing speakers by adjectives corresponding to common U.S. stereotypes of gay men. The listeners were generally able to correctly identify the sexual orientation of the speakers, reflecting the stereotypes. However, there were no statistically significant differences the listeners identified, if they existed at all, based on intonation. These",
"-28.181962792295963"
],
[
"and middle- or upperclass men tend to be accepted into the social context of consumption. This framework may promote an homogeneous and heteronormative ideal of the gay man, who has a certain beauty, a muscular and hyper-sexualized body, masculine behavior, career success and a specific purchasing power, establishing which bodies are desirable and which are not and marginalizing those do not fit this aesthetic model, even from the gay community itself: \nIn the pre-gay period, youth is worth of sexual exchange, but the elderly homosexuals were not stigmatized. With the extension of gay model and institutionalization that this entails, a",
"-28.18057212169515"
],
[
"Breen. “So I think that this effect on evaluations of men arises because our participants are trying to achieve an underlying aim: counteracting gender stereotypes.\" Gender stereotypes and issues in the workplace Gender stereotypes are frequently brought up as one disadvantage to women during the hiring process, and as one explanation of the lack of women in key organizational positions.\nManagement and similar leader positions are often perceived to be \"masculine\" in type, meaning they are assumed to require aggressiveness, competitiveness, strength and independence. These traits do not line up with the perceived traditional female gender role stereotype. (This is often",
"-28.108633850555634"
],
[
"“good.” In the context of Rudman’s study, women are more likely to associate strength with female since they are female and likely see themselves as strong, so the association between strength and female is stronger. In this way, perceptions and prejudices are biased towards positive conceptions of ourselves. However, this can also promote dissociations for imbalances in self-identity. For instance, stereotypes such as “male-math”, with their gender identity (“me-female”), can lead to dissociations (me ≠ math) as studied by Nosek, Banaji, and Greenwald (2002).",
"-28.091881762855337"
],
[
"the opposite. Gender roles are generally more enforced for women in media than they are for men. Women are typically represented as the backbone of the household, the caretaker, and often even as stay at home mothers. Females in media are often given weak, dependent, and passive personalities. Media presence often perpetuates that men are not allowed to be caring and that women are not allowed to be strong and demanding. These gender influences from the media can mislead a growing child or teenager because while they are still trying to construct their identities and genders in a social environment,",
"-28.089167287718737"
],
[
"girls tended to be censured more harshly compared to boys, due to unconscious biases about gender appropriate behavior. While girls were deemed as \"unladylike\" for using \"rough\" speech, the same speech uttered by their male counterparts was regarded as a part of normal masculine behavior, and they were thus admonished less harshly. This creates a linguistic double standard which can again be seen to contribute to long-term gender disparities in behavior. \nClarricoates concludes her study by observing that there is a \"catch 22\" situation for young female pupils. If a girl conforms to institutional ideals by learning her lessons well,",
"-28.0411968739063"
],
[
"challenges are made substantially more complex when one is, as I am, both an elected public official and gay.\" He acknowledged that it had been inappropriate to engage in a relationship with a subordinate, and said his actions represented \"a very serious error in judgment\". He won reelection in 1984. In 1987 Barney Frank became the first U.S. congressman to come out as gay of his own volition. Frank started coming out as gay to friends before he ran for Congress and came out publicly on May 30, 1987, \"prompted in part by increased media interest in his private life\"",
"-28.039888507071737"
],
[
"is unusual because they are different genders. Theatre companies often double or triple cast regardless of gender, but this can be more complex in a musical because of the differences in male and female vocal ranges.",
"-28.025571725302143"
]
] |
1i0xre | Why do ink refills cost more than an entire new printer, even if the new printer comes with ink? | [
"Because the product they are selling is the ink. The sell the printers at reduced price to get them in as many homes as possible so they can sell you the expensive ink. It is the same basic principle as video game consoles. They take a loss on the consoles and make the money on the games",
"Printers usually come with \"starter\" ink cartridges. They don't have as much ink as the refill. I've never actually done the math, but I've got to assume that, if you already own the printer, it's better to buy the refill than it would be to buy a whole new printer with a new starter cartridge. Although, then you'd have two printers. You could sell one. I don't know - somebody's got to work the numbers. I buy laser printers... every time. For some reason laser printers seem to be immune to the whole \"give away the razors and overcharge for the blades\" thing.",
"The ink cartridges in the printer will only print maybe 10% of pages the full refill will. They are not full.",
"Price is and always will be a function of the market. It costs that much because that's what the market will bear, i.e. people are willing to pay it. If people became unwilling to actually pay it, you'd see them either stop making it or lower prices.",
"You can get most ink cartridges refilled at Costco at low cost. Go to the Photo section."
] | [
[
"model that differed from the prevailing practice of selling the printer at a loss while making large profits on replacement ink cartridges. Kodak claimed that consumers could save up to 50 percent on printing by using its lower cost cartridges filled with the company’s proprietary pigmented colorants while avoiding the potential problems associated with off-brand inks. This strategy proved unsuccessful and Kodak exited the consumer inkjet printer business in 2012. Professional models In addition to the widely used small inkjet printers for home and office, there are professional inkjet printers, some for \"page-width\" format printing and many for wide format",
"-31.31894974858733"
],
[
"those printers that will refuse to print documents requiring only black ink, just because one or more of the color ink cartridges is depleted.\nIn recent years, many consumers have begun to challenge the business practices of printer manufacturers, such as charging up to US$8,000 per gallon (US$2,100 per liter) for printer ink. Alternatives for consumers are cheaper copies of cartridges, produced by third parties, and the refilling of cartridges, using refill kits. Due to the large differences in price caused by OEM markups, there are many companies selling third-party ink cartridges. Most printer manufacturers discourage refilling disposable cartridges or using",
"-31.07531230233144"
],
[
"use is nevertheless inexpensive and can be replaced by the user. Canon now uses (in most models) replaceable print heads which are designed to last the life of the printer, but can be replaced by the user should they become clogged. Cleaning mechanisms The primary cause of inkjet printing problems is ink drying on the printhead's nozzles, causing the pigments and dyes to dry out and form a solid block of hardened mass that plugs the microscopic ink passageways. Most printers attempt to prevent this drying from occurring by covering the printhead nozzles with a rubber cap when the printer",
"-31.057955698866863"
],
[
"the printer is small, silent and easy to use. They note however that the DiscPainter only works with inkjet-printable discs, which are a few dollars more expensive than regular discs.\nThe inkjet printer is useful to individuals in creative industries like designers, photographers, and artists who need to produce visually compelling discs. It also provides a smaller carbon footprint by consumers creating personalized CD covers at a time when downloading music was a new technology, which was hurting the thriving music industry, also allowing independent artists a cost-effective option to distribute their music.",
"-30.56033873721026"
],
[
"introduced new models featuring in-built continuous ink systems. This was seen as a welcome move by users, especially small business owners who rely on bulk-printing solutions, like Internet cafes and small-scale print shops.\nSome printer manufacturers set up their cartridges to interact with the printer, preventing operation when the ink level is low, or when the cartridge has been refilled. One researcher with the magazine Which? over-rode such an interlocked system and found that in one case he could print up to 38% more good quality pages, after the chip stated that the cartridge was empty. In the United Kingdom, in",
"-28.911247192081646"
],
[
"aftermarket copy cartridges, and say that use of incorrect inks may cause poor image quality due to differences in viscosity, which can affect the amount of ink ejected in a drop, and color consistency, and can damage the printhead. Nonetheless, the use of alternative cartridges and inks has been gaining in popularity, threatening the business model of printer manufacturers. Printer companies such as HP, Lexmark, and Epson have used patents and the DMCA to launch lawsuits against third-party vendors. An anti-trust class-action lawsuit was launched in the US against HP and office supply chain Staples Inc, alleging that HP paid",
"-28.587889892660314"
],
[
"business model, often breaking even or losing money selling printers while expecting to make a profit by selling cartridges over the life of the printer. Since much of the printer manufacturers' profits are from ink and toner cartridge sales, some of these companies have taken various actions against aftermarket cartridges. New laws Many programs have been implemented in the United States and Europe to encourage the recycling of ink cartridges. New York has implemented a recycling law for businesses and consumers regarding toner and ink cartridges. In California the Public Contract Code (PCC) section 12156 encourages businesses to purchase recycled",
"-28.4507911009714"
],
[
"large-format printers that are much cheaper than the Iris and use inks designed to be archival.",
"-27.361409444303717"
],
[
"Arizona Cartridge Remanufacturers Ass'n Inc. v. Lexmark International Inc. Background Over the lifetime of modern computer printers, the cost of the ink cartridges can in typical usage be much more than the printer itself. Consumers have a motivation to refill their own cartridges either themselves or through third parties. Lexmark produced \"Prebate\" ink cartridges with a purchase contract that states that in exchange for purchasing the ink cartridge at a lower price, the consumer agrees not to tamper with the cartridge, and to return it to Lexmark for refurbishing and repackaging. Arizona Cartridge Remanufacturers Association Inc. (ACRA), a consumer",
"-27.298524455633014"
],
[
"for problems for a print job increase as one adds more spot colors, due to the increased cost and complexity of added process inks and films, and requiring more runs per finished print. However, because of the complicated process, spot colours are effective at preventing forgeries of money, passports, bonds and other important documents. Money printing for example, uses secret formulae of spot colors, some of which can be seen by the naked eye and some that can only be seen by using special lights or applying certain chemicals.",
"-27.18151133370702"
],
[
"printheads and inks: Mimaki, Roland, and Mutoh.\nScitex Digital Printing developed high-speed, variable-data, inkjet printers for production printing, but sold its profitable assets associated with the technology to Kodak in 2005 who now market the printers as Kodak Versamark VJ1000, VT3000, and VX5000 printing systems. These roll-fed printers can print at up to 1000 feet per minute.\nProfessional high-volume inkjet printers are made by a range of companies. These printers can range in price from US$35,000 to $2 million. Carriage widths on these units can range from 54\" to 192\" (about 1.4 to 5 m), and ink technologies have tended toward solvent, eco-solvent,",
"-27.172020256053656"
],
[
"for self-publishers who expect sales to be sporadic over time. An alternative is to hire a printing press to do a print run in which a large number of books are printed at one time, such as a hundred or a thousand copies, which can result in a slightly lower per-book printing cost, but risks holding onto unsold inventory for an extended period of time. Print-on-demand means that a book is printed only after it is purchased, lessening the risk, which eliminates the need for expensive warehouse space. Many companies allow single books to be printed at per-book costs which",
"-27.019440668809693"
],
[
"printing of The Guardian and The Observer.\nThe format change is intended to help cut costs as it allows the paper to be printed by a wider array of presses, and outsourcing the printing to presses owned by Trinity Mirror is expected to save millions of pounds annually. The move is part of a three-year plan that includes cutting 300 jobs in an attempt to reduce losses and break even by 2019. The paper and ink are the same as previously and the font size is fractionally larger.\nAn assessment of the response from readers in late April 2018 indicated that",
"-26.91002323621069"
],
[
"printer, pays with their credit card or other preferred payment option and the print job is carried out.\nPrinter owners get access to a personal control panel where they can set print prices and monitor all Princh activity for their business. Installing Princh is free for printer owners. Princh gets a small fee per print job.",
"-26.831165476352908"
],
[
"(Predatory pricing to destroy a smaller competitor is not covered here.) This can make the practice illegal. Printers Computer printer manufacturers have gone through extensive efforts to make sure that their printers are incompatible with lower cost after-market ink cartridges and refilled cartridges. This is because the printers are often sold at or below cost to generate sales of proprietary cartridges which will generate profits for the company over the life of the equipment. In fact, in certain cases, the cost of replacing disposable ink or toner may even approach the cost of buying new equipment with included cartridges. Methods",
"-26.820376763940658"
],
[
"be given a second (or more) printing in order to bring more copies to the distributor.",
"-26.797164413845167"
],
[
"life of the printer, not removable or replaceable by the user. A spittoon overfilled with partially dried ink can cause inkjet printer failures. Some professional inkjet printers have replaceable spittoons.\nDifferent printer manufacturers use different spittoon technology. Hewlett-Packard uses a small plastic tray below the cleaning station and cartridge storage dock, while Epson uses an absorbent fiber pad in a large shallow tray below the width of the printer.",
"-26.68297307427565"
],
[
"deciding the number of books to be produced in a specific printing and their individual price.\nDemand for additional printings after the first is always hoped for, because they increase a book's profitability. Once the fixed costs of developing, editing, typesetting, etc. have been covered by the revenue of the first sales, any additional revenue tends to add to the profit margin, minus, of course, the costs of the additional materials, printing, binding, and distribution.\nSometimes a printing will be unsatisfactory for various reasons, especially printings of artistic and photography books in which the quality of reproduction is paramount. A defective printing",
"-26.678950497240294"
],
[
"finished print is completely dry once it emerges from the printer. Ink for piezo printers There are two types of dye sublimation inks for piezo dye sublimation printers available in the market. The most popular one is aqueous dye sublimation ink for use in both desktop and large format printers. The other is solvent dye sublimation ink that can be used in XAAR, Spectra and some Konica printhead wide format printers.\nDue to the fast development of digital textile printing, dye sublimation inks are becoming more and more popular in digital inkjet printing on fabrics.\nPrint speeds for large-format piezo printers using",
"-26.6426008388662"
],
[
"replaced gradually by electronic copies on computers, tablets, and smartphones. Home photograph printers, high-speed commercial inkjet presses, workflow software, and packaging were viewed as the company's new core businesses, with sales from those four businesses projected to double to nearly $2 billion in revenue in 2013 and account for 25% of all sales. However, while Kodak named home printers as a core business as late as August 2012, at the end of September declining sales forced Kodak to announce an exit from the consumer inkjet market.\nKodak has also turned to litigation in order to generate revenue. In 2010, it received",
"-26.6360704167746"
],
[
"pages). Some toner cartridges incorporate the drum unit in the design, and both drum and cartridge are replaced simultaneously; cost of a cartridge is higher than a toner-only cartridge, although separate drum replacement is avoided. Toner cartridges have the same function as ink cartridges used by inkjet printers. Price The price of printer manufacturers' toner cartridges for the cheapest laser printers can exceed the cost of the printer. These cheap printers often come with cartridges containing much less toner than the standard cartridge, quickly requiring replacement. Many companies make generic replacement toner cartridges, sold at much lower prices than the",
"-26.523944026615936"
],
[
"printer at once, allowing for much faster printing, as data does not need to be transferred to the printer for each copy.\nHigh-volume print jobs are getting more complex due to higher demands for the layout, content and personalization of documents. This is particularly true in the case of \"image-swapping\", where different images are selected and replaced on a record-by-record basis. At the same time pressure on the operators at the machines is increasing. A third development relates to the rise of XML, as a neutral basis for multi-channel communication of documents to fax, internet, e-mail, electronic archive and printer.\nPersonalized Print",
"-26.467574310401687"
],
[
"has not yet been established, but the ability for the projectionist to effect a quick repair has gone. Pros The electronic transferring of digital film, from central servers to servers in cinema projection booths, is an inexpensive process of supplying copies of newest releases to the vast number of cinema screens demanded by prevailing saturation-release strategies. There is a significant saving on print expenses in such cases: at a minimum cost per print of $1200–2000, the cost of celluloid print production is between $5–8 million per film. With several thousand releases a year, the probable savings offered by digital distribution",
"-26.31364058709005"
],
[
"have recently begun using downloadable paper models for their marketing (examples are Yamaha and Canon).\nThe availability of numerous models on the Internet at little or no cost, which can then be downloaded and printed on inexpensive inkjet printers has caused its popularity again to increase worldwide. Home printing also allows models to be scaled up or down easily (for example, in order to make two models from different authors, in different scales, match each other in size), although the paper weight might need to be adjusted in the same ratio.\nInexpensive kits are available from dedicated publishers (mostly based in Eastern",
"-26.090626439508924"
],
[
"initial Kickstarter price point of $299 has not been maintained, but increased to $349 by October 2014. This low cost was achieved through reduction of \"power consumption by a factor of 10 compared to professional 3D printers\", and the use of locally sourced, standardized electronics. Consumables Market The company also produces 3D Ink (Filament) used in 3D printing, including color changing 3D Ink which responds to temperature.\nIn 2016 the company announced Tough 3D Ink, which \"bonds seamlessly at full strength and can be as rigid or flexible as you want,\" and ABS-R 3D Ink, an alternative to ABS with",
"-26.090426052338444"
],
[
"usually do not own the copyright to the book itself. In contrast, printers merely print a book, and sometimes offer limited distribution if they are a POD printing press. Printers have a very low selectivity. They will accept nearly anyone who can pay the cost of printing. They rarely offer editing or marketing. Printers do not own the copies that are printed, and they do not pay royalties.\nBook packagers combine aspects of small presses and printers, but they are technically neither small presses nor printers. History Small presses became distinguishable from jobbing printers at some time towards the end of",
"-26.011636036797427"
],
[
"increased in popularity in recent years, they still make up a relatively small share of the inkjet printer market.\nThe other compact photo printer is Pocket Photo from LG which can print 600 dpi on 2\"×3\" paper and support Android, iOS and Windows 8. The Pocket Photo uses Zink thermal paper which has chemistries imbedded on each inkless photo paper and the image will appear with the heat.",
"-25.98030931450012"
],
[
"transfer paper first before calendering (or heat-pressing) it onto the media. Waste is both an economical and an ecological factor in print production. Print speed doesn't account for much if a large portion is being thrown away as waste due to incompatibility of media, ink, treatment or lack of know-how.\nThe qualities of the printed end product should fit the needs of the application. Longevity, fastness and hand properties are important. Post-processing is something to think about: is the printed material easily confectioned, applied or handled. Should it be washed or does it need a finish (e.g. fire retardant, water repellent).",
"-25.955944149493007"
],
[
"tool used by publishers and textbook authors to maintain their revenue stream, that is, to keep up prices.\" A study conducted by The Student PIRGs found that a new edition costs 12% more than a new copy of the previous edition (not surprising if the old version is obsolete), and 58% more than a used copy of the previous edition. Textbook publishers maintain these new editions are driven by demand from teachers. That study found that 76% of teachers said new editions were justified “half of the time or less” and 40% said they were justified “rarely” or",
"-25.945848237408427"
],
[
"from foreign publishers is high, co-publishing deals may be established whereby publishers share printing costs in producing large print runs thereby lowering the per-unit cost of the books. Conversely, if initial feedback is not strong, the print-run of the book may be reduced, the marketing budget cut or, in some cases, the book is dropped from publication altogether. Printing After the end of editing and design work, the printing phase begins. The first step involves the production of a pre-press proof, which the printers send for final checking and sign-off by the publisher. This proof shows the book precisely as",
"-25.896397473828983"
],
[
"but was not marketed and sold until the 1980s. The four OEMs that account for the lion’s share of inkjet printer sales are Canon, Hewlett-Packard (HP), Epson, and Lexmark. HP led the way, releasing the first HP Deskjet inkjet printer, priced at $1000 in 1988. Products on display Component parts, such as inks, toners, wiper blades and tools, were exhibited in the early years of the expo. The visitors were mainly remanufacturers looking for technical work around solutions, components and parts to use in the remanufacturing process. There were also many companies displaying their remanufactured, compatible supplies for sale",
"-25.606359500292456"
],
[
"and cartridges can be refilled and patents these methods, they can prevent anyone else from refilling their cartridges. Patents protecting the structure of their cartridges prevent the sale of cheaper copies of the cartridges. For some printer models (notably those from Canon) the manufacturer's own microchip can be removed and fitted to a compatible cartridge thereby avoiding the need to replicate the microchip (and risk prosecution). Other manufacturers embed their microchips deep within the cartridge in an effort to prevent this approach.\nIn 2007 Eastman Kodak entered the inkjet market with its own line of All-In-One printers based on a marketing",
"-25.57420197492138"
],
[
"Digital printing Process The greatest difference between digital printing and traditional methods such as lithography, flexography, gravure, or letterpress is that there is no need to replace printing plates in digital printing, whereas in analog printing the plates are repeatedly replaced. This results in quicker turnaround time and lower cost when using digital printing, but typically a loss of some fine-image detail by most commercial digital printing processes. The most popular methods include inkjet or laser printers that deposit pigment or toner onto a wide variety of substrates including paper, photo paper, canvas, glass, metal, marble, and other substances.\nIn",
"-25.55128730047727"
],
[
"assembled form and as kits. According to Printrbot's return policy, returns were only accepted if the device \"has never been assembled, powered up, programmed or changed in any manner\". If repair is needed, many of the components for the printer are available to be purchased separately. Hot End Printrbot had an exclusive arrangement with Carl Ubis to use his Ubis Hot Ends in the Printrbot printers. A hot end is the part of the 3D printer that melts the filament and extrude it out of the nozzle to make your 3D print. Filament Printrbot models can print in ABS or",
"-25.495496287185233"
],
[
"of the Missing Three-Quarter. Cosmetics Blotting papers are also commonly used in cosmetics to absorb excess sebum oil from the face. They are popularly marketed and have been sold by numerous cosmetic brands worldwide such as Mac and Bobbi Brown, as well as UK high street store: Boots UK. Prices for blotting papers can range from as low as $3.00 per packet to as high as $30 or more. More affordable brands can be found by makers such as Clean and Clear and pharmacies such as Walgreens or CVS often carry their own brands for a reduced price. \nThe papers",
"-25.426900989405112"
],
[
"fact that more highlighting ink is put on the page with liquid highlighters means that the highlighting ink is much more resistive to fading with age. Other uses Some word processing software can simulate highlighting by using a technique similar to reverse video on some terminals.\nExample of highlighting on a word processor.",
"-25.319382061366923"
],
[
"2010, with machines that used to cost US$20,000 now costing less than US$1,000. For instance, as of 2017, several companies and individuals are selling parts to build various RepRap designs, with prices starting at about GB£99 / US$100.\nThe open source Fab@Home project has developed printers for general use with anything that can be extruded through a nozzle, from chocolate to silicone sealant and chemical reactants. Printers following the project's designs have been available from suppliers in kits or in pre-assembled form since 2012 at prices in the US$2,000 range.\nThe LulzBot 3D printers manufactured by Aleph Objects are another example of",
"-25.250661608122755"
],
[
"printer (which is cheaper over about 10,000 copies).\nRisographs have typically had interchangeable color inks and drums allowing for printing in different colors or using spot color in a single print job. Risograph printers use a soy ink made from vegetable soybean oil. The Riso MZ series models have two ink drums, thereby allowing two colors to be printed in one pass.",
"-25.201818709101644"
],
[
"printers have become inexpensive enough for home office use having displaced other printing technologies, although color inkjet printers (see below) still had advantages in photo quality reproduction. As of 2016, low-end monochrome laser printers can sell for less than $75, and while these printers tend to lack onboard processing and rely on the host computer to generate a raster image, they nonetheless outperform the 1984 LaserJet in nearly all situations.\nLaser printer speed can vary widely, and depends on many factors, including the graphic intensity of the job being processed. The fastest models can print over 200 monochrome pages per minute",
"-25.189370860811323"
],
[
"normal quarterly rewards check. Most customers are able to trade in ten per month for credit, whilst Staples Plus and Premier Rewards members are able to trade in twenty per month.\nAs of February 28, 2013, Staples announced that in order to receive $2 per ink cartridge recycled, customers would be required to spend at least $30 at Staples in ink purchases within 180 days of recycling. Price discrimination A 2012 study by the Wall Street Journal found that Staples displayed different prices to customers in different locations (distinct from shipping prices), based on proximity to competitors like OfficeMax and Office",
"-25.164701288216747"
],
[
"same 10,000 copy print run, can substantially reduce his printing cost by 'running on' a further 10,000 copies (that is to say, printing but not binding them), and then further profit by selling these 'sheets' at cost-price or even lower if he so chooses to subsidiaries or overseas branches, then paying the author 10 percent of 'net receipts' from that deal. The overseas subsidiaries bind up the sheets into book form and sell at full price for a nice profit to the Group as a whole. The only one who loses is the author.\nIn 2003 two American authors Ken Englade",
"-25.10295401728945"
],
[
" Self-publishing or subsidy presses usually require payment by authors, or a minimum purchase of copies. By comparison, small presses make their profits by selling books to consumers, rather than selling services to authors or selling a small number of copies to the author's friends.\nSmall presses should not be confused with printers. Small presses are publishers, which means that they engage in a book selection process, along with editing, marketing and distribution. Small presses also enter into a contract with the author, often paying royalties for being allowed to sell the book. Publishers own the copies they have printed, but",
"-25.088885032804683"
],
[
"for printing a book (a novel, lyrics or music) globally, or its download, for sale varies from 20-30% of the suggested retail sales value, typically 20–25%, for a new writer that is taken by the publisher/distributor. The payment is made by the publisher/distributor and corresponds to the agreement (license) between the writer and the publisher/distributor as with other music royalties. The agreement is typically non-exclusive to the publisher and the term may vary from 3–5 years. Established writers favor certain publishers/distributors and usually receive higher royalties.\nAll of the royalty does not occur to the writer. It is shared with the",
"-24.969437802647008"
],
[
"outdoor banner. Retrofit accessory kits Many continuous ink systems have been developed to cover most Epson, HP, Canon, and other printers. These bulk feed systems also allow users to use inexpensive aftermarket inkjet inks as well as specialty inks for T-shirt transfers or inks for black-and-white printing. These options have allowed users to produce specialty prints at a fraction of the cost of purchasing special cartridges or using more expensive printing solutions.\nRetrofit continuous ink tanks designs vary, and most incorporate a constant level, barometric pressure design. Constant-level continuous ink systems deliver a smooth flow of ink to the cartridges as",
"-24.91590828623157"
],
[
"Commercial use of copyleft works Internal use Businesses and governments can obtain value and cut costs by using copyleft software internally. See for example Linux adoption. Development By building on existing free software, businesses can reduce their development costs. With software that is copyleft, the business will then have the disadvantage that selling licences is rarely possible (because anyone can distribute copies at no cost), but the business will have the advantage that their competitors can't incorporate that improved version into a product and then distribute it without that competitor also making their modifications available to the original distributor,",
"-24.89517932794115"
],
[
"much longer than the individual commercial paper in the program (which cannot be longer than 270 days), as commercial paper matures it is replaced with newly issued commercial paper for the remaining amount of the obligation. If the maturity is less than 270 days, the issuer does not have to file a registrations statement with the SEC, which would mean delay and increased cost.\nThere are two methods of issuing credit. The issuer can market the securities directly to a buy and hold investor such as most money market funds. Alternatively, it can sell the paper to a dealer, who then",
"-24.867835498589557"
],
[
"Today, a new dot matrix printer actually costs more than most inkjet printers and some entry level laser printers. Despite this initial price difference, the printing costs for inkjet and laser printers are a great deal higher than for dot matrix printers, and the inkjet/laser printer manufacturers effectively use their monopoly over arbitrarily priced printer cartridges to subsidize the initial cost of the printer itself. Dot matrix ribbons are a commodity and are not monopolized by the printer manufacturers themselves.",
"-24.80817220461904"
],
[
"Over time the print run was increased and all income was ploughed back. Eventually it was possible to pay the printers (Islington Community Press) to make the plates and run off the copies. However collective members continued to do all the unpaid work of editing and preparing the camera ready artwork. No editors, writers, designers, or photographers were ever paid.\nLimiting expenditure was only part of the financial model. From the beginning the Musics collective took the position that they would not accept paid advertising or grant aid, and the only income came from subscriptions and sales through (mostly alternative) bookshops.",
"-24.77630529628368"
],
[
"Compact photo printer Overview Compact photo printers came on the market shortly after the popularity of home photo printing took off in the early 2000s. They were designed as an alternative to developing photos or printing them on a standard inkjet photo printer. The majority of compact photo printers can only print 4\" x 6\" pictures. Given this limitation, they are not meant to replace standard inkjets. Many manufacturers advertise the cost per page of photos printed on their machines; this theoretically convinces people that they can print their own pictures just as cheaply as retail stores or through online",
"-24.692066408519167"
],
[
"opinions and experiences. Printers and press operators physically print the newspaper. Printing is outsourced by many newspapers, partly because of the cost of an offset web press (the most common kind of press used to print newspapers) and also because a small newspaper's print run might require less than an hour of operation, meaning that if the newspaper had its own press it would sit idle most of the time. If the newspaper offers information online, webmasters and web designers may be employed to upload stories to the newspaper's website.\nThe staff of the circulation department liaise with retailers who sell",
"-24.667613067358616"
],
[
"was brought to a close when the artists could no longer afford the printing costs.",
"-24.618305330892326"
],
[
"For example, large format prints can be printed on wall stickers, and then installed on walls. Unlike decorative laminates, there are no special adhesive to be used, and the price may sometimes seem so much cheaper comparatively.\nHowever, there are health considerations for large format prints because of the solvent inks used, especially with their relatively high concentrations of VOCs.These health considerations may be alleviated with newer wide format technology that uses Eco-Solvent or Latex inks.",
"-24.610909967654152"
],
[
"the printer's available LPI; using more SPI than this would exceed the capability of the printer, and quality would be effectively lost.\nAnother device that uses the LPI specification is the graphics tablet.",
"-24.588041446520947"
],
[
"the printer; therefore saving times and simplifying printing production. Users Software companies that used Hexachrome include Aldus (now Adobe), Adobe Photoshop, and QuarkXPress; as well as the printer manufacturers HP, Epson, and Xerox.",
"-24.586481289807125"
],
[
"and they can also handle a variety of media, such as plastic, cardboard or even metals. The second-hand MicroDry printers are much sought after and can be expensive (prices ranging in early 2006 from USD 300 to 700, depending on condition).",
"-24.567610573605634"
],
[
"press, immediately prior to the print process. This process makes wet-on-wet printing possible.\nThe company also provides a process which enables printing on dark garments. This process includes coating finished garments with a white coat of ink created from patented inks formed from CMYK. Kornit's ink plant in Kiryat Gat produces CMYK and white ink for its customers.\nIts inks have received Oeko-Tex approval in the industry.",
"-24.554457878606627"
],
[
"end user, ink and toner manufactured by third party manufacturers is classified as compatible when consisting of new parts for a third party printer.",
"-24.53402282120078"
],
[
"technologies are easily and economically made from resources available to local communities. Development Customer-driven product customization and demand for cost and time savings has increased interest in agility of manufacturing process. This has led to improvements in rapid prototyping technologies. The development of extruders is going rapidly because of open source 3-D printer movement caused by products like RepRap. Consistent improvements are seen in the form of increased heating temperature of liquefiers, better control and precision of prints, and improved support for wide variety of materials. Cost of 3D printer The cost of 3D printers has decreased dramatically since about",
"-24.50413339131046"
],
[
"$440,000) head-to-head with such industry giants as Xerox and Canon.\nThe early 1990s brought a significant change in the company. In 1993, Indigo launched the E-Print 1000 at the IPEX trade show. The E-Print 1000 eliminated the expense and labor of the plate-printing setup process by printing directly from a computer file, thereby simultaneously enabling inexpensive short-run color printing. Images not only could be readily changed, they could be changed from page to page, requiring neither additional setup nor pauses in the print run. This was made possible by the Liquid Electrophotographic (LEP) process, which employed a high-speed laser scanner, along",
"-24.445028835325502"
],
[
"apparent until the drum requires replacement.\nDuplex printing (printing on both sides of the paper) can halve paper costs and reduce filing volumes, albeit at a slower page-printing speed because of the longer paper path. Formerly only available on high-end printers, duplexers are now common on mid-range office printers, though not all printers can accommodate a duplexing unit.\nIn a commercial environment such as an office, it is becoming increasingly common for businesses to use external software that increases the performance and efficiency of laser printers in the workplace. Software can be used to set rules dictating how employees interact with printers,",
"-24.43635112362972"
],
[
"their books and ebooks in Blurb’s online bookstore. Authors retain 100% of their markup with printed books and 80% of their selling cost with ebooks. Blurb’s print-on-demand technology enables authors to print just as many books are ordered. Blurb offers seven book sizes, hardcover and softcover options, and a range of premium and professional-grade papers and end sheets. Blurb e-books are fixed format, enabling them to retain the same image and text placement when viewed on the Apple iPad as in the printed book version.",
"-24.42652233951958"
],
[
"The drawback to using cut vinyls, however, is that intricate artwork can't be replicated. This is due to the fact that vinyls can only be cut into shapes. If a client requires intricate artwork then printed media should be used. Printed media Printed media is a sector of this industry that is beginning to grow rapidly. It involves using large format full colour printers to print the design onto sheets of white or transparent vinyl that are then applied to the van in one piece. Sections of the van can be lettered with a single sheets or",
"-24.386241112311836"
],
[
"printers have been outfitted with Arduino-based sensors and demonstrated reasonable metallurgical properties from conventional welding wire as feedstock. Industry use As of October 2012, additive manufacturing systems were on the market that ranged from $2,000 to $500,000 in price and were employed in industries including aerospace, architecture, automotive, defense, and medical replacements, among many others. As of 2018, 3-D printers have dropped in cost to as little $100 and low-cost higher quality desktop printers are approximately $2500. These types of devices are used widely in industry for prototyping, jig making, fixturing, fixing small custom components, and even additive manufacturing of",
"-24.31786264316179"
],
[
"and hygiene bags and sacks, milk and beverage cartons, flexible plastics, self-adhesive labels, disposable cups and containers, envelopes and wallpaper. In recent years there has also been a move towards laminates, where two or more materials are bonded together to produce new material with different properties than either of the originals. A number of newspapers now eschew the more common offset lithography process in favour of flexo. Flexographic inks, like those used in gravure and unlike those used in lithography, generally have a low viscosity. This enables faster drying and, as a result, faster production, which results in lower costs.\nPrinting",
"-24.31347047606164"
],
[
"Advance copy Overview ARCs may lack the final dust jacket, formatting, and binding of the finished product. The text of an advance edition may also differ slightly from the market book (the final version that is distributed for sale), because changes may be made after advance readers make comments or find errors in the manuscript. When a celebrity reader or journalist gives an endorsement, that may be added to the dust-cover and other promotional items.\nARCs are normally distributed three to six months before the book is officially released to reviewers, bookstores, magazines, and (in some cases) libraries.\nBook collectors often seek",
"-24.27380301093217"
],
[
"top of the pasted side of the thin paper, a sheet of newsprint added on top of the stack, and the felts then covering the stack. It is then run through the press. This process is less tricky to maneuver than the first method, is cleaner, and more accurate in registration.\nIn the typical \"pre-pasted\" method, the thin paper (dry) is trimmed to the size of the plate, then paste is applied and allowed to dry. When the printmaker is ready to print, the paper is dampened to activate the paste and placed, paste-side up, on an inked plate. Then, the",
"-24.234025155601557"
],
[
"Copy protection Business rationale Copy protection is most commonly found on videotapes, DVDs, computer software discs, video game discs and cartridges, audio CDs and some VCDs.\nMany media formats are easy to copy using a machine, allowing consumers to distribute copies to their friends, a practice known as \"casual copying\".\nCompanies publish works under copyright protection because they believe that the cost of implementing the copy protection will be less than the revenue produced by consumers who buy the product instead of acquiring it through casually copied media.\nOpponents of copy protection argue that people who obtain free copies only use what they",
"-24.23217876185663"
],
[
"The average compound annual growth rate has \nbeen higher than 12% over the last 15 years. Our packaging industry is \ncurrently growing at a rate of more than 16% a year. Prior to 1990, most\nprinters found it easy to invest in East German and Czechoslovakian \nmachines. Post 1990, the trend has been to acquire the latest and the \nbest equipment & machines. The progressive printers of today are \nequipped with the latest computer controlled printing machines and flow \nlines for binding, while state of the art digital technologies are being\nused in pre-press. Leading print companies have optimised the use of",
"-24.217688350123353"
],
[
"with the original issue price. Cheap edition After a book has exhausted the market at the high original price a publisher may issue a cheap edition themselves or sell the rights on to another publisher who will produce the book. A cheap edition typically uses a low-cost paper and is a paperback but they can be hardback. Also typically the size of the font is reduced to fit more words on a page to reduce the overall cost of the book. Naturally, for a cheap edition the author will receive a lower royalty but that may be compensated for by",
"-24.19138635881245"
],
[
"when needed. Remanufactured Printers Remanufactured printers are provided by Katun in North America as an alternative to buying a new, expensive printer. Digital Duplicators Black inks and masters are used in Riso, Ricoh, and other OEM machines. Managed Print Services Managed Print Services(MPS) is a service offering from a dealer to a business that provides hardware, services, and all consumables for a contracted cost-per-page. MPS assists business organizations, allowing for the management of imaging devices and better control of document outputs. Katun provides software (Europe) and support programs (North America) to help dealers leverage their MPS opportunities and grow their",
"-24.174283905071206"
],
[
"it will appear once printed and represents the final opportunity for the publisher to find and correct any errors. Some printing companies use electronic proofs rather than printed proofs. Once the publisher has approved the proofs, printing – the physical production of the printed work – begins.\nRecently new printing process have emerged, such as printing on demand (POD) and web-to-print. The book is written, edited, and designed as usual, but it is not printed until the publisher receives an order for the book from a customer. This procedure ensures low costs for storage and reduces the likelihood of printing more",
"-24.13607337581925"
],
[
"etching are not unheard of. However, consumer advocates note that while some states do require that dealers offer VIN etching, no states require that consumers purchase it from the dealer.\nConsumers who want to have the VIN etched on their vehicle windows but are unable to find a free etching service in their area can often save hundreds of dollars over the dealership fee by using a do-it-yourself VIN etching kit purchased from an Internet retailer or a local auto parts dealer, for as little as $20–25.",
"-24.13122490630485"
],
[
"pursued the subscription model, providing members unlimited access to a content library on a variety of digital reading devices.\nThe ability to quickly and cost-effectively print on demand has meant that publishers no longer have to store books at warehouses, if the book is in low or unknown demand. This is a huge advantage to small publishers who can now operate without large overheads and large publishers who can now cost-effectively sell their backlisted items.\nAccessible publishing uses the digitization of books to mark up books into XML and then produces multiple formats from this to sell to consumers, often targeting those",
"-24.123864443565253"
],
[
"high-volume, large format professional quality presses. Once printed, the products are cut down to size using a computerised robotic cutter, assembled, packaged and addressed using proprietary software driven processes, and shipped to the customer.\nIn a form of mass customsation using as little as 60 seconds of production labour per order versus an hour or more for traditional printers, orders are printed faster and at lower costs than traditional printers. Their strategy is to target small-run orders usually excluded from conventional large printers. Patents One of the company's early hires was an in-house patent attorney. It currently holds over 100 patents",
"-24.123464887743467"
],
[
"can also assist initiatives in sustainable development since technologies are easily and economically made from resources available to local communities.\nThe cost of 3D printers has decreased dramatically since about 2010, with machines that used to cost $20,000 now costing less than $1,000. For instance, as of 2013, several companies and individuals are selling parts to build various RepRap designs, with prices starting at about €400 / US$500. The open source Fab@Home project has developed printers for general use with anything that can be squirted through a nozzle, from chocolate to silicone sealant and chemical reactants. Printers following the project's designs",
"-24.096553811628837"
],
[
"have been available from suppliers in kits or in pre-assembled form since 2012 at prices in the US$2000 range. Several new 3D printers are aimed at the small, inexpensive market including the mUVe3D and Lumifold. Rapide 3D has designed a professional grade crowdsourced 3D-printer costing $1499 which has no fumes nor constant rattle during use. The 3Doodler, \"3D printing pen\", raised $2.3 million on Kickstarter with the pens selling at $99, though the 3D Doodler has been criticized for being more of a crafting pen than a 3D printer.\nAs the costs of 3D printers have come down, they are becoming more",
"-24.09424948389642"
],
[
"house's profits and losses.\"\nJim Baen also believed in giving away e-book versions of older titles in order to sell newer titles, especially later titles in ongoing series. Because the cost of shipping e-books is essentially zero, it is cheaper for a publisher to give away entire books than to buy advertising, leading Baen to establish the Baen Free Library alongside Webscriptions. As Wired noted, the Free Library has \"no conditions or strings attached ... not even requiring readers to give their e-mail addresses, which must have the marketing department turning green around the gills.\"\nBaen also include with some hardcovers CD-ROMs",
"-24.09233828331344"
],
[
"and supporters free of charge. However, contributions to defray the cost for printing are welcomed.",
"-24.088675838371273"
],
[
"is too expensive.\nSometimes recyclers ask for the removal of the glossy paper inserts from newspapers because they are a different type of paper. Glossy inserts have a heavy clay coating that some paper mills cannot accept. Most of the clay is removed from the recycled pulp as sludge, which must be disposed of. If the coated paper is 20% by weight clay, then each ton of glossy paper produces more than 200 kg of sludge and less than 800 kg of fibre.\nThe price of recycled paper has varied greatly over the last 30 or so years. The German price of €100/£49 per",
"-24.073321467614733"
],
[
"printing plate setup process, the new process eliminated numerous costly and time-consuming steps associated with offset printing. It enabled printing from a computer file directly onto paper and launched short-run, on-demand, and variable data printing into the marketplace. The Indigo digital press uses an electric charge to apply small color particles (in liquid form known as ElectroInk), thereby creating a thin, smooth, plastic layer on the substrate. By the 1990s, Indigo became a significant alternative to traditional offset press manufacturers.\nIn 2002, Landa sold Indigo Digital Printing to Hewlett-Packard for US$830 million. Following the acquisition of Indigo, Landa established The",
"-24.045709256548434"
],
[
"several technologies marketed as Kodacolor Technology. Advertising emphasizes low price for ink cartridges rather than for the printers themselves.\nKodak announced plans to stop selling inkjet printers in 2013 as it focuses on commercial printing, but will still sell ink. Graphics Kodak's graphics business consists of computer to plate (CTP) devices, which Kodak first launched in 1995 when the company introduced the first thermal CTP to market. In CTP, an output device exposes a digital image using SQUAREspot laser imaging technology directly to an aluminum surface (printing plate), which is then mounted onto a printing press to reproduce the image. Kodak's",
"-24.044972948775467"
],
[
" The pressure of writing or impact printing on the carbon or carbonless paper transfers the content to the copy sheets. Depending upon requirements, up to typically four copies of the original can be made, with the quality and readability decreasing towards the bottom copies. This type of stationery can be used whenever multiple copies are required, of quality adequate for the purpose, usually noticeably inferior to, for example, laser-printed output. Typically a company may need a document such as an invoice to give to a customer (original), with a copy for their own accounting department (first copy), and possibly",
"-24.037191919516772"
],
[
"is a copy of an individual article that is printed and sold as a separate product by the journal or its publisher or agent. Reprints are often used in pharmaceutical marketing and other medical marketing of products to doctors. This gives journals an incentive to produce good marketing material. Journals sell reprints at very high profit margins, often around 70%, as of 2010. A journal may sell a million dollars worth of reprints of a single article if, for example, it is a large industry-funded clinical trial. The selling of reprints can bring in over 40% of a journal's income.",
"-24.03009906929219"
],
[
"readers. Digital subscriptions rates for four weeks range from $15 to $35 depending on the package selected, with periodic new subscriber promotions offering four-week all-digital access for as low as 99¢. Subscribers to the paper's print edition get full access without any additional fee. Some content, such as the front page and section fronts remained free, as well as the Top News page on mobile apps. In January 2013, The New York Times' Public Editor Margaret M. Sullivan announced that for the first time in many decades, the paper generated more revenue through subscriptions than through advertising. In December 2017,",
"-24.001925423770444"
],
[
"was increased to $13.7 trillion following the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act and other spending legislation, an increase of $4.3 trillion or 46%. This \"current policy\" forecast assumes the Trump tax cuts for individuals would be extended beyond their scheduled expiration date.\nThe New York Times reported in August 2019 that: \"The increasing levels of red ink stem from a steep falloff in federal revenue after Mr. Trump’s 2017 tax cuts, which lowered individual and corporate tax rates, resulting in far fewer tax dollars flowing to the Treasury Department. Tax revenues for 2018 and 2019 have fallen more than $430 billion",
"-23.989953714743024"
],
[
"recording cost down 95 percent. I have my own in-house producers and they are not as expensive as an established producer. The return is greater and now I own my masters. I see six dollars per album sold versus 10 cents. You may not sell as many units because you don't put as much money in promotions, but the returns are better.\"\nLater in the interview, Harrison voiced her opinion on the major difference between major record labels and independent labels, saying \"Major labels have a system that you have to go through. The people in power dictate how things should",
"-23.955131156137213"
],
[
"earn their money not from sales of books to readers, as other publishers do, but from sales and services to the books' authors. The author receives the shipment of his or her books and may attempt to resell them through whatever channels are available. Publishing variations Writers considering self-publishing often also consider directly hiring a printer. According to self-publisher and poet Peter Finch, vanity presses charge higher premiums and create a risk that an author who has published with a vanity press will have more difficulty working with a respectable publisher in the future.\nSome vanity presses using print on demand",
"-23.920365729602054"
],
[
"before printing. The printer removes the cords that hold the type together, and turns the quoins with a key or lever to lock the entire complex of type, blocks, furniture, and chase (frame) into place. This creates the final forme, which the printer takes to the printing press. In a newspaper setting, each page needs a truck to be transported – 2 pages need 2 trucks hence the term double truck. The first copy is proofed again for errors before starting the printing run. Printing The working of the printing process depends on the type of press used, as",
"-23.86525207363593"
],
[
"every time. Printed glass panels can also be replaced when necessary without the risk of the new panels not matching the colors of the existing panels. The inks are also fully integrated with the machine and the image processing software meaning the development and the application of the inks required innovations both in science and technology. Image processing software The image processing software bridges the glass printer and the inks and is also the design tool for preparing the graphic file for printing. The software is more than a photo raster; it calculates ink usage to control levels of translucency",
"-23.86433131271042"
],
[
"well for some originals might require a change to make usable copies with another. Cost comparison Thermofax copies were inexpensive. One business book asserts that research conducted by Xerox before introducing their copier came to the conclusion that \"nobody would pay 5¢ for a plain-paper copy when they could get a Thermofax copy for a cent-and-a-half.\" Fortunately, \"Xerox ignored the research.\" US Army terminology In some segments of the US Army the contemporary terminology for a Thermofax copier was the \"burn machine,\" named so because of the heat involved in the process and the warmth of the resulting copy. ",
"-23.855560291325673"
],
[
"out might get a few hundred disks stamped, whereas big selling artists need the presses running full-time to manufacture the hundreds of thousands of copies needed for the launch of a big album. For most bands today, using any of the large manufacturing plants, it is not cost-effective to produce less than one thousand records. To do raises the cost of production, almost prohibitively. The reason for this is that the start up costs for making a record, as discussed prior in this article, are high when compared to the start up costs for making, say, a compact disc.\nSometimes bands",
"-23.793132744540344"
],
[
"and make the majority of their income on fees for intangible services paid for by the author in advance of publication, rather than afterwards from sales revenue.\nAccordingly, the line between vanity publishing and traditional publishing has become increasingly blurred in recent years. Currently there are several companies that offer digital and print publication with no upfront cost, although many of them offer fee-based services such as editing, marketing and cover design. Technological changes A huge impetus to self-publishing has been rapid advances in technology, particularly the exponential growth of the Internet and a general shift from analog to digital technology.",
"-23.785581499963882"
],
[
"in the United States for less than $100, with some 1-megapixel cameras for under $60. At the same time, many discount stores with photo labs introduced a \"digital front end\", allowing consumers to obtain true chemical prints (as opposed to ink-jet prints) in an hour. These prices were similar to those of prints made from film negatives. However, because digital images have a different aspect ratio than 35 mm film images, people have started to realize that 4x6 inch prints crop some of the image off the print. Some photofinishers have started offering prints with the same aspect ratio as the",
"-23.73920362975332"
],
[
"previous version of that application, one could create an emulator for the application, allowing access to all of said digital objects. In new media art Because of its primary use of digital formats, new media art relies heavily on emulation as a preservation strategy. Artists such as Cory Arcangel specialize in resurrecting obsolete technologies in their artwork and recognize the importance of a decentralized and deinstitutionalized process for the preservation of digital culture. In many cases, the goal of emulation in new media art is to preserve a digital medium so that it can be saved indefinitely and reproduced without",
"-23.69953885182622"
],
[
"copies are called reprints; in the electronic format, they are called postprints. Some publishers, for example the American Physical Society, also grant the author the right to post and update the article on the author's or employer's website and on free e-print servers, to grant permission to others to use or reuse figures, and even to reprint the article as long as no fee is charged. The rise of open access journals, in which the author retains the copyright but must pay a publication charge, such as the Public Library of Science family of journals, is another recent response to",
"-23.694552214292344"
],
[
"February 4, 2010, Adobe has discontinued the Print Service Provider Program.",
"-23.69090386980679"
],
[
"while copying the image is much faster. Most disc burning applications silently delete the image from the Temporary folder after making one copy. If users override this default, telling the application to preserve the image, they can reuse the image to create more copies. Otherwise, they must rebuild the image each time they want a copy.\nSome packet-writing applications do not require writing the entire disc at once, but allow writing of different parts at different times. This allows a user to construct a disc incrementally, as it could be on a rewritable medium like a floppy disk or",
"-23.64736411673948"
],
[
"longer made with them, and obtaining the hardware to convert a file from an obsolete format to a newer one can be expensive. As a result, the upgrading process must take place every 2 to 5 years, or as newer technology becomes affordable, but before older technology becomes unobtainable. The Library of Congress provides numerous resources and tips for individuals looking to practice digitization and digital preservation for their personal collections.\nDigital preservation can also apply to born-digital material. An example of something that is born-digital is a Microsoft Word document saved as a .docx file",
"-23.640529643394984"
],
[
"content creation tools. Inkling no longer produces e-books, but continues to sell its existing e-books through its online bookstore, publishers’ online stores, and the Apple App Store.\nOn December 13, 2016, Inkling announced a $25 million round of funding. Sapphire Ventures led the round, with participation from Sequoia Capital and Tenaya Capital.\nOn August 21, 2018, Inkling announced a new featured called “Notices” designed to immediately deliver critical communications to mobile workforces. Its main features include Training Updates, Project Announcements, and ‘HQ to Field Communications’.\nOn November 26, 2018, Inkling appointed Jeff Carr as their new CEO. Inkling Knowledge Inkling Knowledge is a",
"-23.633543258387363"
],
[
"the printing process is slow.",
"-23.612868812168017"
]
] |
2wjp2u | If animals like bees fertilize plants and animals came after plants, how did plants fertilize before? | [
"Flowering plants did not exist prior to insects. Before animals evolved plants either self pollinated or pollinated via the wind.",
"Even today, many plants self-pollinate. Furthermore, some plants today cross-pollinate by using either the wind or water. Before animals evolved, these methods were probably much more common.",
"You're probably thinking of plants that use flowers and pollen for reproduction. Many of those plants need pollinator animals. But the earliest plants didn't have flowers.... they used spores (or more primitive forms of asexual reproduction) to reproduce. There are still plants today (ferns, club mosses, etc) that do this.",
"You're thinking complex plants like flowers. The first plants were simpler. Think more like algae, pond scum. There were animals eating plants way before there were flowering plants. The answer to other half of your question is probably \"spores.\"",
"The first plants produced self-pollinating spores, which includes algae, [mosses, liverworts]( URL_1 ), and [ferns]( URL_0 ). [Gymnosperms]( URL_3 ), which include conifers, cypress, and gingkos were a sign of more complex life. These plants utilize self-pollination methods such as wind or water, along with insects. [Here's]( URL_2 ) a bit more info on how plants evolved. One cool fact: Some pollinators and plants evolved together, which is called [co-evolution]( URL_4 ). This is common in many orchid plants- each specific plant has a specific pollinator. As you can surmise, this causes a huge problem if either the insect or the plant goes extinct or has a significant decrease in population size. One of the reasons why vanilla is so expensive, is that the orchid has to be pollinated by hand since there is not a living population of that plant's pollinator in some of the areas the plant is cultivated for global sale. Here's a little bit more info on the [diversity of life]( URL_2 ).",
"I am a beekeeper who specializes in phylogeny for bees. If you want to see the scientific community go into a fight where someone is going to get hurt get an entomologist together with a botanist to discuss the evolution of flowering plants and insects that pollinate them. What we can surmise so far. Plant life most likely some type of algae and or fungi come to the edge of the water line and then onto land. Eventually more complicated life forms followed which eventually includes ancestors of insects (this is such a gross oversimplification it is bad) . Remember plants though have a head start but these are not plants that necessarily flower or produce pollen. We will need millions of years to go by before that happens. However starting to play catch up are insects. Lots of them. Of all sorts of different types. Giving them a few million years and you will eventually end up with wasps which are the ancestor to bees (again a horrible oversimplification). Plants can self pollinate in the forms of pines and ginkos and a few others. Now is where things get fun. Did the plants produce fruits that would have been consumed by herbivores in order to help disperse seeds? But that is not pollination per se. You are right but remember seed production is the result of pollination. So wind pollination becomes possible for flowers but the fossil timeline does not give a definitive answer because there is an overlap with flowering plants with sticky pollen that was carried by insects and other animals. What we do know is that we have some really old plant fossils with sticky pollen and some really old plant fossils with non sticky pollen. We also have insects and animals that are evolving at the same time to work these plants and developing in such a way that this becomes beneficial to the animals and the plants at the same time. There are plants that wind pollinate without insects or other animals helping them. There are plants that must have animals or insects to help pollinate them or they don't make it. There are plants that self pollinate and don't care about either of the above groups. The aspect of co-evolution is taken very seriously here because it offers the best insight into the current data. With new discoveries things may change but it is an interesting matter of research and some of the coolest things about have been happening in the last five years. I have had to correct my talks with new information a lot because of new and wonderful information that has been showing up in the journals."
] | [
[
"and flowering plants in the development of pollination behaviour by the insects and pollination mechanisms by the flowers, benefiting both groups.\nMany plants, including flowering plants such as grasses, are instead pollinated by other mechanisms, such as by wind. History The early spermatophytes (seed plants) were largely dependent on the wind to carry their pollen from one plant to another, and it was around 125 to 115 million years ago that a new pollination strategy developed and angiosperms (flowering plants) first appeared. Before that, insect involvement in pollination was limited to \"pollination assistants\", insects which inadvertently carried the pollen between plants",
"-36.69618012954015"
],
[
"entirely and instead collect pollen in their crops. This drove the adaptive radiation of the angiosperms, and, in turn, the bees themselves. Bees have not only coevolved with flowers but it is believed that some bees have coevolved with mites. Some bees provide tufts of hairs called acarinaria that appear to provide lodgings for mites; in return, it is believed that the mites eat fungi that attack pollen, so the relationship in this case may be mutualistc. Haplodiploid breeding system According to inclusive fitness theory, organisms can gain fitness not just through increasing their own reproductive output, but also that",
"-36.40389412381046"
],
[
"flower and pollen vector was first addressed in the 18th century by Christian Konrad Sprengel. It is important in horticulture and agriculture, because fruiting is dependent on fertilization: the result of pollination. The study of pollination by insects is known as anthecology. Process Pollen germination has three stages; hydration, activation and pollen tube emergence. The pollen grain is severely dehydrated so that its mass is reduced enabling it to be more easily transported from flower to flower. Germination only takes place after rehydration, ensuring that premature germination does not take place in the anther. Hydration allows the plasma membrane of",
"-35.83940588630503"
],
[
"For L. arenarium, rodent pollination is more effective than insect or bird pollination, even though a larger part of the pollen is lost due to the mice grooming their fur. This is probably the result of a larger dedication of the rodents compared to insects and birds.\nAfter the fruits fall from the plants about two months after flowering, these are collected by native ants who transport them to their underground nests. Mature plants do not survive the wildfires that naturally occur in the sandveld, a type of fynbos in which the Redelinghuys pincushion can be found, but it revives from",
"-35.74081298575038"
],
[
"plants evolved, modifications in the alternation of generations evolved; in the Paleozoic era progymnosperms reproduced by using spores dispersed on the wind. The seed plants including seed ferns, conifers and cordaites, which were all gymnosperms, evolved 350 million years ago; they had pollen grains that contained the male gametes for protection of the sperm during the process of transfer from the male to female parts. It is believed that insects fed on the pollen, and plants thus evolved to use insects to actively carry pollen from one plant to the next. Seed producing plants, which include the angiosperms and",
"-35.59104651020607"
],
[
"History of sexual reproduction of plants Unlike animals, plants are immobile, and cannot seek out sexual partners for reproduction. In the evolution of early plants, abiotic means, including water and wind, transported sperm for reproduction. The first plants were aquatic, as described in the page \"Evolutionary history of plants\", and released sperm freely into the water to be carried with the currents. Primitive land plants like liverworts and mosses had motile sperm that swam in a thin film of water or were splashed in water droplets from the male reproduction organs onto the female organs. As taller and more complex",
"-35.445137725851964"
],
[
"distribution of seeds. Fruit, which is formed by the enlargement of flower parts, is frequently a seed-dispersal tool that attracts animals to eat or otherwise disturb it, incidentally scattering the seeds it contains (see frugivory). Although many such mutualistic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition and to spread widely, flowering proved to be an unusually effective means of reproduction, spreading (whatever its origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life.\nFlower ontogeny uses a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots. The most primitive flowers probably had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from",
"-34.9421964349458"
],
[
"flowers, thus pollinating them. While pollen and nectar, in most cases, are the most notable reward attained from flowers, bees also visit flowers for other resources such as oil, fragrance, resin and even waxes. It has been estimated that bees originated with the origin or diversification of angiosperms. In addition, cases of coevolution between bee species and flowering plants have been illustrated by specialized adaptations. For example, long legs are selected for in Rediviva neliana, a bee that collects oil from Diascia capsularis, which have long spur lengths that are selected for in order to deposit pollen on the oil-collecting",
"-34.78337279200787"
],
[
"(beetles)—evolved in conjunction with flowering plants during the Cretaceous (145 to 66 million years ago). The earliest bees, important pollinators today, appeared in the early Cretaceous. A group of wasps sister to the bees evolved at the same time as flowering plants, as did the Lepidoptera. Further, all the major clades of bees first appeared between the middle and late Cretaceous, simultaneously with the adaptive radiation of the eudicots (three quarters of all angiosperms), and at the time when the angiosperms became the world's dominant plants on land.\nAt least three aspects of flowers appear to have coevolved between flowering plants",
"-34.65613678598311"
],
[
"\"reward\" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-grained, very light, and of little nutritional value to insects, though it may still be gathered in times of dearth. Honeybees and bumblebees actively gather anemophilous corn (maize) pollen, though it is of little value to them.\nSome flowers with both stamens and a pistil are capable of self-fertilization, which does increase the chance of producing seeds but limits genetic variation. The extreme case of self-fertilization occurs in flowers that always self-fertilize, such as many dandelions. Some flowers are self-pollinated and use flowers that never open or are self-pollinated before the flowers open,",
"-34.441146280049"
],
[
"with these plants.\nAlthough pollination results from the bees visiting these flowers, this is not the primary reason they visit plants with poricidal anthers. Pollen contains a substantial amount of protein compared to nectar, the sugary liquid the majority of plants produce as a reward for their animal pollinators. Bees eat pollen as well as make a paste with it to feed their larvae. The pollen paste is then sealed into the nest to create a reserve for the young bees. Bees rely on this resource for food; therefore they are also dependent on flowers that produce substantial amounts of accessible",
"-34.43679226050881"
],
[
"to self pollinate. The fertilized ovules produce seeds that are the next generation. Sexual reproduction produces genetically unique offspring, allowing for adaptation. Flowers have specific designs which encourages the transfer of pollen from one plant to another of the same species. Many plants are dependent upon external factors for pollination, including: wind and animals, and especially insects. Even large animals such as birds, bats, and pygmy possums can be employed. The period of time during which this process can take place (the flower is fully expanded and functional) is called anthesis. The study of pollination by insects is called",
"-34.421620432374766"
],
[
"formerly simple weeds, which sprouted only when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, perhaps already having symbiotic companion plant relationships with them, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.\nA few paleontologists have also proposed that flowering plants, or angiosperms, might have evolved due to interactions with dinosaurs. One of the idea's strongest proponents is Robert T. Bakker. He proposes that herbivorous dinosaurs, with their eating habits, provided a selective pressure on plants, for which adaptations either succeeded in deterring",
"-34.352652473855414"
],
[
"merely by their movements. The real relationship between plants and insects began in the Early Cretaceous, with beetle-pollinated gymnosperms. The morphology of the first fossil basal angiosperms is similar to modern-day plants that are also fertilised by beetles. It seems likely that beetles led the way in insect pollination, followed by flies. Among the twelve living families of basal angiosperms, six are predominantly pollinated by flies, five by beetles and only one by bees. Nevertheless, traits such as sapromyophily (emitting the odour of carrion to attract flies) have evolved independently in several unrelated angiosperm families. The plant's needs Wind and",
"-34.29048348931428"
],
[
"the behaviour of the plants. Pollen may be transferred between plants via a number of 'vectors'. Some plants make use of abiotic vectors — namely wind (anemophily) or, much less commonly, water (hydrophily). Others use biotic vectors including insects (entomophily), birds (ornithophily), bats (chiropterophily) or other animals. Some plants make use of multiple vectors, but many are highly specialised.\nCleistogamous flowers are self-pollinated, after which they may or may not open. Many Viola and some Salvia species are known to have these types of flowers.\nThe flowers of plants that make use of biotic pollen vectors commonly have glands called nectaries that",
"-34.07588643592317"
],
[
"or animals to the new plants. At the start of the 18th century, Jethro Tull demonstrated that it was beneficial to cultivate (stir) the soil, but his opinion that the stirring made the fine parts of soil available for plant absorption was erroneous.\nAs chemistry developed, it was applied to the investigation of soil fertility. The French chemist Antoine Lavoisier showed in about 1778 that plants and animals must [combust] oxygen internally to live and was able to deduce that most of the 165-pound weight of van Helmont's willow tree derived from air. It was the French agriculturalist Jean-Baptiste Boussingault who",
"-33.91252227535006"
],
[
"type of flower and fruits may contain self-fertilised, out-crossed or a mixture of progeny types. The transition from cross-fertilisation to self-fertilisation is the most common evolutionary transition in plants, and has occurred repeatedly in many independent lineages. About 10-15% of flowering plants are predominantly self-fertilising. Self-pollination Under circumstances where pollinators and/or mates are rare, self-fertilisation offers the advantage of reproductive assurance. Self-fertilisation can therefore result in improved colonisation ability. In some species, self-fertilisation has persisted over many generations. Capsella rubella is a self-fertilisating species that became self-compatible 50,000 to 100,000 years ago. Arabidopsis thaliana is",
"-33.88569872651715"
],
[
"was to involve mobile animals in their reproduction processes. That is, pollen can be scattered even if the flower is not brightly colored or oddly shaped in a way that attracts animals; however, by expending the energy required to create such traits, angiosperms can enlist the aid of animals and, thus, reproduce more efficiently.\nIsland genetics provides one proposed explanation for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowering plants. Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation in general, especially when it comes to radical adaptations that seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Flowering plants may have",
"-33.85962228899007"
],
[
"plant matures before the male part of the same plant. This reduces inbreeding considerably, as such a plant can be fertilized only by pollen from a different plant. This is why thermogenic plants release pungent odors to attract pollinating insects. Examples of thermogenic plants Thermogenic plants are found in a variety of families, but Araceae in particular contains many such species. Examples from this family include the eastern skunk cabbage, the dead-horse arum, the elephant yam and Philodendron selloum, also known as elephant ear. Contrary to popular belief, the western skunk cabbage, a close relative from the family Araceae, is",
"-33.84323616954498"
],
[
"tissues in the developing seed. The ovary, which produced the female gametophyte(s), then grows into a fruit, which surrounds the seed(s). Plants may either self-pollinate or cross-pollinate.\nNonflowering plants like ferns, moss and liverworts use other means of sexual reproduction.\nIn 2013, flowers dating from the Cretaceous (100 million years before present) were found encased in amber, the oldest evidence of sexual reproduction in a flowering plant. Microscopic images showed tubes growing out of pollen and penetrating the flower's stigma. The pollen was sticky, suggesting it was carried by insects. Ferns Ferns mostly produce large diploid sporophytes with rhizomes, roots and leaves;",
"-33.79873142275028"
],
[
"termite eats them and causes the seeds to germinate and then to propagate.\nIt is an extremely complicated life cycle and if any one of the steps is interrupted, the plant does not reproduce.\nWhile the above is a typical cycle for the species, seeds collected directly from fruits and not subjected to passing through the intestines of a jackrabbit or other animal can have a high germination rate and be successfully grown into mature plants.",
"-33.750905881868675"
],
[
"including bees and flies. When the fruits are ripe about two months after flowering, they fall to the ground. Here they are gathered by ants who are attracted to a pale fleshy ant loaf (or elaiosome) and carry them to their underground nests where the ant loaf is eaten, but the seeds remain safely stored. This seed dispersal strategy is known as myrmecochory. After above ground the plants are killed by the wildfires that naturally occur in the Fynbos every decade or two, chemicals from the charred vegetation which percolate with the rainwater, the seeds germinate and revive the population.",
"-33.700134183629416"
],
[
"animals, so as to cause them to be vectors for the transfer of pollen. After fertilization, the ovary of the flower develops into fruit containing seeds.\nIn addition to facilitating the reproduction of flowering plants, flowers have long been admired and used by humans to bring beauty to their environment, and also as objects of romance, ritual, religion, medicine and as a source of food. Floral parts The essential parts of a flower can be considered in two parts: the vegetative part, consisting of petals and associated structures in the perianth, and the reproductive or sexual parts. A stereotypical flower consists",
"-33.68737881508423"
],
[
"large contributor to pollination via zoophily. Flowering plants overwhelmingly are pollinated by animals, and while invertebrates are involved in the majority of that pollination, birds and mammals also play a role. Ornithochory Birds contribute to seed dispersal in several ways that are unique from general vectors. Birds often cache, or store, the seeds of trees and shrubs for later consumption; only some of these seeds are later recovered and eaten, so many of the seeds are able to utilize the behavior of seed caching to allow them to germinate away from the mother tree.\nLong-distance dispersal, which is rare for a",
"-33.52049535588594"
],
[
"plants that produce them. Key among these functions are nourishment of the embryo, dispersal to a new location, and dormancy during unfavorable conditions. Seeds fundamentally are means of reproduction, and most seeds are the product of sexual reproduction which produces a remixing of genetic material and phenotype variability on which natural selection acts. Embryo nourishment Seeds protect and nourish the embryo or young plant. They usually give a seedling a faster start than a sporeling from a spore, because of the larger food reserves in the seed and the multicellularity of the enclosed embryo. Dispersal Unlike animals, plants",
"-33.50443847500719"
],
[
"of reproduction in long-established self-fertilising plants may be related to the immediate benefit of efficient recombinational repair of DNA damage during formation of germ cells provided by meiosis at each generation. Internal vs. external Consideration as to whether an animal (more specifically a vertebrate) uses internal or external fertilisation is often dependent on the method of birth. Oviparous animals laying eggs with thick calcium shells, such as chickens, or thick leathery shells generally reproduce via internal fertilisation so that the sperm fertilises the egg without having to pass through the thick, protective, tertiary layer of the egg. Ovoviviparous and viviparous",
"-33.44607258233009"
],
[
"sperm are released before the eggs are receptive of the sperm, making it more likely that the sperm will fertilize the eggs of different thallus. A zygote is formed after fertilization, which grows into a new sporophytic plant. The condition of having separate sporephyte and gametophyte plants is called alternation of generations. Other plants with similar reproductive means include the Psilotum, Lycopodium, Selaginella and Equisetum. Bryophytes The bryophytes, which include liverworts, hornworts and mosses, reproduce both sexually and vegetatively. They are small plants found growing in moist locations and like ferns, have motile sperm with flagella and need water",
"-33.35800530115375"
],
[
"& 357).\nHarvey commented on ...motion, apparently spontaneous, among the seeds at the period of germination. Some found it difficult...to account for these anomalous motions. ...that the seeds becomes (how is not said) a perfect nimalcule, which after enjoying an animal existence for a time ceases to live animally, and, reverting to its original nature, gives birth to a vegetable. Thus, this seed was first vegetable, then animal, and then again vegeable,... . During the 18th Century there was a stormy controversy as to whether coralline algae were plants or animals. Up to the mid-18th century coralline algae (and coral animals)",
"-33.34855240349134"
],
[
"production and no possibility of selective breeding, since each bee colony was destroyed at harvest time, along with its precious queen.\nDuring the medieval period abbeys and monasteries were centers of beekeeping, since beeswax was highly prized for candles and fermented honey was used to make alcoholic mead in areas of Europe where vines would not grow. The 18th and 19th centuries saw successive stages of a revolution in beekeeping, which allowed the bees themselves to be preserved when taking the harvest.\nIntermediate stages in the transition from the old beekeeping to the new were recorded for example by Thomas Wildman in",
"-33.34802557399962"
],
[
"they fall into its tubular leaves. Attenborough visits Borneo to see the largest pitcher of them all, Nepenthes rajah, whose traps contain up to two litres of water and have been known to kill small rodents. \"Flowering\" Broadcast 25 January 1995, the next installment is devoted to the ways in which plants reproduce. Pollen and a stigma are the two components needed for fertilisation. Most plants carry both these within their flowers and rely on animals to transport the pollen from one to the stigma of another. To do this, they attract their couriers with colour, scent and nectar. It",
"-33.33807108087058"
],
[
"are produced from long-lived seed stored in the ground. Plants do not produce viable seed until they are at least eighteen months to three years old and have a lifespan of seven to twelve years. Many kinds of insects visit the flowers but which species pollinate the flowers is not known. The fruit is thought to be eaten by large birds such as currawongs and by larger mammals which then disperse the seed in their droppings. The seeds have a hard coat and the trigger for germination is not known, although new plants often appear after heavy rain.\nStaff at the",
"-33.318858151556924"
],
[
"plant uses pollinators such as bees to pollinate and birds eat the fruit as a form of seed dispersal. Thus, it cannot tolerate shade and the seedlings cannot survive under a closed canopy. It grows in soil derived from various parent rocks: limestone, sedimentary, and volcanic (including serpentine), and thus multiple soil properties are accepted by this species, including soil texture which can vary from sandy to clay. The small bowl-shaped flowers are probably pollinated by generalist insects. The fruits are eaten mainly by birds, such as Spindalis portoricensis – the sticky pulp of the fruits does not seem to",
"-33.17282439209521"
],
[
"accord well with evidence for the earliest ever cereal cultivation at the site and the use of stone-made grinding implements. Domestication of plants Once agriculture started gaining momentum, around 9000 BC, human activity resulted in the selective breeding of cereal grasses (beginning with emmer, einkorn and barley), and not simply of those that would favour greater caloric returns through larger seeds. Plants with traits such as small seeds or bitter taste would have been seen as undesirable. Plants that rapidly shed their seeds on maturity tended not to be gathered at harvest, therefore not stored and not seeded the following",
"-33.08984445198439"
],
[
"example in plants is the mutual beneficial relationship between plants and fungi, known as mycorrhizae. The plant is assisted with nutrient uptake, while the fungus receives carbohydrates. Some the earliest known fossil plants even have fossil mycorrhizae on their rhizomes.\nThe flowering plants are a group that have evolved by using two major mutualisms. First, flowers are pollinated by insects. This relationship seems to have its origins in beetles feeding on primitive flowers, eating pollen and also acting (unwittingly) as pollinators. Second, fruits are eaten by animals, and the animals then disperse the seeds. Thus, the",
"-33.08976959298889"
],
[
"to the pistil (receptive part of the carpel). Homomorphic flowers may employ a biochemical (physiological) mechanism called self-incompatibility to discriminate between self and non-self pollen grains. In other species, the male and female parts are morphologically separated, developing on different flowers. Evolution Fossilized spores suggest that land plants (embryophytes) have existed for at least 475 million years. Early land plants reproduced sexually with flagellated, swimming sperm, like the green algae from which they evolved. An adaptation to terrestrialization was the development of upright meiosporangia for dispersal by spores to new habitats. This feature is lacking in the descendants of their",
"-33.0713468437898"
],
[
"seed because there weren't any native insects available to pollinate the flowers. However, non-native wasps (Eupristina sp.), that have become established in the area, seems capable of pollinating it and the tree is now proliferating and becoming invasive.",
"-33.065700963896234"
],
[
"bees—insects that probably are responsible for pollination as well. Guanacaste seed pods, however, are completely ignored by native fauna and they accumulate on the forest floor underneath parent trees. The seeds are not eaten by any animals currently native where the tree occurs, rendering the plant an evolutionary anachronism: it has been suggested that guanacaste pods were among the foods exploited by certain species of Pleistocene megafauna that became extinct some 10,000 years ago (e.g. giant ground sloths, giant bison). Within this scenario, the tree remains today without an effective seed-dispersing vector besides humans.\nAs discussed above, the tough-coated guanacaste seeds",
"-33.05805858061649"
],
[
"xylose content. The mice apparently can digest the xylose and they eat large quantities of the pollen. In Australia pollination by flying, gliding and earthbound mammals has been demonstrated. Examples of pollen vectors include many species of wasps, that transport pollen of many plant species, being potential or even efficient pollinators. Coevolution The first fossil record for abiotic pollination is from fern-like plants in the late Carboniferous period. Gymnosperms show evidence for biotic pollination as early as the Triassic period. Many fossilized pollen grains show characteristics similar to the biotically dispersed pollen today. Furthermore, the gut contents, wing structures,",
"-33.00298196493168"
],
[
"bees, and when fields are planted in new areas, the bees take several seasons to build up. Honey bees are still trucked to many of the fields at bloom time.\nB. affinis is important to the agricultural industry, as well as for the pollination of alfalfa. It is known that members of this species pollinate up to 65 different species of plants, and it is the primary pollinator of key dietary crops, such as cranberries, plums, apples, onions, and alfalfa.\nM. rotundata was unintentionally introduced into the United States during the 1940s, and its management as a pollinator of alfalfa has led",
"-33.00224757089745"
],
[
"In a study of the interaction between pollinators and Albuca flowers, leafcutter bees were observed prying open the tepals and squeezing through to obtain the nectar inside. In the process, they left pollen on the tips of the tepals, where it absorbed fluid, germinated, and fertilized ovules. This was the first known case of flower petals performing the function of the stigma. Systematics The genus is circumscribed in two ways. The traditional genus Albuca is a monophyletic group of about 60 known species, and possibly about 100 in total. Other authorities have considered Albuca in a wider sense, including such",
"-32.99720268137753"
],
[
"dunes, and on disturbed and cultivated land.\nBecause the flower is largely closed by its underlip, pollination requires strong insects such as bees and bumblebees (Bombus species).\nThe plant is food plant for a large number of insects such as the sweet gale moth (Acronicta euphorbiae), mouse moth (Amphipyra tragopoginis), silver Y (Autographa gamma), Calophasia lunula, gorgone checkerspot (Charidryas gorgone carlota), toadflax pug (Eupithecia linariata), satyr pug (Eupithecia satyrata), Falseuncaria ruficiliana, bog fritillary (Boloria eunomia), Pyrrhia umbra, brown rustic (Rusina ferruginea), and Stenoptilia bipunctidactyla. Fossil record Seeds of the common toadflax, were identified from the Hoxnian interglacial strata at Clacton. Records have",
"-32.96008351573255"
],
[
"are limited in their ability to seek out favorable conditions for life and growth. As a result, plants have evolved many ways to disperse their offspring by dispersing their seeds (see also vegetative reproduction). A seed must somehow \"arrive\" at a location and be there at a time favorable for germination and growth. When the fruits open and release their seeds in a regular way, it is called dehiscent, which is often distinctive for related groups of plants; these fruits include capsules, follicles, legumes, silicles and siliques. When fruits do not open and release their seeds in a regular",
"-32.92203132461873"
],
[
"relies heavily on the straw-coloured fruit bat (Eidolon helvum) for seed dispersal, over 98% of the seed falling to the ground having passed through its gut. This seed also germinated better than uneaten seed and resisted predation longer. Evolution In a study it was seen that isolation was caused by one or more of the animals that are known for dispersal of Milicia excelsa (i.e. Bats, rodents, and birds). It is hypothesized that the ancestor slowly developed a different flowering time from its ancestor, which led to differences in selection pressure during the time of reproduction. This, over time,",
"-32.91540629328665"
],
[
"plant, such as buds, flowers and new leaves. Besides feeding on plant tissues, the common blossom thrips feeds on pollen grains and on the eggs of mites. When the larva supplements its diet in this way, its development time and mortality is reduced, and adult females that consume mite eggs increase their fecundity and longevity. Pollination Some flower-feeding thrips pollinate the flowers they are feeding on, and some authors suspect that they may have been among the first insects to evolve a pollinating relationship with their host plants. Scirtothrips dorsalis carries pollen of commercially important chili peppers. Darwin found that",
"-32.90159681189107"
],
[
"conditions. Plantsmen in England were able to germinate seed there in 1791.\nDrupes were eaten by indigenous people on the Beecroft Peninsula, and were preferred over those of P. laurina.",
"-32.880619576899335"
],
[
"water pollination require the production of vast quantities of pollen because of the chancy nature of its deposition. If they are not to be reliant on the wind or water (for aquatic species), plants need pollinators to move their pollen grains from one plant to another. They particularly need pollinators to consistently choose flowers of the same species, so they have evolved different lures to encourage specific pollinators to maintain fidelity to the same species. The attractions offered are mainly nectar, pollen, fragrances and oils. The ideal pollinating insect is hairy (so that pollen adheres to it), and spends time",
"-32.87307912914548"
],
[
"termitophiles and dwell inside termite colonies (they are unable to survive independently). As a result, certain beetles and flies have evolved with their hosts. They have developed a gland that secrete a substance that attracts the workers by licking them. Mounds may also provide shelter and warmth to birds, lizards, snakes and scorpions.\nTermites are known to carry pollen and regularly visit flowers, so are regarded as potential pollinators for a number of flowering plants. One flower in particular, Rhizanthella gardneri, is regularly pollinated by foraging workers, and it is perhaps the only Orchidaceae flower in the world to be pollinated",
"-32.85112851241138"
],
[
"or cooked as a vegetable.\nBees, especially bumble bees are attracted to the flowers which are a good source of early nectar and pollen, hence the plant is sometimes called the bee nettle. Habitat In the British Isles L. album is found on roadsides, around hedges, and in waste-places. Chemistry Two phenylpropanoid glycosides, lamalboside (2R-galactosylacteoside) and acteoside, the flavonol p-coumaroylglucoside, tiliroside, 5-caffeoylquinic acid (chlorogenic acid), along with rutoside and quercetin and kaempferol 3-O-glucosides can be isolated from the flowers of L. album. The plant also contains the iridoid glycosides lamalbid, alboside A and B, and caryoptoside as well as the",
"-32.846572918468155"
],
[
"to propagate from seed. It is generally pest resistant, though garden snails will climb up the plant in wet weather to eat the leaves. The hybrid Colutea × media (C. arborescens × C. orientalis) is also cultivated for its coppery flowers.\nColutea species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Coleophora colutella.",
"-32.83283781155478"
],
[
"self-pollination, the pollen grains are not transmitted from one flower to another. As a result, the wastage of pollen is less. Also, it does not depend on any external carrier. The plant that develops in that way of pollination cannot make changes in their characters and so the features of a species can be maintained. This way, a species can maintain purity in it.It helps to preserve parental characters as the gametes from the same flower are evolved.It is not necessary for flowers to produce nectar,sent or to be colourful in order to attract the pollinaters. Disadvantages of self-pollination The",
"-32.83218287007185"
],
[
"that fall to the ground about two months after flowering are collected by ants, who carry them to their underground nests. Here they eat a pale outer part that is attractive to ants. The remaining seeds are left in the nests and are both protected against consumption by rodents and birds, and against fire. Adult plants do not survive fire.\nThe phosphorus content of Leucospermum parile has been studied over its biological life cycle. It was found that the seeds contained much phosphorus compounds. During the first two years after germination, phosporus compounds concentrated in the leaves. In senescent plants, the",
"-32.829462952620815"
],
[
"the female flowers lose receptivity to pollination.\nSelf-pollination is normally considered impossible, but in 1999, Huntington Botanical Garden botanists hand-pollinated their plant with its own pollen from ground-up male flowers. The procedure was successful, resulting in fruit and ten fertile seeds from which several seedlings eventually were produced. Additionally, a titan arum at Gustavus Adolphus College, in Minnesota, unexpectedly produced viable seed through self-pollination in 2011. Odor As the spathe gradually opens, the spadix releases powerful odors to attract pollinators, insects which feed on dead animals or lay their eggs in rotting meat. The potency of the odor gradually increases from",
"-32.82171318710607"
],
[
"is accepted that this corolla structure evolved under selective pressure of bee pollinators. Linnaeus remarked that they produce hardly any scent, but the flowers of Spanish broom, sweet pea, scorpion vetch, European yellow lupine, fava bean and various species of clover are notable exceptions.\nFour different mechanisms of pollen release are known in papilionaceous flowers, which are respectively known as the explosive, valvular, piston and brush mechanisms. In the explosive or tripping mechanism (cf. alfalfa, common broom, ox-eye bean) all pollen is instantly released when pressure on the staminal column is permanently released (usually by an insect) causing it to snap",
"-32.80068366631167"
],
[
"develop into an oval pod with three chambers, 6 mm (¹⁄₂ in) long, which is enclosed by the green calyx. The plant spreads by reseeding itself. Ecology The flowers produce both pollen and nectar. Long- and short-tongued bees visit the plants for both nectar and pollen, syrphid flies and fire beetles (Pedilus lugubris) feed on pollen, and butterflies and moths drink nectar. Out of these insects, large bees are the most effective at cross-pollination, since they most often touch the pollen-covered anthers. Range and habitat Polemonium reptans is typically found in rich, moist woods, often along streambanks. Its range extends from",
"-32.796800659489236"
],
[
"fertilization. Self-fertilization will not produce fruit in some species, and while cross-breeding has resulted in several \"self-fertile\" varieties, cross-pollinating with a second plant species generally increases fruit set and quality. This limits the capability of home growers to produce the fruit. However, the plants can flower between three and six times in a year depending on growing conditions. Like other cacti, if a healthy piece of the stem is broken off, it may take root in soil and become its own plant.\nThe plants can endure temperatures up to 40 °C (104 °F) and very short periods of frost, but will not survive",
"-32.79556328005856"
],
[
"coatis, and foxes. Seeds require fire followed by cold conditions to germinate; seeds can remain dormant in soil for hundreds of years.\nGreenleaf manzanitas in some areas, but not all, produce lignotubers, from which they can reproduce vegetatively. Uses Some Plateau Indian tribes drank a tea of greenleaf manzanita as a cathartic.",
"-32.79196212335955"
],
[
"surrounds the seed(s). Plants may either self-pollinate or cross-pollinate. Pollination In plants that use insects or other animals to move pollen from one flower to the next, plants have developed greatly modified flower parts to attract pollinators and to facilitate the movement of pollen from one flower to the insect and from the insect back to the next flower. Flowers of wind pollinated plants tend to lack petals and or sepals; typically large amounts of pollen are produced and pollination often occurs early in the growing season before leaves can interfere with the dispersal of the pollen. Many trees and",
"-32.774458277912345"
],
[
"on the stem have been occasionally collected to stuff pillows. Oil from the seeds has been used for burning and cooking.\nThistles produce abundant nectar for pollinators and provide seeds and floss for birds such as the goldfinch. Large-flowered tall thistles in particular provide considerable nectar. Invasive species In the late 19th century, it was introduced to temperate regions of North America, South America, and Australia as an ornamental plant, and is now considered a major agricultural and wildland noxious weed. It has been recorded from nearly 50 countries. It is difficult to eradicate because of its drought resistance. It can",
"-32.745268364204094"
],
[
"have ranged from 6 to 11, and reports of the total number of plants have ranged from 340 to 580. Life cycle and ecology Pollinated primarily by honeyeaters, the inflorescences appear from September to December. Prominent flowers, a red or pink colour, a straight style and a tubular perianth are features thought to promote pollination by birds. The structure of B. cuneata's flower, with the style end functioning as a pollen presenter, suggests that autogamous self-fertilisation must be common. This is countered, however, by protandry: pollen is released well before the pistil becomes receptive; usually by the time the pistil becomes",
"-32.72434382326901"
],
[
"get to the flowers and find no nectar. It competes for continually shrinking, due to human development, wetland acreage with plants that support more wildlife. Additionally, its seeds are not an important food source for birds or rodents. Herbivores do not find its foliage appealing. Its flowers are a source of food for insects that consume pollen. However, some sources say the plant mainly uses wind pollination, a pollination strategy that typically makes comparatively little pollen available for pollen-consuming insects. As a result, some conservationists suggest using this plant in aesthetics-oriented gardens but focusing more on other species for restoration",
"-32.71485776180634"
],
[
"to germinate in vitro (in a petri dish or test tube).\nDuring germination, the tube cell elongates into a pollen tube. In the flower, the pollen tube then grows towards the ovule where it discharges the sperm produced in the pollen grain for fertilization. The germinated pollen grain with its two sperm cells is the mature male microgametophyte of these plants. Self-incompatibility Since most plants carry both male and female reproductive organs in their flowers, there is a high risk of self-pollination and thus inbreeding. Some plants use the control of pollen germination as a way to prevent this self-pollination. Germination",
"-32.6993137135978"
],
[
"receptive most of the pollen has either been transferred, or has lost its viability. This strategy is effective against individual flowers fertilising themselves, but does nothing to prevent geitonogamy: fertilisation of flowers by different flowers on the same plant. Because of the way flowers are clustered together in heads, this must be quite common, although whether it results in successful fruit set is another matter: isozyme studies have observed \"intense selection against homozygotes\", a fairly common outbreeding strategy in plants that set lots of seed.\nAssessments of the mating system of this species have found that outcrossing rates vary between populations.",
"-32.652225177509536"
],
[
"vain for nectar. Then when the stamens begin to release pollen, the bees return to collect and feed on pollen. Mining bees sometimes visit the flowers, but prefer flowers that produce both nectar and pollen. Distribution and habitat It is found in woods, thickets and meadows, especially in the mountains of continental Europe, North America and Japan. Contents Like other Ranunculaceae, fresh liverwort contains protoanemonin and is therefore slightly toxic. By drying the herb, protoanemonin is dimerized to the non-toxic anemonin. Herbalism Medieval herbalists believed it could be used to treat liver diseases, and is still used in alternative medicine",
"-32.64925012443564"
],
[
"and the American west require smoke or fire to germinate. Some plant species, including many trees, do not produce seeds until they reach maturity, which may take many years. Seeds can be difficult to acquire and some plants do not produce seed at all. Some plants (like certain plants modified using genetic use restriction technology) may produce seed, but not fertile seed. In certain cases, this is done to prevent the accidental spreading of these plants, for example by birds and other animals. Heated propagator A heated propagator is a horticultural device to maintain a warm and damp environment for",
"-32.643749493639916"
],
[
"the plant's seeds can remain viable in the soil. Also, because seeds can safely pass through an animal's digestive system, ensuring manure is not contaminated is important. Another option for cultural control is the use of trap crops or catch crops. Trap crops promote the germination of O. aegyptiaca seeds, but do not allow parasitism; these include flax, mung bean, maize, and sorghum. Catch crops allow parasitism, but are destroyed before the parasitic plants flower, so the broomrape seeds cannot be produced and dispersed. Finally, limited success has been seen with host plant resistance in sunflower, faba",
"-32.64343591299257"
],
[
"to reintroduce seedlings, since previous outplantings have an 80+% survivorship; as the plants flower only once after many years. With so few wild plants, leaving the process to a chance encounter with a suitable pollinator was considered unwise. In addition, native pollinators are thought to have been disrupted by invasive species such as Argentine ants. The native solitary Hylaeus bee genus are the pollinators of this subspecies. Nonnative honey bees (Apis melifera) visit the flowers, but appear to steal pollen rather than move it between plants. Therefore, scientists set the policy that no seed is left in the",
"-32.59577766928123"
],
[
"wind. The flowers produce no nectar and are generally not pollinated by insects. Although, introduced honeybee, Apis mellifera, has been recorded visiting the flowers of the plant and collecting pollen on parts of its body, so this species is thought to possibly help spread pollen. For the female flowers, the stigma protrudes at the same time as the anthers of the hermaphrodite plants. This allows the pollen from the hermaphrodite plants to fertilize the female plants, and the life cycle can begin. Soil preferences The glasswort is a halophyte, so it prefers soils with high salinities. This is the main",
"-32.58812815282727"
],
[
"organs, commonly called flowers. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves the production of male and female gametes, the transfer of the male gametes to the female ovules in a process called pollination. After pollination occurs, fertilization happens and the ovules grow into seeds within a fruit. After the seeds are ready for dispersal, the fruit ripens and by various means the seeds are freed from the fruit and after varying amounts of time and under specific conditions the seeds germinate and grow into the next generation.\nThe anther produces male gametophytes which are pollen grains, which attach to the",
"-32.558854834525846"
],
[
"jewel-weed, Beggar’s ticks, goldenrod, boneset, burdock, and Impatiens from which the bee's name may come. The bees can eat the raw materials like pollen and nectar of the flowers but most bees in the colony eat honey that is made using the raw materials since it has higher nutritional value. To create honey, the bees consume the pollen and the nectar, and then regurgitate them, mixing them with enzymes in their stomachs. The bees store the honey for winter since during winter months, there will be no flowers from which they can forage raw materials. Parasites Bombus impatiens are hosts",
"-32.543395351967774"
],
[
"on their leaf surface. The secretory system can only function a single time, so that a particular area of the leaf surface can only be used to digest insects once. Flowers As with almost all carnivorous plants, the flowers of butterworts are held far above the rest of the plant by a long stalk, in order to reduce the probability of trapping potential pollinators. The single, long-lasting flowers are zygomorphic, with two lower lip petals characteristic of the bladderwort family, and a spur extending from the back of the flower. The calyx has five sepals, and the petals are arranged",
"-32.51787606946891"
],
[
"raindrops. In 2008, Japanese researchers discovered that some liverworts are able to fire sperm-containing water up to 15 cm in the air, enabling them to fertilize female plants growing more than a metre from the nearest male.\nWhen sperm reach the archegonia, fertilisation occurs, leading to the production of a diploid sporophyte. After fertilisation, the immature sporophyte within the archegonium develops three distinct regions: (1) a foot, which both anchors the sporophyte in place and receives nutrients from its \"mother\" plant, (2) a spherical or ellipsoidal capsule, inside which the spores will be produced for dispersing to new locations, and (3) a",
"-32.51619325578213"
],
[
"Cochliasanthus Consumption Some data indicates some edible properties to this plant - specifically the flowers - but this should be verified from a reputable source before attempting. The seeds, which are technically beans, could be edible. Parts of the true Corkscrew plant might be poisonous. Harvest Flowers typically bloom in late summer or autumn and, if pollination by ants is successful, seeds come soon after. Seeds grow inside pods, like pea pods. If the grower wants to cultivate them, pods should be removed from the plant while still green to prevent exposure to winter temperatures. Preparation There is disagreement among",
"-32.501182488398626"
],
[
"and spinach plants fared likewise. With the castor oil plant (Ricinus) and with maize he cut off the staminate flowers (the \"tassels\" of maize), and likewise observed that no seeds formed. His results were reported in the form of a letter (the epistola), and attracted immediate attention, subsequent workers extending his results from the monoecious plants he had studied to dioecious ones as well.",
"-32.49738183867885"
],
[
"to popular belief of his time, that flowers were aimed to prevent self-fertilization. Sprengel identified the patterns on the petals as nectar guides (\"Saftmale\") for pollinators. At that time flowers were considered as the place for the marriage of the stamens and pistils and nectar was thought to aid the growing seeds. Bees were thought of as thieves. Sprengel's work was criticized by Johann Wolfgang Goethe. Sprengel's work however got wider coverage in the English speaking world only after Charles Darwin credited him in his Fertilisation of Orchids (1862). Aspects Flowering plants, angiosperms, are relatively recent among the plants. The",
"-32.49463178349106"
],
[
"nectar source used by numerous pollinating insects, including honey bees, wool-carder bees, and many butterflies. The seeds are eaten by goldfinches, linnets and greenfinches. The seeds are dispersed by wind, mud, water, and possibly also by ants; they do not show significant long-term dormancy, most germinating soon after dispersal and only a few lasting up to four years in the soil seed bank. Seed is also often spread by human activity such as hay bales. Cirsium vulgare as a weed Spear thistle is designated an \"injurious weed\" under the UK Weeds Act 1959, and a noxious weed in Australia and",
"-32.492413423839025"
],
[
"offer nectar to bees and other insects to encourage them to carry pollen from the flowers of one plant to others thereby ensuring pollination. Some legume species such as alfalfa, white clover, sweet clover and various Prosopis species are good nectar providers. Many plants in the family Fabaceae are an important source of pollen for the bumblebee species Bombus hortorum. This bee species is especially fond of one species in particular; Trifolium pratense, also known as red clover, is a popular food source in the diet of Bombus hortorum. Natural gums Natural gums are vegetable exudates that are released as",
"-32.47961610308266"
],
[
"carpenter bees (Ceratina), and bee flies in the genus Bombylius. Some bees come to collect pollen, including mining bees (Andrena), which are the most effective pollinators.\nThe bitter and toxic leaves and rhizomes are not often eaten by mammalian herbivores. Cultivation Sanguinaria canadensis is cultivated as an ornamental plant. The double-flowered forms are prized by gardeners for their large showy white flowers, which are produced very early in the gardening season. Bloodroot flower petals are shed within a day or two of pollination, so the flower display is short-lived, but the double forms bloom much longer than the normal forms. The",
"-32.44750279490836"
],
[
"plants have small, relatively inconspicuous flowers that shed pollen directly onto the stigma, sometimes even before the bud opens. Self-pollinated plants expend less energy in the production of pollinator attractants and can grow in areas where the kinds of insects or other animals that might visit them are absent or very scarce—as in the Arctic or at high elevations.\nSelf-pollination limits the variety of progeny and may depress plant vigor. However, self-pollination can be advantageous, allowing plants to spread beyond the range of suitable pollinators or produce offspring in areas where pollinator populations have been greatly reduced or are naturally",
"-32.4123320877552"
],
[
"proposed orchid symbiosis in 1899. In 1922 the American botanist Lewis Knudson discovered that orchid seeds could be grown on agar and fungal sugars without mycorrhizae, however modern research has found that the germination of orchids may be more successful with specific fungi.\nAlthough epiphytic orchids grow on other plants they may produce chlorophyll in their leaves, stems, and roots. As with all orchids, germination and the develop into protocorms is reliant upon fungal symbionts, which decrease the time of germination and increase the vigor of the protocorm. The reliance of orchids on specific fungi has been widely studied, and the",
"-32.412190066985204"
],
[
"with about one million seeds per gram; they are often embryonic seeds with immature embryos and no significant energy reserves. Orchids and a few other groups of plants are mycoheterotrophs which depend on mycorrhizal fungi for nutrition during germination and the early growth of the seedling. Some terrestrial orchid seedlings, in fact, spend the first few years of their lives deriving energy from the fungi and do not produce green leaves. At over 20 kg, the largest seed is the coco de mer. Plants that produce smaller seeds can generate many more seeds per flower, while plants with larger",
"-32.404284891003044"
],
[
"even vegetatively. Reproduction through seeds is generally used to rapidly increase the number of individuals of a given species and to improve genetic diversity. Many of the bulb species are self-incompatible, so pollination can only occur between clones of different plants in order to obtain seeds. The majority of seeds from bulbous plants germinate well if they are sown as soon as they reach maturity. Some species need a cold period in order to germinate.\nThe biggest problem in reproducing through seeds is that the resulting plants have a greater variability in a wide range of characteristics, such as flower colour",
"-32.368637635468986"
],
[
"Hawkmoths also frequent the flowers, but seem ineffective in pollinating them. Self-pollinated seeds do not fully mature. Although the flower’s own pollen grains grow tubes and fertilise ovules as successfully as pollen from a different specimen, after seven or eight days the self-pollinated fruits fall from the tree. The mechanism to abort self-pollinated fruits is not known, but cross-fertilised ovules grow faster from the start.\nBy producing annually large amounts of fruits that are consumed by terrestrial fauna, the species also plays an important ecological role. It has been suggested that the agouti is responsible for most of the seed dispersal",
"-32.36460323697247"
],
[
"The bee was carrying pollen of a previously unknown orchid taxon, Meliorchis caribea, on its wings. This find is the first evidence of fossilised orchids to date and shows insects were active pollinators of orchids then. This extinct orchid, M. caribea, has been placed within the extant tribe Cranichideae, subtribe Goodyerinae (subfamily Orchidoideae). An even older orchid species, Succinanthera baltica, was described from the Eocene Baltic amber by Poinar & Rasmussen (2017).\nGenetic sequencing indicates orchids may have arisen earlier, 76 to 84 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous. According to Mark W. Chase et al. (2001), the overall biogeography",
"-32.34224542544689"
],
[
"plants whose pollen contains toxic substances (e.g., Toxicoscordion and related genera in the Melanthieae) are visited by oligolectic bees, and these may fall into the former category.\nThere are some cases where oligoleges collect their host plant's pollen as larval food, but for various reasons rarely or never actually pollinate the flowers. A well-studied example is the relationship between the Yellow Passionflower (Passiflora lutea) and the Passionflower Bee (Anthemurgus passiflorae) in Texas.",
"-32.337384277547244"
],
[
"roots. \nSoil ventilation happens naturally with the planting of taproots and legumes. Biodiversity is ensured by natural colonization of soil insects. In addition to pollinating of the entire plant life at Es Fangar, honey bees also serve to care for the grapevines. They pick up the nectar for the wine by consuming the nectar of torn grapes. Plants enjoy the same status as animals. Their habitat is also respected with the utmost care by being done by hand for a great part and the use of machines is renounced as far as possible. Due to its embedded location in the",
"-32.326292828453006"
],
[
"sporophyte develops within the seed, which on germination splits to release it. The earliest known seed plants date from the latest Devonian Famennian stage. Following the evolution of the seed habit, seed plants diversified, giving rise to a number of now-extinct groups, including seed ferns, as well as the modern gymnosperms and angiosperms. Gymnosperms produce \"naked seeds\" not fully enclosed in an ovary; modern representatives include conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and Gnetales. Angiosperms produce seeds enclosed in a structure such as a carpel or an ovary. Ongoing research on the molecular phylogenetics of living plants appears to show that the angiosperms",
"-32.31674711452797"
],
[
"a puzzle which Charles Darwin resolved when writing Fertilisation of Orchids. There are rare cases in which a single plant in intermediate conditions will produce both male and female flowers.\nThe male flowers have a remarkable technique for the ejection of the pollinia. Sack-Shaped Catasetum (Catasetum saccatum), a tropical South American species, discussed by Darwin, actually launches its viscid pollen sacs with explosive force, when an insect touches a seta. He was ridiculed for reporting this by the naturalist Thomas Huxley.\nIn habitat, these plants predominantly grow as epiphytes in very wet forests. Species of this genus all host wood-devouring mycorrhizal fungi",
"-32.30615502812725"
],
[
"the anther, but very little pollen is shed without some kind of externally-induced motion. The ideal vibratory frequencies to release pollen grains are provided by an insect, such as a bumblebee, or the original wild halictid pollinator, capable of engaging in a behavior known as buzz pollination, which honey bees cannot perform. In an outdoors setting, wind or animals usually provide sufficient motion to produce commercially viable crops. Fruit formation Pollination and fruit formation depend on meiosis. Meiosis is central to the processes by which diploid microspore mother cells within the anther give rise to haploid pollen grains, and",
"-32.28965749859344"
],
[
"an example of Vavilovian mimicry. Historically, growers could control the weed only by checking the crop plants one by one and hand-weeding. Consequently, \"sowing wild oats\" became a phrase to describe unprofitable activities. Given the reputation of oat grain to have invigorating properties and the obvious connection between plant seeds and human \"seed\", it is not surprising that the meaning of the phrase became a reference to the destructive sexual liaisons of an unmarried young male, which result in unwanted children born out of wedlock.",
"-32.24711001220567"
],
[
" In fact, the flower structure and mechanism by which it is pollinated indicate that it is adapted for foragers such as B. affinis, which can separate the outer and inner petals of the flower. Members then use their front legs to expose the stigma, stamen, and anthers. Shortly afterwards, they sweep pollen in a forward stroke by using their middle legs, before leaving the flower to return to the colony with the pollen. In this way, D. cucullaria is pollinated as the bees move from plant to plant, and B. affinis meets its dietary needs.",
"-32.24080338908243"
],
[
"Crop (anatomy) A crop (sometimes also called a croup or a craw, or ingluvies) is a thin-walled expanded portion of the alimentary tract used for the storage of food prior to digestion. This anatomical structure is found in a wide variety of animals. It has been found in birds, and in invertebrate animals including gastropods (snails and slugs), earthworms, leeches, and insects. Bees Cropping is used by bees to temporarily store nectar of flowers. When bees \"suck\" nectar, it is stored in their crops. Birds In a bird's digestive system, the crop is an expanded, muscular pouch near the gullet",
"-32.236303881625645"
],
[
"the bee garden, such that they became fused. The practice of keeping both types of herb farms together was carried over into European and American Colonial gardens.\nIn the colonial United States (in the time period from 1620-1840) herbs were grown for a variety of purposes, ranging from utilitarian, to vanity gardening. In Puritanical regions herbs were grown based on their functional use in cooking, medicines, and for a source of fragrance. Whereas the established towns the herb garden followed the trends of the time frame, sometimes they were present and other times not.\nIn rural China, herb growing was also",
"-32.22966611175798"
],
[
"the pollination of the orchid Leporella fimbriata which induces male Myrmecia urens to pseudocopulate with the flowers, transferring pollen in the process. One theory that has been proposed for the rarity of pollination is that the secretions of the metapleural gland inactivate and reduce the viability of pollen. Some plants have special nectar exuding structures, extrafloral nectaries, that provide food for ants, which in turn protect the plant from more damaging herbivorous insects. Species such as the bullhorn acacia (Acacia cornigera) in Central America have hollow thorns that house colonies of stinging ants (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) who defend the tree against",
"-32.20549085258972"
],
[
"plants contain Asparagusic acid that repels nematodes known to attack tomato plants. Marigolds also repel nematodes. Pollination In the wild, original state, tomatoes required cross-pollination; they were much more self-incompatible than domestic cultivars. As a floral device to reduce selfing, the pistil of wild tomatoes extends farther out of the flower than today's cultivars. The stamens were, and remain, entirely within the closed corolla.\nAs tomatoes were moved from their native areas, their traditional pollinators, (probably a species of halictid bee) did not move with them. The trait of self-fertility became an advantage, and domestic cultivars of tomato have been selected",
"-32.20185041707009"
],
[
"Holcoglossum amesianum Pollination Rather than depending on insects or even the wind for pollination, scientists have discovered that Holcoglossum amesianum actually fertilizes itself. The orchid defies gravity to twist the male part of its flower into the necessary shape to fertilize the female one.\nThe plant does so without the help of sticky fluids or other methods used by self-pollinating plants to ensure that the pollen reaches the egg. It grows on tree trunks in China's Yunnan province and flowers during the dry, windless months of February to April.\nThe orchid produces no scent or nectar. Instead, the pollen-bearing anther uncovers",
"-32.181243841623655"
],
[
"plants bloom later in the growing season they produce more female flowers. Outcrossing Outcrossing, cross-fertilization or allogamy, in which offspring are formed by the fusion of the gametes of two different plants, is the most common mode of reproduction among higher plants. About 55% of higher plant species reproduce in this way. An additional 7% are partially cross-fertilizing and partially self-fertilizing (autogamy). About 15% produce gametes but are principally self-fertilizing with significant out-crossing lacking. Only about 8% of higher plant species reproduce exclusively by non-sexual means. These include plants that reproduce vegetatively by runners or bulbils, or which produce seeds",
"-32.16472841496579"
],
[
"The pollinators generally exit the flower, having been dusted with the plant's own pollen, by lifting a petal. This one-way system helps to ensure cross pollination. Sarracenia rubra flowers are generally sweet-scented, hence the common name. Growth cycle This species is characterised by producing quite floppy pitchers in spring with large wings, perhaps as a method of producing a large surface area of tissue in order to rapidly photosynthesise at the start of the year. Later on in summer and autumn, much more substantial pitchers are produced.",
"-32.16058239515405"
],
[
"egg sequentially in each cell. The cells are partitioned and sealed using some combination of the construction materials described above. Pollen, sometimes mixed with nectar, provisioned in the cell will nourish the larvae when hatched. The bees are polylectic, meaning the larvae are fed from a variety of pollen sources. Subsequently, after a few stages of molting, the larvae spin cocoons and pupate. They will overwinter as pupae. After several months, the bees will emerge in the adult form.\nMales typically emerge in advance of females. They will die shortly after mating. The female bees",
"-32.15977901237784"
],
[
"tends to be large-grained, sticky, and rich in protein (another \"reward\" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-grained, very light, and of little nutritional value to animals. Pollination The primary purpose of a flower is reproduction. Since the flowers are the reproductive organs of plant, they mediate the joining of the sperm, contained within pollen, to the ovules — contained in the ovary. Pollination is the movement of pollen from the anthers to the stigma. The joining of the sperm to the ovules is called fertilization. Normally pollen is moved from one plant to another, but many plants are able",
"-32.15883630339522"
],
[
"been fertilized with ashes from the fire and is free from competitors. Many species have seeds with elaiosomes that are dispersed by ants; the seeds with wings or thistledown exhibit anemochory, while the drupes and other fleshy fruit exhibit endozoochory as mammals and birds ingest them. Some African and Australian rodents are known to accumulate fruit and seeds of these plants in their nests in order to feed on them, although some manage to germinate. Distribution Proteaceae are mainly a Southern Hemisphere family, with its main centres of diversity in Australia and South Africa. It also occurs in Central Africa,",
"-32.157815761776874"
]
] |
41gk4b | Almost every radio station across North America can be live streamed via the web. Why isn't this the case for tv channels? | [
"Radio uses less bandwidth. Streaming cost are lower. Most tv stations get money from cable and satellite companies. They dont want to jepordize that money by using live streaming. OTA companies have already partnered with hulu and other companies.",
"Over 850 radio stations are controlled by one company. They can make one program to distribute what they already have rights to. Being so big means that they can have the rights and contracts written in their favor as no one wants to lose revenue by not being on such a huge number of markets.",
"None of these answers are correct. A song copyright has several different parts: the right to display publicly, the right to reproduce, the right to distribute, the right to perform, and the right to make derivative works. Most musicians handle the performance aspect of their work by enlisting a Performance Rights Organization (ASCAP, BMI, SESAC). These organization handle the payment of PERFORMANCE ROYALTIES, which come from the licenses that businesses and radio stations need to play music. Restaurant of a certain size playing music? You need to a blanket license. Radio station? You need a license. Concert venue? You need a license. A blanket license allows a venue or business to play all of the songs in BMI or ASCAP's catalogs –the rate dependent on venue size, audience, etc. Now what makes this interesting is that terrestrial radio is unique from the internet in that terrestrial radio pays no performance royalties for the MASTER RECORDING of songs on the radio. When you listen to a song, the song is two copyrights: the COMPOSITION COPYRIGHT (the actual composition of the song, the melody, the lyrics) and the MASTER COPYRIGHT (the copyright for the actual recording itself. Often owned by the label). Imagine that Kesha has a song on the radio with millions of plays, but she didn't write it. She will receive NO performance royalties for her song on the radio. Instead, the songwriters will receive all the terrestrial performance royalties on the radio. This is due to master recordings not actually having a copyright until around 1972. The digital space changed this loophole because digital radio is not really \"radio\" in the legal definition of the word. However, for non interactive radio streams (e.g. a online broadcast of the terrestrial broadcast), these streams can still stream songs with a performance license –they just need to pay performance license fees for the master recordings as well. Television is not nearly as cut and dry as music is administering broadcasting rights. First of all, TV shows have tons of different copyrights going on. They have music. They have logos. They have a whole bunch of stuff. These differences make licensing television deals way different. Ignore typos it's late. tl;dr performance rights for music are outsourced to performance rights organizations which facilitate playing music online/on the radio. TV has way more complicated broadcasting licenses.",
"This has nothing to do with infrastructure as some suggest and has everything to do with rights. Rights for streaming TV stations are horribly complicated. Local stations are rebroadcasting video some of which they have broadcast rights to, some of which they license from the national network. Moreover they may have very specific rights in some cases and the people they get that license from may not have the right to sub license for Internet streaming. Worse sometimes rights have been broken down by device type (computer, mobile, etc.) Everyone wants to make this happen but consolidating all the rights take time and work and getting a lot of selfish people to agree. Apple recently tried to consolidate some rights and provide a service but were unable to get everyone to agree to something everyone was happy with.",
"I don't know the legality of live TV streaming but here are a few thoughts on the technical aspects. The major networks broadcast the same content over the air at the same time all across the country so streaming is not really necessary if you have an antenna. Also, the internet/network/server resources necessary to stream and rebroadcast video are considerably higher than streaming audio. Until recently many TV stations likely did not have the technology available to stream and rebroadcast live video.",
"I have a related question. Why isn't over the air television available to be streamed online? I can understand the networks not wanting to spend money on setting up the service but why did they shut down aereo and similar services which basically rebroadcast what I can already watch for free with an antenna.",
"TV rights are strongly tied down to geographical areas. Allowing people to stream TV would cause havoc with that system."
] | [
[
"in the UK, so it doesn't broadcast there and none of its programmes is relayed on domestic stations. In a resource-saving exercise between the two international broadcasters, Voice of America shares its transmission towers with the BBC World Service to help of shortwave transmissions in remote areas.\nInternet radio and streaming services are growing in popularity in both countries, however listening to each other's feeds are hampered by the countries’ broadcasting rights. This causes the internet radio feeds of American and British radio stations are sometimes blocked or on restricted bandwidth. For example, BBC Radio 2 is on a 128 kbit/s",
"-33.15876756887883"
],
[
"in the United States, and Chrysalis in the United Kingdom, restrict listening to in-country due to music licensing and advertising issues.\nInternet radio is also suited to listeners with special interests, allowing users to pick from a multitude of different stations and genres less commonly represented on traditional radio. Listening Internet radio is typically listened to on a standard home PC or similar device, through an embedded player program located on the respective station's website. In recent years, dedicated devices that resemble and offer the listener a similar experience to a traditional radio receiver have arrived on the market. Streaming Streaming",
"-32.00558335977257"
],
[
"UK's radio stations also stream their stations online, not including Restricted Service Licensed radio stations, Hospital radio stations and stations who solely broadcast online.\nIn 2011, the BBC and commercial radio operators launched RadioPlayer which allows over 400 radio stations to be listened to through its website and apps. In addition various radio stations and third parties allow streaming of internet radio stations through their own websites and apps. A number of British firms, including BT Group, Reciva, Pure Digital, Roberts Radio and Acoustic Energy have brought out Internet radio devices which use the Wi-Fi signal from a router to stream",
"-31.902993411466014"
],
[
"numbers of people around the world are choosing to listen to radio on a range of other platforms including FM, satellite and online, with fewer listening on shortwave.\" It is sometimes possible to pick up the BBC World Service in Europe on SW frequencies targeted at North Africa. The BBC's powerful 198 kHz LW, which broadcasts the domestic BBC Radio 4 to Britain during the day (and carries the World Service during the night) can also be heard in nearby parts of Europe, including the Republic of Ireland, the Netherlands, Belgium and parts of France, Germany and Scandinavia.\nIn Malta, BBC News",
"-31.689105981233297"
],
[
"only in United States broadcast television by digital multicast services (particularly those that specialize in acquired programs such as MeTV), smaller English language entertainment-based networks (such as America One) and networks broadcasting in languages other than English (such as Univision and Telemundo). The major commercial broadcast networks in the U.S. – ABC, NBC, CBS, Fox and The CW – carry first-run programs produced for the network, while leaving the responsibility of acquiring shows from the syndication market to their owned-and-operated stations and affiliates to fill time not allotted to network and, where applicable, locally produced programs (MyNetworkTV, which is somewhat",
"-31.001216643024236"
],
[
"well as community radio, student-run campus radio stations, and hospital radio stations can be found throughout the world. Many stations broadcast on shortwave bands using AM technology that can be received over thousands of miles (especially at night). For example, the BBC, VOA, VOR, and Deutsche Welle have transmitted via shortwave to Africa and Asia. These broadcasts are very sensitive to atmospheric conditions and solar activity.\nNielsen Audio, formerly known as Arbitron, the United States-based company that reports on radio audiences, defines a \"radio station\" as a government-licensed AM or FM station; an HD Radio (primary or multicast) station; an internet",
"-30.65258301422"
],
[
"particular, has demonstrated a deliberate strategy to crowd out re-broadcasters of National Public Radio stations for political purposes. Radio Australia's national radio networks (Radio National, ABC NewsRadio, Triple J, ABC Classic FM and SBS Radio) have relay transmitters which allow each service to be broadcast as widely as possible. The ABC and SBS allow community-based relay transmitters to rebroadcast radio or television in areas which would otherwise have no service. Commercial radio broadcasters normally have relay transmitters only if local geography (such as mountains) prevents them from broadcasting to their entire market. Television Since the early-1990s market aggregation, each television",
"-30.41123320319457"
],
[
"stations.\nThe first Internet radio service was launched in 1993. As of 2017, the most popular internet radio platforms and applications in the world include (but are not limited to) TuneIn Radio, iHeartRadio,and Sirius XM. Internet radio technology Internet radio services are usually accessible from anywhere in the world with a suitable internet connection available; one could, for example, listen to an Australian station from Europe and America. This has made internet radio particularly suited to and popular among expatriate listeners. Nevertheless, some major networks like TuneIn Radio, Entercom, Pandora Radio, iHeartRadio and Citadel Broadcasting (except for news/talk and sports stations)",
"-30.389165220258292"
],
[
"other stations in North America; these are called clear-channel stations. Many of them can be heard across much of the country at night. During the night, absorption largely disappears and permits signals to travel to much more distant locations via ionospheric reflections. However, fading of the signal can be severe at night.\nAM radio transmitters can transmit audio frequencies up to 15 kHz (now limited to 10 kHz in the US due to FCC rules designed to reduce interference), but most receivers are only capable of reproducing frequencies up to 5 kHz or less. At the time that AM broadcasting began in the 1920s,",
"-30.31743056763662"
],
[
"broadcaster uses multiple relays to provide consistent service throughout Australia's large markets. Although each market is subdivided due to the legacy of previous commercial broadcasters (Southern Cross Nine maintains two stations in the Victoria market: GLV and BCV), the only difference between these sub-markets in practice is news service and local advertising. Except in major cities, all major television broadcasters use the same network of transmitters (which may have dozens of relay stations in each market). As a result, some areas have had trouble beginning digital or HD service due to problems with regional transmitters. Europe Because most radio and",
"-30.25608845493298"
],
[
"ranges well over the US/Mexico border and across most of the United States.\nVarious broadcast relay stations can help to extend a station's area by retransmitting them on the same or another channel. What is usually called a repeater in amateur radio is called a broadcast translator (different channel) or booster (same channel) in American broadcasting, or the much broader category or rebroadcasters in Canadian broadcasting (which includes more than just the low-power broadcasting used in the U.S.) Boosters are used only within the broadcast range of the parent station, and serve the same function locally as regional and",
"-30.21944866910053"
],
[
"2007.\nCurrently, the digital terrestrial platform has twenty seven radio stations broadcasting from broadcasters including the BBC, Bauer Radio, Global Radio, and Wireless Group. Digital satellite radio Unlike North America, the UK does not have a commercial satellite radio service.\nThere are radio stations broadcasting via Satellite to the United Kingdom, however these are aimed at home users for playback through their televisions since these same satellites are also used for television broadcast and usually use SES' Astra series of satellites at 28.2° east or the Eutelsat 28A satellite at 28.5° east. Radio stations broadcast free-to-air via the Sky Digital, Freesat from",
"-30.01155010331422"
],
[
"may produce more local programming, although such stations are now rare in the Canadian media landscape.\nIn radio, virtually all Canadian commercial radio stations are officially programmed locally, although many stations cut costs by contracting some dayparts out to voice-tracked hosts who are not actually located in the station's physical studio or even necessarily in the same city. The CBC Radio One, CBC Radio 2, Ici Radio-Canada Première and Ici Musique networks consist primarily of networked national programming, although all include some degree of local programming in certain time blocks. Radio One and Première stations have a significant number of production",
"-29.99225321772974"
],
[
"national single-frequency networks do in Europe. Distributed transmission has also undergone tests in the U.S., but to preserve stations' market share in their home media markets, these will be limited to the broadcast area of a single large station. Satellite radio, which is designed for use without a dish, also uses ground repeaters in large cities due to the many obstructions their high-rise buildings cause to the many current and potential customers that are concentrated there. Edge-of-range issues Those at the edge of a station's broadcast range will typically notice static in an analog broadcast, while error correction will",
"-29.69868306798162"
],
[
"radio at the time through Gaylord Entertainment). Very few stations actually distribute themselves through C-band, as the station's audio can now more easily be dialed in through either ISDN lines, or listened to via an audio stream over the internet (if the station offers such a service). Radio stations that relay their audio feed via C-band, like WEEI (850 AM) in Boston, often do so to feed the signal to others that simulcast the programming. This is the case with several stations in Mexico, as radio and television broadcasting in that country is very nationalized and most local stations merely",
"-29.600589576759376"
],
[
"stations were available free-to-air throughout North America on Ku band via Galaxy 18 (123°W) or on C band via Galaxy 3C (95°W). The feeds were in a format intended to be fed directly to a terrestrial television transmitter with no further studio processing.\nSatellite transponder space was rented from Intelsat, which claimed as of December 2008 to be owed over $580,000.\nAs much of the free-to air satellite programming in North America consists of ethnic-language or specialised content, Equity's demise represented a significant loss in available English/Spanish-language Ku-band free television in the US. Stations Under the protection of Chapter 11 bankruptcy,",
"-29.585333256574813"
],
[
"Coast (unlike in the United States where some viewers on the same side of the continent depend on tape-delayed broadcasts for some otherwise live events). Conversely, live shows aired in Canada are frequently televised simultaneously for some viewers in the U.S. with access to Canadian broadcast networks. Cable and satellite channels The vast majority of specialty cable and satellite television channels in Canada each operate a single feed which is distributed in all time zones. This includes all French language channels, as they predominantly serve Francophone areas of the country, mostly in Quebec (almost all of which observes Eastern Time).",
"-29.452424884890206"
],
[
"schedule. WTCG gets beamed via satellite By the time Turner acquired WTCG, most U.S. cities below the top 20 media markets lacked independent stations running general entertainment programs, and largely only had access to television stations affiliated with ABC, NBC, and CBS, along with a non-commercial educational station. Cable providers in these areas carried network-affiliated commercial and non-commercial television stations from neighboring markets—usually to serve as default outlets where one or more networks were not available locally—and if possible, an independent station (often located anywhere between 60 and 200 miles [97 and 322 km] away). Still, many places were far enough",
"-29.436003229318885"
],
[
"and Labrador) are generally the easiest to receive, and their presence is taken as an indication that the reception of more distant stations is possible. North American stations whose frequencies are furthest from the 9 kHz multiples used in Europe are easier to receive, particularly since 24-hour broadcasting is normal in Europe. MW DX in Asia In the southern half of the China, Japan stations, some of which operate with over 200 kW of power, may be heard on a similar night-to-night basis. Many of these stations are also clear-channel stations, ensuring that there will be no interference or limited interference",
"-29.406946822302416"
],
[
"per capita lagging far behind those in other states. With the advent of the Internet, local news websites like WAtoday, which provide free access to their content, are becoming a popular alternative source of news. Other online publications from around the world like the New South Wales based The Sydney Morning Herald and The Australian are also available. Radio Perth has many radio stations on both AM and FM frequencies. ABC stations include ABC NewsRadio (6PB 585 am), 720 ABC Perth (6WF 720 am), ABC Radio National (6RN 810 am), ABC Classic FM (6ABC 97.7FM) and Triple J (6JJJ 99.3FM). The six commercial",
"-29.396591977070784"
],
[
"sparsely-populated regions of northern Canada. There are also analog TV stations on the other continents and on scores of different islands.\nIn the United States, the twenty-one channels with center frequencies of 87.9–91.9 MHz (channels 200 through 220) constitute the reserved band, exclusively for non-commercial educational (NCE) stations. The other channels (92.1 MHz through 107.9 MHz (Channels 221–300) may be used by both commercial and non-commercial stations. (Note that in Canada and in Mexico this reservation does not apply.)\nOriginally, the American Federal Communications Commission (FCC) devised a bandplan in which FM radio stations would be assigned at intervals of four channels (800 kHz separation) for",
"-29.39443628778099"
],
[
"advantage of simultaneous substitution, which allows broadcast stations to override U.S. broadcast stations' signals (including commercials) with their own.\nSeveral Canadian cable channels have separate feeds for the Eastern and Pacific time zones, such as YTV, Teletoon, Family Channel, History, UNIS, The Comedy Network, W Network and Family Chrgd, whereas Treehouse TV and Family Jr. only have one national feed operating from the Eastern Time Zone. Latin America In Latin America, Spanish-language pay television programming used to be broadcast without delay in Argentina and Uruguay, and delayed in most countries; this situation was common in networks that broadcast one video feed",
"-29.26301094822702"
],
[
"viewers were typically also able to get foreign stations via antenna, e.g. those being broadcast from East Germany or the Netherlands. Before the advent of privately owned television networks, domestic stations usually broadcast from the early morning hours until about 2 to 3 am, interrupted by often over two hours of early-afternoon intermission. In Western Germany this changed in 1984, as the first two privately financed TV networks, RTL plus (short for Radio Television Luxemburg) and SAT 1, started their programming (previously RTL had transmitted from Luxembourg into southwestern Germany). In contrast to ARD and ZDF, these new stations were only",
"-29.261201481567696"
],
[
"a freeform format. Many terrestrial freeform stations are small and lack corporate backing, and therefore have relatively weak radio transmitters (especially around metropolitan areas where corporate radio signals dominate, but at the same time have enough of a population density to cover enough people to support such a station), a problem that has caused numerous broadcasters to transition to Internet radio, pirate radio or both.\nThe full service format can be seen as a variant of the freeform format, though since most full-service stations are located in rural areas, country music, adult standards, classic hits (oldies or classic rock), and occasionally",
"-29.25563643910573"
],
[
"While the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) only specifically requires digital television providers to carry local community, campus, and CBC Radio stations, some offer feeds of most local AM and FM radio stations available in their service region. Some terrestrial broadcasters also carry audio channels, such as CH6498, CH5535-DT, CH2517-DT and CJON-DT.\nIn the United Kingdom, approximately 70 DTV radio channels are received by Sky Television customers, as part of their satellite television service. Around 40 channels are available on the digital terrestrial television service, free of charge using the Freeview service.\nIn Australia, stations of federal-government-funded television networks ABC and",
"-29.23161644531865"
],
[
"hours per day of syndicated programs from the \"big three\" networks in the United States, with local news and talk programs. The content was locally syndicated until 1983 when it began airing live programming by satellite from Los Angeles.\nFEN had two 24-hour radio stations: an AM station which broadcast news and popular music, and stereo FM which was dedicated to easy-listening and classical music. Local Filipino TV also aired newer American shows than FEN did. Unlike the local TV stations in Europe, they were broadcast in the same format as American TV and not dubbed in Tagalog, the local language.",
"-29.13943049433874"
],
[
"could be received throughout Central Europe and the East Coast of the UK on 1602 kHz Medium Wave. The station identified itself as Celtica Radio, broadcasting from the Lightship Jenni Baynton through the transmitters of Radio Seagull.\nDue to significant developments with the company’s financial backers in November 2009, the station launched a live internet streaming service of original programming twenty-fours hour a day from their own studios, this channel also has a low bitrate multi-media feed which can be received on all smart phones. The exact nature of the financial development has not been made public.",
"-29.133716432144865"
],
[
"U.S. broadcast stations on local pay television to be \"substituted\" with the Canadian station's signal if they are airing the same program. This can affect how commercial broadcasters schedule their programming outside of Eastern and Pacific Time: in Alberta, U.S. stations from Spokane, Washington—a city in Pacific Time—have historically been carried on cable. As such, the Calgary/Edmonton stations of the major commercial networks may air certain programs an hour later in comparison to other markets, in order to maximize simsub opportunities with feeds originating from Pacific Time. Saskatchewan does not observe Daylight Saving Time, and matches Mountain Time when DST",
"-29.116882362002798"
],
[
"individual local stations are done through a method called \"broadcast syndication,\" and today nearly every television station in the United States obtains syndicated programs in addition to network-produced fare.\nLate in the 20th century, cross-country microwave radio relays were replaced by fixed-service satellites. Some terrestrial radio relays remained in service for regional connections.\nAfter the failure and shutdown of DuMont in 1956, several attempts at new networks were made between the 1950s and the 1970s, with little success. The Fox Broadcasting Company, founded by the Rupert Murdoch-owned News Corporation (now owned by Fox Corporation), was launched on October 9, 1986 after the",
"-29.116624457587022"
],
[
"owned station in a larger city for programming; WWTI in Watertown, New York relies on WSYR-TV in this manner. Broadcast automation allows the substitution of syndicated programming or digital subchannel content which the broadcaster was unable to obtain for both cities.\nSome defunct full-service stations (such as CJSS-TV in Cornwall, Ontario, now CJOH-TV-8) have become full satellite stations and originate nothing. If programming from the parent station must be removed or substituted due to local sports blackouts, the modified signal is that of a semi-satellite station. National networks Most broadcasters outside North America and Brazil maintain a national network, and use",
"-29.097498519869987"
],
[
"AAC domestic stream, while internationally it's on a 48 kbit/s AAC+ stream. However both the American and the British international broadcasters Voice of America and the BBC World Service is fully accessible online in each other's countries. Streaming services that are popular in both countries include the American TuneIn, Apple Music and Swedish-owned Spotify. The other major services in the US like Pandora Radio and Radio.com don't operate in the UK, and are inaccessible.\nIn the past before the Second World War, connections between the United States and the United Kingdom in the radio industry was virtually unheard of. Radio in",
"-29.01752328433213"
],
[
"reached by the service in 1975.\nOperated by the North Korean Ministry of Communications and focusing on music, news, and educational programs. The 'Third Radio' has been mandatory in new apartment blocks since the 1980s and is present in some offices and loud speakers posted in public places. United Kingdom The earliest cable-only radio stations in the United Kingdom was Radio Thamesmead in Thamesmead, South East London and Radio Swindon Viewpoint in Swindon, Wiltshire. Cable relays of early BBC stations (in areas where direct reception was poor) dates back to the late 1920s. Australia The Melbourne suburb of St. Kilda had",
"-29.003725602215127"
],
[
"or television station, it is simply sent through the studio/transmitter link to the transmitter and hence from the television antenna located on the radio masts and towers out to the world. Programming may also come through a communications satellite, played either live or recorded for later transmission. Networks of stations may simulcast the same programming at the same time, originally via microwave link, now usually by satellite. Distribution to stations or networks may also be through physical media, such as magnetic tape, compact disc (CD), DVD, and sometimes other formats. Usually these are included in another broadcast, such as when",
"-28.980360398301855"
],
[
"Time Zone to hear Radio 1 at the same time of day as UK listeners. On 12 November 2008, Radio 1 made its debut on XM Satellite Radio in both the US and Canada on channel 29, moving to XM 15 and Sirius 15 on 4 May 2011. Until the full station was removed in August 2011, Radio 1 was able to be heard by approximately 20.6 million listeners in North America on satellite radio alone.\nBBC Radio 1 can be heard on cable in the Netherlands at 105.10 FM. Regionalisation From 1999 until 2012, Radio 1 split the home nations for",
"-28.936392853502184"
],
[
"Television has the most owned-and-operated stations of any commercial broadcast network in the United States, reaching 65.1% of the United States (well above the Federal Communications Commission's coverage-based national ownership limit of 39%); it is also the only American commercial broadcast network whose stations almost exclusively consist of network-owned stations, similar to the ownership model of many commercial broadcast networks in Europe, Canada, Latin America, Asia and Australia, and to a somewhat more expansive extent, many U.S.-based religious broadcast networks.\nIon Television's programming is available by default via a national feed that is distributed directly to cable and satellite providers",
"-28.934460758689966"
],
[
"disclosed source.\nInternet radio involves streaming media, presenting listeners with a continuous stream of audio that typically cannot be paused or replayed, much like traditional broadcast media; in this respect, it is distinct from on-demand file serving. Internet radio is also distinct from podcasting, which involves downloading rather than streaming.\nInternet radio services offer news, sports, talk, and various genres of music—every format that is available on traditional broadcast radio stations. Many Internet radio services are associated with a corresponding traditional (terrestrial) radio station or radio network, although low start-up and ongoing costs have allowed a substantial proliferation of independent Internet-only radio",
"-28.932551557620172"
],
[
"are reportedly 1,600 Christian broadcasting organizations in the U.S. They range from single stations to expansive networks. It is common for religious broadcasters to purchase many small broadcast translators to create networks that stretch across large regions. Moody Radio was the first example, and still one of the largest, though most of its stations broadcast stand-alone programming as well as network feeds. Z88.3 in Orlando, Florida, the WAY-FM Network, K-LOVE, Air 1, The Joy FM, Reach Radio, 3ABN Radio, Radio 74, and the Bible Broadcasting Network are other notable examples in the world.\nChristian radio expanded in the early twenty-first century.",
"-28.89649259322323"
],
[
"during those times of low viewer numbers. This may include infomercials, movies, television show reruns, simple weather forecasts, low cost news or infotainment programming from other suppliers, simulcasts of sister services, or feeds of local cable TV companies' programming via a fiber optic line to the cable headend. Other broadcasters that are part of a radio or television network may run an unedited feed of the network's overnight programming from a central location, without local advertising. During what are otherwise closedown hours, some channels may also simulcast their teletext pages or full page headlines with music or feeds from",
"-28.881873580277897"
],
[
"shows in time slots that would normally be occupied by local programming. As a consequence of using a single feed, most national programming outside the Eastern Time Zone is heard earlier or later than the regional outlet on terrestrial radio - for example: The World at Six is heard on Sirius XM as early as 3:00 p.m. Pacific Time in Vancouver, and as late as 7:30 p.m. Newfoundland Time in St. John's.\nPrograms produced by NPR and PRI are not heard on CBC Radio One's Sirius XM service, as these are covered by channels programmed by NPR and PRI. In",
"-28.8683410861413"
],
[
"Internet radio Internet radio (also web radio, net radio, streaming radio, e-radio, IP radio, online radio) is a digital audio service transmitted via the Internet. Broadcasting on the Internet is usually referred to as webcasting since it is not transmitted broadly through wireless means. It can either be used as a stand-alone device running through the internet, or as a software running through a single computer. \nInternet radio is generally used to communicate and easily spread messages through the form of talk. It is distributed through a wireless communication network connected to a switch packet network (the internet) via a",
"-28.85761979187373"
],
[
"the broadcasting of sound programmes to the public and today can be live streamed through a broadband connection or digitally transmitted into people's cars or homes. Despite being the oldest form of media transmission still being used, marketing via radio remains a popular and effective choice due to its relatively lower cost and convenience (radio exposure can occur during transit, at work, and during recreational activities). Due to the lack of a visual aspect, radio advertising attempts to create imagery in the consumers mind. Radio advertising is also extremely effective at reinforcing messages encountered in other channels (such as television).",
"-28.85138635232579"
],
[
"of local stations on the same frequency. The North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement (NARBA) sets aside certain channels for nighttime use over extended service areas via skywave by a few specially licensed AM broadcasting stations. These channels are called clear channels, and the stations, called clear-channel stations, are required to broadcast at higher powers of 10 to 50 kW. Uses and applications A major use of these frequencies is AM broadcasting; AM radio stations are allocated frequencies in the medium wave broadcast band from 526.5 kHz to 1606.5 kHz\nin Europe; in North America this extends from 525 kHz to 1705 kHz Some",
"-28.813423052430153"
],
[
"who resided close enough to the Canada–US border – had access to over-the-air broadcast signals from networks based in both Canada and the United States, they could choose to watch American programs on either a Canadian or an American network. Many of these Canadians chose to watch the American network (either CBS, ABC or NBC) rather than the Canadian networks' broadcasts. Consequently, many Canadian broadcasters began broadcasting programs purchased from American-based broadcast networks before they aired on the American networks to attract more viewers and to earn money from domestic advertising, and some Canadian businesses that advertised on the domestic",
"-28.79752080317121"
],
[
"history, with billions manufactured by the 1970s. Radio became a ubiquitous \"companion medium\" which people could take with them anywhere they went. Radio networks Because most longwave radio frequencies were used for international radiotelegraph communication, a majority of early broadcasting stations operated on mediumwave frequencies, whose limited range generally restricted them to local audiences. One method for overcoming this limitation, as well as a method for sharing program costs, was to create radio networks, linking stations together with telephone lines to provide a nationwide audience. United States In the U.S., the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) was the first",
"-28.78271575178951"
],
[
"cities. Americas BBC World Service is available by subscription to Sirius XM's satellite radio service in the United States. Its Canadian affiliate, Sirius XM Canada does the same in Canada. More than 300 public radio stations across the US carry World Service news broadcasts —mostly during the overnight and early-morning hours— over AM and FM radio, distributed by American Public Media (APM). The BBC and Public Radio International (PRI) co-produce the programme The World with WGBH Radio Boston, and the BBC was previously involved with The Takeaway morning news programme based at WNYC in New York City. BBC World Service",
"-28.768739210092463"
],
[
"Radio in the United States Foreign language broadcasting The majority of programming in the United States is in English, with Spanish the second-most popular language; these are the only two languages with domestically produced, national radio networks. In the largest urban areas of the United States, \"world ethnic\" stations broadcast a wide variety of languages, including Russian, Chinese, Korean and the languages of India; although the relatively widespread languages French and German have comparatively few radio outlets; in the case of German, due to the fact that most of its speakers are Amish or from similar sects and thus shun",
"-28.76366056923871"
],
[
"in North America to be broadcast on Sirius XM, and the only one broadcast using the same feed as the local station (KIIS-FM Los Angeles; WBBR New York City; & WHTZ Newark, New Jersey; are the others, though any local commercials are switched to national commercials and promos).",
"-28.74516536705778"
],
[
"National Programme and the Regional Programme provided a mixed mainstream radio service. Whilst the two services provided different programming, allowing listeners a choice, they were not streamed to appeal to different audiences, rather, they were intended to offer a choice of programming to a single audience. While using the same transmitters, the National Programme broadcast significantly more speech and classical music than its successor, the Light Programme. Similarly, the Regional Programme broadcast much more light and dance music than its successor, the Home Service.",
"-28.74111852585338"
],
[
"public listening without special equipment. HD Radio subchannels, somewhat more widely available, operate on a similar premise but generally carry totally unrelated programming to the main feed.\nOn digital television systems, selection is done through a menu as with analog television, though some provide easier access rather than having to dig down to find the option. Stations may also choose to transmit audio-only programs by assigning them to separate digital subchannels with an optional screen of title and artist information; however, this prevents the viewer from watching the main video in the case of television stations.",
"-28.721812532981858"
],
[
"the 10 kHz in the United States, helping to reduce co-channel interference from domestic stations, from countries such as Spain and Norway. Stations from Africa and the Middle East are also often heard. The Pacific Coast of the US provides a similar opportunity with stations from Asian countries and Australia / New Zealand although a considerably longer distance must be covered. On both coasts, as well as in the middle portion of the country, \"Pan-American\" DX from Latin American and Caribbean nations is often sought and logged.\nThe AM expanded band, or \"X-Band\" as MW DXers often call",
"-28.716254029539414"
],
[
"been phased out, with the last service being switched off in December 2013.\nIn most areas there is a choice of three free-to-air commercial broadcasters as well as two national public broadcasters, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and the Special Broadcasting Service. A third, recently established, National Indigenous Television service is available in many remote areas.\nCommercial television is dominated by three major metropolitan-based networks, the Seven Network and Network 10, which own stations in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth, and the Nine Network which owns stations in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Darwin, Adelaide and Perth. In addition to its metropolitan assets, Seven owns",
"-28.704704607778694"
],
[
"All local free-to-air television services are now broadcasting in digital transmission only. This was done as part of the Federal Government's plan for Digital terrestrial television in Australia where all analogue transmission systems are gradually turned off and replaced with modern DVB-T transmission systems. Radio There are three commercial radio stations in Albury – 1494 2AY, 105.7 The River, now rebranded Triple M, and Star FM on 104.9 FM, now rebranded HitFM. Star FM's south eastern network is programmed out of the Albury/Wodonga Hub, going to centres on New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and into South Australia. Broadcast out of",
"-28.697049296926707"
],
[
"act as 24-hour-a-day affiliates of a national network.\nSome local radio stations are, or have been distributed on satellite radio throughout the United States, and Canada in select cases. Stations that have previously maintained distribution over satellite radio have included WLTW (106.7 FM) in New York City, KHMX (96.5 FM) in Houston, KIIS-FM (102.7) in Los Angeles, KNEW (960 AM) in San Francisco, WTKS-FM (104.1) in Orlando, WLW (700 AM) in Cincinnati and WSIX-FM (97.9 FM) in Nashville on XM Satellite Radio, and WSM on Sirius Satellite Radio. XM, in particular, used radio-based superstations owned by Clear Channel Communications (now iHeartMedia)",
"-28.66366926743649"
],
[
"There were 84.5 million radio receiver sets (1997). Today there are around 600 licensed radio stations in the UK. Television In 1997 there were 30.5 million households with television sets.\nAnalogue television broadcasts ceased in the UK in 2012, replaced by the Digital Terrestrial Service Freeview which operates via the DVB-T and DVB-T2 (for HD broadcasts) standards. Digital Satellite is provided by BSkyB (subscription and free services) and Freesat (free to air services only) from services at 28.2° East. Digital cable is primarily provided by Virgin Media.",
"-28.65721441945061"
],
[
"other land mobile radio services, multiple radios in a local area share a single frequency channel, but only one can transmit at a time. The radio is normally in receive mode to receive transmissions of other radios on the channel; when a user wants to talk they press a \"push to talk\" button on their radio, which turns on their transmitter. Users on a channel must take turns talking. Transmitter power is limited to 4 watts in the US and the EU, and CB radios have a range of about 3 to 20 miles, depending on terrain.\nMultiple countries",
"-28.645031642110553"
],
[
"broadcasters, while the rest is used for commercial broadcasters. Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane have been provided with two such multiplexes, which broadcast on frequency blocks 9A (202.928 MHz) and 9B (204.640 MHz), allowing a greater number of stations, while other cities only use a single multiplex: 8D (201.072 MHz) in Canberra, 9A (202.928 MHz) in Darwin and Hobart, and 9B (204.640 MHz) in Adelaide and Perth.\nCommercial services on digital broadcast radio include simulcasts of both AM and FM stations, as well as new digital-only services. While most commercial radio services in Australia are provided by a small number of companies, there are no truly",
"-28.448088742043183"
],
[
"are also commonly used, with local transmitter stations often having less of a local identity than those in the United States and Canada. The wide variety of languages spoken over the DX'ing range, from Spanish to Arabic, adds an element of challenge to DXing in the region. Some stations in Europe have taken to Digital Radio Mondiale transmissions, requiring a receiver capable of demodulating such signals, or a computer loaded with special software coupled to the receiver.\nDX reception of North American stations has been observed on many occasions. CJYQ 930 kHz and VOCM 590 kHz (both from St. John's, Newfoundland",
"-28.44037710907287"
],
[
"because they have the highest evening audience ratings on digital television of the seven BBC radio stations unavailable on FM radio.\nOn 2 December 2013, it was confirmed that more radio stations were made available 24 hours in Scotland, but with some trade-offs. BBC Radio 4, 4 Extra, 5 Live Sports Extra, BBC Radio Scotland and BBC Asian Network were restored, but as noted in the blog with some technical trade-offs, such as mono audio rather than stereo during the evenings on the radio stations mentioned and the audio bit rate of the TV channels in Scotland on Freeview reduced to",
"-28.439596191048622"
],
[
"the major U.S. broadcast networks themselves via cable or satellite, or even as terrestrial signals in border markets.\nA Canadian network is allowed to override the cable or satellite feed of an American broadcast signal when they air the same program simultaneously, ensuring that the Canadian broadcaster, not the American broadcaster, is able to benefit from the advertising revenue associated with broadcasting to the Canadian audience. Arguably this right has led to an even greater glut of American programming on Canadian stations, including programs of little relevance to Canadian audiences, or poorly received series that may never be seen outside North",
"-28.36258992581861"
],
[
"There are other UK-based radio channels which apply for regular temporary licenses, such as Flame FM on the Wirral, Cheshire which applies for two months of local FM broadcasting per year via a Restricted Service Licence (RSL), and Refresh FM, which regularly broadcasts in Manchester for 3 or 4 weeks over the Easter period.\nAlso there are religious broadcasters that transmit to the UK from outside on medium wave at night (when MW signals travel much further) by buying airtime on commercial stations such as Manx Radio (from the Isle of Man) and Trans World Radio (from Monte Carlo).\nAlthough there are",
"-28.354326704633422"
],
[
"long distance reception of (especially) high-powered stations up to about 1,200 miles (2,000 km) away on a nightly basis. Aside from the more or less regular reception of certain high-powered transmitters, variable conditions allow reception of different stations at different times - for example, on one night a medium-powered broadcaster from Cleveland, Ohio may be audible in Duluth, Minnesota, but not on the following night. Much of the hobby consists in trying to receive and log as many of these stations as possible, identifying target stations and frequencies to listen to and log.\nNear or on the coastlines, trans-oceanic reception is quite",
"-28.34242249536328"
],
[
"live remote broadcast to the nation from Niagara Falls, New York. Radio In radio, remotes are often used for special events, such as concerts or sporting events, where either the entire event or advertisements for the event are broadcast on location. The cost of personnel and equipment is usually paid for by the host at each performance. However, if the event is recurring, such as a weekly broadcast from a nightclub, then dedicated lines are usually installed by the local telephone company in order to save on costs. With low range radio stations, and at events with no telephone lines,",
"-28.31772286324758"
],
[
"rather not afford local broadcast stations program rights protection. Some effects Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, several independent local stations were uplinked via satellite so that they could be available either nationally or regionally, especially to markets that did not have independent stations, either because the market could not support one due to having lower population densities or because one simply did not exist. Three of those stations, WOR-TV/WWOR-TV in New York City (later moved to Secaucus, New Jersey), WGN-TV in Chicago and WTBS in Atlanta, were available nationally. WTBS aired shows that were generally \"syndex proof\" (or, in simpler",
"-28.309930043003988"
],
[
"Bird (13° east) are free-to-air.\nA number of European channels which one might expect to be broadcast free-to-air - including many countries' national terrestrial broadcasters - do not do so via satellite for copyright reasons. (Rights to purchase programs for free-to-air broadcast, especially via satellite, are often higher in price than for encrypted broadcast.) The lack of FTA among public broadcasters are prevalent in countries whose broadcasters tend to use subtitles for foreign language programmes; although Spain's two public domestic channels, La Una and La Dos, are also encrypted despite dubbed foreign programmes being the norm in Spain. However,",
"-28.304123653884744"
],
[
"lower powered frequencies, these services are only available by radio for visitors in the stadiums, but are also available online. Radios are available in the grounds, though visitors are asked to use headphones at all times.\nSince the station has been available online, the number of listeners has increased dramatically around the world to a peak of 600,000. It is perhaps the only station with such extensive ball by ball coverage that is available internationally, particularly as the BBC doesn't own the rights to broadcast through radio worldwide. However, a good relationship between BBC Radio 5 Live and Radio Wimbledon",
"-28.300771998940036"
],
[
"subscribers living in smaller media markets or rural areas where a network does not have a local affiliate available on the provider, if even presently serving the given location at all. Since the services began offering local network affiliates from additional markets in the early 2000s, many local stations have successfully sued DBS providers to deny access to distant stations carrying programming from the same network as them within their markets. This differs from the subscription television model in Canada, most cable and satellite providers carry distant over-the-air broadcast stations from the U.S. (consisting of both affiliates of the Big",
"-28.26195440931042"
],
[
"events In 2001, Deutsche Welle (in conjunction with ARD and ZDF) founded the German TV subscription TV channel for North American viewers. The project was shut down after four years owing to low subscriber numbers. It has since been replaced by the DW-TV channel (also a subscription service).\nUnlike most other international broadcasters, DW-TV does not charge terrestrial stations for use of its programming, and as a result, Journal and other programmes are rebroadcast on numerous public broadcasting stations in several countries, including the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. In the Philippines, selected Anglophone programmes are shown nationwide on Net",
"-28.24820503476076"
],
[
"telephone feeds and were broadcast by national and regional radio networks in most parts of the world, as well as through UN Radio's website. Short-wave service was relaunched for the live transmission to reach audiences in the Middle East and North Africa, but was again suspended in 1997 due to the decrease in shortwave audiences in these regions. Web and social media UN Radio distributes its content and materials to hundreds of stations around the world via the internet, free of charge. Broadcast-quality files can be downloaded from the website. All UN Radio programmes are available on RSS feeds and",
"-28.211964387446642"
],
[
"media. Technological innovations, especially the advent of ad blocking and zapping, has eroded TV's immediacy and relevance for some audiences. Radio advertising Promotion through radio has been a viable advertising option for over 80 years. Radio advertising is mostly local to the broadcast range of a radio station, however, at least three options exist that offer national and potentially international coverage. First, in many countries there are radio networks that use many geographically distinct stations to broadcast simultaneously. In the United States such networks as Disney (children's programming) and ESPN (sports programming) broadcast nationally either through a group of company-owned",
"-28.195708625135012"
],
[
"nationally syndicated Canadian talk show hosts: news/talk personality Charles Adler and sports talk host Bob McCown. The lone restriction is that the station must have a working studio within the region it broadcasts, which prohibits the use of entirely satellite-operated stations (which are commonplace in the United States).\nSyndicated programming from the United States invariably airs after 7:00 pm local time in virtually all markets, and usually features non-political programs such as Joy Browne, The Jim Rome Show and Coast to Coast AM. More political American shows such as The Rush Limbaugh Show are rarely picked up by Canadian radio stations, although",
"-28.17264593136497"
],
[
"mandates that direct-broadcast satellite providers carry the signals of stations that are part of television networks that cover 50% of the Mexican territory, albeit with regional lockouts for advertisements. Radio superstations The first radio station in North America to achieve superstation distribution via satellite was Chicago's WFMT (98.7 FM), a classical music station that was uplinked by United Video to the Satcom I satellite in May 1979, which began distributing its signal via satellite as a cable radio feed throughout the United States and was also distributed in over two dozen countries overseas (including the Soviet Union and China). Like",
"-28.16958919353783"
],
[
"funding that the public broadcaster gets from licence fees, justifying the move with the argument that the existing public service broadcasters cannot compete with commercial broadcasters for advertising revenues. Internet-based broadcast access The development of the global Internet has created the ability for television and radio programming to be easily accessed outside of its country of origin, with little technological investment needed to implement the capability. Before the development of the Internet, this would have required specially-acquired satellite relaying and/or local terrestrial rebroadcasting of the international content, at considerable cost to the international viewer. This access can now instead be",
"-28.169275749474764"
],
[
"at night. The web streams have proven popular with those who do not have an HD Radio receiver or are not within the coverage area of WRTI and WRTJ.",
"-28.160052397521213"
],
[
"and surrounding areas. All local free-to-air television services are now being broadcast in digital transmission only. This was done as part of the federal government's plan for digital terrestrial television in Australia, where all analogue television transmission is being gradually switched off and replaced with DVB-T transmission. Music Several live music venues offer local independent bands and artists performing on a regular basis. These venues include the Music Man Megastore, the Gold Dust Lounge at the Hotel Shamrock, and the Golden Vine hotel, also the Bendigo Blues Club. Also, several adult choirs and the Bendigo Youth Choir often perform",
"-28.10655830381438"
],
[
"commercial channels are available in metropolitan areas. Ireland In the Republic of Ireland, there are nine television channels and 11 radio channels broadcast free-to-air via the DVB-T Saorview service. Analog PAL versions of some of the channels were also broadcast until October 24, 2012, when all analogue television broadcasting was shut down. Netherlands In the Netherlands, 3 national public television channels NPO 1, NPO 2 and NPO 3, and 7 national public radio channels broadcast free-to-air via the DVB-T Digitenne service. The television and radio channels of the regional public broadcasters are also free-to-air via the DVB-T service. United Kingdom",
"-28.09406471954935"
],
[
"wave radio signals can propagate much farther. Such stations are usually supposed to do one of three things: sign off, reduce power (sometimes dramatically, to only a few watts), or switch to another frequency (such as the Detroit area's WNZK, which broadcasts on 690 during the day, and on 680 at night). Their broadcast class is Class D. A great number of these stations use FM translators to continue their broadcasts overnight, and some also broadcast on the internet and have separate streams that air when the station's over-the-air signal has signed-off.\nDaytime-only stations first originated in the late",
"-28.08133640437154"
],
[
"power or less, or unusually distant stations. Especially prized in the former category are receptions of distant traveler information service (TIS) stations, operated by the Department of Transportation to give visitors information. These stations typically run at very low powers (limited to 10 watts) and are only intended to cover small areas, but may travel thousands of miles under certain instances. Similar are the tiny radio stations operated by high schools.\nOn the East Coast of the United States, it is not unusual for DX'ers to hear the high-powered European stations, which operate at 9 kHz intervals, rather than",
"-28.059579670778476"
],
[
"stations or through a syndication arrangement (i.e., business agreement) with partner stations. Second, within the last few years the emergence of radio programming delivered via satellite has become an option for national advertising. Finally, the potential for national and international advertising may become more attractive as radio stations allow their signals to be broadcast over the Internet.\nIn many ways radio suffers the same problems as television, namely, a mass medium that is not highly targeted and offers little opportunity to track responses. But unlike television, radio presents the additional disadvantage of limiting advertisers to audio-only advertising. For some products advertising",
"-28.003158847859595"
],
[
"of 525 to 1705 kHz (known as the “standard broadcast band”). The band was expanded in the 1990s by adding nine channels from 1605 to 1705 kHz. Channels are spaced every 10 kHz in the Americas, and generally every 9 kHz everywhere else.\nAM transmissions cannot be ionospherically propagated during the day due to strong absorption in the D-layer of the ionosphere. In a crowded channel environment, this means that the power of regional channels which share a frequency must be reduced at night or directionally beamed in order to avoid interference, which reduces the potential nighttime audience. Some stations have frequencies unshared with",
"-27.999331145983888"
],
[
"program constantly absorbs listener input, song votes, and comments on music, and automatically adapts radio station programming in real-time. Clear Channel Communications, Cox Media Group, CBS, Cumulus, Harvard Broadcasting, and a number of major broadcasters in the USA, Canada, and Europe are using Listener Driven Radio's technology to give audiences the ability to influence on-air programming. Internet-based crowdcasting Crowdcasting is also no longer confined to traditional broadcasting platforms due to current technological advances. For instance, there is the case of the Internet-based platforms, which feature convenient and automated capabilities for collecting, storing, and analyzing data. This is demonstrated in the",
"-27.95246695999049"
],
[
"original audio as dubbing is). These same practices are also done for segments of local programmes that contain foreign language dialogue.\n33% of the national first-time broadcasts consisted of foreign content in 2005. Of all acquired programming (including Swedish programming not produced by SVT) 27% came from the United States, 22% from the United Kingdom, 13% from Sweden, 13% from the other Nordic countries, 6% from France, 4% from Germany and 9% from the rest of Europe.\nSVT often cooperates with the other Nordic public broadcasters via Nordvision. Thus, many Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic and Finnish programming air on SVT, while DR,",
"-27.921460970086628"
],
[
"radio stations in the United States tend to broadcast a mixture of news and talk programs along with music and arts/cultural programming. Some of the larger operations split off these formats into separate stations or networks. Music stations are probably best known for playing classical music, although other formats are offered, including the time-honored \"eclectic\" music format that is rather freeform in nature common among college radio stations. Jazz is another traditional, but declining, public radio programming staple. Cultural Native American and Mexican American music and programming are also featured regionally.\nThe U.S. government operates some limited direct broadcasting services, but",
"-27.90667046321323"
],
[
"all are either highly specialized (and, since the dawn of the millennium, automated) information services (WWV/WWVH time service, NOAA Weather Radio) or targeted at foreign audiences like Voice of America. From 1948 to 2013, foreign-targeted broadcasts, many of which were intended as propaganda, were barred from U.S. audiences because of the Smith–Mundt Act, a restriction that has since been lifted. While NOAA Weather Radio has individual terrestrial repeaters across the United States (albeit on a special band reserved for such broadcasts), WWV, VOA and others operate from single shortwave facilities; none of these services can be heard on the AM",
"-27.90544942737324"
],
[
"all translators on commercial frequencies must be fed by a direct, over-the-air source, regardless of who owns the translator per FCC rule 74.1231(b), the actual over-the-air source (the primary station) can be satellite fed, just as commercial stations can be fed by satellite. This leads to programming from a single station (retransmitted by many others) ending up on several hundred different translators. One station cannot apply for hundreds or thousands of translators nationwide, using automated means to generate license applications for all available channels, unless all of their applications are exclusively on the non-commercial part of the broadcast band (88–91.9 MHz).",
"-27.899569029716076"
],
[
"200 kilowatts ERP for digital television and 250 kW for FM radio. The coverage extends as far south as Chipping Norton in Oxfordshire and as far north as Stoke-on-Trent. However, there are many relay transmitters around the Midlands that extend coverage even further.\nThe transmitter broadcasts eight digital television multiplexes, as well as VHF or FM transmitters for the four BBC national stations; the BBC's local service BBC WM on FM and DAB; independent national station Classic FM and local commercial radio stations Free Radio, Heart, Absolute Radio (previously Kerrang 105.2 until June 2013, and Planet Rock until September 2015) and Smooth",
"-27.892819117521867"
],
[
"news programs available to viewers who rely on \"over the air\" broadcasting instead of cable or satellite. Some of the programs aired on the subchannel are presented in English, while others are broadcast in their native foreign languages and accompanied by English subtitles, and in Spanish without subtitles. Programs include news programs from Asia, South America and the Middle East (such as Al Jazeera English, Bolivian News, Arab Net News and South Asia News). Analog-to-digital conversion WYCC shut down its analog signal, over UHF channel 20, at 6 a.m. on April 16, 2009. The station's digital signal continued to broadcasts",
"-27.88815448479727"
],
[
"channels are available across Australia; outside the major capital cities, regional affiliates provide channels that are essentially identical to the metropolitan commercial channels. In addition, community television provides one channel in some major cities.\nAustralia's two main public broadcasters, the ABC and SBS, along with the digital-only multichannels ABC Comedy, ABC ME and SBS Viceland, are both available free-to-air on the Optus D1 satellite. Viewers in remote parts of Australia could also access Seven Central and Imparja Television, or WIN WA and GWN7 in Western Australia, through the DVB-S free-to-view Optus Aurora service, which was replaced in December 2013 with the",
"-27.884878144599497"
],
[
"and WDIV-TV/Detroit). Some programs carried on these stations are subject to simultaneous substitutions, a practice imposed by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission in which a pay television provider supplants an American station's signal with a feed from a Canadian station/network airing a particular program in the same time slot to protect domestic advertising revenue. Some of these affiliates are also receivable over-the-air in southern areas of the country located near the Canada–United States border (signal coverage was somewhat reduced after the digital television transition in 2009 due to the lower radiated power required to transmit digital signals). Europe and",
"-27.87615668406943"
],
[
"outcome of research to determine the demand for their particular style of broadcast. Original 106 (Aberdeen) was the last radio station to be granted a licence by Ofcom.\nMost local commercial stations in the United Kingdom broadcast to a city or group of towns within a radius of 20–50 miles, with a second tier of regional stations covering larger areas such as North West England. The predominant format is pop music, but many other tastes are also catered for, particularly in London and the larger cities, and on digital radio.\nRather than operating as independent entities, many local radio stations are owned",
"-27.873776257038116"
],
[
"Clear-channel station A clear-channel station is an AM radio station in North America that has the highest protection from interference from other stations, particularly concerning night-time skywave propagation. The system exists to ensure the viability of cross-country or cross-continent radio service, and is enforced through a series of treaties and statutory laws. Now known as Class A stations since 1982, they are occasionally still referred to by their former classifications of Class I-A (the highest classification), Class I-B (the next highest class), or Class I-N (for stations in Alaska too far away to cause interference to the primary clear-channel",
"-27.8684886021656"
],
[
"relay transmitters to provide service to a region (or nation). Compared with other types of relays, the transmitter network is often created and maintained by an independent authority (funded with television license fees); several major broadcasters use the same transmitters.\nIn North America, a similar pattern of regional network broadcasting is sometimes used by state- or province-wide educational television networks such as Kentucky Educational Television, UNC-TV, Vermont Public Television, Wisconsin Public Television, TVOntario or Télé-Québec. A state or province establishes an educational station and extends it with several full-power transmitters to cover the entire jurisdiction, with no capability for local-programming origination.",
"-27.86080501516699"
],
[
"The first commercial radio station in the Republic, Century Radio, came on air in 1989.\nDuring the 1990s and particularly the early 2000s, dozens of local radio stations have gained licences. This has resulted in a fragmentation of the radio broadcast market. This trend is most noticeable in Dublin where there are now 6 private licensed stations in operation. Television Different television stations are available depending on whether you are in Northern Ireland or the Republic of Ireland. In Northern Ireland the main terrestrial television stations are the main UK wide channels BBC One, BBC Two, ITV, Channel 4 and Channel",
"-27.860654272837564"
],
[
"online due to sports rights restrictions. FA Cup football games and European Champions Cup games can only be heard online in the UK. Smart speakers in the UK may not relay UK only commentaries as these devices source audio from non UK based servers. Programming The majority of the station's programming is produced and broadcast from the Gloucester studios. Local programmes are broadcast from 0600 to 2200 weekdays, 0500 to 1800 Saturdays and 0500 to 1300 Sundays.\nThe weekday late night programme (2200-0100) for the West of England is broadcast from BBC Radio Gloucestershire as is Sunday afternoon and evening",
"-27.833674229157623"
],
[
"for other major cities, with a trial multiplex in Canberra commencing broadcasting on 14 July 2010, and a trial multiplex running in Darwin since 13 August 2010. Similar trials are being considered for Townsville and Hobart, and, as of December 2010, commercial broadcasters in regional markets have begun planning to introduce digital broadcast radio into regional population centres, possibly as soon as 2011 or 2012. However, it is expected that it will be some years before digital broadcast radio is extended to the bulk of the Australian continent. Australia's vast distances and low population density are not well suited to",
"-27.82442284101853"
],
[
"3, 1994, KJHK 90.7 FM, a campus radio station located in Lawrence, Kansas, at the University of Kansas, became one of the first radio stations in the world to broadcast a live and continuous stream over Internet radio. Time magazine said that RealAudio took \"advantage of the latest advances in digital compression\" and delivered \"AM radio-quality sound in so-called real time.\" Eventually, companies such as Nullsoft and Microsoft released streaming audio players as free downloads. As the software audio players became available, \"many Web-based radio stations began springing up.\"\nIn 1995, Scott Bourne founded NetRadio.com as the world's first Internet-only radio",
"-27.821873678825796"
],
[
"stations such as Radio Nova. The United Kingdom government used two coordinated, separately located transmitters to jam the offshore radio ship, Radio North Sea International off the coast of Britain in 1970. World War II In occupied Europe the Nazis attempted to jam broadcasts to the continent from the BBC and other allied stations. Along with increasing transmitter power and adding extra frequencies, attempts were made to counteract the jamming by dropping leaflets over cities instructing listeners to construct a directional loop aerial that would enable them to hear the stations through the jamming. In the Netherlands such aerials were",
"-27.820524424605537"
],
[
"or package.\nIn a 2014 study, 11% of Americans listened to DTV radio on an average day, with 5.2% of time spent listening to audio attributed to DTV Radio. Number and availability of channels In the United States, DirecTV offers up to 84 channels of Sonic Tap, and Dish Network offers 95 channels of SiriusXM Satellite Radio and Muzak for residential subscribers, depending on type of subscription. Music Choice offers 50 channels, which all fit on a single digital cable TV channel through multiplexing. This includes still video images which are sent at a low bit-rate to identify the station and",
"-27.814167244549026"
],
[
"medium, as television sets are beyond the buying power of many of the rural poor, and illiteracy prevents print media from becoming a mass medium.\nIn addition to the national and regional radio services of the state broadcaster ORTN, there are four privately owned radio networks which total more than 100 stations. Three of them—the Anfani Group, Sarounia and Tenere—are urban-based commercial-format FM networks in the major towns. There is also a network of over 80 community radio stations spread across all seven regions of the country, governed by the Comité de Pilotage de Radios de Proximité (CPRP), a civil society",
"-27.80433632491622"
],
[
"on live locally programmed community radio stations. They broadcast content that was popular and relevant to their local/specific audience. During the 1920s and 1930s the majority of stations functioned as independent stations but there was little study on the types of content they aired. It is commonly believed that almost all programming of the era came through the networks with local stations acting as signal repeaters because broadcasts on local stations were produced live and went unrecorded in either sound or paper form. Thus, it can be difficult to obtain information about programming at the local station levels. Characters The",
"-27.803859238978475"
],
[
"broadcasters (also called Independent Local Radio in the UK) are largely funded through the sales of advertising spots on their radio station. Commercial stations are often quite local, and may have some public service commitments within their permit.",
"-27.80086660129018"
]
] |
2m2eye | Why does a line have 1 dimension while a point has none? | [
"A line has 1 dimension because if you're on the line, a single number is enough to describe exactly where you are. A point has 0 dimensions because if you're on the point, you need no numbers to describe exactly where you are.",
"Think of dimension as something that can be measured. A cube has (1) length, (2) width, and (3) height. So it has 3 dimensions. A plane has (1) length, and (2) width. So it has 2 dimensions. A line has (1) length. So it has 1 dimension. A point has none of the above. So it has 0 dimensions.",
"An simple way to think about dimensions is how many length based measurements you can make. If you take a point, how many length based measurements can you make of it? None. (0) If you take a line, you can measure its length. (1) If you take a square, you can measure its height and width. (2) If you take a cube, you can measure its height, width and depth. (3) If you take a Tardis, you can measure its height, width, depth and a point in time. (4)",
"Dimensions just mean how many numbers you need to describe the system. You don't need any numbers to describe a dimensionless point because there's nothing to describe. A line has length, so to describe a point in that system, you need 1 number: the point's position on the line. A plane has length and width, so you need two numbers to describe the position of a point on the plane. As you add more dimensions, you need more numbers. 3D needs 3 numbers (x,y,z) 4D Spacetime requires 4 numbers, and the point is now considered an 'event'. It requires the (x,y,z) of 3d space, plus a 'when': (x,y,z,t)"
] | [
[
"by modern mathematicians), a line is stated to have certain properties which relate it to other lines and points. For example, for any two distinct points, there is a unique line containing them, and any two distinct lines intersect in at most one point. In two dimensions, i.e., the Euclidean plane, two lines which do not intersect are called parallel. In higher dimensions, two lines that do not intersect are parallel if they are contained in a plane, or skew if they are not.\nAny collection of finitely many lines partitions the plane into convex polygons (possibly unbounded); this partition is",
"-36.378963963798014"
],
[
"given point. If the degree of the curve is d then the degree of the polar is d − 1 and so the number of tangents that can be drawn through the given point is at most d(d − 1).\nThe dual of a line (a curve of degree 1) is an exception to this and is taken to be a point in the dual space (namely the original line). The dual of a single point is taken to be the collection of lines though the point; this forms a line in the dual space which corresponds to the original point.\nIf",
"-34.817965380789246"
],
[
"Line–line intersection In Euclidean geometry, the intersection of a line and a line can be the empty set, a point, or a line. Distinguishing these cases and finding the intersection point have use, for example, in computer graphics, motion planning, and collision detection.\nIn three-dimensional Euclidean geometry, if two lines are not in the same plane they are called skew lines and have no point of intersection. If they are in the same plane there are three possibilities: if they coincide (are not distinct lines) they have an infinitude of points in common (namely all of the points on either of",
"-34.44570877474325"
],
[
"supplementary.\nWhen we add a third line then there are properties of intersecting lines that differ from intersecting lines in Euclidean geometry. For example, given 2 intersecting lines there are infinitely many lines that do not intersect either of the given lines.\nThese properties all are independent of the model used, even if the lines may look radically different. Hypercycles and horocycles In hyperbolic geometry, there is no line that remains equidistant from another. Instead, the points that all have the same orthogonal distance from a given line lie on a curve called a hypercycle.\nAnother special curve is the horocycle, a curve",
"-34.27289855694835"
],
[
"Complex line In mathematics, a complex line is a one-dimensional affine subspace of a vector space over the complex numbers. A common point of confusion is that while a complex line has dimension one over C (hence the term \"line\"), it has dimension two over the real numbers R, and is topologically equivalent to a real plane, not a real line.",
"-34.24490692280233"
],
[
"Collinearity Points on a line In any geometry, the set of points on a line are said to be collinear. In Euclidean geometry this relation is intuitively visualized by points lying in a row on a \"straight line\". However, in most geometries (including Euclidean) a line is typically a primitive (undefined) object type, so such visualizations will not necessarily be appropriate. A model for the geometry offers an interpretation of how the points, lines and other object types relate to one another and a notion such as collinearity must be interpreted within the context of that model. For instance, in",
"-34.069905692740576"
],
[
"dimensions transform into easily seen 2D patterns. For example, a set of points on a line in n-space transforms to a set of polylines in parallel coordinates all intersecting at n − 1 points. For n = 2 this yields a point-line duality pointing out why the mathematical foundations of parallel coordinates are developed in the projective rather than euclidean space. A pair of lines intersects at a unique point which has two coordinates and, therefore, can correspond to a unique line which is also specified by two parameters (or two points). By contrast, more than two points are required to specify",
"-33.73897928465158"
],
[
"dimension 2) in general position will have no self intersections inside a manifold of dimension greater than 2+2. \nIf the manifold is 4 dimensional, this does not work: the problem is that a disc in general position may have double points where two points of the disc have the same image. This is the main reason why the usual proof of the h-cobordism theorem only works for cobordisms whose boundary has dimension at least 5. We can try to get rid of these double points as follows. Draw a line on the disc joining two points with the same image.",
"-33.517501382099"
],
[
"Local property Properties of a pair of spaces Given some notion of equivalence (e.g., homeomorphism, diffeomorphism, isometry) between \ntopological spaces, two spaces are locally equivalent if every point of the first space has a neighborhood which is equivalent to a neighborhood of the second space. \nFor instance, the circle and the line are very different objects. One cannot stretch the circle to look like the line, nor compress the line to fit on the circle without gaps or overlaps. However, a small piece of the circle can be stretched and flattened out to look like a small",
"-33.4906424516812"
],
[
"want to find intersection of two infinite lines in 2-dimensional space, defined as and . We can represent these two lines in line coordinates as and ,\nThe intersection of two lines is then simply given by,\nIf the lines do not intersect. Nearest point to non-intersecting lines In two or more dimensions, we can usually find a point that is mutually closest to two or more lines in a least-squares sense.",
"-33.463869286264526"
],
[
"Line complex In algebraic geometry, a line complex is a 3-fold given by the intersection of the Grassmannian G(2, 4) (embedded in projective space P⁵ by Plücker coordinates) with a hypersurface. It is called a line complex because points of G(2, 4) correspond to lines in P³, so a line complex can be thought of as a 3-dimensional family of lines in P³. The linear line complex and quadric line complex are the cases when the hypersurface has degree 1 or 2; they are both rational varieties.",
"-33.45812867680797"
],
[
"of its real points. The real dimension is not greater than the dimension, and equals it if the variety is irreducible and has real points that are nonsingular. For example, the equation defines a variety of (complex) dimension 2 (a surface), but of real dimension 0 — it has only one real point, (0, 0, 0), which is singular.\nThe same points apply to codimension. For example a smooth complex hypersurface in complex projective space of dimension n will be a manifold of dimension 2(n − 1). A complex hyperplane does not separate a complex projective space into two components,",
"-33.422258389386116"
],
[
"points on these curves is undefined because the curves are theoretical constructs that never stop repeating themselves. Every smaller piece is composed of an infinite number of scaled segments that look exactly like the first iteration. These are not rectifiable curves, meaning they cannot be measured by being broken down into many segments approximating their respective lengths. They cannot be characterized by finding their lengths or slopes. However, their fractal dimensions can be determined, which shows that both fill space more than ordinary lines but less than surfaces, and allows them to be compared in this regard.\nThe two fractal curves",
"-33.41425320674898"
],
[
"end points. Depending on how the line segment is defined, either of the two end points may or may not be part of the line segment. Two or more line segments may have some of the same relationships as lines, such as being parallel, intersecting, or skew, but unlike lines they may be none of these, if they are coplanar and either do not intersect or are collinear. Geodesics The \"shortness\" and \"straightness\" of a line, interpreted as the property that the distance along the line between any two of its points is minimized (see triangle inequality), can",
"-33.39496961585246"
],
[
"them); if they are distinct but have the same slope they are said to be parallel and have no points in common; otherwise they have a single point of intersection.\nThe distinguishing features of non-Euclidean geometry are the number and locations of possible intersections between two lines and the number of possible lines with no intersections (parallel lines) with a given line. Intersection of two lines A necessary condition for two lines to intersect is that they are in the same plane—that is, are not skew lines. Satisfaction of this condition is equivalent to the tetrahedron with vertices at two of",
"-33.37521639477927"
],
[
"three points, if they are non-collinear, there are three pairs of parallel lines passing through them – choose two to define one line, and the third for the parallel line to pass through, by the parallel postulate.\nGiven two distinct points, there is a unique double line through them.",
"-33.21686612299527"
],
[
"Real projective line In geometry, a real projective line is an extension of the usual concept of line that has been historically introduced to solve a problem set by visual perspective: two parallel lines do not intersect but seem to intersect \"at infinity\". For solving this problem, points at infinity have been introduced, in such a way that in a real projective plane, two distinct projective lines meet in exactly one point. The set of these points at infinity, the \"horizon\" of the visual perspective in the plane, is a real projective line. It is the circle of",
"-33.20651383647055"
],
[
"Every real number has a unique location on the line. Conversely, every point on the line can be interpreted as a number in an ordered continuum such as the real numbers. Two dimensions A Cartesian coordinate system in two dimensions (also called a rectangular coordinate system or an orthogonal coordinate system) is defined by an ordered pair of perpendicular lines (axes), a single unit of length for both axes, and an orientation for each axis. The point where the axes meet is taken as the origin for both, thus turning each axis into a number line. For any point P,",
"-33.18935095580673"
],
[
"the given line there are infinitely many lines connecting the point to the line. There are two types of parallelism that exists in hyperbolic geometry: asymptotically parallel and ultra/hyper parallel.\nThe Asymptotically Parallel Postulate states that when one line moves towards zero and in the opposite direction, the other line is unbounded. This allows us to see that eventually it will become impossible to continue folding edge tessellations, as we run out of possible areas to fold.\nUltra-parallel (hyper-parallel) – These lines have a common perpendicular with a given distance separating them that is considered unbounded as they move away from each",
"-33.15375576648512"
],
[
"of points at a distance of 1 from the origin in four-dimensional Euclidean space—can be contracted into a point. The Poincaré conjecture asserts that any closed three-dimensional manifold such that any loop can be contracted into a point is topologically a 3-sphere. The analogous result has been known to be true in dimensions greater than or equal to five since 1960 as in the work of Stephen Smale. The four-dimensional case resisted longer, finally being solved in 1982 by Michael Freedman. But the case of three-manifolds turned out to be the hardest of them all. Roughly speaking, this is",
"-33.124560129246674"
],
[
"the same object 1 inch behind B. Point D is on an object at 2,220 feet. With a normal baseline, all four points are now at stereo infinity. With a 67-foot baseline, the multiplied parallax allows us to see that all three objects are on different planes, yet points B and C, on the same object, appear to be on the same plane and all three objects appear flat. This is because there are discrete units of parallax, so at 2,170 feet the parallax between B and C is zero and zero multiplied by any number is still zero. A practical",
"-33.04742146469653"
],
[
"and explained by Julius Plücker. No paradox for lines and nondegenerate conics For first order curves (that is lines) the paradox does not occur, because n = 1 so n² = 1 < n(n + 3) / 2 = 2. In general two distinct lines L₁ and L₂ intersect at a single point P unless the lines are of equal gradient (slope), in which case they do not intersect at all. A single point is not sufficient to define a line (two are needed); through the point P there pass not only the two given lines but an",
"-32.87190935853869"
],
[
"independent, because there is a non trivial linear combination making it zero: . Topological dimension The topological dimension of a topological space X is defined to be the minimum value of n, such that every finite open cover of X admits a finite open cover of X which refines in which no point is included in more than n+1 elements. If no such minimal n exists, the space is said to be of infinite covering dimension.\nA point is zero-dimensional with respect to the covering dimension because every open cover of the space has a refinement consisting of",
"-32.79603239253629"
],
[
"is necessarily absolutely straight, so that the line level can be used as a straightedge; for example, to see if a shelf is warped, even if not horizontal.",
"-32.67637236221344"
],
[
"not equivalent in hyperbolic geometry; new concepts need to be introduced.\nFurther, because of the angle of parallelism, hyperbolic geometry has an absolute scale, a relation between distance and angle measurements. Lines Single lines in hyperbolic geometry have exactly the same properties as single straight lines in Euclidean geometry. For example, two points uniquely define a line, and lines can be infinitely extended.\nTwo intersecting lines have the same properties as two intersecting lines in Euclidean geometry. For example, two lines can intersect in no more than one point, intersecting lines have equal opposite angles, and adjacent angles of intersecting lines are",
"-32.663073376752436"
],
[
"points of the simplex, which are necessarily at unit distance apart. Therefore, their composition preserves unit distances. However, it is not an isometry, because it maps every pair of points, no matter their original distance, either to the same point or to a unit distance. Related results For transformations only of the subset of Euclidean space with Cartesian coordinates that are rational numbers, the situation is more complicated than for the full Euclidean plane. In this case, there exist unit-distance-preserving non-isometries of dimensions up to four, but none for dimensions five and above. Similar results hold also for mappings of",
"-32.65293471014593"
],
[
"No-three-in-line problem In mathematics, in the area of discrete geometry, the no-three-in-line problem asks for the maximum number of points that can be placed in the n × n grid so that no three points are collinear. This number is at most 2n, since if 2n + 1 points are placed in the grid, then by the pigeonhole principle some row and some column will contain three points. The problem was introduced by Henry Dudeney in 1917.\nAlthough the problem can be solved with 2n points for every n up to 46, it is conjectured that fewer than 2n points are",
"-32.65142549360462"
],
[
"boundary of the plane while keeping the sides within the plane. If a pair of sides is limiting parallel (i.e. the distance between them approaches zero as they tend to the ideal point, but they do not intersect), then they end at an ideal vertex represented as an omega point.\nSuch a pair of sides may also be said to form an angle of zero.\nA triangle with a zero angle is impossible in Euclidean geometry for straight sides lying on distinct lines. However, such zero angles are possible with tangent circles.\nA triangle with one ideal vertex is called an omega triangle.\nSpecial",
"-32.64988019971088"
],
[
"K. For example, if K is a set of 50 points arranged on a circle in the Euclidean plane, a line joining two of them would be a 2-secant (or bisecant) and a line passing through only one of them would be a 1-secant (or unisecant). A unisecant in this example need not be a tangent line to the circle.\nThis terminology is often used in incidence geometry and discrete geometry. For instance, the Sylvester–Gallai theorem of incidence geometry states that if n points of Euclidean geometry are not collinear then there must exist a 2-secant of them. And the original",
"-32.63480910407088"
],
[
"line does not exist. For these points the function f is non-differentiable. There are two possible reasons for the method of finding the tangents based on the limits and derivatives to fail: either the geometric tangent exists, but it is a vertical line, which cannot be given in the point-slope form since it does not have a slope, or the graph exhibits one of three behaviors that precludes a geometric tangent.\nThe graph y = x1/3 illustrates the first possibility: here the difference quotient at a = 0 is equal to h1/3/h = h-2/3, which becomes very large as h",
"-32.62233025179012"
],
[
"a gap as {L | R}, L < R, L ∪ R = 𝐍𝐨; this is not a number because at least one of the sides is a proper class. Though similar, gaps are not quite the same as Dedekind sections, but we can still talk about a completion 𝐍𝐨𝕯 of the surreal numbers with the natural ordering which is a (proper class-sized) linear continuum.\nFor instance there is no least positive infinite surreal, but the gap ∞ = {x: ∃ n ∈ ℕ: x < n | x: ∀ n ∈ ℕ: x > n} is greater than all real",
"-32.5658006950398"
],
[
"where x and y are both real numbers; hence, the complex dimension is half the real dimension.\nConversely, in algebraically unconstrained contexts, a single complex coordinate system may be applied to an object having two real dimensions. For example, an ordinary two-dimensional spherical surface, when given a complex metric, becomes a Riemann sphere of one complex dimension. Varieties The dimension of an algebraic variety may be defined in various equivalent ways. The most intuitive way is probably the dimension of the tangent space at any Regular point of an algebraic variety. Another intuitive way is to define the dimension as",
"-32.562179674960134"
],
[
"of one class (greater) being strictly greater than all the numbers of the other (lesser) class. For example, the square root of 2 defines all the nonnegative numbers whose squares are less than 2 and the negative numbers into the lesser class, and the positive numbers whose squares are greater than 2 into the greater class. Every location on the number line continuum contains either a rational or an irrational number. Thus there are no empty locations, gaps, or discontinuities. Dedekind published his thoughts on irrational numbers and Dedekind cuts in his pamphlet \"Stetigkeit und irrationale Zahlen\" (\"Continuity and irrational",
"-32.54864356566395"
],
[
"infinity (a line that goes through zero on the plane at z = 0). Lines on the plane when z = 0 are ideal points. The plane at z = 0 is the line at infinity.\nThe homogeneous point (0, 0, 0) is where all the real points go when you're looking at the plane from an infinite distance, a line on the z = 0 plane is where parallel lines intersect. Duality In the equation xᵀℓ = 0 there are two column vectors. You can keep either constant and vary the other. If we keep the point x constant and",
"-32.52115020219935"
],
[
"on line l is independent of the location of P on line m. This never holds for skew lines. A line and a plane A line m and a plane q in three-dimensional space, the line not lying in that plane, are parallel if and only if they do not intersect.\nEquivalently, they are parallel if and only if the distance from a point P on line m to the nearest point in plane q is independent of the location of P on line m. Two planes Similar to the fact that parallel lines must be located in the same",
"-32.52077681205992"
],
[
"by a non-zero scalar then line represented remains the same. So (l, m, n) is a system of homogeneous coordinates for the line.\nIf points in the real projective plane are represented by homogeneous coordinates (x, y, z), the equation of the line is lx + my + nz = 0, provided (l, m, n) ≠ (0,0,0) . In particular, line coordinate (0, 0, 1) represents the line z = 0, which is the line at infinity in the projective plane. Line coordinates (0, 1, 0) and (1, 0, 0) represent the x and y-axes respectively. Tangential equations Just as f(x, y) = 0 can represent a curve as a subset of",
"-32.49506322082743"
],
[
"Skew lines In three-dimensional geometry, skew lines are two lines that do not intersect and are not parallel. A simple example of a pair of skew lines is the pair of lines through opposite edges of a regular tetrahedron. Two lines that both lie in the same plane must either cross each other or be parallel, so skew lines can exist only in three or more dimensions. Two lines are skew if and only if they are not coplanar. General position If four points are chosen at random uniformly within a unit cube, they will almost surely define a",
"-32.49076510104351"
],
[
"line as a tangent, and even, in algebraic geometry, as a double tangent.\nThe graph y = |x| of the absolute value function consists of two straight lines with different slopes joined at the origin. As a point q approaches the origin from the right, the secant line always has slope 1. As a point q approaches the origin from the left, the secant line always has slope −1. Therefore, there is no unique tangent to the graph at the origin. Having two different (but finite) slopes is called a corner.\nFinally, since differentiability implies continuity, the contrapositive states discontinuity implies non-differentiability.",
"-32.4848856325043"
],
[
"such as the ordering of points on the line or the existence of specific points. In spite of this, modern expansions of the system serve to remove these assumptions. Dimension of a point There are several inequivalent definitions of dimension in mathematics. In all of the common definitions, a point is 0-dimensional. Vector space dimension The dimension of a vector space is the maximum size of a linearly independent subset. In a vector space consisting of a single point (which must be the zero vector 0), there is no linearly independent subset. The zero vector is not itself linearly",
"-32.47488512891505"
],
[
"piece of the line. For this reason, one may say that the circle and the line are locally equivalent.\nSimilarly, the sphere and the plane are locally equivalent. A small enough observer standing on the surface of a sphere (e.g., a person and the Earth) would find it indistinguishable from a plane. Properties of infinite groups For an infinite group, a \"small neighborhood\" is taken to be a finitely generated subgroup. An infinite group is said to be locally P if every finitely generated subgroup is P. For instance, a group is locally finite if every",
"-32.44984824912535"
],
[
"the points on one line and two of the points on the other line being degenerate in the sense of having zero volume. For the algebraic form of this condition, see Skew lines § Testing for skewness. Using homogeneous coordinates By using homogeneous coordinates, the intersection point of two implicitly defined lines can be determined quite easily. In 2D, every point can be defined as a projection of a 3D point, given as the ordered triple . The mapping from 3D to 2D coordinates is . We can convert 2D points to homogeneous coordinates by defining them as .\nAssume that we",
"-32.43317397934152"
],
[
"0, 1, and infinity. Under restrictions having to do with inverses, it is possible to generate such a mapping with ring operations in the projective line over a ring. The cross ratio of four points is the evaluation of this homography at the fourth point. Differential-geometric point of view The theory takes on a differential calculus aspect as the four points are brought into proximity. This leads to the theory of the Schwarzian derivative, and more generally of projective connections. Higher-dimensional generalizations The cross-ratio does not generalize in a simple manner to higher dimensions, due to other geometric properties of",
"-32.431317837297684"
],
[
"not quite canonical, because one can add a constant to g, changing the lines.) If the lines are defined like this then they are orthogonal where they meet, unless g has a multiple zero.\nAs a trivial example, the function sinh(z) has two regions Re(z) > 0 and Re(z) < 0 where it is asymptotic to eᶻ/2 and −e⁻ᶻ/2. So the anti-Stokes line can be taken to be the imaginary axis, and the Stokes line can be taken to be the real axis. One could equally well take the Stokes line to be any line of given imaginary part; these choices differ only by a",
"-32.41530725284247"
],
[
"meaning that it is perpendicular to all lines in the plane that pass through the nearest point in the plane to the given point. Graph of functions In the two-dimensional plane, right angles can be formed by two intersected lines if the product of their slopes equals −1. Thus defining two linear functions: y₁ = a₁x + b₁ and y₂ = a₂x + b₂, the graphs of the functions will be perpendicular and will make four right angles where the lines intersect if a₁a₂ = −1. However, this method cannot be used if the slope is zero or undefined",
"-32.40403295922442"
],
[
"high part of the step, so the secant line from a to a + h has slope zero. Consequently, the secant lines do not approach any single slope, so the limit of the difference quotient does not exist.\nHowever, even if a function is continuous at a point, it may not be differentiable there. For example, the absolute value function given by f(x) = |x| is continuous at x = 0, but it is not differentiable there. If h is positive, then the slope of the secant line from 0 to h is one, whereas if h",
"-32.4020798234269"
],
[
"Denjoy–Riesz theorem In topology, the Denjoy–Riesz theorem states that every set of totally disconnected points in the Euclidean plane can be covered by a continuous image of the unit interval, without self-intersections (a Jordan arc). Definitions and statement A topological space is zero-dimensional according to the Lebesgue covering dimension if every finite open cover has a refinement that is also an open cover by disjoint sets. A topological space is totally disconnected if it has no nontrivial connected subsets; for points in the plane, being totally disconnected is equivalent to being zero-dimensional. The Denjoy–Riesz theorem states that every compact totally",
"-32.394637206729385"
],
[
"Three-gap theorem In mathematics, the three-gap theorem, three-distance theorem, or Steinhaus conjecture states that if one places n points on a circle, at angles of θ, 2θ, 3θ ... from the starting point, then there will be at most three distinct distances between pairs of points in adjacent positions around the circle. When there are three distances, the largest of the three always equals the sum of the other two. Unless θ is a rational multiple of π, there will also be at least two distinct distances.\nThis result was conjectured by Hugo Steinhaus, and proved in the 1950s by Vera",
"-32.297631455992814"
],
[
"classes of definitions. In synthetic geometry, point and lines are primitive entities that are related by the incidence relation \"a point is on a line\" or \"a line passes through a point\", which is subject to the axioms of projective geometry. For some such set of axioms, the projective spaces that are defined have been shown to be equivalent to those resulting from the following definition, which is more often encountered in modern textbooks.\nUsing linear algebra, a projective space of dimension n is defined as the set of the vector lines (that is, vector subspaces of dimension one) in a",
"-32.223052700410335"
],
[
"six lines, is a quadrilateral, a (6₂, 4₃) configuration of six points and four lines.\nThe set of all points on a line, called a projective range has as its dual a pencil of lines, the set of all lines on a point. Plane dualities A plane duality is a map from a projective plane C = (P, L, I) to its dual plane C∗ = (L, P, I∗) (see § Principle of duality above) which preserves incidence. That is, a plane duality σ will map points to lines and lines to points (Pσ = L and Lσ = P) in such",
"-32.20237644156441"
],
[
"passes through two specific points on the line at infinity, so a circle is determined by five non-collinear points, three in the affine plane and these two special points. Similar considerations explain the smaller than expected number of points needed to define pencils of circles. Tangency Instead of passing through points, a different condition on a curve is being tangent to a given line. Being tangent to five given lines also determines a conic, by projective duality, but from the algebraic point of view tangency to a line is a quadratic constraint, so naive dimension counting yields 2⁵ = 32 conics tangent",
"-32.172949396743206"
],
[
"coordinates. For example, a line in three-dimensional space is determined by two distinct points or by two distinct planes.\nHowever, the lattice of all flats is not a distributive lattice.\nIf two lines ℓ₁ and ℓ₂ intersect, then ℓ₁ ∩ ℓ₂ is a point. If p is a point not lying on the same plane, then (ℓ₁ ∩ ℓ₂) + p = (ℓ₁ + p) ∩ (ℓ₂ + p), both representing a line. But when ℓ₁ and ℓ₂ are parallel, this distributivity fails, giving p on the left-hand side and a third parallel line on the right-hand side.",
"-32.17113817312929"
],
[
"in the picture plane. This is called two-point perspective. In three-point perspective the image plane intersects the x, y, and z axes and therefore lines parallel to these axes intersect, resulting in three different vanishing points. Theorem The vanishing point theorem is the principal theorem in the science of perspective. It says that the image in a picture plane π of a line L in space, not parallel to the picture, is determined by its intersection with π and its vanishing point. Some authors have used the phrase, \"the image of a line includes its vanishing point\". Guidobaldo del Monte",
"-32.163805864867754"
],
[
"= –7153, and 2z - y = 2¹⁹+3¹²:\nMore details on this technique can be found in General Method for Extracting Roots using (Folded) Continued Fractions. Higher dimensions Another meaning for generalized continued fraction is a generalization to higher dimensions. For example, there is a close relationship between the simple continued fraction in canonical form for the irrational real number α, and the way lattice points in two dimensions lie to either side of the line y = αx. Generalizing this idea, one might ask about something related to lattice points in three or more dimensions. One reason to study this",
"-32.15827014524257"
],
[
"due to the following basic theorem:\nTopology of compact planes. If the dimension of the point space of a compact connected projective plane is finite, then with . Moreover, each line is a homotopy sphere of dimension , see or.\nSpecial aspects of 4-dimensional planes are treated in, more recent results can be found in. The lines of a -dimensional compact plane are homeomorphic to the -sphere; in the cases the lines are not known to be manifolds, but in all examples which have been found so far the lines are spheres. A subplane of a projective",
"-32.14444070629543"
],
[
"agree on Eⁿ, they turn out to be different when one looks at more general spaces.\nA tesseract is an example of a four-dimensional object. Whereas outside mathematics the use of the term \"dimension\" is as in: \"A tesseract has four dimensions\", mathematicians usually express this as: \"The tesseract has dimension 4\", or: \"The dimension of the tesseract is 4\".\nAlthough the notion of higher dimensions goes back to René Descartes, substantial development of a higher-dimensional geometry only began in the 19th century, via the work of Arthur Cayley, William Rowan Hamilton, Ludwig Schläfli and Bernhard Riemann. Riemann's 1854 Habilitationsschrift, Schläfli's 1852",
"-32.14294591007638"
],
[
"the 2-dimensional Euclidean distance: \n A level set of this function consists of those points that lie at a distance of from the origin, otherwise known as a circle. For example, , because . Geometrically, this means that the point lies on the circle of radius 5 centered at the origin. More generally, a sphere in a metric space with radius centered at can be defined as the level set .\nA second example is the plot of Himmelblau's function shown in the figure to the right. Each curve shown is a level curve of",
"-32.12035604813718"
],
[
"as the foundation of mathematics. For instance, in Richard Dedekind's 1872 essay Stetigkeit und irrationale Zahlen (Continuity and irrational numbers), he asserts that points on a line ought to have the properties of Dedekind cuts, and that therefore a line was the same thing as the set of real numbers. Dedekind is careful to note that this is an assumption that is incapable of being proven. In modern treatments, Dedekind's assertion is often taken to be the definition of a line, thereby reducing geometry to arithmetic. Three-dimensional Euclidean space is defined to be an affine space",
"-32.105150948947994"
],
[
"least point on the number line lying to the right of all of the numbers 0.9, 0.99, 0.999, etc. Because there is ultimately no room between 1 and these numbers, the point 1 must be this least point, and so 0.999... = 1. Intuitive explanation If one places 0.9, 0.99, 0.999, etc. on the number line, one sees immediately that all these points are to the left of 1, and that they get closer and closer to 1.\nMore precisely, the distance from 0.9 to 1 is 0.1 = 1/10, the distance from 0.99 to 1 is 0.01 = 1/10²,",
"-32.08555798692032"
],
[
"vertices.\nAs Erdős also observed, the set of pairs of points realizing the diameter of a point set must form a linear thrackle: no two diameters can be disjoint from each other, because if they were then their four endpoints would have a pair at farther distance apart than the two disjoint edges. For this reason, every set of n points in the plane can have at most n diametral pairs, answering a question posed in 1934 by Heinz Hopf and Erika Pannwitz. Andrew Vázsonyi conjectured bounds on the number of diameter pairs in higher dimensions, generalizing this problem.\nIn computational geometry,",
"-32.074349658578285"
],
[
"n points of which at most n − k are collinear, for some 0 < k < O(√n). They showed that if n is sufficiently large, relative to k, then the configuration spans at least kn − (1/2)(3k + 2)(k − 1) lines.\nElekes and Csaba Toth noted that the Erdős–Beck theorem does not easily extend to higher dimensions. Take for example a set of 2n points in R³ all lying on two skew lines. Assume that these two lines are each incident to n points. Such a configuration of points spans only 2n planes. Thus, a trivial extension to the hypothesis for point sets in Rᵈ is not sufficient to",
"-32.07082339649787"
],
[
"intrinsic property of an object, in the sense that it is independent of the dimension of the space in which the object is or can be embedded. For example, a curve, such as a circle is of dimension one, because the position of a point on a curve is determined by its signed distance along the curve to a fixed point on the curve. This is independent from the fact that a curve cannot be embedded in a Euclidean space of dimension lower than two, unless it is a line.\nThe dimension of Euclidean n-space Eⁿ is n. When trying to",
"-32.05468010556069"
],
[
"in a new, equally valid theorem. A simple example is that the statement \"two points determine a unique line, the line passing through these points\" has the dual statement that \"two lines determine a unique point, the intersection point of these two lines\". For further examples, see Dual theorems.\nA conceptual explanation of this phenomenon in some planes (notably field planes) is offered by the dual vector space. In fact, the points in the projective plane correspond to one-dimensional subvector spaces while the lines in the projective plane correspond to subvector spaces of dimension 2. The duality in",
"-32.05403902105172"
],
[
"with few points and the number of points on a single line.\nBen Green and Terence Tao showed that for all sufficiently large point sets, n > n₀, the number of ordinary lines is indeed at least n/2. Furthermore, when n is odd, the number of ordinary lines is at least 3n/4 − C, for some constant C. Thus, the constructions of Böröczky for even and odd (discussed above) are best possible. The number of connecting lines As Paul Erdős observed, the Sylvester–Gallai theorem immediately implies that any set of n points that are not collinear determines at least n different lines. As",
"-31.934648673021"
],
[
"type. Since at each point where it is nonzero and finite the vector field has a unique direction, field lines can never intersect, so there is exactly one field line passing through each point at which the vector field is nonzero and finite. Points where the field is zero or infinite have no field line through them, since direction cannot be defined there, but can be the endpoints of field lines. \nSince there are an infinite number of points, an infinite number of field lines can be drawn; but only a limited number can be shown on",
"-31.907385388411058"
],
[
"finitely many lines. An arrangement is said to be trivial when all its lines pass through a common point, and nontrivial otherwise; an ordinary point is a point that belongs to exactly two lines. Proofs For a description of Gallai's original proof of the theorem, see e.g. Borwein & Moser (1990). Kelly's proof This proof is due to Leroy Milton Kelly.\nSuppose that a finite set S of points is not all collinear. Define a connecting line to be a line that contains at least two points in the collection. By finiteness, there must exist a point P and a connecting",
"-31.896615510384436"
],
[
"dimensions The concept of a configuration may be generalized to higher dimensions, for instance to points and lines or planes in space. In such cases, the restrictions that no two points belong to more than one line may be relaxed, because it is possible for two points to belong to more than one plane.\nNotable three-dimensional configurations are the Möbius configuration, consisting of two mutually inscribed tetrahedra, Reye's configuration, consisting of twelve points and twelve planes, with six points per plane and six planes per point, the Gray configuration consisting of a 3×3×3 grid of 27 points and the 27 orthogonal",
"-31.88515184892458"
],
[
"is a set of points symmetric about a horizontal line, as shown in Figure A below.\nTo understand why there are multiple solutions in the case shown in Figure A, consider the pink line in the green region. Its sum of absolute errors is some value S. If one were to tilt the line upward slightly, while still keeping it within the green region, the sum of errors would still be S. It would not change because the distance from each point to the line grows on one side of the line, while the distance to each point on the opposite",
"-31.867421755450778"
],
[
"it is not possible to process functions with more than 4 or 5 dimensions.\nThe curse of dimension is expressed in the order of the integration error that is made by a quadrature of level , with points. The function has regularity , i.e. is times differentiable. The number of dimensions is . Smolyak's quadrature rule Smolyak found a computationally more efficient method of integrating multidimensional functions based on a univariate quadrature rule . The -dimensional Smolyak integral of a function can be written as a recursion formula with the tensor product.\nThe index to is the",
"-31.833913570466393"
],
[
"Discrete two-point space In topology, a branch of mathematics, a discrete two-point space is the simplest example of a totally disconnected discrete space. The points can be denoted by the symbols 0 and 1.\nAny disconnected space has a continuous mapping onto the discrete two-point space. Conversely if a continuous mapping to the discrete two-point space exists from a topological space, the space is disconnected.",
"-31.822614620476088"
],
[
"the points in the plane, the equation φ(l, m) = 0 represents a subset of the lines on the plane. The set of lines on the plane may, in an abstract sense, be thought of as the set of points in a projective plane, the dual of the original plane. The equation φ(l, m) = 0 then represents a curve in the dual plane.\nFor a curve f(x, y) = 0 in the plane, the tangents to the curve form a curve in the dual space called the dual curve. If φ(l, m) = 0 is the equation of the dual curve, then it is called the tangential equation, for the original curve.",
"-31.82163528923411"
],
[
"a curve and also a pair of curves may not have a unique intersection. Hence by using curves in parallel coordinates instead of lines, the point line duality is lost together with all the other properties of projective geometry, and the known nice higher-dimensional patterns corresponding to (hyper)planes, curves, several smooth (hyper)surfaces, proximities, convexity and recently non-orientability. The goal is to map n-dimensional relations into 2D patterns. Hence, parallel coordinates is not a point-to-point mapping but rather a nD subset to 2D subset mapping, there is no loss of information. Note: even a point in nD is not mapped into",
"-31.809546479722485"
],
[
"true, were it to work?\" – and then understand low-dimensional phenomena as deviations from this.\nThe precise reason for the difference at dimension 5 is because the Whitney embedding theorem, the key technical trick which underlies surgery theory, requires 2+1 dimensions. Roughly, the Whitney trick allows one to \"unknot\" knotted spheres – more precisely, remove self-intersections of immersions; it does this via a homotopy of a disk – the disk has 2 dimensions, and the homotopy adds 1 more – and thus in codimension greater than 2, this can be done without intersecting itself; hence embeddings in codimension greater than 2",
"-31.782382449993747"
],
[
"as a real manifold, 2n, and is compact, connected, and orientable. An algebraic curve over C likewise has topological dimension two; in other words, it is a surface.\nThe topological genus of this surface, that is the number of handles or donut holes, is equal to the geometric genus of the algebraic curve that may be computed by algebraic means. In short, if one consider a plane projection of a nonsingular curve that has degree d and only ordinary singularities (singularities of multiplicity two with distinct tangents), then the genus is (d − 1)(d − 2)/2 − k, where k is the number of these singularities. Compact",
"-31.76866874541156"
],
[
"any subset of the real line R has a least upper bound (or supremum), possibly infinite.\nHowever, as with the intermediate value theorem, an alternative version survives; in constructive analysis, any located subset of the real line has a supremum.\n(Here a subset S of R is located if, whenever x < y are real numbers, either there exists an element s of S such that x < s, or y is an upper bound of S.)\nAgain, this is classically equivalent to the full least upper bound principle, since every set is located in classical mathematics.\nAnd again, while the definition of located",
"-31.74160465208115"
],
[
"preferred because it does not have the additional connotations that these other terms have, and it can be used in a symmetric manner. Statements such as \"line l₁ intersects line l₂\" are also statements about incidence relations, but in this case, it is because this is a shorthand way of saying that \"there exists a point P that is incident with both line l₁ and line l₂\". When one type of object can be thought of as a set of the other type of object (viz., a plane is a set of points) then an incidence relation may be viewed",
"-31.739427727989096"
],
[
"point S of k and l describes a circle. This circle is the locus of the intersection point of the two associated lines. Fourth example A locus of points need not be one-dimensional (as a circle, line, etc.). For example, the locus of the inequality 2x + 3y – 6 < 0 is the portion of the plane that is below the line of equation 2x + 3y – 6 = 0.",
"-31.73683491614065"
],
[
"3-dimensional, but if it happens to be 3-dimensional, it is full-fledged, no structure is lost. In other words, the latter transition is injective (one-to-one), while the former transition is not injective (many-to-one). We denote injective transitions by an arrow with a barbed tail, \"↣\" rather than \"→\".\nBoth transitions are not surjective, that is, not every B-space results from some A-space. First, a 3-dim Euclidean space is a special (not general) case of a Euclidean space. Second, a topology of a Euclidean space is a special case of topology (for instance, it must be non-compact, and connected, etc). We denote surjective",
"-31.714551048964495"
],
[
"These definitions serve little purpose since they use terms which are not, themselves, defined. In fact, Euclid did not use these definitions in this work and probably included them just to make it clear to the reader what was being discussed. In modern geometry, a line is simply taken as an undefined object with properties given by axioms, but is sometimes defined as a set of points obeying a linear relationship when some other fundamental concept is left undefined.\nIn an axiomatic formulation of Euclidean geometry, such as that of Hilbert (Euclid's original axioms contained various flaws which have been corrected",
"-31.702224096301507"
],
[
"of the line are meant to suggest that the line continues indefinitely in the positive and negative directions. Another convention uses only one arrowhead which indicates the direction in which numbers grow. The line continues indefinitely in the positive and negative directions according to the rules of geometry which define a line without endpoints as an infinite line, a line with one endpoint as a ray, and a line with two endpoints as a line segment. Comparing numbers If a particular number is farther to the right on the number line than is another number, then the first number is",
"-31.669596512285352"
],
[
"Line (geometry) Definitions versus descriptions All definitions are ultimately circular in nature since they depend on concepts which must themselves have definitions, a dependence which cannot be continued indefinitely without returning to the starting point. To avoid this vicious circle certain concepts must be taken as primitive concepts; terms which are given no definition. In geometry, it is frequently the case that the concept of line is taken as a primitive. In those situations where a line is a defined concept, as in coordinate geometry, some other fundamental ideas are taken as primitives. When the line concept is a primitive,",
"-31.669116093602497"
],
[
"be vertical, horizontal, diagonal or curved. They can be any width or texture. And can be continuous, implied, or broken. On top of that, there are different types of line, aside from the ones previously mentioned. For example, you could have a line that is \nhorizontal and zigzagged or a line that is vertical and zigzagged. Different lines create different moods, it all depends on what mood you are using a line to create. Point A Point is basically the beginning of “something” in “nothing”. It forces the mind to think upon its position and gives something to build upon",
"-31.656075555001735"
],
[
"sides; in addition, for every number of polygon sides there are an infinite number of non-congruent tangential polygons. Tangent lines to two circles For two circles, there are generally four distinct lines that are tangent to both (bitangent) – if the two circles are outside each other – but in degenerate cases there may be any number between zero and four bitangent lines; these are addressed below. For two of these, the external tangent lines, the circles fall on the same side of the line; for the two others, the internal tangent lines, the circles fall on opposite sides of",
"-31.61450847807282"
],
[
"inductive dimension, and is based on the analogy that, in the case of metric spaces, (n + 1)-dimensional balls have n-dimensional boundaries, permitting an inductive definition based on the dimension of the boundaries of open sets. Moreover, the boundary of a discrete set of points is the empty set, and therefore the empty set can be taken to have dimension -1.\nSimilarly, for the class of CW complexes, the dimension of an object is the largest n for which the n-skeleton is nontrivial. Intuitively, this can be described as follows: if the original space can be continuously deformed into a",
"-31.60729088264634"
],
[
"in two dimensions is different from potential theory in other dimensions. This is correct and, in fact, when one realizes that any two-dimensional harmonic function is the real part of a complex analytic function, one sees that the subject of two-dimensional potential theory is substantially the same as that of complex analysis. For this reason, when speaking of potential theory, one focuses attention on theorems which hold in three or more dimensions. In this connection, a surprising fact is that many results and concepts originally discovered in complex analysis (such as Schwarz's theorem, Morera's theorem, the Weierstrass-Casorati theorem, Laurent series,",
"-31.60705056056213"
],
[
"the converse is true: If a nondegenerate locally connected metric continuum is separated by any simple closed curve but by no pair of points, then it is a two-dimensional sphere.",
"-31.6018313052773"
],
[
"points determine a unique line\" (i.e. the line through them) and \"two distinct lines determine a unique point\" (i.e. their point of intersection) show the same structure as propositions. Projective geometry can also be seen as a geometry of constructions with a straight-edge alone. Since projective geometry excludes compass constructions, there are no circles, no angles, no measurements, no parallels, and no concept of intermediacy. It was realised that the theorems that do apply to projective geometry are simpler statements. For example, the different conic sections are all equivalent in (complex) projective geometry, and some theorems about circles can",
"-31.600696459514438"
],
[
"other elements, there's no point in retaining this relation on . However, order on is used in definitions in . Geometry Fundamental to the idea that ∞ is a point no different from any other is the way the real projective line is a homogeneous space, in fact homeomorphic to a circle. For example the general linear group of 2×2 real invertible matrices has a transitive action on it. The group action may be expressed by Möbius transformations, (also called linear fractional transformations), with the understanding that when the denominator of the linear fractional transformation is 0, the image",
"-31.597335711776395"
],
[
"= 0, so that s(p) = p.\nThis argument breaks down only if there exists a point p for which s(p) is the antipodal point of p, since such a point is the only one that cannot be stereographically projected onto the tangent plane of p. Higher dimensions The connection with the Euler characteristic χ suggests the correct generalisation: the 2n-sphere has no non-vanishing vector field for n ≥ 1. The difference between even and odd dimensions is that, because the only nonzero Betti numbers of the m-sphere are b₀ and bₘ, their alternating sum χ is 2 for m even,",
"-31.592116365296533"
],
[
"that dimension's axis. So, for example, if for a particular split the \"x\" axis is chosen, all points in the subtree with a smaller \"x\" value than the node will appear in the left subtree and all points with larger \"x\" value will be in the right subtree. In such a case, the hyperplane would be set by the x-value of the point, and its normal would be the unit x-axis. Balancing Balancing a k-d tree requires care because k-d trees are sorted in multiple dimensions so the tree rotation technique cannot be used to balance them as this may",
"-31.5544805668178"
],
[
"().\nIn dimension 4, one can resolve intersections of two Whitney disks via Casson handles, which works topologically but not differentiably; see Geometric topology: Dimension for details on dimension.\nMore subtly, dimension 5 is the cut-off because the middle dimension has codimension more than 2: when the codimension is 2, one encounters knot theory, but when the codimension is more than 2, embedding theory is tractable, via the calculus of functors. This is discussed further below. Maps between manifolds From the point of view of category theory, the classification of manifolds is one piece of understanding the category: it's classifying the objects.",
"-31.552223981998395"
],
[
"set L of all those lines spanned by pairs of points of P that contain at least points of P. Since no two points can lie on two distinct lines . Now using Szemerédi–Trotter theorem, it follows that the number of incidences between P and L is at most . All the lines connecting j-connected points also lie in L, and each contributes at least incidences. Therefore the total number of such lines is .\nSince each such line connects together pairs of points, we thus see that at most pairs of points can be j-connected.\nNow, let",
"-31.546881910879165"
],
[
"any of various ways). The separation axioms all say, in one way or another, that points or sets that are distinguishable or separated in some weak sense must also be distinguishable or separated in some stronger sense.\nLet X be a topological space. Then two points x and y in X are topologically distinguishable if they do not have exactly the same neighbourhoods (or equivalently the same open neighbourhoods); that is, at least one of them has a neighbourhood that is not a neighbourhood of the other (or equivalently there is an open set that one point belongs to but the",
"-31.52987719295197"
],
[
"12. The numbers may come as close as they like to 12, including 11.999 and so forth (with any finite number of 9s), but 12.0 is not included. In some European countries, the notation is also used for this.\nThe endpoint adjoining the square bracket is known as closed, while the endpoint adjoining the parenthesis is known as open. If both types of brackets are the same, the entire interval may be referred to as closed or open as appropriate. Whenever infinity or negative infinity is used as an endpoint in the case of intervals on the real number line,",
"-31.52074304629059"
],
[
"in 3 dimensions they exist but need not be unique as they can be related by flops, and in dimensions greater than 3 they need not exist.\nA substitute for crepant resolutions which always exists is a terminal model. Namely, for every variety X over a field of characteristic zero such that X has canonical singularities (for example, rational Gorenstein singularities), there is a variety Y with Q-factorial terminal singularities and a birational projective morphism f: Y → X which is crepant in the sense that KY = f*KX.",
"-31.51224420349172"
],
[
"The two top-most points correspond to the node (double point), as they both have the same tangent line, hence map to the same point in the dual curve, while the inflection points correspond to the cusps, corresponding to the tangent lines first going one way, then the other (slope increasing, then decreasing).\nBy contrast, on a smooth, convex curve the angle of the tangent line changes monotonically, and the resulting dual curve is also smooth and convex.\nFurther, both curves have a reflectional symmetry, corresponding to the fact that symmetries of a projective space correspond to symmetries of the dual space, and",
"-31.458011394759524"
],
[
"numbers ℝ⁺ (not including 0) does not have a minimum, because any given element of ℝ⁺ could simply be divided in half resulting in a smaller number that is still in ℝ⁺. There is, however, exactly one infimum of the positive real numbers: 0, which is smaller than all the positive real numbers and greater than any other real number which could be used as a lower bound. Existence and uniqueness Infima and suprema do not necessarily exist. Existence of an infimum of a subset S of P can fail if S has no lower bound at all, or",
"-31.437705864140298"
],
[
"Limiting parallel In neutral or absolute geometry, and in hyperbolic geometry, there may be many lines parallel to a given line through a point not on line ; however, in the plane, two parallels may be closer to than all others (one in each direction of ).\nThus it is useful to make a new definition concerning parallels in neutral geometry. If there are closest parallels to a given line they are known as the limiting parallel, asymptotic parallel or horoparallel (horo from Greek: ὅριον — border).\nFor rays, the relation of limiting parallel is an equivalence relation, which",
"-31.431486009663786"
],
[
"all moments in time.\nA world tube extends beyond the observer in every direction, as it travels from one point to another, allowing to view it as a 4-dimensional map, and a sphere in the 4 dimensions can be described by representing its path in 3-dimensional space. An important difference between two 3-D, one-dimensional world lines is their non-zero boundaries. If there are infinite worlds, a non-zero boundary must exist for every time point between its two corners while none exist for a non-zero one-dimensional world line, since there is a finite distance between each corner of a world line. At",
"-31.4128390866681"
],
[
"lines during artwork and design. A line has a width, direction, curve, and length. A line's width is most times called its \"thickness\". Lines are sometimes called \"strokes\", especially when referring to lines in digital artwork. Shape Shape refers to a 2-dimensional, enclosed area, that is limited to being flat or limited to width and height. Shapes could be geometric, such as squares, circles, triangles etc. or organic and curvaceous. Form The form of a work is its shape, including its volume or perceived volume. A three-dimensional artwork has depth as well as width and height. Three-dimensional form is the",
"-31.407620509766275"
],
[
"plane geometry with points as the fundamental elements and plane geometry with lines as the fundamental elements are equivalent except for interpretation. This leads to the concept of duality in projective geometry, the principle that the roles of points and lines can be interchanged in a theorem in projective geometry and the result will also be a theorem. Analogously, the theory of points in projective 3-space is dual to the theory of planes in projective 3-space, and so on for higher dimensions. Plücker coordinates Assigning coordinates to lines in projective 3-space is more complicated since it would seem that a",
"-31.402450332418084"
]
] |
7xfhvg | - Why when watching HD movies is the dialogue volume so low and the background noises (score, explosions, etc) so loud? | [
"Having a high dynamic range (the difference in volume at reference amplification between the lowest whisper sound and the loudest explosion in the soundtrack) is often a sought after factor. In proper professional movie theatres where you won't bother a neighbour this is a good thing. For most consumers it's pretty annoying. If you're able to, when I set up my surround sound I program the center channel at least 3db louder than any other speaker to compensate for the quiet voice thing. Many receiver/amps have also a night mode that compresses Dynamic range as well although I haven't been a fan when I've tried it.",
"You need at least a 5.1 surround system and equalize the center channel with the others. Dialogue is usually in the center channel, so it's volume should be increased relative to the other channels",
"I experience it just out of TV speakers. Literally can't watch a damn thing without having it super loud. I used to have a htpc plugged into my TV and windows has an audio setting called Loud Equilization which completely fixed it, but can't replicate it on other devices. I now just have an Android box connected to the TV and been trying to find and equivalent setting. Unless I wear headphones, as soon as music or an action scene plays in the show, wife comes out 'can you turn that down a bit please', at which point I just switch the TV off because it's fucking pointless.",
"Can fix that with VLC player it's simple to do URL_0 ",
"To add to what others are saying, and it hasn't been specifically mentioned so far, is that filmmakers set out *deliberately* to create the huge gap between dialogue and explosions. In sound editing there are a few standards (like LUFS) that define peak waveforms in dB. It's standard practice in the industry, intended to be viewed in theatres.",
"Make sure you're using the correct audio settings for your setup. If you have 5 speakers and 1 subwoofer, you have a 5.1 system. In that case, you'll want to boost your center channel volume by a decibel or two at a time until it feels right. You may also have a calibration option in your audio receiver; if so, I recommend trying that first. If you only have two speakers, make sure your player and receiver are set to 2.0 or dual-channel audio. If they're set to 5.1 and you don't have that setup, you're unable to hear 4 channels of audio that the video player thinks you have. One of those channels is the center channel, which is commonly used for voice. Once you're using the correct settings, voice should be much closer to the score and action scenes in movies. If it's still significantly quieter, you can try setting your audio to \"mono\" (last resort, you'll lose audio directionality) or try one of the other suggestions here; the above scenarios are just the most common I've seen.",
"I've never noticed this but it's probably because I always watch everything with the subtitles on. That way is someone is doing the dishes or cooking or something I don't have to rewind or miss anything. It does suck with comedies because it screws up the timing of the jokes, but other then that I love it. I've been doing it since high school and now am just used to it. It sometimes bugs other people (roommates, parents) but they are usually polite and let me do it and then eventually get used to it.",
"Here's my question. Compressors are super simple. Maybe the answer is processor speed but why in the hell do 5.1 systems not have good compressors? I've even got dynamic EQ and automatic volume automation (not a compressor) in my recording software. These things will work in real time on software monitored tracks with no noticeable (eh, within reason) latency. Besides, how hard could it possibly be to delay the picture by the same amount of time the latency of such processing would introduce to the sound? I have a Night Time setting on my Boston Audio system that does nothing but bump the vocal range in the eq. Compressors damn it! We want compressors!",
"I'd double check that surround sound signals are actually reaching your receiver. If you run it through your tv, then to your receiver, the tv may be stripping it down to PCM (2.0 channels) due to fears of copyright protection, then your receiver is emulating PCM back into surround, creating the problem you're describing. Using all HDMI with the ARC (audio return channel) function shouldn't strip it down, but it still may if it doesn't pass the HDCP (high definition copy protection) check. Try running either optical or digital out from your player directly to your receiver, and check that the receiver options are set to Dolby, not just \"all speakers\", which is a fancy form of stereo 2.1. Hopefully that will correct your issue!",
"Nothing to do with HD stuff. This has been an issue since the VHS days(Though rarer back then. I had some tapes that did this). It's to do with the sound mixing. TV has this problem a lot, even when it's got nothing to do with surround sound and stuff(I was playing volume jockey in the 90s a lot when watching cable TV). So do many net videos.",
"Looking at you The Walking Dead! If there wasn't subtitles I wouldn't know what's being said and my speakers would be blown the second anything action like would happen",
"I have fought this problem ever since playing dvds on PS2, which seemed to exhibit this problem even more than other players. If you don't have a receiver or you are playing the sound through the tv speakers, there is little to be done. You could try changing dynamic range on the player or see if there is a dialogue boost setting on the tv or dvd player. If you have a receiver or some form of a sound system, you can, as others have said, boost the center channel. I have my system setup where it accepts 5.1/7.1 and plays it through 4 speakers (2 front and 2 rear). It is a phantom center channel, so the center channel gets played through my big front speakers. I've noticed the front speakers have a much bigger frequency range than the center, so having the center channel speaker lost some of the experience (for example the rain sequence at the beginning of gladiator - having a center speaker causes some of the clear rain sounds to disappear or not play at all). So this has improved dialogue a little. In my experience, having very loud music/background noise/ everything else and quiet dialogue is a sign of a poorly encoded audio mix. I forget where I read it, but I think issues with dialogue volume are instances where the audio tracks weren't adjusted properly from levels set while playing at the movie theaters vs the levels encoded into the blu ray. I've changed every setting imaginable, and run with my center channel boosted 10db and it still doesn't fix the issue on certain movies. It is extremely annoying having to turn down the volume when people are not speaking because the volume is what to high.",
"Some people have answered this partly in my view. It depends on your speaker system as well as your settings. Double check to make sure that if you're listening through TV or computer speakers,the settings are appropriate, rather than 5.1. I worked in the film audio industry and yes the industry standard is to mix at a certain level (dialogue at approx. -24dbFS for theatrical mix and -20dbFS for TV, meaning that for TV, there is 20 db of headroom for louder sounds). I did think it was a bit odd when there is also a large population listening on bad speakers or built in speakers that won't be hearing what we mixers are hearing. Yes, some software for your speakers/amps do calibrate this, but I've tested my mixes before and it didn't sound nearly similar enough to what I was hearing in a studio. Bad hardware can only go so far. There are certain standards that Netflix, Disney, and other distributors/broadcasters have that mixes need to meet. I actually think the QC that they do doesn't focus on dialogue clarity as much as it should, and I definitely have heard dialogue that I thought was too quiet. Realism and art is good for sure, but in most scenes I just want to hear what a character is saying. I feel that there should be a review of how mixes are done and delivered, especially when there is a larger audience watching via Netflix, Hulu, Amazon prime, etc than theatres.",
"We need, for want of a better name, an Old Man button. Where the dark scenes suddenly become well lit, where the dialogue level is high, and where the explosions & sound effects are at a low level. As an extra, especially for complicated murder/mystery/crime shows or movies, a pop up that helps you remember the person they are taking about. Like “Bob” did something, the murder perhaps, and you are all ... which one is Bob? Is he the ex-husband or the mechanic? Then a little pop up comes with a picture and a quick reminder. It’s brilliant.",
"I am in the movie business. Movies are sound balanced for theater volume. At home people keep from rattling furniture, turning the volume down which muddies speech. Movies that are made for tv, are sound balanced for a lower playback volume. Movies made for foreign distribution sets the volume even louder than US theaters. Bollywood, is a good example.",
"This is actually a thing? Thanks OP. I keep discussing for real with my wife if I'm loosing my hearing or not with all these new shows as I can't hear for shit what they're saying but then the SFX comes on and suddenly its too loud."
] | [
[
"loud scenes, though IGN found volume irregularity between the loud scenes and the quiet scenes. IGN called the commentary \"a pretty straight-up behind-the-scenes take on the movie and a bit over-congratulatory\". It found the \"most fascinating\" featurette to be about visual effects, while deeming the other featurettes skippable.",
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"important dialogue could be heard, without emphasizing it. This produced a \"dense audio experience\" for viewers, allowing them to hear multiple scraps of dialogue, as if they were listening in on various private conversations. Altman recognized that although large casts hurt a film commercially, \"I like to see a lot of stuff going on.\"\nAltman first used overlapping soundtracks in MASH (1970), a sound technique which movie author Michael Barson describes as \"a breathtaking innovation at the time.\" He developed it, Altman said, to force viewers to pay attention and become engaged in the film as if they were an active",
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"that made the beginnings and ends of sentences unnecessary; they were there for overlapping.\nTo get the effect he wanted, as multi-track sound recording was not yet available at the time, Hawks had the sound mixer on the set turn the various overhead microphones on and off as required for the scene, as many as 35 times. Reportedly, the film was sped up because of a challenge Hawks took upon himself to break the record for the fastest dialogue on screen, at the time held by The Front Page. Hawks arranged a showing for newsmen of the two films next to",
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"sounds and music are played through a number of wall-mounted speakers. Since the 1970s, subwoofers have been used for low-pitched sounds. In the 2010s, most movie theaters are equipped for digital cinema projection, removing the need to create and transport a physical film print on a heavy reel.\nA great variety of films are shown at cinemas, ranging from animated films to blockbusters to documentaries. The smallest movie theaters have a single viewing room with a single screen. In the 2010s, most movie theaters have multiple screens. The largest theater complexes, which are called multiplexes—a concept developed in Canada in the",
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"audio and video was not synchronize.\nRecently it is switched from 35mm film to Digital Cinema projector. \nUsing DLP Cinema offers a perfect resolution of 1080*2048 with 1:2000 contrast, in 3D with bright, stunning clarity. \nAIRSCREEN screen surface size is 90x38ft / 27x11 m and distance of facilities from cinema screen is 47m.\nAudio is provided by the Community R2 loudspeakers 3-way, triaxial, full-range systems.\nSound can be heard from three hundred meters away\nWith the amplifier rated at approximately 400 watts and the frequency response 70 Hz to 16 kHz ±1dB, Sound can be heard up to about 300 meter away. \nhttp://www.irinn.ir/Default.aspx?TabId=55&nid=178962http://www.ghatreh.com/news/4978214.htm",
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"Guido Franken, writing for the Dutch film website Neerlands Filmdoek, found the story and video quality acceptable, but considered the audio to be too muted and the camera angles too static.",
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"accurately clocked as For Viewers Who Liked A Quiet Place... the demographic they're really after would be something closer to Viewers Who Have Trouble Telling Similar Things Apart.\" Decider's Anna Menta compared the films, \"The Silence is much darker and gorier than A Quiet Place,\" and found The Silence to look low-budget in production values. Menta said The Silence was started before the invasion while A Quiet Place was set fully after the invasion. She noted the criticism of The Silence for having a hearing actor as a deaf character and highlighted its additional elements, a teen romance and a",
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"crash into a wall).\nTV viewers can be affected as well. If a home theater receiver with external speakers is used, then the display lag causes the audio to be heard earlier than the picture is seen. \"Early\" audio is more jarring than \"late\" audio. Many home-theater receivers have a manual audio-delay adjustment which can be set to compensate for display latency. Game mode Many televisions, scalers and other consumer-display devices now offer what is often called a \"game mode\" in which the extensive preprocessing responsible for additional lag is specifically sacrificed to decrease, but not eliminate, latency. While typically intended",
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"twelfth root of 2 is 1.05946. Anyone with a good musical ear can detect a pitch change of around 1%, though an error of up to 3% is likely to go unnoticed, except by those few with ‘absolute pitch’. Most ‘movie’ films shown on European television are sped up by 4.166% because they were shot at 24 frames per second, but are scanned at 25 frames per second to match the PAL standard of 25 frame/s 50 field/s. This causes a noticeable increase in pitch on voices, which often brings surprised comment from the actors themselves when they hear their",
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"pre-school children. As animated films are \"dubbed\" even in their original language and ambient noise and effects are usually recorded on a separate sound track, dubbing a low quality production into a second language produces little or no noticeable effect on the viewing experience. In dubbed live-action television or film, however, viewers are often distracted by the fact that the audio does not match the actors' lip movements. Furthermore, the dubbed voices may seem detached, inappropriate for the character, or overly expressive, and some ambient sounds may not be transferred to the dubbed track, creating a less enjoyable viewing",
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"plays \"to denounce modern political hypocrisy and militarism.\" Sound Due to budgetary constraints, both the on-set and post-production sound was poorly recorded. Anderegg wrote that this, in combination with Welles' fast-paced camera movements and editing, makes the Shakespearean dialogue more difficult to understand. Many scenes are shot in long takes or with character's backs facing the camera, most likely for practical purposes when actors were not present, creating more sound problems. \"In effect,\" Anderegg writes, \"Welles generates a constant tension between what we see and what we hear, a tension that points to the ambiguous status of language in its",
"-31.58285027591046"
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"the production, \"With its hypnotic musical score and sound effects of gunshots, squealing tires, and all-too-close explosions, listeners may believe they’re listening to a movie soundtrack.\"\nOf the adaptation of Locke & Key, Paste Magazine wrote that the audioplay was \"an immersive sonic experience brought to life by a top-flight cast of voice actors including genre icons Kate Mulgrew, Tatiana Maslany, and Haley Joel Osment.\" io9 wrote, \"The production is a stunning adaptation.\" SFFaudio wrote, \"it’s a great story as a graphic novel, and this production successfully captures it, the flawless cast and rich sound adding a new and welcome",
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"War was written and filmed in May 1929. Most of the film was shot at Hollenbeck Park in Los Angeles, while the soda fountain scene was shot at the Hal Roach studio. The song \"Runnin' Wild\" was featured over the opening credits for this film as well as They Go Boom.\nThe difficulties of filming on location during the early sound era were present during the making of Men O' War. Offscreen laughing from passersby present in Hollenbeck Park during filming can be heard, and the sound quality itself suffers from echoing and background noise.\nThis was James Finlayson's first sound film,",
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"degrees, the screen is five stories tall, and the theater is filled with an impressive surround sound system. Because the screen fills a viewer's field of vision (including periphery vision) the screen and surround sound system give viewers the feeling of immersion and motion giving visitors a unique life like experience when viewing films. Viewers must turn their heads left to right up and down to capture all that is going on. The theater only shows films of educational and scientific interest such as: Bears, Beavers, Amazing Caves, Shackleton's Antarctic Adventure and more.Leonard Nimoy was a host of",
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"one in the studio that lets us pick up smaller pieces, like idles, and then we have a dedicated stage at Sony Studios, and that's where we get both the motion capture and the audio – because we do all of the dialogue at the same time – for both gameplay and cinematics. It's big enough for us to set up and perform everything from rehearsals to the final performances, and that approach, which is basically the same as producing a major motion picture, is what makes the performances so fluid and realistic in our games. When we're in full",
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"towards the listener. In cinema setups, many more than two surround speakers are often used, being placed along the side walls and along the back wall, creating a very diffused sound in the auditorium.\nFor music surround channel information is intended to be more direct as in a soundstage there would be direct noise from all around and not ambience as in a movie setting. For this reason surround speakers should not be set up to be strictly diffuse. Optimally there should be discrete surround channels for diffuse and direct effects. This is part of the design for Tomlinson Holman's 10.2",
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"Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones (soundtrack) Recording Information Certain cues used in the film contain inserts that replace a portion of the cue. Both the Main Title and End Credit introduction recordings were taken from The Phantom Menace.\nDue to the editing in the film, several effects were used to aid in transitions between edited cues. Several moments use a chime sound such as the transition from the Obi-Wan Kamino moments to the Anakin/Padmé Naboo scenes.\nEntrance of the Monsters, for example, is almost completely tracked out and instead, is replaced with \"source\" crowd sounds such as drums.\nOnce",
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"IMAX theaters in Los Angeles to ensure the volume of low-end frequencies was consistent with the rest of the soundtrack. The edited video footage featured 10- to 20-second-long shots, in contrast to the shorter shots usually found in concert films. Extended gaps were added between songs to slightly slow down the pace of the film. All audio and video footage used was recorded live in concert, with no added overdubs. Following post-production, U2 3D became the first live-action film to be shot, posted, and exhibited entirely in 3D, the first live-action digital 3D film, and the first 3D concert",
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"audio and video was not synchronize. The Municipality recently switched from 35mm film to Digital Cinema projector. \nUsing DLP Cinema offers a perfect resolution in 3D with bright, stunning clarity. (Precise 2K (2048 x AIRSCREEN screen surface size is90x38ft / 27x11.5m and distance of facilities from cinema is 47m. Audio is provided by the Community R2 loudspeakers 3-way, triaxial, full-range systems. Sound can be heard from three hundred meters away. With the amplifier rated at approximately 400 watts and the frequency response 70 Hz to 16 kHz ±1 dB, sound can be heard up to about 300 meter away.",
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"cinematography to keep the film interesting to the audience, especially given the mute nature of the protagonist; to this end, Flanagan used a Steadicam to follow Siegel's every move, along with a boom mic and a spotter, to make the movement more \"dynamic\". The resulting audio for these scenes could not be used and had to be redone in post, with Flanagan noting that the audio initially \"sounded like a herd of elephants.\"\nTo represent Maddie's world, various ambient sounds were used, such as the sound of ultrasound machines. Flanagan did not want to use pure silence for these scenes, as",
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"however, this record was later overtaken by another Nolan film, Dunkirk, which featured 79 minutes of IMAX) Because of the considerable noise IMAX cameras make, they used standard 65mm cameras to shoot dialogue scenes, and dubbed dialogue in scenes shot with IMAX cameras. Chairman and president of the IMAX Corporation Greg Foster stated that IMAX plans to run the film in its theaters for two months, despite only being contractually committed to run the film for two weeks in some theaters.\nJ. J. Abrams's Star Trek Into Darkness, Francis Lawrence's The Hunger Games: Catching Fire, Luc Besson's Lucy, and Christopher Nolan's",
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"synchronized sounds (e.g., the sound of rolling dice on a game board) could be recorded; the sounds were amplified in post-production. A traditional musical score was also added, which Krasinski justified in wanting audiences to remain familiar with watching a mainstream film, and not feel like part of a \"silence experiment.\"\nSupervising sound editors Erik Aadahl and Ethan Van der Ryn worked on A Quiet Place. For scenes from the perspective of the deaf daughter, sound was removed to put greater focus on the visual. They also advised on organizing shots to reflect the creatures' perspective, like showing them noticing a",
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"recordings of weapons. The sound material brought back from the Philippines was inadequate, because the small location crew lacked the time and resources to record jungle sounds and ambient noises. Murch and his crew fabricated the mood of the jungle on the soundtrack. Apocalypse Now had novel sound techniques for a movie, as Murch insisted on recording the most up-to-date gunfire and employed the Dolby Stereo 70 mm Six Track system for the 70 mm release. This used two channels of sound from behind the audience as well as three channels of sound from behind the movie screen. The 35 mm release used",
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"dialogue (which at one point constituted about 60% of the film) are generally shorter than their corresponding sequences on the discs. Also, since the sound discs were synchronized with a projection speed of 24 frames per second (the established speed for sound film), and the film on the DVD is presented at a slower frame rate (to reproduce natural speed), the soundtrack on the DVD set has been altered to run more slowly than the originally recorded speed. A trailer for the sound reissue, included for the first time on the DVD set, runs at the faster sound film speed,",
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"multi-channel (5.1, 7.1, etc.) surround sound systems. Today, films may be mixed in 'object-based' audio formats such as Dolby Atmos, which introduces a heightened atmosphere within the sound field with the introduction of ceiling speakers and the elimination of audio channels.",
"-30.519257367413957"
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"audio and video are sped up to the PAL framerate (25 fps, when the original film elements may have been shot at 24 fps) and the pitch of the soundtrack is not corrected for the 4.167% increase in playback speed.",
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"Picture was announced, many synthesizer artists submitted demo tapes to Paramount. Ramsay and Wise consulted and decided that the film should have a unique audio style; they were particularly concerned to avoid sounds that had become pervasive and cliché from repetitive use in other science-fiction movies. Events such as Enterprise bridge viewscreen activation were kept silent to provide a more comfortable atmosphere. In contrast, almost every action on the Klingon bridge made noise to reflect the aliens' harsh aesthetic. While much of the effects were created using digital synthesizers, acoustic recordings were used as well. The wormhole's sucking sounds were",
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"religious cult.\nWriting for Comic Book Resources, Renaldo Matadeen contrasted The Silence from A Quiet Place, writing, \"There are quite a few plot threads which make it clear the Netflix movie is far from a rip-off and is, in fact, it's [sic] own thing.\" Matadeen said The Silence's deaf teenage girl can read lips and speak, \"After a while, you almost forget Ally is deaf, resulting in the film lacking some of the genuine tension of A Quiet Place. He found the creatures \"totally different\" as well as the times compared to the creature invasion. While both films have \"a somewhat",
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"noises in the theater, such as the audience's response to the film (e.g. laughter, screaming) or disruptive noises (crying baby, mobile phone ring, people coughing, etc.). In older or poorly maintained theaters, other sounds such as air conditioning or sound from adjacent theater screens may also be audible. In other cases a tripod is used in the handicapped sections of a cinema while plugging the jack in a hard-of-hearing device. These recordings with better sound are called telesync.\nA camera situated in the audience area may record silhouettes of other audience members, especially those leaving the theater for the restroom",
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"has not already been reached. Video and audio is recorded to QuickTime (MOV) container files with H.264/MPEG-4 (Base Profile @ L5) compressed video and uncompressed 48 kHz/16-bit PCM audio at . The bitrate for 1080p is approximately 38 megabits per second (4.8 MByte/s), while for SD it is approximately 17 megabits per second (2.2 MByte/s). Although the internal microphone is mono, stereo audio is supported through the audio input jack. When recording for long periods, especially in warmer climates, increased video noise may occur due to CMOS overheating. Video functionality The EOS 5D Mark II is capable of video recording in",
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[
"a back lot at Warner Bros., using a tour speaker array for The Rolling Stones, and estimated that it could be heard 3 miles (4.83 km) away. In IMAX theatres, the roar was integrated into the sound of the \"Welcome to IMAX\" sequence shown before Godzilla showings.\nIn an interview with The Verge, Edwards commented that it took over a year to design the MUTO creatures because the crew wanted to create something new and different for contemporary audiences. Edwards and the design team looked to creatures from such films as Jurassic Park, Alien, Starship Troopers and King Kong for inspiration, reflecting",
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"nothing but loudness and confusion in the use of so-called stereoscopic sound. The impression we get is that its makers were simply and solely interested in getting a flashy sensation on the screen just as fast as they could.\" Variety was considerably more excited, writing: \"This picture will knock 'em for a ghoul. Warners' House of Wax is the post-midcentury Jazz Singer. What the freres and Al Jolson did to sound, the Warners have repeated in third dimension.\" Harrison's Reports called the film \"a first-class thriller of its kind,\" and \"the best 3-D picture yet made,\" though it felt that",
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"and explosions are often added or enhanced at the post-production stage. The desired effect is to add back to the original soundtrack the sounds that were excluded during recording. By excluding these sounds during field recording, and then adding them back into the soundtrack during post-production, the editors have complete control over how each noise sounds, its quality, and the relative volume. Foley effects add depth and realism to the audio quality for multimedia sources.\nFoley artists review the film as it runs to figure out what sounds they need to achieve the desired sound and results. Once they gather the",
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"films, Sternberg’s scores arise organically with the mise-en-scène and form a key component of the film. \nThe music off-screen does not recede in deference to the on-screen dialogue, but competes with it. Off-screen, voices comment on the visual action, but are not identified visually until later in the film sequence, contributing to an “unrealistic cadence” that characterizes the film’s dialogue. Film historian Andrew Sarris describes it as \"a startling experiment... his use of sound and music for mood effects, and the very unreality of his style seems to justify the unusual density of his sound track.\" Sternberg",
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"The Encyclopedia of International Film said: \"The film suffers not only to its static camera, but especially on the miscast of Robert Schumann. Despite the usual quiet and nuanced acting actress to convey feelings so neither understandable nor noise, nor life force.\"",
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"We dropped the idea of shooting with sync sound since the dialogue delivery has to be modified accordingly. The sound design team embeds various types of microphones throughout the set to record the ambient sound, which will lend a natural feel to the film. It's necessary, because some of these sounds aren't available in the market. It's quite a challenge for everyone\". Sabu Cyril was the production designer of the film. In an interview with The Times of India, he said \"Every hour is a challenge on the sets of Baahubali. Period films are a huge responsibility as there is",
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"release including deleted scenes, outtakes, theatrical trailers, music videos and commentary from each respective film's crew. Additionally, the three films were collected together in a single pack, again released on February 26 and released as \"Scream Trilogy\".\nThe three original films were released individually and in a collection in Blu-ray Disc format on March 29, 2011, two weeks prior to the release of Scream 4, by Lionsgate Home Entertainment, hosting the films in 1080p high definition. In addition to the films, each release contained audio commentary, theatrical trailers and behind-the-scenes footage for each respective film. Scream The Scream original soundtrack, released",
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"soundtrack uses tape delays and heavy reverb. Conrad intended for the audio to be played from a separate stereo tape because of film's poor sound fidelity. Release An unfinished version of The Flicker was previewed at the Film-Makers' Cinemathèque in New York on December 14, 1965. The final version premiered there on February 13, 1966 with a private screening. Each of the Cinematheque's screenings had a doctor on-site. The film began to find a larger audience that September through the fourth New York Film Festival at Lincoln Center.\nConrad programmed a digital version of The Flicker for the Amiga computer during",
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"line of howler dialogue that should have been sunk, there's a nice little scene in which humans have to make a difficult decision. For every stretch of generic sci-fi-via-CGI moviemaking, there's a welcome bit of wit.\" The Washington Post gave the film a three-star rating out of four commenting it is \"an invigorating blast of cinematic adrenaline\". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 2.5 stars out of 4, praising the climax as \"an honest-to-God third act, instead of just settling for nonstop fireballs and explosions, as Bay likes to do. I don't want to spoil it for",
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"Theatre Movies are projected in IMAX format on a giant hemispherical screen that covers 1,000 square metres (11,000 sq ft). The auditorium is fitted with a 12-point sound system with four large subwoofers that deliver 21,000 watts in surround sound designed by Cabasse. The IMAX films, presented in high definition and Géode 3D-relief, feature science, nature, and travel documentaries, short and long feature-length films, and high definition animated subjects. It also presents satellite concert events, including live broadcasts of the Metropolitan Opera from New York City.",
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"Spielberg and sound designer Ben Burtt supervised the format conversion. No special effects or other visual elements were altered, but the audio was enhanced for surround sound.\nIn The Big Bang Theory episode \"The 21-Second Exitation\", the protagonists are slightly late to see a 21-seconds-expanded version of Raiders of the Lost Ark (which, as Leonard suggests, could include the cut sequence in which Jones entered the U-boat), and an enraged Sheldon steals the film reels, followed by dozens of fans trying to stop him and comments about the similarity of the situation to the beginning of the film, when Jones runs",
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],
[
"approximate the actual sounds, including coconut shells for horse hooves, and a sheet of metal for thunder. With the advent of radio and specifically radio dramas, the role of sound effects became more important. When cinema went from silent to \"talkies\", sound effects became a large part of this new medium, too.\nAudio recording technology continued to evolve, making it easier to record and replay sound. As this happened, the more commonly used and harder-to-replicate sound effects were pre-recorded to make them more accessible. Prerecording also allowed the same sound effect to be used many times.\nBoth producers' and listeners' sensibilities began",
"-29.744493080070242"
],
[
"the Expansion Pak increases its resolution from 320 × 240 to 640 × 480.\nLucasFilm was hesitant to grant access to the Star Wars library of sound effects to Factor 5 sound designer Rudolph Stember. As a compromise, the company provided Stember with sounds sampled at the relatively low rate of 22 kHz, half the standard rate. Stember objected, claiming that the clips sounded worse than effects he had lifted from VHS tapes for a previous Star Wars project. The game includes voice work from several notable persons, including screen actors Olivia Hussey and Raphael Sbarge as well as voice actors Bob Bergen, Neil Ross and Terence",
"-29.725209400930908"
],
[
"and DVDs. Compression artifacts, picture quality monitoring, and allocated bandwidth DTV images have some picture defects that are not present on analog television or motion picture cinema, because of present-day limitations of bit rate and compression algorithms such as MPEG-2. This defect is sometimes referred to as \"mosquito noise\".\nBecause of the way the human visual system works, defects in an image that are localized to particular features of the image or that come and go are more perceptible than defects that are uniform and constant. However, the DTV system is designed to take advantage of other limitations of the human",
"-29.631395638134563"
],
[
"of a five channel height layer and a mono \"voice of god\" ceiling channel. The additional channels allow placement and movement of sound along the horizontal and vertical axis.\nThe visual presentation is characterized by the addition of two 2.39:1 aspect ratio screens to the side of the main screen to provide a 270 degree panoramic experience, equivalent to an aspect ratio of 7.17:1. The two side screens are angled at 45 degree in order to cover peripheral vision, although there is seam visible between the screens. Most of the theaters are set up with 30–35 feet main screen with equivalent",
"-29.586833684705198"
],
[
"DVD to consumers, giving it three and a half out of five stars. He noted that the audio quality was \"pretty strong,\" and allows listeners to clearly hear every chord, note, and word that the band outputs, while the crowd noise proves that it is a live video, but is not so loud that it distracts viewers. Beamount also said that the video's quality \"lacks a lot of the polish that more recent recordings have,\" but he later said that he would rather see it in low quality rather than high quality. Chad Bowar of About.com also gave the DVD",
"-29.525143764331006"
],
[
"and possibly shout things at the actors to get them in the mood. Leone cared more for visuals than dialogue (his English was limited, at best). Given the technical limitations of the time, it would have been difficult to record the sound cleanly in most of the extremely wide shots Leone frequently used. Also, it was standard practice in Italian films at this time to shoot silently and post-dub. Whatever the actual reason, all dialogue in the film was recorded in post-production.\nLeone was unable to find an actual cemetery for the Sad Hill shootout scene, so the Spanish pyrotechnics chief",
"-29.487678034696728"
],
[
"and the HD DVD home video formats provide up to eight channels of lossless DTS-HD Master Audio, Dolby TrueHD or uncompressed LPCM audio at 96/48 kHz 24/16-bit. The Sony PlayStation 3 video-game console can output up to 7.1 LPCM through HDMI for both Blu-ray movies and games. Cinema While some movies have been remixed to 7.1 audio tracks on Blu-ray Discs for home cinema, the first discrete theatrical 7.1 soundtrack was Toy Story 3 in 2010, followed by Step Up 3D. Disney announced that they will use 7.1 surround for their future 3D releases. Recent titles include Megamind, Tangled, Tron: Legacy,",
"-29.45337551261764"
],
[
"the film are either shallow in terms of setup, or they just pop them in as time fillers. There's nothing particularly coherent about this film that screams 'solid'.\"",
"-29.452043468496413"
],
[
"from the organ keyboards. Sound effects such as train and boat whistles, car horns, sirens, bird whistles, and an imitation of ocean surf could be used to great effect at appropriate times during a silent film. Increased wind pressure, pipe placement, and volume control Higher wind pressures increased the speaking volume of theatre organ pipes, and they were placed in chambers, usually high in the auditorium. The fronts of these chambers were covered with a set of swell shades which opened and closed like venetian blinds. When closed, the sound of the organ was reduced to a whisper. With a",
"-29.404278661939315"
],
[
"so that the sound of the projector would not interfere with the live sound. Ub Iwerks set up a bedsheet behind the movie screen behind which he placed a microphone connected to speakers where the audience would sit. The live sound was produced from behind the bedsheet. Wilfred Jackson played the music on a mouth organ, Ub Iwerks banged on pots and pans for the percussion segment, and Johnny Cannon provided sound effects with various devices, including slide whistles and spittoons for bells. Walt himself provided what little dialogue there was to the film, mostly grunts, laughs, and squawks. After",
"-29.39954997773748"
],
[
"sound: It Came from Outer Space; I, the Jury; The Stranger Wore a Gun; Inferno; Kiss Me, Kate; and many others. Widescreen Inspired by Cinerama, the movie industry moved quickly to create simpler and cheaper widescreen systems, the first of which, Todd-AO, was developed by Broadway promoter Michael Todd with financial backing from Rodgers and Hammerstein, to use a single 70mm film running at 30 frames per second with 6 magnetic sound tracks, for their screen presentation of \"Oklahoma!\". Major Hollywood studios immediately rushed to create their own unique formats, such as Warner Bros. Panavision, Paramount Pictures' VistaVision and Twentieth",
"-29.377831524296198"
],
[
"Because microphones of the time could not pick up more than dialogue, other sounds had to be added in after the film was shot. Foley and his small crew projected the film on a screen while recording a single track of audio that captured their live sound effects. Their timing had to be perfect, so that footsteps and closing doors synchronized with the actors' motions in the film. Jack Foley created sounds for films until his death in 1967. His basic methods are still used today.\nModern Foley art has progressed as recording technology has progressed. Today, sounds do not have",
"-29.365389041078743"
],
[
"York Times, Vincent Canby noted, \"There are a number of hefty laughs scattered throughout . . . this woozy film adaptation\" and added, \"Noises Off is a practically perfect stage piece, constructed with such delicacy that any opportunistic adjustment can destroy it, which is what happens here . . . It may not even be Mr. Bogdanovich's fault. He hasn't opened up the play in any foolish way. There are even times when the camera successfully catches the tempo of the lunatic action without being overwhelmed by it. Yet too often the action and the dialogue are so fuzzily understood",
"-29.319999220388127"
],
[
"find too startling.\" Sid Silverman, writing for Variety, noted the use of sound effects as \"multiple, continuous, and in detail,\" and that the film included \"enough screams to stimulate the average film mob into sticking through it.\" Hall also criticized the film's utilization of sound, writing: \"There are too many outbursts of shrieking, merely to prove the effect of the audible screen, to cause any spine-chilling among those watching this production.\" \nThe Chillicothe Constitution-Tribune noted that The Last Warning \"the most thrilling mystery film released this season,\" while the Billings Gazette deemed it \"the greatest mystery picture ever filmed.\" Photoplay",
"-29.251396700608893"
],
[
"accurate, with images towards the back and especially to the sides being unstable. The localisation of a virtual source, based on level differences between two loudspeakers to the side of a listener, shows great inconsistency across the standardised 5.1 setup, also being largely affected by movement away from the reference position. 5.1 surround is therefore limited in its ability to convey 3D sound, making the surround channels more appropriate for ambience or effects.)\n7.1 channel surround is another setup, most commonly used in large cinemas, that is compatible with 5.1 surround, though it is not stated in the ITU-standards. 7.1 channel",
"-29.209971950855106"
],
[
"Kings. Many of his films were biblical epics set on vast outdoor sets that required communication with hundreds of extras. \nThe distinctive distorted sound of a human voice amplified by a megaphone is widely recognized, from its use in train and bus stations and sports arenas. Applied to music, it gives the sound of an antique acoustic gramophone record player. It has been used in radio advertisements and popular music to give retro and often humorous effects. A recorded voice or music can be processed to give it a \"megaphone\" sound effect without using",
"-29.204659363254905"
],
[
"frames was very thin. When sound-on-film was introduced in the late 1920s, the soundtrack was recorded in a stripe running just inside of one set of the perforations and cut into the 1.33 image. This made the image area \"taller\", usually around 1.19, which was slightly disorienting to audiences used to the 1.3 frame and also presented problems for exhibitors with fixed-size screens and stationary projectors.\nFrom studio to studio, the common attempt to reduce the image back to a 1.3:1 ratio by decreasing the projector aperture in-house met with conflicting results. Each movie theater chain, furthermore, had its own",
"-29.202639459603233"
],
[
"Characters often talk at once or talk over each other's lines. One example of the dense soundtrack is the party scene, which includes dialogue over screams, gunfire and music. Except for the opening credits and the very end of the film, all of the music heard in the film is incidental. The sound engineer was Joseph de Bretagne. Music used in the film includes Mozart's Three German Dances, Monsigny's Le déserteur, Louis Byrec, Léon Garnier and Eugène Rimbault's En revenant de la revue, Strauss's Die Fledermaus, Saint-Saëns's Danse macabre, Chopin's Minute Waltz and Scotto's À Barbizon. The music was arranged",
"-29.194399637868628"
],
[
"the pipe organ score linking the Apollo 11 rocket flight with micro and macro universes. Narrator According to the film's director Theo Kamecke speaking on the director's commentary of the 2009 film release the narrator, Laurence Luckinbill, was selected because he was not a narrator but an actor who had not only the voice but the temperament to understand the feel of the film. Production of the finished film Because the footage for the film originated from so many sources – 70mm, 35mm, 16mm, video, stills – it was necessary to settle on a format very early in production that",
"-29.18521842264454"
],
[
"War II. Still, the film was popular enough to gross twice its cost. The arrival of sound films at the same time combined to radically change filmmaking. Due to the limitations imposed by early sound filming techniques, The Crowd's moving camera innovations would not be equaled for another decade.\nVidor used the John and Mary Sims characters again, with different actors, in his 1934 film Our Daily Bread. He also provided an insightful interview on the making of the film in a segment of the British documentary series Hollywood (1980). Soundtrack Composer Carl Davis created an orchestral score for the",
"-29.151135203253943"
],
[
"theatrical trailers, music videos, and crew commentary. The three films were also sold as a collection called the \"Scream Trilogy\", released on February 26, 2001.\nOn March 29, 2011, two weeks prior to the release of Scream 4, Scream was released in US territories on Blu-ray by Lionsgate Home Entertainment. The Blu-ray presents the films in 1080p high definition. The releases contain all the additional materials found on the Collector's Edition DVD, including outtakes and deleted scenes. Score The Scream score by Marco Beltrami was released by Varèse Sarabande on July 14, 1998, on a CD titled \"Scream/Scream 2\", which also contained tracks",
"-29.141949520184426"
],
[
"This allows for a broader expression in sounds, more similar to that in films, because this way the sound designer can e.g. create footstep sounds that vary in a believable and non-repeating way and that also corresponds to what's seen in the picture. The digital audio workstation cannot directly \"communicate\" with game engines, because the game's events occur often in an unpredictable order, whereas traditional digital audio workstations as well as so called linear media (TV, film etc.) have everything occur in the same order every time the production is run. Especially games have also brought in dynamic or adaptive",
"-29.13417809922248"
],
[
"in a room.\nPresence is recorded during the production stage of filmmaking. It is used to help create the film sound track, where presence may be intercut with dialogue to smooth out any sound edit points. The sound track \"going dead\" would be perceived by the audience not as silence, but as a failure of the sound system. For this reason presence is normally recorded—like dialogue—in mono, with the microphone in the same position and orientation as the original dialogue recording. In the sound edit, presence occupies the same track as the dialogue to which it applies.",
"-29.117822824511677"
],
[
"a fight scene between Homer and Tom in the episode. The scene was difficult for the producers to sound-mix because they wanted it to be funny but not horrifying. They discovered that the more realistic the effects used sounded, the funnier the scene became. The producers tried all sorts of different sounds for when Homer cracks his back on the fire hydrant and chose the tiniest realistic sound, because they believed that it was the most painful and \"hilarious\". Reception In its original broadcast, \"Brother from the Same Planet\" finished 18th in ratings for the week of February 1–7, 1993,",
"-29.09742890579946"
],
[
"Sounds. For At the Movies, the Duke of Norfolk does a rendition of \"The Sound of Silence,\"",
"-29.088505517618614"
],
[
"intercutting these scenes helped keep the audience engaged.\"\nSound editing and mixing work took place at Todd Soundelux. Supervising sound editor Wylie Stateman recorded on-location sound during filming, placing microphones on the actors' backpacks and clothing \"so [the viewers] would hear explosions and bullets going by as though [they] were with these guys as they were being attacked.\" In creating sound effects for the environment of each scene, Stateman relied on foley design, rather than traditional sound effects. Visual effects The two visual effects companies for the film were Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) and Image Engine, with overall supervision by",
"-29.087862344502355"
],
[
"of The New York Times stressed that \"there is virtually no music on the soundtrack of this tense, methodical thriller. Long passages are entirely wordless. In some of the most gripping sequences what you hear mostly is a suffocating silence.\" Skip Lievsay, the film's sound editor called this approach \"quite a remarkable experiment,\" and added that \"suspense thrillers in Hollywood are traditionally done almost entirely with music. The idea here was to remove the safety net that lets the audience feel like they know what's going to happen. I think it makes the movie much more suspenseful. You're not guided",
"-29.071216080192244"
],
[
"They used certain color tinges to indicate that some characters were now pod people. \"When they're running along the Embarcadero and the huge shadows appear first, those are sort of classic film noir images\", the director said.\nSound editor Ben Burtt, who had helped create many of the signature sounds from Star Wars the year before, also added to the film's ambience. Natural sounds that mix with the city's more industrial noises give way to just the latter as the film progresses. Among them are the grinding noises of garbage trucks, a common urban sound that slowly becomes horrific as it",
"-29.05703750133398"
],
[
"\"2:2 pulldown\". However, during the analogue broadcasting period, the 24 frame per second film was shown at a slighly faster 25 frames per second rate, to match the PAL video signal. This resulted in a fractionally higher audio soundtrack, and resulted in feature films having a slightly shorter duration, by being shown 1 frame per second faster.\nIn recent decades, telecine has primarily been a film-to-storage process, as opposed to film-to-air. Changes since the 1950s have primarily been in terms of equipment and physical formats; the basic concept remains the same. Home movies originally on film may be transferred to video",
"-29.052786784479395"
],
[
"was as yet no sound-absorbent walls between the projection machine and the auditorium. This painful noise disturbed visual enjoyment to no small extent. Instinctively cinema proprietors had recourse to music, and it was the right way, using an agreeable sound to neutralize one less agreeable.\"\nBefore the age of recorded sound in motion pictures, efforts were taken to provide suitable music for films, usually through the services of an in-house pianist or organist, and, in some cases, entire orchestras, typically given cue sheets as a guide. A pianist was present to perform at the Lumiere brothers' first film screening in 1895.",
"-29.037949709265376"
],
[
"any film's temporal continuity.\nDiegetic sound is that which is to have occurred within the story during the action being viewed. It is sound that comes from within the narrative world of a film (including off-screen sound). Continuous diegetic sound helps to smooth temporally questionable cuts by overlapping the shots. Here the logic is that if a sonic occurrence within the action of the scene has no breaks in time, then it would be impossible for the scene and its corresponding visuals to be anything but temporally continuous.\nMatch on action technique can preserve temporal continuity where there is a uniform, unrepeated",
"-29.032327087945305"
],
[
"has not yet been challenged.\nExample of broadcasters concerns. Online HD H.264 has made significant progress towards becoming a widespread video format on the internet thanks to Apple Computer's QuickTime software supporting the format as of version 7. Since many movie trailers are released in QuickTime format, when movie distributors started releasing HD trailers on the web the format they chose was H.264. H.264 is also used by some for encoding video podcasts. Some recorded shows, series and movies are shared via P2P-services.",
"-29.018116251274478"
],
[
"on 16 mm film, giving it a grainy, newsreel feel (no actual stock footage was used). Most of the equipment used in the production was borrowed. The audio quality (and lighting) on the opening reel is rather poor, which makes the dialogue difficult to follow for the first few minutes. Stanley Kubrick, who was intrigued by the project, donated film stock from Dr. Strangelove to Brownlow to help him finish the film. Veteran wartime BBC radio announcers Alvar Lidell and John Snagge gave their services free to voice reconstructed newsreels and radio broadcasts. Support was also given by director Tony Richardson,",
"-29.008802557496892"
],
[
"anymore after two minutes. Above all, if one removes the background hiss from the soundtrack, one takes out all the harmonic frequencies of the actors' voices in the process. Be it in the low, the medium, or the treble range, the voices become neutral, flat, mannered; the acting loses a great part of its dramatic value. When you see an aggressively remastered film by Sacha Guitry, you have the feeling the voice you hear is not Guitry's; you believe that this is a dubbed film and the dialogue is being read or recited. In most cases I know, the remastering",
"-28.997425539884716"
],
[
"the film's inspiration or of sound would have improved the movie's tension.",
"-28.98262107092887"
],
[
"with a corresponding reduction in transmission bandwidth. In contrast, over-the-air (ATSC) broadcasts of 1080i are fixed at 1920x1080. Temporal (frame-rate) reduction has not been attempted yet, as it unacceptably changes the character of motion video sequences.\nAny form of rate-shaping or downsampling is inherently intrusive, in that the source bitstream is altered significantly, often due to a full re-compression process. Distortion (caused by the operator) is characterized by reduced sharpness, reduced detail, excessive compression artifacts (mosquito noise and blocking), and in some cases, alteration of the color-palette. The reduced video quality is assumed to be introduced by the sat/cable",
"-28.974054682068527"
],
[
"1974, and took place mostly in Los Angeles with two weeks' location filming in Reno\nCalifornia Split was the first film to use the experimental eight-track sound system that allowed eight separate audio channels to be recorded and helped develop Altman’s trademark of overlapping dialogue. To this end, he gave the supporting actors and extras significant emphasis on the soundtrack. A number of the extras were members of Synanon, an organization for ex-addicts. Altman also used champion poker player Amarillo Slim in the movie \"to add drama to the poker game for the actors and crew. He elevated the game to",
"-28.961089441552758"
],
[
"and around the theatre to create a \"surround sound\" effect. IMAX also provides a \"top center\" speaker in addition to the centre speaker found in conventional theatres. This extra channel allows the sound mix engineers to take advantage of the screen's greater height. Projectors Transporting the large film stock through the optical system presented challenges for both the camera and the projector. Conventional 70 mm systems were not steady enough for the 586× magnification. On the projector side, William Shaw adapted an Australian patent for film transport called the \"rolling loop\" by adding a compressed air \"puffer\" to accelerate the film,",
"-28.960963204153813"
],
[
"version of Hamlet to that date.\nAnother exception was Franco Zeffirelli's hugely successful 1968 version of Romeo and Juliet, which, although photographed in beautiful settings and certainly having the look of an epic, was shown in most areas in monaural sound (although its three soundtrack albums were all made in stereo) and was projected at a screen aspect ratio of 1.66:1; that is, roughly the dimensions of today's average movie screen or HDTV screen, not the very wide screens required for films made in Ultra Panavision, CinemaScope, Todd-AO or any of the other ultrawide processes invented in the 1950s meant that",
"-28.950828420813195"
],
[
"that the film had promise, saying \"It appeared to be clever, dangerous, witty, and fresh\" but went on to label it as derivative of the films it satirized: \"Scream runs out of humour, and in turn robs itself of the chance to get the audience to take the thrills and gut-spills it offers seriously.\" Home media Scream was released in the United States on AC3 LaserDisc (uncut) on July 2, 1997, VHS on June 24, 1997 and a special release with the Scream 2 trailer December 2, 1997, and on DVD on December 3, 1997. A DTS Laserdisc (uncut) was",
"-28.93409864208661"
],
[
"system with known listening level. Audio level at a listener's ears depends on listening environment, listener position, speaker sensitivity as well as amplifier gain. For loudness compensation to work correctly the playback system must also accurately assume what volume level was used in the mastering location. For movie soundtracks this reference volume level is an industry standard and can be used by manufacturers to provide a loudness feature that works with a reasonable degree of accuracy. A Home theater product that provides a reference level indication on the volume control can be expected to work well with movie soundtracks.",
"-28.929283590900013"
],
[
"concerned, the sound quality was unsurpassed at the time compared to consumer videotape, but the quality of the analog soundtracks varied greatly depending on the disc and, sometimes, the player. Many early and lower-end LD players had poor analog audio components, and in turn many early discs had poorly mastered analog audio tracks, making digital soundtracks in any form desirable to serious enthusiasts. Early DiscoVision and LaserDisc titles lacked the digital audio option, but many of those movies received digital sound in later re-issues by Universal, and the quality of analog audio tracks generally got far better as time went",
"-28.913742757518776"
],
[
"prone to the same sorts of degradation that affect the picture, such as scratching and copying.\nUnlike the film image that creates the illusion of continuity, soundtracks are continuous. This means that if film with a combined soundtrack is cut and spliced, the image will cut cleanly but the sound track will most likely produce a cracking sound. Fingerprints on the film may also produce cracking or interference.\nIn the late 1950s, the cinema industry, desperate to provide a theatre experience that would be overwhelmingly superior to television, introduced widescreen processes such as Cinerama, Todd-AO and CinemaScope. These processes at the same",
"-28.911158393253572"
],
[
"player character's presence.\nThe existing audio was remastered using reverberation, depth, and spatial effects to enhance the overall ambiance of the game; one example a developer from Raven made note of is that \"Layering out multiple sounds now makes a big difference\". A range of other examples of sound encompassing both effects and dialogue that were not present in Modern Warfare were also used, including audio channels that had been created for the original, but due to restraints had not been included during its development; one example was training dialogue during the game's introductory level which is only heard in Modern",
"-28.901274366628513"
],
[
"Major?\", while Colm Andrew of the Manx Independent said \"the flimsiness of the character, who is essentially a one-trick pony, starts to show\" and his \"continual close-up gurning into the camera\" becomes tiresome. Peter Rainer of The Christian Science Monitor gave the film a \"B\" and said, \"Since Mr. Bean rarely speaks a complete sentence, the effect is of watching a silent movie with sound effects. This was also the dramatic ploy of the great French director-performer Jacques Tati, who is clearly the big influence here.\" Amy Biancolli of the Houston Chronicle gave the film 3 out of 4 stars,",
"-28.89647873165086"
],
[
"used expensive front projectors in a darkened viewing room. During the 1990s, watching movies on VHS at home became a popular leisure activity. Beginning in the late 1990s, and continuing throughout much of the 2000s, home-theater technology progressed with the development of the DVD-Video format (higher resolution than VHS), Dolby Digital 5.1-channel audio (\"surround sound\") speaker systems, and high-definition television (HDTV), which initially included bulky, heavy Cathode Ray Tube HDTVs and flat screen TVs. In the 2010s, affordable large HDTV flatscreen TVs, high resolution video projectors (e.g., DLP), 3D television technology and the high resolution Blu-ray Disc (1080p) have",
"-28.88641228567576"
],
[
"creates an unintelligible cacophony. Each news report plays out, two cutting to a different commercial, while the bottom-left screen replays Beale's death in slow-motion. The screens momentarily freeze, and a voiceover proclaims the film \"the story of Howard Beale, the first known instance of a man who was killed because he had lousy ratings.\" All of the screens fade to black, except for a still-frame of the murder. The overlapping audio slowly resolves throughout the credits, finally ending in a sound effect of a single news teletype. Production Network came only two years after the first on screen suicide in",
"-28.870159171521664"
],
[
"heavily targets independent filmmakers, as HD has a much higher resolution than DV and will generally look superior on a film blow-up. It is also noteworthy that the camera records HD footage, complete with clip information, to static P2 memory cards instead of tape. This signified a radical change in the video editing workflow.\nFor recording 24p to tape in formats which typically do not support 24p, such as DV, options include PsF (Progressive segmented Frame), 2:3 Pulldown and advanced pulldown.\nSome music videos and television series today are shot with 24p video. 23.976p Some 24p productions, especially those made only for",
"-28.861260998353828"
],
[
"best sound systems were designed for home theater and movie sound. It typically includes more than just the left and right stereo channels. Television and VHS typically encodes extra channels onto the two main channels, while digital modes encode this information into the digital DVD source data, with center, two rear, and a subwoofer speakers. The difficulty is usually in wiring and placing the rear speakers and the necessity of buying a receiver that can decode the sound. As the size of video monitors has increased, rather than having a 20-inch TV surrounded by massive stereo equipment, it is",
"-28.82888049178291"
],
[
"lack of sound on most of the footage, many scenes had to be re-dubbed. Both segments, which started out as horror films with a slice of comedy, had now become over-the-top comedy.",
"-28.80948946037097"
],
[
"not be able to realize that the sound was not actually part of the filming process itself. Foley sounds are added to the film in post production after the film has been shot. The need for replacing or enhancing sounds in a film production arises from the fact that, very often, the original sounds captured during shooting are obstructed by noise or are not convincing enough to underscore the visual effect or action. For example, fist-fighting scenes in an action movie are usually staged by the stunt actors and therefore do not have the actual sounds of blows landing. Crashes",
"-28.788311174575938"
],
[
"City Lights [1931]) and zero talkies in the Time Out poll. (City Lights, like Sunrise, was released with a recorded score and sound effects, but is now customarily referred to by historians and industry professionals as a \"silent\"—spoken dialogue regarded as the crucial distinguishing factor between silent and sound dramatic cinema.) The earliest sound film to place is the French L'Atalante (1934), directed by Jean Vigo; the earliest Hollywood sound film to qualify is Bringing Up Baby (1938), directed by Howard Hawks.\nThe first sound feature film to receive near-universal critical approbation was Der Blaue Engel (The Blue Angel); premiering on",
"-28.78696188446338"
],
[
"scores for their top 25 American film scores. Sound effects Sound designer Frank Serafine, a longtime Star Trek fan, was invited to create the sound effects for the picture. Given access to state-of-the-art audio equipment, Serafine saw the picture as the chance to modernize outdated motion picture sound techniques with digital technology. Owing to background noise such as camera operation, much of the ambient noise or dialogue captured on set was unusable; it was Serafine's job to create or recreate sounds to mix back into the scenes.\nAs all the sound elements such as dubbed lines or background noise came together,",
"-28.781135723605985"
],
[
"systems Because of higher television production budgets in the US, and a preference for the look of film, many prerecorded TV shows were, in fact, captured onto film at 24 Hz.\nSource material filmed at 24 Hz is converted to roughly 60 Hz using the technique called 3:2 pulldown, which includes inserting variable number of duplicate frames, with additional slowdown by the factor of 1.001, if needed. Occasionally, inter-frame mixing is used to smooth the judder.\nLive programs are captured at roughly 60 Hz. In the last 15 years, 30 Hz has also become a feasible capture rate when a more \"film like\" look is desired,",
"-28.770126158371568"
],
[
"effect when I watch the movie. It's kind of like the movie I wrote, but not at all like the movie I wrote. It has no patience for subtlety. It has no patience for the quiet moments. It has no patience period. It's big and loud and blunt and rephrased by the director at every possible turn. Cumulatively, the effect was a totally different movie. I don't know why Branagh needed to make this big, loud film ... the material was subtle. Shelley's book was way out there in a lot of ways, but it's also very subtle. I don't",
"-28.768322345684282"
],
[
"1948.\nThe birth of sound film created a need for a steady playback rate to prevent dialog and music from changing pitch and distracting the audience. Virtually all film projectors in commercial movie theaters project at a constant speed of 24 frame/s. This speed was chosen for both financial and technical reasons. A higher frame rate produces a better looking picture, but costs more as film stock is consumed faster. When Warner Bros. and Western Electric were trying to find the ideal compromise projection speed for the new sound pictures, Western Electric went to the Warner Theater in Los Angeles, and",
"-28.742323692575155"
],
[
"voice capability to San Francisco's warning network, it has also caused some reliability problems as the comparatively deep-pitched growl of these tones can damage the speakers when playing at high volume. However, this may not necessarily be the fault of the speakers used, as few electronic speakers can tolerate playing such low-pitched, bass-rich sounds at high volume levels for extended periods of time.",
"-28.73479443578981"
],
[
"an animated sequence in the film Frida (2002).\nWith very few exceptions, their films have no meaningful spoken dialogue—most have no spoken content at all, while some, such as The Comb (From the Museums of Sleep) (1990) include multilingual background gibberish that is not intended to be coherently understood. Accordingly, their films are highly reliant on their music scores, of which many have been written especially for them by the Polish composer Leszek Jankowski. In 2000, they contributed a short film to the BBC's Sound On Film series in which they visualised a 20-minute piece by the avant-garde composer Karlheinz Stockhausen.",
"-28.73002467356855"
],
[
"in which the audio drops out, creating a heightened sense of drama, as an example of how Barnet used \"aural flourishes\" in his storytelling. However, Nield also noted that the director, who had only made one sound film prior to By the Bluest of Seas, had not yet divorced himself from silent film techniques, such as the occasional use of intertitles and a reliance on facial expressions. Illustrating Barnet's skill as a visual storyteller, Nield pointed to the simplistic manner in which the opening scene is told, the \"rocking, ill-angled\" cinematography used to capture a storm, and the abstract conveyance",
"-28.716237945161993"
]
] |
26tjen | Why is Hitler often considered a genius? And why did he lose the war? | [
"I dont know who you've been talking to, but it's generally agreed that he was no genius. He did have a rather good staff though. The main downfall of the nazi regime was the same as it's success, their speed and aggression. They pushed too far and too fast, making too many enemies. It wasnt a sustainable model, and neither was the regime itself. He was an excellent orator though, that was what he did best. In the end he did convince an awful lot of people to go an awful long way out of their normal behaviour.",
" > I often hear of the idea that Hitler was really very smart. Was this due to his political moves? His military tactics? There's no clear consensus on this; for obvious reasons it's pretty much impossible to have an objective conversation about the guy, so there's a lot of hyperbole on both sides. As for why he might be considered a genius, the Nazis were amazingly successful, all things considered. Recall that Germany went from being completely broken and disarmed to owning nearly all of Europe in just a few years. In addition, he had a few very early victories which completely shattered the Allies in Europe. Whether this was actual genius though, or just beginners luck is impossible to say. As time went on, his mental capacity certainly began to falter though, and by the end of the war he was a barely functional drug addict. > Furthermore, if he was a genius (or even a great leader) what was his downfall? Was there a crucial pivotal event where his supposed intelligence was wrong? The answer pretty much everyone is going to give you is Operation Barbarossa. Without question, the Soviet Union was the most important opposition to Hitler. The Nazis suffered about 80% of their losses on the Eastern Front. Whether the decision to invade or not was actually a mistake though is debated by historians. While the two parties may have worked together early in the war, they were anything but friends. Sooner or later, the Nazis and the Communists *would* come to blows. By launching a sneak attack, Hitler at least took the initiative and had the opportunity to set the stage in his favor. Indeed, the initial push was massively successful; the Nazis were viewed as *liberators* by a shockingly large number of people (remember, Stalin was not exactly popular). If the Nazis had decided to arm the Slavs and turn them against the Soviets instead of trying to exterminate them, they might have actually won. Of course, that was impossible for Nazi ideology, so maybe it could have had unforeseen consequences. Such is the way of things with alternative history. Aside from Barbarossa, there were a couple other large mistakes which would come back to haunt him. Not smashing the British at Dunkirk eventually would eventually bite him in the ass. Not trying to find a way to keep the Americans out of the European Theater was likewise a failure. The short of the matter though is simply that Hitler was just some dude with a lot of ambition, in the right place at the right time. He wasn't the larger than life figure pop culture has made him out to be. As for the war, war is chaos. Even the best people make mistakes, and no one ever knows for sure what the consequences of their actions will be. There are multiple junctions in which the tide of the conflict could theoretically turned, but there's no way to say for certain.",
"He was pretty adept at organizing his party and understanding the dynamics of politics. His military prowess is more due to his excellent generals. As for his downfall, even for the smartest of us, arrogance costs a price. He believed he could invade the USSR and take over in the spring before winter set in and he couldn't. He severely underestimated the lengths the Russians were willing to go to to repel the invasion. Pride comes before the fall.",
"He was pretty good at whipping people up at him, but his paranoia really undermined the war effort, and he was not that great of a strategist. Germany arguably lost the war entirely because Hitler convinced himself Russia was going to turn on him and picked a fight he couldn't afford before sending an army into Russia without cold weather gear.",
"I've heard he had great speaking skills, like in talking to crowds and whatnot. Now genius... nope, never heard of that.",
"He wasn't a genius, but a very charismatic politician who, at the time, knew that his party would only be successful by surrounding himself by those who excelled in very specific areas. Goebbels was a master when it came to engineering propaganda that the common German could get behind and even champion. Eichmann was an expert when it came to transporting large quantities of resources in the most efficient, timely manner possible. Himmler was instrumental in championing the Aryan cause by forming the SS (among other things) while also knowing how to effectively consolidate power internally(usually by arranging assassinations or subterfuge). Heydrich was, unlike some of the other Nazis, a skilled soldier who was absolute unrestrained in his brutality and callousness; he was essentially a conquerer who had absolutely no qualms with razing entire villages to the ground in order to achieve a goal. And you would see this kind of brutality adopted by his superior (Himmler), the SA, SS, and SD. Goering WAS an actual genius, decorated veteran, and brilliant battlefield tactician whose one major flaw was a morphine addiction. Hitler's downfall was making strategic military decisions he was in no way qualified to make because of his own inflated ego during the middle of the war. The Nazis quickly and aggressively rolled through country after country, effectively crushing any and all military resistance that got in their way. They were borderline unstoppable. BUT, these victories were not because of HItler; they belonged to men like Goering, Rommel, Himmler, and Heydrich. The moment Hitler took the reigns of the Nazi military, things started to come apart. His country's military victories fueled his arrogance; he thought he could make no mistakes, that nothing could possibly stop him, and that it was his brilliance alone which saw Nazi Germany become the major player that it was. And this was his undoing. He started ignoring the advice of his generals, and began making poor, then extremely poor, tactical mistakes as a consequence: the expansion of the war into Russia was a disaster (one that would cost him the war), he effectively mishandled both the African and Western campaigns to the point the Allies started gaining ground. TL:DR; Hitler wasn't a genius, but he surrounded himself with people that were highly skilled at what they did. His undoing was letting military and political victories get to his head, he stopped listening to those people that had made him successful in the first place, and his personal military tactics cost him the war."
] | [
[
"by a full German general. Overconfident in his own military expertise following the earlier victories in 1940, Hitler became distrustful of his Army High Command and began to interfere in military and tactical planning with damaging consequences. By late 1942, he began to make disastrous mistakes. The historian who wrote the Wehrmacht war diary concluded that, \"... within him the tension between rational insight and emotional delusion was never resolved\", and that he was one of the \"terrible simplifiers who thought to reduce the complexity of life to the dogmas they had worked out.\" Late in the war by 22",
"-34.646435993141495"
],
[
"the German war-effort, spending much of his time in his command bunkers (most notably at Rastenburg in East Prussia, at Vinnitsa in Ukraine, and under the garden of the Reich Chancellery in Berlin). At crucial periods in the war he held daily situation-conferences at which he used his remarkable talent for public speaking to overwhelm opposition from his generals and from the OKW staff with rhetoric.\nIn part because of the unexpected degree of German success in the Battle of France (despite the warnings of the professional military) Hitler believed himself a military genius, with a grasp of the total war-effort",
"-34.171798556053545"
],
[
"strongest power. They differed only on the precise strategy and tactics to be employed. Tresnak ended his review by remarking: \"He has tears a plenty for torn and defeated Germany, but not a word of sympathy for the millions of murdered Jews, Poles, Yugoslavs, Czechs, and the rest.... After reading Herr von Dirksen's book, one cannot help feeling that he, and perhaps other Germans as well, condemn Hitler chiefly on the grounds that he did not win the war–though sometimes they act as they are not aware that he lost it\".\nIn a review, American political scientist Joseph Schectman noted that",
"-34.16897003722261"
],
[
"Richthofen subscribed to the Hitler myth—that the Nazi leader was a genius, who would revitalise Germany. Richthofen's diary—which survived the war—has many examples of conversations with fellow officers in which he expresses his confidence in Hitler. After one briefing, in the summer, 1943, Richthofen praised Hitler's \"brilliant grasp\" of military strategy, and blamed the \"idiotic\" Alfred Jodl and Wilhelm Keitel for the failures of the Wehrmacht. Richthofen's biographer observed that he did not appear to question why a genius surrounded himself with incompetents and \"yes men\".\nRichthofen and Hitler maintained their harmonious relationship largely because they never worked closely together. Hitler,",
"-33.96823843306629"
],
[
"Raubal, Eva Braun and himself, accompanied his career. All soft, lovable traits were missing from his character. He was also full of himself and unselfcritical. Hitler was an 'empty man' who filled himself with pride and hatred. Achievements Haffner argues that on gaining office in 1933, Hitler achieved many 'miracles' in economic and military policy. 90% of Germans approved. Had he died in 1938, he would have been remembered as 'one of the greatest Germans ever'. Few people noticed that he had dismantled the state and concealed the resultant chaos. In the long run, his achievement came to nothing. Successes",
"-33.25220340886153"
],
[
"they were the only ones with a cultural presence and objects around whom German society's grand narrative was being built, thus Rommel was the only German general who would have been capable of challenging Hitler's rule, had he ever crossed the Rubicon from his \"apolitical-to-the-core\" military world and developed a serious, critical view of Hitler's political dealings. However, Rommel himself had fallen for Hitler's charisma almost until the end. Peter Lieb opines that the relationship between Rommel and Hitler is overrated - they liked each other but the relationship became worse and worse since the end of 1942 when Rommel",
"-33.16115663020173"
],
[
"myth\" of a superhuman Führer who was steadily making Germany into the world's greatest power first began to fall apart with the German defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad as Hitler had staked his personal prestige on a victory on the Volga, repeatedly stating in his radio speeches in the fall of 1942 that he was executing his master-plan for victory at Stalingrad. The fact that Hitler's \"master-plan\" for victory at Stalingrad instead ended with the destruction of the entire German 6th Army, made worse by the fact that it was the hands of the \"Asiatic hordes\" as Nazi propaganda",
"-32.30587451037718"
],
[
"on to state that the German people would be better off if they did not integrate themselves with different races. Seeing Hitler's architectural sketches, with their appeal to a romanticized national greatness, Rothman realizes this is where Hitler's talent lies, and that it would be far less dangerous if confined to art galleries. Hitler is thrilled by Rothman's enthusiasm, not understanding it is partly motivated by fear of what he might become. \nRothman and Hitler have arranged to meet that evening to discuss Hitler's future projects, and after making a violently anti-semitic speech to a group of supporters",
"-32.218531322840136"
],
[
"that Hitler's works contained too few heads. The institute considered that he had more talent in architecture than in painting. One of the instructors, sympathetic to his situation and believing he had some talent, suggested that he apply to the academy's School of Architecture. However, that would have required returning to secondary school from which he had dropped out and which he was unwilling to do.\nAccording to a conversation in August 1939 before the outbreak of World War II, published in the British War Blue Book, Hitler told British ambassador Nevile Henderson, \"I am an artist and not a politician.",
"-32.024266571504995"
],
[
"Hannibal was great in part because he was cruel. So here we have to consider the probability that Churchill was great in 1940 in part because he was too pugnacious, stubborn, deluded, and conservative (in the deepest sense) to be able to adjust to the New Order in Europe—traits he had shown in the matter of India.\" German rearmament Churchill was wary of Adolf Hitler's potential danger as early as 1930. More than two years before Hitler took power in January 1933, Churchill warned at a dinner at the German Embassy that Hitler and his followers would start a war",
"-31.951827765558846"
],
[
"of the war, who showed a realistic strategic view despite holding minimal control over strategy. They point out that, \"like virtually the entire German officer corps\", he was a convinced Nazi. While some, like Scianna, are more criticial towards his strategical decisions but also dismiss negative myths such as Rommel's abandonment of his allies. \nCornelia Hecht, the author of the 2008 exhibition named Mythos Rommel and a book of the same name, explains that despite extensive research, it is hard to see who Rommel really was under all the layers of the myth. She comments that she would not describe",
"-31.797610099427402"
],
[
"discarded, giving its place to spiritual exaltation\". In the same article, Adolf Hitler is characterized as a \"great social reformer\" and \"military genius\".\nIn an article published in 1987 in the Golden Dawn magazine titled \"Hitler for 1,000 years\", its editor Michaloliakos showed his support for Nazism and white supremacy. Specifically he wrote, \"We are the faithful soldiers of the National Socialist idea and nothing else\" and \"[...] WE EXIST, and continue the battle, the battle for the final victory of our race\". He ends the article by writing \"1987, 42 years later, with our thought and soul given to the",
"-31.789324187440798"
],
[
"more sympathetic. He states that Rommel's perceived vanity developed as a reaction to the pressure aristocratic and high-bourgeois colleagues put on him. The psychologist Norman F. Dixon remarks that although Rommel showed towards Hitler an admiration that later faded, he did not display the urge to submit himself to higher authority or powerful father figures, considering that had he been such a person, he would not have been so outspoken or risked himself in the struggle against people like Himmler, Keitel or Jodl. Showalter comments that Rommel was a man who brought his work home, but not to the point",
"-31.722513857559534"
],
[
"the definition the Nazis themselves used, considering that although he did everything in his power to make his country strong again, he showed no support towards the racial policies or other aspects of the regime. Operational and strategic level commander British military and political figures contributed to the heroic image of the man as Rommel resumed offensive operations in January 1942 against the British forces weakened by redeployments to the Far East. Speaking in the House of Commons, Churchill addressed the British defeats and described Rommel as an \"extraordinary bold and clever opponent\" and a \"great field commander\". The trend",
"-31.67013492959086"
],
[
"the despair that both people and the Army feel about the brutal, insane and terroristic dictator and his henchmen\". Wheeler-Bennett commented that Goerdeler was vastly exaggerating the extent of anti-Nazi feelings, both in the German Army and among the German public. After Munich, Goerdeler told Young that:\nIt is vitally important to realise that Hitler is deeply and definitely convinced that after his unexpected victory at Munich, anything is possible to him...He says that he [Hitler] is now convinced that England is degenerate, weak, timid and never will have the guts to resist any of his plans. No war will ever",
"-31.444473744326388"
],
[
"Allied troops. Hitler and his generals became over-confident after their historic victory, and came to believe they could defeat the Soviet Union, a country with the significantly more natural resources, manpower and industry. Invasion of the Soviet Union In Guderian's 1937 book Achtung — Panzer! he wrote that \"the time has passed when the Russians had no instinct for technology\" and that Germany would have to reckon \"with the Eastern Question in a form more serious than ever before in history\". However, during the planning for Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, he had become optimistic about",
"-31.421345814917004"
],
[
"On 15 October 1918, he was temporarily blinded by a mustard gas attack and was hospitalised in Pasewalk. While there, Hitler learnt of Germany's defeat, and—by his own account—on receiving this news, he suffered a second bout of blindness.\nHitler became embittered over the collapse of the war effort, and his ideological development began to firmly take shape. He described the war as \"the greatest of all experiences\", and was praised by his commanding officers for his bravery. The experience reinforced his passionate German patriotism and he was shocked by Germany's capitulation in November 1918. Like other German nationalists, he believed",
"-31.179480026999954"
],
[
"to win the war. In his view, it was primarily the command of Adolf Hitler that led to the defeat. The leadership of the Wehrmacht and very competent commanders such as Erich von Manstein could have achieved victory if not for Hitler's interference. Carell also claimed that the invasion of the Soviet Union was a preemptive attack to forestall an invasion of Germany by the Red Army.",
"-31.11681261114427"
],
[
"war.\nThe historian Geoffrey P. Megargee refers to Rommel as a \"talented tactical leader\", but points out his playing the German and Italian command structures against each other to his advantage. Rommel used the confused structure of the OKW (Supreme Command of the Wehrmacht), the OKH (Supreme High Command of the Army) and the Italian Supreme Command to disregard orders that he disagreed with or to appeal to whatever authority he felt would be most sympathetic to his requests. Rommel often went directly to Hitler with his needs and concerns, taking advantage of the favoritism that the Führer displayed towards him",
"-31.043741851877712"
],
[
"one thing you have to give him credit for: he is a fanatic for Germany. But he is wrecked by his proletarian primitive ways. He does not know how to give an intellectual basis to his Nazi party. Hitler is all passion but lacks sense or proportion. A heroic tenor, not a hero.\" Hitler, in other words, was not Mussolini. These were the last words he ever wrote before his suicide in 1925.",
"-31.017218058521394"
],
[
"and adding to the German High Command's distrust of him.\nMilitary practitioners have also questioned Rommel's abilities at the operational level. While nearly all acknowledge Rommel's excellent tactical skills and personal bravery, many officers came to accept that Rommel was \"possibly the most overrated commander of an army in world history\", writes U.S. major general and military historian David T. Zabecki of the United States Naval Institute, quoting the opinion of Wolf Heckmann. Zabecki notes that Rommel's brilliant tactical moves were logistically unsustainable, which eventually led to a strategic defeat. General Klaus Naumann, who served as Chief of Staff of the",
"-30.95693552706507"
],
[
"critics (who mostly came from the General Staff) often said that Rommel was overrated or not suitable for higher commands, envy was a big factor here (Simon Ball also notes that this was the single group of people in the postwar West who had an interest in denigrating Rommel, who had never been one of them, while he opines that various elements in English and German post-war government and military circles had an interest in praising him as well). Role in the 20 July plot The extent of Rommel's involvement in the military's resistance against Hitler or 20 July plot",
"-30.954666075354908"
],
[
"his attitude was \"worshipful\", while the historian Charles Messenger describes Rommel's \"growing admiration\" towards Hitler following the invasion of Poland. Speaking at The National WWII Museum's 2012 International Conference on World War II, the author Nigel Hamilton referred to Rommel as \"quite a Nazi\". This sympathy did not extend to the Party though. In this regard, he was similar to many other Wehrmacht soldiers, who, with encouragement from Hitler, erroneously believed the army to be the most important element of the regime. Rommel showed particular resentment towards the SA and later, the SS, for their brutality and absorption of resources",
"-30.94161549216369"
],
[
"was regarded as a hero by many in Germany and France, receiving the highest military medals both countries could provide. He studied economics and became a forestry expert. Even in his old age, Boeselager still had nightmares about the conspiracy and the friends he lost in the war, and urged young people to become more involved in politics, as he felt apathy and the political inexperience of the German masses were two of the key reasons Hitler was able to come to power. The entrance to his residence in Kreuzberg bears the Latin motto \"Et si omnes ego non —",
"-30.900839270674624"
],
[
"Hitler. The myth was created with Rommel's participation as a component of Nazi propaganda to praise the Wehrmacht and instil optimism in the German public. Starting in 1941, it was picked up and disseminated in the West by the British press as they sought to explain its continued inability to defeat the Axis forces in North Africa. Following the war, the Western Allies, and particularly the British, depicted Rommel as the \"good German\" and \"our friend Rommel\". His reputation for conducting a clean war was used in the interest of the West German rearmament and reconciliation between the former enemies",
"-30.75132761383429"
],
[
"that gradually started to favour Hitler, but until late 1932 these predictions varied. In 1929, Hanussen predicted, for example, that Wilhelm II would return to Germany in 1930 and that the problem of unemployment would be solved in 1931. Winston Churchill Sir Winston Churchill wrote in his memoir \"The Gathering Storm\" about Hitler and Moloch: \"[Hitler] had conjured up the fearful idol of an all-devouring Moloch of which he was the priest and incarnation\". Nazi mysticism, occultism and science fiction Nazi mysticism in German culture is further expanded upon within Manfred Nagl's article \"SF (Science Fiction), Occult Sciences, and Nazi",
"-30.713014441222185"
],
[
"began to see the consequences of Hitler's disastrous leadership as well as recognize the criminal character of the regime. According to Lieb, historians should focus more on Goebbels, whose propaganda built up Rommel. Italian generals considered Rommel apolitical, too: According to Scianna, when Badoglio took over Italy in 1943, the Allies became hopeful that a similar development would happen in Germany with Rommel as head of the new regime, but captured Italian generals rebuked this pipe-dream, telling them that Rommel, unlike other German generals, did not care about politics. \nCaddick-Adams writes that Rommel was a \"complicated man of many contradictions\",",
"-30.63864386820933"
],
[
"argued that for Germans to have a better future meant Raeder could not be a role model or seen as a hero as Zenker and Heye wanted. The Free Democrat Erich Mende in a speech before the Bundestag noted that Raeder had accepted bribes from Hitler, and that alone should have disqualified Raeder from being presented as a hero to the next generation of Germans. Raeder spent his last years complaining endlessly of how he had been wrongly convicted of war crimes at Nuremberg, maintaining that the Kriegsmarine had fought a \"clean war\" and that the service had been an",
"-30.527633028803393"
],
[
"Hitler may have realised himself by mid-1944 that Germany had lost the war. Wahl's autobiography was the first of any Gauleiter to be published.\nHe later worked in the library of the Messerschmitt factory from 1958 to 1968, thanks to his friendship with Willy Messerschmitt, established in the Nazi era.\nHis grave in Augsburg-Göggingen, where he is buried together with his wife, carries the message: \"Do not tire of doing good deeds\" (German: Werdet nicht müde das Gute zu tun). Nazi crimes and the Holocaust In his book, Wahl claimed, like many Germans and even Nazis, not to have known about the",
"-30.492572911920433"
],
[
"American psychologist Glenn D. Walters wrote in 2000: \"Much of the debate about Hitler's long-term mental health is probably questionable, because even if he had suffered from significant psychiatric problems, he attained the supreme power in Germany rather in spite of these difficulties than through them.\" Erik H. Erikson (1950) The psychoanalyst and developmental psychologist Erik Erikson gave Adolf Hitler a chapter in his 1950 book, Childhood and Society. Erikson referred to Hitler as an \"histrionic and hysterical adventurer\" and believed there was evidence of an undissolved Oedipus complex in his self-portrayals. Nonetheless, he believed that Hitler was such an",
"-30.481155772024067"
],
[
"to fight, often bitterly, for victory. Even when the hopelessness of the German situation became obvious to his most loyal subordinates, Hitler refused to admit defeat. Only when Soviet artillery was falling around his Berlin headquarters bunker did he begin to perceive the final outcome.\nThe crossing of the Rhine, the encirclement and reduction of the Ruhr, and the sweep to the Elbe–Mulde line and the Alps all established the final campaign on the Western Front as a showcase for Allied superiority in maneuver warfare. Drawing on the experience gained during the campaign in Normandy and the Allied advance from Paris",
"-30.393865070072934"
],
[
"this time Hitler met Joseph Goebbels, with whom he had an instant rapport with his vulgarities and anti-semitism - the first radical departure from actual history.\nThe novel swiftly moves to the First World War, and describes Hitler's exploits as a behind-the-lines scout sniper - who, in his spare time, criticizes the General HQ and tells jokes so disgusting that even hardened soldiers stay silent. Also his foul-smelling flatulence is commented upon.\nWhile following Hitler's rise to power from the Great Depression to the Second World War, the novel makes its most outrageous claim; Hitler and Goebbels jointly conceived the Second World",
"-30.262449371046387"
],
[
"Hitler's rise to power firsthand, and fled to exile when he realized that he was a target of the regime. (He managed to escape the Gestapo). In his introduction Heiden wrote \"the 'hero' of this book is neither a superman nor a puppet. He is a very interesting contemporary and, viewed quantitatively, a man who is stirred up the masses more than anyone else in human history.\" Heiden was successful in analyzing Hitler as an orator, how he drew strength from his audience, learning which points to emphasize to maximize his impact. Hitler realized it was emotion, not rationality,",
"-30.229188369368785"
],
[
"people and became an important page in history,\" wrote Seldes. \"I believe it would have destroyed the main planks on which Hitler rose to power, it would have prevented World War II, the greatest and worst war in all history, and it would have changed the future of all mankind.\"\nHowever, it was Hindenburg himself, who in a hearing before a committee of the German National Assembly investigating the causes of the World War and Germany's defeat, on November 18, 1919, a year after the war's end, declared, \"As an English general has very truly said, the German Army was 'stabbed",
"-30.184991864312906"
],
[
"air force leadership. Hitler generally disliked and was suspicious of soldiers with aristocratic backgrounds. This was particularly true as the tide of World War II turned against Germany. But Below, with the rank of colonel, was one of the few members of Hitler's entourage to continually serve in a close capacity for so many years.\nDuring the time between the Christmas and New Year's holiday of 1944, Hitler told Below: \"I know the war is lost, the enemy's superiority is far too great.\" But Hitler, still dwelling on the 20 July Plot to kill him, placed the",
"-30.177142783024465"
],
[
"thought of violence as being praiseworthy for its own sake. Then I thought that this archetype of the Nazis wouldn't mind being defeated; after all, defeats and victories are mere matters of chance. He would still be glad of the fact, even if the Americans and British won the war. Naturally, when I am with Nazis, I find they are not my idea of what a Nazi is, but this wasn't meant to be a political tract. It was meant to stand for the fact that there was something tragic in the fate of a real Nazi. Except that I",
"-30.161691664514365"
],
[
"Hitler's favoured commanders. After the Fall of France, Rommel sent to him a specially prepared diary on the 7th Division, Rommel received a letter of thanks. Unknown to Rommel though, Hitler had barely looked at his diary and the letter was written by an adjutant. Remy remarks that by this time, Hitler still did not treat Rommel as a significantly important person.\nWhen Rommel was being considered for appointment as Commander-in-Chief of the Army in the summer of 1942, Goebbels wrote in his diary that Rommel \"is ideologically sound, is not just sympathetic to the National Socialists. He is a National",
"-30.130974612315185"
],
[
"Hitler, and Goebbels, a shrewd man, had made much effective propaganda out of it, tirelessly reminding the German people and the outside world that Germany's greatest living playwright, a former Socialist and the champion of the common man, had not only remained in the Third Reich but had continued to write and have his plays produced.\" Shirer went on to state, \"How sincere or opportunistic or merely changeable this aging playwright was may be gathered from what happened after the war. The American authorities, believing that Hauptmann had served the Nazis too well, banned his plays from the theaters in",
"-30.099896821309812"
],
[
"is a tremendous victory for Herr Hitler. Without firing a shot, by the mere display of military force, he has achieved a dominating position in Europe which Germany failed to win after four years of war. He has overturned the balance of power in Europe. He has destroyed the last fortress of democracy in Eastern Europe which stood in the way of his ambition. He has opened his way to the food, the oil and the resources which he requires in order to consolidate his military power, and he has successfully defeated and reduced to impotence the forces that might",
"-30.060425275587477"
],
[
"and improved its combat effectiveness.\nHitler certainly understood the value of integrating his land, sea and air forces and placing them under a unified command, the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (first under Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg's command; later his own). He also saw the benefit of placing them under operational commanders who possessed at least a rudimentary understanding of the tactics, techniques, needs, capabilities and limitations of each of the services functioning in their combat zone. Hitler was thus innovative and several years ahead of his peers in the democracies, Italy and the Soviet Union. Yet, largely because of Hitler's unusual",
"-30.050258298579138"
],
[
"anti-democratic, and perpetrators of atrocities. The \"Good Germans\" are peace-loving democrats and real gentlemen. Ergo, since Rommel was a clean fighter, he must have been anti-Nazi, and men like him would make good allies of democracy against the Russians.\nThe historian Hugh Trevor-Roper commented that \"the danger now is not that 'our friend Rommel' is becoming not a magician or a bogy-man, but too much of a hero\". He pointed out Rommel's early proximity to Hitler; he described Rommel as representative of the connection between Nazism and the Wehrmacht and the support that the German officer corps offered for \"Hitler's politics",
"-30.020443936635274"
],
[
"to the finish\".\nHitler, according to Walter Langer had a Messiah complex and saw himself as the \"Saviour of Germany\" who performed \"miracles\" with the economy. He was unnaturally fond of his mother, to the extent that Germany became a \"mother symbol\". His drive to destroy (the Jews, communism, Europe) was an unconscious attempt to resolve his Oedipus complex and the injustices of his childhood. He \"dismantled the German state ... and replaced it with a war machine\". He was swept along by a tide of events.\nMussolini, according to Denis Mack Smith, \"was an actor, playing the part that Italians wanted",
"-29.99806059128605"
],
[
"himself rather than be captured by the Soviets. Further, Schenck stated that Hewel was emotionally and physically exhausted, which contributed to his actions. Relationship with Hitler Because of his friendship with Hitler, Hewel was given a large amount of leeway in his actions. For example, according to O'Donnell, Hewel played constant practical jokes on his boss, Ribbentrop, in order to amuse Hitler and other members of his entourage.\nAfter the war, Hewel's 1941 diary emerged. Also, after Hitler's suicide, he spoke with others about his friendship with, and opinion of, Hitler. Right before his suicide, he told Dr. Schenck:\nHitler was a",
"-29.92887206922751"
],
[
"Leo saying in 1967 that Hitler was \"absolutely innocent\", according to historian Werner Maser. World War II and detention in Moscow Before the war, he became a manager of the Linz Steelworks. In October 1939, he was drafted into the Luftwaffe and was a lieutenant in the engineering corps. He looked similar to Adolf Hitler and sometimes served as Hitler's double during the war.\nHe was injured in January 1943 during the Battle of Stalingrad, and Friedrich Paulus asked Hitler for a plane to evacuate Raubal to Germany. Hitler refused and Raubal was captured by the Soviets on 31 January 1943.\nHitler",
"-29.912948832148686"
],
[
"his artwork, drawing cartoons and instructions for an army newspaper. During the Battle of the Somme in October 1916, he was wounded in the left thigh when a shell exploded in the dispatch runners' dugout. Hitler spent almost two months in hospital at Beelitz, returning to his regiment on 5 March 1917. On 15 October 1918, he was temporarily blinded in a mustard gas attack and was hospitalised in Pasewalk. While there, Hitler learned of Germany's defeat, and—by his own account—upon receiving this news, he suffered a second bout of blindness.\nHitler described the war as \"the greatest of all experiences\",",
"-29.814357861410826"
],
[
"starve and so many Jewish inhabitants to terrible death, to the postwar disputes among historians and retired generals over Hitler’s strategy.\nEvans commends Stahel for his \"refreshing realism\" in not \"following traditional military historians’ often overly positive and simplistic descriptions of 'great' generals and 'decisive' battles\" and exploring \"convincingly if not entirely originally\" how the foundations of the German war efforts were already beginning to crumble by the time of the victory at Kiev heralded in Nazi propaganda as decisive.",
"-29.79060626507271"
],
[
"he also sought military glory and personal recognition, most of all from Hitler on whom, according to Watson, Rommel projected his idea of the German people's will.\nA number of contemporaries noted Rommel's vanity. In the memorandum regarding Rommel's betrayal, Martin Bormann remarked, \"He had himself photographed from dawn to dusk ... He is so vain he does not wear glasses\". (Rommel was near-sighted in one eye and far-sighted in the other.) Historian Samuel Mitchell however, noted that Martin Borman had held a grudge against the Field Marshall as far back as 1939. Some modern authors, such as Storbeck, are",
"-29.758918096282287"
],
[
"Allies retained a degree of autonomy. Hitler's leadership became increasingly disconnected from reality as the war turned against Germany, with the military's defensive strategies often hindered by his slow decision making and frequent directives to hold untenable positions. Nevertheless, he continued to believe that only his leadership could deliver victory. In the final months of the war Hitler refused to consider peace negotiations, regarding the destruction of Germany as preferable to surrender. The military did not challenge Hitler's dominance of the war effort, and senior officers generally supported and enacted his decisions. Legacy Hitler's suicide was likened by contemporaries to",
"-29.69832766253967"
],
[
"Hitler was a military genius, which leads to a total neglect of the crucial question of why Hitler took particular decisions at particular times. Lukacs condemned Irving as a historical writer for his \"twisting\" of evidence (i.e. labelling Adolf Eichmann's statement before an Israeli court in 1961 that he heard from Himmler that Hitler had given a verbal order for the Holocaust as mere \"hearsay\"). Lukacs described Irving in the 1997 American edition of The Hitler of History as the most influential of Hitler's apologists, and found it \"regrettable\" that many professional historians \"relied on some of Irving's researches\" and",
"-29.682614217163064"
],
[
"Hitler was impressed, announcing to the journalist Lutz Koch, recently returned from Bir Hakeim:\nYou hear, Gentlemen? It is a new evidence that I have always been right! The French are, after us, the best soldiers! Even with its current birthrate, France will always be able to mobilise a hundred divisions! After this war, we will have to find allies able to contain a country which is capable of military exploits that astonish the world like they are doing right now in Bir-Hakeim! First successes From 23 October to 4 November 1942, Allied forces under general Bernard Montgomery, including the FFF,",
"-29.678931277012452"
],
[
"could not control, although he usually accepted high risks and could become frustrated when forced on the defensive. On the other hand, Pimlott criticises Rommel for only disagreeing with Hitler for strategic reasons and, while accepting that Rommel did give chivalrous tone to his battles in Africa, he points out that this should not be used to ignore the responsibility Rommel must bear for promoting the Nazi cause with vigour. The same sentiment is held by Murray and Millett who opine that Rommel, contrary to allegations that he was only a competent tactical commander, was the most outstanding battlefield commander",
"-29.678645426174626"
],
[
"to him and whose annihilation would be his crowning triumph. Both the grandiose barbarism of his political vision and the moral emptiness of his character make it impossible to compare him in any meaningful way with any other German leader. He stands alone. Education and career Craig graduated in history from Princeton University, was a Rhodes Scholar at Balliol College, Oxford, from 1936 to 1938, and served in the U.S. Marine Corps as a captain and in the Office of Strategic Services during World War II. In 1941, he co-edited with Edward Mead Earle and Felix Gilbert, on behalf of",
"-29.667578682943713"
],
[
"the army and its officer corps suspect and came to rely on the Schutzstaffel (SS) and Nazi party members to prosecute the war.\nHitler's direction of the war ultimately proved disastrous for the German Army, though the skill, loyalty, professionalism and endurance of officers and soldiers enabled him to keep Germany fighting to the end. F. W. Winterbotham wrote of Hitler's signal to Gerd von Rundstedt to continue the attack to the west during the Battle of the Bulge:\nFrom experience we had learned that when Hitler started refusing to do what the generals recommended, things started to go wrong, and this",
"-29.662259344942868"
],
[
"really admire the way Hitler has cleaned up what looked like an incipient revolt. I really admire the drastic actions taken, which were obviously badly needed.\" After Czechoslovakia was invaded by the Nazis in 1939 he wrote: \"Hitler continues his magnificent efficiency.\"\nReith also expressed admiration for Benito Mussolini. Reith's daughter, Marista Leishman, wrote that her father in the 1930s did everything possible to keep Winston Churchill and other anti-appeasement Conservatives off the airwaves. Personal life Reith married his wife Muriel in 1922, and they remained married until his death in 1971. They had two children, Christopher (born 1928) and",
"-29.66157584999746"
],
[
"and Roosevelt. Seen from the spirit-world, Dowd claimed Hitler was not evil but rather \"a man whose stars threw him into the world with vast disadvantages, with overwhelming ambition sweltering in his soul, and with an infinite capacity for receiving influences and suggestions from our side.\" She maintained that, open to spirit influence, Hitler was a passive recipient of dangerous spirits working on his \"colossal egotism\" so that he became a conduit for evil. Stalin, in contrast, was described by her as \"crafty and careful\" rather than egotistic. Churchill, she claimed, \"can be hot-headed, full of zeal and enthusiasm, and,",
"-29.623443976044655"
],
[
"in London. The British historian/television producer Laurence Rees noted for his 1997 series The Nazis: A Warning from History that every single person interviewed for the series who knew Ribbentrop expressed a passionate hatred for him. One German diplomat, Herbert Richter, called Ribbentrop \"lazy and worthless\", while another, Manfred von Schröder, was quoted as saying Ribbentrop was \"vain and ambitious\". Rees concluded that \"No other Nazi was so hated by his colleagues\".\nIn November 1937, Ribbentrop was placed in a highly embarrassing situation, when his forceful advocacy of the return of the former German colonies led the British Foreign Secretary Anthony",
"-29.571019965223968"
],
[
"Remy dated Rommel's support for Hitler as 1935, noting a speech in which Rommel praised Hitler for restoring German's self-respect and establishment of the way towards an honourable and righteous peace, as well as efforts in alleviating the disadvantaged people's problems. Numerous historians, such as Ralf Georg Reuth, David T. Zabecki, Bruce Allen Watson and Peter Caddick-Adams, state that Rommel was one of Hitler's favorite generals and that his close relationship with the dictator benefited both his inter-war and war-time career. Historian Robert Citino describes Rommel as \"not apolitical\" and writes that he owed his career to Hitler, to whom",
"-29.498647921485826"
],
[
"Hermann Göring had fallen out of Hitler's favor. This was important to Goebbels, as Göring was a potential rival for control of any total war effort.\nIn his meeting with Hitler, Goebbels pulled out all the stops, painting the darkest possible picture of the situation, demeaning his possible rivals, such as Göring and Keitel, and making elaborate promises for the benefits of a total war effort, such as a million new soldiers for the Wehrmacht. He offered a Germany teetering on the brink of doom that only total war could save it from, and he averred that the people",
"-29.49783180220402"
],
[
"that even with Hitler, the process of executive judgement in Germany had worked better than in France and Britain. Allied politicians showed far less common sense in judging circumstances and deciding on policy but the Germans were no wiser. May referred to Marc Bloch in Strange Defeat (1940), that the German victory was a \"triumph of intellect\", which depended on Hitler's \"methodical opportunism\". Despite the mistakes of the Allies, May wrote that the Germans could not have succeeded but for outrageous good luck. German commanders wrote during the campaign and after, that often only a small difference had separated success",
"-29.49372949587996"
],
[
"that Rommel first became close to Hitler because Hitler had read Infantry Attacks and wanted to meet the author in the fall of 1938. This casts doubt on the rest of Young's narrative as it pertains to Rommel's relationship with the dictator. Searle writes that, by this time, \"Like many other front-line officers, with little awareness of the military planning underway, Rommel was simply trying to carry out his orders.\" Remy points out that the incident of Rommel using tanks to protect a journey of Hitler, which has been used by Reuth and Irving to prove that Rommel came to",
"-29.48931003973121"
],
[
"portrayal of Rommel as an anti-Nazi, writing:\nAs a nation, we deceive ourselves into believing that there are two sorts of Germans—the Good German and the Bad German. The \"Bad Germans\" are Nazis, militarists, anti-democratic, and perpetrators of atrocities. The \"Good Germans\" are peace-loving democrats and real gentlemen. Ergo, since Rommel was a clean fighter, he must have been anti-Nazi, and men like him would make good allies of democracy against the Russians.\nThe historian Hugh Trevor-Roper commented that \"the danger now is not that 'our friend Rommel' is becoming not a magician or a bogy-man, but too much of a hero\".",
"-29.486957387503935"
],
[
"years?\nOn the basis of recent and current research, Hant arrives at a twofold answer to this question. Hant states that Hitler was not as illiterate as once thought. According to Hant, Hitler was an extremely well-read man who also had an extensive knowledge of art. Not only did his exceptional memory help Hitler to apply his knowledge in a way that appealed to the dull masses, he also knew how to make an impression on intelligent and highly educated individuals in the top echelon of society. Hant also quotes various sources which document the fact that Hitler believed he",
"-29.45970531576313"
],
[
"of obsession with personal promotions, considering he had spent no effort in building a social circle (his wife was the person who determined their family's social agenda and the guest list, and the circle she chose was not wide nor prominent).\nMessenger points out that Rommel had many reasons to be grateful to Hitler, including his interference to arrange for him to receive command of an armoured division, his elevation to the status of a national hero, and continued interest and support from the dictator. Remy states that the attachment to Hitler went much deeper than any gratefulness could explain, and",
"-29.4027687018679"
],
[
"command, he remained a household name in Germany, synonymous with the aura of invincibility. Hitler then made Rommel part of his defensive strategy for \"Fortress Europe\" (Festung Europa) by sending him to the West to inspect fortifications along the Atlantic Wall. Goebbels supported the decision, noting in his diary that Rommel was \"undoubtedly the suitable man\" for the task. The propaganda minister expected the move to reassure the German public, and at the same time to have a negative impact on the Allied forces' morale.\nIn France, a Wehrmacht propaganda company frequently accompanied Rommel on his inspection trips to document his",
"-29.39761212054873"
],
[
"Socialist; he is a troop leader with a gift for improvisation, personally courageous and extraordinarily inventive. These are the kinds of soldiers we need.\"\nRommel \"exercised an almost hypnotic influence on Hitler\", according to Albert Kesselring, and another colleague called him \"the Führer's marshal\". American writer Rick Atkinson concludes that Rommel was \"loyal in his own fashion and as beguiled by Hitler as steel filings by a magnet ... Hitler was a bulwark against bolshevism, [Rommel] had told staff officers.\" Despite this intimate relationship though, he was not provided with basic information on Germany's strategic plan: \"Rommel did not know that smashing",
"-29.379213596432237"
],
[
"at the expense of France, Britain and Russia. The German elite that caused World War I was also responsible for the failure of the Weimar Republic, which opened the way for the Third Reich. This traditional German elite, in Fischer's analysis, was dominated by a racist, imperialist and capitalist ideology that was little different from the beliefs of the Nazis. For this reason, Fischer called Bethmann-Hollweg the \"Hitler of 1914.\" Fischer's claims set off the so-called \"Fischer Controversy\" of the early 1960s when German historians led by Gerhard Ritter attempted to rebut Fischer. The Australian historian John Moses noted in",
"-29.369681045325706"
],
[
"have arrived and rescued them.\"\nIn 1939, Rommel received a promotion from Hitler to the rank of Generalmajor ahead of more senior officers. Showalter notes that even at this early stage, Hitler already regarded Rommel as a model for the fusion of Germany's new and old orders. With an intervention by Hitler, Rommel was subsequently able to obtain command of an armoured (Panzer) division despite having been turned down by the army's personnel office, which had offered him command of a mountain division. Rommel's unprofessional conduct was noted by his fellow officers and added to his growing reputation as one of",
"-29.35967014520429"
],
[
"personality disorder. Historians Henrik Eberle and Hans-Joachim Neumann consider that while he suffered from a number of illnesses including Parkinson's disease, Hitler did not experience pathological delusions and was always fully aware of, and therefore responsible for, his decisions. Theories about Hitler's medical condition are difficult to prove, and placing too much weight on them may have the effect of attributing many of the events and consequences of Nazi Germany to the possibly impaired physical health of one individual. Kershaw feels that it is better to take a broader view of German history by examining what social forces led to",
"-29.353316540189553"
],
[
"desk\". He portrayed Hitler as a rational, intelligent politician, whose only goal was to increase Germany's prosperity and influence on the continent, and who was constantly let down by incompetent and/or treasonous subordinates. Irving's book faulted the Allied leaders, most notably Winston Churchill, for the eventual escalation of war, and claimed that the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 was a \"preventive war\" forced on Hitler to avert an alleged impending Soviet attack (supported by some, notably Soviet GRU defector Victor Suvorov, and others; see Icebreaker). Irving commented that in light of the \"preventive war\" that he felt",
"-29.34600797604071"
],
[
"one of the greatest victories in the history of warfare. But this catastrophe for the Red Army resulted far more from the inflexibility of Stalin than it did from the talents of Rundstedt as a commander or the skill of the German Army. David Stahel, a recent historian of the Kiev campaign, wrote: \"Germany had been handed a triumph far in excess of what its exhausted armoured forces could have achieved without Stalin's obduracy and incompetence.\" In fact both the German Army and the Red Army were driven more by the dictates of their respective political masters rather than by",
"-29.303103071237274"
],
[
"Democrat. Mostly, he was interested in his career.\nHistorian Reuth observes that the modern German image of Rommel (a result of the Historikerstreit in the 1980s and debates on war guilt during the 1990s), as represented most notably by Maurice Rémy, is that of both a National Socialist and a hero of the Resistance. Reuth argues that \"Rommel was neither one nor the other. He had understood neither National Socialism, nor the resistance to it. Like millions of Germans he followed Hitler into disaster and whilst doing so he believed he was only doing his duty.\" Historiography Although the author David",
"-29.30120886466466"
],
[
"biography of Hitler between 1998-2000 (Hitler 1889–1936: Hubris and Hitler 1936–1945: Nemesis) which has been hailed by historians as definitive, and has not yet been displaced at the top of the bibliographies. His approach is to emphasize structural factors, and then bring in Hitler's personality by arguing that the top leadership, the middle leadership, and even the lower ranks of the Nazi movement devoted themselves to carrying out the Fuehrer's intentions, whether or not he put them in writing. That is, Kershaw depicts Hitler's leadership as charismatic, which emphasizes its profound influence on the audience, and so the audience—and",
"-29.27483445435064"
],
[
"armed forces in 1938, and subsequently made all major decisions regarding Germany's military strategy. His decision to mount a risky series of offensives against Norway, France, and the Low Countries in 1940 against the advice of the military proved successful, though the diplomatic and military strategies he employed in attempts to force the United Kingdom out of the war ended in failure. Hitler deepened his involvement in the war effort by appointing himself commander-in-chief of the Army in December 1941; from this point forward he personally directed the war against the Soviet Union, while his military commanders facing the Western",
"-29.244807203340315"
],
[
"works Rommel's former enemies, especially the British, played a key role in the manufacture and propagation of the myth. The German rearmament was highly dependent on the moral rehabilitation that the Wehrmacht needed. The journalist and historian Basil Liddell Hart, an early proponent of these two interconnected initiatives, provided the first widely available source on Rommel in his 1948 book on Hitler's generals, updated in 1951. Portraying Rommel as an outsider to the Nazi regime in the 1948 edition, Liddell Hart concluded the 1951 text with comments on Rommel's \"gifts and performance\" that \"qualified him for a place in the",
"-29.243361654807813"
],
[
"Nazis went beyond his confessed use of them to promote sport. With his Nazi connections he settled brutally some old scores, and he stayed with the Nazis on ideological grounds long after their savagery was exposed and after their coming defeat was apparent to all.\" And yet even Mandell did not dispute that Diem was \"the greatest sports historian and most profound theorist of sport education\" of the 20th century.\nDuring Diem's final years, there was open controversy about his Nazi connections. For example, in 1954 the French ministry of Education postponed a display of gymnastics before a delegation",
"-29.240644423640333"
],
[
"is replete with examples of men who have risen to power by employing stern, grim, and even frightful methods, but who, nevertheless when their life is revealed as a whole, have been regarded as great figures whose lives have enriched the story of mankind. So may it be with Hitler.\nChurchill's first major speech on defence on 7 February 1934 stressed the need to rebuild the Royal Air Force and to create a Ministry of Defence; his second, on 13 July, urged a renewed role for the League of Nations. These three topics remained his themes until early 1936. In 1935",
"-29.23603552271379"
],
[
"Adolf Hitler in popular culture Adolf Hitler (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was the leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party and Chancellor of Nazi Germany from 1933 (Führer from 1934) to 1945. Hitler has been represented in popular culture ever since he became a well-known politician in Germany. His distinctive image was often parodied by his opponents. Parodies became much more prominent outside Germany during his period in power. Since the end of World War II representations of Hitler, both serious and satirical, have continued to be prominent in popular culture, sometimes generating significant controversy. In",
"-29.223003292572685"
],
[
"not. What is the reason that is forcing us to attack this year on Kursk, or even more, on the Eastern Front?\nHitler replied, \"I know. The thought of it turns my stomach.\" Guderian concluded, \"In that case your reaction to the problem is the correct one. Leave it alone.\"\nDespite reservations, Hitler remained committed to the offensive. He and the OKW, early in the preparatory phase, were hopeful that the offensive would revitalise German strategic fortunes in the east. As the challenges offered by Citadel increased, he focused more and more on the expected new weapons that he believed were the",
"-29.20510221311997"
],
[
"of the evidence\". Milward's theory was contrary to Hitler's and German planners' intentions. The Germans, aware of the errors of the First World War, rejected the concept of organising its economy to fight only a short war. Therefore, focus was given to the development of armament in depth for a long war, instead of armament in breadth for a short war. Hitler claimed that relying on surprise alone was \"criminal\" and that \"we have to prepare for a long war along with surprise attack\". During the winter of 1939–40, Hitler demobilised many troops from the army to return as skilled",
"-29.184030817472376"
],
[
"bit artificial.\nAlmost all accounts of Hewel described him as a pleasant and good-natured, if not very intelligent man. He usually ended up dealing with situations and events that Hitler could not handle. Other members of the inner circle recounted that, unlike many other Nazi leaders, Hewel was able to stay awake and attentive during Hitler's long monologues on topics such as anti-Semitism. Heinz Guderian, when recalling Hewel, remarked that he was \"a good raconteur and a good listener\".\nHewel tended to be shy around women, and as a result, Hitler often tried to play matchmaker for him. Hewel survived an airplane",
"-29.17717672639992"
],
[
"(including the Battle of the Atlantic, the Mediterranean Theater of Operations, and MAGIC against the Japanese in the Pacific Theater and the China-Burma-India theater.\nThe entire German system of high command suffered from Hitler's deliberate fragmenting of authority, with Party, State, and military organizations competing for power. Hermann Göring also sought power for its own sake, but was much less effective as the war went on and he became more focused on personal status and pleasure.\nGermany enjoyed some SIGINT success against the Allies, especially with the Merchant Code and, early in the war, reading American attaché traffic. German air intelligence, during",
"-29.169557277695276"
],
[
"knowledgeable historians, \"strikes me as a proof of a regrettable myopia and narrowness\". Starting from his premise, and falling under the sway of the very fears and phobias he himself has played up, Nolte once again defiantly insisted: \"If Hitler was a person fundamentally driven by fears-by among others a fear of the \"rat cage\"-and if this renders \"his motivations more understandable\", then the war against the Soviet Union was not only \"the greatest war ever of destruction and enslavement\", but also \"in spite of this, objectively speaking [!], a preemptive war\".\nWhile Nolte may like to describe his motive as",
"-29.093120572710177"
],
[
"to play political games to safeguard or advance his career.\nRichthofen's view of Nazi ideology was not as straightforward. Richthofen was \"remarkably uninterested in politics or political ideology. His politics consisted of simple nationalism and belief in the leader, ideas common to his class. Though an admirer of Hitler, he was disinterested in the politics of the party, believing it lacked any coherent ideology beyond following the leadership of Adolf Hitler. Nevertheless, Richthofen never wavered in his admiration for Hitler and sincerely believed that Germany's military decline, and the disastrous military decisions, were the fault of the General Staff advising Hitler.",
"-29.087103073485196"
],
[
"considered his father something of a hero, having served under him in World War I. He tried to draw him into the plot to rid Germany of Hitler, but although Rommel gave his backing to the conspiracy he did not agree that he should be killed.\nOn 26 July 1944, Hofacker was arrested in Paris, taken to Berlin Gestapo headquarters where, according to William Shirer in \"The Rise and Fall of the 3rd Reich\", he was horrifically tortured and gave up the name of Erwin Rommel stating that Rommel said to \"Tell the people in Berlin they can count on",
"-29.08256809716113"
],
[
"historian Michael Burleigh prefaced his discussion of Goebbels and the fanatical pursuit of \"Total War\" in his work The Third Reich: A New History with a review of the state of German morale caused by negative reports from the front and the relentless Allied bombing campaign, which immediately after the short-lived fever of total war mobilization, was further drained by \"military disasters and the persistence of wartime inequalities\"; all of which contributed to a progressive isolation of the Nazi leadership. Burleigh also highlights how the \"exhortations of heroic death and sacrifice bore scant resemblance\" to the German people's mood and",
"-29.050932245212607"
],
[
"the unhappy results of that war that finally led to the \"proletarian nationalism\" of the Nazis gaining a mass audience, and led to the \"militarism of the National Socialist mass movement\" coming to power. Moreover, Ritter placed great emphasis on the \"Hitler factor\" as an explanation for Nazi Germany. In 1962, Ritter wrote that he found it \"almost unbearable\" that the \"will of a single madman\" had unnecessarily caused World War II. Critical views on German history Though many regarded Ritter's work as an apologia for German nationalism and conservatism, Ritter was at times critical of aspects of the German",
"-29.030980777344666"
],
[
"Milch was transferred to the production department and was responsible for aircraft production until the end of the war. Following his avid extermination of Jews in the autumn of 1941 (Severity Order, Babi Yar), Reichenau died on 14 January 1942. In 1943, after a series of German defeats on the Eastern Front, and the Allied invasion of Italy, the German military lost all initiative. Hitler's leadership became increasingly disconnected from reality as the war turned against Germany, with the military's defensive strategies often hindered by his slow decision making and frequent directives to hold untenable positions. His response to the",
"-29.021617649355903"
],
[
"interest in such an offer.\n\nThomas Weber has found the records of Wiedemann's talks with him in 1940 in which Wiedemann openly warned against Hitler and claimed Hitler had a \"split personality and numbered among the most cruel people in the world, saw himself better than Napoleon and that peace with him was impossible.\" He told Wiseman of Hitler's plans to attack and conquer the UK and \"recommended strongly\" that the British themselves strike as quickly and as \"hard as possible\" against him.\nHe told Wiseman that the morale of the German population and the support of Hitler were lower than generally",
"-29.00751309969928"
],
[
"behind this facade of urbane and even exaggerated sophistication there lay a great intuitive shrewdness and a devastating critical sense of humor, directed to himself as well as others. No one impressed him....He despised the Nazis and held them at arm's length with barbed irony....\nThe only thing worth living for, he once told me, was good form. He himself had little to live for; there were moments when he would have liked to leave this life; but suicide would be an abrupt act, and abruptness was the height of bad form....He disclaimed all further interest in the Foreign Service, since",
"-28.945665434584953"
],
[
"leading to a more diverse range of interpretations of Rommel and the elements of the myth. Relationship with National Socialism Rommel was not a member of the Nazi Party. However, like other Wehrmacht officers, he welcomed Hitler's seizure of power. During his time in Goslar, he clashed with those Sturmabteilung (SA) men who attacked the Jews and others who supported them. Rommel thus showed sympathy towards Hitler's elimination of the SA, believing the worst was now over, although he opined that in the future the Führer should learn to see his own true strength and refrain from such illegal processes.",
"-28.94263361999765"
],
[
"to be victorious in three battles, if Germany were again to be powerful:.\n(1) The battle against the working class. Hitler has won this;\n(2) Against the Catholic Church, perhaps better expressed as Ultramontanism and\n(3) Against the Jews.\nWe are in the midst of these battles, and the one against the Jews is the most difficult. I hope everyone realizes the intricacies of this campaign.\"\nFritsch told Ulrich von Hassell—when the latter tried to involve him in an anti-Nazi plot—that Hitler was Germany's destiny, and nothing could be done to change that fact. World War II and death Just before the outbreak of World",
"-28.928223237846396"
],
[
"the major German mistakes on the Western Front. Rundstedt called it \"one of the great turning points of the war\", and Manstein described it as \"one of Hitler's most critical mistakes\". B. H. Liddell Hart interviewed many of the generals after the war and put together a picture of Hitler's strategic thinking on the matter. Hitler believed that once Britain's troops left continental Europe, they would never return. 26–27 May The retreat was undertaken amid chaotic conditions, with abandoned vehicles blocking the roads and a flood of refugees heading in the opposite direction. Due to wartime censorship and the desire",
"-28.9141954825609"
],
[
"British military and political figures contributed to the Rommel myth by embracing the heroic image portrayed by German propaganda as Rommel resumed his offensive in January 1942 against British forces weakened by re-deployments to the Far East. Speaking before Parliament, Winston Churchill addressed the British defeats and described Rommel as an \"extraordinary bold and clever opponent\" and a \"great field commander\".\nFollowing the war, the Western Allies, particularly the British, depicted Rommel as the \"good German\" and \"our friend Rommel\". His reputation for conducting a clean war was used to advance West German rearmament and the Federal Republic of Germany's",
"-28.902677999911248"
],
[
"Craig charged that it was simply wrong on the part of Irving to write that Hitler in October 1941 was in a state of pain over German losses on the Eastern Front with Hitler supposedly thinking \"What would be left of Germany and the flower of her manhood?\" As a way of rebuttal to this picture of Hitler, Craig quoted Hitler's remark later in 1941 when told of heavy German losses, \"But that's what the young people are there for!\". Like many other historians, Craig was critical of Irving using the \"no liquidation\" comment in Himmler's telephone logbook from 30",
"-28.901576492353342"
],
[
"worked better than in France and Britain. May referred to Marc Bloch in Strange Defeat (1940), that the German victory was a \"triumph of intellect\", which depended on Hitler's \"methodical opportunism\". May further asserted that, despite Allied mistakes, the Germans could not have succeeded but for outrageous good luck. German commanders wrote during the campaign and after, that often only a small difference had separated success from failure. Prioux thought that a counter-offensive could still have worked up to 19 May but by then, roads were crowded with Belgian refugees when they were needed for redeployment and the French transport",
"-28.81882475144812"
],
[
"the army. Equally important was a general tactical superiority of the German army, which was conducting the kind of warfare that it had been combat-testing and fine-tuning for two years. The hasty pre-war growth and over-promotion of the Red Army cadres as well as the removal of experienced officers caused by the Purges offset the balance even more favourably for the Germans. Finally, the sheer numeric superiority of the Axis cannot be underestimated.\nA generation of brilliant Soviet commanders (most notably Georgy Zhukov) learned from the defeats, and Soviet victories in the Battle of Moscow, at Stalingrad, Kursk and later in",
"-28.816888130037114"
],
[
"who \"doesn't go off and brood on my orders, but energetically sees to carrying them out.\" \nIt is probable that Hitler believed Zeitzler would be a more pliable and optimistic OKH chief than Halder. He was known to be a master of logistics, with solid organizational skills. His performance at the head of the General Staff was very respectable, but his drive and initiative was eventually paralyzed by Hitler's increasingly unreasonable demands and irrational orders.\nIn November 1942, Soviet counterattacks surrounded the German Sixth Army in\nStalingrad. Zeitzler recommended that Sixth Army immediately break out and withdraw from Stalingrad to the Don",
"-28.796127299545333"
],
[
"disseminated in the West by the British war-time press as the Allies sought to explain their continued inability to defeat the Axis forces in North Africa: The genius of Rommel was used by dissenters to protest against social inequality within the British army and by leaders like Churchill to reduce class tensions. \nFollowing the war, the Western Allies, and particularly the British, depicted Rommel as the \"good German\" and \"our friend Rommel\", adhering closely to the tenets of the myth of the clean Wehrmacht. His reputation for conducting a clean war was used in the interests of West German rearmament",
"-28.795942941709654"
],
[
"many periodicals, books, and movies, Hitler and Nazism fulfill the role of archetypal evil. This treatment is not confined to fiction but is widespread amongst nonfiction writers who have discussed him in this vein. Hitler has retained a fascination from other perspectives; among many comparable examples is an exhibition at the German Historical Museum which was widely attended. Representations of Hitler during his lifetime Numerous works in popular music and literature feature Adolf Hitler prominently.\nIn Germany, before he came to power, Hitler was often portrayed satirically in newspaper cartoons and propaganda by political enemies. The photomontagist John Heartfield regularly depicted",
"-28.78486646071542"
],
[
"most tragic figures in Czech history, but others see him as one of the most disappointing because he collaborated with Germany under Hitler.",
"-28.784013084579783"
]
] |
4ymixf | I just watched the Big Short, and I still don't understand what "shorting" is. How does buying credit swaps profit you when the market collapses? Who pays that out and why? | [
"Say Bob has a bunch of stock in a business called Company, Inc. Bob's friend Henry thinks Company, Inc.'s stock is about to drop significantly. Henry makes a deal with Bob: Bob will lend Henry 100 shares of Company, Inc. stock, but Henry has to give it all back exactly one year from now. So Henry gets 100 shares and sells them at their current price of $10 each. Henry now has $1000, but he'll have to buy back 100 shares before the end of the year in order to hold up his end of the bargain. A year later, Company, Inc. stock isn't doing so well, selling for only $1 a share. Henry buys up 100 shares and gives them back to Bob. By shorting the Company, Inc. stock, Henry made a profit of $900. In an alternate universe, Company, Inc. is doing pretty good at the end of the year. Their stock is selling for $20 a share. In order to get the 100 shares he needs to give back to Bob, Henry has to use the $1000 he got from selling the stock originally AND $1000 from his own pocket. In this universe, Henry's attempt to short the Company, Inc. stock has cost him $1000.",
"Let's say you own $1000 of stock I think it is going to go down in price. I borrow those shares from you, and immediately sell them for $1000. The next day, the stock goes down and is only worth $900. I buy them back, and return them to you, plus a little cash for your trouble. I've just made almost $100 from your stock going down. That's what shorting is, essentially sell a share of stock you don't have, then buying it for less when its price goes down. Essentially, you are buying a negative share of stock. The downside is if the price goes up. If you sold it for $1000, but the price goes up to $1100, you will have to spend that much to return the stock you borrowed.",
"You're kind of asking two questions actually, so: **Short selling** The usual way to make money in finance is to \"buy low, sell high.\" This is called going long. You buy a thing (a stock, say) for $100, it goes up to $120, sell it there - you made $20. Hooray! Short selling reverses that to \"sell high, buy low\". But you don't have it, so...you borrow it from someone else, with the promise to give it back later. You borrow it, sell it at $100, and if it goes down, you buy it back at $80 and give it back. You made $20. Hooray! The person, however, that lent the stock to you is sad since what was formerly worth $100 is now $80. There are other costs associated with short selling but this is the core idea. **Credit Default Swaps** So credit default swaps (I assume you mean these by \"credit swaps\") are a thing. They are commonly referred to by the acronym CDS. This is different from short selling. You loan me $100. But I'm a deadbeat and you're worried I won't pay you back. You will be sad if I don't pay you back because you lose that $100 and the interest I pay you on the loan. This keeps you up at night. Your friend Alice, however, thinks I'm not a deadbeat. So she makes a deal with you, kind of like insurance: you pay her a few bucks every three months, and if I turn out to be a deadbeat and can't pay up, she'll pay you $100. If I'm not a deadbeat, I pay you back the $100, and Alice just pockets the cash you've paid her. It's like if you pay insurance on your house and it never burns down. (There are significant technical complications I'm not getting into, but it's the core idea) The difference between insurance and CDS is that I can't insure someone else's house. So if I owe Bob $100 instead of you, you can still make that bet with Alice (the CDS). You pay a few bucks every three months to Alice insuring my debt to Bob. If I turn out to be a deadbeat, Alice pays you $100 - even though I have nothing to do with you. **Shorting and CDS** \"Shorting\" is just when you make money when a thing loses value. A \"long\" is when you bet that the thing is going to be worth more later. A short position is a bet that something fails. I know that sounds mean, but it's a valuable tool: it makes prices in financial markets work properly. Things should be worth what they're correctly worth. If they're worth too much, someone should drive the price down. Shorting helps that. Short selling is clearly a bet that a thing loses value. If you pay for CDS on my debt, you make money if I go bankrupt and my debt lost value. So you're shorting me. That's how these concepts relate. (This is informal, it's ELI5 after all - more formally \"the protection buyer in a CDS is shorting the credit quality of the reference obligation\" but meh)",
"There's a bunch of good explanations for what a short is. The thing they were doing in the movie though is actually called a credit default swap, which works a little bit differently. Banks lend money to people for houses. Those people repay the loans, and the bank can take that stream of money and sell it to other people. This is the secondary mortgage market, and it helps make mortgages less risky to banks. A swap in general, is an agreement to trade one cash flow for another. In the case of credit default swaps in the movie, let's say the bank is making $100 a month from people paying their mortgages. Christian Bale offered the bank $300 for that $100 to go to him instead. So every month, he's down $200 and this is why the banks think it's so funny. The catch is, the bank agrees to pay him whatever's left on the mortgage if people stop paying their mortgages. In practice, these aren't individual mortgages but tiny chunks of a lot of mortgages, so the chance of everyone failing to pay at once was very low. It's basically like insurance. He pays a small amount every month, but gets paid a lot if something bad happens. As the movie goes on, Steve Carell's group is getting screwed because their premiums go up. They're paying for the right to an income stream, and that income is deemed to be more valuable as the movie goes on, so they have to pay more to keep their right to it.",
"You should *read* it instead, trust me, about half way thru it will start to make sense. The lingo and jargon is intense, but it's not infinite. Eventually the same terms will start to repeat themselves...*a lot* and voila, you'll start to get a feel for it. A credit default swap is nothing more than insurance. They didn't exist when Mike Burry saw his opportunity and the book goes into a little more detail about how he convinced the biggest banks to insure him against the bonds he had bought. If you want to sound shit hot and like you know what you're talking about you can say he 'bought credit default swaps'....but really he just bought insurance for his bonds. The banks insured Mike just as any insurance company would, by making him pay premiums (monthly or yearly in his case, I can't remember which). So, in the case of a U.S. government bond for example, if it completely fails the government can literally just *print more money* and pay you back...it literally *cannot fail*, in a sense, and so these are given a AAA rating as far as bonds go. In Mike Burry's case, he dug a little and saw all these absurdly, hideously shitty mortgage bonds being rated as AAA and \"knew\" they would fail at some point. The banks who insured him (sold him credit default swaps) did *no digging whatsoever* and said 'hey look, a AAA rating, it can't fail!' So, to answer your question, because Mike Burry paid the big Wall Street banks premiums regularly, just like your or I would pay our insurance bill each month, *it was the banks* who were responsible for *insuring* Mike when the bonds failed....and they sure as shit better since he had been paying them a princely sum to do just that (he used his investors money to pay the premiums which is why they come to his office demanding their money back, so for a few years he 'lost' a tremendous amount of money, on paper). To muddy the waters a little further...Mike ended up being *so incredibly right* about the bonds failing that he was almost right *too much*. In other words, the banks were going to lose *A LOT* of money when they had to pay out the insurance he had bought, the problem was they lost so much money to begin with some of them *actually went out of business* (and the government bailed others out) so that they couldn't pay Mike anyway, and this almost bit him and the other characters in the butt. I'm not entirely sure on this point but I think this is where the banks wanted to buy the credit default swaps back rather than pay them out, and so all the characters still made bank! TL; DR It's a long answer but nothing too cosmic and I really did keep it simple cause I'm not that smart on this stuff myself.",
"What they did in the movie was bet on the market and that the mortgages would default when the \"bubble\" burst. So they bought (invested in) these mortgages (bonds) from banks and made a deal with the banks that if such a default event happened they would get paid back whatever the mortgages were worth. But they werent buying full price for the bonds. They were buying tiny chunks of mortgages. But the payouts were astronomical because they essentially got paid whatever the homebuyer had left on said mortgage. Small investment, huge returns. The only way the banks would make that deal was to charge a premium (like car insurance) every month or whatever was agreed. Since the market was very strong and showed many years of people paying their mortgages, and the unemployment rate was consistently low, they felt this was just free money they would be getting from the premiums and that the market would never crash. Christain Bales character did some research on the numbers and realized they (banks) were giving these large (mortgage) loans out to many people who couldnt afford them in the long run and theyd eventually go into default. Predatory loans or \"subprime\" as we call them. They were also poorly rated bonds. But even though they were still lowly rated, people still continued to pay their monthly payments. The market was strong as it had been for many years and apparently as far as the bankers were concerned there was no end in sight and they would collect trillions off these stupid investors. And then eventually, as predicted, the market crashed. Millions lost their jobs, pensions, etc. The housing market crashed. $500K homes were now worth half that. People started leaving their homes and letting their mortgages go into default because who the fuck wants to keep paying a mortgage on a home that is now worth half what you paid for it? Also, since people lost their jobs they couldnt pay the bills, so again their mortgages defaulted and they left their homes. At this point it was considered a credit event and the banks had to pay back the investors IN FULL. Many of them did not want to. They were called credit default swaps. Here is a video of what they did. URL_0 ",
"Think of it as dropshipping on Ebay. You post an auction for an XBox for $300 that you don't own. After someone wins it, you now have to buy an XBox off Amazon to ship. Ideally, you buy it for $250. The other guy pays you $300. So you make a $50 profit. But if for some reason, Amazon is showing $320, you end up losing $20 dollars in order to fulfill your obligation.",
"Let's say there's a market for pencils at school. They're currently selling for $1 each, but I think the price is going to go down. Sally has a bunch of pencils she's keeping for the long term, because she wants to use them for her final exam. I make a deal with Sally. I'll give Sally five cents to borrow 10 of her pencils, and I promise to give them back to her at exam time. Immediately after borrowing her pencils, I sell them, and now have $10 cash in hand. At exam time, I have to buy 10 pencils to give to Sally. Let's say I was right, and the price drops to a quarter. I only have to spend $2.50 to buy those ten pencils, and I get to keep the $7.50. I have now shorted the pencil market. Now let's say I was wrong, and pencils are $2 each at exam time. Now I have to shell out $20 so I can replace Sally's pencils. I've lost $10. That's what make short selling a bit dangerous. With normal investments, you can only lose 100% of your investment. With short investments, the potential losses are limitless. If there's some sort of pencil-drought that year and pencil prices rise to $100, my losses are many times my initial investment.",
"I think the price of bananas is going to go down. My buddy has a bunch of bananas. I borrow his bananas, promising to return them in a few days. Mean while I sell them for the current price, hoping to buy them cheaper before I have to return them to my friend. That is shorting. I profit when prices go lower by borrowing, selling, and repurchasing. To short, someone else has to take a \"long\" position - buy and hold, hoping prices rise. The idea, overall, is that a short position redistributes risk from one party to another, paying out when the instrument goes south. Credit default swaps are not a direct \"short,\" but rather a form of insurance taken against asset backed instruments; they have the same relationship, in that the failure of the underlying asset leads to a pay out.",
"A credit default swap (CDS) is this: A bank loans money (a mortgage) to a homeowner to buy a home. The bank goes to another financial institution and buys insurance to cover them in case you default on your mortgage (never pay your mortgage off in full and the bank gets screwed out of their money). In exchange for the coverage the bank pays the financial institution monthly premiums. The above insuring is done on a group of many many mortgages as a group. The insuring financial institution then turns around and sells this group off to another financial institution (that other financial institution has to pay in case of default but is also getting paid premiums). Sometimes financial institution B sells again to financial institution C and so on. That's a credit default swap. The problem came in because of this: Each mortgage has a slight risk that the homeowner will default... this is based on their credit worthiness (determined when you fill out a credit application). A group of insurance contracts was usually around 15% risky mortgages, 85% safer mortgages. Back in the early/mid 2000s it became custom for Financial institution B to take a bunch of groups, mix them all up and separate them back out again. What happened is that some groups ended up being made up of way more than 15% risky mortgages (because banks are greedy and qualifying for a mortgage back then -- even if you were risky in terms of credit worthiness -- was very easy). These mixed up groups were sold off again without the financial institution telling the purchasing financial institution that they weren't necessarily only 15% risky. Some of the groups of insurance that were very top heavy in risk started to fail (these people couldn't really afford their house in the first place, they failed to pay, many of these entire groups of risk-heavy insurance failed). The owners of the insurance groups had to pay the banks to cover the groups of defaulted mortgages. This happened on such a great scale that there wasn't actually money to cover it. The banks that loaned the mortgages ended up not getting back all of the money they loaned out for the houses. When most of our major financial institutions don't get paid back on loans at the same time nasty things happen. People start to freak out, the market crashes, people lose their investments, people's house halve in value, small businesses go out of business, people lose their jobs etc etc. Bad scenario. Edit: the thing about this that is so frustrating for me is that this is simply the backbone of the US economy and in reality it's just betting. It's like someone buying a billion of scratch off tickets and having your entire economy propped up based on the idea that more than half of the time they'll be winners. None of us have a choice in this.",
"So pretend you travel back in time and buy full coverage insurance for the Titanic in 1912 before its maiden voyage. They think it's unsinkable, you know it's doomed. They think you're crazy so they let you buy it for relatively cheap, but you agree to pay a premium everyday the titanic doesn't sink. When it finally does sink, you collect 5 or 10x your initial investment because it was full coverage policy on the Titanic . It was a terrible tragedy but you make a huge profit. Kinda like that but with MBS's, banks, and the global economy. From what I understand, Christian Bale( and the other characters) essentially bought $100M worth of mortgage-back securities from multiple banks, so long as they agreed to pay him back 10 to 1 (idk someone mentions this) payout when they failed. He agreed to pay a premium every month default didn't occur. This was a contract that he made with the bank, a Credit Default Swap. They laughed in his face because they were C, B, and A+ loans, deemed safe in the mortgage industry, in which a collapse is highly unlikely. But he found out they were MBSs full of subprime loans. Remember Margot Robbie? Subprime=shit. Basically phony A's and B loans that were really D's and F loans that were about to fail in mass. [My question is: why was it so easy for all of them to unload the CDS's? Why were the banks eager to buy them back? Like why was Brad Pitt able to negotiate from 40 to 80M with the banker? ...And how did Ryan Goslings character make his money? It was confusing to me what he was up to. Saw it once, gotta watch it again]",
"A bond is an investment where you loan money to a company* that promises to pay you back over time with interest. However, if the company goes bankrupt, then you lose your investment. A credit default swap is an agreement you enter into with another company (which is basically an insurer) to insure bonds. You pay premiums to the insurer and if the company you invested in happens to go bankrupt, then the insurer will refund your premiums and make the payments that the bankrupt company was supposed to pay. However, a CDS is not legally insurance, which exempts sellers from insurance requirements such as having enough money on hand to pay out on your commitments. So AIG and other companies were selling what were essentially insurance policies without being required to keep enough money on hand to pay out. Also, because a CDS is not insurance, people were able to buy CDS on bonds they did not own. This was called a \"naked\" CDS and caused a lot of problems. A billion dollars in bonds, for instance, could give rise to four billion dollar's worth of loss due to naked CDS. So when the market blew up, instead of just a billion, in our example, you'll have four billion dollars in loss. Then the insurers couldn't pay on the CDS, which led to everything falling apart. *Can also include governments but I'll use company to keep it simple.",
" > Who pays that out and why? That is actually the big problem. The contract says the person who sold the credit default swap pays. But the people who sold them before the crisis were absolutely sure they wouldn't have to pay, and some of them couldn't. But these aren't ordinary people we're talking about here. These are financial institutions. They owe lots of people lots of money, way more than they ever had. They're also owed lots of money by lots of other people, so everything usually balances out. But when the crisis went boom, they couldn't pay them *or anyone else*, and that threatened to cascade across the entire system, bankrupting everybody.",
"Tldr.. You can make bets on something winning or losing. Shorting is basically a financial term that allows an investor to bet that a company will underperform. If that happens the investor profits. If not he loses. There is a lot more than that Involved in speculative investing but that is the tldr version.",
"There are ETFs that are set up to short specific commodities. DWTI, for example, will pay you 3% for every 1% WTI crude oil goes down in price. This is available for gold and natural gas etc. You buy $1000 of DWTI and if WTI oil goes down by 1% you make $30.",
"How does shorting work with stock splits? So if like I shorted 100 stocks at $10, and they split in 2, I'll have doubled my money invested because I still only need to return 100 stocks and they're worth $5 now, correct?"
] | [
[
"performs the 'twist' by selling some of the short term debt (with three years or less to maturity) it purchased as part of the quantitative easing policy back into the market and using the money received from this to buy longer term government debt. Although this action was marginally successful in reducing the spread between long-term maturities and short-term maturities, Vincent Reinhart and others have suggested it did not continue for a sufficient period of time to be effective. Despite being considered a failure since a 1966 near-term analysis by Franco Modigliani and Richard Sutch, the action has subsequently",
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[
"produced. Shorting a futures contract is sometimes also used by those holding the underlying asset (i.e. those with a long position) as a temporary hedge against price declines. Shorting futures may also be used for speculative trades, in which case the investor is looking to profit from any decline in the price of the futures contract prior to expiration.\nAn investor can also purchase a put option, giving that investor the right (but not the obligation) to sell the underlying asset (such as shares of stock) at a fixed price. In the event of a market decline, the",
"-28.459596657543443"
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[
"unregulated) that bought stocks while selling other stocks short, hence hedging some of the market risk, and the hedge fund was born.\nNegative news, such as litigation against a company, may also entice professional traders to sell the stock short in hope of the stock price going down.\nDuring the dot-com bubble, shorting a start-up company could backfire since it could be taken over at a price higher than the price at which speculators shorted. Short-sellers were forced to cover their positions at acquisition prices, while in many cases the firm often overpaid for the start-up. Naked short selling restrictions During",
"-28.114476313523483"
],
[
"a temporary ban on short-selling the stock of financial firms. Arguments against restricting short-selling The ratio of those \"long\" (i.e., those who are betting the stock will go up) or \"short\" (i.e., those who are betting the stock will go down) sends important signals regarding the future direction of the stock or expectations of future performance. Short selling is only harmful if it reduces the price of the investment below what its value should be. However, if that occurs, then the short seller would suffer a loss since the price would tend to go back up to its appropriate value;",
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[
"Long squeeze A long squeeze is a situation in which investors who hold long positions feel the need to sell into a falling market to cut their losses. This pressure to sell usually leads to a further decline in market prices. This situation is less common than the opposite \"short squeeze\", because in a short squeeze, the traders who have taken the short contracts have a legal obligation to settle with the promised shares. A trader who is 'long' in a long squeeze may well have no such obligation, but may sell out of fear. Other investors may see the",
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"selling bans in 2011 and again in 2012. Worldwide, economic regulators seem inclined to restrict short selling to decrease potential downward price cascades. Investors continue to argue this only contributes to market inefficiency. Shorting stock in the U.S. To sell stocks short in the U.S., the seller must arrange for a broker-dealer to confirm that it can deliver the shorted securities. This is referred to as a locate. Brokers have a variety of means to borrow stocks to facilitate locates and make good on delivery of the shorted security.\nThe vast majority of stocks borrowed by U.S. brokers come from",
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"underlying asset value decline is mild or temporary the debt-financing may be only short-term, and thus due for immediate repayment. The risk can be mitigated by negotiating the terms of leverage, by maintaining unused capacity for additional borrowing, and by leveraging only liquid assets which may rapidly be converted to cash.\nOn the other hand, the high level of leverage afforded to borrowers involved in forex trading presents relatively low risk per unit due to the relative stability of that market. Compared with other trading markets, forex traders must trade a much higher volume of units in order to make",
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"chain acts as a string that is oscillating. All supply chains together form the economy, which also oscillates. The wave character of the Lehman Wave makes it possible to predict its cause. Active and re-active destocking Active and re-active destocking explains why some companies can see a strong dip in sales while their end markets are fairly stable. If the supply chain between a company and its end-customer would have a stock depth of \"250 days' sales\", meaning that it takes at least 250 days for a molecule to travel from a companies' warehouse to the end consumer, and if",
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"unlimited profit potential. In the early stages of this trade, it is a neutral trading strategy. If the stock starts to move more than anticipated, this is what can result in limited gains. Be aware of expiration dates As the expiration date for the short option approaches, action needs to be taken. If the short option expires out of the money, then the contract expires worthless. If the option is in the money, then the trader should consider buying back the option at the market price. After the trader has taken action with the short option, he or she can",
"-27.02430392266251"
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"is delayed in time).\nIf we get back to the reinforcing loop then we can see the inhibited results are reducing growing action which is leading to the reduced results again. Trade-offs Trade-offs must be calculated to decide which ones of limits to focus on and address first. The one that is more attractive in terms of future benefit to the results should be chosen to be dealt with. It is necessary to compare the future situations after removing each of the slowing actions and their values in terms of reaching the desired result. But not only the one that will",
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[
"short-term price increase by selling before the truth came out and prices tanked. The perverse incentives created by the availability of option (2) have been blamed for many of the falsified earnings reports and public statements in the late 1990s and early 2000s.\nAlso there is the tradeoff of short term gains at the expense of long term gains or even long term company survival. It is easy to plunder the assets of a previously successful company and show spectacular short term gains only to have the enterprise collapse after those responsible have gotten their incentives and left the organization or",
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"they are compensated by an expectation of profit. But by means of credit, current imbalances are pushed into the future where, hopefully, they can be offset against a pattern of imbalances going the other way. And the elastic availability of such promises to pay are the essential source of elasticity in the payment system. In some sense, the futures market works just the opposite from the credit market. The credit market operates to postpone settlement until a future date or dates, while the futures market operates to accelerate settlement to a present date or dates.\nIt is important to emphasize that",
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[
"time periods, they cannot entirely mitigate risk, because there is always the chance that exchange rates will move in your favor. However, the standardization of futures can be a part of what makes them attractive to some: they are well-regulated and are traded only on exchanges.\nTwo popular and inexpensive methods companies can use to minimize potential losses is hedging with options and forward contracts. If a company decides to purchase an option, it is able to set a rate that is \"at-worst\" for the transaction. If the option expires and it's out-of-the-money, the company is able to execute the transaction",
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"shares during the period of any short sale.\nAs noted earlier, victims of naked shorting sometimes report that the number of votes cast is greater than the number of shares issued by the company. Futures and options contracts When trading futures contracts, being 'short' means having the legal obligation to deliver something at the expiration of the contract, although the holder of the short position may alternately buy back the contract prior to expiration instead of making delivery. Short futures transactions are often used by producers of a commodity to fix the future price of goods they have not yet",
"-26.779283906791534"
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[
"spending time physically matching odds from various bet sites to exchanges, the other draw back with bonus bagging and arbitrage trading in this sense is that often the free bets are \"non-stake returned\". This effectively reduces the odds, in decimal format, by 1. Therefore, in order to reduce \"losses\" on the free bet, it is necessary to place a bet with high odds, so that the percentage difference of the decrease in odds is minimised. Shop arbitrage (sharbing) Shop arbitrage (also known as sharbing or shop-arbing) is the process of using a betting shop's coupons and a betting",
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"widens to 4% (increasing the junk bond yield to 9%), then the market is forecasting a greater risk of default, probably because of weaker economic prospects for the borrowers. A narrowing of yield spreads (between bonds of different risk ratings) implies that the market is factoring in less risk, probably due to an improving economic outlook.\nThe TED Spread is one commonly-quoted credit spread. The difference between Baa-rated ten-year corporate bonds and ten-year Treasuries is another commonly-quoted credit spread. Consumer loans Yield spread can also be an indicator of profitability for a lender providing a loan to an individual",
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"process continues in a self-reinforcing pattern. Because the pattern is self-reinforcing, markets tend towards disequilibrium. Sooner or later they reach a point where the sentiment is reversed and negative expectations become self-reinforcing in the downward direction, thereby explaining the familiar pattern of boom and bust cycles An example Soros cites is the procyclical nature of lending, that is, the willingness of banks to ease lending standards for real estate loans when prices are rising, then raising standards when real estate prices are falling, reinforcing the boom and bust cycle. He further suggests that property price inflation is",
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[
"much smaller amount of money than would be required by outright purchase or sales. Short selling In short selling, the trader borrows stock (usually from his brokerage which holds its clients' shares or its own shares on account to lend to short sellers) then sells it on the market, betting that the price will fall. The trader eventually buys back the stock, making money if the price fell in the meantime and losing money if it rose. Exiting a short position by buying back the stock is called \"covering\". This strategy may also be used by unscrupulous traders in illiquid",
"-26.439388129962026"
],
[
"consumers prefer to have the product sooner rather than later (see convenience yield), and\nbecause there are few holders who can make an arbitrage profit by selling the spot and buying back the future. A market that is steeply backwardated—i.e., one where there is a very steep premium for material available for immediate delivery—often indicates a perception of a current shortage in the underlying commodity. By the same token, a market that is deeply in contango may indicate a perception of a current supply surplus in the commodity.\nIn 2005 and 2006 a perception of impending supply shortage allowed traders to take",
"-26.335163019117317"
],
[
"previously placed stop-loss orders with their brokers to prepare for this possibility. Since covering their positions involves buying shares, the short squeeze causes an ever further rise in the stock's price, which in turn may trigger additional margin calls and short covering.\nShort squeezes are more likely to occur in stocks with small market capitalization and small floats, although can involve large stocks and billions of dollars, as happened in October 2008 when a short squeeze temporarily drove the shares of Volkswagen on the Xetra DAX from €210.85 to over €1000 in less than two days, briefly making it the most",
"-26.331852783448994"
],
[
"up rounds until it is launched on the stock market, sold, or merged. Down rounds are painful events for initial shareholders and founders, as they cause substantial ownership dilution and may damage the company's reputation. Downrounds were common during the dot-com crash of 2000–2001.",
"-26.28509448922705"
],
[
"guarantee the agreement, as over this time the price of the contract can vary as a function of supply and demand, causing one side of the exchange to lose money at the expense of the other.\nTo mitigate the risk of default, the product is marked to market on a daily basis where the difference between the initial agreed-upon price and the actual daily futures price is re-evaluated daily. This is sometimes known as the variation margin, where the futures exchange will draw money out of the losing party's margin account and put it into that of the other party, ensuring",
"-26.267357660806738"
],
[
"refinance the debt but could not make sufficient payments on interest or principal with the cash flow from investments; only the appreciating asset value can keep the Ponzi borrower afloat.\nOften it is only in retrospect that participants in an economic bubble realize that the point of collapse was obvious. In this respect, economic bubbles can have dynamic characteristics not unlike Ponzi schemes or Pyramid schemes. Valuation of securities The crunch is generally caused by a reduction in the market prices of previously \"overinflated\" assets and refers to the financial crisis that results from the price collapse. This can result in",
"-26.23759095420246"
],
[
"Badla trading involved buying stocks with borrowed money with the stock exchange acting as an intermediary at an interest rate determined by the demand for the underlying stock and a maturity not greater than 70 days. Like a traditional futures contract, badla is a form of leverage; unlike futures, the broker—not the buyer or seller—is responsible for the maintenance of the marked-to-market margin. Example The mechanism of badla finance can be explained with the following example:\nSuppose A wants to buy shares of a company but does not have enough money now. If A values the shares more than their current",
"-26.19307174284768"
],
[
"the physical commodity clearing. Each Futures contract would generate a particular pattern of cash flow and cash commitment at a given price between the counterparties. In a Futures contract, payments are being made all along the life of the contract, whenever the Futures price changes. This is called \"mark to market\". Concretely, these payments involve additions and subtractions from \"margin accounts\" held at the Futures clearinghouse. It is significant that both the long and short side have to put up margin, because at the moment the contract is entered, both are in a sense equally likely to lose and so",
"-26.171217027585953"
],
[
"Maturity transformation Maturity transformation is the practice by financial institutions of borrowing money on shorter timeframes than they lend money out. Financial markets also have the effect of maturity transformation whereby investors such as shareholders and bondholders can sell their shares and bonds in the secondary market (i.e. the larger part of the stock market) at any time without affecting the company that issued the shares or bonds. Thus the company can be a long-term borrower from a market of short-term lenders. The short-term lenders are simply buying and selling the ownership of the shares or bonds on the stock",
"-26.16151138895657"
],
[
"up and sell when the index goes down in order to maintain a fixed leverage ratio. A 2.5% daily change in the index will for example reduce value of a -2x bear fund by about 0.18% per day, which means that about a third of the fund may be wasted in trading losses within a year (1-(1-0.18%)²⁵²=36.5%). Investors may however circumvent this problem by buying or writing futures directly, accepting a varying leverage ratio. A more reasonable estimate of daily market changes is 0.5%, which leads to a 2.6% yearly loss of principal in a 3x leveraged fund.\nThe re-indexing problem",
"-26.10031306266319"
],
[
"Deal sourcing Traditional approach Deal origination largely depended on a broad network of contacts and a good reputation. Having an industry-specific knowledge and an idea of similar deals taking place in the market was considered an added advantage with respect to placing a bid. Online deal sourcing Traditional methods of deal origination are fast giving way to online deal sourcing platforms for buy-side and sell-side opportunities. Several financial technology companies around the world provide services to users to enable them to go beyond their network of contacts and source deals on the basis of a variety of criteria. In addition,",
"-26.06540580424189"
],
[
"company claims to act as their \"forex dealer\", it is financially interested in making the retail customer lose money. The contract is directly between the customer and the pseudo-dealer, so it is an off-exchange one; it cannot be normally registered and traded on futures exchanges.\nAlthough it is possible for a few experts to successfully arbitrage the market for an unusually large return, this does not mean that a larger number could earn the same returns even given the same tools, techniques and data sources. This is because the arbitrages are essentially drawn from a pool of finite size; although information",
"-26.058798163139727"
],
[
"the 2008 financial crisis, critics argued that investors taking large short positions in struggling financial firms like Lehman Brothers, HBOS and Morgan Stanley created instability in the stock market and placed additional downward pressure on prices. In response, a number of countries introduced restrictive regulations on short-selling in 2008 and 2009. Naked short selling is the practice of short-selling a tradable asset without first borrowing the security or ensuring that the security can be borrowed – it was this practice that was commonly restricted. Investors argued that it was the weakness of financial institutions, not short-selling, that drove stocks to",
"-25.99395878915675"
],
[
"at par value but permit delivery of Number 2 oats for a certain seller's penalty per bushel.\nBefore the market opens on the first day of trading a new futures contract, there is a specification but no actual contracts exist. Futures contracts are not issued like other securities, but are \"created\" whenever Open interest increases; that is, when one party first buys (goes long) a contract from another party (who goes short). Contracts are also \"destroyed\" in the opposite manner whenever Open interest decreases because traders resell to reduce their long positions or rebuy to reduce their short positions.\nSpeculators on futures",
"-25.942746258806437"
],
[
"side of every contract. Future contracts typically are more liquid than forward contracts and move with the market. Because of this, the farmer can minimize the risk he faces in the future through the selling of future contracts. Future contracts also differ from forward contracts in that delivery never happens. The exchanges and clearinghouses allow the buyer or seller to leave the contract early and cash out. So tying back into the farmer selling his wheat at a future date, he will sell short futures contracts for the amount that he predicts to harvest to protect against a price decrease.",
"-25.94126249276451"
],
[
"yield curve allows Primary Dealers (such as large investment banks) in the Federal Reserve system to fund themselves with cheap short term money while lending out at higher long-term rates. This strategy is profitable so long as the yield curve remains positively sloped. However, it creates a liquidity risk if the yield curve were to become inverted and banks would have to refund themselves at expensive short term rates while losing money on longer term loans.\nThe narrowing of the yield curve from 2004 and the inversion of the yield curve during 2007 resulted (with the expected 1 to 3-year delay)",
"-25.89361013911548"
],
[
"a better margin. The principle then spread to the retail industry because of the interest it represents for a sector where payment delays are at the heart of every negotiation.\nIn the 1990s’, and the early 2000s’, the reverse factoring was not used a lot because of the economic contexts that did not allow it to be an efficient way of financing. Today however, because of the NTICs and various legal advances, it has become a very successful tool. For the supplier The supplier has its invoices paid earlier; therefore it can more easily manage its cashflow, and reduce by the",
"-25.887574359076098"
],
[
"markets with few issuers accessing the market. Uncertain market conditions led to a significant widening of yield spreads, which coupled with the typical summer slowdown led many companies and investment banks to put their plans to issue debt on hold until the autumn. However, the expected rebound in the market after 1 May 2007 did not materialize, and the lack of market confidence prevented deals from pricing. By the end of September, the full extent of the credit situation became obvious as major lenders including Citigroup and UBS AG announced major writedowns due to credit losses. The leveraged finance markets",
"-25.784874385077273"
],
[
"on past the reversal point or to reverse again. The trader takes no action until the market has done one or the other.\nIt is considered to bring higher probability trade entries, once this point has passed and the market is either continuing or reversing again. The traders do not take the first opportunity but rather wait for a second entry to make their trade. For instance the second attempt by bears to force the market down to new lows represents, if it fails, a double bottom and the point at which many bears will abandon their bearish opinions and start",
"-25.77856004203204"
],
[
"Operation Twist. This is a plan to purchase $400 billion of bonds with maturities of 6 to 30 years and to sell bonds with maturities less than 3 years, thereby extending the average maturity of the Fed's own portfolio. This is an attempt to do what Quantitative Easing (QE) tries to do, without printing more money and without expanding the Fed's balance sheet, therefore hopefully avoiding the inflationary pressure associated with QE. This announcement brought a bout of risk aversion in the equity markets and strengthened the US Dollar, whereas QE I had weakened the USD and supported the equity",
"-25.773460365831852"
],
[
"The current (spot) price of wheat and the price of the futures contracts for wheat converge as time gets closer to the delivery date, so in order to make money on the hedge, the farmer must close out his position earlier than then. On the chance that prices decrease in the future, the farmer will make a profit on his short position in the futures market which offsets any decrease in revenues from the spot market for wheat. On the other hand, if prices increase, the farmer will generate a loss on the futures market which is offset by an",
"-25.74473831729847"
],
[
"credit availability (i.e. credit rationing occurs). Many times, a credit crunch is accompanied by a flight to quality by lenders and investors, as they seek less risky investments (often at the expense of small to medium size enterprises). Causes A credit crunch is often caused by a sustained period of careless and inappropriate lending which results in losses for lending institutions and investors in debt when the loans turn sour and the full extent of bad debts becomes known. \nThere are a number of reasons why banks might suddenly stop or slow lending activity. For example, inadequate information",
"-25.679339159687515"
],
[
"one to have success in the short term. By the time news comes out the markets have already responded and most of the potential gains for investors are gone. Buying or selling a stock that does not have much volume can move it up or down. Small investors have little effect but large mutual funds and hedge funds can determine the minute-to-minute pricing of stocks through supply and demand (Cramer, 2005, p. 96). \nWatching whether a stock is trending up or down can be a sure sign as to sell or buy in the short run. ",
"-25.66930845764"
],
[
"Dow moved within 1% of the previous close.\nSince over 50% of all trades on the NYSE are program trades, this curb was supposed to limit volatility by mitigating the ability of automated trades to drive stock prices down via positive feedback.\nThis curb was fairly common, and financial television networks such as CNBC often referred to it with the term \"curbs in\".\nOn November 7, 2007, the NYSE confirmed that the exchange has scrapped this rule from November 2, 2007. The reason given for the rule's elimination was its ineffectiveness in its purpose of curbing market volatility since it was enacted in",
"-25.65394622180611"
],
[
"market can break through, with the expectation that the break-outs will fail and the market will reverse.\nOne break-out above the previous highest high or ceiling of a trading range is termed a higher high. Since trading ranges are difficult to trade, the price action trader will often wait after seeing the first higher high and on the appearance of a second break-out followed by its failure, this will be taken as a high probability bearish trade, with the middle of the range as the profit target. This is favoured firstly because the middle of the trading range will tend to",
"-25.648991006426513"
],
[
"not have that many different types of credit/funds for each different states of world to have complete market. Consequences of imperfections in capital markets With perfect information as the interest rate increases, expected return to the lender increases as the lender charges the borrower more for the lending service. However, with imperfect information there is also an indirect opposite effect. As the interest rate rises, the possibility of selecting riskier borrowers increases as the cost increases less for them as they may not pay it back. Hence, as the interest rate goes up, the return to the lender decreases only",
"-25.60026805277448"
],
[
"of demand during recessions causes a fall in the price of raw materials, so the parameter goes down. The argument is symmetrical during the boom: prices of raw materials rise ( parameter increases) while the strength of unions due to increased employment level causes the degree of monopoly and thereby the mark-up level, to fall. The conclusion is that the α parameter is roughly constant over the business cycle.\nFinally, we need an equation that determines the total product of an economy:\nwhich is to say that the share of profits and salaries are the complement of the share of",
"-25.56889663626498"
],
[
"Short interest ratio Short squeeze (a.k.a. Bear Squeeze) A short squeeze can occur if the price of stock with a high short interest begins to have increased demand and a strong upward trend. To cut their losses, short sellers may add to demand by buying shares to cover short positions, causing the share price to further escalate temporarily. Short squeezes are more likely to occur in stocks with small market capitalization and a small public float.",
"-25.55215175182093"
],
[
"brokers were routinely lending small investors more than two-thirds of the face value of the stocks they were buying. Over $8.5 billion was out on loan, more than the entire amount of currency circulating in the U.S. at the time.\nThe rising share prices encouraged more people to invest, hoping the share prices would rise further. Speculation thus fueled further rises and created an economic bubble. Because of margin buying, investors stood to lose large sums of money if the market turned down—or even failed to advance quickly enough. The average P/E (price to earnings) ratio of S&P Composite stocks was",
"-25.541314839734696"
],
[
"is often considered a risky transaction. Because of this, it can take months to get a short refinance, and there are no guarantees the borrower will receive one. If the borrower's bank does agree to a short refinance, his or her credit will not necessarily be negatively affected. In this sense, a short refinance is no better than a short sale. However, this is a much better end result than allowing one's property to be foreclosed upon. A short sale can affect one's credit as little as 50 points as opposed to a foreclosure, which could affect credit by",
"-25.522279905853793"
],
[
"as they meet these requirements.\nA clearinghouse acts as the buyer to every seller and seller to every buyer, reducing the risk of counterparty defaulting on a transaction. In the over-the-counter market, where credit- default swaps are currently traded, participants are exposed to each other in case of a default. A clearinghouse also provides one location for regulators to view traders’ positions and prices. J.P. Morgan losses In April 2012, hedge fund insiders became aware that the market in credit default swaps was possibly being affected by the activities of Bruno Iksil, a trader for J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., referred",
"-25.46915215658737"
],
[
"the contract to keep it in line with the brokerage margin requirements. This true-ing up occurs by the \"loss\" party providing additional collateral; so if the buyer of the contract incurs a drop in value, the shortfall or variation margin would typically be shored up by the investor wiring or depositing additional cash in the brokerage account.\nIn a forward though, the spread in exchange rates is not trued up regularly but, rather, it builds up as unrealized gain (loss) depending on which side of the trade being discussed. This means that entire unrealized gain (loss) becomes realized at the time",
"-25.45653447130462"
],
[
"There are several technical problems with short sales - the broker may not have shares to lend in a specific issue, the broker can call for the return of its shares at any time, and some restrictions are imposed in America by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission on short-selling (see uptick rule for details). Some of these restrictions (in particular the uptick rule) don't apply to trades of stocks that are actually shares of an exchange-traded fund (ETF). Trend following Trend following, a strategy used in all trading time-frames, assumes that financial instruments which have been rising steadily will",
"-25.45008903006965"
],
[
"helps prevent \"irrational exuberance\" and bubbles. But when someone fails to borrow and deliver the securities needed to make good on a short position, after failing even to determine that they can be borrowed, that is not contributing to an orderly market — it is undermining it. And in the context of a potential \"distort and short\" campaign aimed at an otherwise sound financial institution, this kind of manipulative activity can have drastic consequences.\n— Speech by SEC chairman\nAs with the prevalence of naked shorting, the effects are contested. The SEC has stated that the practice can be beneficial in enhancing",
"-25.37177832069574"
],
[
"caused by the tax.\nThe area represented by the triangle results from the fact that the intersection of the supply and the demand curves are cut short. The consumer surplus and the producer surplus are also cut short. The loss of such surplus that is never recouped and represents the deadweight loss.\nSome economists like James Tobin have argued that these triangles do not have a huge impact on the economy, but others like Martin Feldstein maintain that they can seriously affect long-term economic trends by pivoting the trend downwards and causing a magnification of losses in the long run. Hicks vs.",
"-25.338306249832385"
],
[
"commodity markets in the 19th century, but over the last fifty years a large global market developed in products to hedge financial market risk. Futures hedging Investors who primarily trade in futures may hedge their futures against synthetic futures. A synthetic in this case is a synthetic future comprising a call and a put position. Long synthetic futures means long call and short put at the same expiry price. To hedge against a long futures trade a short position in synthetics can be established, and vice versa.\nStack hedging is a strategy which involves buying various futures contracts that are concentrated",
"-25.329532474977896"
],
[
"go out and sell the next day, or the next week or next month without falling into debt.\nAnother difference between the two models can be observed in how entrepreneurs reinvest their earnings. Where credit is used as the enabling mechanism, entrepreneurs may use their earnings for personal consumption before they have time to restock their inventories, which stunts their growth. MCM entrepreneurs reinvest efficiently in their ventures. Because they buy their goods after they make a sale, they do not consider the portion of their revenues that goes to restocking their inventory as theirs.\nOne of the most compelling differences between",
"-25.32240694516804"
],
[
"usually through interest rate manipulation and bond-buying and such. The \"boom\" was created by \"malinvestments,\" as Mises called them; business decisions that are bad investments and unsustainable in the long run because lowering interest rates by padding the supply of money and credit will only work in the short-term, but will ultimately collapse because the government can only hold down interest rates so long before fear of inflation kicks in (and deflation comes at the peak of the business cycle), or they go into hyperinflation (which is completely outside the realm of the ABCT). Georgism explanation In \"The Science of",
"-25.30989342893008"
],
[
"the buyer thinks the dividend is going to increase, while the seller thinks it will decrease. The contract itself costs nothing to enter; the buy/sell terminology is a linguistic convenience reflecting the position each party is taking (long or short).\nDividend futures are usually traded in increments/lots/batches of 100 or 1000 and have a 1-year time span. When purchased, no transmission of share rights or dividends occurs. Being futures contracts, they are traded on margin, thus offering leverage, and are not subject to the taxes equity holders must pay when they receive dividend distribution on their stocks. They are traded",
"-25.280105768761132"
],
[
"takes place in turn creates credit risk for forwards, but not so much for futures. Simply put, the risk of a forward contract is that the supplier will be unable to deliver the referenced asset, or that the buyer will be unable to pay for it on the delivery date or the date at which the opening party closes the contract.\nThe margining of futures eliminates much of this credit risk by forcing the holders to update daily to the price of an equivalent forward purchased that day. This means that there will usually be very little additional money due on",
"-25.276413086336106"
],
[
"of short selling without first arranging a borrow. If the stock is in short supply, finding shares to borrow can be difficult. The seller may also decide not to borrow the shares, in some cases because lenders are not available, or because the costs of lending are too high. When shares are not borrowed within the clearing time period and the short-seller does not tender shares to the buyer, the trade is considered to have \"failed to deliver.\" Nevertheless, the trade will continue to sit open or the buyer may be credited the shares by the DTCC until",
"-25.25479173840722"
],
[
"Late trading Mutual funds In the mutual fund context, late trading involves placing orders for mutual fund shares after the close of the stock market, 4:00 p.m for the New York Stock Exchange, but still getting that day's closing price, rather than the next day's opening price. The price of mutual funds is usually set only once per day, so intraday prices are not applicable. Controversy In the United States this practice is illegal under SEC rules but many mutual fund managers appear to have allowed exceptions for certain hedge funds and other favored investors who were able to obtain",
"-25.222857892513275"
],
[
"say that its purpose is to avoid predicting future returns. Inker also says that risk parity requires too much leverage to produce the same expected returns as conventional alternatives. Proponents answer that the reduced risk from additional diversification more than offsets the additional leverage risk and that leverage through publicly traded futures and prime brokerage financing of assets also means a high percentage of cash in the portfolio to cover losses and margin calls. Additionally Inker says that bonds have negative skew, (small probability of large losses and large probability of small gains) which makes them a dangerous investment to",
"-25.20070215902524"
],
[
"drift occurs when actively managed mutual funds go outside of their described style (i.e., mid-cap value, large cap income, etc.) to increase returns. Such drift hurts portfolios that are built with diversification as a high priority. Drifting into other styles could reduce the overall portfolio's diversity and subsequently increase risk. With an index fund, this drift is not possible and accurate diversification of a portfolio is increased. Losses to arbitrageurs Index funds must periodically \"rebalance\" or adjust their portfolios to match the new prices and market capitalization of the underlying securities in the stock or other indexes that they track.",
"-25.177813059766777"
],
[
"who \"add liquidity\" by placing limit orders that create \"market-making\" in a security. Rebate traders seek to make money from these rebates and will usually maximize their returns by trading low priced, high volume stocks. This enables them to trade more shares and contribute more liquidity with a set amount of capital, while limiting the risk that they will not be able to exit a position in the stock. News playing The basic strategy of news playing is to buy a stock which has just announced good news, or short sell on bad news. Such events provide enormous volatility in",
"-25.161456650472246"
],
[
"and lay bets between different bettors, thus effectively cutting out the bookmaker's traditional profit margin also called an overround.\nThese online exchange markets operate a market index of prices near but usually not at 100% competitiveness, as exchanges take commissions on winnings. True wholesale odds are odds that operate at 100% of probabilistic outcomes.\nBetting exchanges compete with the traditional bookmaker. They are generally able to offer punters better odds because of their much lower overheads but also give opportunities for arbitrage, the practice of taking advantage of a price differential between two or more markets. However, traditionally, arbitrage has always been",
"-25.12491606210824"
],
[
"Rolling recession Balance Sheet Recession A balance sheet recession happens when companies/banks look over and notice their balance sheet has occurred an error. This is usually caused by a variety of losses. Banks must stop giving money to clients for a short period of time, as this can lead to a decrease in fall in investment spending.\nFor example, in 2008 the banks let losses fall, with a decline of money leading in bank liquidity banks in general found it hard to borrow money to keep their business intact, it was hard for banks to find ways of borrowing money for",
"-25.114299524808303"
],
[
"the stock back at a lower price thereby creating a profit. By selling the borrowed stocks, the short seller generates cash that becomes collateral paid to the lender. The cash value of the collateral would be marked-to-market on a daily basis so that it exceeds the value of the loan by at least 2%. NB: 2% is the standard margin rate in the US, whereas 5% is more usual in Europe.\nOften a bank serves as the lending agent, receiving the cash collateral and investing it until it must be returned. The income from the reinvested cash collateral is divided",
"-25.10972697811667"
],
[
"Leads and lags In international finance, leads and lags refer to the expediting or delaying, respectively, of settlement of payments or receipts in a foreign exchange transaction because of an expected change in exchange rates. A change in exchange rates can be a cause of loss (or gain) in international trade, thus the settlement of debts is expedited or delayed in an attempt to minimize the loss or to maximize the gain. In the leads and lags, the premature payment for goods purchased is called a \"lead,\" while the delayed payment is called a \"lag.\" Description A change in",
"-25.09563112165779"
],
[
"Stocks can also fluctuate greatly due to pump and dump scams. Arbitrage trading When companies raise capital by offering stock on more than one exchange, the potential exists for discrepancies in the valuation of shares on different exchanges. A keen investor with access to information about such discrepancies may invest in expectation of their eventual convergence, known as arbitrage trading. Electronic trading has resulted in extensive price transparency (efficient-market hypothesis) and these discrepancies, if they exist, are short-lived and quickly equilibrated.",
"-25.063269546371885"
],
[
"Rollover (finance) In foreign exchange trading (FX), a rollover is the action taking place at end of day, where all open positions with value date equals SPOT, will be rolled over to the next business day. This happens since in FX trading the trader doesn't want to actually buy the traded currencies but to continue to trade until position is closed.\nFor example, on Monday all position with value date of Wednesday (in case of T+2) will be rolled over and the value date will be updated for Thursday. Position with value date of Friday will be updated with value date",
"-25.048624682123773"
],
[
"futures position, thus transferring your delta from the stock to the future. Your stock position is closed out by delivering the stock to fulfill your short future obligation the next day while your long position is maintained by your futures position.\nIf the underlying stock is hard to borrow, the hard to borrow premium is reflected in the futures buy price being lower than the stock sale price. In essence, you are synthetically loaning out your stock and collecting the hard to borrow premium.\nIf the underlying stock is general collateral, the repo rate is reflected in the",
"-25.04817826950648"
],
[
"as those combining a callable payoff, or a knockout clause, have also increased substantially with the ever changing market conditions. How do reverse convertibles work? They are short-term investments, typically with a one-year maturity. At maturity, the owner receives either 100% of their original investment or a predetermined number of shares of the underlying stock, in addition to the stated coupon payment. The owner's earning potential is limited to the security’s stated coupon, because he receives coupon payments regardless of the performance of the underlying reference shares. Risk potential is the same as for the underlying security, less the",
"-25.030607170425355"
],
[
"after the end of a recession. Another useful feature of the index that can be gleaned from the charts is its ability to signal sustained downturns in payroll employment. Whenever the year-over-year change in this index has turned negative by more than 15 points, the economy has entered into a recession. Changes in Shares Predict Stock Returns In the years after a company repurchases shares, then the stock returns greater than companies where the number of shares remain the same. Companies that issue new shares annually, often have relatively less returns.",
"-25.028795063728467"
],
[
"Debt trap A debt trap is defined as \"A situation in which a debt is difficult or impossible to repay, typically because high interest payments prevent repayment of the principal.\" According to the Center for Responsible Lending, 76% of the total volume of payday loans in the United States are due to loan churning, where loans are taken out within two weeks of a previous loan. The center states that the devotion of 25-50 percent of the borrowers' paychecks leaves most borrowers with inadequate funds, compelling them to take new payday loans immediately. The borrowers will continue to pay high",
"-25.028628357569687"
],
[
"a view termed the halfway rule according to which investors start discounting an economic recovery about halfway through a recession. In the 16 U.S. recessions since 1919, the average length has been 13 months, although the recent recessions have been shorter. Thus, if the 2008 recession had followed the average, the downturn in the stock market would have bottomed around November 2008. The actual US stock market bottom of the 2008 recession was in March 2009. Politics Generally an administration gets credit or blame for the state of economy during its time. This has caused disagreements about on how it",
"-25.026896277675405"
],
[
"to 20%\", and in 1982, he began using futures contracts on the stock index, and then placed put options on futures during the 1987 stock market crash. A few analysts performing due diligence had been unable to replicate the Madoff fund's past returns using historic price data for U.S. stocks and options on the indexes. Barron's raised the possibility that Madoff's returns were most likely due to front running his firm's brokerage clients.\nMitchell Zuckoff, professor of journalism at Boston University and author of Ponzi's Scheme: The True Story of a Financial Legend, says that \"the 5% payout rule\", a federal",
"-25.012859413109254"
],
[
"Swaps.\nYear 2008 saw the arrival of the first dividend futures and the collapse of the financial industry, hence market participants in dividend Swaps switched their position to dividend futures to eliminate counterparty risks. The listing also brought new players,who were not active in the Over-The-Counter market, such as asset managers, pension funds and family offices.\nThe market not being anymore reserved to some few specialists, volumes picked up and number of participants grew. A new asset class From a hedging instrument, dividend futures have the potential of developing as an asset class on their own. From an investor perspective, dividend futures",
"-24.98957157100085"
],
[
"through the expectation that prices always rise. A period of rising prices may cause lenders to underestimate the risk of default.\nA Ponzi scheme is a form of investor fraud where earlier investors are paid from the money gained by more recent investors. In order to stay afloat Ponzi schemes rely on a continuous supply of greater fools who are willing to buy into the scheme. Although a share in such a scheme has no value whatsoever, so long as more greater fools buy into it, it can remain profitable for the investors involved.\nIn the stock market, the greater fool",
"-24.988167142961174"
],
[
"Round-tripping (finance) Round-tripping, also known as round-trip transactions or \"Lazy Susans\", is defined by The Wall Street Journal as a form of barter that involves a company selling \"an unused asset to another company, while at the same time agreeing to buy back the same or similar assets at about the same price.\" Swapping assets on a round-trip produces no net economic substance, but may be fraudulently reported as a series of productive sales and beneficial purchases on the books of the companies involved, violating the substance over form accounting principle. The companies appear to be growing",
"-24.966133052526857"
],
[
"will be two forms of the product in the pipeline. Some firms may opt for a straight cut-over; one day the old product will be coming off the production line, and the next day the new product. Most will favour parallel running for a period of time, even if only because this is forced upon them by their distribution chains. This ensures that the new really does, \neventually, replace the old; and it may reveal that both can run together. Virtual test markets The considerable amounts of time and resources necessary to conduct test markets, restrict the amount of test",
"-24.95930569578195"
],
[
"the US) as a \"failure to deliver\" or simply \"fail.\" While many fails are settled in a short time, some have been allowed to linger in the system.\nIn the US, arranging to borrow a security before a short sale is called a locate. In 2005, to prevent widespread failure to deliver securities, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) put in place Regulation SHO, intended to prevent speculators from selling some stocks short before doing a locate. Requirements that are more stringent were put in place in September 2008, ostensibly to prevent the practice from exacerbating market",
"-24.942188328132033"
],
[
"their returns by employing a very high leverage (i.e., a high ratio of debt to equity), they have an incentive to employ as much debt as possible to finance an acquisition. This has, in many cases, led to situations in which companies were \"over-leveraged\", meaning that they did not generate sufficient cash flows to service their debt, which in turn led to insolvency or to debt-to-equity swaps in which the equity owners lose control over the business to the lenders. Origins The first leveraged buyout may have been the purchase by McLean Industries, Inc. of Pan-Atlantic Steamship Company in January",
"-24.885206502047367"
],
[
"a spin-out is a firm formed when an employee or group of employees leaves an existing entity to form an independent start-up firm. The prior employer can be a firm, a university, or another organization. Spin-outs typically operate at arm's length from the previous organizations and have independent sources of financing, products, services, customers, and other assets. In some cases, the spin-out may license technology from the parent or supply the parent with products or services; conversely, they may become competitors. Such spin-outs are important sources of technological diffusion in high-tech industries. Reasons for spin-offs One of the main reasons",
"-24.883018132080906"
],
[
"Drawdown (economics) The drawdown is the measure of the decline from a historical peak in some variable (typically the cumulative profit or total open equity of a financial trading strategy).\nSomewhat more formally, if is a stochastic process with , the drawdown at time , denoted ,\nis defined as:\nThe average drawdown (AvDD) up to time is the time average of drawdowns that have occurred up to time :\nThe maximum drawdown (MDD) up to time \nis the maximum of the drawdown over the history of the variable. More formally, the MDD is defined as: Credit offered Where an amount of",
"-24.878095210762694"
],
[
"liquidity in difficult-to-borrow shares, while others have suggested that it adds efficiency to the securities lending market. Critics of the practice argue that it is often used for market manipulation, that it can damage companies and even that it threatens the broader markets.\nOne complaint about naked shorting from targeted companies is that the practice dilutes a company's shares for as long as unsettled short sales sit open on the books. This has been alleged to create \"phantom\" or \"counterfeit\" shares, sometimes going from trade to trade without connection to any physical shares, and artificially depressing the share price.",
"-24.87131336843595"
],
[
"and overproduction begins; the later stages of capital are not funded for maintenance to prevent depreciation. Overproduction in the early stages cannot be processed by poorly maintained later stage capital. The boom becomes a bust when a lack of finished goods leads to \"forced saving\" since fewer finished goods can be produced for sale.",
"-24.86200297391042"
],
[
"exit the trade before the rare event happens. This occurs for instance in a speculative bubble, where one purchases an asset in the expectation that it will likely go up, but may plummet, and hopes to sell the asset before the bubble bursts.\nThis has also been referred to as \"picking up pennies in front of a steamroller\". \"Innocent fraud\" John Kay has likened securities trading to bad driving, as both are characterized by Taleb distributions. Drivers can make many small gains in time by taking risks such as overtaking on the inside and tailgating, however, they are then at risk",
"-24.851953531870095"
],
[
"ratio by monetising the debt, essentially creating more money to be used to pay off the debt. Monetising the debt can lead to high levels of inflation, but with proper fiscal control this can be minimised or even avoided. Both it and the final option of defaulting on the debt are thought to be poor results for investors. There having been recent incidents involving quantitative easing in the UK, the U.S. and the Eurozone following the 2008 global financial crisis. These are the first instances of either since the dropping of the gold standard.\nStructural deficits may be planned, or may",
"-24.815604204079136"
],
[
"curve, and other markets may use the swap curve rather than the treasury curve. Credit attribution The situation is complicated by recent innovations in the credit markets and explosive growth of instruments that allow credit risk to be precisely targeted, such as credit-default swaps and the ability to split different tranches of instruments in collateralized debt obligations (CDO).\nThe simplest way to regard return on credit is to see it as return made by changes in a security's yield, after changes due to movements in the market's reference curve have been removed. This may be quite adequate for a simple",
"-24.812497272068867"
],
[
"the party\". Credit default swaps In eConned, Yves Smith argues that credit default swaps were/are used to take out insurance-like contracts against financial products in which buyers had no insurable interest. This was related to the financial crisis of 2008 because hedge funds and others allegedly helped produce bad subprime mortgages on purpose so that they could buy insurance on them, and then profit when the home buyers failed to make payments.",
"-24.808614821755327"
],
[
"Baum and company to the American Securitization Forum in Las Vegas. Interviewed by Baum, CDO manager Wing Chau, on behalf of an investment bank, describes how synthetic CDOs create chains of increasingly large bets on faulty loans – up to 20 times as much money as the loans themselves. A horrified Baum realizes that the fraud will completely collapse the global economy. He purchases as much as possible, profiting at the banks' expense and waits until the last minute to sell. Baum's fund makes a profit of $1 billion, and he laments that the banks won't accept blame for the",
"-24.79962101012643"
],
[
"optimum results. This may help the business become more effective and achieve higher returns. In many cases, if an entrepreneurial venture is seeking to get off of the ground and enter into a market it is advised that they formulate a break-even analysis to suggest to potential financial backers that the business has the potential to be viable and at what points. Break-even analysis By inserting different prices into the formula, you will obtain a number of break-even points, one for each possible price charged. If the firm changes the selling price for its product, from $2 to $2.30, in",
"-24.79664415656589"
],
[
"rate cut: the Dow Jones Industrial Average dropped by nearly 300 points at its close that day. The Fed slashed the rate 0.75% in an emergency action on January 22, 2008 to assist in reversing a significant market slide influenced by weakening international markets. The Dow Jones Industrial Average initially fell nearly 4% (465 points) at the start of trading and then rebounded to a more tolerable 1.06% (128 point) loss. On January 30, 2008, eight days after the 75 points decrease, the Fed lowered its rate again, this time by 50 points.\nOn August 25, 2009, President Barack Obama",
"-24.779147699126042"
],
[
"particular price level. The \"short-run\" is defined as the period during which only final good prices adjust and factor, or input, costs do not. The \"long-run\" is the period after which factor prices are able to adjust accordingly. The short-run aggregate supply curve has an upward slope for the same reasons the Keynesian AS curve has one: the law of diminishing returns and the scarcity of resources. The long-run aggregate supply curve is vertical because factor prices will have adjusted. Factor prices increase if producing at a point beyond full employment output, shifting the short-run aggregate supply inwards so equilibrium",
"-24.742118426947854"
],
[
"outsourcing, according to two estimates published by The Economist showed unequal effect during the period studied 2004 to 2015, ranging from 150,000 to as high as 300,000 jobs lost per year.\nIn 2010, a group of manufacturers started the Reshoring Initiative, focusing on bringing manufacturing jobs for American companies back to the country. Their data indicated that\n140,000 American jobs were lost in 2003 due to offshoring. Eleven years later in 2014, the United States recovered 10,000 of those offshored positions; this marked the highest net gain in 20 years. More than 90% of the jobs that American companies \"offshored\" and outsourced",
"-24.73332326306263"
],
[
"this percent of sales might occur).\nThe break-even point is a special case of Target Income Sales, where Target Income is 0 (breaking even). This is very important for financial analysis. Any sales made past the breakeven point can be considered profit (after all initial costs have been paid)\nBreak-even analysis can also provide data that can be useful to the marketing department of a business as well, as it provides financial goals that the business can pass on to marketers so they can try to increase sales.\nBreak-even analysis can also help businesses see where they could re-structure or cut costs for",
"-24.732924615658703"
],
[
"Shakeout Shakeout is a term used in business and economics to describe the consolidation of an industry or sector, in which businesses are eliminated or acquired through competition. It may also refer to a situation in which many investors exit their positions, often at a loss, due to uncertainty in the market or recent bad news circulating around a particular security or industry.\nShakeouts can often occur after an industry has experienced a period of rapid growth in demand followed by overexpansion by manufacturers. Large, diversified companies are often most able to endure a weak business climate and can benefit from",
"-24.725419193855487"
],
[
"asset value can keep the Ponzi borrower afloat.\nIf the use of Ponzi finance is general enough in the financial system, then the inevitable disillusionment of the Ponzi borrower can cause the system to seize up: when the bubble pops, i.e., when the asset prices stop increasing, the speculative borrower can no longer refinance (roll over) the principal even if able to cover interest payments. As with a line of dominoes, collapse of the speculative borrowers can then bring down even hedge borrowers, who are unable to find loans despite the apparent soundness of the underlying investments. Application to the subprime",
"-24.70785025844816"
],
[
"This could be done through a number or negotiations, such as reductions in rent payments, or through better management of bills or other costs.\n2. Reduce the variable costs, (which could be done by finding a new supplier that sells tables for less).\nEither option can reduce the break-even point so the business need not sell as many tables as before, and could still pay fixed costs. Purpose The main purpose of break-even analysis is to determine the minimum output that must be exceeded for a business to profit. It also is a rough indicator of the earnings impact of a marketing",
"-24.700424064154504"
],
[
"Risk reversal Risk reversal investment strategy A risk-reversal is an option position that consists of being short (selling) an out of the money put and being long (i.e. buying) an out of the money call, both with the same maturity.\nA risk reversal is a position which simulates profit and loss behavior of owning an underlying security; therefore it is sometimes called a synthetic long. This is an investment strategy that amounts to both buying and selling out-of-money options simultaneously. In this strategy, the investor will first make a market hunch; if that hunch is bullish he will want to go",
"-24.700248779525282"
],
[
"rate risk by swapping the fixed payments to floating. In doing so the investor retains the credit risk to the fixed-rate bond and earns a corresponding return. The asset swap market was born along with the swap market in the early 1990s, and continued to be most widely used by banks which use asset swaps to convert their long-term fixed rate assets to floating rate in order to match their short-term liabilities (depositor accounts). The asset swap market is over-the-counter (OTC), i.e., not traded on any exchange.\nAn asset swap is the swap of a fixed investment, like a bond that",
"-24.687961575342342"
],
[
"Accelerated share repurchase Accelerated share repurchase (ASR) refers to a method that publicly traded companies may use to buy back shares of its stock from the market.\nThe ASR method involves the company buying its shares from an investment bank (who in turn borrowed them from their clients), and paying cash to the investment bank while entering into a forward contract. The investment bank will then seek to purchase shares of the company from the market to return to its clients. At the end of the transaction, the company may receive even more shares than it initially received, which are then",
"-24.67740277152916"
]
] |
34mymv | Why is nudity such a big deal? | [
"When some female animals are in heat, they undertake actions known as presenting, signaling readiness for intercourse, which in some species triggers hormonal cascades in males, basically turning them into horny fuckbunnies. Human females are fecund year round, and human males get turned on by all manner of displays, some instinctual, some conditioned. There are all kinds of maladaptive behaviors men undertake when they posit that a female in their vicinity is signaling sexual readiness. Some joke that men can think with only one head at a time. And fathers of many human females will be damned if they let her get nude before that high school dropout junkie who likes to sweet talk her. In most modern societies, being nude before a male of the species typically IS a signal of readiness for intercourse and vice versa.",
"Coverage, or primitive clothing was probably more a utilitarian thing to keep us warm. Over time then that became the norm and that resulted in a sense of modesty, when you felt weird being the only naked one and its all built on from that.",
"One reason is that nudity is associated with sexuality. In the USA in particular, sexual situations and actions in public are considered taboo (largely because of the high level or religiosity in America). Nudity taboos are largely cultural, but I think that in less religious countries/cultures the taboo is a good deal weaker.",
"Because people 200 years from now need something to look back at and say \"lol I can't believe how primitive they were.\"",
"I think that TODAY, it is very hard to decriminalize nudity. We have become sensitized to bodies being inherently sexual. To make the next generation desexualized to bodies we would expose older generations to it. And the issue isn't laws as much as it is our brains. When you have people like Niki Minaj posing IN CLOTHING in a way they people find sexually appealing, it hard to imagine Tue majority of the population deciding nudity isn't sexual. People use sex appeal to their advantage so people who do that would want to keep their sex appeal. Nudists are a small group in a world using sex appeal to their advantage."
] | [
[
"nudity claim that it is indecent especially when it can be viewed by children; while others argue that it is a legitimate form of expression covered by the right to free speech.\nEven in places where public nudity is tolerated, it is still unexpected enough that its use by activists as a deliberate tactic is often successful in attracting publicity from the media.\nSome nude activism is not to promote a particular cause, but rather to promote public nudity itself, or to change community perceptions of the naked human body, or as an expression of a personal desire to be nude in",
"-28.117341903969646"
],
[
"condom to protect the other. The implication of this study is that the term \"bareback\" ultimately does have a dark meaning as it relates to HIV/AIDS, regardless if it does not mention protection in its name. Thus, studies have shown that barebacking is decreasing in popularity within the gay subculture. Bareback pornography does not necessarily encourage more unprotected anal sex in reality, nor do all men who participate in anal sex necessarily want to have unprotected sex. What is clear is that there is still a sense of risk among participants of anal sex.",
"-27.847526061697863"
],
[
"problem with public nudity (parts of Africa, Asia, pre-European Americas, Australia, and the Pacific Islands), it might be thought of as being \"primitive\" by modern standards, and lacking in social status. (i.e. \"Only the poorest of the poor would go about without clothing.\") This contrasts with the more Western attitude that nudity and sexuality are somehow related, but nonetheless causes them to shy away from social nudity. Social nudity without labels or with alternative terminology Many people casually enjoy social nudity without adhering to any term and without associating with any traditional naturist, nudist or FKK organization or any other",
"-27.327050023450283"
],
[
"Depictions of nudity Depictions of nudity include visual representations of nudity through the history, in all the disciplines, including the arts and sciences. Nudity is restricted in most societies, but some depiction of nudity may serve a recognized social function. Clothing also serves as a significant part of interpersonal communication, and the lack of clothing needs to have a social context. In Western societies, the three contexts that are easily recognized by a majority of individuals are art, pornography, and information or science. Any image not easily fitting into one of these categories may be misinterpreted, leading to disputes. Nudity",
"-27.17867328354623"
],
[
"Subsequently, prime time television networks became more reluctant to show even non-explicit nudity in their TV shows. In the current climate, nudity is almost unknown on any broadcast television show — with the exception being animated series such as The Simpsons and Family Guy (which spoofed the conservative phase of American television in the episode \"PTV\").\nCable television, on the other hand, is not bound by FCC rules and can show whatever material their executives consider suitable. With some exceptions, while cable channels that rely on advertising still do not show nudity during prime time, nudity is often shown on premium cable",
"-26.902337134524714"
],
[
"prove their masculinity to their friends, or under peer pressure and fear that they would be rejected if they didn't participate in the assault. Sex industry and rape Some theorists charge that the acceptance of these sexual practices increase sexual violence against women, by reinforcing stereotypical views about women, who are seen as sex objects which can be used and abused by men, and by desensitizing men; this being one of the reasons why some theorists oppose the sex industry. They argue that pornography eroticizes the domination, humiliation, and coercion of women, and reinforces sexual and cultural attitudes that are",
"-26.677414811681956"
],
[
"other parts of the body may be freely uncovered. Yet the nudity taboo may have meanings deeper than the immediate possibility of sexual arousal, for example, in the cumulative weight of tradition and habit. Clothing also expresses and symbolizes authority, and more general norms and values besides those of a sexual nature.\nWhile some European countries, such as Germany, are rather tolerant of public nudity, in many countries public nudity may meet social disapproval or even constitute a misdemeanor of indecent exposure. In 2012, the city council of San Francisco proposed a ban on public nudity in the inner city area.",
"-26.669088699258282"
],
[
"Pornography Wolf suggested in 2003 that the ubiquity of internet pornography tends to enervate the sexual attraction of men toward typical real women. She writes, \"The onslaught of porn is responsible for deadening male libido in relation to real women, and leading men to see fewer and fewer women as 'porn-worthy.' Far from having to fend off porn-crazed young men, young women are worrying that as mere flesh and blood, they can scarcely get, let alone hold, their attention.\" Wolf advocates abstaining from porn not on moral grounds, but because \"greater supply of the stimulant equals diminished capacity.\" Women in",
"-26.31448243765044"
],
[
"Nudity and protest Nudity is sometimes used as a tactic during a protest to attract media and public attention to a cause, and sometimes promotion of public nudity is itself the objective of a nude protest. The use of the tactic goes back to well published photos of nude protests by svobodniki in Canada in 1903. The tactic has been used by other groups later in the century, especially after the 1960s. Like public nudity in general, the cultural and legal acceptance of nudity as a tactic in protest also varies around the world. Some opponents of any public",
"-26.27091043177643"
],
[
"Public nudity Public nudity is nudity in a public place, or in a private place that is visible to those in a public place. Nudity on privately owned property onto which the general public is free to enter (a shopping mall, for example), is also considered public nudity. Nudity in the privacy of a person's home or grounds is not considered public nudity, nor is nudity at privately-owned facilities where nudity commonly takes place (gyms, locker rooms, saunas, or nudist clubs, for example). Naturism is a movement that promotes social nudity in natural settings; most of such nudity takes place",
"-26.244434132124297"
],
[
"public. Animal rights and welfare Animal rights groups such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), have used nudity to draw attention to their causes. (See below.) For example, the Lettuce Ladies, young women dressed in bikinis which appear to be made of lettuce, had gathered in city centers to hand out leaflets about veganism. Every year the Running of the Nudes campaign sees PETA activists run naked through Pamplona, Spain in a parody of the annual Running of the Bulls tradition. Supermodels such as Christy Turlington and Naomi Campbell have posed naked on billboards with the",
"-26.232149174531514"
],
[
"recommended incarceration terms that were significantly more lenient than those recommended by control subjects who had not watched pornography.\nSome researchers like Zillman believe that pornography causes unequivocal harm to society by increasing rates of sexual assault. Other researchers believe that there is a correlation between pornography and a decrease of sex crimes.\nPornography is often criticized for presenting an inaccurate picture of human sexuality.\nThe appropriation of the sexually explicit in American culture is part of what has been called \"the pornification of America\".\nRape culture is often discussed when it comes to pornography, and is defined by society victim-blaming women because of",
"-26.15068163374417"
],
[
"the Huffington Post, \"We try to use absolutely every outlet to stick up for animals,\" adding that \"We are careful about what we do and wouldn't use nudity or some of our flashier tactics if we didn't know they worked.\" PETA also used nudity in its \"Veggie Love\" ad which it prepared for the Super Bowl only to have it banned by the network. PETA's work has drawn the ire of some feminists who argue that the organization sacrifices women's rights to press its agenda. Lindsay Beyerstein criticized PETA saying \"They're the ones drawing disturbing analogies between pornography, misogyny and",
"-26.095366979930986"
],
[
"pornographic images and films can be addictive, insufficient evidence exists to draw conclusions. Several studies conclude the liberalization of porn in society may be associated with decreased rape and sexual violence rates, while others suggest no effect, or are inconclusive. What is not pornography In the U.S., a July 2014 criminal case decision in Massachusetts, Commonwealth v. Rex, 469 Mass. 36 (2014), made a legal determination of what was not to be considered \"pornography\" and in this particular case \"child pornography\". It was determined that photographs of naked children that were from sources such as National Geographic magazine, a sociology",
"-26.058039276191266"
],
[
"pornographic materials produced social violence, D'amato concludes that \"the reverse may be true: that pornography has reduced social violence\". D'amato suggests there are two predominant reasons why an increase in the availability of pornography has led to a reduction in rape. First, using pornographic material provides an easy avenue for the sexually desirous to \"get it out of their system\". Second, D'amato points to the so-called \"Victorian effect\". It dates back to the British Victorian era when people covered up their bodies with an immense amount of clothing, generating a greater mystery as to what they looked like naked. D'amato",
"-26.02163521942566"
],
[
"public nudity, because the state desires to control the negative secondary effects such as prostitution and degradation of women. Because nudity is an essential part of the potency of the expression in question, the law unconstitutionally restricts that expression.",
"-26.00175624754047"
],
[
"Nudity and sexuality Sexual arousal There are cultural differences regarding the acceptability or sexualization of nudity, but the definition of what is lewd has also changed over the years, as has the comparative acceptability of male or female nudity. When physical sexual attributes are shown in the mainstream media, on the Internet or in night clubs, this is often taken as being sexually related as with pornography or striptease. People then experience erotic or sexual pleasure. Exposure of the body is a tactic/display of courtship or a form of flirting. Physical or emotional intimacy is characterized as romantic or passionate",
"-25.88963379326742"
],
[
"paradigm for sex has been one of conquest, possession, and violation, I think many men believe they need an unfair advantage, which at its extreme would be called rape. I don't think they need it. I think both intercourse and sexual pleasure can and will survive equality. It's important to say, too, that the pornographers, especially Playboy, have published the \"all sex is rape\" slander repeatedly over the years, and it's been taken up by others like Time who, when challenged, cannot cite a source in my work.\n— Andrea Dworkin\nJournalist Cathy Young wrote that she found Dworkin's explanation hard to square",
"-25.846857137461484"
],
[
"not address the issue. Public reaction versus the art world The nude, particularly the female body, has always been one of the more obvious subjects of work in museums. However, in the United States nudity in art is a controversial subject when public funding and display in certain venues brings the work to the attention of the general public. Puritan history continues to impact the selection of artwork shown in museums and galleries. At the same time that any nude may be suspect in the view of many patrons and the public, art critics may reject work that is not",
"-25.78389635921485"
],
[
"sex being more common among heterosexuals today than it was previously has been linked to the increase in consumption of anal pornography among men, especially among those who view it on a regular basis. Seidman et al. argued that \"cheap, accessible and, especially, interactive media have enabled many more people to produce as well as consume pornography\", and that this modern way of producing pornography, in addition to the buttocks and anus having become more eroticized, has led to a significant interest in or obsession with anal sex among men. Behaviors and views Historically, anal sex has been commonly associated",
"-25.616623146939673"
],
[
"idea with her often-quoted statement, \"Pornography is the theory, and rape is the practice.\"\nAnti-pornography feminists charge that pornography eroticizes the domination, humiliation, and coercion of women, and reinforces sexual and cultural attitudes that are complicit in rape and sexual harassment. MacKinnon argued that pornography leads to an increase in sexual violence against women through fostering rape myths. Such rape myths include the belief that women really want to be raped and that they mean yes when they say no. Additionally, according to MacKinnon, pornography desensitizes viewers to violence against women, and this leads to a progressive need to see more",
"-25.45221890922403"
],
[
"also usually used for men. Sexual slang and humor In the popular jargon of many cultures, the use of sexual slang is a form of humor or euphemism that often creates controversy over its public use. Sexual humor has been seen in many circles as crude and unsophisticated, as well as insulting towards the subject it describes. Sexual slang has a long history in literature and comedy: examples from Shakespeare are well-known. The popularity of contemporary comedians who indulge in sexual humor, from George Carlin to Andrew Dice Clay, reflects the appeal of this form of speech. It is often",
"-25.3161259428598"
],
[
"much required as nudity. And he didn't mind if she could just be lounging around the house nude, but there had to be nudity. He had to have some way to sell the thing. It's actually the one thing that troubles me about it. I find some of the nudity really gratuitous. But it was the price we paid to get it made.\nIt was filmed at the Los Angeles Venice Canals in the house located at 412 Carroll Canal Ct. Venice, CA.",
"-25.303690313627158"
],
[
"women as being extremely passive, or that the acts which are performed on the women are typically abusive and solely for the pleasure of their sex partner. On-face ejaculation and anal sex are increasingly popular among men, following trends in porn. MacKinnon and Dworkin defined pornography as \"the graphic sexually explicit subordination of women through pictures or words\".\nRadical feminists say that consumption of pornography is a cause of rape and other forms of violence against women. Robin Morgan summarizes this idea with her oft-quoted statement, \"Pornography is the theory, and rape is the practice.\" They charge that pornography eroticizes the",
"-25.242072400287725"
],
[
"pornography.\nEarly critics of the genre, Di Lauro and Rabkin, argued that the male performers in stag films are also objectified and that they are even less humanized than the women who are the focus of attention because \"as performers [men] are not visible in their full humanity.\" Williams describes this defense of pornography as sounding familiar saying \"like most such defenses, it ignores the larger power structure in which the presumably equalized dehumanization and objectification occur.\" Drawing from art critic John Berger's studies on traditions in European art of oil paintings of nudes, Williams argues that the real subject",
"-25.22147944792232"
],
[
"producers have been accused of including nudity in a film to appeal to audiences. Many actors and actresses have appeared nude, or exposing parts of their bodies or dressed in ways considered provocative by contemporary standards at some point in their careers.\nErotic films usually contain nudity, and nudity in a sexual context is common in pornographic films. A film on naturism, or about people for whom nudity is common, for example, many societies and people who live in hot climates, or films set in times such as the 1960s or 1970s era of liberation, may contain non-sexual nudity, and many",
"-25.176905133004766"
],
[
"them, as rates of sexual violence, divorce, teen pregnancy and child molestation have all gone down since Broadband pornography became common. He observed that couples that don't have sex anymore are quicker to fight about pornography rather than have a meaningful conversation about problems in their sexual relationships. Cara Santa Maria asked if porn leads to unrealistic expectations by men. \"Absolutely yes!\" Klein answered. \"Some people think porn is a documentary, showing real people in real situations... porn is usually unusual bodies, doing unusual things in unusual circumstances.\" \"Pornography leaves out so much that we value in sex. Kissing,",
"-25.143039602437057"
],
[
"giants, according to Mark Griffiths's speculation. Media and experience The internet has played an important role in helping to develop the fetish. The pornography site Pornhub's 2015 annual report showed that compared to 2014, the biggest increasing of sex tape was giantess, which had a 1091 percent gain in searches. There also existed an exhibit at the Museum of Sex titled \"Kink: Geography of the Erotic Imagination\" which explored many different fantasies, including macrophilia.\nOnline content creators also developed homemade media that helped grow the fetish's reach. In addition to generating content across websites, some content creators even branded themselves in",
"-25.113275973882992"
],
[
"is] because men look to sex for fulfillment of nonsexual emotional needs, a quest doomed to failure. Part of the reason for this failure is the priority of quantity over quality of sex which comes with sexuality's commodification.\" Religious views Religious organizations have been important in bringing about political action against pornography. In the United States, religious beliefs affect the formation of political beliefs that concern pornography.",
"-25.089088465072564"
],
[
"Feminista\nThe \"Muff March\" has been criticized for putting too much emphasis on pornography as a root cause of the problem. (See Feminist views on pornography.) Photo campaigns The growing demand for labiaplasty surgery is sometimes attributed to the idea that many women, as well as men, have unrealistic expectations regarding genital appearance. Almost all explicit depictions of female genitalia that people are confronted with are produced by the sex industry. Pornography is usually produced in a commercial context and primarily addresses male customers. Therefore, these depictions of female genitalia are often \"beautified\" to suit commercial need (or in some countries",
"-25.0734211227973"
],
[
"also thought to be spread through exposure in the media, which reflects the standards of the society that it serves to inform and entertain. Television and cinema There is a long-lasting connection between misogyny and mass media. Comedic sitcoms often portray men degrading the value of women and commenting on women's weight and size. This contributes to the internalization of gender size stereotypes, sometimes negatively affecting the mental and physical health of females. One of the primary problems in mass media is the under-representation of women in widely consumed productions. \nThe context of children's entertainment is especially pernicious because young",
"-25.056351619015913"
],
[
"sex objects. Dietz stated that these depictions of women may allow boys and girls to internalize and accept the thought that women are victims, weak, and sex objects. Violent pornography By making misogyny sexual, pornography teaches misogyny to its viewers. Negative effects from pornography have been thought to occur due to a violence component, and not to a sexual component. Males who have been previously enraged by a female are more likely to produce aggression against a female after being shown pornography depicting violence. The combination of sex and aggression is increasingly being shown within pornographic material, therefore could be",
"-24.99546664794252"
],
[
"Issues in social nudity Social nudity is the nude appearance of the human body in relatively public settings not restricted by gender. This occurs both in public spaces and on commercial property, such as at a naturist resort.\nSome isolated indigenous nudity still exists in the tropics, though this way of life is highly endangered, as is male nude swimming in public, which used to be very commonplace in Western civilization. Modern European-style naturism began around the turn of the 20th century in British India and Northern Germany, and it was later adopted in America as well. Terminology The usage and",
"-24.83818077086471"
],
[
"failed to see them. This is sometimes called \"implied nudity\" as opposed to \"explicit nudity.\" It is in popular culture that a particular image may lead to classification disputes. Advertising In modern media, images of partial and full nudity are used in advertising to draw attention. In the case of attractive models this attention is due to the visual pleasure the images provide; in other cases it is due to the relative rarity of such images. The use of nudity in advertising tends to be carefully controlled to avoid the impression that a company whose product is being advertised is",
"-24.768873736145906"
],
[
"is believed to be a good thing because for such a long time, the porn industry has been directed by men for men. This also sparked the arrival of making lesbian porn for lesbians instead of men.\nFurthermore, many feminists argue that the advent of VCR and consumer video allowed for the possibility of feminist pornography. Consumer video made it possible for the distribution and consumption of video pornography to locate women as legitimate consumers of pornography. Tristan Taormino says that feminist porn is \"all about creating a fair working environment and empowering everyone involved.\" Feminist porn directors are interested in",
"-24.701770708255935"
],
[
"domination, humiliation, and coercion of women, and reinforces sexual and cultural attitudes that are complicit in rape and sexual harassment. In her book Only Words (1993), MacKinnon argues that pornography \"deprives women of the right to express verbal refusal of an intercourse\".\nMacKinnon argued that pornography leads to an increase in sexual violence against women through fostering rape myths. Such rape myths include the belief that women really want to be raped and that they mean yes when they say no. It is disputed that \"rape myths perpetuate sexual violence indirectly by creating distorted beliefs and attitudes about sexual assault and",
"-24.690510682354216"
],
[
"is one that combines two features: it has a certain function or intention, to arouse its audience sexually, and also a certain content, explicit representations of sexual material (organs, postures, activity, etc).\nOn the difference between 'obscenity' and 'pornography', the committee found that the word 'obscene' was a subjective term that refers to peoples reaction to material, and that \" it principally expresses an intense or extreme version of what we have called ‘offensiveness’. It may be that it particularly emphasises the most strongly aversive element in that notion, the idea of an object’s being repulsive or disgusting.\" 'Pornography' however was",
"-24.66981465391291"
],
[
"Pornography is a popular, widespread artistic genre – whatever you may or may not think of it – and it warrants more thoughtful consideration than whether or not it works as a product, or whether or not it is empowering us or destroying our values.\"",
"-24.66154659781023"
],
[
"really wanted to, women who are raped are promiscuous therefore \"asking to be raped\" and many women falsely report rape to protect their own reputations or because they are angry at the \"perpetrator\" and want to create a type of backlash. A theory for why rape myths are so common in society is because they are perpetuated by norms already present in society. Researchers claim that communication and language is created by the dominant patriarchy. In positions of power, men control how women are portrayed in the media, women's censorship of body and voice, etc. which forces women to submit",
"-24.654112003277987"
],
[
"group Guerrilla Girls point out the prevalence of nude women on the walls of museums but the scarcity of female artists.\nWithout the relative freedom of the fine arts, nudity in popular culture often involves making fine distinctions between types of depictions. The most extreme form is full frontal nudity, referring to the fact that the actor or model is presented from the front and with the genitals exposed. Frequently, images of nude people do not go that far. They are instead deliberately composed, and films edited, such that in particular no genitalia are seen, as if the camera by chance",
"-24.642120457283454"
],
[
"and innovative approach.\" Contrast to mainstream pornography Mainstream porn depicts women as objects for men's pleasure, with no concern for the female performer's comfort or respect. Although the majority of porn audiences are male, more women are opening up about their interest and how they would prefer porn that considers female viewers and isn't as crude or rough as mainstream pornography. A number of women are dedicated to creating this alternative to mainstream porn. They care about making films that don't include horny schoolgirls, naughty nurses, or \"bad step-mom and daughter\" relationships. They also banish stereotypes about women's sexuality and",
"-24.614773772841545"
],
[
"pornography contributes to sexism by objectifying women and portraying them in submissive roles. MacKinnon, along with Andrea Dworkin, argues that pornography reduces women to mere tools, and is a form of sex discrimination. The two scholars highlight the link between objectification and pornography by stating:\n\"We define pornography as the graphic sexually explicit subordination of women through pictures and words that also includes (i) women are presented dehumanized as sexual objects, things, or commodities; or (ii) women are presented as sexual objects who enjoy humiliation or pain; or (iii) women are presented as sexual objects experiencing sexual pleasure in rape, incest",
"-24.61126654781401"
],
[
"and hip-hop music) and more liberal attitudes towards sexual behavior like the acceptance of pre-marital sex, as well as non-relational sex and sexual harassment. Furthermore, as sexual competence is portrayed as a positive attribute on television, particularly for males, regular exposure to sexual content can cause adolescents to form unrealistic expectations, and view their own sexual experiences (or lack thereof) as negative. Moreover, the vast majority of this sexual content alludes to the positive nature of sex only, suggesting that sexually suggestive behavior in the media is serving to perpetuate a view that there are little negative consequences of",
"-24.58194402389927"
],
[
"considerations, and these may depend on the context. There may also be legal considerations. Terminology Full nudity refers to complete nudity, while partial nudity refers to less than full nudity, with parts of the body covered in some manner. The term \"partial nudity\" is sometimes used to refer to exposure of skin beyond what the person using the expression considers to be within the limits of modesty. If the exposure is within the standards of modesty of a given culture and setting (e.g. wearing a bikini at a non-nude beach), terms such as nudity, partial or otherwise, are not normally",
"-24.551389615400694"
],
[
"both important to consider to gain a more holistic view of female sexual entitlement because it includes the analyzation of empowerment through subjective feelings of desire and pleasure as well as society's use of empowerment to market sexuality to young girls and women.\nSome critics have voiced that these images and over-sexualization in music videos have contributed to a rape culture among the younger generations. They do not support women that \"give into the system\" to reap the benefits of making a great deal of money from their body image. The images of women barely clothed and performing sexual symbolism such",
"-24.542357864658698"
],
[
"of the women who perform in it, and where they argue that the abuse and exploitation of women is rampant; in its consumption, they charge that pornography eroticizes the domination, humiliation and coercion of women, and reinforces sexual and cultural attitudes that are complicit in rape and sexual harassment. They charge that pornography presents a severely distorted image of sexual relations, and reinforces sex myths; that it always shows women as readily available and desiring to engage in sex at any time, with any man, on men's terms, always responding positively to any advances men make. They argue that because",
"-24.530694902525283"
],
[
"makes sure to include verbal consent, body positivity, and inclusiveness to all her performances.\nMeanwhile, other performers fail to see the need for a specific type of porn just for women. As porn star James Deen put it, “Why is there porn explicitly only for women? By saying there needs to be porn for women, you’re basically isolating women as a gender, and saying, “This is how women should think. This is how their sexuality should be.” It's counterproductive (from what I understand) to the equality movement.” Characteristics In a lot of typical pornography, women are mistreated, disrespected, and degraded; this",
"-24.528321843930826"
],
[
"in the U.S. have historically never been effective at reducing consumption. They note that porn consumption in the U.S. is currently at what is likely the highest levels in history, but overall levels of sexual violence and rape are far lower today than when the anti-pornography movement in the U.S. first emerged during the 1960s. Additionally, many feminists argue that laws which make pornography illegal only further restrict women as far what they are and are not allowed to do with their bodies.\nMany feminists have stated that pornography can be empowering or enjoyable for women and depicting female sexuality is",
"-24.52746536444465"
],
[
"depict the nude body. This also applies to cinema, where even nude scenes are staged and rehearsed.\nThe erotic aspect of nudity in the arts has been an important factor in its attraction, and has come to be associated with certain states and emotions, such as innocence, playfulness, vulnerability, etc. Pornography does not necessarily involve a naked person, but it involves sexualized scenes, and usually it does not claim to have any artistic merit.\nThe visual arts were at times the only means available to the general public to view a nude body. Today, the opportunities available for the viewing of the",
"-24.515664431572077"
],
[
"assert public nudity by itself is not illegal (in a nonsexual context), but naturists (and topless women) can be charged with indecent exposure if they are accused of performing an act considered obscene in public while being nude (or topless) and they have the explicit intention to harm other people through this act. The exception to this rule is breastfeeding, which is not considered an act of indecent exposure according to the laws.\nThe city of Seattle does not have any municipal laws regarding public nudity, and its policy in relation to nudity is considered more relaxed in comparison to the",
"-24.512578636524267"
],
[
"in the final report, \"In my opinion, we know enough now to be confident in asserting that a population exposed to violent pornography is a population that commits more acts of sexual brutality than it otherwise would and to suggest somewhat less confidently that the same is probably true of a population exposed to degrading pornography.\"",
"-24.458122660144"
],
[
"lesser known genre of sexual entertainment, ribaldry), although some viewers may not distinguish between them. A key distinction, some have argued, is that pornography's objective is the graphic depiction of sexually explicit scenes, while erotica \"seeks to tell a story that involves sexual themes\" that include a more plausible depiction of human sexuality than in pornography. Additionally, works considered degrading or exploitative tend to be classified by those who see them as such, as \"porn\" rather than as \"erotica\" and consequently, pornography is often described as exploitative or degrading. Many countries have laws banning or at least regulating what",
"-24.44958201405825"
],
[
"charge that pornography contributes to the male-centered objectification of women and thus to sexism. However, other feminists are opposed to censorship, and have argued against the introduction of anti-porn legislation in the United States—among them Betty Friedan, Kate Millett, Karen DeCrow, Wendy Kaminer and Jamaica Kincaid. Other objections The sex industry often raises criticism because it is sometimes connected to criminal activities such as human trafficking, illegal immigration, drug abuse, and exploitation of children (child pornography, child prostitution). The sex industry also raises concerns about the spread of STDs.",
"-24.449218717985786"
],
[
"groups or movements. That is common, for example on nude beaches and other forms of public nudity, such as seen at cultural events like Burning Man or clothing-optional bike rides.\nSeveral activists, such as Vincent Bethell, claim that associations to promote naturism or nudism are unnecessary, leading only to \"nudity in tolerated ghettos\". Activist Daniel Johnson believes that labels and affiliations overly complicate a relatively simple phenomenon, alienate others from a fear of over-commitment or undesirable stereotypes, and thus get in the way of integrating nudity into everyday life. Staring In the early days of naturism in the U.S. (1930s-1950s), the",
"-24.440789363870863"
],
[
"Legal objections to pornography in the United States In the United States, distribution of \"obscene, lewd, lascivious, or filthy\" materials is a federal crime. The determination of what is \"obscene, lewd, lascivious, or filthy\" is up to a jury in a trial, which must apply the Miller test; however, due to the prominence of pornography in most communities most pornographic materials are not considered \"patently offensive\" in the Miller test.\nIn 1967, Denmark decriminalized pornography with few adverse effects, and the following year, the United States Supreme Court held that people could view whatever they wished in the privacy of their",
"-24.42548003484262"
],
[
"to the topic of pornography, as many of their points surrounding why pornography is distasteful parallels those of anti-pornography feminists. Harm-based views Dolf Zillmann argued in the 1986 publication \"Effects of Prolonged Consumption of Pornography\" that extensive viewing of pornographic material produces many unfavorable sociological effects, including a decreased respect for long-term monogamous relationships, and an attenuated desire for procreation. He describes the theoretical basis of these experimental findings:\nThe values expressed in pornography clash so obviously with the family concept, and they potentially undermine the traditional values that favor marriage, family, and children... Pornographic scripts dwell on sexual engagements of",
"-24.41734472801909"
],
[
"inevitably receive attention because of its subject matter. However, she argued that it suffered from conceptual confusion, and that its authors presented inconsistent definitions of rape, one of which, \"copulation resisted to the best of the victim's ability unless such resistance would probably result in death or serious injury to the individuals the victim commonly protects\", would exclude anal, oral, and same-sex rape. In her view, they failed to explain why some men rape and others do not. She wrote that their \"notion that all men are potential rapists only restrained by their self-centred cost-benefit analyses\" was \"insulting to non-rapist",
"-24.3896075222292"
],
[
"There are far more displays of sexually suggestive behavior in modern-day life than there ever has been before and not just within advertising. The idea that sex sells is evident in many aspects of daily modern life particularly within social media and film where female sexual ornaments are a focal point. For example, many films include additional sex scenes and sexually suggestive female characters regardless of the film’s narrative.\nThe progression of the Internet and social media means that sexual content is far more available and accessible in the 21st century than ever before. This has a knock on effect",
"-24.356512554339133"
],
[
"to remove the emphasis on nudity altogether. Other contemporary researchers found that social nudity is not the sexually-charged practice that convention imagines it to be. Today The Human Awareness Institute, an organization that offers participatory workshops on intimacy, sex and love continues to conduct group sessions in which the participants have the option to be naked.",
"-24.337933122180402"
],
[
"Sexual content In media discourse, sexual content is material depicting sexual behavior. The sexual behavior involved may be explicit, implicit sexual behavior such as flirting, or include sexual language and euphemisms.\nSexual content is a large factor in most content rating systems, such as those used for television programs, films, and video games. Its increasing availability, especially the Internet, has increased people's exposure to sexual content. Such exposure is not always wanted.\nResearch has suggested that exposure to sexual content affects people's thoughts and behavior, though there is disagreement as to the extent of the effect. Gert Martin Hald, a psychologist at",
"-24.305729652638547"
],
[
"were too many penis jokes, especially for the show's time slot, but called the dance scenes \"hysterically funny.\" The Spokesman-Review's John Martin stated that while he usually condemned the \"cheap, tawdry use of nudity\" to boost ratings, it was different with Carey and he thought the take on The Full Monty was \"riotous\" and \"wild\". Martin finished by saying \"Carey may be the only comic in prime time who could pull this off, so to speak. You gotta love the big guy.\"\nLon Grahnke from the Chicago Sun-Times gave the episode three stars. The Chicago Tribune's Steve Johnson said the show",
"-24.29110817637411"
],
[
"calling for more porn created by women for women. A study by Berl Kutchinsky showed that rape crimes did not increase with increased access to pornography, despite popular misconceptions. It is important to note, however, that this study took place prior to widespread access to the internet. A response to Kutchinsky by Steven Alan Childress notes that his study contrasts many other studies, and that he only measures reported “serious” rapes (not including date rape, etc.). In addition, Kutchinsky focuses on the availability of pornography rather than consumption.\nWomen consume pornography differently than men. Pornhub statistics from 2017 show that 26%",
"-24.2779271804975"
],
[
"about explicit violent and sexual imagery in the media, the mainstreaming of pornography, increased sexual activity among teenagers, and issues such as the dissemination of child pornography and the purported rise of \"snuff films\". (Critics maintain that this atmosphere amounted to a moral panic, which reached its peak in the mid-1980s.). These concerns were reflected in the feminist movement, with radical feminist groups claiming that pornography was a central underpinning of patriarchy and a direct cause of violence against women. Robin Morgan summarized this idea in her statement, \"Pornography is the theory; rape the practice.\"\nAndrea Dworkin and Robin Morgan began",
"-24.275451526176766"
],
[
"founder and film critic, Chris Gore, states in the documentary that most instances of masturbation depicted in movies or television are seen as either grotesque or as something one wouldn't want to be caught doing. This comment is substantiated by clips from movies like The Exorcist and American Pie shown in the film. \nTelevision clips from the Seinfeld episode called \"The Contest\" and a clip from Sex in the City are also discussed, along with songs that make reference to masturbation in some way. A section in the film on Masturbation and Media includes interviews with comedian ANT, and Keith",
"-24.26513787958538"
],
[
"background as well as their religious teachings will affect the way they view their own nudity or state of dress, alone or in the presence of others, as well as how they view the nudity of others. Some cultures deprecate nudity even in a private context.\nAnother factor is the level of privacy to which a person can be assured - for example, some parts of a home may be seen from the outside or there may be a possibility of others walking in. The expectation of privacy may be confined to the home and sometimes the backyard. Inside the home,",
"-24.259760297485627"
],
[
"largest of their kind in the world. Nude beaches are found in many Western countries.\nIn recent times, it appears that public nudity is becoming more common with nude sporting and other activities being held. These include naked hiking, canuding (nude canoeing), the World Naked Bike Ride, Bay to Breakers, Solstice Cyclists. Clothing-optional bike rides are becoming regular events around the world.\nIn 2016 naked dining has become something of a fashion, with naked restaurants opening in London, Melbourne and Tokyo. Sexual public nudity Nudity in public, if any, is most commonly non-sexual in nature. For example, aspects of the Nambassa hippie",
"-24.230103885463905"
],
[
"magazines, sex movies, sex toys and fetish and BDSM paraphernalia Opposition The sex industry is very controversial, and many people, organizations and governments have strong moral objections to it, and, as a result, pornography, prostitution, striptease and other similar occupations are illegal in many countries.\nThe term anti-pornography movement is used to describe those who argue that pornography has a variety of harmful effects on society, such as encouragement of human trafficking, desensitization, pedophilia, dehumanization, exploitation, sexual dysfunction, and inability to maintain healthy sexual relationships. Sociological objections Dolf Zillmann asserts that extensive viewing of pornographic material produces many sociological effects which",
"-24.197730794658128"
],
[
"thus get in the way of integrating nudity into everyday life.\nThe social norms or laws of each culture require the wearing of clothes in most situations, but this expectation may be suspended in limited circumstances. For example, there are many countries which have designated public areas as nude beaches, or where nude bathing is unofficially tolerated. In those places, a person would not face legal prosecution or official harassment merely for being nude.\nOutside of those areas, community and legal acceptance of public nudity varies considerably. To avoid offending the public in general, public authorities maintain what are sometimes called",
"-24.17794111027615"
],
[
"of the United States fine offenders on that basis—see Indecent exposure in the United States. In Arkansas, not only is nudism illegal (even on private property), it is a crime to \"promote\" or \"advocate\" (i.e. express a favorable opinion about) nudism. In many contexts, public nudity has been more accepted, especially at designated areas such as nude beaches and, even in the United States, e.g. during World Naked Bike Ride events or Bay to Breakers. In some states, such as Oregon, public nudity is legal and protected as free speech, as long as there is not the \"intent to arouse\".",
"-24.17301411612425"
],
[
"that women are voluntarily taking actions that justify sexual advances. \"For example, women continue to be blamed if they are raped because of how they are dressed, the assumption that women purportedly lie about being raped remains popular, and certain women, such as married women or women of colour, are still considered 'unrapeable'”. The word slut and the double standard it contains reflects the gender norms and gender biases that are prevalent in a culture in which rape is constantly justified. People from all sects of society contribute to this justification.\nThere have been many movements or \"SlutWalks\" taking",
"-24.169702111859806"
],
[
"ability of a person's physical and other qualities to create a sexual interest in others is the basis of their use in advertising, music video, pornography, film, and other visual media, as well as in modeling, sex work and other occupations. Sexual privacy While the issue of privacy has been useful to sexual rights claims, some scholars have criticized its usefulness, saying that this perspective is too narrow and restrictive. The law is often slow to intervene in certain forms of coercive behavior that can limit individuals' control over their own sexuality (such as female genital mutilation, forced marriages or",
"-24.138095321250148"
],
[
"affects people's belief in rape myths. So for example if a woman says \"I didn't consent\" and people have been viewing pornography, they believe rape myths and believe the woman did consent no matter what she said. That when she said no, she meant yes. When she said she didn't want to, that meant more beer. When she said she would prefer to go home, that means she's a lesbian who needs to be given a good corrective experience. Pornography promotes these rape myths and desensitizes people to violence against women so that you need more violence to become sexually",
"-24.12337688394473"
],
[
"obscene language.\nThe legal department at M.C.A. felt that Jack probably violated Oregon's very liberal obscenity laws. Harrel took his case to the press and in short order, Peter Farrell, the Oregonian's television critic, penned a column. \"Most of the nudity occurs in connection with discussion about sexual politics and values, which would seem to protect it from even fairly narrow views on obscenity,\" he wrote. \"'I think people were upset by the male nudity,' said Harrel. \"'Frontal male nudity is not seen very often.'\" Jack then was shown on M.C.A. and eventually on Portland Cable Access and was shown as",
"-24.121194883657154"
],
[
"i.e. children or people with few resources.\nIt can be controversial where the limits go for what constitutes social pornography and what is deemed to be newsworthy. For example, a news coverage may transcend to social pornography depending on what details the media choose to make public or focus on. It has been asserted that the media coverage of terror attacks at times are of a social pornographic nature, which can cause an excessive fear of terrorism.\nSome reality TV shows are considered to be social pornography, for example Big Brother and Ex on the Beach.\nPsychologists have stated that some \"help TV\"",
"-24.119325451552868"
],
[
"affordable, a multitude of producers entered the market, making low-budget pornography videos.\nThis shift from watching pornography as a public activity to doing so in private was also influenced by the discovery of HIV and the subsequent AIDS crisis. Public spaces for sex, such as theatres, became less attended when in the early 1980s it became a much riskier behavior. Masturbatory activities in the privacy of the home became a safe sex practice in the midst of this health crisis.\nGay movies of the 1970s had contained some exploration of novel ways to represent the sexual act. In the 1980s, by contrast,",
"-24.115377202193486"
],
[
"that 'pornography is violence against women' was code for the neo-Victorian idea that men want sex and women endure it.\"\nSex-positive feminists take a variety of views towards existing pornography. Many of these feminists see pornography as subverting many traditional ideas about women that they oppose, such as ideas that women do not like sex generally, only enjoy sex in a relational context, or that women only enjoy vanilla sex. They also argue that pornography sometimes shows women in sexually dominant roles and presents women with a greater variety of body types than are typical of mainstream entertainment and fashion, and",
"-24.098718400928192"
],
[
"that women enjoy or in some way benefit from rape, torture, or other forms of sexual violence. Other research has found similar outcomes (e.g., Allen et al., 1995). The viewing of coercive pornography relates to the strongest acceptance of rape myths, i.e. women want to be raped, women \"ask for it\", women want to be forced. Considering the commodification and objectification argument, concern exists that repeated exposure to coercive pornographic stimuli relates to increasingly negative attitudes toward women. More frequent use increased the dehumanizing effect of Internet pornography and led to more acceptance of violence toward women.\nPornography has been",
"-24.09320691235189"
],
[
"that it has played a significant role for the societal evolution. Because sex and art are inseparable entities, many artists, including Seung-taek Lee, use sex as a motif. Through his object works like Sexual Organs on TV (1987), he satirized roles of television. On the other hand, Lee created his visual commentary on ethicality issues of sex. He placed genital-shaped objects on trees, liquor bottles, boots, and other objects in order to challenge the common notion of abashment about sexual images. 1990s and onward Lee has continued producing works related to the topics he has investigated for more than fifty",
"-24.04734310103231"
],
[
"use of the term \"barebacking\", the term has been adopted for marketing purposes. This is because \"Unprotected Anal Intercourse\" makes a direct connection between unprotected sex and the risk of contracting diseases like HIV/AIDS. However, although \"bareback\" seems to have become the favorable term, studies show that both terms ultimately have equally negative implications. In a study where participants were shown two different scenes featuring anal sex, the significance of the words \"bareback\" and \"UAI\" became apparent.\nThe first scene featured group sex in which several men were on top engaging in intercourse with one man on the bottom. The men",
"-24.042580787975567"
],
[
"increase behavioral aggression. Sexualizing imagery surfaces and reinforces misogynistic beliefs in some instances. This media can come in forms of movies, music, advertising, video games and more.\nConsumption of pornography has shown to possibly encourage aggressive action as well. Positive associations between aggressive perceptions of women and consumption of pornography, especially violent pornography, have been found on multiple occasions. Individuals who more frequently consume pornography are more likely to engage in sexually aggressive acts or harbor sexually aggressive attitudes than others who consume less pornography or do not consume pornography at all. Victim blaming and slut shaming Victim blaming is the",
"-24.025672209590994"
],
[
"Morgan and Catharine MacKinnon suggest that certain types of pornography also contribute to violence against women by eroticizing scenes in which women are dominated, coerced, humiliated or sexually assaulted.\nSome people opposed to pornography, including MacKinnon, charge that the production of pornography entails physical, psychological, and economic coercion of the women who perform and model in it. Opponents of pornography charge that it presents a distorted image of sexual relations and reinforces sexual myths; it shows women as continually available and willing to engage in sex at any time, with any person, on their terms, responding positively to any requests.\nMacKinnon writes:\nPornography",
"-23.998454714164836"
],
[
"rise of ‘raunch culture,’ exemplified by things such as Girls Gone Wild and the Playboy Bunny. She speaks of how since sex sells, much of advertisement has been sexualized, but that we are sold an artificial and unrealistic portrayal of sex and sexuality. Furthermore, real sex exists as a threat to capital, as it cannot be branded, mass-produced and resold to us. She then speaks of how all women put in a great amount of time and work into becoming sexual objects, but sex work itself is stigmatized and made illegal in society, and that sex workers are some of",
"-23.998239019419998"
],
[
"in a relational context, or that women only enjoy vanilla sex. They also argue that pornography sometimes shows women in sexually dominant roles and presents women with a greater variety of body types than are typical of mainstream entertainment and fashion.\nMany feminists regardless of their views on pornography are opposed on principle to censorship. Even many feminists who see pornography as a sexist institution, also see censorship (including MacKinnon's civil law approach) as an evil. In its mission statement, Feminists for Free Expression argues that censorship has never reduced violence, but historically been used to silence women and stifle efforts",
"-23.997712800162844"
],
[
"he characterizes as unfavorable, including a decreased respect for long-term, monogamous relationships, and an attenuated desire for procreation. He claims that pornography can \"potentially undermine the traditional values that favor marriage, family, and children\" and that it depicts sexuality in a way which is not connected to \"emotional attachment, of kindness, of caring, and especially not of continuance of the relationship, as such continuance would translate into responsibilities\".\nAdditionally, some researchers claim that pornography causes unequivocal harm to society by increasing rates of sexual assault, a line of research which has been critiqued in \"The effects of Pornography: An International Perspective\"",
"-23.974602601956576"
],
[
"redefined to include both caring for women and being vulnerable to emotional issues such as rape, men will continue to avoid taking action against rape. Advocacy against pornography Some pro-feminist scholars believe that the portrayal of sexuality in pornography has contributed to the rise of sexual violence, misogyny, and the perpetuation of inequality between the sexes. They suggest that the normalization of male-dominated, violent, and degrading sexual acts has led users of pornography to incorporate violence into their own lives. Pro-feminists may assert that these trends in pornography are reflected by increased acts of sexual violence; and also contribute to",
"-23.96967070022947"
],
[
"sexist attitudes towards women. The greater intrigue for men to view hardcore and unusual pornography was greater when they believed to be doing so anonymously. This is most likely tied to the theory of deindividuation. The theory states that a person detaches his or her self from personal responsibility and awareness as an individual, and is more likely to act differently than when their behaviors are socially attached to his or her character. \"When individuals perceive that no one knows what they are viewing, they are likely to experience reduced self-awareness, which, in turn, leads to being less considerate toward",
"-23.959050913981628"
],
[
"expression\", though they did admit that the \"acceptance of public nudity in a modern society is a matter of public interest\". Recreation and sport Certain activities in public areas are more readily accepted to be done while naked, such as sun bathing and swimming. Everyday activities such as riding a train or bus, shopping, or attending school or work are almost never considered by the public to be appropriate without clothing.\nExamples include going nude swimming at hot springs, nude beaches, naked hiking, streaking and even roller skating. Sandy Snakenberg has organized nude skating and rollerblading events in San Francisco, the",
"-23.94629289652221"
],
[
"Western culture “gives rise to [the] distortion which results in pornography and obscenity” resulting in the absolute “abuse of feeling”. Further discussion American legal scholar, Catharine MacKinnon, builds upon Lorde’s concepts that underscore the pornographic as a form of oppression by emphasizing that pornography not only works to oppress the erotic power of women, but also suppresses women’s freedom of speech in her piece “Pornography, Civil Rights, and Speech”. Pornography eroticizes “the unspeakable abuse: the rape, the battery, the sexual harassment, the prostitution, and the sexual abuse of children. Only in the pornography it is called something else: sex, sex,",
"-23.924557516438654"
],
[
"aroused if you're a pornography consumer. This is very well documented.\nDefenders of pornography and anti-censorship activists (including sex-positive feminists) argue that pornography does not seriously impact a mentally healthy individual, since the viewer can distinguish between fantasy and reality. They contend that men and women are objectified in pornography (particularly sadistic or masochistic pornography, in which men are objectified and sexually used by women). Media portrayals Some scholars believe that media portrayals of demographic groups can both maintain and disrupt attitudes and behaviors toward those groups. According to Susan Douglas: \"Since the early 1990s, much of the media have come",
"-23.913573740874654"
],
[
"lubrication and swelling, coloring and engorgement of the labia and clitoris — are less visible to others. Popular pornographic films majorly consisted of nude females starting in the Golden Age of Porn. Female nudity can be seen as an art form or a way to objectify women.\nSexual arousal may be expected between sexual partners while conducting naked practices (bathing, sleeping, and dressing), but some partners may feel uncomfortable being nude even in private. For instance, a person may feel comfortable being nude only during a sexual activity in a dark room or covered by a sheet or blanket.",
"-23.911024436587468"
],
[
"contribution to the general health of a nation's citizens. Public decency Legal and social dress codes are often related to sexuality. In the United States, there are many rules against nudity. An individual cannot be naked even on their own property if the public can see them. These laws are often considered a violation to the constitution regarding freedom of expression. It is said that common sense needs to be used when deciding whether or not nudity is appropriate. However, in Hawaii, Texas, New York, Maine, and Ohio allow all women to go topless at all locations that let men",
"-23.872885782911908"
],
[
"activities take them. These nudists maintain that the push for body acceptance and body freedom is in no way sexual or prurient. Nudists believe that shame, fear, and the view that the human body is always sexual or obscene are ideas which are socially constructed and learned, just like any other prejudice or bigotry. Nudists assert that simple, healthy, social nudity harms no one. A recent Zogby poll showed the 60% of Californians stated that they were not personally offended by the non-sexual nudity of others. Nudity ban protests On Saturday, November 17, 2012, some of the Castro nudists gathered",
"-23.837190464160813"
],
[
"feminists are more skeptical about this distinction, holding that all sexual materials produced in a patriarchal system are expressions of male dominance. Andrea Dworkin wrote, \"erotica is simply high-class pornography: better produced, better conceived, better executed, better packaged, designed for a better class of consumer.\"\nHowever, some feminists tend not to make a distinction between pornography and erotica, and those who have addressed the distinction made by Steinem and others find it problematic. Ellen Willis holds that the term 'erotica' is needlessly vague and euphemistic, and appeals to an idealized version of what kind of sex people should want rather than",
"-23.823490453272825"
],
[
"available free by its creators (who could be called exhibitionists). They present a significant challenge to the commercial pornographic film industry.\nIrrespective of the legal or social view of pornography, it has been used in a number of contexts. It is used, for example, at fertility clinics to stimulate sperm donors. Some couples use pornography at times for variety and to create a sexual interest or as part of foreplay. There is also some evidence that pornography can be used to treat voyeurism. Etymology The word pornography was coined from the ancient Greek words πόρνη (pórnē \"prostitute\" and πορνεία porneía \"prostitution\"),",
"-23.76658817497082"
],
[
"found to desensitize societies to violence against women, inspiring rapes and contributing to the sexual subordination of women to men (2009). Making their materials, pornographers exploit existing inequality between the sexes to coerce women and children to perform unwanted or dangerous sexual acts as a form of prostitution. Existing legal regulations in democratic societies have not approached pornography with these realities in mind, but usually rather as a right protected by freedom of expression, or as an \"obscene\" expression offending the public rather than harming any particular group. In rare but important instances, pornography has legally been seen as",
"-23.721827300003497"
],
[
"become more tolerant in Western countries, and legal definitions of obscenity have become more limited, notably beginning in 1969 with Blue Movie by Andy Warhol, the first adult erotic film depicting explicit sex to receive wide theatrical release in the United States, and the subsequent Golden Age of Porn (1969–1984), leading to an industry for the production and consumption of pornography in the latter half of the 20th century. The introduction of home video and the Internet saw a boom in the worldwide porn industry that generates billions of dollars annually. Commercialized pornography accounts for over US$2.5 billion in the United",
"-23.710755939624505"
],
[
"because it was like, Oh, my God, there are other people who like the same things as me, like leather, or being blown on a pool table. [Laughs] It was a start—literally stripping ourselves naked and trying to begin from there.\nSecond, he \"wasn't comfortable in his own skin\" and wanted some adventure in his life.\nDuring his adult-film career, Wrangler appeared in 47 films. Among his more notable gay films were Kansas City Trucking Co., Hot House, Sex Machine, and A Night at the Adonis.\nIn 1978, Wrangler made the move to heterosexual adult film, making his debut in China Sisters which",
"-23.71073855076247"
],
[
"attributes in these images leaves little room for observers to interpret them in any way other than as instruments of sexual pleasure and visual possession for a heterosexual male audience. Yet, some scholars have criticized such statements as overly homogenizing because they render invisible differences in this process of sexualization.\nSome social conservatives have agreed with aspects of the feminist critique of sexual objectification. In their view however, the increase in the sexual objectification of both sexes in Western culture is one of the negative legacies of the sexual revolution. These critics, notably Wendy Shalit, advocate a return to pre-sexual revolution",
"-23.70626487652771"
],
[
"many of these images as sexualizing children regardless of artistic merit.\nGender roles and stereotypes in society are reflected in a different experience for male and female models, and different responses when those not in the arts learn that someone is a nude model. However, both male and female models tend to keep their modeling career distinct from their other social interactions, if for different reasons. Attitudes toward male nudity, issues of homosexuality when male models work from male artists, and some bias towards the female form in art may lead to less opportunity for male models, and works of art",
"-23.69747027300764"
],
[
"of an activity. There are many exceptions and particular circumstances in which nudity is tolerated, accepted or even encouraged in public spaces. Such examples would include a nude beach, within some intentional communities (such as naturist resorts or clubs) and at special events.\nIn general and across cultures, public indications of sexual arousal are commonly regarded as embarrassing, both to the person aroused and the onlooker, and for this reason those parts of the human body that would indicate arousal are normally covered. Arousal is most evidently indicated by the sex organs and women's breasts, which are routinely covered, even when",
"-23.681568287836853"
]
] |
62o5lv | Why did circumcision become the norm in the US? | [
"1) Anti-masturbation mentality in religious and secular (scientific) groups in the late 1800s. Spearheaded by many, including Kellogg. 2) Medical reports from WWI stating that it was healthier. It was, in the horrid conditions of the trenches where people could not clean properly. It is not much of a difference in people who maintain hygiene. 3) People trusting their doctors to know better than them what should be done with infants.",
"I heard this story on Adams Ruins Everything. Apparently, (if it can be believed) Mr. Kelloggs (the maker of Kelloggs cereal) thought that jerking off was evil so he thought that if people were circumsized they would jerk off less. He led a campaign to get more people circumsized and he was quite successful. After a while, so many people were getting circumsized that it became the norm.",
"It started with the theory it would stop the kids later from masturbating, so they don't go to hell or smth."
] | [
[
"Male circumcision has been practiced as a surgical means of sexual repression in some cultures, although it may be practiced for various reasons, with the World Health Organization recommending it as a means of reducing HIV/AIDS. Circumcision is also a religious tradition in Judaism and Islam. According to medieval Jewish theologian Moses Maimonides, the \"reason\" for male circumcision is \"the wish to bring about a decrease in sexual intercourse and a weakening of the organ in question, so that this activity be diminished and the organ be in as quiet a state as possible.\" \nIn the late-nineteenth century, circumcision of",
"-33.76162351644598"
],
[
"practiced by the Incas, Aztecs, and Mayans. It probably started among South American tribes as a blood sacrifice or ritual mutilation to test bravery and endurance, and its use later evolved into a rite of initiation. Modern times Circumcision did not become a common medical procedure in the Anglophone world until the late 19th century. At that time, British and American doctors began recommending it primarily as a deterrent to masturbation. Prior to the 20th century, masturbation was believed to be the cause of a wide range of physical and mental illnesses including epilepsy, paralysis, impotence, gonorrhea, tuberculosis, feeblemindedness,",
"-33.36531824732083"
],
[
"was controversial during the period of Early Christianity (before 325). The first Church Council in Jerusalem (c.50) declared that circumcision was not necessary for new gentile converts (a record of the council is found in Acts 15) but it is customary among the Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, and also some other African churches. Some Christian churches in South Africa oppose circumcision, viewing it as a pagan ritual, while others, including the Nomiya church in Kenya, require circumcision for membership.\nThe United States is an outlier with regards to other predominately Christian Western nations. As of 2007, fifty-five percent of",
"-33.062832398234605"
],
[
"History of circumcision Circumcision has ancient roots among several ethnic groups in sub-equatorial Africa, and is still performed on adolescent boys to symbolize their transition to warrior status or adulthood. Circumcision and/or subincision, often as part of an intricate coming of age ritual, was a common practice among Australian Aborigines and Pacific islanders at first contact with Western travellers. It is still practiced in the traditional way by a proportion of the population.\nIn Judaism, circumcision has traditionally been practised among males on the eighth day after birth. The Book of Genesis records circumcision as part of the Abrahamic covenant with",
"-33.01299474269035"
],
[
"circumcision for any reason.\" Early Christianity There was debate in the early Church on whether Gentiles needed to be circumcised in order to join the communities; some Jewish Christians insisted that it was necessary. The Council of Jerusalem (50 CE) decreed that circumcision was not a requirement for Gentiles, which became known as the \"Apostolic Decree\". This was one of the first acts differentiating Early Christianity from Judaism. Around 140 CE, the Tannaim made circumcision requirements stricter, in order to make the procedure irreversible. Islam In the early 7th century, Muhammad welded together many Semitic tribes of the Arabian peninsula",
"-32.3749451720214"
],
[
"concerns that led to the widespread adoption of this surgical procedure at this time. The first was a growing belief within the medical community regarding the efficacy of circumcision in reducing the risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases, such as syphilis. The second was the notion that circumcision would lessen the urge towards masturbation, or \"self abuse\" as it was often called.\nThe tradition of circumcision is said to have been practiced within the British Royal Family, with varying accounts regarding which monarch started it: either Queen Victoria on account of her rumored adherence to British Israelism and the notion she",
"-32.227010640650406"
],
[
"manuals continued to recommend circumcision as a deterrent against masturbation until the 1950s. Spread and decline Infant circumcision was taken up in the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and the English-speaking parts of Canada. Although it is difficult to determine historical circumcision rates, one estimate of infant circumcision rates in the United States holds that 30% of newborn American boys were being circumcised in 1900, 55% in 1925, and 72% in 1950.\nIn South Korea, circumcision was largely unknown before the establishment of the United States trusteeship in 1945 and the spread of American influence. More than",
"-31.93028887906985"
],
[
"The circumcision controversy in early Christianity was resolved in the 1st century, so that non-Jewish Christians were not obliged to be circumcised. Saint Paul, the leading proponent of this position, discouraged circumcision as a qualification for conversion to Christianity. Circumcision soon became rare in most of the Christian world, except the Coptic Church of Egypt (where circumcision was a tradition dating to pre-Christian times) and for Judeo-Christians. Perhaps for this reason, the subject of the circumcision of Christ was extremely rare in Christian art of the 1st millennium, and there appear to be no surviving examples until the very end",
"-31.722013376507675"
],
[
"in speeches. Contemporary physicians picked up on Sayre's new treatment, which they believed could prevent or cure a wide-ranging array of medical problems and social ills. Its popularity spread with publications such as Peter Charles Remondino's History of Circumcision. By the turn of the century infant circumcision was near universally recommended in America and Great Britain. David Gollaher proposes that \"Americans found circumcision appealing not merely on medical grounds, but also for its connotations of science, health, and cleanliness—newly important class distinctions\" in a country where 17 million immigrants arrived between 1890 and 1914.\nAfter the end of",
"-31.325474174314877"
],
[
"circumcision as a treatment for masturbation.\nThe first serious questioning of the practice did not occur until late 1949 when Gairdner published The Fate of the Foreskin in the British Medical Journal; according to Wallerstein this began to affect the practice of circumcision in the United Kingdom.\nAccording to Darby and Cox, the persistence of circumcision in the US has led to more vigorous protest movements. A 1980 protest march at the California State Capitol was reported in an Associated Press article. The National Organization of Circumcision Information Resource Centers (NOCIRC), was formed by Marilyn Milos, R.N., in 1985. The organization's stated",
"-31.192716039251536"
],
[
"called for the reintroduction of customary circumcision after it was banned by Zulu king Shaka in the 19th century. Similar issues, though on a smaller scale, have arisen with traditional circumcision of Aborigines in remote areas of central Australia. Controversy in Germany On June 26, 2012, a court in Cologne, Germany ruled that circumcision was \"inflicting bodily harm on boys too young to consent\", deciding that the practice contravenes the \"interests of the child to decide later in life on his religious beliefs\". The decision was based on the article \"Criminal Relevance of Circumcising Boys. A Contribution to the Limitation",
"-31.17480783033534"
],
[
"Birth Without Violence\".\nThis period also saw the formation of anti-circumcision organizations in Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom and South Africa. Activists began creating websites in the mid-1990s, and this process has continued to this day. Doctors Opposing Circumcision asserts that genital integrity produces the highest state of health and well-being. Many anti-circumcision groups have joined the International Coalition for Genital Integrity and endorsed its declaration, which was adopted by the First International Symposium on Circumcision, on March 3, 1989, at Anaheim, California (there have been nine such further symposia held since, with the proceedings of several subsequently published in book",
"-30.632465490838513"
],
[
"nudity was the norm. First Maccabees also relates that the Seleucids forbade the practice of brit milah (Jewish circumcision), and punished those who performed it, as well as the infants who underwent it, with death.\nAccording to “National Hospital Discharge Survey” in United States, as of 2008, the rate of circumcision of infant boys in hospitals in United States was 55.9%. Africa \"The distribution of circumcision and initiation rites throughout Africa, and the frequent resemblance between details of ceremonial procedure in areas thousands of miles apart, indicate that the circumcision ritual has an old tradition behind it and in its present",
"-30.61781393486308"
],
[
"The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, referred to the practice as \"a painful and often dangerous rite\", and a \"singular mutilation\" practiced only by Jews and Turks. Ethics The ethical view of circumcision varies by country. In the United States, with a high circumcision rate, the American Medical Association stated in 2011 that they \"will oppose any attempts to intrude into legitimate medical practice and the informed choices of patients\". In 2012, the American Academy of Pediatrics released a technical report and a policy statement on non-therapeutic infant circumcision, stating that preventive health benefits of",
"-30.586944724127534"
],
[
"for congenital abnormality in 1890. But as late as 1936, L. E. Holt, an author of pediatric textbooks, advocated both circumcision and female genital mutilation as a treatment for masturbation.\nThe first serious questioning of the practice did not occur until late 1949, when the paediatrician Douglas Gairdner, D. M., published The Fate of the Foreskin in the British Medical Journal; according to Wallerstein, this began to seriously affect the practice of circumcision in Great Britain. According to Darby and Cox, the persistence of circumcision in the US has led to more vigorous protest movements. A 1980 protest march at the",
"-29.846995595900808"
],
[
"changes in sleep patterns, irritability, changes in feeding, and parental bonding. Some men who were circumcised as infants described their feelings about the procedure using the terms \"violation, torture, mutilation and sexual assault\". Prevalence Circumcision is one of the world's most widely performed procedures. Approximately 37% to 39% of males worldwide are circumcised, about half for religious or cultural reasons. It is most often practiced between infancy and the early twenties. The WHO estimated in 2007 that 664,500,000 males aged 15 and over were circumcised (30–33% global prevalence), almost 70% of whom were Muslim. Circumcision is most common in",
"-29.80498731712578"
],
[
"their parents. The practice date back to the arrival of Islam in 1450. Pressure to be circumcised is in the language: the Tagalog word for 'uncircumcised', is supot means 'coward'. A circumcised eight or ten year-old is no longer considered a boy and is given more adult roles in the family and society. Ethical and legal issues There is a long-running and vigorous debate over ethical concerns regarding circumcision, particularly neonatal circumcision for reasons other than intended direct medical benefit. There are three parties involved in the decision to circumcise a minor: the minor as the patient, the parents (or",
"-29.79276231242602"
],
[
"or removed. William Hammond, a Professor of Mind in New York in the late 19th century, commented that \"circumcision, when performed in early life, generally lessens the voluptuous sensations of sexual intercourse\", and both he and Acton considered the foreskin necessary for optimal sexual function, especially in old age. Jonathan Hutchinson, English surgeon and pathologist (1828–1913), and many others, thought this was the main reason why it should be excised.\nBorn in the United Kingdom during the late-nineteenth century, John Maynard Keynes and his brother Geoffrey, were both circumcised in boyhood due to parents' concern about their masturbatory habits. Mainstream pediatric",
"-29.771169304993236"
],
[
"is usually performed for religious, cultural or medical reasons and leaves some or all of the glans permanently exposed. Jews and many Americans typically have their infants circumcised during the neonatal period, while Filipinos, most Muslims and African tribes such as the Maasai and Xhosa circumcise in teenage years or childhood as an initiation into adulthood.\nIn modern medicine, circumcision may be used as treatment for severe phimosis or recurrent balanitis that has not responded to more conservative treatments. Advocacy is often centered on preventive medicine, while opposition is often centered on human rights (particularly the bodily integrity of the infant",
"-29.76820516749285"
],
[
"such as clanging or hissing, inversion or pressure during restraint. Brit milah (circumcision ritual) The Jewish practice of brit milah, or circumcision of infant males, has been attacked in both ancient and modern times as \"painful\" and \"cruel\", or tantamount to genital mutilation due to its being conducted without the boy's consent.\nHellenistic culture found circumcision to be repulsive, circumcision was regarded as a physical deformity, and circumcised men were forbidden to participate in the Olympic Games. Some Hellenistic Jews practised epispasm. In the Roman Empire, circumcision was regarded as a barbaric and disgusting custom. According to the Talmud, the consul",
"-29.717303154757246"
],
[
"newborn males were circumcised, a significant decline from years past. Countries like Australia and Canada have much lower rates of circumcision, and the United Kingdom is considering an outright ban. Circumcision is rare for Christians in the countries of Europe, East Asia, parts of Africa, as well as in India and until recently in Southern Africa. Christians in the East and West Indies (excluding the Philippines) do not practice it either. Circumcision is near universal among Christian countries of Oceania and in North and West Africa and it is common in countries such as Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo,",
"-29.55814350012224"
],
[
"practice circumcision. However, the Church currently maintains a neutral position on the practice of cultural circumcision, as the church has a policy of inculturation.\nSome Catholic scholars, such as Fr. John J. Dietzen, a retired priest and columnist, have argued that paragraph number 2297 from the Catholic Catechism (Respect for bodily integrity) makes the practice of elective and neonatal circumcision immoral. John Paul Slosar and Daniel O'Brien, however, argue that the therapeutic benefits of neonatal circumcision are inconclusive, but that recent findings that circumcision may prevent disease puts the practice outside the realm of paragraph 2297. They also argue that statements",
"-29.529831508232746"
],
[
"in the United States. They also criticized the strength of the health benefits the statement had claimed, such as protection from HIV and other STIs. The American Academy of Pediatrics responded that because about half of American males are circumcised and half are not, there may be a more tolerant view concerning circumcision in the US, but that if there is any cultural “bias” among the AAP taskforce who wrote the Circumcision Policy statement, it is much less important than the bias Frisch et al. may hold because of clear prejudices against the practice that can be found in Europe.",
"-29.48924074647948"
],
[
"for electric shock treatment, infibulation, restraining devices like chastity belts and straitjackets, cauterization or – as a last resort – wholesale surgical excision of the genitals. Routine neonatal circumcision was widely adopted in the United States and the UK at least partly because of its believed preventive effect against masturbation (see also History of male circumcision). In later decades, the more drastic of these measures were increasingly replaced with psychological techniques, such as warnings that masturbation led to blindness, hairy hands or stunted growth. Some of these persist as myths even today. Referring to such viewpoints and treatments, Messer and",
"-29.387144740205258"
],
[
"religious significance in the Druze faith.Male Druze infants are usually circumcised shortly after birth.\nThere is no reference to circumcision in the Hindu holy books, and both Hinduism and Buddhism appear to have a neutral view on circumcision.\nSikh infants are not circumcised.\nCircumcision in South Korea is largely the result of American cultural and military influence following the Korean War.\nThe origin of circumcision (tuli) in the Philippines is uncertain. One newspaper article speculates that it is due to the influence of Western colonisation, however, Antonio de Morga's 17th-century History of the Philippine Islands documents its existence in pre-Colonial Philippines, owing it to",
"-29.387096756516257"
],
[
"could transmit infectious diseases to newborns. The first formal objection to circumcision within Judaism occurred in 1843 in Frankfurt. The Society for the Friends of Reform, a group that criticized traditional Jewish practices, said that brit milah was not a mitzvah but an outworn legacy from Israel's earlier phases, an obsolete throwback to primitive religion. With the expanding role of medicine came further opposition; certain aspects of Jewish circumcision such as periah and metzitzah (drawing the blood from the circumcision wound through sucking or a cloth) were deemed unhygienic and dangerous for the newborns. Later evidence that syphilis and tuberculosis –",
"-29.320894968397624"
],
[
"by several groups, to be a form of violence against young men and boys. The International Criminal Court considers forced circumcision to be an \"inhumane act\". Some court decisions have found it to be a violation of a child's rights. In certain countries, such as Australia, Bangladesh, Canada, Indonesia, Pakistan, the Philippines, South Korea, Turkey and the United States, newborn baby males are routinely circumcised without the child's consent. As well, the Jewish and Muslim faiths circumcise boys at a young age. It is also practiced in Coptic Christianity and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.\nAlthough a 2012 court ruling in Germany",
"-29.30807822907809"
],
[
"foreskin, emphasizing the Jewish view of circumcision as intended to be not just the fulfillment of a Biblical commandment but also an essential and permanent mark of membership in a people.\nA narrative in the Christian Gospel of Luke makes a brief mention of the circumcision of Jesus, but the subject of physical circumcision itself is not part of the received teachings of Jesus. Paul the Apostle reinterpreted circumcision as a spiritual concept, arguing the physical one to be unnecessary for Gentile converts to Christianity. The teaching that physical circumcision was unnecessary for membership in a divine covenant was",
"-29.275519693968818"
],
[
"medical literature of the 1890s, allowing surgeons to perform circumcisions more safely and successfully.\nBy the 1920s, advances in the understanding of disease had undermined much of the original medical basis for preventive circumcision. Doctors continued to promote it, however, as good penile hygiene and as a preventive for a handful of conditions local to the penis: balanitis, phimosis, and penile cancer. Masturbation concerns Circumcision in English-speaking countries arose in a climate of negative attitudes towards sex, especially concerning masturbation. In her 1978 article The Ritual of Circumcision, Karen Erickson Paige writes: \"The current medical rationale for circumcision developed after the",
"-29.272781747335102"
],
[
"a way to increase the nation's population. He also noted that circumcision should be performed as an effective means to reduce sexual pleasure: \"The legislators thought good to dock the organ which ministers to such intercourse thus making circumcision the symbol of excision of excessive and superfluous pleasure.\" There was also division in Pharisaic Judaism between Hillel the Elder and Shammai on the issue of circumcision of proselytes.\nThe Jewish philosopher Maimonides (1135–1204) insisted that faith should be the only reason for circumcision. He recognised that it was \"a very hard thing\" to have done to oneself but that it was",
"-29.24091480631614"
],
[
"living in a mining town in Wales during the 1920s used candles intended for Roman Catholic ceremonies to dilate the cervix in an effort to self-induce abortion. Similarly, the use of candles and other objects, such as glass rods, penholders, curling irons, spoons, sticks, knives, and catheters was reported during the 19th century in the United States. Women of Jewish descent in Lower East Side, Manhattan are said to have carried the ancient Indian practice of sitting over a pot of steam into the early 20th century. Some commentators maintained that abortion remained a dangerous procedure into the early 20th",
"-29.193070980210905"
],
[
"circumcision. The Council of Florence in the 15th century prohibited it. Paragraph #2297 of the Catholic Catechism calls non-medical amputation or mutilation immoral. By the 21st century, the Catholic Church had adopted a neutral position on the practice, as long as it is not practised as an initiation ritual. Catholic scholars make various arguments in support of the idea that this policy is not in contradiction with the previous edicts. The New Testament chapter Acts 15 records that Christianity did not require circumcision. The Catholic Church currently maintains a neutral position on the practice of non-religious circumcision, and in 1442",
"-29.16145328609855"
],
[
"arousal, while onanism was viewed as a form of contraception. U.S. Senator, John T. Noonan, has written extensively on this topic and believed that the first certain dated reference to Onanism appeared in the ninth century. The beginning, practices of coitus interruptus has been linked to circles of prostitution and illicit love affairs within the Middle Ages. From there, it took the decisive step towards widespread practice and began entering into conventional sexual relationships, such as marriage. The trigger of this development - assuming other mental and moral conditions - was provided by economic hardship. Population control was not a",
"-29.01959741092287"
],
[
"secularization helped to change these attitudes, and the first oral contraception was developed in 1951 partly due to Women's Rights campaigner Margaret Sanger who raised $150,000 to fund its development.\nWhile the Pill eventually came to be seen as a symbol of the Sexual revolution, its origins stem less from issues of women's sexual liberation and more from 1960s political agendas. In the early 1960s, President Lyndon Johnson instituted his social reform policy, The Great Society, which aimed to eliminate poverty and racial injustice.\nDuring this time, the Pill was endorsed and distributed by doctors as a form of population control to",
"-28.981460283888737"
],
[
"American Civil Liberties Union, and Centers for Disease Control strive to raise public awareness on the biological and sexual functions of the foreskin, alter policy and change attitudes toward male infant circumcision in the United States.\nHowever, linking male circumcision to female genital mutilation (FGM) is itself highly controversial. Organizations actually involved in combating FGM have been at considerable pains to distinguish the two, as this UNICEF document explains: \"When the practice first came to be known beyond the societies in which it was traditionally carried out, it was generally referred to as 'female circumcision'. This term, however, draws a direct",
"-28.850687524973182"
],
[
"the argument which states that there is an indirect correlation between Islam and female circumcision fails to explain why female circumcision is not practiced in much of the Islamic world, and conversely is practiced in Latin American countries such as Brazil, Mexico and Peru.\nThe French intellectual, journalist and translator Renée Saurel observed that female circumcision and FGM more generally directly contradict Islam's sacred text: \"The Koran, contrary to Christianity and Judaism, permits and recommends that the woman be given physical and psychological pleasure, pleasure found by both partners during the act of love. Forcibly split, torn, and severed tissues are",
"-28.84510772943031"
],
[
"In 1442 the Catholic Church banned the practice of religious circumcision in the 11th Council of Florence and currently maintains a neutral position on the practice of non-religious circumcision. Coptic Christians practice circumcision as a rite of passage. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church calls for circumcision, with near-universal prevalence among Orthodox men in Ethiopia. Some Christian churches in South Africa disapprove of the practice, while others require it of their members. African cultures Certain African cultural groups, such as the Yoruba and the Igbo of Nigeria, customarily circumcise their infant sons. The procedure is also practiced by some cultural groups",
"-28.837404305464588"
],
[
"to bodily integrity goes hand in hand with his or her sexual autonomy.\" Controversy in India While circumcision debates are often dominated by the concerns of Anglophone countries, very different controversies over the procedure regularly erupt in other cultural contexts. In South Asia, Pakistan has long used circumcision status as a definitive marker of Indian covert involvement in its internal affairs. But this assumption was thrown into confusion when it was discovered that large segments of its own Muslim male population, specifically from western tribal areas, were themselves uncircumcised. Controversy in Israel Opposition to circumcision exists among Jews in",
"-28.738349821687734"
],
[
"infant circumcisions that someone else decided to have performed on them. Organizations Various groups have been founded since the late 20th century, especially in North America where circumcision has been routinely performed on infants.\nIn 1982, the group Brothers United for Future Foreskins (BUFF) began to publicize non-surgical restoration.\nIn 1989, the National Organization of Restoring Men (NORM) was founded as a non-profit support group for men undertaking foreskin restoration. \nIn 1991, the group UNCircumcising Information and Resource Centers (UNCIRC) was formed, which was incorporated into NORM in 1994.\nSeveral NORM chapters have been founded throughout the United States, as well as internationally",
"-28.681219499616418"
],
[
"contraception during the late 1900s was directly related to the women's rights movement by establishing, for the first time, a mass distribution of a way to control fertility. The so-called \"pill\" gave women the opportunity to make different life choices they may not previously been able to make, such as for example, furthering their career. This led to monumental changes in the current gender and family roles.\nMargaret Sanger, an activist in 1914, was an important figure during the reproductive rights movement. She coined the term \"birth control\" and opened the first birth control clinic in the U.S. Sanger collaborated with",
"-28.577487686212407"
],
[
"had an influential impact on medical practice and public opinion.\nIn 1949, a lack of consensus in the medical community as to whether circumcision carried with it any notable health benefit motivated the United Kingdom's newly formed National Health Service to remove infant circumcision from its list of covered services. Since then, circumcision has been an out-of-pocket cost to parents, and the proportion of circumcised men is around 9%.\nSimilar trends have operated in Canada, (where public medical insurance is universal, and where private insurance does not replicate services already paid from the public purse) individual provincial health insurance plans began delisting",
"-28.523098422389012"
],
[
"pregnancy. While the rhythm method was not yet understood, condoms and diaphragms made of vulcanized rubber were reliable and inexpensive.\nIn the United States, contraception had been legal throughout most of the 19th century, but in the 1870s the Comstock Act and various state Comstock laws outlawed the distribution of information about safe sex and contraception and the use of contraceptives. \nMargaret Sanger and Otto Bobsein popularised the phrase \"birth control\" in 1914. Sanger was mainly active in the United States, but had gained an international reputation by the 1930s. Sanger established a short lived birth control clinic in 1916, which",
"-28.451276799241896"
],
[
"mother to avoid publicly being a bastard's father. Abortions, concealing births, tricked marriages, and bribery were used to help conceal crimes of bastardy. Other methods of preventing bastardy existed, but not widely used. Birth control existed within colonial America, but due to a lack of understanding of human anatomy, attempts at preventing pregnancy during this time often failed. Coitus interruptus, which meant that the male withdrew before ejaculating, was not a useful method of birth control. Nor were barrier methods of contraception. Condoms existed, but males used them to prevent the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. People during the seventeenth",
"-28.434907769260462"
],
[
"mutilation of female minors, with some exceptions based on medical need. Opponents of male circumcision assert that laws against genital modification and mutilation of minors should apply equally to males and females.\nMany anti-circumcision groups have joined the International Coalition for Genital Integrity and endorsed its declaration, which was adopted by the First International Symposium on Circumcision, on March 3, 1989, at Anaheim, California (there have been nine such further symposia held since, with the proceedings of several subsequently published in book form). Intact America, founded in 2008, and other organizations such as Genital Autonomy America, the American Academy of Pediatrics,",
"-28.314076502051194"
],
[
"against women.\" Male Circumcision Male circumcision involves the removal of the foreskin from the penis. It is a surgical procedure in which the foreskin is opened and separated from the glans. The procedure is most commonly performed on children for religious and cultural reasons. It can also be performed for the treatment of certain medical conditions such as urinary tract infections, phimosis and balanoposthitis. Historical Origins The origins of circumcision date back to 2400 B.C.E. in Egypt, where an engraving of an adult male being circumcised was found in the tomb of Ankh-Mahor at Saqqara. It is believed that the",
"-28.28926103919366"
],
[
"circumcision. This ruling came about after a conference instigated by research and a documentary on FGM in Somalia by the German action group Target. The fatwa is now also used in Western Europe to combat FGM.\nOn 24 June 2007, after an 11-year-old died under the knife undergoing circumcision, he decreed that female circumcision was not just \"un-Islamic\" but forbidden. Views on women According to Dr James Dorsey of Nanyang Technological University, \"Gomaa asserted in 2015 that women did not have the strength to become heart surgeons, serve in the military, or engage in sports likes soccer, body building, wrestling and",
"-28.281127051363"
],
[
"based on the Talmudic tradition of law will not have sex during the 11–14 days after a women begins menstruating. This precludes them from utilizing some forms of \"natural birth control\" such as the \"Calendar-based contraceptive methods\" which are relatively unobjectionable to other religious groups.\nThe introduction of oral contraception, or \"the pill,\" in the 1960s and the intrauterine device did not cause a big uprising in the Jewish community as it did in other religious communities due to the understanding of their great benefit and no strict association with their availability and greater promiscuity, as has been the fear in",
"-28.273625236983207"
],
[
"a contentious one ever since.\nAfter 1973, over one million abortions were performed annually for the next decade; by 1977, abortion was a more common medical procedure in the US than tonsillectomies. The Sexual Revolution The counterculture movement had rapidly dismantled many existing social taboos, and there was a growing acceptance of extramarital sex, divorce, and homosexuality. Some people advocated dropping all laws against sex between consenting adults, including prostitution, and LGBT people began the struggle for gay liberation.\nA series of court rulings in the 1960s had struck down most anti-pornography laws, and under pressure from homosexual activist groups, the American",
"-28.27337206611992"
],
[
"North America, abortion techniques advanced starting in the 17th century. However, conservatism by most physicians with regards to sexual matters prevented the wide expansion of safe abortion techniques. Other medical practitioners in addition to some physicians advertised their services, and they were not widely regulated until the 19th century, when the practice (sometimes called restellism) was banned in both the United States and the United Kingdom. Church groups as well as physicians were highly influential in anti-abortion movements. In the US, according to some sources, abortion was more dangerous than childbirth until about 1930 when incremental improvements in abortion procedures",
"-28.251010034626233"
],
[
"of pregnancy\". Rise of anti-abortion legislation When the United States first became independent, most states applied English common law to abortion. This meant it was not permitted after quickening, or the start of fetal movements, usually felt 15–20 weeks after conception.\nAbortions became illegal by statute in Britain in 1803 with Lord Ellenborough's Act, and various anti-abortion statutes began to appear in the United States in the 1820s that codified or expanded common law. In 1821, a Connecticut law targeted apothecaries who sold \"poisons\" to women for purposes of inducing an abortion, and New York made post-quickening abortions a felony and",
"-28.248113272333285"
],
[
"of circumcision \"remained a central rite\" and the Union for Reform Judaism has, since 1984, trained and certified over 300 practicing mohels under its \"Berit Mila Program\". Humanistic Judaism argues that \"circumcision is not required for Jewish identity.\"\nThe circumcision consists of three procedures, the first being the cutting of the foreskin. The second is the priah, or peeling back of the epithelium after the foreskin has been amputated. According to Shaye J. D. Cohen, in Why Aren't Jewish Women Circumcised?: Gender and Covenant in Judaism, pg 25, the Torah only commands circumcision (milah). David Gollaher has written that the rabbis",
"-28.239274424078758"
],
[
"guidance, information, and resources to support the delivery of safe male circumcision services in countries that choose to scale up the procedure as one component of comprehensive HIV prevention services. Cultures and religions In some cultures, males are generally required to be circumcised shortly after birth, during childhood or around puberty as part of a rite of passage. Circumcision is commonly practiced in the Jewish and Islamic faiths. Judaism Circumcision is very important to most branches of Judaism, with over 90% of male adherents having the procedure performed as a religious obligation. The basis for its observance is found",
"-28.091985025297618"
],
[
"timing and tradition, in Islam there is no fixed age for circumcision. The age when boys get circumcised, and the procedures used, tend to change across cultures, families, and time. In some Muslim-majority countries, circumcision is performed on Muslim boys after they have learned to recite the whole Qur'an from start to finish. In Malaysia and other regions, the boy usually undergoes the procedure between the ages of ten and twelve, and is thus a puberty rite, serving to introduce him into the new status of an adult. The procedure is sometimes semi-public, accompanied with music, special foods, and much",
"-28.08157477955683"
],
[
"\"styles\" of the circumcision of a Muslim vary on every individual, and change in the light of new medical knowledge.\nEarlier, instead of being carried out in hospitals, they would be carried out in local clinics and at homes by visiting circumciser. Celebrations In Indonesia, after a child is circumcised, there is a feast called Perayaan Sunatan, but some ulemas in Indonesia say this is bid‘ah whereas most of them say it is not. In Turkey also widely celebrated and called \"Sunnet Toreni\" \"Sunnet mevludu\". Female genital mutilation Khafḍ, or k̲h̲ifāḍ, refers to female genital mutilation (FGM). FGM is sometimes ",
"-28.071910027065314"
],
[
"objective is to secure the birthright of male, female, and intersex children and babies to keep their sex organs intact. Protest rallies have been held in the US and other areas. NOCIRC have consistently criticised the American medical community's circumcision guidelines. According to Milos and Donna Macris, \"The need to defend the baby's right to a peaceful beginning was brought to light by Dr. Frederick Leboyer in his landmark work, Birth Without Violence\".\nThis period also saw the formation of anti-circumcision organizations in Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom and South Africa. Activists began creating websites in the mid-1990s, and this process",
"-28.058917067115544"
],
[
"people of Kenya and Tanzania, male circumcision has historically been the graduation element of an educational program which taught tribal beliefs, practices, culture, religion and history to youth who were on the verge of becoming full-fledged members of society. The circumcision ceremony was very public, and required a display of courage under the knife in order to maintain the honor and prestige of the young man and his family. The only form of anesthesia was a bath in the cold morning waters of a river, which tended to numb the senses to a minor degree. The youths",
"-27.925607005425263"
],
[
"study showed the majority of respondents, both male and female, believed that circumcision was necessary for girls (64%). More men (70.3%) believed it was needed than women (57.6%). Belief in the practice is stronger in the lower income quintiles and considerably weaker in the upper quintiles.\nFGM was banned in Egypt in 2007. In 2015 the first conviction for performing FGM took place.",
"-27.86173353716731"
],
[
"(as reflected in print publications). History and culture Initially used for contraceptive purposes, condoms also came to be used to limit or prevent sexually transmitted infections (STIs/STDs), even after other contraceptive methods were developed. As AIDS emerged and the sexual transmission of HIV became known in the 1980s, the use of condoms to prevent infection became much more widespread, especially among men who have sex with men (MSM) who engage in anal sex. At the beginning of the AIDS crisis, in the context of the invention and development of safe sex, the uptake of condoms among Western MSM was so",
"-27.832621818364714"
],
[
"or individual family lines in the Sudan, Zaire, Uganda and in southern Africa. For some of these groups, circumcision appears to be purely cultural, done with no particular religious significance or intention to distinguish members of a group. For others, circumcision might be done for purification, or it may be interpreted as a mark of subjugation. Among these groups, even when circumcision is done for reasons of tradition, it is often done in hospitals. The Maasai people, who live predominantly in Kenya and Tanzania, use circumcision as a rite of passage. It is also used for distinguished age groups. This",
"-27.60945195759996"
],
[
"to the Philippines. However, with increasing urbanisation, traditional rituals have been giving way in many places to medically performed circumcision, and almost entirely so among Islanders living in New Zealand, where a recent survey found there was \"a strong cultural demand from parents\".\nThe most notable exception to Pacific superincision is the Māori of New Zealand, who do not circumcise or superincise, although they have an indigenous term for the latter (ure haea or \"split penis\") and their tradition is that they stopped the practice when they arrived in New Zealand. Phimosis Dorsal slit has a long history as a treatment",
"-27.57955339970067"
],
[
"Israel. Protests for children's rights have occurred there. Even though there is often pressure from family on parents to circumcise their sons, \"more and more families\" are preferring to abstain from circumcision. Controversy in South Africa In the Xhosa areas of South Africa, the large death toll from traditional circumcision provides a constant source of friction between traditional leaders, who oppose medicalised procedures, and health authorities. In 2009 in the Eastern Cape Province alone, 80 boys died and hundreds were hospitalized after attending initiation schools. The controversy looks set to spread to the Zulu, whose present-day king Goodwill Zwelithini has",
"-27.56508687812675"
],
[
"still births in circumcised women is not because of the FGM they underwent but because they delay receiving prenatal care and visiting hospitals because they fear being stigmatized by the medical staff because of their circumcision.\nFGM supporters believe that FGM prevents prostitution by decreasing a woman's sexual desire, and is more hygienic. According to a five-year research done by Hanny Lightfoot-Klein, an anti-FGM activist, 94% of circumcised women reported being satisfied by their sex lives and had sex between three and four times a week.\nAnti-FGM advocates state that more than 80% of women who experience it reported suffering a minimum",
"-27.551371299428865"
],
[
"and sanitation. Social attitudes towards abortion shifted in the context of a backlash against the women's rights movement. Abortion had previously been widely practiced and legal under common law in early pregnancy (until quickening), but the English-speaking world passed laws against abortion at all stages of pregnancy.\nThere were a number of factors that contributed to this shift in opinion about abortion in the early 19th century. In the United States, where physicians were the leading advocates of abortion criminalization laws, some of them argued that advances in medical knowledge showed that quickening was neither more nor less crucial in the",
"-27.499819588207174"
],
[
"Birth control in the United States Birth control before 20th century The practice of birth control was common throughout the U.S. prior to 1914, when the movement to legalize contraception began. Longstanding techniques included the rhythm method, withdrawal, diaphragms, contraceptive sponges, condoms, prolonged breastfeeding, and spermicides. Use of contraceptives increased throughout the nineteenth century, contributing to a 50 percent drop in the fertility rate in the United States between 1800 and 1900, particularly in urban regions. The only known survey conducted during the nineteenth century of American women's contraceptive habits was performed by Clelia Mosher from 1892 to 1912. The",
"-27.49004425384919"
],
[
"Sodomy laws in the United States Sodomy laws in the United States, which outlawed a variety of sexual acts, were inherited from colonial laws in the 1600s. While they often targeted sexual acts between persons of the same sex, many statutes employed definitions broad enough to outlaw certain sexual acts between persons of different sexes as well, sometimes also acts between married persons.\nThrough the 20th century, the gradual liberalization of American sexuality led to the elimination of sodomy laws in most states. During this time, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of sodomy laws in Bowers v. Hardwick in 1986.",
"-27.458016355900327"
],
[
"History of birth control The history of birth control, also known as contraception and fertility control, refers to the methods or devices that have been historically used to prevent pregnancy. Planning and provision of birth control is called family planning. In some times and cultures, abortion had none of the stigma which it has today, making birth control less important; abortion was in practice a means of birth control. Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt Birth control and abortion are well documented in Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. Mesopotamian women used \"stones not to give birth\", they used small circular stones that they",
"-27.400203849421814"
],
[
"more information on emasculation in Vietnam, see Castration in Vietnam.\nThe Khitan people of northeast Asia also adopted the Chinese practice of emasculating slaves. Middle East and Africa In the Arab slave trade, enslaved men and boys from East Africa were often \"castrated\" by removing both the penis and testicles. In the modern day On the Indian subcontinent, some members of hijra communities reportedly undergo emasculation. It is called nirwaan and seen as a rite of passage.\nIn the United States, males in the Nullo subculture voluntarily undergo emasculation.",
"-27.39699707310865"
],
[
"subsequent trial became \"a landmark case around forced circumcision.\" In October 2009, the Bhisho Equality Court (High Court) ruled that, in South Africa, circumcision is unlawful unless done with the full consent of the initiate. According to Thembela Kepe, traditional leaders allege that the ban on forced circumcision is \"a violation of cultural rights enshrined in the Constitution.\" Sudan There is ample evidence that, for years, Christians of Khartoum and elsewhere in Sudan have been forcefully converted to Islam, and that Christian men and boys have been forcibly circumcised. Examples of Dinka boys having been forcibly circumcised in the 1990s",
"-27.384873192873783"
],
[
"and some Christian groups, also violates children's rights. Globally about 30 percent of males over 15 are circumcised; of these, about two-thirds are Muslim. An American Academy of Pediatrics circumcision task force issued a policy statement in 2012 that the health benefits of male circumcision outweigh the risks; they recommended that it be carried out, if it is performed, by \"trained and competent practitioners ... using sterile techniques and effective pain management\". The statement met with protests from a group of 38 doctors in Europe, who accused the task force of \"cultural bias\". At least half the male population of the",
"-27.378507378318318"
],
[
"the Ngo ya Tuiritu heard that there are men who talk of female circumcision, and we get astonished because they (men) do not give birth and feel the pain and even some die and even others become infertile, and the main cause is circumcision. Because of that the issue of circumcision should not be forced. People are caught like sheep; one should be allowed to cut her own way of either agreeing to be circumcised or not without being dictated on one's own body.\"\nElsewhere, support for the practice from women was strong. In 1956 in Meru, eastern Kenya, when the",
"-27.371594249561895"
],
[
"The medical ethics committee of the British Medical Association also reviewed the ethics behind circumcision. Since circumcision has associated medical and psychological risks with no unequivocally proven medical benefits, they advise physicians to keep up with clinical evidence and only perform this procedure if it's in the child best interest. However, they acknowledge the procedure as a cultural and religious practice, which may be an important ritual for the child's incorporation into the group. They recognize that parents have the authority to make choices for their child, and they emphasize it is important for parents to act in their child's",
"-27.278977057838347"
],
[
"societies to create incest taboos, but Westermarck argued the reverse, that the taboos themselves arise naturally as products of innate attitudes. Steven Pinker has written that Freud's conception of an urge to incest may have derived from Freud's own erotic reaction to his mother as a boy (attested in Freud's own writings), and speculates that Freud's reaction may have been due to lack of intimacy with his mother in early childhood, as Freud was wet-nursed. Baby duck syndrome In human–computer interaction, baby duck syndrome denotes the tendency for computer users to \"imprint\" on the first system they learn, then judge",
"-27.277724153347663"
],
[
"it banned the practice of religious circumcision in the 11th Council of Florence. Coptic Christians practice circumcision as a rite of passage. The Eritrean Orthodox Church and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church calls for circumcision, with near-universal prevalence among Orthodox men in Ethiopia.\nMany countries with majorities of Christian adherents have low circumcision rates, while both religious and non-religious circumcision is common in many predominantly Christian countries such as the United States, and the Philippines, Australia, and Canada, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Nigeria, and Kenya, and many other African Christian countries, Circumcision is near universal in",
"-27.265624596111593"
],
[
"Islamic theological justification for female circumcision: \"If circumcision for the man (though not compulsory) has an aesthetic and hygienic purpose, there is no existing religious Islamic text of value to be considered in favour of female excision, as proven by the fact that this practice is totally non-existent in most of the Islamic countries.\"\nMahmud Shaltut, the former Sheikh of Al-Azhar in Cairo – one of the most important religious offices in Sunni Islam – also stated that female circumcision has no theological basis: \"Islamic legislation provides a general principle, namely that should meticulous and careful examination of certain issues prove",
"-27.264835968395346"
],
[
"understood the religious significance of the rites, such idolatry merely confirmed the need for rapid conversion to Christianity. Many also confused genital bloodletting with circumcision, not least because they believed Indians were descendants of the lost tribes of Israel. One of the first to recognise the distinction was Diego de Landa in a 1566 manuscript:\n\"At times they sacrificed their own blood, cutting all around the ears in strips which they let hang as a sign. At other times they perforated their cheeks or the lower lip; again they made cuts in parts of the body, or pierced the tongue crossways",
"-27.247822824981995"
],
[
"but also physically and mentally unhealthy, stimulating the foreskin to produce the host of maladies of which it was suspected. In this climate, circumcision could be employed as a means of discouraging masturbation. All About the Baby, a popular parenting book of the 1890s, recommended infant circumcision for precisely this purpose. (However, a survey of 1410 men in the United States in 1992, Laumann found that circumcised men were more likely to report masturbating at least once a month.) As hospitals proliferated in urban areas, childbirth, at least among the upper and middle classes, was increasingly under the care of",
"-27.24459006098914"
],
[
"Muslim. The position of the scar is usually neither fully \"low\" nor fully \"high\", and the skin left is rather loose. However, due to a relatively secular approach to circumcision in the Muslim world, the \"styles\" of the Islamic circumcision vary on every individual, and change in the light on new medical knowledge. Africa In West Africa, infant circumcision had religious significance as a rite of passage or otherwise in the past; today in some non-Muslim Nigerian societies it is medicalised and is simply a cultural norm. In many West African traditional societies circumcision has become medicalised and is simply",
"-27.182930267590564"
],
[
"in modern Nigeria. From that area a horticultural frontier moved outward into West Africa and the Congo Basin. Certainly the warrior schools with circumcision were a part of the ancestral society's cultural repertoire.\nCircumcision in East Africa is a rite of passage from childhood to adulthood, but is only practiced in some nations (tribes). Some peoples in East Africa do not practice circumcision (for example the Luo of western Kenya).\nAmongst the Gikuyu (Kikuyu) people of Kenya and the Maasai people of Kenya and Tanzania, circumcision has historically been the graduation element of an educational program that taught tribal beliefs, practices,",
"-27.172484812981565"
],
[
"form). Intact America, founded in 2008, and other organizations such as Genital Autonomy America, the American Academy of Pediatrics, American Civil Liberties Union, and Centers for Disease Control strive to raise public awareness on the biological and sexual functions of the foreskin, alter policy and change attitudes toward male infant circumcision in the United States.\nThe anti-circumcision movement, whose members sometimes call themselves intactivists (a portmanteau of \"intact\" and \"activist\"), strives to prohibit involuntary and forced circumcision internationally. Various organisations have been set up specifically for the purpose, other organisations have stated their support for the movement. These anti-circumcision groups argue",
"-27.09347938859719"
],
[
"seduction of unmarried women were societal ills which feminists believed caused the need to abort, as men did not respect women's right to abstinence.\nHowever, physicians remained the loudest voice in the anti-abortion debate, and they carried their anti-feminist agenda to state legislatures around the country, advocating not only anti-abortion laws, but also laws against birth control. This movement presaged the modern debate over women's body rights. A campaign was launched against the movement and the use and availability of contraceptives.\nCriminalization of abortion accelerated from the late 1860s, through the efforts of concerned legislators, doctors, and the American Medical Association. In",
"-27.088991372656892"
],
[
"History of condoms Antiquity to the Middle Ages for sex Whether condoms were used in ancient civilizations is debated by archaeologists and historians. Societies in the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, and Rome preferred small families and are known to have practiced a variety of birth control methods. However, these societies viewed birth control as a woman's responsibility, and the only well-documented contraception methods were female-controlled devices (both possibly effective, such as pessaries, and ineffective, such as amulets). The writings of these societies contain \"veiled references\" to male-controlled contraceptive methods that might have been condoms, but most historians",
"-27.048275518871378"
],
[
"menstrual pads as of November 2018. Legislative history By the end of the 1800s, all states in the Union except Louisiana had therapeutic exceptions in their legislative bans on abortions. In the 19th century, bans by state legislatures on abortion were about protecting the life of the mother given the number of deaths caused by abortions; state governments saw themselves as looking out for the lives of their citizens. By 1950, the state legislature would pass a law that stating that a woman who had an abortion or actively sought to have an abortion regardless of whether she went through",
"-27.046668201088323"
],
[
"like those of donkeys and whose emission was like that of horses.\n— The Bible (NIV), The Book of Ezekiel XXIII:19-20\nFemale genital mutilation is found in many African and a few Asian societies.\nThe development of chastity belts, apparently in the 14th century, proved handy to men worried about the prospect of their wives committing adultery. Modern Many cultures have historically laid much restriction on sexuality, most emphatically against immoderate expression of sexuality by women. In contrast, some recent ethical philosophies—both secular (coming from individualism and sex-positive feminism) and religious (e.g., Wicca, Thelema, LaVeyan Satanism)—either tolerate it or outright celebrate it.\nWe believe that",
"-27.031771881709574"
],
[
"Birth control movement in the United States Birth control practices The practice of birth control was common throughout the U.S. prior to 1914, when the movement to legalize contraception began. Longstanding techniques included the rhythm method, withdrawal, diaphragms, contraceptive sponges, condoms, prolonged breastfeeding, and spermicides. Use of contraceptives increased throughout the nineteenth century, contributing to a 50 percent drop in the fertility rate in the United States between 1800 and 1900, particularly in urban regions. The only known survey conducted during the nineteenth century of American women's contraceptive habits was performed by Clelia Mosher from 1892 to 1912. The survey",
"-27.010624691582052"
],
[
"regarding circumcision of male children on 27 May 2010. The KNMG argues against circumcising male minors due to lack of evidence the procedure is useful or necessary, its associated risks, and violate the child's autonomy. They recommend deferring circumcision until the child is old enough to decide for himself. The Royal Dutch Medical Association questions why the ethics regarding male genital alterations should be viewed any differently from female genital alterations, when there are mild forms of female genital alterations (like pricking the clitoral hood without removing any tissue or removing the clitoral hood altogether). They have expressed opposition to",
"-26.983293016484822"
],
[
"step further to actual conversion to Judaism, which would have required full adherence to the 613 Mitzvot, including various prohibitions (kashrut, circumcision, Shabbat observance etc.) that were generally unattractive to would-be Gentile (largely Greek) converts. The rite of circumcision was especially unappealing and execrable in Classical civilization because it was the custom to spend an hour a day or so exercising nude in the gymnasium and in Roman baths, therefore Jewish men did not want to be seen in public deprived of their foreskins. Hellenistic and Roman culture both found circumcision to be cruel and repulsive.\nThe Apostle Paul in his",
"-26.98046490229899"
],
[
"century, more dangerous than childbirth until about 1930. But others have said that in the 19th century early abortions under the hygienic conditions in which midwives usually worked were relatively safe. In addition, some authors have written that, despite improved medical procedures, the period from the 1930s until legalization also saw more zealous enforcement of anti-abortion laws, and concomitantly an increasing control of abortion providers by organized crime. Advertising for abortifacients and abortion services Despite bans enacted on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, access to abortion continued, as the disguised advertisement of abortion services, abortion-inducing devices, and abortifacient",
"-26.969145529175876"
],
[
"some South African ethnic groups, circumcision has roots in several belief systems, and is performed most of the time on teenage boys:\nThe young men in the eastern Cape belong to the Xhosa ethnic group for whom circumcision is considered part of the passage into manhood. ... A law was recently introduced requiring initiation schools to be licensed and only allowing circumcisions to be performed on youths aged 18 and older. But Eastern Cape provincial Health Department spokesman Sizwe Kupelo told Reuters news agency that boys as young as 11 had died. Each year thousands of young men go into the bush",
"-26.961115818441613"
],
[
"\"their spouses or what their right hands possess\"), while clarifying that sexual intercourse with either is permissible. The purchase of female slaves for sex was lawful from the perspective of Islamic law, and this was the most common motive for the purchase of slaves throughout Islamic history.\nOne rationale given for recognition of concubinage in Islam is that \"it satisfied the sexual desire of the female slaves and thereby prevented the spread of immorality in the Muslim community.\" Most schools restrict concubinage to a relationship where the female slave is required to be monogamous to her master (though the master's monogamy",
"-26.95930067662266"
],
[
"separation of sex from procreation, making birth control a highly controversial subject in the 20th century. Birth control in the United States has become an arena for conflict between liberal and conservative values, raising questions about family, personal freedom, state intervention, religion in politics, sexual morality and social welfare. Reproductive rights, that is rights relating to sexual reproduction and reproductive health, were first discussed as a subset of human rights at the United Nation's 1968 International Conference on Human Rights. Abortion Women's reproductive rights may be understood as including the right to easy access to a safe and legal abortion.",
"-26.957376696896972"
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[
"the rhythm method, which was a natural method of regulating fertility that pushed men and women to take advantage of the \"natural cycles\" of female fertility, during which women were \"naturally infertile.\" The opposition of Churches (e.g. Humanae vitae) led people who felt alienated from or not represented by religion to form parallel movements of secularization and exile from religion. Women gained much greater access to birth control in the Griswold \"girls world\" decision in 1965. \nThe landmark Griswold v. Connecticut case ruled that the prohibition of contraception was unconstitutional on the grounds that it violated peoples' rights to marital",
"-26.946455157682067"
],
[
"commandment was understood by the early rabbis to be only binding on men; women are exempt because childbirth puts them in physical danger, though a dissenting opinion is recorded in the mishnah Yevamot 6:6. This commandment was originally binding on all of humanity, as it was given to Adam, the progenitor of all mankind. However, after the giving of the Torah, it became obligatory on Jews only.\nThere are many passages in the Babylonian Talmud that relate to the Jewish attitude toward sexuality. In one passage (BT Berakhot 62a), a rabbi named Kahana hides underneath the bed of his teacher Rav",
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[
"Australia, noted that some 19th-century circumcision advocates—and their opponents—believed that the foreskin was sexually sensitive:\nIn the 19th century the role of the foreskin in erotic sensation was well understood by physicians who wanted to cut it off precisely because they considered it the major factor leading boys to masturbation. The Victorian physician and venereologist William Acton (1814–1875) damned it as \"a source of serious mischief\", and most of his contemporaries concurred. Both opponents and supporters of circumcision agreed that the significant role the foreskin played in sexual response was the main reason why it should be either left in place",
"-26.840376465406734"
],
[
"Circumcision Elective Neonatal circumcision is usually elected by the parents for non-medical reasons, such as religious beliefs or personal preferences, possibly driven by societal norms. Outside the parts of Africa with high prevalence of HIV/AIDS, the positions of the world's major medical organizations on non-therapeutic neonatal circumcision range from considering it as having a modest net health benefit that outweighs small risks, to viewing it as having no benefit with significant risks for harm. No major medical organization recommends universal neonatal circumcision, and no major medical organization calls for banning it either. The Royal Dutch Medical Association, which expresses some",
"-26.798911857404164"
],
[
"both male circumcision and all forms of female circumcision, however they do not advocate a prohibition of male circumcision and prefer that circumcisions be done by doctors instead of illegal, underground circumcisers .\nOn the contrary, the Dutch Council on Public Health and Care does not agree with the Royal Dutch Medical Organisation and states that they wrongly do not distinguish between male and female circumcision and that they do not take into account freedom of religion and the right of parents to raise their children according their own beliefs or convictions. Scandinavia In 2013 children's ombudsmen from Sweden, Norway, Finland,",
"-26.75800280517433"
],
[
"elective circumcision of male newborns outweigh the risks of the procedure, although the health benefits are not great enough to recommend routine circumcision for all male newborns, and that parents ultimately should decide whether circumcision is in the best interests of their male child.\nAfter the release of the position statement, a debate appeared in the journal Pediatrics and the Journal of Medical Ethics. In 2013, a group of 38 Northern European pediatricians, doctors, surgeons, ethicists and lawyers co-authored a comment stating that they found the AAP's technical report and policy statement suffered from cultural bias, and reached recommendations and conclusions",
"-26.734367010125425"
],
[
"abortions, which had only become reliably safe in the early 20th century. \nWith its historical survey as background, the Court introduced the concept of a constitutional \"right to privacy\" that was intimated in earlier cases involving parental control over childrearing (Meyer v. Nebraska and Pierce v. Society of Sisters) and reproductive autonomy with the use of contraception (Griswold v. Connecticut). Then, \"with virtually no further explanation of the privacy value\", the Court ruled that regardless of exactly which of its provisions were involved, the U.S. Constitution's guarantees of liberty covered a right to privacy that generally protected a pregnant woman's",
"-26.72542967495974"
],
[
"Founder of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud opposed all methods of birth control on the grounds that their failure rates were too high. Freud was especially opposed to the condom because he thought it cut down on sexual pleasure. Some feminists continued to oppose male-controlled contraceptives such as condoms. In 1920 the Church of England's Lambeth Conference condemned all \"unnatural means of conception avoidance\". London's Bishop Arthur Winnington-Ingram complained of the huge number of condoms discarded in alleyways and parks, especially after weekends and holidays.\nHowever, European militaries continued to provide condoms to their members for disease protection, even in countries where they",
"-26.703571541554993"
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[
"societies where circumcision of girls is completely prohibited, hypersexuality takes over the entire society, and a woman is not satisfied with one person, or two, or three. This, God forbid, is now happening even in Muslim societies where they prohibit circumcision. They use a mistake in practice to prohibit the tradition, and they end up causing a lot of damage on the extreme side of the sexual life of the woman.\nThe comments were brought to light by a tweet by the Middle East Media Research Institute in June, which links to the video, originally posted on the mosque's YouTube",
"-26.689913626043563"
],
[
"Fetal rights History In antiquity, the fetus was sometimes protected by restrictions on abortion. Some versions of the Hippocratic Oath indirectly protected fetus by prohibiting abortifacients. Until approximately the mid-19th century, philosophical views on the fetus were influenced in part by Aristotelian concept of delayed hominization. According to it, human fetuses only gradually acquire their souls, and in the early stages of pregnancy the fetus is not fully human. Relying on examinations of miscarried fetuses, Aristotle believed that male fetuses acquire their basic form at around day 40, and female ones at day 90. For Pythagoreans, however, fetal life was",
"-26.673239983269013"
]
] |
6nmez7 | Tour de France racing strategy. | [
"Bicycle races have few corners and so air resistance is the biggest factor. This is similar to for example NASCAR and speed skating. And the best way to combat air resistance is to sit right behind another racer. And when everyone does this then you get a big massive pack. Another problem in bicycle racing is that there are very few pitstops. There is usually one or two places along a course where a rider might get a bag of snacks but this is not enough to sustain him throughout the race. So the racers are followed by cars bringing water to them. But to get to the cars the cyclists have to drop out of the pack and then race them again with all the extra water. So most of the members of a team is not supposed to win anything. They are just paid to bring water to the pack, control the speed of the pack when needed and to help fighting for position within the pack. If you have watched a sprint you may notice that there is a lot of people starting early and then giving up far from the line. These are not supposed to win but supposed to help their team mates get a better start to the sprint. As for the team tactics there is a lot of things going on. Tour de France have a lot of different objectives that teams can go for so the team manager have a lot of different options during the race. Every team also have a captain to help make decisions. There is also a lot of unwritten rules among the riders that help create a friendly environment for them all. So you very often see riders help each other during the race even if they do not directly benefit from this. Bad manners will make the three weeks very hard for you and may even prevent the team from getting invited for next year.",
"Most teams are built around one person. Wether it be a sprinter like Cavedish or Sagan, or a yellow contender like Froome or Contador. The team protects that rider and always has them in the position they need to be. When it's a team designed around a sprinter, you'll see them get in a single file line (pace line) at the end of the race. The guy in front will ride as hard as he can, increasing the speed of the peloton (the big group). He'll pull off to the side, and his teammate will do the same thing until the lead out man (the guy in front of that team's sprinter) and about 100-200meters out, the sprinters will take off and try to win the stage. When the sprinter stages happen, their teammates are not expected to win the stages. His teammates sole purpose is to get him in position to win. As long as they finish the stage they're happy. As for top contenders, if they don't have the yellow jersey, then their team might make it extremely hard on a course picking up the tempo and trying to string out the field. If the yellow jersey gets left behind or uses a bunch of energy, then the contender can attack on a climb and gain time on the yellow jersey. Source: former racer. If you have anymore questions ask :).",
"Well I just started following cycling, but here's how I understand it. -Drafting is HUGE in cycling. That's why most riders stick together in a pack, i.e. the peloton, because it saves power and energy. That being said, some guys decide to breakaway and go for it. These \"fugitives\" have to spend a lot more energy to cover the same distance, and are usually caught by the end of the race. -Stages are usually either climbing stages (hilly) or sprinting stages (flat). Sprinters and climbers are a completely different breed of animal. Sprinters are explosive and produce 1000+Watts in a few seconds, while climbers are lanky and can sustain a huge Watt/kg ratio for long uphill climbs. Usually sprinters only contest for the \"Green Jersey,\" while good climbers and time trialists (time trials are pretty much all out stages by yourself) are \"Yellow Jersey\" or general classification contenders. -Teams (Sky, Astana, Movistar) are implemented to help one rider, usually. They basically help protect their guy (either a yellow jersey or green jersey contender) and set them up either or the last climb or final sprint. -When riders \"attack,\" they try to drop other riders and open a time gap. Note that riding behind or at another's wheel, such as in a group, results in no time differences (besides time bonuses). I know that this can sound confusing, but it's actually pretty easy to get a feel for. Just a year ago I was clueless. If I said anything wrong, please forgive me, but I've only been following cycling for a year, and don't ride much at all (besides a bit of Zwift). I'm mostly a runner, but cycling is a lot of fun to watch. Just look up the 2016 Olympics Womens Road Race Final. Amazing finish.",
" > How do riders/teams determine when to make their move? The rider who wants to win the TdF has to be the best climber and (in most cases) the best on time trial stages. Therefore he has to make his move(s) on mountain stages, in most cases when the stage ends on the top of a mountain so that the others can't follow him. (All drugs aside) Lance Armstrong is a good example how such attacks work: URL_0 ",
"On how they determine when to attack: You will mostly see them attack on uphills sections because the aerodynamic drag is less of a factor. On a downhill or flat section it is very easy to sit on someone's wheel even if they are going all out. However, on a climb, almost all resistance is moving your weight up the hill, so sitting on someone's wheel doesn't help you very much. This means it is easier to open a gap. Another reason to attack on a hill is the difference in speed you can achieve. On a flat, the difference between 35kph(22mph) and 45kph(28mph) is huge in terms of the power needed (double). Almost all of this is extra wind resistance. On a very steep hill, though, you might max out at 20kph(12mph), at which point wind resistance is negligible. What this means is that you can make another rider pop (give up), mentally or physically, by blowing by them at twice the speed. Approximate Speed per Power on Flat: 300 watts (pro can hold for 2-3hrs): 40.5kph 600 watts (pro can hold for 2-4mins): 52kph Approximate Speed per Power on 15% grade (quite steep): 300 watts (pro can hold for 2-3hrs): 8.5kph 600 watts (pro can hold for 2-4mins): 16.5kph"
] | [
[
"Tour de France à la voile Tour de France à la voile is an annual yachting race around the coast of France. Inaugurated in 1978, it links the English Channel to the French Riviera and is held in July.\nFamous skippers have taken part in the race, including Loïck Peyron and the four time America's Cup winner Russell Coutts. The race is, however, not reserved for professionals, and it also attracts amateurs and students thanks to three distinct rankings.\nThe race visits around ten harbours along the French coast. It includes one or two day coastal stages - that vary from year",
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[
"the 1986 Tour de France after being Bernard Hinault's domestique in the 1985 Tour de France, as did Chris Froome in 2013 after riding for Bradley Wiggins in 2012. The writer Roger St Pierre said:\nIt is team tactics which so often win or lose races - and the lieutenants and the dog soldiers who expend their energy blocking chasing moves when they have riders up the road in a position to win. It is they who ride out into the wind so their aces can get an easier ride tucked inside their wheel [close to the rider in front and",
"-28.38029348506825"
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[
"from cycling, after the difficulties he faced in the 1926 Tour de France.\nThe Tour de France organisation did not like the outcome of the 1926 Tour de France, as 10 of the 17 stages had finished in bunch sprints. For the next year, the rules were changed, and the flat stages were run as team time trials.",
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[
"as The Race to the Sun, Paris–Nice is often considered a mini-Tour de France, where riders need to be both competent time-trialists and capable of climbing mountains.\nDespite this format, some editions occasionally had more unorthodox courses. The 2014 edition was an unusual race with no time trials or summit finishes. In 2015 organizers returned to the traditional format, starting in Yvelines, west of Paris, before moving south. The key stages were the summit finish to the Col de la Croix de Chaubouret in France's Massif Central on stage 4 and the concluding time trial on Col d'Eze. The 2016 edition",
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[
"1929 Tour de France Changes from the previous Tour In 1928, many stages were in the team-time-trial format, where the teams started separately. The Tour organisation had invented this rule to make the flat stages more competitive, but it had the effect that the public stopped following the race. Therefore, in 1929 the most stages were run in the normal format, except for stages 12, 19 and 20, the stages that were expected to be raced slower than 30 km/h.>\nThe entire podium in 1928 was occupied by members from the Alcyon cycling team. The tour organisation wanted the Tour to be",
"-27.629051155527122"
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[
"career. A Tour de France besieged by crashes and injuries led to Haimar Zubeldia in 15th place being their best finisher, the worst showing for a Bruyneel-led team at the Tour in five years. The team's principal successes were the three major stage races in the United States, the Tour of California, the Tour of Utah, and the USA Pro Cycling Challenge. Team RadioShack fielded the overall winner in all three events, Chris Horner in California and Levi Leipheimer in Utah and Colorado. The team also won seven other stage races, easily the most of any major team on the",
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],
[
"2014 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11 The 2014 Tour de France was the 101st edition of the race, one of cycling's Grand Tours. It featured 22 cycling teams. The Tour started in Yorkshire, England on 5 July and finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 27 July. The first two stages, in Yorkshire, were informally nicknamed Le Tour de Yorkshire; its success led to the formation of the Tour de Yorkshire stage race the following May.",
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[
"some having camped for a week to get the best view. Crowds flanking the course are reminiscent of the community festivals that are part of another form of cycle racing in a different country – the Isle of Man TT.\nThe Tour de France appealed from the start not just for the distance and its demands but because it played to a wish for national unity, a call to what Maurice Barrès called the France \"of earth and deaths\" or what Georges Vigarello called \"the image of a France united by its earth.\"\nThe image had been started by the 1877 travel/school",
"-27.464178063324653"
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[
"a relaxed pace until close to the line, only then disputing the final placings that would give them points. \nThe format changed over time. The Tour originally ran around the perimeter of France. Cycling was an endurance sport and the organisers realised the sales they would achieve by creating supermen of the competitors. Night riding was dropped after the second Tour in 1904, when there had been persistent cheating when judges could not see riders. That reduced the daily and overall distance but the emphasis remained on endurance. Desgrange said his ideal race would be so hard that only one",
"-27.462316168268444"
],
[
"2006 Tour de France, Prologue to Stage 11 The 2006 Tour de France was the 93rd edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Strasbourg with a prologue individual time trial on 1 July and Stage 11 occurred on 13 July with a mountainous stage to Val d'Aran in Spain. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris, on 23 July. Rest Day 10 July 2006 — Bordeaux\nAll the riders had flown from Lorient to Bordeaux on the evening of July 9 and now spent their rest day in Bordeaux or some place nearby. Important",
"-27.459217936266214"
],
[
"2016 Paris–Tours Route The race started in Dreux, 70 km (43 mi) west of Paris, and finished in Tours, in the center-west of France, after 252.5 km (156.9 mi) of racing. The edition featured no significant climbs.\nThe event was exceptionally scheduled one week before the Road World Championships in Qatar, because of milder temperatures in Qatar later in October. Organizers adjusted the race finale, as they wanted to emulate the flat world championship course, spurring prominent sprinters to contest this year's Paris–Tours.",
"-27.4454668200342"
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[
"The Race (The Goodies) Plot On holiday in France, the Goodies are riding leisurely through the countryside on their trandem when they suddenly become aware of a large number of cyclists riding very rapidly behind them. The Goodies speed up to escape the onslaught, and as a result of this, cross the finishing line of the Tour de France before the competitors. The Goodies are awarded the prize, as the winners of the Tour de France, because of crossing the line in first place.\nAs a result of their success in winning the Tour de France so easily, Graeme becomes obsessed",
"-27.444954306149157"
],
[
"1996 Tour de France, Prologue to Stage 10 The 1996 Tour de France was the 83rd edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in 's-Hertogenbosch in the Netherlands with a prologue individual time trial on 29 June and Stage 10 occurred on 9 July with a hilly stage to Gap. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 21 July.",
"-27.30729141483971"
],
[
"2016 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 21 The 2016 Tour de France was the 103rd edition of the cycle race, one of cycling's Grand Tours. On 24 November 2014 Amaury Sport Organisation announced that the race will depart, on 2 July 2016, from the French department of Manche, for the first time in the history of the Tour de France. The race had a stage finish in Andorra. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 24 July.",
"-27.1967315482907"
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[
"1930 Tour de France Changes from the previous Tour Tour director Henri Desgrange had tried many things to remove the team tactics from the Tour de France, because he wanted the race to be won on individual strength. In 1929, he had removed the sponsors, but this had had no effect; the Alcyon team members still cooperated and managed to let Maurice Dewaele win the race, even though he was sick.\nFor 1930, Desgrange replaced the trade teams by national teams. He gave up on the idea that he could keep team tactics away from the Tour, but decided that he",
"-27.124855008994928"
],
[
"both bike manufacturers to test advanced equipment, and for TV broadcasters preparing the Tour de France, as TV coverage is difficult in the mountainous region. World Tour Event In the 1990s the race was categorized as a UCI 2.HC event, cycling's highest-rated stage races behind the Grand Tours. In 2005 it was included in the inaugural UCI Pro Tour and in 2011 in its successor, the UCI World Tour.\nThe Critérium du Dauphiné is the only race that was won by all the quintuple winners of the Tour de France, namely Jacques Anquetil, Eddy Merckx, Bernard Hinault and Miguel Indurain. Ten",
"-27.088700166888884"
],
[
"Sport in France Cycling France hosts \"the world's biggest annual snaking event\" called the Tour de France, a cycling race, which takes place each July and lasts for three weeks. It is one of the three Grand Tours, which are the most prestigious stage races in road cycling. The Tour has been won 36 times by French cyclists in its 110-year history. Cycling is very popular in France, evident from the fact that the race of Tour de France attracts more than 12 million people who travel to witness the race first hand. The Tour de France also attracts a",
"-27.07171615003608"
],
[
"(the racing line for cars remained essentially unchanged).\nIn April 2008, Road Atlanta hosted the 4th stage of the Tour de Georgia, one of the largest cycling stage races in the United States. The stage was run using standard racing bikes instead of the more aerodynamic time trial bikes. Slipstream Chipotle won the stage with a time of 19:38.86, while Astana and Team High Road finished second and third respectively. Used in local cycling events, the circuit is run counterclockwise (in reverse), owing to safety issues from the downhill Turn 11 to Turn 12, creating a steep climb from Turn",
"-27.062811115174554"
],
[
"by over ten minutes, also taking the points and mountain classifications. In the coming weeks ahead of the Tour, he proved his willingness to assist his teammates to ensure their loyalty, helping Lucien Didier win the Tour de Luxembourg and finishing second behind Roland Berland in the National Championship race.\nThe Tour de France was again a two-way battle between Hinault and Zoetemelk. In the prologue, Hinault was fourth, on the same time as the Dutchman. The mountain stages started immediately thereafter, with Hinault winning the mountain time trial on stage 2, taking over the yellow jersey. He also won the",
"-27.052609774080338"
],
[
"2014 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 21 The 2014 Tour de France was the 101st edition of the race, one of cycling's Grand Tours. It featured 22 cycling teams. The Tour started in Yorkshire, England on 5 July and finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 27 July.",
"-27.052159805214615"
],
[
"1987 Tour de France, Prologue to Stage 12 The 1987 Tour de France was the 74th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in West Berlin with a prologue individual time trial on 1 July and Stage 12 occurred on 12 July with a flat stage to Bordeaux. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 26 July.",
"-27.0240130580205"
],
[
"2014): Since 2015, the Rally of France is back in Corse, thus its name \"Tour de Corse\".\nVery long, testing for the mechanics as well as for the drivers, the \"Tour de Corse\", travels around the entire Beauty Island and goes through Bastia, Propriano, Corte, Porto Vecchio to finish in Ajaccio. Auto Sport Academy Located in Le Mans, the Auto Sport Academy was created in 1993, it is the FFSA’s training facility that prepares to the job of being an automobile driver, being a competition car mechanic or driver’s instructor. Foreseeing, training and promoting are key words for the federal institution.",
"-27.01514414907433"
],
[
"1996 Tour de France, Stage 11 to Stage 21 The 1996 Tour de France was the 83rd edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in 's-Hertogenbosch in the Netherlands with a prologue individual time trial on 29 June and Stage 11 occurred on 11 July with a hilly stage from Gap. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 21 July.",
"-27.01433323137462"
],
[
"2008 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 21 These are the profiles for the individual stages in the 2008 Tour de France, with Stage 12 on 17 July, and Stage 21 on 27 July.",
"-26.966818126064027"
],
[
"2019 La Course by Le Tour de France Route and organization The race started and finished in Pau, taking in five laps of a hilly circuit covering 121 km. It was held before stage 13 of the men's 2019 Tour de France, which used one lap of the circuit as an individual time trial. \nThe event was organised by ASO, which also organises the Tour de France. It was the 15th race of the 2019 UCI Women's World Tour.",
"-26.91167885478717"
],
[
"1929 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11 The 1929 Tour de France was the 23rd edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris with a flat stage on 30 June, and Stage 11 occurred on 13 July with a flat stage to Marseille. The race finished in Paris on 28 July.",
"-26.866182247642428"
],
[
"Paris–Dakar Bike Race The Paris Dakar Bike Race is a cycle race of 7,000 kilometers through France, Andorra, Spain, Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania and Senegal organized by Bike Dreams, a Netherlands-based company. The race lasts 10 weeks and is divided in 59 stages and 11 rest days. The races crosses the Sahara desert by the Atlantic Route. It is not related to the Dakar Rally in which entrants use only motorized transport.",
"-26.80341168504674"
],
[
"Tour de France on 12 occasions: 1997 (117th), 1998 (89th), 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2010. Over the years, he has won 12 stages. In 1999, McEwen won the final stage sprint in Paris on the Champs-Elysées. In 2002, McEwen won stage 3 (Metz–Reims) and stage 20 (Melun–Paris). In 2004, McEwen won stages 3 and 9. In 2005, McEwen won stage 5 to Montargis, stage 7 to Karlsruhe in Germany, and stage 13 to Montpellier. In 2006, McEwen won stages 2, 4 and 6 to Esch-sur-Alzette, St Quentin and Vitré respectively.\nHe started the 2007 Tour",
"-26.752957059070468"
],
[
"on stage 8 (second from the peloton behind the attacking Oscar Gatto and Alberto Contador), and ninth on stage 10 (a more traditional field sprint ). Tschopp finished the best of the team's six riders to reach the finish, finishing 16th overall. The team also shared the Fair Play award with five other teams, avoiding penalty points for minor technical infringements. Tour de France The Tour de France was the main focal point of the season for BMC's leader Evans, and perhaps the team itself. He had ridden two Grand Tours each of the past two seasons, and in three",
"-26.734839153736175"
],
[
"2002 Tour de France, Prologue to Stage 10 The 2002 Tour de France was the 89th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Luxembourg City with a prologue individual time trial on 6 July and Stage 10 occurred on 17 July with a flat stage to Pau. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 28 July.",
"-26.701262121961918"
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[
"day. Finish in Ans In 1990 the Pesant Club Liégeois partnered with the Société du Tour de France, the organizer of cycling's flagships the Tour de France and Paris–Roubaix. The partnership led to a more professional organization, resulting in a complete overhauling of the race course: the start and finish moved to different locations in Liège and five new climbs were included.\nIn the late 1990s Italians Michele Bartoli and Paolo Bettini continued a tradition of Italian victories in La Doyenne, with two wins each. In 1997 Bartoli and Laurent Jalabert made a decisive breakaway on the climb of La Redoute,",
"-26.69990883375067"
],
[
"2003 Tour de France, Stage 10 to Stage 20 The 2003 Tour de France was the 90th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris with a prologue individual time trial on 5 July and Stage 10 occurred on 15 July with a flat stage from Gap. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées, back in Paris, on 27 July.",
"-26.693899154284736"
],
[
"2017 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 21 The 2017 Tour de France is the 104th edition of the cycle race, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The race started in Düsseldorf, Germany on 1 July, with stage 12 occurring on 13 July with a stage departing from Pau. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 23 July.",
"-26.64847369834024"
],
[
"1988 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 22 The 1988 Tour de France was the 75th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Pornichet with a prelude stage of team and individual time trials on 3 July, and Stage 12 occurred on 14 July with a mountainous stage from Morzine. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 24 July.",
"-26.62986992346123"
],
[
"2001 Tour de France, Prologue to Stage 10 The 2001 Tour de France was the 88th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Dunkirk with a prologue individual time trial on 7 July and Stage 10 occurred on 17 July with mountainous stage to Alpe d'Huez. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 29 July.",
"-26.623368410626426"
],
[
"France - started in Futuroscope, France (winner Lance Armstrong) \n2001 Tour de France - started in Dunkerque, France (winner Lance Armstrong) \n2002 Tour de France - started in Luxembourg, Luxembourg (winner Lance Armstrong) \n2003 Tour de France - started in Paris, France (winner Lance Armstrong) \n2004 Tour de France - started in Liège, Belgium (winner Lance Armstrong) \n2005 Tour de France - started in Vendée, France (winner Lance Armstrong) \n2006 Tour de France - started in Strasbourg, France (winner Óscar Pereiro) \n2007 Tour de France -",
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],
[
"race, such as a Grand Tour, the winner's average speed is usually near 40 km/h. Gruppetto In more organized races, a SAG wagon (\"support and gear\") or broom wagon follows the race to pick up stragglers. In professional stage racing, particularly the Tour de France, riders who are not in a position to win the race or assist a teammate, will usually attempt to ride to the finish within a specified percentage of the winner's finishing time, to be permitted to start the next day's stage. Often, riders in this situation band together to minimize the effort required to finish within",
"-26.599462424288504"
],
[
"Tours de France competed in the race.",
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],
[
"2016 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11 The 2016 Tour de France is the 103rd edition of the cycle race, one of cycling's Grand Tours. On 24 November 2014 Amaury Sport Organisation announced that the race would depart, on 2 July 2016, from the French department of Manche, for the first time in the history of the Tour de France. The race is also scheduled to have a stage finish in Andorra. The race will finish on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 24 July.",
"-26.56771514765569"
],
[
"2007 Paris–Tours The 2007 Paris–Tours is the 101st edition of this single day road bicycle racing event and is organized by the Amaury Sport Organisation (ASO), which also runs the Tour de France. The 256 km event took place on October 14, 2007 and was won by Alessandro Petacchi, the Italian rider for Team Milram in 5 hours, 32 minutes 37 seconds at an average speed of 46.179 km/h (28.694 mph).",
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],
[
"drinks to him. However, any team member is allowed to go for a stage win.\nIn one day races, one or several leaders are chosen according to demands of the race. In stage races, teams focus on different goals. For example, during the 2005 Tour de France teams such as Discovery Channel or T-Mobile focused on the general classification while other teams tried to win stages or one of the other classifications. In the 2004 Tour de France, Quick-Step–Davitamon helped Richard Virenque win the mountains classification while Lotto–Domo helped Robbie McEwen win the points classification. Smaller teams",
"-26.528816601610743"
],
[
"2019 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11 The 2019 Tour de France was the 106th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Brussels, Belgium, with a flat stage on 6 July, and Stage 11 occurred on 17 July with a flat stage to Toulouse. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 28 July. Rest day 1 16 July 2019 - Albi",
"-26.52812728297431"
],
[
"2004 Tour de France, Stage 10 to Stage 20 The 2004 Tour de France was the 91st edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Liège, Belgium with a prologue individual time trial on 3 July and Stage 10 occurred on 14 July with a hilly stage from Limoges. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 25 July.",
"-26.508304838294862"
],
[
"2012 Tour de France, Prologue to Stage 10 The 2012 Tour de France began on 30 June, and stage 10 occurred on 11 July. The 2012 edition began with a prologue – a short individual time trial stage – where each member of the starting peloton of 198 riders competed against the clock – in Liège, Belgium with two more stages held in the country before moving back into France. The race resumed in Orchies for the start of the third stage; also during the first half of the race, the peloton visited Switzerland for the finish to the eighth",
"-26.499140805681236"
],
[
"2003 Tour de France, Prologue to Stage 9 The 2003 Tour de France was the 90th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris with a prologue individual time trial on 5 July and Stage 9 occurred on 14 July with a mountainous stage to Gap. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées, back in Paris, on 27 July.",
"-26.451582656241953"
],
[
"2015 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 21 The 2015 Tour de France was the 102nd edition of the race, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour started in Utrecht, Netherlands on 4 July and finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 26 July. On 21 July, between stages 16 and 17 there was a rest day in Gap.",
"-26.449349372152938"
],
[
"1997 Tour de France, Prologue to Stage 10 The 1997 Tour de France was the 84th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Rouen with a prologue individual time trial on 5 July and Stage 10 occurred on 15 July with a mountainous stage to Andorra Arcalis. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 27 July.",
"-26.427539272699505"
],
[
"2008 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11 These are the profiles for the individual stages in the 2008 Tour de France, with Stage 1 on 5 July, and Stage 11 on 16 July.",
"-26.42399613955058"
],
[
"2016 Tour de France will finish at the lake on 8 July 2016.",
"-26.41164126014337"
],
[
"Tour de France records and statistics This is a list of records and statistics in the Tour de France, road cycling's premier competitive event.\nOne rider has been King of the Mountains, won the combination classification, combativity award, the points competition, and the Tour in the same year - Eddy Merckx in 1969, which was also the first year he participated.\nTwice the Tour was won by a racer who never wore the yellow jersey until the race was over. In 1947, Jean Robic overturned a three-minute deficit on a 257 km final stage into Paris. In 1968, Jan Janssen of the",
"-26.40449670698581"
],
[
"2006 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 20 The 2006 Tour de France was the 93rd edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Strasbourg with a prologue individual time trial on 1 July and Stage 12 occurred on 14 July with a hilly stage from Bagnères-de-Luchon. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris, on 23 July.\nA positive test for epitestosterone by Floyd Landis after Stage 17, however, left the results of the Tour de France in doubt, with the possibility that all of his records may be expunged, pending a hearing",
"-26.394562406348996"
],
[
"2014 La Course by Le Tour de France The race The race started at 11:45 Central European Summer Time (UTC+2), and was scheduled to last until 13:00. The race saw many attacks. Dutchwomen Ellen van Dijk (Boels–Dolmans), who attacked multiple times, was the only women who was able to get clear for a few laps with a maximal advantage of over half a minute. Besides of her also Anna van der Breggen, Annemiek van Vleuten (both Rabo–Liv), Amy Pieters (Team Giant-Shimano), Chantal Blaak (Specialized–lululemon), Alena Amialiusik (Astana BePink) and Rachel Neylan (Australia National team) attempted to ride away from the",
"-26.369896653457545"
],
[
"1936 Tour de France Changes from the previous Tour For the first time, a stage was divided into three parts.\nThe race director at the start of the race was still Henri Desgrange, who had been race director since the first Tour de France in 1903. Desgrange, who was already 71 years old, had had kidney surgery weeks before the start of the Tour, but was determined to follow the Tour, and rode in a car full of cushions. After the second stage, he stopped, and made Jacques Goddet director. The individuals category which had been used in 1935 was not",
"-26.359189747381606"
],
[
"2002 Tour de France, Stage 11 to Stage 20 The 2002 Tour de France was the 89th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Luxembourg City with a prologue individual time trial on 6 July and Stage 11 occurred on 18 July with a flat stage from Pau. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 28 July.",
"-26.357391261977682"
],
[
"1997 Tour de France Race overview The Prologue was won by Time Trial Specialist Chris Boardman giving him the Yellow Jersey for stage one with Ullrich just two seconds behind. Defending champion Bjarne Riis, who had been preparing for and seeking a repeat victory with Ullrich acting as his Super-Domestique finished outside the top 10 but was in no way concerned as he had come into the Tour in good form. The first four stages were flat stages, the first two of which were won by the infamous Italian sprinter Mario Cipollini with the third going to Erik Zabel and",
"-26.3418944173427"
],
[
"1995 Tour de France, Prologue to Stage 10 The 1995 Tour de France was the 82nd edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Saint-Brieuc with a prologue individual time trial on 1 July and Stage 10 occurred on 12 July with a mountainous stage to Alpe d'Huez. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 23 July.",
"-26.335632626869483"
],
[
"Paris–Tours History Paris–Tours was first run for amateurs in 1896, making it one of the oldest cycling races in the world. It was organised by the magazine Paris-Vélo, which described that edition won by Eugène Prévost as, “A crazy, unheard of, unhoped for success”. It was five years before the race was run again and a further five years (1906) before it became an annual event for professionals, with L'Auto as organiser. L’Auto ran the Tour de France (TDF) and Paris–Tours is still run by the Tour organiser, Amaury Sport Organisation.\nThe race was part of the UCI Road World Cup",
"-26.3277149470523"
],
[
"2009 French Road Cycling Cup The 2009 French Road Cycling Cup was the eighteenth edition of the French Road Cycling Cup. The 2009 calendar saw a reduction in events from 14 to 11, with the Tour du Haut Var, the Grand Prix de Rennes and Paris–Bourges losing their places on the calendar. The defending champion was Jérôme Pineau, who won the series for Bouygues Télécom but moved on to the Belgian team Quick-Step, and so did not feature much in the series. French rider Jimmy Casper of Besson Chaussures-Sojasun won the series, having led it throughout and winning three races.",
"-26.316250499454327"
],
[
"2005 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 21 The 2005 Tour de France was the 92nd edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Fromentine with an individual time trial on 2 July and Stage 12 occurred on 14 July with a hilly stage from Briançon. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris, on 24 July.",
"-26.30983412230853"
],
[
"organizers of the race), has said that the route for the 2010 Tour will be more difficult than it was in 2009, and that the May time position also moves them from cycling's \"pre-season\" and gives a better chance to showcase the race, as it now takes place at a time when more riders should be at or near peak form. Race officials also hoped to make the event a preparatory one for the Tour de France.\nThe race was held at the same time of year as the Giro d'Italia. Messick has admitted that this will probably result in fewer",
"-26.2946286178194"
],
[
"1930 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 21 The 1930 Tour de France was the 24th edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris with a flat stage on 2 July, and Stage 12 occurred on 15 July with a flat stage from Montpellier. The race finished in Paris on 27 July.",
"-26.28891604222008"
],
[
"1925 Tour de France, Stage 10 to Stage 18 The 1925 Tour de France was the 19th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris with a flat stage on 21 June, and Stage 10 occurred on 4 July with a flat stage from Perpignan. The race finished in Paris on 19 July.",
"-26.270809534820728"
],
[
"teams. The prize money for the 2011 tour totaled 200 million Won.\nThe tour course is 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) long, making it the longest cycling competition in Asia.\nThe tour comprises exclusively point-to-point road race stages. Unlike the major tours in Europe, such as the Tour de France and Giro d'Italia, there are no time trials or team time trials. The tour was planned this way reportedly because the promoters wanted to minimize time and effort spent in recording and sorting race results.",
"-26.265430627507158"
],
[
"reducing the race's unpredictability.\nSubsequently in August 2016 it was reported that the UCI had made changes to the course, increasing the amount of riding through the desert to 151 kilometres (94 miles) and reducing the number of laps of the finishing circuit from eleven down to seven. The start of the men's race was also moved to the Aspire Zone, with the riders heading out northwards towards Al Khor and returning to Doha. The women started from the Qatar Foundation in Education City, and completed seven laps of the finishing circuit, with a total race distance of 134.1 kilometres (83.3",
"-26.254842478665523"
],
[
"1931 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 12 The 1931 Tour de France was the 25th edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris with a flat stage on 30 June, and Stage 12 occurred on 13 July with a flat stage to Marseille. The race finished in Paris on 26 July.",
"-26.252914200536907"
],
[
"1924 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 8 The 1924 Tour de France was the 18th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris with a flat stage on 22 June, and Stage 8 occurred on 6 July with a flat stage to Toulon. The race finished in Paris on 20 July.",
"-26.233404397265986"
],
[
"to do reconnaissance of the cobbled stage of the Tour de France and his next scheduled race was the following week at the Tour de Romandie.",
"-26.227941076504067"
],
[
"2017 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11 The 2017 Tour de France is the 104th edition of the cycle race, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The race started in Düsseldorf, Germany on 1 July, with stage 11 occurring on 12 July with a stage finish in Pau. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 23 July.",
"-26.21920849941671"
],
[
"1931 Tour de France Changes from the previous Tour In 1931, the touriste-routiers started 10 minutes later than the national teams in some stages (2, 3, 4, 6, and 12).\nThe number of rest days in the Tour de France was reduced to three.\nThe time bonus for the winner, which had been used before in the 1924 Tour de France, was reintroduced. Teams For the second year, the race was run in the national team format, with six different teams. Belgium, Italy, Germany and France each sent a team with eight cyclists. Australia and Switzerland sent a combined team, each with",
"-26.196827273699455"
],
[
"2012 Tour de France, Stage 11 to Stage 20 Stage 11 of the 2012 Tour de France was contested on 12 July and the race concluded with Stage 20 on 22 July. The second half of the race was situated entirely within France; starting with a mountain stage from Albertville to La Toussuire-Les Sybelles – incorporating two hors catégorie climbs during the stage – before the customary race-concluding stage finish on the Champs-Élysées in Paris.\nFollowing his victory in the ninth stage individual time trial, Team Sky rider Bradley Wiggins held the lead into the second half of the race. He",
"-26.19561241194606"
],
[
"1933 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 12 The 1933 Tour de France was the 27th edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris with a flat stage on 27 June, and Stage 12 occurred on 10 July with a flat stage to Marseille. The race finished in Paris on 23 July.",
"-26.177016291301697"
],
[
"1930 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11 The 1930 Tour de France was the 24th edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris with a flat stage on 2 July, and Stage 11 occurred on 14 July with a flat stage to Montpellier. The race finished in Paris on 27 July.",
"-26.171244766155723"
],
[
"2005 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11 The 2005 Tour de France was the 92nd edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Fromentine with an individual time trial on 2 July and Stage 11 occurred on 13 July with a mountainous stage to Briançon. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris, on 24 July.",
"-26.167216674424708"
],
[
"1997 Tour de France, Stage 11 to Stage 21 The 1997 Tour de France was the 84th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Rouen with a prologue individual time trial on 5 July and Stage 11 occurred on 16 July with a hilly stage from Andorra Arcalis. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 27 July.",
"-26.16670324327424"
],
[
"1995 Tour de France, Stage 11 to Stage 20 The 1995 Tour de France was the 82nd edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Saint-Brieuc with a prologue individual time trial on 1 July and Stage 11 occurred on 13 July with a hilly stage from Le Bourg-d'Oisans. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 23 July.",
"-26.161785928241443"
],
[
"1947 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 21 The 1947 Tour de France was the 34th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris with a flat stage on 25 June, and Stage 12 occurred on 8 July with a flat stage from Marseille. The race finished in Paris on 20 July.",
"-26.127474335837178"
],
[
"1981 Tour de France, Stage 12a to Stage 22 The 1981 Tour de France was the 68th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Nice with a prologue individual time trial on 25 June and Stage 12a occurred on 8 July with a flat stage from Roubaix. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 19 July.",
"-26.10102213989012"
],
[
"2015 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11 The 2015 Tour de France was the 102nd edition of the race, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour started in Utrecht, Netherlands on 4 July and finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 26 July. On 13 July, between stages nine and ten there was a rest day in Pau.",
"-26.093038823571987"
],
[
"Géo Lefèvre Géo Lefèvre (1877–1961) was a French sports journalist and the originator of the idea for the Tour de France.\nHe suggested the idea for the Tour at a meeting with Henri Desgrange, editor of the daily newspaper L'Auto as a way to boost circulation. Desgrange recruited Lefèvre from the rival daily sports paper, Le Vélo, to work as his rugby and cycling correspondent. Lefèvre played both sports but was keener on cycling. When L'Auto 's circulation didn't match the hopes of its backers, Lefèvre was the youngest at a crisis conference held on the first floor of L'Auto's office",
"-26.08922087890096"
],
[
"the 2011 season, as part of a planned light program meant to culminate in victory at the Tour de France, Evans showed fine form at the race of the two seas. He finished near the front of the race in the first two hilly stages, both of them 240 kilometers (150 mi) in length, and took the race lead after the second of them. The next day, he won the stage into Macerata, extending his race lead to nine seconds. With only a very short individual time trial remaining, and the riders directly behind Evans in the overall standings lesser than",
"-26.08595878374763"
],
[
"France In 1987, the team rode under the name ANC–Halfords. In races outside England, the team was co-sponsored by Tönissteiner.\nANC got a wildcard invitation to ride the 1987 Tour de France. The team were inexperienced as only Graham Jones had ridden a major stage race. The team turned up in Berlin and were promised the best equipment such as specialist time-trial cycles. Instead, they rode the opening time trial on standard road bikes, with only four disc wheels between nine riders. Only four riders made it to Paris. The only success was Malcolm Elliot's third place on one stage. The",
"-26.079746253002668"
],
[
"1934 Tour de France, Stage 13 to Stage 23 The 1934 Tour de France was the 28th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris with a flat stage on 3 July, and Stage 13 occurred on 17 July with a flat stage from Marseille. The race finished in Paris on 29 July.",
"-26.07027836481575"
],
[
"1934 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 12 The 1934 Tour de France was the 28th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris on 3 July and Stage 12 occurred on 16 July with a flat stage to Marseille. The race finished in Paris on 29 July.",
"-26.052203073864803"
],
[
"1994 Tour de France Race overview The 1994 edition of the Tour de France began with a brief 7.2 km (4.5 mi) prologue around the city of Lille. Englishman Chris Boardman set a blistering pace on the course en route to winning the stage by fifteen seconds over the second-place finisher Miguel Indurain. Stage 1 was a relatively flat stage that came down to a bunch sprint that was marred by a large crash. As the riders were sprinting to the finish line, a policeman leaned out to take a photograph causing Wilfried Nelissen to slam on his brakes and crash into",
"-26.050662804045714"
],
[
"1931 Tour de France, Stage 13 to Stage 24 The 1931 Tour de France was the 25th edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris with a flat stage on 30 June, and Stage 13 occurred on 13 July with a flat stage from Marseille. The race finished in Paris on 26 July.",
"-26.04636208456941"
],
[
"1966 Tour de France Race overview Rudi Altig won the first stage with a small advantage. In the next stages, no big time differences were made, so Altig was able to defend his lead until the mountains.\nThe first mountains were in the tenth stage. A group including Lucien Aimar and Jan Janssen gained time on pre-race favourites Jacques Anquetil and Raymond Poulidor, and Tommaso de Pra won the race and became the new leader. The next stage, Lebaube became the leader, and Kunde took over in the twelfth stage.\nIn the time trial in the fourteenth stage, Anquetil was defeated by",
"-26.043850695888977"
],
[
"1925 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 9 The 1925 Tour de France was the 19th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris with a flat stage on 21 June, and Stage 9 occurred on 3 July with a mountainous stage to Perpignan. The race finished in Paris on 19 July.",
"-26.012089143274352"
],
[
"1978 Tour de France, Stage 12a to Stage 22 The 1978 Tour de France was the 65th edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Leiden, the Netherlands, with a prologue individual time trial on 29 June, and Stage 12a occurred on 12 July with a flat stage from Tarbes. The race finished in Paris on 23 July. Stage 12a 12 July 1978 - Tarbes to Valence d'Agen, 158 km (98 mi)\nThe stage was neutralised after a protest, by the peloton, about split stages. The peloton rode slowly throughout the stage, and came to a",
"-26.001757054356858"
],
[
"1981 Tour de France, Prologue to Stage 11 The 1981 Tour de France was the 68th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Nice with a prologue individual time trial on 25 June and Stage 12a occurred on 8 July with a flat stage to Brussels, Belgium. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 19 July.",
"-25.988581514924135"
],
[
"1988 Tournoi de France The Tournoi de France (French for \"Tournament of France\") was a friendly international football tournament held in France in early February 1988. Four national teams participated in the competition: Austria, Morocco, hosts France, and Switzerland.\nIt was a knockout tournament played over three days in Toulouse and Monaco. The final and third place play-off were held in Monaco, which is a country independent of France.",
"-25.95344503009983"
],
[
"to tell my sponsors? This conflict has been going on for three years and is escalating all the time. Can the teams be certain that they will be able to take part in the Tour de France later in the year?\".\nFrom 2008, the ProTour was largely devalued by the withdrawal from its calendar of the three Grand Tours, namely the Tour de France, Giro d'Italia and Vuelta a España, as well as the early-season stage race Paris–Nice and key single-day events such as Paris–Roubaix, Milan–San Remo, Liège–Bastogne–Liège, La Flèche Wallonne and the Giro di Lombardia.\nOn 15 July 2008, the 17",
"-25.940156845957972"
],
[
"Roger Walkowiak The 1956 Tour de France From 1930 the Tour de France had been contested by national and regional teams. Roger Walkowiak was recruited for the French regional Nord-Est-Centre team, representing the North-east and Centre of France, despite coming from Montluçon in the South-West. He was the only rider available at late notice to replace an original team member, Gilbert Bauvin, who had been promoted to France's main team.\nWalkowiak escaped on the 7th stage from Lorient to Angers in a group of 31 riders that won that day by over 18 minutes. The advantage was enough to give him",
"-25.936931843083585"
],
[
"2017 Tour de France Pre-race favourites In the lead up to the 2017 Tour de France, Chris Froome (Team Sky) was seen by many pundits as the top pre-race favourite for the general classification. His closest rivals were thought to be Richie Porte (BMC Racing Team), Nairo Quintana (Movistar Team), Alberto Contador (Trek–Segafredo), Romain Bardet (AG2R La Mondiale) and Fabio Aru (Astana). The other riders considered contenders for the general classification were Alejandro Valverde (Movistar Team), Jakob Fuglsang (Astana), Thibaut Pinot (FDJ), Esteban Chaves (Orica–Scott), Geraint Thomas (Team Sky), Dan Martin (Quick-Step Floors), Simon Yates (Orica–Scott), and Louis Meintjes (UAE",
"-25.93169396853773"
],
[
"That day, the teams' association (AIGCP) decided by a majority-against-minority vote to participate in the race. The issue was eventually resolved and since 2011 Paris–Nice serves as the European opening race of the UCI World Tour.\nIn 2012 England's Bradley Wiggins won the race, as part of his build-up to the Tour de France. Wiggins was the ninth rider who won the Race to the Sun prior to winning the Tour de France. In the last ten years, Spaniard Alberto Contador and Australian Richie Porte have won the race twice. Route For many decades, the route of Paris–Nice has developed a",
"-25.92330217041308"
],
[
"1975 Tour de France, Stage 11 to Stage 22 The 1975 Tour de France was the 62nd edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Charleroi, Belgium with a prologue individual time trial on 26 June, and Stage 11 occurred on 8 July with a mountainous stage from Pau. The race finished in Paris on 20 July.",
"-25.884875385672785"
],
[
"1947 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11 The 1947 Tour de France was the 34th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris with a flat stage on 25 June, and Stage 11 occurred on 7 July with a flat stage to Marseille. The race finished in Paris on 20 July.",
"-25.88425490524969"
],
[
"Audax Club Parisien Audax Club Parisien is a cycling club founded in Paris in 1904. It organises long-distance challenge rides in France and administers a branch of cycling known as randonneuring around the world. A randonnée in cycling is a challenge to ride distances up to more than 1,000 km between a minimum and maximum speed. The most prestigious event is Paris–Brest–Paris, which the Audax Club Parisien organises every four years. History In April 1904, Henri Desgrange, the editor of the French daily sports paper, L'Auto, organised a 200 km ride from Paris to Gaillon and back, a course that riders",
"-25.865646764592384"
],
[
"1976 Tour de France, Stage 13 to Stage 22b The 1976 Tour de France was the 63rd edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Saint-Jean-de-Monts with a prologue individual time trial on 24 June, and Stage 13 occurred on 9 July with a mountainous stage from Font-Romeu-Odeillo-Via. The race finished in Paris on 18 July.",
"-25.854707955848426"
],
[
"the home nation of the race, there is sometimes an additional rest day after the opening weekend to allow for transfers. The stages are a mix of long massed start races (sometimes including mountain and hill climbs and descents; others are flat stages favoring those with a sprint finish) and individual and team time trials. Stages in the Grand Tours are generally under 200 kilometers in length.\nControversy often surrounds which teams are invited to the event. Typically, the Union Cycliste Internationale (International Cycling Union) prefers top-rated professional teams to enter, while operators of the Grand Tours often want teams based",
"-25.83408534678165"
],
[
"1954 Tour de France Race overview In the first stage, Wout Wagtmans won the sprint, and took the yellow jersey. He would remain the leader until the team time trial in stage 4, when the French team won back enough time on the Dutch team for Bobet to take over the lead. In that time trial, over 10.4 km, the winning team was decided by adding the times of the three best cyclists per team. For the general classification, every cyclist got added his individual time. In the second part of the fourth stage, former winner Jean Robic hit a photographer",
"-25.823554344140575"
]
] |
5jel72 | I've always heard that multivitamins aren't very beneficial because your body can't absorb all the vitamins at once and the excess is excreted. Could your body absorb more of the vitamins if you cut the multivitamin into pieces and ate it throughout the day, instead of all at once? | [
"Vitamins aren't like magic substances that boost your body's stats. Most are enzyme co-factors, which means that they are required for the enzyme to work. It's sort of like keys to a car: if you have a shortage, that is a real problem since the car won't work. Having 500 car keys doesn't make the car work any better than having 1 car key though.",
"I've always assume many of us on reddit (myself included) know very little about what's being discussed but it's never been more obvious to me than in this thread. If I could down vote the top comment more than once I would, not because I care about multivitamins but because he's presenting as shitty an argument as the people that are trying to sell you multivitamins. \"The latest thinking is...\" This guys got the consensus of all scientists studying the vitamins A and C and cancer. GTFO. He doesn't cite actual science but an article with a salacious headline discussing it. The article cites a \"vitamin e\" this was such a poorly designed study that one of the main researchers could not defend the findings at a GOED conference. Initially the headlines from the select study had something to do with omega-3s having some correlation to the rise in cancer. I don't know why I'm all up and arms. I better see myself out.",
"I wouldn't advise it. The latest thinking is, large doses of anti-oxidants, including vitamins A, C & E, don't fight cancer, they actually aid the spread of cancer. URL_0 ",
"Your body doesn't absorb most of the vitamins from a multivitamin simply because it doesn't need them, not because it couldn't if there was a shortage. If you have a halfway decent diet a multivitamin is almost completely useless to the body regardless of the time of day eaten.",
"The idea that multivitamins aren't absorbed is simply false. My doctor recommended a specific type of over the counter multivitamin which works well. When I started seeing him, he had a blood test done which showed various vitamin levels in my blood D, B's etc. I started taking the multivitamins and months later he had me repeat the blood test. The test showed a dramatic increase in vitamin levels in the blood. So they are absorbed but of course I suppose some brands are better than others. Taking D and B vitamins are very important because if you're deficient (many people are) it increases your risk of heart disease and cancer. This isn't some \"new age\" nonsense, it's backed by peer reviewed research. As people age their bodies absorb less B12. Few people get enough sun to maintain adequate levels of D. C is essential for health and again many people don't get enough. Scurvy is pretty common among young people today. If your gums bleed easily it likely a sign you need a C supplement. One NIH study found that 14% of adults were deficient in C. URL_0 ",
"To briefly answer your question, no. Taking bites of that multivitamin throughout the day will not make them absorb better (maybe a little more but not to a significant degree) And to understand why, it may help to explain basic vitamins. Vitamins A,D,E & K are all fat soluble and all the other vitamins are water soluble (ie B12, folate) So, taking excess A,D,E, or K can be toxic because they get absorbed in your fat. Excess of the water soluble will come just make you have expensive pee. The good news is you can get most of these vitamins through a healthy diet, but if you are like me and most other unhealthy Americans it may be a good idea to take a multivitamin to make sure you have enough!",
"Physician here, multivitamins have never been shown to be beneficial and have actually been shown to increase mortality in people taking them. There's honestly no very hard evidence that you can look at to be 100% sure in explaining WHY this is, but based on what we know about the individual components in a multivitamin we can take an educated guess. First off, chances are simply that you are NOT deficient in most vitamins. Our food is specially fortified in the developed world, that's why milk has Vitamin A+D added to it, and a ridiculous number of products have Vitamin C spiked into it. Add in the other foods you eat and most of us get most of the vitamins we need with the exception of Vitamin D, because normally a lot of this is generated via sun exposure (though there is some literature that argues that you can still be deficient despite lots of sunlight mostly in dermatology literature arguing against telling people to get more sunlight due to fears of skin cancer) and many of us don't get intense enough sunlight in the northern hemisphere due to the weather as well as the fact that we wear clothing and aren't running around naked with all our skin exposed to the sun. Not being deficient in most vitamins, taking additional vitamins really doesn't actually do you any good. Now as for why there is possible HARM from vitamins, well a lot of vitamins are used by your cells to grow. And the normal amount of vitamins we eat are plenty for our cells to grow and heal normally. The one exception is that cancer cells like to keep growing and growing, so they're the only cells that are really limited by the normal dietary supply of many of the vitamins (in particular, B vitamins and folic acid). So now if you have a few cancerous cells in your body and you start taking tons of extra vitamins, the only cells that actually need more than the vitamins you get in a regular diet are the cancer cells, so you're basically stimulating the growth of cancers. On top of this, there is some evidence that many of the components that are popular in regular multivitamins aren't that great for you. For example, there are studies showing that folic acid in the specific form found in vitamins seems to increase cancer risk while folic acid found in vegetables actually decreases the risk of cancers-in particular breast cancer in women who drink alcohol. The EXCEPTION to this is that if you are pregnant, taking the pill version DOES reduce neural tube defects in your child so if you're pregnant or expecting to become pregnant shortly it is beneficial to take a folic acid supplement via a prenatal vitamin, it's just not beneficial to continue supplementing folic acid after you're no longer pregnant. But eating a diet heavy in fresh folic acid (via leafy greens such as spinach) is beneficial either way. Then on top of the fact that some of the components may not be beneficial or may not come in the version of the vitamin that occurs naturally, you have the fact that VITAMINS CAN INTERACT WITH EACH OTHER IN A DIFFERENT MANNER THAN IN A TEST TUBE WHEN PUT INTO YOUR BODY. There are tons of enzymes as well as breakdown products of food in your digestive tract and in your bloodstream that interact with the vitamins to change their state and sometimes vitamins that may not have bad interactions with each other in a test tube may be changed by enzymes, or random lipids in your diet, or stomach acid, etc. into something that will interact with another vitamin to form chemicals that may not be beneficial to you. And when you take a multivitamin you're basically taking dozens of vitamins all at once, and there's very little data about what interacts with what, you basically have to go look up research on every single pairing, and specifically research about it in the environments of the stomach, the small intestine, and the large intestine. Basically we have no idea what the exact interactions are between all these vitamins in an in vivo setting when you add all the extra variable of the specific foods you're eating. TL;DR: There's no good evidence that you should take a multivitamin unless there is a specific illness your physician has asked you to take one for. Other specific supplements may be beneficial if you are deficient (i.e. Vitamin D) and some supplements may be beneficial in only specific situations (i.e. take folic acid in prenatal vitamins if you're getting pregnant or are pregnant) but may not be helpful at other times. There's tons of vitamins in the food you eat too, so there's only a few things that really need supplementing. Eat your vegetables instead of a multivitamin, because eating 7+ servings of vegetables has one of the tightest associations with better long term health.",
"This comment section is the most confusing mess of contradiction... I take a mix of vitamins every day to help with muscle gain and immune system because I'm too poor to have a decent diet, and I don't know how to feel anymore.",
"There is so much junk in this thread I don't know where to start. There is no evidence that taking any vitamins unless you have a diagnosed disease has any benefit to you at all. I don't know why people are obsessed with stuffing more things into themselves, but there are very, very few things that make healthy people healthier. There are many claims of benefit based on theoretical benefits (anti-oxidants are good because they prevent ROS from causing DNA damage and cancer!) but turn out to be completely wrong in the real world (anti-oxidants don't actually do anything to prevent cancer.) Our knowledge of physiology is extremely incomplete, and guessing about a benefit based on a single pathway is an interesting way to come up with ideas for study, but it does not actually predict the actual effect things have on your body. Any time someone points you towards some sciency sounding explanation, ask to see the clinical trial. If there's no clinical trial, what they are telling you is *at best* a half-educated shot in the dark; the more likely explanation is that they have no clue what they're talking about but really want you to buy a product. The area of nutrition are dominated by salespeople selling you things that are not proven to help you live a longer, healthier, or happier life. Trust well conducted, **prospective, randomized, blinded** trials, otherwise it's all guesswork. Spend your money making yourself happier, not on snake oil. If you're seriously concerned about your diet, make an appointment with a dietician. If you want the short version: Eat plenty of plants and don't get fat. To bring this around to your original question, multivitamins don't help you if you eat a good diet because you probably don't need more vitamins. Vitamin deficiency causes disease; there's no reason to think you need more of any of that stuff than you get from eating good food, so unless you've been diagnosed with a deficiency just stop shoving things into your body.",
"Multivitamins help fill any micronutrient deficiencies you may be missing in your overall diet. Whatever is needed is absorbed and the rest is flushed out as waste. Won't make a difference for the average person but I'd recommend a multi if you play sports or exercise frequently.",
"Look at it like a glass of water, with the water being the vitamins you need. If you pour in more than the glass can hold, the rest spills out and is wasted. But the glass gets topped off. Of course, the glass doesn't necessarily need to be topped off. And if we had an easy to read meter, perhaps tattooed on our side, this wouldn't be so much a problem. :) I can tell you that I take a doctor recommended multivitamin daily because I don't absorb Vitamin D, B, or Calcium efficiently.",
"That would probably help absorption and retention if you had any deficiencies, but it is also annoying and time consuming. One of the big problems with multivitamin is that in the typical even half decent western diet you are already getting the vitamins you need. Imagine how impoverished the average persons diet is historically and evolutionarily, and how diverse ours is (and particularly filled with meat and fruit). In large part you can also synthesize some things you are lacking, and more importantly crave things you need subconsciously. That time you realize you hadn't eaten meat for three days and were just dying for a burger was your body handling this shit for you. Multivitamins can be good if you think there is some particular medical or other reason you diet is going to be mal-nourishing you, or if your diet is extremely the same all the time. But otherwise they just don't help much generally. Interestingly they may help as an appetite suppressant, but you then perhaps end up eating too many carb focused foods.",
"Registered Dietitian here - The poor absorption of many multi vitamins doesn't have much to do with the amount, so this spacing out method wouldn't make a difference. Poor bio-availability of many multivitamins is the cause of them not absorbing well. In other words, the type and source of the vitamins and minerals are poor quality.",
"Med student here: in all honesty it probably wouldn't make a difference. The real question is should you be taking vitamins at all? The answer is probably not. Unless you have a condition which affects your ability to absorb nutrients (e.g. Crohn's disease) or a diagnosed deficiency (e.g. iron, vitamin D) there is no reason for you to waste your money on vitamin tablets. If you're worried you might be deficient then talk to your doctor. Otherwise grab a copy of Ben Goldacre's 'Bad Science' and start reading!",
"I'm only going to speak to the part that I know clearly- Calcium messes with the absorption of other things including zinc and magnesium. Taking them in the same pill is wasteful. Also- zinc is a sleep aid on its own. It's just more reasonable to take some things in separate pills at different times of day.",
"No major health organization recommends regularly taking a multivitamin. You should not supplement any vitamin/mineral unless you know you are deficient or not consuming enough of that specific nutrient. Excess nutrients are not always easily excreted. Fat soluble vitamins, for example, are much more likely to cause toxicity than water-soluble vitamins as they get stored in your fat. Many studies have been performed on multivitamins and they at best show no benefit and at worst show some harm from them.",
"Each brand of multivitamins has a different % of daily requirenments on each pill, in Brazil for instance you would require 4 pills to get 100% of the daily need of some vitamins (apparently by law theres a limit here to limit the amount on each pill), while in the US some brands haver over 200% of the daily need in just one pill. Some vitamins excess will leave through the urine, but some might give you issues over time and/or could become toxic, like excess iron. You have to research about what you need, and what you are buying.",
"Medical Student Here: there are 2 major categories of vitamins (fat soluble-A/D/E/K, and water soluble-Vit C and and all the B vits). Fat soluble will always be absorbed whether you like it or not, thus also lead to poisoning and are toxic, while excess water soluble vits are easily excreted. To answer your question, it's more a question of digestion and how well the Digestive enzymes are working, your adding in the factor of surface area and timing into digestion, where yes surface area helps but vits are designed to be separated into its components whether you throw it in as a big clump (whole pill) or smaller pieces, and timing really depends on many factors one being hormones, if your rest/digest aka your parasympathetic NS, is in play then more stuff will be digested.",
"Many/most vitamins and supplements are synthesized and are believed to be less absorbable because of they come in a form your body is less adapted to assimilating (e.g. Cyanocobalamin vs methylcobalamin aka b12) We know certain vitamins and minerals work synergistically, for example taking calcium with magnesium and vitamin D aids in absorption. It's also believed that taking a multivitamin with food can help increase absorption. Not going to take the time to cite sources right now but if you think about it in simple terms it makes sense intuitively that your body is best equipped to absorb nutrients through… food.",
"Does this include cod liver oil and b12 tablets? I don't eat fish and I'm often low on b12. I thought this was helping am I wasting money? And the thought of swallowing some fish's oil makes me want to puke.",
"If you take them rectally you'll absorb a lot more of the vitamins as they won't be dissolved by your stomach acids.",
"The main issue is what's called bioavailability, for a given vitamin or substance only x% can be effectively used by your body. It's not always a \"too much at once\" issue but rather it just cannot readily utilise it in that form. Many synthetic vitamins for example, which lack other phytonutrients that are present in plants containing them, which assist in your body utilising the vitamin effectively. Or, to make it really simple \"you body isn't quite sure what to do with 2000mg of ascorbic acid on its own\" When that is extracted from say, an Acerola Cherry, and the entirety of the fruit is utilised in making the supplement, then you also get all the nutrients that go along with it and your body sees it as an actual food and understands what to do with it. As for peeing it out, your body simply gets rid of what it doesn't need. However you don't *know* what it's lacking, so a **good quality** multi just gives it a bit of everything and then it can choose, and get rid of what it doesn't need. For sources, look up studies done by the Nutrilite health institute. I don't have any specific links on hand I'm sorry.",
"The broscience behind this stuff is astounding. A lot of it actually comes out of real research groups too. Ive been doing statical analysis of peer reviewed journal articles for about 6 years now and I can tell you first hand that they are some of the most unreliable sources of information on the planet. All the work is done by over-worked and underpaid gradstudents who are short on sleep. The professors are under such pressure to publish that there is no real thought given out to quality. One research group would be lucky to reproduce their findings in the same lab, having two research groups independently agree with each other would be almost a miracle. So take what you read with a grain of salt. Take the vitamin, it it makes you feel better, keep taking it. If it doesnt and you dont care, then stop. Beyond that, no one really knows what they are talking about. I absolutely can tell a difference in how I feel when I take my multi every day and when I blow it off for more than a week at a time.",
"So very few sources or real information in a lot of these answers a few good ones though. It's 2016 and everyone fancies themselves a nutrition expert. The truth is that most micronutrients work in conjunction with food to become bioavailable. That is to say an apple is the best source for getting the kinds of nutrients found in an apple. The best source of vitamins is through food, and not synthetic sources. Although many vitamins are good to supplement due to their inaccessibility to the body otherwise. The big one of vitamin D. magnesium is also one most people are deficient in and is also a major contributor in DNA repair. Take it before bed. Juice diets are a good source for high micronutrient meals but you should be fine with most diets that include fruits and vegetables and some red meats. There's nothing wrong with breaking up your multivitamin up and taking it with every meal. Imo you'll get more out of it that way than taking it all at once but your diet is much more important.",
"Multivitamins are all-round retarded. Most people are not deficient in the multitude of vitamins in there. And if you are deficient in a vitamin, the multivitamin does not contain anywhere near enough of that vitamin to be useful, and in addition the quality or bioavaialbility (ease of absorption) of the type of vitamin they add is always very poor. If you're worried about a deficiency take some blood tests, it's very unlikely you'll be defiant in more than 1-2 things. Find out about the nutrient/mineral your deficient in and what type of that vitamin is most bioavailable and buy that. For example, most magnesium supplements are the cheap magnesium oxide pills, which is also used in multivitamins and isn't absorbed well at all, what you'd want to get is magnesium citrate. It gets even more complicated, certain vitamins/minerals affect the abortion of one another, for example calcium supplementation may reduce magnesium absorption.",
"Mostly bullshit. Your body will absorb it over time. Think about this, they say only 30g of protein per hour can be digested. The rest is waste. 40000 years ago, we didn't have 3 square meals. Particularly in winter. If the human body could only absorb so much per hour they would have all died. Tldr Bodies are different, and your body is incredible at absorbing what it needs to survive and thrive. Edit: Don't think you can chug 800 of protein now. Your kidneys will fail. Also most supplements are horseshit.",
"well yes and no, to start off I am a nutritionist with a college degree, please disregard all the Google scholars and GNC muscle dummies below! As a general room of thumb the smaller more frequent doses you take a vitamin/mineral you absorb more. Most have a reduced absorption rate as the amount increase, but some vitamins/minerals boost or lower absorption. For Instance Calcium and Iron compete for absorption and will lower the amount you absorb, however iron and vitamin C help each other and vitamin C increase iron absorption",
"You're better off just eating healthily tbh, which is the equivalent of eating small pieces of the multivitamin per day. And if you have some vitamin deficiency and on a prescription or something, you should probably just take it as it is.",
"To answer your original question, cutting it up probably won't help or it will help some things (like water soluble ones aka vitamin C vitamin B and so on) Your body will absorb as much as it needs IF it's in the right form (most multis and supplements are shit and even expensive ones can be shit). Then you need to have a company that is not deceiving you which is not as easy as you'd think. What you can absorb and how much you need depend on what you eat and any disease you're experiencing or just plain genetic variance. People who say you get what you need through food are very very ignorant. You don't. You are deficient in things. And if someone disagrees with me about that then look up every vitamin and mineral (as I have) and then see what foods contain them and how much you're getting and even then those are generous estimates considering rdi is to not get very specific diseases (like vitamin C rdi is based on what you need to not get scurvy. Rdi is not based on optimal health) , not necessarily what you need to avoid chronic disease or if you're going through stress etc (emotional or otherwise) Def. Not like you're five but that's the best I can do.",
"Your body doesn't have trouble absorbing them because there's too much. It has trouble absorbing them through the method of delivery. As a result, the multivitamins are made available in massive quantities; if you're trying to throw a baseball into a small hole that's fifty feet away, your odds of getting a shot in are substantially improved if you've got 1,000 baseballs. Throwing 250 baseballs at a time, four different times, isn't going to help the overall odds of a given shot making it in. That's grossly oversimplified, but that's it in a nutshell. The only benefit might be that it's easier on your digestive system to take the load in small doses, but a time release vitamin can help with that for a few dollars more per bottle.",
"Doctor here. Vitamins are either water soluble or fat soluble. Their solubility determines how they're absorbed and if they're stored. It's possible that by splitting a vitamin could increase the overall absorption (I don't know the specific amount before saturation of the channels that transport the vitamin from intestine to blood). That being said, the majority of vitamins, with the exception of ADEK, are water soluble and the excess, even if absorbed is excreted in urine. Additionally, excess levels of ADEK cause various negative effects.",
"One a day vitamins are a hoax perpetuated by the one a day vitamin people. Eat different fruits and vegetables. Scientists have not discovered everything your body needs yet. So how can they put the unknown into a pill? You store more than a days worth of vitamins. Eat a variety of fruits and vegetables over a few days.",
"Have a doctor do some blood tests. Find out if you're deficient in anything. Then follow their recommendations. Other than that drink more water because most people don't drink enough.",
"I would cross post a version of this over at r/askscience. You'll get more thorough responses.",
"Hey, mods. Can we have this post locked for the continued misinformation? K thx bye",
"Health food store worker and general geek for all things supplement-wise. Having researched this and pretty much taken every vitamin under the sun, I would say don't look at the RDA of every vitamin that's listed but rather look at the _form_ your vitamin comes in. If you look at certain vitamins in particular absorption rates differ by crazy amounts (according to research). Vitamin B12 is often given as injections in women mainly down to poor diet and (here in Ireland) is usually administered in the form of cyanocobalamin. This is a highly synthesised form and tonnes of scientists argue it's practically cannot be absorbed by the body, whereas if you includes a complex of vitamin b12 which includes methylcobalamin, the absorption rate shoots up. It's a little different for minerals, basically look for any (iron, magnesium, zinc etc.) that come in a \"chelated\" form. That means it's been bonded with an amino acid glycine which makes it easer to assimilate in the stomach. I, myself, tend to not recommend multivitamins for the main reason that in order to get a legit good quality one, you'll need to spend at least €50 here (I'm not sure about the states). A good diet and figuring out what's wrong with you first will save you money in the long run. Feeling tired? B vitamins / Ginseng Low immune system? Zinc / Echinacea TL;DR - Don't buy multivitamins. Buy better quality separate vitamins.",
" URL_0 Depression Edit Hypovitaminosis D is a risk factor for depression; some studies have found that low levels of vitamin D are associated with depressed feelings and are found in patients who have been diagnosed with depression.[21] Various studies on trial groups have been conducted to find a correlation between hypovitaminosis D and depression. A study conducted by Lamb et al., (2015) on perinatal depression, examined 126 pregnant women and their levels of vitamin D. In the women with the lower levels of vitamin D, a higher rate of depression was observed.[22] Hypovitaminosis D is also considered a risk factor for the development of depressive symptoms in older persons.[23] One study found low serum vitamin D concentrations in patients with schizophrenia,[24] and the active metabolite of vitamin D3 (calcitriol) acts as a catalyst in glutathione production, and low glutathione levels have been implicated in several mental health disorders. In 2016, a review conducted by Parker et al., looked at articles (most of which were published 2011-2016) that examined the link between vitamin D deficiency and depression. The authors found that \"empirical studies appear to provide increasing evidence for an association between vitamin D insufficiency and depression.",
"I take over a dozen separate vitamins twice daily since 2007 as part of my weight training etc. I have gotten most of my info from URL_0 , a site that publishes medical studies on fitness and vitamins etc. Taking vitamins among other things allows your body to be at optimum vitamin levels throughout the day. I am 36 yo and am the strongest I have ever been, feel the best I've ever felt and I've always worked out but haven't always taken vitamins etc. Some vitamins store in your body and others need taken in. Urinating out excess is fine because you're at optimum levels and this is fantastic for your body. Just don't take too much of something and research before taking anything. May I suggest the above site as it's an incredible source of the latest info on vitamins, supplements, medical studies and fitness.",
"The way to get good information on vitamins is to google for *name of vitamin* efficacy. Efficacy is the medical word for how effective, or useful, something is. iirc I googled just 'vitamin efficacy' and found some charts with lists of vitamins and how they were rated. My own opinion is that the body excels at synthesizing what it needs from eating food. No particular diet, just reasonable, varied foods. Want Vitamin D? Walk around in the sunshine, you'll make some. The vitamin supplement industry spends quite a bit of money each year lobbying Congress to keep their businesses completely unregulated and free of FDA control. This does not mean they are bad, it's just food for thought. Now, some of the products have good efficacy, and others not so much, so study efficacy and make your own informed choices.",
"I once downed half a carton of multivitamin juice after a night of heavy drinking...about an hour later while a passenger in a car I felt something rumbling, then it became more than a rumble...had to pull over to the nearest toilet and I swear to fucking god my ass exploded with the power of a cannon. This continued on and off for about an hour. Every time I walked out the door I'd have to run straight back in....the worst part was, there was a lady at the door that you had to pay and ask for a roll of shit wipe every time you enter the place...that bastard bottle of multivitamin cost me a fucking fortune.",
"Multivitamins can absolutely be good for you. But remember too much of a good thing can be a bad thing. Make sure you're not getting pills that has the first ingredient as something \"extract\". Extracts tend to be made with head induced at some point which kills a lot of the good vitamins. Also a lot of lower end companies try to sell you liquid vitamins that are 65% glycerine. It's a scams in that sense. Back to the biological standpoint, multivitamins are fine but you should always get a blood test first because treating an individual vitamin deficiency is more effective than taking a big dose of things you already get enough of daily.",
"R/microbiome. Everyone has a different composition of bacteria that make up their gut flora (their natural bacterial inhabitants). Like a bacterial fingerprint. What works for me supplementation wise might not work for you and vise versa. This makes blanket health statements totally unnecessarily one-size-fits all. We all have different health needs, histories, preferences, allergies etc etc. It your body was out of whack enough due to vitamin deficiencies, believe me, you'd know it. Our body does a great job as getting us what we need and letting us know when we need to get some more or get some less.",
"I don't know if anyone has mentioned the addition of vitamin fortified foods in the average person's diet. A good example of this is cereal. Many cereals have more than the daily recommended amount of vitamins added to them. I would think unless you are an extremely picky or unhealthy eater, you are getting your required nutrients. On the other hand, if you only eat fortified cereal(or power bars, nutrient shakes, etc.), you're going to make yourself sick. The body doesn't need or want the vitamin C of 100 oranges in one sitting--or over the course of the day.",
"A lot of multivitamins have minerals that you will get in your normal diet. For the minerals you don't get the full amounts it will supplement that--any extras for the most part you will excrete in urine. Your body can also only absorb about 500-600mg of calcium at one time. So if you take your multivitamin with breakfast and you have milk to drink and cereal with milk you may not absorb it all at once. And obviously if your multivitamin has more than 600mg of calcium you won't absorb it. Source: Pharmacist",
"This is very frustrating partly because of the way OP has worded it. 1. Multivitamins are bad because you cannot absorb all the vitamins at once 2. If you break a multivitamin into small pieces and consumed them throughout the day, would the body absorb more? 3. (Implied: Absorbing more would make the multivitamin good for you) This is leading to a heated debate of whether or not taking a multivitamin is good for you. Can anyone just answer the original question, disregarding the context in which it was asked?",
"This is a complicated questions bc there are fat soluble vitamins, water soluble vitamins, minerals phytonutrients and so many other things that are all absorbed differently. Mother nature made it all perfect with food. When we try to screw with it our body can get more out of whack for normal healthy ppl. Obviously if you have mitochondrial disease and need CoQ10 supplements or Anemia and need iron that's different. But if you are healthy you shouldn't need supplements.",
"The body has a threshold for absorbing nutrients, which is exceeded by the dose found in a whole multivitamin. I eat half of the multivitamin in the morning and half in the evening. Another option is to eat a healthy, varied diet, which will cover all nutritional bases. With that said, most Americans do not come close to having a healthy diet (not sure about other countries). Believe me... I'm almost a doctor -- > medical student.",
"Believe it or not but it all depends on if your body needs the vitamins (Water soluble vitamins are excreted from the body) or what you take with the vitamin (B12 needs folic acid, vitamin D needs calcium and so on). Your body will not excrete fat soluble vitamins, they are store in fat and can be toxic when to much is stored. Best bet......eat a balanced diet and you won't need vitamins!",
"It has to do with curtain vitamins bio-availability, meaning how much of the actual substance your body can absorb vs how much is in each pill. Some supplements and vitamins like b12 aren't absorbed well by the stomach so in actuality you may only be getting 5% of the dose in each pill. Then the actual benefits of these vitamins are questioned making them even less effective or useful.",
"Some absorption has to do with other things being present. Certain vitamins help you absorb calcium etc. I don't know how much difference cutting it up would even make. It isn't passing through you and coming out as a whole pill. I will add that many sewage treatment plants report a layer at the bottom of the intake that is pretty much Centrum and similar multivitamin products.",
"As my nutrition professor told us, only take what you have a deficiency in. So if you are lacking vitamin A take that if it's B take that. Taking what you don't need increases the chance for kidney stones and some other stuff I forgot. If anything else just get your blood work done and see what you need.",
"Vitamins are reductionist science. Does anyone really think you can extract one chemical from the thousands present in fruits/vegetables/meat and that will be equally beneficial? Or even remotely comparable? The chemical composition of food is so complex and the thousands of other chemicals that aren't absolutely necessary for life like vitamins are very important.",
"Just eat a well-balanced diet (the rainbow in fruit + veg) and you won't need to worry about supplements. I used to take a Multi + Fish Oil every day (for 2-3 years) and never noticed anything. Once I started eating healthier (in general), *that's* when I noticed a real change in my body.",
"Just from personal experience: over the last 5 years I've been on and off supplements (for a significant period of time each) and noticed absolutely no difference in health. This, from a middle aged male who lost 25kg by eating correctly and exercising without any fad diets or routines.",
"Hmm, I wonder if there's an easier way to get many small doses of vitamins throughout the day? Maybe 3 larger doses in the morning, midday, and evening, with mini doses between. Sort of like 3 \"meals\", and a few small \"snacks\". Actually...... nevermind, it's a crazy idea.",
"Some vitamins are absorbed through your blood stream.. along with carbs. So if you eat carbs and vitamins at the same time you'll absorb fewer vitamins.. thus increasing the required consumption to get what you need. This also makes the daily amount numbers kinda untrue maybe",
"just want to add to all the comments saying a healthy diet is enough that if you live in scandinavia you are almost guaranteed to have a vitamin D deficiency and taking them as a supplement in the winter months might make you less tired",
"This thread has been a thoroughly useless read. Also, most people didn't address the question, but took the opportunity to \"inform\" us that multivitamins are useless -- and the especially annoying types were under the misconception that they were bucking the trend in so doing.",
"Funny thing - last time I was at my Doc he said exactly this - the one-per-day he had me on? Break it in half - take half in the morning and half at night.",
"This is a good question. When my mom used to make me take a multivitamin every day, I would poop it out mostly undigested. I think it was a total waste of money",
"I was under the assumption that it is the size of the nutrients being delivered in the multivitamin that will affect the absorption of the vitamin. This link has a decent rundown: URL_0 ",
"Top comment is about anti oxidants and not multi vitamins. I want to know if eating a multi vitamin is helpful. Especially if you have a shitty low nutrient diet like me.",
"I took multivitamins every day my head would start to hurt, but if I took them every 2 days I was fine. Don't forget you're also getting vitamins from food too",
"It wouldn't really matter whether you took the dose found in plants is not already getting the kinds of nutrients found in an in vivo setting when you really don't.",
"Get your vitamins from food sources I.e. Avoid synthetics. Orgenetics supplies extracted vitamins from whole food sources for example, those are the kind of vitamins you wanna go for.",
"I have a related question: is it really beneficial to take a whole bunch of antioxidants? Or can I get most of the benefits by sticking to one?",
"My question: If you're malnourished, will a multivitamin help? Lets say you're stuck on mars with nothing but potatos. Will a multivitamin keep you going?",
"All I know is that my ex gets loads of vitamin D from multiple sources daily and still seems to survive.",
"I was reading my bottle of B12 after all this conversation. Why is B12 best absorbed when dissolved under the tongue?",
"The true eli5 explanation: All the studies are inconclusive, but most agree that the potential benefit is worth a shot.",
"The idea that multivitamins aren't absorbed well at all, what you'd want to take prenatal vitamins?",
"Certain vitamins interfere with the absorption of others. Most multivitamins are also synthetic!"
] | [
[
"Hypervitaminosis Prevention Do not take more than the normal or recommended amount of multivitamin supplements. Epidemiology In the United States, overdose exposure to all formulations of \"vitamins\" (which includes multi-vitamin/mineral products) was reported by 62,562 individuals in 2004 with nearly 80% of these exposures in children under the age of 6, leading to 53 \"major\" life-threatening outcomes and 3 deaths (2 from vitamins D and E; 1 from polyvitaminic type formula, with iron and no fluoride). This may be compared to the 19,250 people who died of unintentional poisoning of all kinds in the U.S. in the same year (2004).",
"-33.33179292524892"
],
[
"Megavitamin therapy Multivitamin vs megavitamin Megavitamin therapy must be distinguished from the usual 'vitamin supplementation' approach of traditional multivitamin pills. Megavitamin doses are far higher than the levels of vitamins ordinarily available through western diets. A study of 161,000 individuals (post-menopausal women) provided, in the words of the authors, \"convincing evidence that multivitamin use has little or no influence on the risk of common cancers, cardiovascular disease, or total mortality in postmenopausal women\". History In the 1930s and 1940s, some scientific and clinical evidence suggested that there might be beneficial uses of vitamins C, E, and niacin in large doses.",
"-32.93932284816401"
],
[
"of metabolism. A review in the Annals of Internal Medicine concluded that while some therapies might be beneficial, others might be harmful or interfere with effective medical therapy. A recent study of over 161,000 individuals provided, in the words of the authors, \"convincing evidence that multivitamin use has little or no influence on the risk of common cancers, cardiovascular disease, or total mortality in postmenopausal women.\" A recent meta-analysis in JAMA suggested that supplementation with combinations of antioxidant vitamins (beta-carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin E) may increase mortality, although with respect to beta-carotene this conclusion may be due to the",
"-32.37201767464285"
],
[
"vitamins A, B, C, D, E etc. these vitamins act as anti-oxidants chemical in the human body. Antioxidants is a good chemical in the appropriate consumption but a large overdose can cause cellular oxidation and cause cytopathic. Also, the industries can not strictly control the concentration and dose for supplement that extracted from natural food resources. A long-term consumption of those supplement can cause physical burden and also a significant hard work for organ to metabolize. Many health organization and government have published a maximum daily consumption for supplement called Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL), for example World Health Organization",
"-31.67383911338584"
],
[
"Multivitamins are the most commonly used product. For those who fail to consume a balanced diet, the United States National Institutes of Health states that certain supplements \"may have value.\"\nIn the United States, it is against federal regulations for supplement manufacturers to claim that these products prevent or treat any disease. Companies are allowed to use what is referred to as \"Structure/Function\" wording if there is substantiation of scientific evidence for a supplement providing a potential health effect. An example would be \"_____ helps maintain healthy joints\", but the label must bear a disclaimer that the Food and Drug Administration",
"-31.363903522778855"
],
[
"that the use of multivitamins led to fewer deaths, but only among people in advanced stages of HIV. However, not all studies have provided a positive correlation. A small trial done in Zambia found no benefits from multivitamins after one month of use.\nRegarding individual vitamin and mineral supplementation, research shows mixed results. Vitamin A supplementation has been shown to reduce mortality and morbidity rates among African children suffering from HIV. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends vitamin A supplements for all young children 6 to 59 months old that are at high risk of vitamin A deficiency every 4 to",
"-30.948093006925774"
],
[
"water-soluble vitamins.\nA deficiency of riboflavin can be primary – poor vitamin sources in one's daily diet – or secondary, which may be a result of conditions that affect absorption in the intestine, the body not being able to use the vitamin, or an increase in the excretion of the vitamin from the body.\nSubclinical deficiency has also been observed in women taking oral contraceptives, in the elderly, in people with eating disorders, chronic alcoholism and in diseases such as HIV, inflammatory bowel disease, diabetes and chronic heart disease. The Celiac Disease Foundation points out that a gluten-free diet may be low",
"-30.59064976551599"
],
[
"individuals.\nNutritional therapy with parenteral multivitamins is beneficial to implement until the person can maintain adequate nutritional intake. Treatments also include vitamin supplementation (especially thiamine). In more severe cases of nutritional deficiency 320 mg/day of benfotiamine for 4 weeks followed by 120 mg/day for 4 more weeks may be prescribed in an effort to return thiamine levels to normal. Pain Painful dysesthesias caused by alcoholic polyneuropathy can be treated by using gabapentin or amitriptyline in combination with over-the-counter pain medications, such as aspirin, ibuprofen, or acetaminophen. Tricyclic antidepressants such as amitriptyline, or carbamazepine may help stabbing pains and have central and peripheral anticholinergic",
"-30.2780789428798"
],
[
"most multi-vitamins. Absorption of most vitamins is not seriously affected after proximal GBP, although vitamin B₁₂ may not be well-absorbed in some persons: sublingual preparations of B₁₂ provide adequate absorption. Some studies suggest that GBP patients who took probiotics after surgery are able to absorb and retain higher amounts of B₁₂ than patients who did not take probiotics after surgery. After a distal GBP, fat-soluble vitamins A, D, and E may not be well-absorbed, particularly if fat intake is large. Water-dispersed forms of these vitamins may be indicated on specific physician recommendation. For some patients, sublingual B₁₂ is not enough,",
"-30.088670270095463"
],
[
"Retinol Side effects The Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for vitamin A, for a 25-year-old male, is 3,000 micrograms/day, or about 10,000 IU. If nursing, vitamin A intake should be 1,200 to 1,300 retinol activity units (RAE).\nToo much vitamin A in retinoid form can be harmful or fatal, resulting in what is known as hypervitaminosis A. The body converts the dimerized form, carotene, into vitamin A as it is needed, therefore high levels of carotene are not toxic compared to the ester (animal) forms. The livers of certain animals, especially those adapted to polar environments such as polar bears and",
"-30.062649626201164"
],
[
"what can be achieved from food. Diets higher in vitamin E may contain other compounds that convey health benefits, so the observed effect may not be due to the vitamin E content. There is also a concern that supplementing with alpha-tocopherol in multiples much higher than is possible via diet will suppress absorption and retention of other tocopherols, with unknown effects on health. Supplementing alpha-tocopherol is known to reduced serum gamma- and delta-tocopherol concentrations. From one large survey, consumption of alpha-tocopherol as a supplement lowered serum gamma-tocopherol from 6.0 micromol/L for people not consuming any supplement to 2.1 micromol/L for",
"-29.395886267237074"
],
[
"Hypervitaminosis D Suggested tolerable upper intake level (UL) Based on risk assessment, a safe upper intake level of 250 µg (10,000 IU) per day in healthy adults has been suggested by non-government authors. However, no government has a UL higher than 4,000 IU.\nThe harm from vitamin D₃ in larger doses is demonstrated in that very high-doses are sometimes used as a rodenticide, where it causes hypercalcemia leading to death, typically only after several days following the high dose. Cardiovascular disease Evidence suggests that dietary vitamin D may be carried by lipoprotein particles into cells of the artery wall and atherosclerotic plaque,",
"-29.24539730746619"
],
[
"the absence of a simple consensus regarding the effects of multivitamins or micronutrient and nutrient supplementation on HIV positive individuals. This is partly due to a lack of strong scientific evidence.\nSome studies have looked into the use of implementing daily multivitamins into the diet regimens of HIV/AIDS patients. One study done in Tanzania involved a trial group with one thousand HIV positive pregnant women. Findings showed that daily multivitamins benefited both the mothers and their babies. After four years, the multivitamins were found to reduce the women’s risk of AIDS and death by approximately 30%. Another trial in Thailand revealed",
"-29.13117823949483"
],
[
"This weak bond allows the vitamin to donate a hydrogen atom to the peroxyl radical and other free radicals, minimizing their damaging effect. The thus generated tocopheryl radical is relatively unreactive but revert to tocopherol by a redox reaction with a hydrogen donor such as vitamin C. As they are fat-soluble, tocopherols are incorporated into cell membranes, which are protected from oxidative damage. Dietary considerations The U.S. Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for adults is 15 mg/day. The RDA is based on the alpha-tocopherol form because it is the most active form as originally tested. Vitamin E supplements are absorbed best",
"-29.09294895376661"
],
[
"of vitamin A, zinc, and iron can produce adverse effects in HIV-positive adults, and is not recommended unless there is documented deficiency. Dietary supplementation for people who are infected with HIV and who have inadequate nutrition or dietary deficiencies may strengthen their immune systems or help them recover from infections; however, evidence indicating an overall benefit in morbidity or reduction in mortality is not consistent.\nEvidence for supplementation with selenium is mixed with some tentative evidence of benefit. For pregnant and lactating women with HIV, multivitamin supplement improves outcomes for both mothers and children. If the pregnant or lactating",
"-29.03452514764649"
],
[
"of vitamin C reduction, intragastric pH elevated into alkalinity, would apply to all other PPI drugs, though not necessarily to doses of PPIs low enough to keep the stomach slightly acidic. In another study, 40 mg/day of omeprazole lowered the fasting gastric vitamin C levels from 3.8 to 0.7 µg/mL. Aspirin may also inhibit the absorption of vitamin C. Regulation There are regulations in most countries that limit the claims on the treatment of disease that can be placed on food and dietary supplement product labels. For example: Claims of therapeutic effect with respect to the treatment of any medical condition or",
"-29.016824854537845"
],
[
"variable absorption and conversion to vitamin A by humans, as well as the more modern retinol activity equivalent. Unfortunately, food and supplement labels still generally use IU, but IU can be converted to the more useful retinol activity equivalent as follows: Side effects Excess β-carotene is predominantly stored in the fat tissues of the body. The most common side effect of excessive β-carotene consumption is carotenodermia, a physically harmless condition that presents as a conspicuous orange skin tint arising from deposition of the carotenoid in the outermost layer of the epidermis. Adults' fat stores are often yellow from accumulated carotenoids,",
"-28.97960217727814"
],
[
"A in humans and monkeys. This increased retinyl ester may be due to decreased hepatic uptake of vitamin A and the leaking of esters into the bloodstream from saturated hepatic stellate cells. Prevention Hypervitaminosis A can be prevented by not ingesting more than the US Institute of Medicine Daily Tolerable Upper Level of intake for Vitamin A. This level is for synthetic and natural retinol ester forms of vitamin A. Carotene forms from dietary sources are not toxic. The dose over and above the RDA is among the narrowest of the vitamins and minerals. Possible pregnancy, liver disease, high alcohol",
"-28.865830541675678"
],
[
"Bleach and recycle Retinoid transport to the retina Vitamin A must be consumed in the diet, as it is not synthesisable by the body. It may, however, be consumed indirectly, in the form of carotenoids such as beta carotene, which can be cleaved to form two retinol molecules. It is absorbed in the gut and is transported around the body via two pathways. In the first, and most predominant, it is esterified with a fatty acid to form a retinyl ester, and packaged into a chylomicron. In the second minor pathway, it is bound to Retinol Binding Protein (RBP) and",
"-28.849734626201098"
],
[
"vitamin B₁₂ absorption. Elderly patients taking H₂ receptor antagonists are more likely to require B₁₂ supplementation than those not taking such drugs. H₂ blockers may also reduce the absorption of drugs (azole antifungals, calcium carbonate) that require an acidic stomach. In addition, multiple studies suggest the use of H₂ receptor antagonists such as raniditine may increase the risk of infectious diarrhoea, including traveller's diarrhoea and salmonellosis. A 2005 study found that by suppressing acid-mediated breakdown of proteins, ranitidine may lead to an elevated risk of developing food or drug allergies, due to undigested proteins then passing into the gastrointestinal tract,",
"-28.82592819498359"
],
[
"etc.) are much better-tolerated by the digestive system and do not have the side-effects of the older compounds used, while sustained-release dietary supplements prevent the occurrence of diarrhea. Since the kidneys of adult humans excrete excess magnesium efficiently, oral magnesium poisoning in adults with normal renal function is very rare. Infants, which have less ability to excrete excess magnesium even when healthy, should not be given magnesium supplements, except under a physician's care.\nPharmaceutical preparations with magnesium are used to treat conditions including magnesium deficiency and hypomagnesemia, as well as eclampsia. Such preparations are usually in the form of magnesium sulfate",
"-28.760322273919883"
],
[
"However, vitamin C supplementation could also worsen iron toxicity by promoting the formation of free radicals. Therefore, only 100 mg of vitamin C should be taken 30 minutes to one hour after deferoxamine administration.\nIt has also been proven that combined treatment with deferoxamine and deferiprone leads to an increased efficiency in chelation and doubles iron excretion. Structure and coordination Deferiprone (DFP) is a bidentate iron-chelator. Three molecules of the drug therefore coordinate to one iron atom, forming an orthorhombic structure.\nDFP is synthetically made and is highly selective to Fe(III). Physical properties that allow this compound to be effective as a drug",
"-28.66945501031296"
],
[
"that supplements are less likely to cause dangerous side-effects or harm, since they are normally present in the body. Some vitamins are toxic in high doses and nearly all (with the possible exception of Vitamin C) will cause adverse effects given high levels of overdosing for prolonged periods as recommended by orthomolecular practitioners. Forgoing medical care in favor of orthomolecular treatments can lead to adverse health outcomes.\nHealth professionals see orthomolecular medicine as encouraging individuals to dose themselves with large amounts of vitamins and other nutrients without conventional supervision, which they worry might be damaging to health. Potential risks of inappropriate",
"-28.60967590540531"
],
[
"in neurotransmission (e.g. NMDA receptor). Magnesium supplementation facilitates nerve regeneration after injury. Although unpolished grains contain magnesium, phytic acid in grains can inhibit its absorption. Leafy greens are an excellent source of magnesium. Vitamins Deficiency or excess intake of many vitamins can affect the brain contributing to developmental and degenerative diseases. Vitamin A Vitamin A is an essential nutrient for mammals which takes form in either retinol or the provitamin beta-Carotene. It helps regulation of cell division, cell function, genetic regulation, helps enhance the immune system, and is required for brain function, chemical balance, growth and development of the central",
"-28.531579213242367"
],
[
"a proportion will do much better on orthomolecular treatment, and the rest will need a skillful blend of both.\" Nevertheless, advocates have said that the right nutrients at the optimum dose for the individual concerned can prevent, treat, and sometimes cure a wide range of medical conditions. Conditions for which orthomolecular practitioners have claimed some efficacy are: acne, alcoholism, allergies, arthritis, autism, bee stings, bipolar disorder, burns, cancer, the common cold, depression, drug addiction, drug overdose, epilepsy, heart diseases, heavy metal toxicity, acute hepatitis, herpes, hyperactivity, hypertension, hypoglycemia, influenza, learning disabilities, mental and metabolic disorders, migraine, mononucleosis, mushroom",
"-28.41823958094028"
],
[
"medicine People with CFS may use more alternative medicine treatments than people without CFS. In a twin study, 91% of twins with CFS and 71% without CFS used at least one alternative treatment. A large proportion of the study participants said alternative treatments were helpful. Dietary supplements A 2006 updated systematic review concluded that the supplements essential fatty acids and magnesium have shown beneficial effects but only in one or two trials and further rigorous trials of these interventions would be helpful. A 2008 review found insufficient evidence to recommend dietary supplements as a treatment in chronic fatigue syndrome.",
"-28.291626966674812"
],
[
"effects In humans, there is no evidence for riboflavin toxicity produced by excessive intakes, in part because it has lower water solubility than other B vitamins, because absorption becomes less efficient as doses increase, and because what exceeds the absorption is excreted via the kidneys into urine. Even when 400 mg of riboflavin per day was given orally to subjects in one study for three months to investigate the efficacy of riboflavin in the prevention of migraine headache, no short-term side effects were reported. Although toxic doses can be administered by injection, any excess at nutritionally relevant doses is excreted in",
"-28.181756304140436"
],
[
"or with a low-fat meal. The ingredients of dietary supplements are not as carefully controlled as prescription products and have not been tested in clinical trials as such drugs have. Prescription omega-3 products are more concentrated, requiring fewer softgels for the same daily dose. Side effects Special caution should be taken with people who have fish and shellfish allergies. In addition, as with other omega-3 fatty acids, taking omega-3 acid ethyl esters puts people who are on anticoagulants at risk for prolonged bleeding time.\nSide effects include stomach ache, burping, and a bad taste; some people on very high doses",
"-28.17734678191482"
],
[
"versus supplementation induced inability caused by antioxidative stress. Dietary balance Nearly all living creatures consume antioxidants in some quantity. Inadequate consumption of dietary antioxidants can be detrimental. For example, a deficiency of vitamin C is a primary cause of scurvy. Vitamin C can be ingested by eating certain fruits. A dietary balance of oxidants and antioxidants are critical in maintaining optimal health.\nThere have been studies on antioxidant capacities of various supplements and compounds. However, there has not been a dietary system devised to quantify what levels of oxidants or antioxidants are \"healthy\". Unfortunately, in laboratory testing, there is no",
"-28.17414329299936"
],
[
"the participants asked for food containing gluten or casein to siblings and peers; and the lack of a washout period, that could diminish the effectiveness of the treatment if gluten or casein peptides have a long term residual effect, which is especially relevant in studies of short duration. In the subset of people who have gluten sensitivity there is limited evidence that suggests that a gluten-free diet may improve some autistic behaviors. Lack of vitamin D The hypothesis that vitamin D deficiency has a role in autism is biologically plausible, but not researched. Lead Lead poisoning has been suggested as",
"-28.148068046022672"
],
[
"severe vitamin A deficiency, lack of glycoproteins may lead to corneal ulcers or liquefaction. Immune system Vitamin A is essential to maintain intact epithelial tissues as a physical barrier to infection; it is also involved in maintaining a number of immune cell types from both the innate and acquired immune systems. These include the lymphocytes (B-cells, T-cells, and natural killer cells), as well as many myelocytes (neutrophils, macrophages, and myeloid dendritic cells). Red blood cells Vitamin A may be needed for normal red blood cell formation; deficiency causes abnormalities in iron metabolism. Vitamin A is needed to produce the red",
"-28.089773791113657"
],
[
"suggested, based on animal research, that calcitriol, the active metabolite of vitamin D, can provide significant protection against the DA- and 5-HT-depleting effects of neurotoxic doses of methamphetamine.",
"-28.054767324636487"
],
[
"hypervitaminosis. Fat-soluble vitamin deficiency due to malabsorption is of particular significance in cystic fibrosis. Anti-vitamins Anti-vitamins are chemical compounds that inhibit the absorption or actions of vitamins. For example, avidin is a protein in raw egg whites that inhibits the absorption of biotin; it is deactivated by cooking. Pyrithiamine, a synthetic compound, has a molecular structure similar to thiamine, vitamin B₁, and inhibits the enzymes that use thiamine. Biochemical functions Each vitamin is typically used in multiple reactions, and therefore most have multiple functions. On fetal growth and childhood development Vitamins are essential for the normal growth and development of",
"-27.99715735996324"
],
[
"naturally occurring compounds that are present in foods and tissue. The former, industrial antioxidants, have diverse uses: acting as preservatives in food and cosmetics, and being oxidation-inhibitors in fuels.\nAntioxidant dietary supplements have not been shown to improve health in humans, or to be effective at preventing disease. Supplements of beta-carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin E have no positive effect on mortality rate or cancer risk. Additionally, supplementation with selenium or vitamin E does not reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Relation to diet Although certain levels of antioxidant vitamins in the diet are required for good health, there is still",
"-27.957336048188154"
],
[
"In the United States, the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) has investigated habits of using dietary supplements in context of total nutrient intakes from the diet in adults and children. Over the period of 1999 to 2012, use of multivitamins decreased, and there was wide variability in the use of individual supplements among subgroups by age, sex, race/ethnicity, and educational status. Particular attention has been given to use of folate supplements by young women to reduce the risk of fetal neural tube defects. Absence of benefit The potential benefit of using essential nutrient dietary supplements to lower the",
"-27.957000897396938"
],
[
"Absorption is only about 50% for daily doses of 1 g. Oral administration, even of mega doses, cannot raise blood concentration above 0.22 mM. Relative deficiency hypothesis Humans and other species that do not synthesize vitamin C carry a mutated and ineffective form of the enzyme L-gulonolactone oxidase, the fourth and last step in the ascorbate-producing machinery. In the anthropoids lineage, this mutation likely occurred 40 to 25 million years ago. The three surviving enzymes continue to produce the precursors to vitamin C, but the process is incomplete and the body then disassembles them.\nIn the 1960s, the Nobel-Prize-winning chemist Linus",
"-27.93795186789066"
],
[
"Canada, a tolerable upper intake level (UL) was set at 2000 mg/day, referencing this mild laxative effect as the reason for establishing the UL. However, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) reviewed the safety question in 2006 and reached the conclusion that there was not sufficient evidence to set a UL for vitamin C. The Japan National Institute of Health and Nutrition reviewed the same question in 2010 and also reached the conclusion that there was not sufficient evidence to set a UL.\nAbout 70-90% of vitamin C is absorbed by the body when taken orally at normal levels (30–180 mg daily).",
"-27.926488524884917"
],
[
"production of Vitamin D. Melanin absorbs ultraviolet B radiation from the sun and reduces vitamin D production. Sunscreen can also reduce vitamin D production. Medications may speed up the metabolism of vitamin D, causing a deficiency. Some types of liver diseases and kidney diseases can decrease vitamin D production leading to a deficiency. The liver is required to transform vitamin D into 25-hydroxyvitamin D. This is an inactive metabolite of vitamin D but is a necessary precursor (building block) to create the active form of vitamin D.\nIn liver disease, the 25-hydroxyvitamin D may not be formed, leading to a vitamin",
"-27.902237398906436"
],
[
"for absorption. Reduced secretion of gastric acid and pepsin produced by H₂ blocker or proton-pump inhibitor (PPI) drugs can reduce absorption of protein-bound (dietary) vitamin B₁₂, although not of supplemental vitamin B₁₂. H₂-receptor antagonist examples include cimetidine, famotidine, nizatidine, and ranitidine. PPIs examples include omeprazole, lansoprazole, rabeprazole, pantoprazole, and esomeprazole. Clinically significant vitamin B₁₂ deficiency and megaloblastic anemia are unlikely, unless these drug therapies are prolonged for two or more years, or if in addition the person's diet is below recommended intakes. Symptomatic vitamin deficiency is more likely if the person is rendered achlorhydric (complete absence of gastric acid secretion),",
"-27.882154768062264"
],
[
"D deficiency. The kidneys are responsible for converting 25-hydroxyvitamin D to 1,25-hydroxyvitamin D. This is the active form of vitamin D in the body. Kidney disease often prevents 1,25-hydroxyvitamin D from being formed, leading to a vitamin D deficiency. Intestinal conditions that result in malabsorption of nutrients may also contribute to vitamin D deficiency by decreasing the amount of vitamin D absorbed via diet. In addition, a vitamin D deficiency may lead to decreased absorption of calcium by the intestines, resulting in increased production of osteoclasts that may break down a person's bone matrix. In states of hypocalcemia, calcium will",
"-27.84836371543497"
],
[
"a dose response to vitamin D supplementation, before recommendations could be considered. Vitamin D supplementation Proponents of the vitamin D hypothesis have recommended dietary supplements (5,000 International Units (IU)/day for adults and 1,000 IU/day for every 25 pounds of body weight in children) and suggested that larger doses (2,000 IU/kg/day for 3–4 days) could be used to treat influenza. It has been noted that large doses of vitamin D can lead to hypercalcemia and that \"single megadoses\" of vitamin D, while not especially harmful, may be associated with an increased risk of bone fractures. The authors of this review suggested",
"-27.840468370122835"
],
[
"as dietary supplements are not supposed to exceed a maximum daily dosage referred to as the tolerable upper intake level (UL or Upper Limit). Vitamin products above these regulatory limits are not considered supplements and should be registered as prescription or non-prescription (over-the-counter drugs) due to their potential side effects. The European Union, United States and Japan establish ULs.\nDietary supplements often contain vitamins, but may also include other ingredients, such as minerals, herbs, and botanicals. Scientific evidence supports the benefits of dietary supplements for persons with certain health conditions. In some cases, vitamin supplements may have unwanted effects, especially if",
"-27.75581077139941"
],
[
"6 months. In contrast, a trial from Tanzania found that the use of vitamin A supplements increased the risk of mother-to-child transmission by 40%. With the inconsistency of these results, scientists have not reached a consensus regarding Vitamin A supplementation and its possible benefits for HIV/AIDS patients. Other vitamins to be taken by HIV-infected adults are vitamins C and E.\nEvidence for supplementation with selenium is mixed with some tentative evidence of benefit. There is some evidence that vitamin A supplementation in children reduces mortality and improves growth. For nutritionally compromised pregnant and lactating women, a multivitamin supplementation has improved outcomes",
"-27.71363378703245"
],
[
"dental caries. Osteoporosis Fluoride supplementation has been extensively studied for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. This supplementation does not appear to be effective; even though sodium fluoride increases bone density, it does not decrease the risk of fractures. Other risks Reports have claimed that water fluoridation can be linked to the development of osteoporosis and various cancers; however, a recent systematic review has found no evidence to support these claims. Overdose Consumption of large amounts of fluoride can lead to fluoride poisoning and death; the lethal dose for most adult humans is estimated at 5 to 10 g (which is",
"-27.694319600399467"
],
[
"Hypervitaminosis A Causes Hypervitaminosis A results from excessive intake of preformed vitamin A. Genetic variations in tolerance to vitamin A intake may occur. Children are particularly sensitive to vitamin A, with daily intakes of 1500 IU/kg body weight reportedly leading to toxicity. Mechanism Absorption and storage in the liver of preformed vitamin A occur very efficiently until a pathologic condition develops. Absorption When ingested, 70–90% of preformed vitamin A is absorbed and used. Storage 80–90% of the total body reserves of vitamin A are in the liver (with 80–90% of this amount being stored in hepatic stellate cells and the",
"-27.68700208550581"
],
[
" such as by removing an offending drug. There is no clear evidence that corticosteroids help.\nNutrition therapy consists of adequate fluid intake, which can require several liters of extra fluid. Prognosis The kidneys are the only body system that are directly affected by tubulointerstitial nephritis. Kidney function is usually reduced; the kidneys can be just slightly dysfunctional, or fail completely.\nIn chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis, the most serious long-term effect is kidney failure. When the proximal tubule is injured, sodium, potassium, bicarbonate, uric acid, and phosphate reabsorption may be reduced or changed, resulting in low bicarbonate, known as metabolic acidosis,",
"-27.6777189827626"
],
[
"Magnesium salicylate Controversy While magnesium salicylate is an alternative for pain relief, it still is an NSAID like others in its category and can cause stomach ulcers, without any proven superiority over other \nover-the-counter type pain relievers (NSAID). \nDoan's specifically, and the company producing it, Novartis, have been tried over their claim that the product is superior in providing back pain relief. In June 1996, the FTC (Federal Trade Commission) charged the company with violating federal law with its unsubstantiated claim. In March 1998, the court ruled in favor of the FTC, but there was no stipulation about how the",
"-27.627617140497023"
],
[
"of vitamin B.\nIn 1934 he told The New York Times, \"We have proved the necessity for [magnesium] in human food, but in very small amounts. Too much results in dopiness. I would say you can't have a sweet disposition without magnesium, but that does not prove that you will have one when you take plenty.\"\nAccording to The New York Times, in 1936 he asked an audience of four hundred doctors at the Kings County Medical Society in Brooklyn to help investigate the \"extravagant claims\" being made for some medicinal preparations. He thought that doctors could stop false advertising by immediately establishing",
"-27.590949118035496"
],
[
"were multivitamin supplements. Survey results showed that participants who thought that they had received a multivitamin were predisposed to smoking more cigarettes and more likely to believe that they were invulnerable to harm, injury, and disease as compared with subjects who knew that they were given a placebo. Participants who believed they were given a multivitamin were also less likely to exercise and to choose healthier food, and had a higher desire to engage in \"hedonic activities that involve instant gratification but pose long-term health hazards\", such as casual sex, sunbathing, wild parties, and excessive drinking. In the 'multivitamin' group,",
"-27.5712480317452"
],
[
"Most dermatologists recommend vitamin D supplementation as an alternative to unprotected ultraviolet exposure due to the increased risk of skin cancer associated with sun exposure. Endogenous production with full body exposure to sunlight is approximately 250 µg (10,000 IU) per day.\nAccording to the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), all infants, including those who are exclusively breast-fed, may need vitamin D supplementation until they start drinking at least 17 US fluid ounces (500 ml) of vitamin D-fortified milk or formula a day. Epidemiology In developed countries, rickets is a rare disease (incidence of less than 1 in 200,000). Recently, cases of rickets",
"-27.538299064774037"
],
[
"for vitamin D refers to total intake from food, beverages and supplements, and assumes that calcium requirements are being met. The tolerable upper intake level (UL) is defined as \"the highest average daily intake of a nutrient that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects for nearly all persons in the general population.\" Although ULs are believed to be safe, information on the long-term effects is incomplete and these levels of intake are not recommended for long-term consumption.\nFor U.S food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily",
"-27.529607972834583"
],
[
"of alternative medicine used. In the United States, it is estimated that 75% of the MS patient populations use at least one complementary and alternative medicine for treatment and symptomatic control. The evidence for effectiveness for such treatments in most cases is weak or absent. Examples of treatments used by patients include dietary supplementation and regimens such as vitamin D, calcium, vitamin B12, and antioxidants. The rationale behind the use of Vitamin D supplementation is that studies show an association between vitamin D deficiency and increasing progression of MS, as well as the anti-inflammatory effects of vitamin D.\nFor antioxidant therapy,",
"-27.4508459935023"
],
[
"supplements. Vitamin D supplements may be also used because this vitamin aids in calcium absorption. Bisphosphonates and calcitonin, used to treat adults with osteoporosis, may be prescribed, although their effectiveness in adolescents has not yet been established. Finally, if indicated by a psychiatric examination, the affected athlete may be prescribed anti-depressants and in some cases benzodiazepines to help in alleviating severe distress at mealtimes. Prognosis Sustained low energy availability, with or without disordered eating, can impair health. Psychological problems associated with eating disorders include low self-esteem, depression, and anxiety disorders. Medical complications involve the cardiovascular, endocrine, reproductive, skeletal, gastrointestinal,",
"-27.444732824573293"
],
[
"the FDA's powers over dietary supplements need to be expanded.\nWhile some diet supplement executives defended the safety of Hydroxycut and believed the media \"over-hyped\" the FDA withdrawal, others questioned why Iovate had not published long-term safety or efficacy studies on the final Hydroxycut products, and used weak trial duration and sample sizes. This is despite having the money to perform such studies and their self-definition as a \"research-oriented\" company. The editors of the nutrition trade journal Nutrition Business Journal noted that this recall \"will ultimately be a good thing for the dietary supplement industry if it encourages weight-loss supplement manufacturers",
"-27.358355021337047"
],
[
"through the stomach into the duodenum, where there is a low pH in patients with CF. It has, thus, been proposed that a possible treatment option for exocrine pancreatic insufficiency would be enzyme replacement therapy using lingual lipase, increasing the amount of dietary fat absorption and decreasing the risk of malnutrition. The proposed mechanism of lingual lipase preferentially cleaving short and medium chain triacylglycerols provides a means for absorption without the need for micelle formation and chylomicrons. Short and medium chain free fatty acids can be absorbed directly through the mucosal cells into the blood stream without further packaging and",
"-27.355914391468104"
],
[
"because it is believed to be more bioavailable than other common pill forms, such as magnesium oxide. However, according to one study, magnesium gluconate is marginally more bioavailable than magnesium citrate.\nMagnesium citrate, as a supplement in pill form, is useful for the prevention of kidney stones. Side effects Magnesium citrate is generally not a harmful substance, but care should be taken by consulting a healthcare professional if any adverse health problems are suspected or experienced. Extreme magnesium overdose can result in serious complications such as slow heart beat, low blood pressure, nausea, drowsiness, etc. If severe enough, an overdose can",
"-27.329867750100675"
],
[
"Ergocalciferol Use Ergocalciferol may be used as a vitamin D supplement, whereas cholecalciferol (vitamin D₃) is produced naturally by the skin when exposed to ultraviolet light. Ergocalciferol (D₂) and cholecalciferol (D₃) are considered to be equivalent for vitamin D production, as both forms appear to have similar efficacy in ameliorating rickets and reducing the incidence of falls in elderly patients. Conflicting reports exist, however, concerning the relative effectiveness, with some studies suggesting that ergocalciferol has less efficacy based on limitations in absorption, binding, and inactivation. A meta-analysis concluded that evidence usually favors cholecalciferol in raising vitamin D levels in",
"-27.31602947710053"
],
[
"the risk of NTDs. More than 80 countries use fortification of certain foods with folic acid as a measure to decrease the rate of NTDs. Vitamins C and E The combination of vitamin E and vitamin C supplemented to pregnant women does not appear to be efficacious for reducing risk of stillbirth, neonatal death, preterm birth, preeclampsia or any other maternal or infant outcomes, either in healthy women or those considered at risk for pregnancy complications. Antioxidant vitamins as dietary supplements had been proposed as having benefits if consumed during pregnancy. For the combination of vitamin E with vitamin C",
"-27.27192201309299"
],
[
"resolve when intake of the offending substance is stopped.\nChronic intake of 1500 RAE of preformed vitamin A may be associated with osteoporosis and hip fractures because it suppresses bone building while simultaneously stimulating bone breakdown, although other reviews have disputed this effect, indicating further evidence is needed.\nA 2012 systematic review found that beta-carotene and higher doses of supplemental vitamin A increased mortality in healthy people and people with various diseases. The findings of the review extend evidence that antioxidants may not have long-term benefits. Vision The role of vitamin A in the visual cycle is specifically related to the retinal form.",
"-27.242937331699068"
],
[
"high fiber diet lower the risk.\nThe consumption of trans fat (commonly found in hydrogenated products such as margarine) has been shown to cause a precursor to atherosclerosis and increase the risk of coronary artery disease.\nEvidence does not support a beneficial role for omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in preventing cardiovascular disease (including myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death). There is tentative evidence that intake of menaquinone (Vitamin K₂), but not phylloquinone (Vitamin K₁), may reduce the risk of CAD mortality. Aspirin In those with no previous history of heart disease, aspirin decreases the risk of a myocardial infarction but does not",
"-27.241616571031045"
],
[
"supplemented to pregnant women, a Cochrane review concluded that the data do not support vitamin E supplementation - majority of trials alpha-tocopherol at 400 IU/day plus vitamin C at 1000 mg/day - as being efficacious for reducing risk of stillbirth, neonatal death, preterm birth, preeclampsia or any other maternal or infant outcomes, either in healthy women or those considered at risk for pregnancy complications. The review identified only three small trials in which vitamin E was supplemented without co-supplementation with vitamin C. None of these trials reported any clinically meaningful information. Topical Although there is widespread use of tocopheryl acetate as",
"-27.184002288835472"
],
[
"or chloride when given parenterally. Magnesium is absorbed with reasonable efficiency (30% to 40%) by the body from any soluble magnesium salt, such as the chloride or citrate. Magnesium is similarly absorbed from Epsom salts, although the sulfate in these salts adds to their laxative effect at higher doses. Magnesium absorption from the insoluble oxide and hydroxide salts (milk of magnesia) is erratic and of poorer efficiency, since it depends on the neutralization and solution of the salt by the acid of the stomach, which may not be (and usually is not) complete.\nMagnesium orotate may be used as adjuvant therapy",
"-27.17196881135169"
],
[
"performed and meta-analysis of these controlled clinical trials have not shown any clear benefit from any form of vitamin E supplementation for preventing chronic disease. Further clinical studies show no benefit of vitamin E supplements for cardiovascular disease. The current position of the American National Institutes of Health is that there is no convincing evidence that vitamin E supplements can prevent or treat any disease.\nBeyond the lack of apparent benefit, a series of three meta-analyses reported that vitamin E supplementation is associated with an increased risk of death; one of the meta-analyses performed by the Cochrane Collaboration also found significantly",
"-27.166148202304612"
],
[
"rare and result from prolonged and excessive use of toothpaste (i.e. several tubes per week). Approximately 15 mg/kg body weight is the acute lethal dose, even though as small amount as 5 mg/kg may be fatal to some children.\nThe risk of using fluoride is low enough that the use of full-strength toothpaste (1350–1500 ppm fluoride) is advised for all ages. However, smaller volumes are used for young children, for example, a smear of toothpaste until three years old. A major concern of dental fluorosis is for children under 12 months ingesting excessive fluoride through toothpaste. Nausea and vomiting are also problems which",
"-27.163418367774284"
],
[
"increased mortality for the antioxidant vitamins A and beta-carotene. A subsequent meta-analysis found no mortality benefit from vitamin E, but also no increase in mortality either. Use in AIDS Several articles in the alternative-medicine literature have suggested that orthomolecular-related dietary supplementation might be helpful for patients with HIV/AIDS. \nA study using 250 mg and 1000 mg doses of vitamin C along with other antioxidants to treat people with AIDS did not find any benefit.\nA meta analysis in 2010 found that micronutrient supplementation decreased the risk of death and improved outcomes in pregnant women with HIV in Africa. A 2017 Cochrane review found",
"-27.156332610808022"
],
[
"no strong evidence to suggest that micronutrient supplementation prevents death or is effective at slowing the progression of disease for adults with HIV. It is important for people living HIV to eat a healthy adequate diet. For people with HIV that have clinically demonstrated deficiencies in micronutrients or for people who are not able to consume the recommended daily quantities of minerals and vitamins, supplementation is still encouraged. Vitamin A in children with HIV appears to be safe and beneficial. Vitamin A deficiency is found in children with HIV infection who may or may not have symptoms of AIDS. Vitamin",
"-27.14271864856528"
],
[
"bran. Side effects of fiber supplements include bloating, flatulence, diarrhea, and possible malabsorption of iron, calcium, and some medications. However, patients with opiate-induced constipation will likely not benefit from fiber supplements. Laxatives If laxatives are used, milk of magnesia or polyethylene glycol are recommended as first-line agents due to their low cost and safety. Stimulants should only be used if this is not effective. In cases of chronic constipation, polyethylene glycol appears superior to lactulose. Prokinetics may be used to improve gastrointestinal motility. A number of new agents have shown positive outcomes in chronic constipation; these include prucalopride and lubiprostone.",
"-27.1386948924046"
],
[
"or low-molecular-weight heparin may be used as measures to prevent the formation of a blood clot. Intravenous fluids Intravenous (IV) hydration often includes supplementation of electrolytes as persistent vomiting frequently leads to a deficiency. Likewise, supplementation for lost thiamine (Vitamin B₁) must be considered to reduce the risk of Wernicke's encephalopathy. A and B vitamins are depleted within two weeks, so extended malnutrition indicates a need for evaluation and supplementation. In addition, electrolyte levels should be monitored and supplemented; of particular concern are sodium and potassium.\nAfter IV rehydration is completed, patients typically begin to tolerate frequent small liquid or bland",
"-27.131643523939545"
],
[
"disease is poor diet, which can be prevented by nutritional supplements.\nSimilarly, the American Cancer Society comments that the current scientific evidence does not \"support use of orthomolecular therapy for most of the conditions for which it is promoted.\" Some supplements have exhibited benefits for specific conditions, while a few have been confirmed to be harmful; the consumption of nutritious foods is the best recognized method to obtain vitamins, minerals, and nutrients crucial for good health. Barrie Cassileth, an adviser on alternative medicine to the National Institutes of Health, stated that \"scientific research has found no benefit from orthomolecular therapy for",
"-27.127361008766457"
],
[
"Replacement of saturated fats with carbohydrates does not change or may increase risk. Benefits from replacement with polyunsaturated fat appears greatest; however, supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids (a type of polysaturated fat) does not appear to have an effect.\nA 2014 Cochrane review found unclear benefit of recommending a low-salt diet in people with high or normal blood pressure. In those with heart failure, after one study was left out, the rest of the trials show a trend to benefit. Another review of dietary salt concluded that there is strong evidence that high dietary salt intake increases blood pressure and worsens",
"-27.096843380568316"
],
[
"supplemented to pregnant women, a Cochrane review of 21 clinical trials concluded that the data do not support vitamin E supplementation - majority of trials alpha-tocopherol at 400 IU/day plus vitamin C at 1000 mg/day - as being efficacious for reducing risk of stillbirth, neonatal death, preterm birth, preeclampsia or any other maternal or infant outcomes, either in healthy women or those considered at risk for pregnancy complications. The review identified only three small trials in which vitamin E was supplemented without co-supplementation with vitamin C. None of these trials reported any clinically meaningful information. A second Cochrane review of 29",
"-27.096246999804862"
],
[
"as tocopheryl linoleate and tocopherol acetate in skin care products. Incidence is low despite widespread use. Drug interactions The amounts of alpha-tocopherol, other tocopherols and tocotrienols that are components of dietary vitamin E, when consumed from foods, do not appear to cause any interactions with drugs. Consumption of alpha-tocopherol as a dietary supplement in amounts in excess of 300 mg/day may lead to interactions with aspirin, warfarin, tamoxifen and cyclosporine A in ways that alter function. For aspirin and warfarin, high amounts of vitamin E may potentiate anti-blood clotting action. One small trial demonstrated that vitamin E at 400 mg/day",
"-27.078337910264963"
],
[
"has not been proven to be healthier than drinking water. The World Health Organization investigated the health effects of demineralized water in 1980, and its experiments in humans found that demineralized water increased diuresis and the elimination of electrolytes, with decreased serum potassium concentration. Magnesium, calcium and other nutrients in water can help to protect against nutritional deficiency. Recommendations for magnesium have been put at a minimum of 10 mg/L with 20–30 mg/L optimum; for calcium a 20 mg/L minimum and a 40–80 mg/L optimum, and a total water hardness (adding magnesium and calcium) of 2–4 mmol/L. At water hardness above 5 mmol/L, higher incidences of",
"-27.010147826386856"
],
[
"or special rinsing solutions. Because HF is absorbed, further medical treatment is necessary. Calcium gluconate may be injected or administered intravenously. Use of calcium chloride is contraindicated and may lead to severe complications. Sometimes surgical excision of tissue or amputation is required. Fluoride ion Soluble fluorides are moderately toxic. For sodium fluoride, the lethal dose for adults is 5–10 g, which is equivalent to 32–64 mg of elemental fluoride per kilogram of body weight. The dose that may lead to adverse health effects is about one fifth of the lethal dose. Chronic excess fluoride consumption can lead to skeletal fluorosis, a disease",
"-26.990441881556762"
],
[
"precursors of colon cancer. Precautions Absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and other fat-soluble nutrients is inhibited by the use of orlistat. A multivitamin tablet containing vitamins A, D, E, K, and beta-carotene should be taken once a day, at bedtime, when using orlistat. Interactions Orlistat may reduce plasma levels of ciclosporin (also known as \"cyclosporin\" or \"cyclosporine\", trade names Sandimmune, Gengraf, Neoral, etc.), an immunosuppressive drug frequently used to prevent transplant rejection; the two drugs should therefore not be administered concomitantly. Orlistat can also impair absorption of the antiarrhythmic amiodarone. The MHRA has recently suggested that Orlistat could theoretically reduce",
"-26.961898189552812"
],
[
"10-fold, however, absorption rate decreases to 10%. Deficiency Pantothenic acid deficiency is exceptionally rare and has not been thoroughly studied. In the few cases where deficiency has been seen (victims of starvation and limited volunteer trials), nearly all symptoms can be reversed with the return of pantothenic acid.\nSymptoms of deficiency are similar to other vitamin B deficiencies. There is impaired energy production, due to low CoA levels, which could cause symptoms of irritability, fatigue, and apathy. Acetylcholine synthesis is also impaired; therefore, neurological symptoms can also appear in deficiency; they include numbness, paresthesia, and muscle cramps. Deficiency",
"-26.93067074078499"
],
[
"Research The consumption of isoflavones-rich food or dietary supplements is under preliminary research for its potential association with lower rates of postmenopausal cancer and osteoporosis in women. Use of soy isoflavone dietary supplements may be associated with reduction of hot flashes in postmenopausal women.\nDespite the frequent use of isoflavone supplements, there are insufficient data on safety and adverse effects. Isoflavones have GRAS status in the United States. The European Food Safety Authority has conducted a risk assessment of isoflavone supplements for post-menopausal women and could not identify adverse effects with intakes up to 150 mg/d, although it criticised the lack of",
"-26.902109982247566"
],
[
"as to the contribution of the vitamin to the effect. Complementary and alternative medicine Proponents of megavitamin therapy and orthomolecular medicine advocate natural tocopherols. Meanwhile, clinical trials have largely concentrated on use of either a synthetic, all-racemic d-alpha tocopheryl or synthetic dl-alpha tocopheryl. Antioxidant theory Tocopherol is described as functioning as an antioxidant. A dose-ranging trial was conducted in people with chronic oxidative stress attributed to elevated serum cholesterol. Plasma F2-isoprostane concentration was selected as a biomarker of free radical-mediated lipid peroxidation. Only the two highest doses - 1600 and 3200 IU/day - significantly lowered F2-isoprostane. Alzheimer's disease Alzheimer's",
"-26.880733908636103"
],
[
"by AAFCO. However, according to a study on the effects of supplementing DHA in puppy diets, diets containing 1.4% n-3 fatty acids, or 0.19% DHA resulted in optimal neurological function. Vitamin E Along with DHA, vitamin E also supports the proper development of eyesight, reduces oxidative damage, and provides additional immune function support. During instances of immune system stimulation, such as vaccinations and infection, immune cells generate more tissue damaging free radicals. These free radicals are reduced by the action of antioxidants such as vitamin E, which promote the formation and maintenance of healthy immune cells. The adequate intake level",
"-26.876076506909158"
],
[
"humans, such conditions include premature birth, limited nutrient intake, rapid growth, and certain disease states. Choline, inositol, taurine, arginine, glutamine and nucleotides are classified as conditionally essential and are particularly important in neonatal diet and metabolism. Non-essential nutrients Non-essential nutrients are substances within foods that can have a significant impact on health; these substances can be beneficial or toxic. For example, dietary fiber is not absorbed in the human digestive tract, but is important in maintaining the bulk of a bowel movement to avoid constipation. A subset of dietary fiber, soluble fiber, can be metabolized by bacteria residing in the",
"-26.86903259844985"
],
[
"those neurotransmitters. Repletion of deficiency Severe vitamin B₁₂ deficiency is corrected with frequent intramuscular injections of large doses of the vitamin, followed by maintenance doses at longer intervals. Tablets are sometimes used for repletion in mild deficiency; and for maintenance regardless of severity. Vitamin B12 supplementation sometimes leads to acneiform eruptions (acne-like rashes). Cyanide poisoning For cyanide poisoning, a large amount of hydroxocobalamin may be given intravenously and sometimes in combination with sodium thiosulfate. The mechanism of action is straightforward: the hydroxycobalamin hydroxide ligand is displaced by the toxic cyanide ion, and the resulting harmless B₁₂ complex is excreted in",
"-26.864629148310996"
],
[
"studies which are described below.\nSome scientific articles have demonstrated that HGH supplementation does not significantly increase muscle strength or aerobic exercise capacity in healthy individuals. While it is possible that there are some advantages, such as an increase in lean body mass, it is also evident that benefits are being exaggerated by some for commercial gain and ineffective products are being sold to unsuspecting consumers.\nSome recent small clinical studies have shown that low-dose GH treatment for elderly patients with GH deficiency changes the body composition by increasing muscle mass, decreasing fat mass, increasing bone density and muscle strength, improves cardiovascular",
"-26.8456133771424"
],
[
"gluten from the diet without previously carrying out a complete medical examination can hamper the diagnosis of celiac disease. Diagnostic tests (antibodies and duodenum biopsies) lose their usefulness if the person is already eating a gluten-free diet. Potential nutritional deficiencies Gluten proteins have low nutritional and biological value and replacing grains that contain gluten is easy from the nutritional point of view. However, an unbalanced selection of food and an incorrect choice of gluten-free replacement products may lead to nutritional deficiencies. Replacing flour from wheat or other gluten-containing cereals with gluten-free flours in commercial products may lead to a lower",
"-26.84225079268799"
],
[
"aspirin and atenolol) for those diagnosed with cardiovascular disease. Fixed-dose combination (FDC) products today are also common for treating other diseases, such as tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS. Treating cardiovascular disease One of the first recommended roles of a polypill was as a means of providing recommended medications to people with heart disease, stroke and other forms of cardiovascular disease. Most cardiovascular disease patients do not receive recommended medications long-term: the proportion of cardiovascular disease patients not receiving a statin, aspirin and blood pressure lowering medication long-term ranges from about 50% in high income countries to over 90% in low income countries.",
"-26.84107671969832"
],
[
"that high vitamin doses may – on the contrary – increase overall mortality. Nutritional treatments are not generally accepted as being helpful for psychological health. Its claims have been criticized by most medical organizations, including the American Cancer Society, the American Psychiatric Association, the National Institute of Mental Health, the American Academy of Pediatrics, CHAMPUS, and the Canadian Paediatric Society. The American Medical Association describes as \"myths\" the ideas that adequate nutrition is not readily achievable with normal food, all food grown with pesticide is poisonous, all food additives are poisonous, vitamin and mineral deficiencies are common, that the cause of most",
"-26.825975197014486"
],
[
"through an indirect method like inducing synthesis of endogenous antioxidants like glutathione.\nAlthough the body can synthesize LA, it can also be absorbed from the diet. Dietary supplementation in doses from 200–600 mg are likely to provide up to 1000 times the amount available from a regular diet. Gastrointestinal absorption is variable and decreases with the use of food. It is therefore recommended that dietary LA be taken 30–60 minutes before or at least 120 minutes after a meal. Maximum blood levels of LA are achieved 30–60 minutes after dietary supplementation, and it is thought to be largely metabolized in the liver.\nIn",
"-26.8198818313831"
],
[
"900 and 700 micrograms of vitamin A per day, respectively. Consumption above 3000 micrograms per day is referred to as vitamin A toxicity and is usually caused by accidental ingestion of supplements. Sources of vitamin A Vitamin A is present in both animal and plant sources as retinoids and carotenoids, respectively. Retinoids can be used immediately by the body upon absorption into the cardiovascular system; however, plant-based carotenoids must be converted to retinol prior to utilization by the body. The highest animal-based sources of vitamin A are liver, dairy products, and fish. Fruits and vegetables containing",
"-26.81390173958789"
],
[
"it is unclear if supplementation can result in this benefit. Both an excess and a deficiency in vitamin D appear to cause abnormal functioning and premature aging. The relationship between serum calcifediol level and all-cause mortality is parabolic. Harm from vitamin D appears to occur at a lower vitamin D level in the black population than in the white population. Cancer Vitamin D supplements have been widely marketed for their claimed anticancer properties. Associations have been shown in observational studies between low vitamin D levels and the risk of development of certain cancers. It is unclear, however, if taking additional",
"-26.80765472324856"
],
[
"complications. Medications Treatment is supportive, with ibuprofen or paracetamol (acetaminophen) to reduce fever and pain and, if required, a fast-acting medication to dilate the airways for cough. As for aspirin, some research has suggested a correlation between children who take aspirin and the development of Reye syndrome.\nThe use of vitamin A during treatment is recommended to decrease the risk of blindness; however, it does not prevent or cure the disease. A systematic review of trials into its use found no reduction in overall mortality, but it did reduce mortality in children aged under two years. It is unclear if",
"-26.790124314298737"
],
[
"of vitamin-E derivatives such as tocopheryl linoleate and tocopherol acetate in skin care products. Incidence is low despite widespread use. Drug interactions The amounts of alpha-tocopherol, other tocopherols and tocotrienols that are components of dietary vitamin E, when consumed from foods, do not appear to cause any interactions with drugs. Consumption of alpha-tocopherol as a dietary supplement in amounts in excess of 300 mg/day may lead to interactions with aspirin, warfarin, tamoxifen and cyclosporine A in ways that alter function. For aspirin and warfarin, high amounts of vitamin E may potentiate anti-blood clotting action. One small trial demonstrated that vitamin E",
"-26.784444305259967"
],
[
"and changes in hair coat, and alterations in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. Toxicity Toxicity of pantothenic acid is unlikely. In fact, no Tolerable Upper Level Intake (UL) has been established. Large doses of the vitamin, when ingested, have no reported side effects and massive doses (e.g., 10 g/day) may only yield mild diarrhea. There are also no adverse reactions known following parenteral (injected) or topical (skin) applications of the vitamin. Pantothenic acid, in an animal study, was shown to induce adrenal hyper-responsiveness to stress stimulation. Research Although pantothenic acid supplementation is under preliminary research for a variety of human diseases,",
"-26.720226310222642"
],
[
"in impoverished countries. Hypervitaminosis Some vitamins cause acute or chronic toxicity, a condition called hypervitaminosis, which occurs mainly for fat-soluble vitamins if over-consumed by excessive supplementation. Hypervitaminosis A and hypervitaminosis D are the most common examples. Vitamin D toxicity does not result from sun exposure or consuming foods rich in vitamin D, but rather from excessive intake of vitamin D supplements, possibly leading to hypercalcemia, nausea, weakness, and kidney stones.\nThe United States, European Union and Japan, among other countries, have established \"tolerable upper intake levels\" for those vitamins which have documented toxicity.",
"-26.715657836437458"
],
[
"stores of vitamin A in their fat cells, so over-supplementation should be strictly avoided.\nA review of all randomized controlled trials in the scientific literature by the Cochrane Collaboration published in JAMA in 2007 found that supplementation with β-carotene or vitamin A increased mortality by 5% and 16%, respectively.\nContrary to earlier observations, recent studies emerging from some developing countries (India, Bangladesh and Indonesia) have strongly suggested that in populations in which vitamin A deficiency is common and maternal mortality is high, dosing expectant mothers can greatly reduce the maternal mortality rate. Similarly, dosing newborn infants with 50,000 IU (15 mg) of vitamin",
"-26.707212270099262"
],
[
"component. In lower doses, they may be used as an oral magnesium source, however.\n\nIntravenous or intramuscular magnesium is generally in the form of magnesium sulfate solution. Intravenous or intramuscular magnesium is completely bioavailable, and effective. It is used in severe hypomagnesemia and eclampsia.",
"-26.698528784871087"
],
[
"large quantities of clotting and bone growth factors.\nWithout vitamin K, clotting factors II, VII, IX and X are unable to be produced. Without these vital parts of the coagulation cascade a durable fibrin plug cannot form to block fluid escaping from damaged or permeable vasculature. Anemia is common in fetuses exposed to warfarin as blood constantly seeps into the interstitial fluid or amniotic cavity. High doses of warfarin and heavy bleeding lead to abortion and stillbirth.\nOsteocalcin is another protein dependent on vitamin K for correct folding and function. Osteocalcin is normally secreted by osteoblast cells and plays a role in",
"-26.694543752630125"
],
[
"of long-term clinical trials reported a non-significant 2% increase in all-cause mortality when alpha-tocopherol was the only supplement used. The same meta-analysis reported a statistically significant 3% increase for results when alpha-tocopherol was used by itself or in combination with other nutrients (vitamin A, vitamin C, beta-carotene, selenium). Another meta-analysis reported a non-significant 1% increase in all-cause mortality when alpha-tocopherol was the only supplement. Subset analysis reported no difference between natural (plant extracted) or synthetic alpha-tocopherol, or whether the amount used was less than or more than 400 IU/day. There are reports of vitamin E-induced allergic contact dermatitis from use",
"-26.694423828019353"
],
[
"the chemical synthesis of vitamin K by first reduction to the diol menadiol, which is susceptible to coupling to the phytol.\nDespite the fact that it can serve as a precursor to various types of vitamin K, menadione is generally not used as a nutritional supplement in economically developed countries. Menadione for human use at pharmaceutical strength is available in some countries with large lower income populations. It is used in the treatment of hypoprothrombinemia outside of the United States. Toxicity Large doses of menadione have been reported to cause adverse outcomes including hemolytic anemia due to glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, neonatal",
"-26.688982633771957"
],
[
"taking Vitamin C with a source of iron is known to increase absorption. Some medications such as tetracyclines and antacids can decrease absorption of iron. After being absorbed in the small intestine, iron travels through blood, bound to transferrin, and eventually ends up in the bone marrow, where it is involved in red blood cell formation. When red blood cells are degraded, the iron is recycled by the body and stored.\nWhen the amount of iron needed by the body exceeds the amount of iron that is readily available, the body can use iron stores (ferritin) for a period of time,",
"-26.66396408584842"
],
[
"protein S (anticoagulation factors) drop faster than procoagulation proteins such as factor II, VII, IX, and X. Therefore, bridging anticoagulant therapies (usually heparin) are often used to reverse this temporary hypercoagulable state. Maintenance dose Recommendations by many national bodies, including the American College of Chest Physicians, have been distilled to help manage dose adjustments.\nThe maintenance dose of warfarin can fluctuate significantly depending on the amount of vitamin K₁ in the diet. Keeping vitamin K₁ intake at a stable level can prevent these fluctuations. Leafy green vegetables tend to contain higher amounts of vitamin K₁. Green parts of members of the",
"-26.64961657558979"
],
[
"Anticoagulant Adverse effects Patients aged 80 years or more may be especially susceptible to bleeding complications, with a rate of 13 bleeds per 100 person-years. Depletion of vitamin K by coumadin therapy increases risk of arterial calcification and heart valve calcification, especially if too much vitamin D is present. Interactions Foods and food supplements with blood-thinning effects include nattokinase, lumbrokinase, beer, bilberry, celery, cranberries, fish oil, garlic, ginger, ginkgo, ginseng, green tea, horse chestnut, licorice, niacin, onion, papaya, pomegranate, red clover, soybean, St. John's wort, turmeric, wheatgrass, and willow bark. Many herbal supplements have blood-thinning properties, such as danshen and",
"-26.63159454894776"
]
] |
5fogoh | What determines whether liquid being poured out of a glass is going to pour out and down the side of the glass rather than straight out? | [
"It's all to do with the speed of the water as it passes over the lip. If the water is moving slowly then it will not overcome the force holding it to the glass (adhesion). However if it moves quickly, the water has more momentum and it can break free and pour away from the glass. If the water cannot \"break free\" of the surface then it will simply roll over the lip of the glass and trickle down the outside. The spout on a jug, you'll notice, curves downward slightly when the jug is held at a pouring angle. Obviously the more vertical the water stream the faster it flows, so jugs pour nice clean streams if water.",
"If your glass has a sharp rim, the water will pour straight out. If the rim is rounded, the surface tension of the water often is great enough to \"hold\" the water to the outside of the glas so it runs down.",
"The condition can be explained by the \"Coanda Effect\". A moving fluid will tend to stay attached to the surface it is flowing over.",
"Surface tension vs the force of gravity. The sharper the angle the more likely it is to roll over the edge and \"stick\" to the container.",
"surface tension and fluid dynamics. mostly its how sharp the edge of the glass is and how fast the water is moving."
] | [
[
"responsible for pushing any liquid at the outside bottom of the pint glass further inside (as the seal of the glass and the saucer is not perfect) as it begins to equalise the pressure difference. Once the majority of the liquid is inside the upside down pint glass, sometimes further air can be seen to bubble up into the glass. At some point an equilibrium will occur, where the pressure difference between inside and outside of the glass is equal to the pressure of the column of liquid held up inside, and this will hold the liquid inside the glass.",
"-35.90220684209703"
],
[
"wine meets the side of the glass, capillary action makes the liquid climb the side of the glass. As it does so, both alcohol and water evaporate from the rising film, but the alcohol evaporates faster, due to its higher vapor pressure. The resulting decrease in the concentration of alcohol causes the surface tension of the liquid to increase, and this causes more liquid to be drawn up from the bulk of the wine, which has a lower surface tension because of its higher alcohol content. The wine moves up the side of the glass and forms droplets that",
"-34.92896709375782"
],
[
"much you stir a cocktail in a glass (or think about milk shake), when the liquid has come to rest, some point in the liquid will end up in exactly the same place in the glass as before you took any action, assuming that the final position of each point is a continuous function of its original position, that the liquid after stirring is contained within the space originally taken up by it, and that the glass (and stirred surface shape) maintain a convex volume. Ordering a cocktail shaken, not stirred defeats the convexity condition (\"shaking\" being defined as",
"-34.66884406172903"
],
[
"is a consequence of the fact that alcohol has a lower surface tension and higher volatility than water. The water/alcohol solution rises up the surface of the glass due to capillary action. Alcohol evaporates from the film leaving behind liquid with a higher surface tension (more water, less alcohol). This region with a lower concentration of alcohol (greater surface tension) pulls on the surrounding fluid more strongly than the regions with a higher alcohol concentration (lower in the glass). The result is the liquid is pulled up until its own weight exceeds the force of the effect, and the liquid",
"-33.57906735071447"
],
[
"Well's in-clinometer, the essential parts of which are a flat side, or base, on which it stands, and a hollow disc just half filled with some heavy liquid. The glass face of the disc is surrounded by a graduated scale that marks the angle at which the surface of the liquid stands, with reference to the flat base. The zero line is parallel to the base, and when the liquid stands on that line, the flat side is horizontal; the 90 degree is perpendicular to the base, and when the liquid stands on that line, the flat side is perpendicular",
"-33.432138102827594"
],
[
"glass, and second, determining which player should go first. How both of these actions are completed is determined by local tradition. The initial pour in a glass is generally claimed or ceded by one of the players seated behind the glass, based on a number of factors: how well the players have been playing, whether one of the players is new to the game or is a guest, etc. The glass is then filled as much or as little as the player would like, traditionally with beer (specifically Yuengling). If the players are all \"regulars\", determining which of the four",
"-32.617416659333685"
],
[
"the glass: this may also indicate an overwhelmed condenser, and the nonobservance of these at the glass isn’t definite of the nonoccurrence of flash-gas in the liquid line.\nConsidering the saturation table for the refrigerant, if it is possible to confirm that a certain amount of condenser subcooling is being produced, and the glass still exhibits gas in the liquid line, one may identify this with flash-gas being produced between the condenser and the glass. The flash-gas phenomena may create a deceiving temperature drop on the liquid line that can be misinterpreted as subcooling. This is due to the fact that",
"-32.163816270200186"
],
[
"breaks. Binding in the frame Glass expands and contracts with changes in temperature and deflects due to wind, so almost all modern glass is set on resilient blocks at the bottom and with space for expansion at the sides and top. The gaskets holding the glass in the frame are also usually resilient to cushion the glass against wind buffeting. If no space is provided at the perimeter of the unit, the glass will bind against the frame, causing internal stresses to develop in the glass which can exceed the strength of glass, resulting in breakage. Internal defects and inclusions",
"-32.103422848449554"
],
[
"drips back down the vessel's walls. This can also be easily demonstrated by spreading a thin film of water on a smooth surface and then allowing a drop of alcohol to fall on the center of the film. The liquid will rush out of the region where the drop of alcohol fell.\nThe Marangoni number, a dimensionless value, can be used to characterize the relative effects of surface tension and viscous forces.\nA very detailed mathematical treatment of this from the point of view of the Navier–Stokes equations and the equations of thermodynamics can be found in the first third of Subrahmanyan",
"-32.030147183686495"
],
[
"U.S. bars, these devices appear visually to be the same as a free-flow pour spout, but have an internal mechanism to block the tube after a pre-defined and calibrated volume of liquid has passed, oftentimes a set of 2 or 3 balls. Because of the geometry, the bottle with one of these spouts needs to be held at a specific angle, typically 45 degrees, otherwise the volume poured will be under or over the stated calibration. Ball-measuring cap Common in France, where it is called a bouchon doseur boule, this device consists of a transparent T-shaped glass tube arrangement, with",
"-31.863044120327686"
],
[
"diameter in its middle.\nAlcohols such as ethanol are often used rather than water. Alcohols have low viscosity and surface tension, which allows the bubble to travel the tube quickly and settle accurately with minimal interference from the glass surface. Alcohols also have a much wider liquid temperature range, and won't break the vial as water could due to ice expansion. A colorant such as fluorescein, typically yellow or green, may be added to increase the visibility of the bubble. \nA variant of the linear spirit level is the bull's eye level: a circular, flat-bottomed device with the liquid under a",
"-31.743383152381284"
],
[
"be stirred, not shaken, so that the molecules lie sensuously on top of one another.\" A martini may also be served on the rocks; that is, with the ingredients poured over ice cubes and served in an Old-Fashioned glass.",
"-31.241640821448527"
],
[
"BLS: \"When asked whether the glass is half full or half empty, the bureau’s response is, It’s an eight-ounce glass with four ounces of liquid.\"",
"-31.191017066244967"
],
[
"liquid out of the reservoir. This drawn liquid and the reservoir form a neck of liquid, akin to the neck of a splitting droplet but longer, and the collapsing of this neck forms a dispensed droplet from the drawn liquid. In contrast to splitting, though, dispensing droplets in this manner is inconsistent in scale and results. There is no reliable distance liquid will need to be pulled from the reservoir for the neck to collapse, if it even collapses at all. Because this distance varies, the volumes of dispensed droplets will also vary within the same device. Due to these",
"-31.160626279801363"
],
[
"a carbonated drink bottle with the lid on. If a person moves to a higher ambient pressure, then the gas inhaled is at a higher pressure, so more of it dissolves in the blood and diffuses into body tissues (Henry's and Fick's gas laws). If they slowly move back to a lower pressure, then the extra gas comes out slowly until they are back to their normal amount of dissolved gas. But if they move quickly to a lower ambient pressure, then the gas comes out of our blood and tissues violently, in large bubbles, in the same way that",
"-30.973302729413263"
],
[
"liquid in the glasses, and then the player's team drinks; for a triple, the amount of liquid is tripled, and so on.\nWhoever drinks, pours—this is always the case. \"Wagering\" the pour is a key game dynamic. When a player pours, they know that either they, or the opponent sitting next to them, will have to drink it; thus, the player may pour heavily if they feel there is a high chance their team will make the next cap, or they may pour conservatively if they don't feel so optimistic. Note also that the wagering dynamic gives more power to the",
"-30.772929978062166"
],
[
"tricks, the original \"any drink\" where a single container can pour multiple drinks, and the \"endless pour\" in which a seemingly large or continuous amount of liquid is poured from a container that is too small to hold it. Any drink The original method from Hocus Pocus Junior was a single large barrel that is modified with internal baffles to create three sections. A single spigot on one of the flat ends of the barrel is extended with three pipes, one leading into each of the different partitions. The flow is controlled through a bunghole on the top that is",
"-30.764094898837357"
],
[
"There are three reasons why the shape of the glass matters. Firstly, this type of glass is easy to hold because its top edge is wider than the middle which prevents it from slipping out of hands. Secondly, because the top part becomes less hot, it prevents burning one's hands. Thirdly, it was proven that, unlike regular glasses and cups in which hot liquids cool evenly, the hot tea in Armudu glasses provides proportional cooling at the time of drinking allowing cooling of the tea in the top portion of the glass while keeping the bottom part hot.",
"-30.707274280226557"
],
[
"or how little or much stirring at any point in time is done to any barrel, as long as at the end each barrel has the same amount of liquid.\nThe problem can be solved with logic and without resorting to computation. It is not necessary to state the volumes of wine and water, as long as they are equal. The volume of the cup is irrelevant, as is any stirring of the mixtures. History This puzzle was mentioned by W. W. Rouse Ball in the third, 1896, edition of his book Mathematical Recreations And Problems Of Past And Present Times,",
"-30.675699180108495"
],
[
"bubbles form on imperfections in the glass that facilitate nucleation.\nNucleations are needed to stimulate the formation of bubbles because carbon dioxide has to first diffuse from the wine solution before it can rise out of the glass and into the air. A poured glass of sparkling wine will lose its bubbliness and carbon dioxide gas much more quickly than an open bottle alone would. The frothiness or \"mousse\" of the wine, along with the average size and consistency of the bubbles, can vary depending on the quality of the wine and the type of glass used.\nThe average bottle of Champagne",
"-30.439733580045868"
],
[
"the setup screwed back together. This helps avoid accidentally breaking the glass and potentially doing serious harm to the chemist, as will sometimes occur when pushing the hoses directly onto the glass. Adapters For either standard taper joints or ball-and-socket joints, inner and outer joints with the same numbers are made to fit together. When the joint sizes are different, ground glass adapters may be available (or made) to place in between to connect them. Special clips or pinch clamps may be placed around the joints to hold them in place.\nRound-bottom flasks often have one or more conically tapered ground",
"-30.38060239329934"
],
[
"surrounding fluid. As beer rises in the centre, the beer near the outside of the glass falls. This downward flow pushes the bubbles near the glass towards the bottom. Although the effect occurs in any liquid, it is particularly noticeable in any dark nitrogen stout, as the drink combines dark-coloured liquid and light-coloured bubbles.\nA study published in 2012 revealed that the effect is due to the particular shape of the glass coupled with the small bubble size found in stout beers. If the vessel widens with height then bubbles will sink along the walls – this is the case for",
"-30.310034097288735"
],
[
"diameter. The surface tension of the liquid causes the liquid to hang from the tube, forming a pendant. When the drop exceeds a certain size it is no longer stable and detaches itself. The falling liquid is also a drop held together by surface tension. Viscosity and pitch drop experiments Some substances that appear to be solid, can be shown to instead be extremely viscous liquids, because they form drops and display droplet behavior. In the famous pitch drop experiments, pitch – a substance somewhat like solid bitumen – is shown to be a liquid in this way. Pitch in",
"-30.306308401701244"
],
[
"liquids vitrify into a glass rather than transform to the equilibrium crystal phase. This happens if the cooling rate is faster than a critical cooling rate, and is attributed to the molecular motions becoming so slow that the molecules cannot rearrange into the crystal positions. This slowing down happens below a glass-formation temperature Tg, which may depend on the applied pressure. If the first-order freezing transition occurs over a range of temperatures, and Tg falls within this range, then there is an interesting possibility that the transition is arrested when it is partial and incomplete. Extending these ideas to first-order",
"-30.278047932079062"
],
[
"glasses\" which appear about the size of an aperitif glass, but are mostly glass with little open space for the liquid. This not only helped the illusion (until lifted to the lips) but also reduced the cost of performing the act if the glasses were handed out. For very large audiences, sleight of hand can be used to switch bottles during the act; Modern Magic suggests doing this while calling for more glasses to be brought onstage.\nScribner's describes a very different method in which a beer barrel was placed under the stage and piped to a hole in the floor",
"-30.258362034452148"
],
[
"sustained by pouring the liquid onto a slanted surface, preventing the outgoing jet from intersecting the downward one (which tends to end the effect).\nIt is thought to occur when the downgoing stream \"slips\" off the pile it is forming, and due to a thin layer of shear-thinned liquid acting as a lubricant, does not combine with the pile. When the slipping stream reaches a dimple in the pile, it will shoot off it like a ramp, creating the effect.",
"-30.243509486943367"
],
[
"the column. The vapor condenses on the glass platforms (known as plates or trays) inside the column and runs back down into the liquid below, thereby refluxing the upflowing distillate vapor. The hottest tray is at the bottom of the column and the coolest tray is at the top. At steady state conditions, the vapor and liquid on each tray is at equilibrium. Only the most volatile of the vapors stays in gaseous form all the way to the top. The vapor at the top of the column then passes into the condenser, where it cools until it condenses into",
"-30.166710603196407"
],
[
"pipe. A liquid in an area of low pressure (vacuum) vaporizes and forms bubbles, which then collapse as they enter high pressure areas. This causes liquid to fill the cavities left by the bubbles with tremendous localized force, eroding any adjacent solid surface. Surfaces Unless the volume of a liquid exactly matches the volume of its container, one or more surfaces are observed. The presence of a surface introduces new phenomena which are not present in a bulk liquid. This is because a molecule at a surface possesses bonds with other liquid molecules only on the inner side of the",
"-30.125337898381986"
],
[
"(removal of bubbles), the glass is formed. Flat glass for windows and similar applications is formed by the float glass process, developed between 1953 and 1957 by Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers, who created a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity. The top surface of the glass is subjected to nitrogen under pressure to obtain a polished finish.Container glass for common bottles and jars is formed by blowing and pressing methods. This glass is often slightly modified chemically (with",
"-30.011928908759728"
],
[
"cup. However, when the amount of fluid exceeds this fill line, fluid will overflow into the pipe in the center of the cup. Due to the drag that molecules exert on one another, the cup will be emptied. Heron's fountain Heron's fountain is a device invented by Heron of Alexandria that consists of a jet of fluid being fed by a reservoir of fluid. The fountain is constructed in such a way that the height of the jet exceeds the height of the fluid in the reservoir, apparently in violation of principles of hydrostatic pressure. The device consisted of an",
"-30.00179301609751"
],
[
"substance to water. The reduced surface tension reduces the noise from dripping. Shape The classic shape associated with a drop (with a pointy end in its upper side) comes from the observation of a droplet clinging to a surface. The shape of a drop falling through a gas is actually more or less spherical for drops less than 2 mm in diameter. Larger drops tend to be flatter on the bottom part due to the pressure of the gas they move through. As a result, as drops get larger, a concave depression forms which leads to the eventual breakup of",
"-29.87390464526834"
],
[
"Dribble glass A dribble glass is a drinking glass that has holes hidden in its etched design.\nThe purpose of a dribble glass is for pranks. When a person tilts the glass to take a drink from this glass, they will end up spilling the liquid on their clothing as the drink trickles through the holes.\nThe dribble glass was invented by S.S. Adams.",
"-29.805765328652342"
],
[
"of the tower. Like most liquids, surface tension makes drops of molten lead become near-spherical as they fall. When the tower is high enough, the lead droplets will solidify while still dropping and thus will retain their spherical form. Water is usually placed at the bottom of the tower, causing the lead to be cooled immediately after dropping.\nRoundness of manufactured shot produced from the shot tower process is graded by forcing the newly produced shot to roll accurately down inclined planes. Unround shot will naturally roll to the side, for collection. The unround shot was either re-processed in another",
"-29.720597031908255"
],
[
"pour, the server holds the glass at a 45° angle below the tap and fills the glass 3/4 full. On the way out of the tap, the beer is forced at high speed through a five-hole disc restrictor plate in the end of the tap, creating friction and forcing the creation of small nitrogen bubbles which form a creamy head. After allowing the initial pour to settle, the server fills the remainder of the glass until the head forms a slight dome over the top of the glass.\nIn April 2010, Guinness redesigned the Guinness pint glass for the first time",
"-29.61202901264187"
],
[
"means the same. If two identical volumes of fluids are compared, the denser one weighs more than the lighter one. Floating Liqueurs in practice Floating only works if the denser liquor is poured into the glass first. If the lighter one is poured in first, the denser one falls through to the bottom of the glass, which creates a lot of unwanted turbulence. Densities of common cocktail ingredients can be looked up online, or one uses the following rule of thumb. Sweet liqueurs with low proof are the heaviest, and dry liqueurs with high proof the lightest.\nBegin by pouring the",
"-29.57589924673084"
],
[
"of picking up a bottle of water and pouring it in a glass. This apparently simple task is actually a combination of complex tasks that are processed at different levels. The levels of processing include: (1) for the prehension movement to the bottle, the reach and hand configuration have to be coordinated, (2) when lifting the bottle, the load and the grip force applied by the fingers need to be coordinated to account for weight, fragility, and slippage of the glass, and (3) when pouring the water from the bottle to the glass, the actions of both arms, one holding",
"-29.412770612863824"
],
[
"Sometimes, when a good seal is made, the pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the glass exerts a great enough force that when the glass is lifted, the saucer will remain stuck to its underside.\nWhen the pint glass is removed, ice is immediately added, thus causing the condensation of the alcohol vapour, creating a white mist in the glass by a process fairly similar to the formation of contrails. By covering the glass with the hand, this vapour is trapped until it is extracted by the process of inhalation, usually through a straw.",
"-29.37408205884276"
],
[
"do the same for the host. Therefore, paying attention to other’s drink glasses and filling them when empty is a common procedure at bars, parties, and other social settings. If one does not wish to drink any further, that person is to simply leave their glass full. Tradition states that guests should not refuse the first drink offered by a host. If a guest refuses a drink up to three times, that specific guest will not be offered anymore.\nWhen adult guests are asked to pour a drink, they are expected to offer the drink respectfully with two hands. When pouring",
"-29.250004339177394"
],
[
"(left palm at the bottom and hold the glass with the right hand) and bow the head slightly. When it is time to drink, the drinker must turn away from the elder, and cover the mouth and glass with their hands. The first drink must be finished in one shot. When the glass is empty, the drinker hands it back to the person who poured the drink for them and the drinker then pours them a shot. This starts a series of glass and bottle passes around the table.\nBy the middle of 1300s, manners and culture of drinking came into",
"-29.23419088544324"
],
[
"successful in rolling before the glass is empty, the glass is refilled and the drinker tries again until successful. If the roller touches the dice before the drinker touches the cup, their roles are reversed. At any point, another player (\"the rescuer\") may \"save\" the drinker by taking the glass and drinking it.",
"-29.206296948483214"
],
[
"liquid (usually water). In the second case, the object is immersed into a vessel full of liquid (called an overflow can), causing it to overflow. Then the spilled liquid is collected and its volume measured. In the third case, the object is suspended under the surface of the liquid and the increase of weight of the vessel is measured. The increase in weight is equal to the amount of liquid displaced by the object, which is the same as the volume of the suspended object times the density of the liquid.\nThe concept of Archimedes' principle is that an object immersed",
"-29.167763334233314"
],
[
"tendency, and causes the observable paradox.\nIncidentally, the circular movement of water is slower at the bottom of the cup than at the top, because the friction surface at the bottom greater. This difference 'twists' the moving body of water into a spiral. Applications The phenomenon has been used to develop a new technique to separate red blood cells from blood plasma, to understand atmospheric pressure systems, and in the process of brewing beer to separate out coagulated trub in the whirlpool.",
"-29.141969057978713"
],
[
"water and then setting the water in circular motion by stirring with a hand or spoon. The boundary layer spirals inward and sweeps the heavier solids into a neat pile in the center of the bowl or cup. With water circulating in a bowl or cup, the primary flow is purely circular and might be expected to fling heavy particles outward to the perimeter. Instead, heavy particles can be seen to congregate in the center as a result of the secondary flow along the floor. River bends Water flowing through a bend in a river must follow",
"-29.11190295824781"
],
[
"surface in the container. If liquid is placed in a bag, it can be squeezed into any shape. Unlike a gas, a liquid is nearly incompressible, meaning that it occupies nearly a constant volume over a wide range of pressures; it does not generally expand to fill available space in a container but forms its own surface, and it may not always mix readily with another liquid. These properties make a liquid suitable for applications such as hydraulics.\nLiquid particles are bound firmly but not rigidly. They are able to move around one another freely, resulting in a limited degree of",
"-29.068833896657452"
],
[
"if one's glass is not empty by the final verse, one must finish the drink after singing the line.\nA barley mow is a stack (mow) of barley, especially barley that was cultivated and then harvested. Barley is a grain that is commonly malted for brewing beer.",
"-29.052839228213998"
],
[
"stacked glasses in two shots, the player on his right will spin a quarter while the \"loser\" chugs his beer until the quarter ceases to spin. Any player can blow on the quarter or spin it with their finger to keep it spinning. After this, the glasses are split like when the game started and it begins again. Gameplay ends when the players feel they are sufficiently inebriated. Other variations An alternative method of gameplay is that one glass is positioned in the center of the table. Participants take turns attempting to bounce the quarter into the glass. ",
"-28.998844899819233"
],
[
"each player's own point of view), so that it crosses the lengthwise centerline of the court. A down-the-line shot is one that is hit more or less parallel to, and near to, one of the sidelines, so that it never crosses the centerline.\nShots hit during a point without the ball having bounced are called volleys, while shots hit just a split second after the ball bounces are called half volleys. A smash is hit with the racket well above one's head with great velocity. A drop shot is a groundstroke or volley that is hit lightly so that it barely",
"-28.982877510075923"
],
[
"fit inside the glass. The rim of the strainer does not need to touch the rim of the glass, as the spring inside filters out the ice.\nThe Julep strainer is shaped like a bowl with a handle, and will fit tightly into a mixing glass or shaker when inserted at the proper angle. Liquid passes through holes or slits in the bowl.",
"-28.956647026187056"
],
[
"that serve both functional and marketing purposes for the liquor being poured. Bottles are available to the trade with their labels affixed upside down so that they will be the right way up when mounted on the optic. Thimble measure The thimble measure is a stainless steel vessel, like a shot glass, either with predefined measuring lines etched or stamped into the sides, or else pre-sized so that pouring up to the brim of the measure yields the correct volume. This second variation is commonly seen in a double-thimble or \"hourglass\" form, with two metal cups of different volumes (often",
"-28.905074807000346"
],
[
"Shot glass A shot glass is a small glass originally designed to hold or measure spirits or liquor, which is either imbibed straight from the glass (\"a shot\") or poured into a cocktail (\"a drink\"). An alcoholic beverage served in a shot glass and typically consumed quickly, in one gulp, may also be known as a \"shooter\".\nShot glasses decorated with a wide variety of toasts, advertisements, humorous pictures, or other decorations and words are popular souvenirs and collectibles, especially as merchandise of a brewery. Name origin The word \"shot\", meaning a drink of alcohol, has been used since at least",
"-28.8432327606306"
],
[
"end of the tube, it is then brought back to the beginning of the tube and the deposited particles are then melted to form a solid layer. This process is repeated until a sufficient amount of material has been deposited. For each layer the composition can be modified by varying the gas composition, resulting in precise control of the finished fiber's optical properties.\nIn outside vapor deposition or vapor axial deposition, the glass is formed by flame hydrolysis, a reaction in which silicon tetrachloride and germanium tetrachloride are oxidized by reaction with water (H₂O) in an oxyhydrogen flame. In outside vapor",
"-28.842978256754577"
],
[
"that pouring and receiving drinks was important over the bowl. Pouring drinks In South Korea, it is traditional that when a person gives an alcoholic drink to another adult, the person has to offer the drink respectfully with two hands. When pouring a drink, the cup should be held with the right hand, and the wrist of your right hand held lightly with the left hand. It is customary to wait until the glass is empty to pour another. Receiving drinks There is also a tradition for receiving drinks. When receiving drinks, the same etiquette applies when pouring drinks. When",
"-28.82446178077953"
],
[
"to stick to the side of the glass rather than rising to the surface as normal.\nFor proper foam formation, it is also important to dry the glass thoroughly after washing. Any water in the glass can prevent excitement of the gas by covering designs set in the bottom of the glass, thus making the beer flat. Conversely, some styles such as Belgian witbier benefit from being poured into a wet glass to control the often abundant head. Formation of 'nitrogen head' The creamy head on beers such as Guinness is created by a widget in cans or bottles using nitrogen,",
"-28.804960461799055"
],
[
"the molecule will move relative to the surrounding liquid. This relative motion is essentially the same phenomenon that occurs in a centrifuge, or more simply, it is essentially the same phenomenon that occurs when low-density objects float to the top of a glass of water, and high-density particles sink to the bottom (see the equivalence principle, which states that gravity is just like any other acceleration). The amount of relative motion depends on the balance between the molecule's effective mass (which includes both the mass of the molecule itself and any solvent molecules that are so tightly bound to the",
"-28.7570438804687"
],
[
"returning in the proper form. Hitting an opponent's cup means one-fifth, one-half or simply a \"sip\" of the cup is drunk (depending on the school), and sinking a ball in a cup (aka, a \"plop\") means that a player or a team must drink a half or the entire cup. Spilling one's own cup usually merits drinking an entire cup of freshly poured beer. Other beverages than beer, including water or cocktails, are sometimes permitted, but some beverage is necessary. Service The ball is properly served by striking it with the paddle, ensuring it bounces only once off the",
"-28.745096354279667"
],
[
"a quarter towards the cups. If the quarter lands in a player's cup, the player must drink his/her shot, refill the cup, and place it back with the rest. If the shooter lands the quarter in to the community cup, every player must reach into the center and drink their shot. The last player to finish their drink must then drink the community cup. If the shooter makes his/her shot on the first attempt, they may shoot again until they miss. If they miss on the first attempt, they must pass the quarter to the next player on their",
"-28.70887121569831"
],
[
"Drop (liquid) A drop or droplet is a small column of liquid, bounded completely or almost completely by free surfaces. A drop may form when liquid accumulates at the lower end of a tube or other surface boundary, producing a hanging drop called a pendant drop. Drops may also be formed by the condensation of a vapor or by atomization of a larger mass of liquid. Surface tension Liquid forms drops because the liquid exhibits surface tension.\nA simple way to form a drop is to allow liquid to flow slowly from the lower end of a vertical tube of small",
"-28.697393040929455"
],
[
"pressure drops. Thus when the flaming alcohol in a backdraft is covered with a pint glass over a saucer, the dense, cold air is replaced with less dense, warm air with a lot of alcohol vapour held in it. As the oxygen flow to the fire is restricted, the remaining oxygen is used up and the fire in the pint glass goes out, removing the heat source. The alcohol-laden warm air now in the glass cools and begins to create a pressure difference. The air outside the pint glass forces its way into the partially evacuated pint glass and is",
"-28.68748075858457"
],
[
"\nThe glass may feel slippery or slimy \nand tiny droplets, or weeping, may be seen in high humidity (above 55%). \nThe hydrated alkali can form fine crystals on the surface of the glass in low relative humidity (below 40%).\nAt this stage, it may be possible to gently wash the glass and remove the surface alkali.\nThis will help to stabilize the glass by reducing the surface pH, and by removing dust, soiling, and hygroscopic components that attract further moisture. Stage Two If alkali builds up due to ion exchange, and remains on the surface of the glass, the decay process",
"-28.663490592734888"
],
[
" The liquid, such as an acid, is poured into the top chamber. Although the acid is free to flow down through the tube into the bottom chamber, it is prevented from rising there by the pressure of the gas contained above it, which is able to leave the apparatus only by a stopcock near the top of the middle chamber. This stopcock may be opened, initially to permit the air to leave the apparatus, allowing the liquid in the bottom chamber to rise through the retention plate into the middle chamber and react with the solid material.",
"-28.657829022500664"
],
[
"the glass is carried out before the tempering process starts. Because of the balanced stresses in the glass, damage to any portion will eventually result in the glass shattering into thumbnail-sized pieces. The glass is most susceptible to breakage due to damage to the edge of the glass, where the tensile stress is the greatest, but shattering can also occur in the event of a hard impact in the middle of the glass pane or if the impact is concentrated (for example, striking the glass with a hardened point).\nUsing tempered glass can pose a security risk in some situations because",
"-28.649674707092345"
],
[
"Collins glass A collins glass is a glass tumbler which typically will contain 300 to 410 millilitres (10 to 14 US fl oz). It is used to serve mixed drinks, especially Tom Collins or John Collins cocktails. It is cylindrical in shape and narrower and taller than a highball glass.",
"-28.64535905327648"
],
[
"whatever are preferred.\nOne further variation places a 6-sided die (although other sided die could also be used) on top of the bottle. If the bottle is knocked over and the die knocked onto the table, the player is awarded points equal to whatever side of the die lies facing upward when the die comes to a stop. This adds a random effect to hitting the bottle and in practice often results in players only striking the bottle in combination with other point-scoring shots.",
"-28.63407180714421"
],
[
"inverted spirit bottle, so that a pre-defined volume of the bottle's contents drains into the measure. Lifting a lever on the side of the measure first closes off the measure from the bottle, then dispenses the measured liquid into the glass or mixing vessel held underneath. This mechanism ensures that a correct spirit measure can be dispensed each time, as the inverted bottle allows the measure to be replenished in the optic after each shot has been dispensed. These types of measures are commonly used for highly demanded drinks in professional bar settings, and are often incorporated into visually-appealing machines",
"-28.54116557942325"
],
[
"vapor is 611.657 pascals, then the system can still be brought to the triple point of water. Strictly speaking, the surfaces separating the different phases should also be perfectly flat, to negate the effects of surface tension.\nThe gas–liquid–solid triple point of water corresponds to the minimum pressure at which liquid water can exist. At pressures below the triple point (as in outer space), solid ice when heated at constant pressure is converted directly into water vapor in a process known as sublimation. Above the triple point, solid ice when heated at constant pressure first melts to form liquid water, and then",
"-28.535139637300745"
],
[
"over their own cup with the ball, their paddle, their body, or by hitting the table, they lose and must drink a beer. This is true regardless of how much beer was in the cup (or if it was empty). If a player hits a ball (not on the serve) and knocks over the other team’s cup, his team automatically wins, regardless of how full the cup is. The Full Cup Knockover is considered the most difficult shot in the game.\nIf a player hits the ball and it lands into the other team’s beer, that player’s side",
"-28.52448290621396"
],
[
"internal and surfaces of a glass panel to increase its strength and also to ensure in the case of breakages the glass shatters into small, harmless pieces of glass. The cut glass panels are put into a toughening furnace. Here the glass panels are heated to upward of 600 degrees C and then the surfaces are cooled rapidly with cold air. This produces tensile stresses on the surface of the glass with the warmer internal glass particles. As the top thickness of the glass cools it contracts and forces the corresponding glass elements to contract to introduce stresses into the",
"-28.49747031617153"
],
[
"toughened glass, compressive stresses are induced on the surface of the glass, balanced by tensile stresses in the body of the glass. Due to the residual compressive stress on the surface, toughened glass is more resistant to cracks, but shatter into small shards when the outer surface is broken. A demonstration of the effect is shown by Prince Rupert's Drop, a material-science novelty in which a molten glass globule is quenched in water: Because the outer surface cools and solidifies first, when the volume cools and solidifies, it \"wants\" to take up a smaller volume than the outer \"skin\" has",
"-28.467944612173596"
],
[
"in a decade. The new glass is taller and narrower than the previous one and features a bevel design. The new glasses are planned to gradually replace the old ones. Sinking bubbles When Guinness is poured, the gas bubbles appear to travel downwards in the glass. The effect is attributed to drag; bubbles that touch the walls of a glass are slowed in their travel upwards. Bubbles in the centre of the glass are, however, free to rise to the surface, and thus form a rising column of bubbles. The rising bubbles create a current by the entrainment of the",
"-28.33536320179701"
],
[
"end of the tube, and consequently returning the liquid to the center of the tube. By measuring the rotational speed and the distance from the center of rotation to the liquid level in the bent ends of the tube, the pressure reduction inside the tube can be calculated.\nNegative pressures, (i.e. less than zero absolute pressure, or in other words, tension) have been reported using water processed to remove dissolved gases. Tensile strengths up to 280 atmospheres have been reported for water in glass.",
"-28.29834400775144"
],
[
"the glass rod remained cool, with the heating confined to the tip. When a glass rod was pressed lightly against a glass plate it etched the surface, while if pressed harder it bored right through the plate. Microscopic examinations showed that the debris given off included finely powdered glass and globules of molten glass.\nWood and Loomis also investigated heating liquids and solids internally using high intensity ultrasound. While the heating of liquids was relatively straightforward, they were also able to heat an ice cube such that the center melted before the outside. The ability to heat or damage objects internally",
"-28.28687185095623"
],
[
"flow.\nIn free molecular flow, the pressure of the remaining gas can be considered as effectively zero. Thus, boiling points do not depend on the residual pressure. The flow can be considered to be individual particles moving in straight lines. Practically, the \"vapor\" cannot move around bends or into other spaces behind obstacles, as they simply hit the tube wall. This implies conventional pumps cannot be used, as they rely on viscous flow and fluid pressure. Instead, special sorption pumps, ion pumps and momentum transfer pumps are used.\nFree molecular flow occurs in various processes such as molecular distillation, ultra-high vacuum equipment",
"-28.23531640454894"
],
[
"front of opposite players. When the game begins, the two players with glasses pick up a quarter and try to bounce it off of the table into the shot glass in front of them as quickly as possible. If the shot is not made they keep shooting until one makes the shot. This player dumps the quarter out and passes the glass to the player to his left while the other shooter continues to shoot until he makes a quarter into his shot glass. Eventually, when repeated enough, one glass will catch up to the other in rotation. When this",
"-28.21922205320152"
],
[
"Hagen–Poiseuille equation Liquid flow through a pipe Assume the liquid exhibits laminar flow. Laminar flow in a round pipe prescribes that there are a bunch of circular layers (lamina) of liquid, each having a velocity determined only by their radial distance from the center of the tube. Also assume the center is moving fastest while the liquid touching the walls of the tube is stationary (due to the no-slip condition).\nTo figure out the motion of the liquid, all forces acting on each lamina must be known:\nThe pressure force pushing the liquid through the tube is the change in pressure multiplied",
"-28.208478082658985"
],
[
"a high contact angle but essential for the stability of the water-solid and water-air interfaces (the composite interface). Due to an external perturbation, a standing capillary wave can form at the liquid–air interface. If the amplitude of the capillary wave is greater than the height of the asperity, the liquid can touch the valley between the asperities; and if the angle under which the liquid comes in contact with the solid is greater than h0, it is energetically profitable for the liquid to fill the valley. The effect of capillary waves is more pronounced for small asperities with heights comparable",
"-28.191623605031054"
],
[
"of the liquid and very little energy is lost in the form of compression.\nHowever, the negligible compressibility does lead to other phenomena. The banging of pipes, called water hammer, occurs when a valve is suddenly closed, creating a huge pressure-spike at the valve that travels backward through the system at just under the speed of sound. Another phenomenon caused by liquid's incompressibility is cavitation. Because liquids have little elasticity they can literally be pulled apart in areas of high turbulence or dramatic change in direction, such as the trailing edge of a boat propeller or a sharp corner in a",
"-28.178611891518813"
],
[
"is sufficient to shatter the bottle.\nThe effect is utilized in several magic effects, including the \"Devil's Flask\". Manufacture To create the desired effect, the bottles are rapidly cooled on the outside and slow cooled on the inside during the glass-making process. This causes the outside to be extremely hard, and the inside to be soft and susceptible to damage which can release the powerful internal stresses. The glass is not annealed. Reheating the glass and then allowing it to cool slowly will remove the unique properties from the glass. Uses Because of the seemingly paradoxical nature of the glass (being",
"-28.164595060290594"
],
[
"a circular bowl or cup is moving in circular motion the water displays free-vortex flow – the water at the center of the bowl or cup spins at relatively high speed, and the water at the perimeter spins more slowly. The water is a little deeper at the perimeter and a little more shallow at the center, and the surface of the water is not flat but displays the characteristic depression toward the axis of the spinning fluid. At any elevation within the water the pressure is a little greater near the perimeter of the bowl or cup",
"-28.1233102959377"
],
[
"Even at equilibrium molecules are constantly in motion and, once in a while, a molecule in the liquid phase gains enough kinetic energy to break away from the liquid phase and enter the gas phase. Likewise, every once in a while a vapor molecule collides with the liquid surface and condenses into the liquid. At equilibrium, evaporation and condensation processes exactly balance and there is no net change in the volume of either phase.\nAt room temperature and pressure, the water jar reaches equilibrium when the air over the water has a humidity of about 3%. This percentage increases as the",
"-28.092332734639058"
],
[
"If a cup is half-full and gets sunk or knocked-over, that counts as only one point. Players in a four-point game are expected to drink half of a single cup for each point. A team cannot lose on a serve. If a team has only one point left, they cannot have the last point scored through their own ineptitude. However, if both teams have only a single point left, a team may \"serve out\" if others are waiting to play a subsequent game. In a five-point game, the first team to earn five points loses. In a four-point game, the",
"-28.057890182957635"
],
[
"likewise modified to run to three hoses, one into each partition. By turning the stopper in the bunghole to uncover one of the pipes, air can flow into the selected partition. When the spigot is opened, only the liquid from the selected partition can flow out, the partial vacuum in the other chambers prevents the flow.\nThe original \"any drink\" methods using bottles were similar to Hocus Pocus, simply on a smaller scale. Most variations used what appeared to be a bottle but was actually a tin container japanned (lacquered) green to appear like glass. The internal area is divided into",
"-28.04658856446622"
],
[
"liquid, in this case, oil and water. In water, the glass rods are visible because the refractive index of water is different for water and glass. In the oil, however, the glass rods seem to disappear because they have a refractive index very similar to that of glass, so the light doesn't bend as it crosses the glass/oil interface. Electrification Glass rods can also be used to demonstrate electrification by friction. This occurs when there are two surfaces rubbing together. In this instance, rubbing a glass rod with silk transfers a negative charge from it. This effect is known as",
"-28.027414282609243"
],
[
"drop size. Liquids with a high viscosity require a higher minimum pressure to begin spray pattern formation and yield narrower spray angles compared to water. Surface tension The surface tension of a liquid tends to assume the smallest possible size, acting as a membrane under tension. Any portion of the liquid surface exerts a tension upon adjacent portions or upon other objects that it contacts. This force is in the plane of the surface, and its amount per unit of length is surface tension. The value for water is about 0.073 N/m at 21 °C. The main effects of surface tension",
"-28.02646122162696"
],
[
"players goes first is generally determined through some measure of seniority; however, if there is a new player or a guest, they are traditionally given the first shot.\nEach player in clockwise order attempts to throw a bottle cap into the opposite side's glass. If a player shoots out of turn, they must drink what is in their side's glass. Out of solidarity, their partner may drink with them; however, it is not mandatory. After drinking, the player pours and the game resumes, but the player's next turn is skipped.\nEvery time a cap is made, a point is scored for the",
"-28.012417593388818"
],
[
"be a node 1/3 of the way back to the mouthpiece. If so, it seems that the fundamental would be missing entirely, and would only be inferred from the overtones. However, the node and the anti-node collide in the same spot and cancel out the fundamental. Breaking glass with sound via resonance This is a classic demonstration of resonance. A glass has a natural resonance, a frequency at which the glass will vibrate easily. Therefore the glass needs to be moved by the sound wave at that frequency. If the force from the sound wave making the glass vibrate is",
"-28.008206587168388"
],
[
"spout Common in U.S. bars, these devices consist of a simple rubber or plastic stopper with a metal or plastic tube fitted into it, and often a second smaller tube extending down into the bottle, designed to replace the cap or cork on a bottle of liquor. The spout, in the U.S., is usually calibrated to allow a flow of 1 fluid ounce per second, so that a bartender can measure accurate and consistent shots of liquor or portions for cocktails based on timed pours, without needing to use a jigger or other measuring device. Measured pour spout Common in",
"-27.999315985362045"
],
[
"the downward pressure. Heat is generated until the glass transition temperature, for amorphous polymers or the melting temperature, for semicrystalline polymers, is reached Phase 2 Part melting begins; material is melted and part of the melted material is extruded into the “flash” Phase 3 A steady state is reached between the melt layer and the amount of material squeezed into the flash. The spinning is then stopped. Phase 4 While the joint cools, the parts are held in contact with each other, under pressure. This ensures a solid mating at the joint while the molten material cools.\nPhases 1 through 3",
"-27.956570115871727"
],
[
"a ball on one end of the horizontal section, a cap or cork on the other end, and a cork or plastic bottle stopper on the bottom of the T, allowing the measure to replace the cap of a liquor bottle. In use, the bottle is inverted until the ball fills with liquor, and then tilted in the other direction to let the liquor pour out the spout in a manner that keeps additional liquor entering the measure from the bottle. United Kingdom The Weights and Measures Act of 1963 made it illegal in Britain for businesses to give short",
"-27.95268586082966"
],
[
"held at the edges by rollers. As it cooled the rising sheet stiffened and could then be cut. The two surfaces were of lower quality i.e. not as smooth or uniform as those of float glass. This process continued in use for many years after the development of float glass.\nBetween 1953 and 1957, Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers developed the first successful commercial application for forming a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity. The success of this process lay",
"-27.929977341584163"
],
[
"liquid with the bubble plume. This draws liquid upwards inside the plume, and causes liquid to fall outside the plume. If the viscosity of the liquid is too high to allow for this (or if the solid particles are too heavy), an impeller may be needed to keep the solid particles suspended. Constitutive equations Many of the equations used for determining the output of mixers are empirically derived, or contain empirically-derived constants. Since mixers operate in the turbulent regime, many of the equations are approximations that are considered acceptable for most engineering purposes.\nWhen a mixing impeller rotates in the fluid,",
"-27.92370062765258"
],
[
"sample of liquid water, a large portion of the molecules are held together by such bonds.\nWater also has high adhesion properties because of its polar nature. On extremely clean/smooth glass the water may form a thin film because the molecular forces between glass and water molecules (adhesive forces) are stronger than the cohesive forces.\nIn biological cells and organelles, water is in contact with membrane and protein surfaces that are hydrophilic; that is, surfaces that have a strong attraction to water. Irving Langmuir observed a strong repulsive force between hydrophilic surfaces. To dehydrate hydrophilic surfaces—to remove the strongly held layers of",
"-27.8910592449829"
],
[
"stroke (thus resulting in a loss of turn, no score, but not a loss of points), include: causing an object ball to touch the bottle at all before the cue ball touches it (without knocking it over); and causing the bottle to go into a pocket or off the table as a result of action by the cue ball, after it has caromed off an object ball. Bottle and ball spotting rules Whenever the shake bottle is knocked over it is immediately stood up open end down as close as possible to the position on the table at which it",
"-27.869385240017436"
],
[
"reservoir, it will either float, bounce, coalesce with the reservoir, or splash. In the case of floating, a drop will float on the surface for several seconds. Cleanliness of the liquid surface is reportedly very important in the ability of drops to float. Drop bouncing can occur on perturbed liquid surfaces. If the drop is able to rupture a thin film of gas separating it from the liquid reservoir, it can coalesce. Finally, higher Weber number drop impacts (with greater energy) produce splashing. In the splashing regime, the striking drop creates a crater in the fluid surface, followed by a",
"-27.85565086652059"
],
[
"field induces an electric current around the aluminum cans, which in turn creates a magnetic eddy current inside the cans. This magnetic eddy current is repulsed by a large magnetic field, and the cans are ejected from the rest of the recyclate stream.\nFinally, glass is sorted according to its color: brown, amber, green, or clear. It may either be sorted by hand, or via an automated machine that uses colored filters to detect different colors. Glass fragments smaller than 10 millimetres (0.39 in) across cannot be sorted automatically, and are mixed together as \"glass fines\".\nThis process of recycling as well as",
"-27.83791889681015"
],
[
"was given by J. Willard Gibbs in his work On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances (1875-8). Mechanism Since a liquid with a high surface tension pulls more strongly on the surrounding liquid than one with a low surface tension, the presence of a gradient in surface tension will naturally cause the liquid to flow away from regions of low surface tension. The surface tension gradient can be caused by concentration gradient or by a temperature gradient (surface tension is a function of temperature).\nAs an example, wine may exhibit a visible effect called \"tears\", as shown in the photograph. The effect",
"-27.818382682628"
],
[
"volume of the drop reaches a maximum value that is dependent on the characteristics of the solution. At this moment, the weight of the drops is in equilibrium state with the surface tension. Based on Tate’s law:\nThe drop falls when the weight (mg) is equal to the circumference (2πr) multiplied by the surface tension (σ). The surface tension can be calculated provided the radius of the tube (r) and mass of the fluid droplet (m) are known. Alternatively, since the surface tension is proportional to the weight of the drop, the fluid of interest may be compared to a reference",
"-27.79998737759888"
],
[
"If the shooter succeeds, they pass the glass to anyone at the table, and that person must then chug the beverage and catch the quarter in their teeth. Play then passes to the person on the shooter's left. Should the shooter fail to make the shot, they have the option of passing the quarter to the left, or shooting a second time. If the shooter succeeds on his second shot, he passes the glass as usual. If the shooter fails on their second shot, they must drink the beverage. In either case, the person on",
"-27.79378481968888"
],
[
"the wall of the container but it will reach the surface on the same side where it started and the seal will not leak despite the crack.\nAnother important aspect is the wetting of the metal by the glass. If the thermal expansion of the metal is higher than the thermal expansion of\nthe glass like with the Housekeeper seal, a high contact angle (bad wetting) means that there is a high tensile stress in the surface of the glass\nnear the metal. Such seals usually break inside the glass and leave a thin cover of glass on the metal. If the contact",
"-27.789202525047585"
],
[
"the glass and the other that is pouring the water, need to be coordinated with each other. This coordination also involves all of the eye–hand coordination processes. The brain interprets actions as spatial-temporal patterns and when each hand performs a different action simultaneously, bimanual coordination is involved. Additional levels of organization are required depending on whether the person will drink from the glass, give it to someone else, or simply put it on a table. Degrees of freedom problem The problem with understanding motor coordination arises from the biomechanical redundancy caused by the large number of musculoskeletal elements",
"-27.69804391989601"
],
[
"molten clear glass while an assistant heats the pattern of cane. When the cane design is fused and at the correct temperature and the bubble is exactly the correct size and temperature, the bubble is rolled over the cane pattern, which sticks to the hot glass. The bubble must be the right size and temperature for the pattern to cover it fully without any gaps or trapping air. Once the canes have been picked up, the bubble can be further heated, blown, and smoothed and shaped on the marver to give whatever final shape the glassblower wishes,",
"-27.68848900165176"
]
] |
1sw1wt | Why are corporations considered a person and why was it necessary to implement this? | [
"Corporations are not people, as much as some politicians and pundits would like you to believe, however, in order to do business, they have to be granted some of the same rights as people. People and pets have the right to not be physically abused, but that doesn't make pets people. As a REPRESENTATIVE of a group of people, a corporation needs the ability to do things like enter into contracts, be taxed and act as a single entity for a group of people. Corporations also shield individuals from the liabilities of a company. If a company goes bankrupt, the debtors can't take money away from the individual shareholders. Basically, a corporation is a legal construct to allow a group of people (shareholders) do business.",
"They aren't people, they have corporate personhood. If the concept of corporate personhood didn't exist, you wouldn't be able to sue them, tax them, or enter into contracts with them. Things like \"Exxon signs agreement to sell 100,000 barrels of oil to Sears\" would be impossible without personhood since neither Exxon nor Sears could enter into contracts without it.",
"Corporate Personhood **does not mean that they are \"people\".** It means that it's an entity that can be taxed and sued.",
"Corporations are a collection of people, that creates certain issues. First, a corporation as an entity needs to be able to have some legal framework to operate under, there are different kinds of corporations with different charters and laws that they must follow, but the key is that they have to have some framework work under. There are also other legal frameworks collections of people can operate under (labour unions, associations, political parties etc.). Now what does this mean about things like corporations and speech? Well corporations are a collection of people, and if you impose a limitation on the speech of a collection of people you are limiting the speech of those people, which is a violation of (in the US) the first amendment. For example, book publishers are corporations, and if you can prohibit one type of speech you could perhaps do this to another. In the US the supreme court has rules the risk of corruption does not meet a standard of 'strict scrutiny', which would have allowed rules limiting political speech."
] | [
[
"of corporate personhood in the United States is the extension of a limited subset of the same constitutional rights.\nCorporations as legal entities have always been able to perform commercial activities, similar to a person acting as a sole proprietor, such as entering into a contract or owning property. Therefore, corporations have always had a \"legal personality\" for the purposes of conducting business while shielding individual shareholders from personal liability (i.e. protecting personal assets which were not invested in the corporation).\nRalph Nader, Phil Radford and others have argued that a strict originalist philosophy should reject the doctrine of corporate personhood under",
"-30.51849377382314"
],
[
"Corporation History The word \"corporation\" derives from corpus, the Latin word for body, or a \"body of people\". By the time of Justinian (reigned 527–565), Roman law recognized a range of corporate entities under the names universitas, corpus or collegium. These included the state itself (the Populus Romanus), municipalities, and such private associations as sponsors of a religious cult, burial clubs, political groups, and guilds of craftsmen or traders. Such bodies commonly had the right to own property and make contracts, to receive gifts and legacies, to sue and be sued, and, in general, to perform legal acts through representatives.",
"-30.156357881613076"
],
[
"creation of corporations; the power to define and create corporations (other than as agencies of the U.S. government) is mostly reserved to the individual states. The interstate commerce clause of the constitution gives implicit authority to create private federally-chartered commercial corporations; the most numerous of these are federally chartered banks and similar financial institutions. The federal government has established certain corporations by act of Congress, mostly non-profit organizations serving the public interest, such as the Civil Air Patrol, as well as various charitable, fraternal, and veterans' organizations. In addition, certain parastatals, which are for-profit, but may exercise unique powers, such",
"-29.80098069884116"
],
[
"enabled corporations to acquire wealth, expand, and become the preferred organizational form for businesses of all sizes. Corporate personhood has come under criticism recently, as courts have extended other rights to the corporation beyond those necessary to ensure their liability for debts. Other commentators argue that corporate personhood is not a fiction anymore; it simply means that for some legal purposes, \"person\" has now a wider meaning than it had before and it still has in non-legal uses. In jurisdictions using this fiction, a legal drafter may distinguish between a \"person\" and a \"natural person\" to specify the scope of",
"-29.400817306464887"
],
[
"Benefit corporation Differences from traditional corporations Historically, United States corporate law has not been structured or tailored to address the situation of for-profit companies that wish to pursue a social or environmental mission. While corporations generally have the ability to pursue a broad range of activities, corporate decision-making is usually justified in terms of creating long-term shareholder value.\nThe idea that a corporation has as its purpose to maximize financial gain for its shareholders was first articulated in Dodge v. Ford Motor Company in 1919. Over time, through both law and custom, the concept of “shareholder primacy” has come to be",
"-29.391489471920067"
],
[
"Corporate personhood Corporate personhood is the legal notion that a corporation, separately from its associated human beings (like owners, managers, or employees), has at least some of the legal rights and responsibilities enjoyed by natural persons. In the United States and most countries, corporations have a right to enter into contracts with other parties and to sue or be sued in court in the same way as natural persons or unincorporated associations of persons. In a U.S. historical context, the phrase 'Corporate Personhood' refers to the ongoing legal debate over the extent to which rights traditionally associated with",
"-29.37096314654991"
],
[
"and suggested that corporations were undermining American democracy:\nBusiness does tend to get its way, acting by means of a nebulous force known as \"corporate power\" that drives much of what happens in both the public and private spheres ... But, of course, the entity planning the mine wasn't a someone but a something––a corporation. Although people in the company may well have cared, the corporation itself didn't. ... Nothing you may feel or do really matters, because in the end there is no getting around the fact that you are not fighting a normal opponent––your opponent is simply nobody. –",
"-28.68272837920813"
],
[
"head of state; in reality, the people's power is restricted to voting in elections.\nIn business, the business owner traditionally occupied the pinnacle of the organization. In most modern large companies, there is now no longer a single dominant shareholder, and the collective power of the business owners is for most purposes delegated to a board of directors, which in turn delegates the day-to-day running of the company to a managing director or CEO. Again, although the shareholders of the company are the nominal top of the hierarchy, in reality many companies are run at least in part as personal fiefdoms",
"-28.525215035653673"
],
[
"example, today most major corporations promote their commitment to non-economic values under headings such as ethics codes and social responsibility charters. Adam Smith said, \"People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices.\" Governments use laws and regulations to point business behavior in what they perceive to be beneficial directions. Ethics implicitly regulates areas and details of behavior that lie beyond governmental control. The emergence of large corporations with limited relationships and sensitivity to the communities in which they",
"-28.43898447410902"
],
[
"companies generally have capacity to do all the things that a natural person could do, and power to do it in any way that a natural person could do it.\nHowever, references to corporate capacity and powers have not quite been consigned to the dustbin of legal history. In many jurisdictions, directors can still be liable to their shareholders if they cause the company to engage in businesses outside its objects, even if the transactions are still valid as between the company and the third party. And many jurisdictions also still permit transactions to be challenged for lack of",
"-28.42823086003773"
],
[
"company should exist deliberately for the benefit of the people associated in it. I never liked the word employee. It intimated a difference in class within a plant. We always used the word associate. Fuller's third priority was to make money. To survive, you have to make money. To grow, you need money. To conduct research and develop new products, you must have money. The need for money can be desperate at times. But corporations must put the quest for money in its proper place. Our philosophy did not leave out service to the larger community. We put it in",
"-28.337232824866078"
],
[
"\"corporate benefit\", where the relevant transaction has no prospect of being for the commercial benefit of the company or its shareholders.\nAs artificial persons, companies can only act through human agents. The main agent who deals with the company's management and business is the board of directors, but in many jurisdictions other officers can be appointed too. The board of directors is normally elected by the members, and the other officers are normally appointed by the board. These agents enter into contracts on behalf of the company with third parties.\nAlthough the company's agents owe duties to the company (and, indirectly,",
"-28.21661808133649"
],
[
"Public-benefit corporation Origins Although corporations are now typically associated with private business, historically corporations began as means to serve defined and limited public purposes. Corporation history has roots primarily in government subdivisions and religious institutions, where the institution itself is identifiable independently of its membership's mortality. For example, if the Pope dies, the Catholic Church continues to exist, just as it continues to exist as generations pass on and get replaced by new members.\nPublic-benefit corporations likely have their direct roots in mercantile capitalism. In the early days of European exploration and colonization, a government or monarch would sometimes grant a",
"-28.10679656690627"
],
[
"the Model Business Corporation Act, one of many model sets of law prepared and published by the American Bar Association.\nAs juristic persons, corporations have certain rights that attach to natural persons. The vast majority of them attach to corporations under state law, especially the law of the state in which the company is incorporated – since the corporations very existence is predicated on the laws of that state. A few rights also attach by federal constitutional and statutory law, but they are few and far between compared to the rights of natural persons. For example, a corporation has the personal",
"-28.081534667231608"
],
[
"private individuals to start companies, corporations were granted concessions from the state to operate a trade. The concession theory held that the state gave all power to companies. If companies acted outside the power granted, such actions were necessarily contrary to the public interest, null and void. The fact that people contracting with a corporation may be thoroughly disappointed and suffer loss was legitimated on the basis that every member of the public could see the law defining the corporation's capacity. Ignorantia juris non excusat. Background to reform The Cohen Committee (Cmnd 6659, 1945) para 12 recommended every company ‘should,",
"-27.832014807499945"
],
[
"emeritus as a board member. Founder's dilemma In some instances, the desire of the founder to maintain control over the organization becomes a problem because, when an entrepreneurial organization is successful, \"[i]t outgrows the ability of the founder, or even of a small team around the founder, to control\". The Harvard Business Review identified this problem as the founder's dilemma, noting that in most successful companies, the founder is pushed out of control by investors within the first few years after the formation of the company. In some cases, a company may have multiple founders, and a prominent source of",
"-27.441827918373747"
],
[
"the various makers of the product, by means of the conciliation of the opposing interests of the employers and the workers, and their subordination to the superior interests of production.\"\nArticle 6:\n\"Legally recognized professional associations insure the legal equality between employers and workers, maintain the discipline of production and work, and promotes its perfection. Corporations constitute the unitary organizations of production and integrally represent its interests [...]. Corporations are recognized legally as organs of the State [...].\"\nArticle 7: \n\"The corporative State considers private initiative, in the field of production, as the most efficient and useful instrument of the Nation.\" \nArticle",
"-27.379693524664617"
],
[
"asserting and exercising a genuine control, in the public interest, over these great corporations have to contend against two sets of enemies, who, though nominally opposed to one another, are really allies in preventing a proper solution of the problem. There are, first, the big corporation men, and the extreme individualists among business men, who genuinely believe in utterly unregulated business -- that is, in the reign of plutocracy; and, second, the men who, being blind to the economic movements of the day, believe in a movement of repression rather than of regulation of corporations, and who denounce both the",
"-27.379448445892194"
],
[
"The basis for allowing corporations to assert such protections under the U.S. Constitution is that they are organizations of people, and the people should not be deprived of their constitutional rights when they act collectively. Thus, treating corporations as having legal rights allows corporations to sue and to be sued, provides a single entity for easier taxation and regulation, simplifies complex transactions that would otherwise involve, in the case of large corporations, thousands of people, and protects the individual rights of the shareholders as well as the right of association.\nGenerally, corporations are not able to claim constitutional protections that would",
"-27.310140276153106"
],
[
"Companies Ordinance 1984 Introduction A company is a corporation. In the eye of law, it is a person which is different from its members. As company is person in the eye of law, it can own property. It can have rights and it can also be subject to the liabilities. A company is not agent of its members. The company cannot sue the members in case of liabilities and members of the company cannot sue it to enforce rights.",
"-27.279070875491016"
],
[
"corporations devote themselves to enriching the developed world while giving little or no attention to what critics say are the detrimental effects of their actions on the people and environments of less developed countries, countries whose governments are often too weak or too corrupt to resist or regulate them. This is not to be confused with proletarian internationalism as put forth by communists in that alter-globalists do not necessarily oppose the free market, but a subset of free-market practices characterized by certain business attitudes and political policies that they say often lead to violations of human rights. Etymology The",
"-27.15410096429696"
],
[
"That is why the state corporation is independent. It is a set of assets that are managed for purposes established in its charter by managers appointed by the founder. State corporations, as a rule, are subordinate not to the government, but to the Russian president, and act to accomplish some important goal. The state corporations can manage those assets as demanded by the sketchily described goals and tasks of the charters and as allowed by the supervisory council, on which there is no one the president does not trust. United States The U.S. Constitution is silent about the federal government's",
"-27.122729471535422"
],
[
"without regard to any limit on the number of shareholders, foreign or domestic. Forming a corporation In the United States, corporations are formed under laws of a state or the District of Columbia. Procedures vary widely by state. Some states allow formation of corporations through electronic filing on the state's web site. All states require payment of a fee (often under USD200) upon incorporation. Corporations are issued a \"certificate of incorporation\" by most states upon formation. Most state corporate laws require that the basic governing instrument be either the certificate of incorporation or formal articles of incorporation. Many corporations",
"-27.115445382645703"
],
[
"government. Today, corporations are usually registered with the state, province, or national government and regulated by the laws enacted by that government. Registration is the main prerequisite to the corporation's assumption of limited liability. The law sometimes requires the corporation to designate its principal address, as well as a registered agent (a person or company designated to receive legal service of process). It may also be required to designate an agent or other legal representative of the corporation.\nGenerally, a corporation files articles of incorporation with the government, laying out the general nature of the corporation, the amount of stock it",
"-27.101782701414777"
],
[
"the corporate status of the entity (for example, \"Incorporated\" or \"Inc.\" in the United States) or the limited liability of its members (for example, \"Limited\" or \"Ltd.\"). These terms vary by jurisdiction and language. In some jurisdictions, they are mandatory, and in others they are not. Their use puts everybody on constructive notice that they are dealing with an entity whose liability is limited: one can only collect from whatever assets the entity still controls when one obtains a judgment against it.\nSome jurisdictions do not allow the use of the word \"company\" alone to denote corporate status, since the word",
"-26.964225238072686"
],
[
"the power they collectively hold (because the owners are many, each with small holdings); financial institutions (as agents) sometimes do. There is a general belief that shareholders – in this case, the institutions acting as agents—could and should exercise more active influence over the companies in which they hold shares (e.g., to hold managers to account, to ensure Board's effective functioning). Such action would add a pressure group to those (the regulators and the Board) overseeing management.\nHowever, there is the problem of how the institution should exercise this power. One way is for the institution to decide, the",
"-26.91954207039089"
],
[
"them.\nThe entrepreneurial leader takes responsibility for their actions and those actions must be more proactive than reactive. They think about achieving organisational outcomes in an innovative way and working with a diverse group of people and resources to achieve these goals. Notable examples Perhaps the best known and most widely considered example of an entrepreneurial leader is Steve Jobs, but there are many real life examples in the world of business and other industries, such as Bill Gates, Mark Zuckerberg, Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson. History The search for the characteristics or traits of leaders has been ongoing for centuries.",
"-26.90850614834926"
],
[
"business. Each is meant to facilitate the contribution of specific resources - investment capital, knowledge, relationships, and so forth - towards a venture which will prove profitable to all contributors. Except for the partnership, all business forms are designed to provide limited liability to both members of the organization and external investors. Business organizations originated with agency law, which permits an agent to act on behalf of a principal, in exchange for the principal assuming equal liability for the wrongful acts committed by the agent. For this reason, all partners in a typical general partnership may be held liable for",
"-26.88632152871287"
],
[
"significant input in the development of their companies may be candidates for this position. Most Successful Businessman Businessmen whose company has provided brand name services, products and/or technologies and who have a significant input in the development of their companies may be candidates for this position. Most Successful Company All companies that have contributed to the American economy through their brand value, endorsements, profitability, employments, services, products, and technologies can be candidates in this category. Most Successful Academician Any author, thinker, researcher, or academician holding a scholastic title, whose work in the natural and social sciences have contributed in his/her",
"-26.815480304619996"
],
[
"of individuals can own shares in corporations and other legal entities, but do not necessarily own the entities themselves. A legal entity is a legal construct through which the law allows a group of natural persons to act as if it were an individual for certain purposes.\nSome duly incorporated entities may not be owned by individuals nor by other entities; they exist without being owned once they are created. Not being owned, they cannot be bought and sold. Mutual life insurance companies, credit unions, foundations and cooperatives, not for profit organizations, and public corporations are examples of this. No person",
"-26.80130408675177"
],
[
"over where legal personhood ends. Under US law, corporations are extended at least some legal rights and responsibilities as natural persons, such as the right to enter into contracts and to sue or be sued. However, the framers of the US Constitution had originally reserved constitutional protections for individual citizens and had not intended such protections to be inherent or inalienable for their organizations incorporated under law.\nThe first time the Supreme Court entertained the idea of corporations having constitutional rights was in 1886's Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Company, when Chief Justice Morrison Waite began oral arguments",
"-26.77795476478059"
],
[
"the modern corporate structure Berle and Means begin by setting the context of the company's formation. Originally the company was granted privileges to be a separate legal person and carry on business, to sue and be sued and these rights usually went with the grant of a monopoly. The monopolies were no longer used now. But then came the easy registration of companies and limited liability for stockholders.\n“From all this necessarily flowed a limited liability of the associates. Since only the entity was liable for debts, which did not attach to the various individuals, it followed that a stockholder was",
"-26.744766496878583"
],
[
"United States corporate law United States corporate law regulates the governance, finance and power of corporations in US law. Every state and territory has its own basic corporate code, while federal law creates minimum standards for trade in company shares and governance rights, found mostly in the Securities Act of 1933 and the Securities and Exchange Act of 1934, as amended by laws like the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 and the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act. The US Constitution was interpreted by the US Supreme Court to allow corporations to incorporate in the state of their choice,",
"-26.728163621475687"
],
[
"are wholly independent of the state general corporation law. For example, in California, nonprofit corporations are incorporated under the Nonprofit Corporation Law, and in Illinois, insurers are incorporated under the Illinois Insurance Code.\nCorporations are created by filing the requisite documents with a particular state government. The process is called “incorporation”, referring to the abstract concept of clothing the entity with a \"veil\" of artificial personhood (embodying, or “corporating” it, ‘corpus’ being the Latin word for ‘body’). Only certain corporations, including banks, are chartered. Others simply file their articles of incorporation with the state government as part of a registration",
"-26.618260603019735"
],
[
"Incorporation (business) Legal benefits There are a number of legal benefits that come with incorporation.\nOne significant legal benefit is the protection of personal assets against the claims of creditors and lawsuits. Sole proprietors and general partners in a partnership are personally and jointly responsible for all the legal liability (LL) of a business such as loans, accounts payable, and legal judgments. In a corporation, however, stockholders, directors and officers typically are not liable for the company's debts and obligations. They are limited in liability to the amount they have invested in the corporation. For example, if a shareholder purchased $100",
"-26.5560584969935"
],
[
"before. In the 1886 case Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad, 118 U.S. 394, the Supreme Court decided that corporations could be regarded as persons for the purposes of the Fourteenth Amendment.\nAnother Supreme Court case related to the issue is Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission. The dispute was over whether Citizens United, a non-profit corporation, had the same right to fund political campaigns as a person. In this controversial case, the Supreme Court's 5-4 decision favored Citizen United, granting corporations, profit and non-profit, and unions the right to financially support political campaigns.\nBased on these precedent cases, ATT sued",
"-26.5556331948319"
],
[
"Ted Nace in 2003\nNace wrote about how earlier in his life he had created a corporation with Peachpit Press.\nSomething complex and even alive has come into existence, but it is no longer governed by intuitively familiar human motives and values. Instead, it is a sophisticated, complex, adaptive, continually evolving system––a sort of mindless yet intelligent being––governed by an array of internal and external programming. – Ted Nace in 2003\nIn his book, Nace tried to explore how corporations got what he viewed as \"too much power\" and how the institution developed in America. In an interview, Nace explained that the modern",
"-26.445846412563697"
],
[
"(of corporations) as the primary source of income for the mass media and the dependence upon information provided by government, business and 'experts' approved and paid for by these primary sources.\nHerman and Chomsky see the ideas as being cast as testable hypotheses such that they can be held in the light of corroboration through empirical evidence and not merely as assertions out of the blue. Examination of contemporary developments in the context of the hypotheses is encouraged.\nThus the general and fundamental understanding of the working of the industrial system in the modern economy, 'socialization of costs and privatization of profits',",
"-26.421791990258498"
],
[
"business entity must be professionals themselves. This avoids the possibility of a non-professional owner of the firm telling a professional how to do his or her job and thereby protects professional autonomy. The idea is that the only non-professional person who should be telling the professional what to do is the client; in other words, professional autonomy preserves the integrity of the two-party professional-client relationship. But because professional business entities are effectively locked out of the stock market, they tend to grow relatively slowly compared to public corporations. Status and prestige Professions enjoy a high social status,",
"-26.35347739123972"
],
[
"their personhood? If people are considered persons because of their brain, then what if the brain's thought patterns, memories and other attributes could be transposed into a device? Would the patient still be considered a person after the operation? Corporations Today, in statutory and corporate law, certain social constructs are legally considered persons. In many jurisdictions, some corporations and other legal entities are considered legal persons with standing to sue or be sued in court. This is known as legal or corporate personhood.\nIn 1819, the US Supreme Court ruled in Dartmouth College v. Woodward, that corporations have the same rights",
"-26.128570834058337"
],
[
"often quite complex. Formation Most systems treat the formation of a corporation by a controlling corporate shareholder as a nontaxable event. Many systems, including the United States and Canada, extend this tax free treatment to the formation of a corporation by any group of shareholders in control of the corporation. Generally, in tax free formations the tax attributes of assets and liabilities are transferred to the new corporation along with such assets and liabilities.\nExample: John and Mary are United States residents who operate a business. They decide to incorporate for business reasons. They transfer the",
"-26.07192739283346"
],
[
"meetings without special authorization. In Walker v. Johnson, the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia explained that the reason was that early corporations were of a municipal, religious or charitable nature, in which the shareholder had no pecuniary interest. The normal mode of conferring corporate rights was by an issue of a charter from the crown, essentially establishing the corporation as a part of the government. Given the personal trust placed in these voters by the king, it was inappropriate for them to delegate to others. In the Pennsylvania case of Commonwealth ex rel. Verree v. Bringhurst, the",
"-26.05321555241244"
],
[
"surrendered all disposition of it to those in control of the enterprise.” III The concentration of economic power This part proceeds to emphasize the ubiquity of corporations in production in the modern economy.\n“These great companies form the very framework of American industry. The individual must come in contact with them almost constantly. He may own an interest in one or more of them, he may be employed by one of them, but above all he is continually accepting their service.”\n“In conclusion, then, the huge corporation, the corporation with $90m of assets or more, has come to dominate most major industries",
"-26.01073360081864"
],
[
"which advocated that corporate leadership accept (and theorized that they had, to a great extent, already accepted) that they must fulfill responsibilities toward society in addition to their traditional responsibilities toward shareholders. Corporate law should reflect this new reality, he wrote in The Modern Corporation: \"The law of corporations, accordingly, might well be considered as a potential constitutional law for the new economic state, while business practice is increasingly assuming the aspect of economic statesmanship.\" Roosevelt's Brain Trust Berle was an original member of Franklin D. Roosevelt's \"Brain Trust\", a group of advisers who developed policy recommendations. Berle's focuses ranging",
"-26.006994770112215"
],
[
"job roles, pointed out that unless a corporate employee was given dispensation from the profit motive in order to specifically create social value, even the most hybrid of corporations could not be described as a social enterprise staffed by social entrepreneurs (although employees' activities outside of the workplace might be). However, she did find evidence of corporate social entrepreneurship, where some employees had enlarged their own job roles to encompass social responsibility, in one or more forms.",
"-25.979136774752988"
],
[
"resources together to form one large - but clandestine - superstructure. Its leader is General Jonathan Krantz, who has ties with the military-industrial complex. Each leader of every separate organization within The Company answers directly to him. Among the most influential corporate leaders are the ones known as the Scylla Cardholders.\nThrough its economic assets, The Company has influence of countless individuals within - among other things - the Government, Congress, and various Federal Agencies. Politicians are especially important, as they are influenced by The Company to make decisions and pass laws that suit The Company's needs in return for being",
"-25.97347504849313"
],
[
"B-corporations A modern form of profit corporations exists in the form of B-Corporations. A number of for-profit corporations have opted to gain this status. Most organisations get this certificate in order to show their concern for the society.\nA benefit corporation does aim to gain profit but also believes in playing a role for the society in terms of considering the environment or the society when crafting its policies.\nTheir status is actually issued by a non-profit organization called B-Labs. They are accepted as legal entities in several states of the United States and legislations have been passed to ensure their legal",
"-25.95704281811777"
],
[
"thinking about how organizations should be run.\nHis approach worked well in the increasingly mature business world of the second half of the twentieth century. By that time large corporations had developed the basic manufacturing efficiencies and managerial hierarchies of mass production. Executives thought they knew how to run companies, and Drucker took it upon himself to poke holes in their beliefs, lest organizations become stale. But he did so in a sympathetic way. He assumed that his readers were intelligent, rational, hardworking people of good will. If their organizations struggled, he believed it was usually because of outdated ideas, a",
"-25.938858798879664"
],
[
"their money if they can prove wrongdoing by the people in control. Separate legal personality English law recognised long ago that a corporation would have \"legal personality\". Legal personality simply means the entity is the subject of legal rights and duties. It can sue and be sued. Historically, municipal councils (such as the Corporation of London) or charitable establishments would be the primary examples of corporations. Without a body to be kicked or a soul to be damned, a corporation does not itself suffer penalties administered by courts, but those who stand to lose their investments will. A company will,",
"-25.938679401297122"
],
[
"introduced the theory in a 1970 essay for The New York Times. In it, he argues that a company has no \"social responsibility\" to the public or society; its only responsibility is to its shareholders. He justifies this view by considering who it is a company and its executives are beholden to:\n\"In a free-enterprise, private-property system, a corporate executive is an employee of the owners of the business. He has direct responsibility to his employers. That responsibility is to conduct the business in accordance with their desires...the key point is that, in his capacity as a corporate executive, the manager",
"-25.933507792487944"
],
[
"government. In a way, business managers become the public officials they represent.\nThis privilege of power is unique to corporations only. If workers want reform on unfair working conditions or pay, they must form a worker’s union. However, a worker’s union has considerably less influence than a corporation. As opposed to workers’ unions, businesses exercise more control on governmental policy making because workers are expendable – workers need money more urgently than society needs their services, so a business can operate for a lot longer than workers can afford to stay off the job. Relationships between privileged positions of business and",
"-25.933065428980626"
],
[
"Divisional, Geographic, and the Matrix.\nRealistically, most corporations tend to have a “hybrid” structure, which is a combination of different \nmodels with one dominant strategy. Importance The kind of differentiation and diversity among corporations is of importance to corporate law (for example such difference in corporation type that has impact on corporate structure is the difference between public owned and proprietary companies).\nChoosing a structure for a company is an important decision and must be strategically thought out because it could either aid or harm the making of business. The structure must also be a good fit for the type of activities,",
"-25.89031724401866"
],
[
"there are many CEOs and startup founders who have backgrounds in humanities, liberal arts, and social sciences. In an interview, he stated that these leaders, based on their performance over time, have the ability to take a step back, ask the right questions, and, empathize with the customer, making them more effective than a leader who merely has technological fluency.\nIn his book, The Fuzzy and The Techie: Why the Liberal Arts Will Rule the Digital World, Hartley also argued that the business world depends on human touch that soft skills bring despite the increasing role technology plays in running business",
"-25.866165816536522"
],
[
"system \"assumed coherence and autonomy and became an object of independent inquiry.\" One of the first to express this concept, was Charles U. Carpenter how stated Engineering Magazine (1902):\nIn seeking the reason for the lasting and commanding success of American business organizations of today, two facts will stand out prominently. One is that the organizations are founded upon principles that are in accord with modern progressive ideas and that tend to bring out the latent intelligence, loyalty and strength of all its members.\nThe other is that the important details of factory work are cared for by systems which are homogeneous,",
"-25.823066923920123"
],
[
"account.\nDirectors of companies are held to account to the shareholders of companies, or not, by the rules found in company law statutes. This might include rights to elect and fire the management, require for regular general meetings, accounting standards, and so on. In 1930s America, the typical company laws (e.g. in Delaware) did not clearly mandate such rights. Berle argued that the unaccountable directors of companies were therefore apt to funnel the fruits of enterprise profits into their own pockets, as well as manage in their own interests. The ability to do this was supported by the fact that the",
"-25.785660676318003"
],
[
"rights to amend the corporate constitution, call meetings, make business proposals, and have a voice on major decisions, although these can be significantly constrained by the board. Employees of US corporations have often had a voice in corporate management, either indirectly, or sometimes directly, though unlike in many major economies, express \"codetermination\" laws that allow participation in management have so far been rare. Investor rights Most state corporate laws require shareholders have governance rights against boards of directors, but fewer states guarantee governance rights to the real investors of capital. Currently investment managers control most voting rights in the economy",
"-25.76075061300071"
],
[
"opportunities that exist in the environment or that are created through innovation in an attempt to create value\" (Brown & Ulijn, 2004, p. 5)\nAccording to Kanter, entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial organizations \"always operate at the edge of their competence, focusing more of the resources and attention on what they do not yet know (e.g. investment on R&D) than controlling what they already know. They measure themselves not by the standards of the past (how far they have come) but by visions of the future (how far they have yet to go). And they do not allow the past to serve as a",
"-25.75172478953027"
],
[
"implication of professional autonomy is the traditional ban on corporate practice of the professions, especially accounting, architecture, medicine, and law. This means that in many jurisdictions, these professionals cannot do business through regular for-profit corporations and raise capital rapidly through initial public offerings or flotations. Instead, if they wish to practice collectively they must form special business entities such as partnerships or professional corporations, which feature (1) reduced protection against liability for professional negligence and (2) severe limitations or outright prohibitions on ownership by non-professionals. The obvious implication of this is that all equity owners of the professional",
"-25.748673046124168"
],
[
"are followed by companies, including basic rights for workers), nor should economic life be owned or managed merely by those who have lots of capital to invest; ownership should be spread among all the stakeholders, with an emphasis on those who work in a company, the local community, and independent schools. Management of the company should be determined not by the state, but by talent, know-how, and success: i.e., whoever can manage the company profitably and for the benefit of all stakeholders, might be selected in various ways by various stakeholders, depending on circumstances.",
"-25.738492760399822"
],
[
"corporations through their functional integration, centralization of management, and economies of scale. A unitary business also benefits from more intangible values shared among its constituent parts, such as reputation, good will, customers and other business relationships. See, e.g., Mobil, 445 U.S. at 438-40; Container, 463 U.S. at 164-65.\nSeparate accounting, with its emphasis on carving out of the overall business only income from sources within a single state, ignores the value attributable to the integrated nature of the business. Yet, to a large degree, the wealth, power, and profits of the world's large multinational enterprises are attributable to the very fact",
"-25.71463653219689"
],
[
"Trust (business) A trust or corporate trust is a large grouping of business interests with significant market power, which may be embodied as a corporation or as a group of corporations that cooperate with one another in various ways. These ways can include constituting a trade association, owning stock in one another, constituting a corporate group (sometimes specifically a conglomerate), or combinations thereof. The term trust is often used in a historical sense to refer to monopolies or near-monopolies in the United States during the Second Industrial Revolution in the 19th century and early 20th century.\nIn the broader sense of",
"-25.688553583837347"
],
[
"corporation Two other types of organizations are often employed: the most frequent are gemeinnützige not-for-profit corporations, which can be companies or registered associations. This status requires not only limitation to non-commercial activities, but similar to American non-profit organizations, it is limited to those whose primary objective is to support an issue or matter of private interest or public concern for non-commercial purposes. Like many other countries, nonprofits may apply for tax exemption status, so that the organization itself may be exempt from taxes. In some cases, financial donors may claim back any income tax paid on their donations, or",
"-25.673698725702707"
],
[
"interest in the business entity or someone with a non-equity interest in a non-profit organization. Thus it might be common to call volunteer contributors to an association stakeholders, even though they are not shareholders.\nAlthough directors and officers of a company are bound by fiduciary duties to act in the best interest of the shareholders, the shareholders themselves normally do not have such duties towards each other.\nHowever, in a few unusual cases, some courts have been willing to imply such a duty between shareholders. For example, in California, USA, majority shareholders of closely held corporations have a duty not to destroy",
"-25.64896065481298"
],
[
"related to corporate size and structure; why theories about organizations do (or do not) progress; how architecture shapes social networks and innovation in organizations; why stock markets spread to some countries and not others; and whether there exist viable organizational alternatives to shareholder-owned corporations in the United States.\"",
"-25.64786676201038"
],
[
"the very small to the very large. There are no very large businesses which are not companies. (Even the John Lewis Partnership in the United Kingdom, which promotes itself as \"the world's largest partnership,\" is in fact a company.) Part of what allows companies to become so much bigger than other businesses is their ability to raise capital more easily (which is in turn connected to their separation from their owners and their immortality), and the fact of their being better regulated than other businesses, which gives confidence to investors. Shareholders It is important at the outset to appreciate what,",
"-25.614483652079798"
],
[
"tends to advantage the wealthy, who have the means to project their ideas on the public. It may be used by the wealthy as a vehicle to drive technology in their favor rather than for the greater good.\nExamining the role of citizen participation and representation in politics provides an excellent example of legacy thinking in society. The belief that one can spend money freely to gain influence has been popularized, leading to public acceptance of corporate lobbying. As a result, a self-established role in politics has been cemented where the public does not exercise the power ensured to them",
"-25.57639569909952"
],
[
"that any production process required effort, knowledge and the \"application\" of the entrepreneur. According to him, entrepreneurs are intermediaries in the production process who combine productive agents such as land, capital and labor in order to meet the demand of consumers. As a result, they play a central role in the economy and fulfil a coordinating role.\nBesides studying large-scale entrepreneurs, Say looked at people working for themselves:\nWhen a workman carries on an enterprise on his own account, as the knife grinder in the streets, he is both workman and entrepreneur.\nSay also thought about which qualities are essential for successful entrepreneurs",
"-25.570612223581975"
],
[
"interests, and as a cabal of corporations influencing everything that goes on in the United States.\nThe Company has influence over many agencies of the United States government, especially the Secret Service. With Caroline Reynolds (Patricia Wettig), the former Vice President of the United States in their grasp, The Company held control over the government's sway on the energy bill and subsequently, the country's economy. However, The Company considers every individual who works for them a pawn to achieve their goals.\nThe Company and its operatives have on several occasions displayed their complete lack of regard for innocent people's lives. Its desperate",
"-25.548036430613138"
],
[
"for their workers but also get to initiate the pathway. The more motivational leaders are the more passionate and effective the workers become. They use motivational language in conversation and meetings to provide an effective environment to work in. They act as enforcers to use speech to connect with everyone. There is also communication used through technology such as emails that are very professional. There are different audiences as well as conversations at work. Government As a Social Domain, Governments and their affiliated agencies can generally be defined as businesses or workplaces. Just as businesses are growing ever more diverse",
"-25.536367828244693"
],
[
"citizens, not just the wealthy. Multinational corporations are regulated so that they may follow domestically mandated standards for pay and labor conditions, pay reasonable taxes, and by extension leave some profits within the country.\nSpecifically, what is meant by a developmental state is a government with sufficient organization and power to achieve its development goals. There must be a state with the ability to prove consistent economic guidance and rational and efficient organization, and the power to back up its long-range economic policies. All of this is important because the state must be able to resist external demands from outside multinational",
"-25.534571911324747"
],
[
"company\" refers to a company in development that has no specific business plan, such as a special purpose acquisition company.",
"-25.525569734891178"
],
[
"The Corporation (2003 film) Synopsis The documentary shows the development of the contemporary business corporation, from a legal entity that originated as a government-chartered institution meant to affect specific public functions to the rise of the modern commercial institution entitled to most of the legal rights of a person. The documentary concentrates mostly upon North American corporations, especially those in the United States. One theme is its assessment of corporations as persons, as a result of an 1886 case in the United States Supreme Court in which a statement by Chief Justice Morrison R. Waite led to corporations as \"persons\"",
"-25.513973781547975"
],
[
"ease with which corporations can relocate production and investment in a global economy\". This suggests that in the ever modernising world, big business has an increasing role in influencing the bureaucracy and in turn, the decision-making process of government.\nAdvocacy groups can also exert influence through the assembly by lobbying. Groups with greater economic resources at their disposal can employ professional lobbyists to try and exert influence in the assembly. An example of such a group is the environmentalist group Greenpeace; Greenpeace (an organisation with income upward of $50,000,000) use lobbying to gain political support for their campaigns. They raise",
"-25.49634018173674"
],
[
"to prosperity. You can never hope to better yourself by cutting down production or by restricting output.\" By such methods Corporations Auxiliary Company propagandized the workers that \"side by shoulder, capital and labor learned that each had much of good before unnoticed. They found honesty with each other brought trust between them.\" Operatives were instructed to monitor and to \"enter\" any sort of union activity, to \"work into labor and control it with sensible ideas founded on economic fact... We expect eventually to control the unions, which have fallen into radical hands in the last few years. We work to",
"-25.492273239520728"
],
[
"also be relevant in power acquisition in international relations. Such entities can include multilateral international organizations, military alliance organizations like NATO, multinational corporations like Wal-Mart, non-governmental organizations such as the Roman Catholic Church, or other institutions such as the Hanseatic League and technology companies like Facebook and Google. Power as a goal Primary usage of \"power\" as a goal in international relations belongs to political theorists, such as Niccolò Machiavelli and Hans Morgenthau. Especially among Classical Realist thinkers, power is an inherent goal of mankind and of states. Economic growth, military growth, cultural spread etc. can all be",
"-25.479229260236025"
],
[
"regulations on corporate spending on ballot initiatives, corporations have the potential to donate much more to these campaigns than individuals or citizen groups. Some scholars maintain that this advantage gives corporations undue influence over referendum campaigns and policy outcomes.\nOne such way corporations can use money to sway voters is through advertising and spreading information about propositions. For example, a California ballot initiative, Proposition 37 from 2012, attracted a disproportionately high level of spending from corporations. The proposition would mandate that all foods containing genetically modified organisms would have to be labeled as such. Corporations including Monsanto and",
"-25.445809177472256"
],
[
"corporations.\nIssacs J had also rejected the reserved powers doctrine in R v Barger, and the Union Label case. His Honour, in dissent, gave a broad meaning to the corporations power but attempted to set limits to the power, in particular holding that the corporations power does not \"concern itself with purely internal management, or mere personal preparation to act; it views the beings upon which it is to operate in their relations to outsiders, or, in other words, in the actual exercise of their corporate powers, and entrusts to the Commonwealth Parliament the regulation of the conduct of the corporations",
"-25.437198822168284"
],
[
"the many concepts so the most rewarding and viable projects gain support.\nIn an ideal corporation, the company would attempt to assess the proposal and decide whether or not to fund it based solely on its merits. Under these circumstances, it would be expected that most errors in this process would be the rejection of good ideas, rather than the approval of bad ones. This is because large corporations are typically dedicated to certain markets, and dedicate a large amount of their resources to improving the processes that address those markets in order to improve efficiency as well as competitiveness. Ideas",
"-25.419662306667306"
],
[
"individuals;\nThis federal statute has many consequences. For example, a corporation is allowed to own property and enter contracts. It can also sue and be sued and held liable under both civil and criminal law. As well, because the corporation is legally considered the \"person\", individual shareholders are not legally responsible for the corporation's debts and damages beyond their investment in the corporation. Similarly, individual employees, managers, and directors are liable for their own malfeasance or lawbreaking while acting on behalf of the corporation, but are not generally liable for the corporation's actions. Among the most frequently discussed and controversial consequences",
"-25.418911497064983"
],
[
"Nonprofit corporation A nonprofit corporation is any legal entity which has been incorporated under the law of its jurisdiction for purposes other than making profits for its owners or shareholders. Depending on the laws of the jurisdiction, a nonprofit corporation may seek official recognition as such, and may be taxed differently from for-profit corporations, and treated differently in other ways. Public-benefit nonprofit corporations A public-benefit nonprofit corporation is a type of nonprofit corporation chartered by a state government, and organized primarily or exclusively for social, educational, recreational or charitable purposes by like-minded citizens. Public-benefit nonprofit corporations are distinct in the",
"-25.409784861971275"
],
[
"for companies like ours\", and General Electric wrote that the UNGPs \"helped to clarify the distinct interrelated roles and responsibilities of states and business entities in this area\" and that they would \"no doubt serve as a lasting beacon for businesses entities seeking (to) grow their service and product offerings while respecting human rights\".\nThe UNGPs have also faced criticism, particularly from human rights NGOs such as Human Rights Watch, who argue that the lack of an enforcement mechanism, “they cannot actually require companies to do anything at all. Companies can reject the principles altogether without consequence—or publicly embrace them while",
"-25.38808411057107"
],
[
"process.\nOnce incorporated, a corporation has artificial personhood everywhere it may operate, until such time as the corporation may be dissolved. A corporation that operates in one state while being incorporated in another is a “foreign corporation”. This label also applies to corporations incorporated outside of the United States. Foreign corporations must usually register with the secretary of state’s office in each state to lawfully conduct business in that state.\nA corporation is legally a citizen of the state (or other jurisdiction) in which it is incorporated (except when circumstances direct the corporation be classified as a citizen of the state in",
"-25.377317863807548"
],
[
"Corporate title United States State laws in the United States traditionally required certain positions to be created within every corporation, such as president, secretary and treasurer. Today, the approach under the Model Business Corporation Act, which is employed in many states, is to grant companies discretion in determining which titles to have, with the only mandated organ being the board of directors.\nSome states that do not employ the MBCA continue to require that certain offices be established. Under the law of Delaware, where most large US corporations are established, stock certificates must be signed by two officers with titles specified",
"-25.36188326682168"
],
[
"Robert's Rules of Order may be used. Corporations In a publicly held company, directors are elected to represent and are legally obligated as fiduciaries to represent owners of the company—the shareholders/stockholders. In this capacity they establish policies and make decisions on issues such as whether there is dividend and how much it is, stock options distributed to employees, and the hiring/firing and compensation of upper management. Governance Theoretically, the control of a company is divided between two bodies: the board of directors, and the shareholders in general meeting. In practice, the amount of power exercised by the board",
"-25.361037160575506"
],
[
"parent companies, most tend to invest in companies whose products or proposed products are similar to their own. For example, the portfolio of Takeda Research Investment (the venture capital arm of TCP), includes such companies as:\n(a) Lectus Therapeutics, a biotech company based in the UK that employs a proprietary process that has enabled them to discover and develop unique, small molecules that modulate ion channels;\n(b) Adamas Pharmaceuticals, a California specialty pharmaceutical company whose primary focus is on novel approaches to treating neurological disorders; and\n(c) Xenon, a leading Canadian biopharmaceutical company that aims to treat a broad range of major human",
"-25.35680162103381"
],
[
"method of transacting business in commercial enterprises originated in Massachusetts as a result of negative laws prohibiting the development of real estate without a special act of the legislature or in other words, without \"permission\" of the state . So, the Business Trust was created under Common-law right to contract to obtain legislatively constructed business organizations advantages but without having to gain \"permission\" to enter into a business activity and suffer under the burdens and restrictions that are placed on \"statutorily constructed organizations\".\nIt states on page 1681 of Black's Law Dictionary 4Ed., 1957, under the term \"Massachusetts or Business Trust\";",
"-25.335620082041714"
],
[
"that the purpose of extending rights to corporations is to protect the rights of shareholders, officers, and employees. It said that \"allowing Hobby Lobby, Conestoga, and Mardel to assert RFRA claims protects the religious liberty of the Greens and the Hahns.\" The court found that for-profit corporations could be considered persons under the RFRA. It noted that the HHS treats nonprofit corporations as persons within the meaning of RFRA. The court stated, \"no conceivable definition of the term includes natural persons and nonprofit corporations, but not for-profit corporations.\" Responding to lower court judges' suggestion that the purpose of for-profit corporations",
"-25.33513028517882"
],
[
"which it has its head office, or the state in which it does the majority of its business). Corporate business law differs dramatically from state to state. Many prospective corporations choose to incorporate in a state whose laws are most favorable to its business interests. Many large corporations are incorporated in Delaware, for example, without being physically located there because that state has very favorable corporate tax and disclosure laws.\nCompanies set up for privacy or asset protection often incorporate in Nevada, which does not require disclosure of share ownership. Many states, particularly smaller ones, have modeled their corporate statutes after",
"-25.331817890226375"
],
[
"can be attributed to the corporation. This is usually filtered through an identification, directing mind or alter ego test which proves that the employee has sufficient status to be considered the company when acting. Aggregation test in the United States By “aggregating” the acts and omissions of two or more natural persons acting as the corporation, the actus reus and mens rea can be constructed out of the conduct and knowledge of several individuals. This is termed the Doctrine of Collective Knowledge. In United States v Bank of New England (1987) 821 F2d 844 the charge of wilfully failing to",
"-25.27944168279646"
],
[
"created by petition of a certain number or percentage of voters or landholders of the affected area, which then causes a municipal corporation to be chartered as a result of compliance with the appropriate law. Corporations to be established for most other purposes are usually just incorporated as any other non-profit corporation, by filing the paperwork with the appropriate agency as part of the formation of the entity.\nAt the Federal level, a small number of corporations are created by Congress. Prior to the District of Columbia being granted the ability to issue corporate charters in the late 19th",
"-25.227177386186668"
],
[
"do not have a particular role post founding, but their influence continues as they designed the firm's blueprint impacting structures and decision-making going forward. US firms Eleven percent of US large cap firms are led by founder CEOs, including well-known companies such as Facebook, Netflix, Fedex and Amazon. Negative and positive contributions to firm performance Several differences identified in research exist between firms led by founder CEOs and non-founder CEOs. Identified differences include stock performance, equity stake, managerial incentives, innovation investment and participation in mergers and acquisitions.\nIn November 2009, Fortune Magazine named Steve Jobs, founder of Apple Inc., CEO",
"-25.22003328486244"
],
[
"interest of its shareholders, but in doing so builds community allegiance to the company, ultimately benefitting the company and its shareholders.\nFriedman's characterization of moral responsibility has been questioned. John Friedman, writing in the Huffington Post, states: \"Mr. Friedman argues that a corporation, unlike a person, cannot have responsibility. No one would engage in a business contract with a corporation if they thought for one minute that a corporation was not responsible to pay its bills, for example. So clearly, therefore, a corporation can have legal, but also moral responsibilities.\"",
"-25.205133453127928"
],
[
"Charitable for-profit entity Benefit corporations When a company is created under corporate law it is called Benefit corporation. This differs from a ‘B Corp’ which is qualified by B Lab to meet detailed standards for social and environmental performance.\nBeing a benefit corporation can be very beneficial for the company as it allows them to legally protect their social goals by concentrating on other sectors rather than only considering profit. This allows the business to instead of only concentrating on the shareholders that designated them in the first place, they are able to concentrate on all stakeholders and take into consideration",
"-25.176306092413142"
],
[
"vehicle use, natural resource related credits, and others. See, e.g., the Research & Experimentation Tax Credit. Other corporate events U.S. rules provide that certain corporate events are not taxable to corporations or shareholders. Significant restrictions and special rules often apply. The rules related to such transactions are quite complex, and exist primarily at the federal level. Many of the states follow federal tax treatment for such events. Formation The formation of a corporation by controlling corporate or non-corporate shareholder(s) is generally a nontaxable event. Generally, in tax free formations the tax attributes of assets and liabilities are transferred",
"-25.141395807964727"
],
[
"the corporation at issue was created, namely the Companies Act 1862 (UK). Nevertheless, although it is based solely on statute, business corporations are in fact separate legal entities: for example, §15(1) of the Canada Business Corporations Act states that \"[a] corporation has the capacity and, subject to this Act, the rights, powers and privileges of a natural person.\"\nAt trial, the judge held that Mr. Kosmopoulos could not recover damages as owner for the assets of the business as they were owned by the company and not him, but that he could recover as insured because of his insurable interest in",
"-25.12724860698654"
],
[
"to anyone. Aims Unlike non-profit organizations the policies of these organizations are usually profit oriented. Managers(corporate employees) here have a profit oriented mindset and aim at maximising the revenue of the firm which in turn contributes to the dividends (in case of public limited) or profits of the shareholders/owners. Their aim can be accompanied by a goal of serving the society however that usually happens in cases of B-corporations. Popular models A for-profit corporation generally does mean an organization seeking profit however it has both modern forms and is also close to some other types of organizations as seen below.",
"-25.110969380795723"
],
[
"businesses set their own terms in the marketplace, and use their combined resources for advertising programmes to support demand for their own products. As a result, individual preferences actually reflect the preferences of entrenched corporations, a \"dependence effect\", and the economy as a whole is geared to irrational goals.\nIn The New Industrial State Galbraith argues that economic decisions are planned by a private bureaucracy, a technostructure of experts who manipulate marketing and public relations channels. This hierarchy is self-serving, profits are no longer the prime motivator, and even managers are not in control. Because they are the new planners, corporations",
"-25.095773905311944"
],
[
"effort to curb the impact of corporate power on American democracy. Organization and history Founded by Ralph Nader in 1971, Public Citizen is funded by dues and contributions from its members and supporters, foundation grants, and publication sales and does not accept government or corporate funds.\nPublic Citizen's slogan is “Corporations have their lobbyists in Washington, D.C. The People need advocates too.” As explained on its website, its overarching goal is “to ensure that all citizens are represented in the halls of power.” It is a nonprofit organization unaffiliated with any partisan political activity, and it does not endorse anybody",
"-25.076357593236025"
],
[
"for new products or markets are generally more risky, or at least more difficult to assess, than ideas that apply to the existing corporation, which is better understood. That is, corporations tend to focus on \"exploitation\", to the detriment of \"exploration\". Manifestation and examples Real-world companies rarely act in a manner that one might consider \"ideal\". Among the many problems that might cause a good idea to be rejected are a lack of resources, a lack of market understanding, and any number of external or internal factors. Corporate immune response may be one of these internal factors, manifesting itself as",
"-25.061690901318798"
],
[
"corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.\" At once, in place of the individual personality of each contracting party, this act of association creates a moral and collective body, composed of as many members as the assembly contains votes, and receiving from this act its unity, its common identity, its life and its will. By this means, each member of the community acquires not only the capacities of the whole but also, for the first time, rational mentality:\nThe passage from the state of nature to the civil state produces a very remarkable change in",
"-25.047599766170606"
]
] |
257980 | Before aviation, how was it possible to make such detailed maps of the world? | [
"The maps weren't all that accurate, but they were made by using a ship to follow coastlines, plotting the direction and length of time taken to reach a certain point, all while staying the same distance from the shore. This allowed for maps that, while lacking in detail, showed enough of the area to be useful for navigation.",
"The improvement in the quality of world maps had nothing to do with aviation. Rather, it came from much earlier improvements in timekeeping: the [pendulum clock]( URL_4 ) (1657) and the [marine chronometer]( URL_3 ) (c. 1760) were the key inventions, along with discoveries in astronomy. Why? If you look at really old maps very closely and compare them to modern ones, you may notice that in the old maps the latitudes are normally accurate, but the longitudes are way off. That's because without accurate clocks, it's basically impossible to measure your longitude. The first accurate measurements of longitude were done by sending a pendulum clock, a specialized telescope (a [transit instrument]( URL_1 )) and an astronomer along with marine expeditions. When they reach land at a point where they'll be staying for a few weeks, this happens: 1. The astronomer sets up the transit instrument (which must be aligned precisely north/south) 2. The astronomer has a bunch of tables saying at what times those stars reach their highest point in the sky when seen from Greenwich, England (or some other location). Over the course of a few nights, he uses these and the transit instrument (telescope) to set the clock to Greenwich time, and adjusts the speed of the clock so that it shows the correct Greenwich time for every star he observes. 3. After the clock has been set up and adjusted, he can observe the Greenwich time that the sun in this location reaches its highest spot in the sky. After applying some correction tables, this tells him the longitude of his location: 4 minutes of time difference = 1 degree of longitude. This process was incredibly expensive: it required sending a highly trained astronomer and very expensive, delicate equipment, and it took days to complete. So it wasn't done very often. Marine chronometers were a later invention that basically allowed ordinary marine navigators to determine their longitude at sea very quickly, using a much more affordable clock. [Captain James Cook]( URL_2 ) was one of the first people to use a marine chronometer for making maps (in his [second voyage]( URL_0 ), 1772-75), and his maps were very accurate: > Another accomplishment of the second voyage was the successful employment of the Larcum Kendall K1 chronometer, which enabled Cook to calculate his longitudinal position with much greater accuracy. Cook's log was full of praise for the watch which he used to make charts of the southern Pacific Ocean that were so remarkably accurate that copies of them were still in use in the mid-20th century.",
"An interesting tidbit I've learned from a local museum: When surveying along the St. Lawrence and St. Mary's river in what was then New France (Canada), voyageurs would measure distance by the time it would take to smoke a pipe. This actually proved to be quite accurate, and many of the maps they created still exist today. Apple tried this method for their latest Map application, but made the mistake of smoking something else altogether.",
"All points that can be plotted on a map need only a distance and a direction from a known point. if direction is unknown they can be plotted with two distances from two known points, and if distance is unknown they can be plotted with two directions. This is the very basic idea behind information needed to start creating a map. Im not an expert in old surveying styles, but for coast lines i imagine a lot of angular measurements would be taken from a ship traversing the coast, using the compass or celestial bodies as datum points. Gross measurements across oceans would have been based off time-speed estimates, checked against any other information that might have been avalible.",
"Before traditional Aviation, they used hot air balloons starting in 1783. Which greatly improved map quality.",
"By [Surveying]( URL_0 ) the coastline from a ship."
] | [
[
"photochemical processes, make possible maps with fine details, which do not distort in shape and which resist moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving, which further speeded up map production.\nIn the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite imagery, and remote sensing provided efficient, precise methods for mapping physical features, such as coastlines, roads, buildings, watersheds, and topography. The United States Geological Survey has devised multiple new map projections, notably the Space Oblique Mercator for interpreting satellite ground tracks for mapping the surface. The use of satellites and space telescopes now allows researchers to map other planets and moons",
"-36.62220011145109"
],
[
"map.\nThe maps contained hyperlinks to related articles (\"Map Trek\") and also supported a \"Dynamic Sensor\" that provides the latitude, longitude, place name, population and local time for any point on the globe. Encarta also generated a visible-light moon atlas with names of major craters and hyperlinks. However, it did not include a planetarium, but instead had a small interactive constellation-only map.\nIn addition to database generated maps, many other illustrative maps in Encarta (\"Historical Maps\") were drawn by artists. Some more advanced maps were interactive: for example, the large African map for Africana could display information such as political boundaries or",
"-35.095213269945816"
],
[
"Digital Chart of the World Origin The primary source for this database is the United States Defense Mapping Agency's (DMA) operational navigation chart (ONC) 1:1,000,000 scale paper map series produced by the US, Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom. These charts were designed to meet the needs of pilots and air crews in medium-and low-altitude en route navigation and to support military operational planning, intelligence briefings, and other needs.",
"-34.71166983619332"
],
[
"International Map of the World The International Map of the World (also called the Millionth Map, after its scale of 1:1000000) was a project begun in 1913 to create a complete map of the world according to internationally agreed standards. Roads were depicted in red, towns and railways were depicted in black, and the labels were written in the Roman alphabet. The map was the brainchild of Albrecht Penck, a German geographer who first proposed it in 1891.\nThe Central Bureau of the Map of the World was established at the Ordnance Survey in London. After the Second World War, the",
"-34.50803476222791"
],
[
"this purpose, a 'M18d' Messerschmidt was bought for aerial photography, the first aircraft owned by the Eidgenössischie Landestopographie. In 1938, the first 1:50.000 map was published: 263 Wildstrubel. From 1939 to 1945, all sales were suspended because of World War II. In 1939, the Eidgenössische Landestopographie also procured its first vehicle.\nThe first 1:25:000 map, 1145 Bielersee, was published in 1952. The last 1:25.000 map, 1292 Maggia, was published in 1979. This marked the finish of the lowest-scale mapping of Switzerland. The first composite in this scale, 2501 St. Gallen, was published in 1956.\nThe 1:50.000 series was completed in 1963 with",
"-34.43463670136407"
],
[
"rivers, red lines for mountain ranges etc. The world is shown as encircled by the ocean. The map is now kept at the Pera Museum in Istanbul. Al-Idrisi's Tabula Rogeriana (1154) The Moroccan geographer, Muhammad al-Idrisi, incorporated the knowledge of Africa, the Indian Ocean and the Far East gathered by Arab merchants and explorers with the information inherited from the classical geographers to create the most accurate map of the world at the time. It remained the most accurate world map for the next three centuries.\nThe Tabula Rogeriana was drawn by Al-Idrisi in 1154 for the Norman King Roger II",
"-33.817400449479464"
],
[
"represent these lines.\nDespite the introduction of the Norwegian cyclone model just after World War I, the United States did not formally analyze fronts on surface analyses until late 1942, when the WBAN Analysis Center opened in downtown Washington, D.C.. The effort to automate map plotting began in the United States in 1969, with the process complete in the 1970s. Hong Kong completed their process of automated surface plotting by 1987. By 1999, computer systems and software had finally become sophisticated enough to allow for the ability to underlay on the same workstation satellite imagery, radar imagery, and model-derived fields such",
"-33.733146436628886"
],
[
"map sketching from the air.\nGermany adopted the first aerial camera, a Görz, in 1913. The French began the war with several squadrons of Blériot observation aircraft equipped with cameras for reconnaissance. The French Army developed procedures for getting prints into the hands of field commanders in record time.\nFrederick Charles Victor Laws started aerial photography experiments in 1912 with No.1 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps (later No. 1 Squadron RAF), taking photographs from the British dirigible Beta. He discovered that vertical photos taken with 60% overlap could be used to create a stereoscopic effect when viewed in a stereoscope, thus",
"-33.61729424369241"
],
[
"ВС). Military topographic mapping departments held other titles in the Russian Empire since 1793 and in the Soviet Union where these maps also came to be used for internal control and economic development.\nWhen Germany invaded in 1941, detailed maps from the USSR's western borders to the Volga River became an urgent task, accomplished in less than one year. After the war years the entire Soviet Union was mapped at scales down to 1:25,000—even 1:10,000 for the agriculturally productive fraction. The rest of the world except Antarctica is believed to have been mapped at scales down to 1:200,000, with",
"-33.432176626243745"
],
[
"Carte du Ciel Origins and goals A vast and unprecedented international star-mapping project was initiated in 1887 by Paris Observatory director Amédée Mouchez, who realized the potential of the new dry plate photographic process to revolutionize the process of making maps of the stars. As a result of the Astrographic Congress of more than 50 astronomers held in Paris in April 1887, 20 observatories from around the world agreed to participate in the project, and two goals were established:\nFor the first, the Astrographic Catalogue, the entire sky was to be photographed to 11 mag to provide a reference catalogue of",
"-33.32084526277322"
],
[
"medium- and small-scale maps of the interior of continents and the polar regions. One could still hardly speak of dense topographic, orographic and hydrological information. Though the maps in the Stieler looked dense with information they were mainly filled out with information where space in the image allowed, and the cartographers had little choice what to depict by the lack of known phenomena. The density of information did not indicate how thoroughly an area had been explored, for the cartographers selected their data and drafted the maps in such a way as to give a balanced image as possible. As",
"-33.30198805674445"
],
[
"flight lines and elevations were established on these points by the topographic surveyors using differential levelling techniques.\nGeographic coordinates and elevations (representing all three dimensions) were later extended by Army Map Service personnel to other strategically located points on the photos using computers and analytical methods of photogrammetric modeling. These computer-generated photo control points were then used to compile, or draw, the planimetric map to the desired scale and delineate its contours from stereo models of the photos using special stereoscopic mapping equipment. Once the map images were drawn in detail to uniform scale and made into detailed",
"-33.23738193578902"
],
[
"the boundaries of marshes and forests; however, the level of precision of the road networks is such that satellite photographs correspond almost completely with drawn roads more than 200 years later.\nThis map is still consulted today by researchers. It interests historians, in particular those in the fields of geography, genealogy and ecology. Introduction The map of Cassini is the first geometrical map covering the entire kingdom of France. Before the surveys, it was necessary to carry out a triangulation of the territory. Survey maps The surveys were carried out between 1756 and 1789 and the 181 sheets composing the map",
"-33.19842928694561"
],
[
"aerial photography as a backdrop for map production.\nIn April 2007, Automotive Navigation Data (AND) donated a complete road data set for the Netherlands and trunk road data for India and China to the project and by July 2007, when the first OSM international The State of the Map conference was held, there were 9,000 registered users. Sponsors of the event included Google, Yahoo! and Multimap. In October 2007, OpenStreetMap completed the import of a US Census TIGER road dataset. In December 2007, Oxford University became the first major organisation to use OpenStreetMap data on their main website.\nWays to import and",
"-32.92971700622002"
],
[
"of the Pole star and other constellations of use. These charts may have been in use by the beginning of the Common Era for purposes of navigation.\nDetailed maps of considerable length describing the locations of settlements, sea shores, rivers, and mountains were also made. The 8th-century scholar Bhavabhuti conceived paintings which indicated geographical regions.\nItalian scholar Francesco Lorenzo Pullè reproduced a number of ancient Indian maps in his magnum opus La Cartografia Antica dell'India. Out of these maps, two have been reproduced using a manuscript of Lokaprakasa, originally compiled by the polymath Ksemendra (Kashmir, 11th century), as a source. The other",
"-32.83880313078407"
],
[
"used for production of maps, and in 1940 terrestrial photogrammetry is abandoned. National Maps of Switzerland On 21 June 1935, a Federal Act is passed on the production of the new National Map series. This is the start of the modern maps, ranging from 1:25.000 to 1:1.000.000 (see above). Because of the political situation in Europe, work is started on the 1:50.000 maps. For this purpose, a 'M18d' Messerschmidt is bought for aerial photography. This is the first aircraft owned by the Eidgenössischie Landestopographie. In 1938, the first map 1:50.000 is published: 263 Wildstrubel. From 1939 to 1945, all sales",
"-32.689257012621965"
],
[
"end of 1985, Geodat had delivered twenty million data points and 750 map sheets in the 1:50,000 to 1:250,000 scale range. Alongside mainstream production for the project sponsors, the Geodat project produced a complete digital map of the world at a scale of 1:1,000,000, MundoCart, in 1985. MundoCart was based on digitisation of paper prints of the United States Defense Mapping Agency's (DMA) Operational Navigation Chart (ONC) 1:1,000,000 scale paper map series, produced by the USA, Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom. ONC charts were designed to meet the needs of pilots and air crews in medium-and low-altitude",
"-32.66345612422447"
],
[
"of view) since 1984 (or the 1960s). With the introduction of satellite technology, it became possible to create a more accurate and detailed global map. With these advances there also arose the necessity to define a reference meridian that, whilst being derived from the Airy Transit Circle, would also take into account the effects of plate movement and variations in the way that the Earth was spinning.\nAs a result, the International Reference Meridian was established and is commonly used to denote Earth's prime meridian (0° longitude) by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service, which defines and maintains the",
"-32.396544054267"
],
[
"map legends show that the map was expressly conceived for the use of marine navigation. The principal feature of the projection is that Rhumb lines, sailing courses at a constant bearing, are mapped to straight lines on the map. The development of the Mercator projection represented a major breakthrough in the nautical cartography of the 16th century although it was only slowly adopted by seafaring nations. \"Theatrum Orbis Terrarum\" by Abraham Ortelius (1570) The Theatrum Orbis Terrarum (or \"Theatre of the World\") is considered to be the first true modern atlas. Written by Abraham Ortelius and originally",
"-32.28300382680027"
],
[
"pile up on the map, which became quite cluttered during larger missions. Since each station had inaccuracies, the plots spread out on the map.\nObservers watching the progress of plots, tried to determine which of these represented one group of aircraft. When they were confident that a group of markers was a formation, a wooden block was placed on the map in the middle of the plots and numbers and letters placed on the block, to indicate the aircraft type, number and altitude and each block was given a track number. The block would be periodically moved or revised as further",
"-32.19102021108847"
],
[
"navigation and to support military operational planning, intelligence briefings, and other needs. Some 270 1:1million maps, plus six 1:2million maps for Antarctica, resulted in 30 million data points. MundoCart provided numerous commercial and academic Geographic information system (GIS) users with their first complete vector map of the world. The data was sold, along with a complete set of FORTRAN mapping software, by Petroconsultants (CES), a UK subsidiary of Petroconsultants SA, subsequently sold to IHS in 1996, that sponsored the project.\nPrior to Geodat, the only complete digital map of the world was World Data Bank 2 (WDB-II), a dataset",
"-31.97222366000642"
],
[
"new maps formed the basis for the current \"Map of Excursion\", which is at a scale of 1:25,000. IGN The Institut Géographique National (English: National Geographic Institute) or IGN is a French public state administrative establishment founded in 1940[1] to produce and maintain geographical information for France and its overseas departments and territories.\n“Intense cartographic work planned for the beginning of the war was stopped by the defeat of France in June 1940. Shortly afterward the great map service known to the world as the Service Géographique de l’Armée Française was demilitarized and renamed Institut National Géographique. Under this label, which",
"-31.92934528522892"
],
[
"Orbiters between 1966 and 1967 to photograph the Moon from orbit, and the Surveyors between 1966 and 1968 to photograph and softly land on the lunar surface. The Soviet Lunokhods 1 (1970) and 2 (1973) traversed almost 50 km of the lunar surface, making detailed photographs of the lunar surface. The Clementine spacecraft obtained the first nearly global cartograph (map) of the lunar topography, and also multispectral images. Successive missions transmitted photographs of increasing resolution. Lunar cartography and toponymy The oldest known illustration of the Moon was found in a passage grave in Knowth, County Meath, Ireland. The",
"-31.833896758267656"
],
[
"to store and manipulate them digitally.\nAdvances in mechanical devices such as the printing press, quadrant and vernier, allowed the mass production of maps and the creation of accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Hartmann Schedel was one of the first cartographers to use the printing press to make maps more widely available. Optical technology, such as the telescope, sextant and other devices that use telescopes, allowed accurate land surveys and allowed mapmakers and navigators to find their latitude by measuring angles to the North Star at night or the Sun at noon.\nAdvances in photochemical technology, such as the lithographic and",
"-31.771023533656262"
],
[
"maps was begun in France by Giovanni Domenico Cassini, the great Italian astronomer.\nEven though remote sensing has greatly sped up the process of gathering information, and has allowed greater accuracy control over long distances, the direct survey still provides the basic control points and framework for all topographic work, whether manual or GIS-based.\nIn areas where there has been an extensive direct survey and mapping program (most of Europe and the Continental U.S., for example), the compiled data forms the basis of basic digital elevation datasets such as USGS DEM data. This data must often be \"cleaned\" to eliminate discrepancies between",
"-31.763498728047125"
],
[
"vertically, when assembled. The map uses a modified Ptolemaic map projection with curved meridians to depict the entire surface of the Earth. In the upper-mid part of the main map there is inset another, miniature world map representing to some extent an alternative view of the world.\nLongitudes, which were difficult to determine at the time, are given in terms of degrees east from the Fortunate Islands (considered by Claudius Ptolemy as the westernmost known land) which Waldseemüller locates at the Canary Islands. The longitudes of eastern Asian places are too great. Latitudes, which were easy to determine, are also quite",
"-31.73482824981329"
],
[
"was a study of global forest change. Researcher Matthew Hansen had been mapping global land cover since the mid-1990s, first at South Dakota State University, then at the University of Maryland, but lacked sufficient high-resolution data. The data came in 2008, when the United States Geological Survey made 3.6 million satellite images at 30 meter resolution from the Landsat program freely available on the Internet. The computer power to fully analyze it was provided by Moore and Google Earth Engine. For the release of Google Earth Engine in 2010, Moore, Hansen, and CONAFOR the Mexican government agency, processed 53,000 images",
"-31.652255483320914"
],
[
"digitized the entire map. Absent the physical version, a 9,000 square foot pdf of that full size map can be easily navigated on a home computer. It is the first contiguous world map at a resolution showing all one-degree geocells (except five degrees at the poles). Keyes likewise commissioned the first-ever one-degree globe from Joe Roubal in 2013.\nIronically, Keyes ever only took one course in cartography (auditing), with most of his studies being in political science. Cartography Awards Keyes and Roubal's one-degree globe won Honorable Mention at the 41st Annual CaGIS Map Design Competition (Cartography and Geographic Information Society).\nIn 2014,",
"-31.579633319022832"
],
[
"that the primary goal of the work was to produce battlefield maps.\nThe triangulation for this new map began also from the Paris meridian arc or French meridian line (French: Méridienne de France) surveyed this time by Delambre and Méchain. Work on this map took place between 1817 and 1866. During this period several different scales were tested, with the scale 1:80,000 being chosen. This became known as the \"Geological Survey\" map. The funding for this work was provided by the Department of War. The first work was done by the Dépôt de la guerre, and later by the Geographical Service",
"-31.550102865643566"
],
[
"a larger format were produced. Each map sheet is now equivalent to four different maps in the military series. The civilian series include 212 different maps.\nStatens kartverk (Norwegian Mapping Authority), the governmental cartography office, is responsible for updating and maintaining the maps. The geodetic datum of the series is EUREF89 (European Reference Frame 1989), which is approximately equal to WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984). The maps are in full color, complete with place names and political boundaries. Contour line spacing is 20 meters (66 ft), and the maps are usable for hiking and other navigation.\nThe maps are available for sale in most",
"-31.374029153608717"
],
[
"the last vestige of Ptolemy's landlocked depiction of the Indian Ocean, nearly 1,500 years earlier. Diogo Ribeiro map (1527) Diogo Ribeiro, a Portuguese cartographer working for Spain, made what is considered the first scientific world map: the 1527 Padrón real, the first world map based on empiric latitude observations. There are 6 copies attributed to Ribeiro, including at the Weimar Grand Ducal Library (1527 Mundus Novus) and at the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, in Vatican City (1529 Propaganda Map or Carta Universal). The layout of the map (Mapamundi) is strongly influenced by the information obtained during the Magellan-Elcano trip around",
"-31.334449710324407"
],
[
"automatically and display it to the flight crew on moving map displays. Older ground-based Navigation systems such as VOR or LORAN requires a pilot or navigator to plot the intersection of signals on a paper map to determine an aircraft's location; modern systems calculate the position automatically and display it to the flight crew on moving map displays. Monitoring The first hints of glass cockpits emerged in the 1970s when flight-worthy cathode ray tube (CRT) screens began to replace electromechanical displays, gauges and instruments. A \"glass\" cockpit refers to the use of computer monitors instead of gauges and other analog",
"-31.33236912472057"
],
[
"Dufourkarten. Two years later, trials start to replace the Siegfriedkarten. Much of this military work would remain secret for many years. In 1913, 1922 and 1924, trials are done with aerial photogrammetry, first with balloons and later with aircraft, but only as of 1930 this is used for production of maps, and in 1940 terrestrial photogrammetry is abandoned. Modern maps On 21 June 1935, a Federal Act was passed on the production of the new National Map series, ranging in scale from 1:25.000 to 1:1.000.000. Because of the political situation in Europe, work was started on the 1:50.000 maps. For",
"-31.317684957466554"
],
[
"Unit to allow the pilot to study the appearance of the proposed field. The pilot would then make up a route map to the target field by cutting a map of France into small folding sections that could be easily held in the pilot’s hand. The route chosen was made up of a series of navigation pinpoints. The best navigational pinpoints were bodies of water, such as lakes, bends in a river, and so forth. Water reflected silver in the moonlight against the dark gray of the land, and made for the easiest terrain features to identify. During the flight",
"-31.278199552660226"
],
[
"of lines or a grid (latitudes and longitudes) on which a map can be projected. He sketched in North America and eventually the whole world.\nThat 1975 map, the first Cahill-Keyes projection, launched a decades long quest to perfect it. One of his goals is a map with a 1:1 million scale, about half the size of a football field. Each one degree geocell would be large enough to stand in. While the physical Master Map as he calls it, remains a dream, in 2010, his partner Mary Jo Graça, using Keyes's extensive calculations, plotted the entire projection and in 2011",
"-31.27451252436731"
],
[
"took aerial photographs for the first time.\nFrom 16,000 feet a photographic plate could cover some 2 by 3 miles (3.2 km × 4.8 km) of front line in sharp detail. In 1915 Lieutenant-Colonel JTC Moore-Brabrazon designed the first practical aerial camera. These semi-automatic cameras became a high priority for the Corps and photo-reconnaissance aircraft were soon operational in numbers with the RFC. The camera was usually fixed to the side of the fuselage, or operated through a hole in the floor. The increasing need for surveys of the western front and its approaches, made extensive aerial photography essential. Aerial photographs were exclusively used",
"-31.270880796480924"
],
[
"State Plane Coordinate System History In 1933, the North Carolina Department of Transportation asked the Coast and Geodetic Survey to assist in creating a comprehensive method for converting curvilinear coordinates (latitude and longitude) to a user-friendly, 2-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. This request developed into the State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS), which is now the most widely used expression of coordinate information in local and regional surveying and mapping applications in the United States and its territories (Doyle, Professional Surveyor Magazine, January 2004 link). It has been revised several times since then. When computers began to be used for",
"-31.05930934980279"
],
[
"Model (DSM) and textured mesh data sets for bespoke download. Concept Historically, aerial imagery was available mainly to government and large enterprises, as it was quite an expensive and long process. First, a surveying company had to be engaged to take photos of a certain area of interest. Then, the data would be manually processed and stitched together digitally to create aerial maps. Imagery was then delivered on a hard disk. The entire process could take months and was repeated once every few years at best.\nNearmap disrupted this model by creating a patented camera system and software pipeline that enables",
"-30.99420602724058"
],
[
"the locations of many crucial military and intelligence targets. According to R.V. Jones, photographs were used to establish the size and the characteristic launching mechanisms for both the V-1 flying bomb and the V-2 rocket. Cotton also worked on ideas such as a prototype specialist reconnaissance aircraft and further refinements of photographic equipment. At the peak, the British flew over 100 reconnaissance flights a day, yielding 50,000 images per day to interpret. Similar efforts were taken by other countries. Uses Aerial photography is used in cartography (particularly in photogrammetric surveys, which are often the basis for topographic maps), land-use planning,",
"-30.974294412648305"
],
[
"Hand-Atlas (1900–1905) was this process completed.\nIn 1870 Petermann advocated the use of a red and blue color scheme for temperature maps of the oceans. Although the number of projection methods increased at a reasonable rate, a few well-known sorts, like the stereographic and orthographic equatorial projections and the projections of Lambert, Flamsteed and Mercator, remained the most popular. Petermann did publish reports on the new projection methods of J. Babinet (1854) and J. James (1857), and G. Jäger, but he hardly used them. Though Petermann and Ernst Behm (1830–1884; like many of the famous Gothaer geographers and cartographers Behm had",
"-30.898210882383864"
],
[
"country, performing astronomical observations to verify or determine the latitude and longitude relative to Beijing of various locations, then drew maps based on their findings. Their work was summarized in a four-volume Description géographique, historique, chronologique, politique et physique de l'empire de la Chine et de la Tartarie chinoise published by Jean-Baptiste Du Halde in Paris in 1735, and on a map compiled by Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville (published 1734).\nTo disseminate information about devotional, educational and scientific subjects, several missions in China established printing presses: for example, the Imprimerie de la Mission Catholique (Sienhsien), established in 1874. Chinese Rites controversy",
"-30.885906314651947"
],
[
"Havilland Aircraft Company), hired an Airco DH.9 along with pilot entrepreneur Alan Cobham.\nFrom 1921, Aerofilms carried out vertical photography for survey and mapping purposes. During the 1930s, the company pioneered the science of photogrammetry (mapping from aerial photographs), with the Ordnance Survey amongst the company's clients. In 1920, the Australian Milton Kent started using a half-plate oblique aero camera purchased from Carl Zeiss AG in his aerial photographic business.\nAnother successful pioneer of the commercial use of aerial photography was the American Sherman Fairchild who started his own aircraft firm Fairchild Aircraft to develop and build specialized aircraft for high altitude",
"-30.70414506517409"
],
[
"phase of the project. Mapping imagery Missions 1205 to 1216 carried a \"mapping camera\" (also known as a \"frame camera\") that used 9 inch film and had a moderately low resolution of initially 30 ft (9 m), which improved to 20 ft (6 m) on later missions (somewhat better than LANDSAT). Intended for mapmaking, photos this camera took cover essentially the entire Earth with at least some images between 1973 and 1980. Almost all the imagery from this camera, amounting to 29,000 images, each covering 1,300 square miles (3,400 km²), was declassified in 2002 as a result of Executive order 12951, the same",
"-30.63844649348175"
],
[
"Map series, which at first analyzed the 700 hPa level, which is around 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) above sea level. By May 14, 1954, the 500 hPa surface was being analyzed, which is about 5,520 metres (18,110 ft) above sea level. The effort to automate map plotting began in the United States in 1969, with the process complete in the 1970s. A similar initiative was started in India by Indian Meteorological Department in 1969. Hong Kong completed their process of automated surface plotting by 1987.\nBy 1999, computer systems and software had finally become sophisticated enough to allow for the ability to underlay",
"-30.62703737616539"
],
[
"identification/spot and supplementary air photography and field checked compiled/preliminary maps. All five field survey squadrons (Australia and PNG based) compiled maps on photogrammetric stereo-plotters using mainly Skai Piksa photography; and Army Survey Regiment photogrammetrically triangulated the air photography, compiled maps using photogrammetric stereo-plotters, cartographically completed and printed the maps, and cartographically derived and printed the JOG.\nOn 26 June 1980 the Australian High Commissioner for PNG presented a complete three volume Atlas of the maps in the 1:100,000 series to the Prime Minister of PNG, Sir Julius Chan. The preface to this atlas states, in part: “The Royal Australian Survey Corps",
"-30.62204423395451"
],
[
"a computer program to replicate Wright's calculations, and determined that for a Mercator map of the world 3 feet (0.91 m) wide, the greatest discrepancy between Wright's table and the program was only 0.00039 inches (0.0099 mm) on the map. In the second edition Wright also incorporated various improvements, including proposals for determining the magnitude of the Earth and reckoning common linear measurements as a proportion of a degree on the Earth's surface \"that they might not depend on the uncertain length of a barley-corn\"; a correction of errors arising from the eccentricity of the eye when making observations using the cross-staff;",
"-30.52468138257973"
],
[
"Navigation solution is obtained through the use of GPS and inertial reference systems.\nHighway In The Sky (HITS), or Path-In-The-Sky, is often used to depict the projected path of the aircraft in perspective view. Pilots acquire instantaneous understanding of the current as well as the future state of the aircraft with respect to the terrain, towers, buildings and other environment features. History Synthetic vision was developed by NASA and the U.S. Air Force in the late 1970s and 1980s in support of advanced cockpit research, and in 1990s as part of the Aviation Safety Program. Development of the High Speed Civil",
"-30.447687929379754"
],
[
"brought his recently invented tri-lens camera to France, where it was used to make one vertical and two oblique images from airplanes. These images were used to overprint enemy trenches and gun emplacements over existing maps for precision targeting. An example of this camera is held at the Smithsonian Institution: \"This object is on display in the Boeing Aviation Hangar at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, VA. Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation built the production model of the T-2 and T-2A four-lens camera, which improved upon the T-1 tri-lens mapping camera developed by Maj. James Bagley of the U.S.",
"-30.399370694940444"
],
[
"of putting as much useful information before the navigator as possible in the most understandable and readable format, a single, hard-bound volume. While that edition saw widespread use in civilian, military and commercial fleets, it sacrificed some data on classical celestial navigation and on advances in satellite and electronic navigation to meet the compressed requirements of the physical form factor. Twenty years later, with a resurgence in interest on celestial navigation and the large-scale adoption of electronic navigation, NGA returned Pub No. 9 to a two-volume format to encompass the expanded material. To eliminate printing costs, NGA does not intend",
"-30.389327826385852"
],
[
"pioneered the use of compact airborne digital cameras as airborne geo-information systems. Aircraft measurement software, accurate to 0.4 mm was used to link the photographs and measure the ground. Helikites are inexpensive and gather more accurate data than aircraft. Helikites can be used over roads, railways and towns where unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are banned.\nRecently aerial data collection is becoming possible with miniature UAVs. For example, the Aeryon Scout was used to map a 50-acre area with a ground sample distance of 1 inch (2.54 cm) in only 12 minutes.\nThe majority of digital data currently comes from photo interpretation of aerial photographs. Soft-copy workstations",
"-30.294978375080973"
],
[
"Isochronic World Map, produced using data from Rome2rio's routing engine for plane, train, bus, ferry and automobile. It compared travel times from London in 2016 versus 1914.",
"-30.253019877622137"
],
[
"balloon mission in 1935. The first satellite (orbital) photographs of Earth were made on August 14, 1959 by the U.S. Explorer 6. The first satellite photographs of the Moon might have been made on October 6, 1959 by the Soviet satellite Luna 3, on a mission to photograph the far side of the Moon. The Blue Marble photograph was taken from space in 1972, and has become very popular in the media and among the public. Also in 1972 the United States started the Landsat program, the largest program for acquisition of imagery of Earth from space. Landsat Data Continuity",
"-30.194853531662375"
],
[
"computer systems.\nThe first moving-map system designed for passengers was named Airshow and introduced in 1982. It was invented by Airshow Inc (ASINC), a small southern California corporation, which later became part of Rockwell Collins. KLM and Swissair were the first airlines to offer the moving map systems to their passengers.\nThe latest versions of moving-maps offered by IFE manufacturers include AdonisOne IFE, ICARUS Moving Map Systems, Airshow 4200 by Rockwell Collins, iXlor2 by Panasonic Avionics and JetMap HD by Honeywell Aerospace. In 2013, Betria Interactive unveiled FlightPath3D, a fully interactive moving-map that enables passengers to zoom and pan around a 3D",
"-30.191489929391537"
],
[
"included various documents from libraries and archives in Portugal, India and the United Kingdom and also material gathered first-hand directly at the sites, through the project's field missions. This data was then stored in a Database and connected to a GIS interactive map. The GIS map used satellite imagery acquired through the European Space Agency. Over the layer of satellite imagery was added a number of layers of vectorial information, using the symbology of present-day cartography. The GIS map's interface allowed for each symbol to be connected to a number of documents stored in the Database. This methodology allowed the",
"-30.138048984343186"
],
[
"“100 Photographs That Changed the World”. The original image is in the Portland Art Museum. Although Kirsch did not work for NASA, his invention led to technology crucial to space exploration in the 1960s and beyond, including the Apollo moon landing. Medical advancements such as Sir Godfrey Hounsfield’s CAT scan can also be attributed to Kirsch’s research.",
"-30.113012725138105"
],
[
"atlas plotted to ubiquitous screens, transmitted from a database of text and video, mapped as a single screen-world, with the help of an intelligent, self-organizing mapping algorithm from the Finnish mathematician, Teuvo Kohonen. H|u|m|b|o|ts text source was Alexander von Humboldt's scientific travelogue, Personal Narrative of a Journey to the Equinoctial Regions of the New Continent 1799–1804, each paragraph of which was specifically identified according to its Global Positioning GPS meta-data, as well as annotated with emotion, keyword and location markers, using H|u|m|b|o|ts XML editor. This meta-data translates into a topography of Humboldt's historical narrative, tagged, visually and semantically connecting clusters",
"-30.111631955733174"
],
[
"affiliated with its design department.\nOne of his interests was Fuller's Dymaxion Map, an attempt to show in a flat projection \"all continents uninterrupted and with minimal distortion\". Keyes viewed geography as a way of illuminating war and his 1973 Master's thesis looked at a conflict between Russia and China over a tiny island on their river border, a conflict that almost led to a nuclear war. He called the thesis \"Six Principles for a Unified Map System (Applied to the China-Russia Situation)\". In it Keyes used Fuller's map as the basis of the new system he proposed.\nIn 1978 he got",
"-30.091374288778752"
],
[
"a technique of computer-based mapping that integrates information from a variety of sources including, cartography, remote sensing (including images from RADARSAT), surveying, global satellite navigation systems, geodesy and photogrammetry. In the new century it has become an important tool used by Canadians in a variety of endeavours including, commerce, the environment, search and rescue, urban planning, defence and natural resource management among other things. The Geomatics Industry Association of Canada, founded in 1988, presently has a membership of more than 100 organizations.\nDuring these years Canada's unmanned space programme included the first launching of a Canadian earth observation satellite, RADARSAT-1 in",
"-30.0814261630876"
],
[
"a moving map display on the centre instrument panel. This electro-mechanical device also recorded the aircraft's track using a stylus plotting on a motor-driven paper map. Positional information was given by a Doppler navigation system which read groundspeed and drift data which, alongside heading data, drove the stylus.\nThe Trident was the first airliner fitted with a quick access flight data recorder. This sampled 13 variables, converted them into a digital format, and stored them on magnetic tape for ground analysis. Introduction Hawker Siddeley Aviation, which had absorbed de Havilland, needed additional customers for the Trident, so entered into discussions with",
"-30.01312719658017"
],
[
"ambitious environmental display system designed to illustrate the issues of Earth resource management.\nThe GeoSphere Image marks a milestone in cartographic history. It is the first satellite map of the Earth, showing the real world it appears from space. The work required one year of effort on the world's most powerful graphics computers by Van Sant, technical director Van Warren of Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and assisted by Jim Knighton and Leo Blume. The image was first published as the title page of the National Geographic World Atlas.\nIn 1992, Mr. Van Sant created an installation called \"the Earth Situation Room\", an interactive",
"-29.983598820166662"
],
[
"map in such a cartographic projection that constant-rhumb trajectories were plotted as straight lines. This Mercator projection would be widely used for nautical charts from the 18th century onward.\nIn 1594, John Davis published an 80-page pamphlet called The Seaman's Secrets which, among other things describes great circle sailing. It's said that the explorer Sebastian Cabot had used great circle methods in a crossing of the North Atlantic in 1495. Davis also gave the world a version of the backstaff, the Davis quadrant, which became one of the dominant instruments from the 17th century until the adoption of the",
"-29.974896801053546"
],
[
"him take pictures of specific targets.\nAfter the mission, Richard's photographs, along with ones taken by his astronaut father Owen Garriott, who flew on Skylab 3 (1973) and STS-9 (1983), were made available to the public through Windows on Earth. This provides a unique opportunity for comparing areas of Earth photographed by two generations of space explorers, showing how Earth's surface (and the technology of Earth observation) has changed over 35 years, from 1973 to 2008. Tool for the ISS In May 2012, NASA selected Windows on Earth as the new tool to help astronauts identify targets for photography from the",
"-29.94648655410856"
],
[
"Canada Geographic Information System Development In 1960, Roger Tomlinson was working at Spartan Air Services, an aerial survey company based in Ottawa, Ontario. The company was focused on producing large-scale photogrammetric and geophysical maps, mostly for the Government of Canada. In the early 1960s, Tomlinson and the company were asked to produce a map for site-location analysis in an east African nation. Tomlinson immediately recognized that the new automated computer technologies might be applicable and even necessary to complete such a detail-oriented task more effectively and efficiently than humans. Eventually, Spartan met with IBM offices in Ottawa to begin developing",
"-29.941556942882016"
],
[
"great deal of survey data was already available based on the former definitions, especially in the United States and in India. The small difference between the survey and the international foot would not be detectable on a survey of a small parcel, but becomes significant for mapping, or when the state plane coordinate system (SPCS) is used in the US, because the origin of the system may be hundreds of thousands of feet (hundreds of miles) from the point of interest. Hence the previous definitions continued to be used for surveying in the United States and India for many years,",
"-29.935702904942445"
],
[
"can be inferred by calculation to be 9.1 inches (23 cm). It was a panoramic camera which took pictures of an extremely large area of the earth's surface. The lens design consisted of a single aspheric singlet lens. Six-thousand-foot (1,800 m) reels of film made from ESTAR Base (PET) were used. In addition, the U-2 also carried a low-resolution Perkin-Elmer tracking camera using a 3-inch lens, which made continuous horizon-to-horizon photographs. This is common practice in high resolution cameras in later systems also, where the large image helps localize the small high-resolution images.\nThe aircraft carries a variety of sensors in the nose,",
"-29.920422868686728"
],
[
"A General Map of the World, or Terraqueous Globe Map details The primary map is surrounded on all sides by detailed scientific calculations and descriptions as well as Northern and Southern Hemisphere star charts, a map of the Moon, a latitude and longitude analemma chart, a map of the Solar System, a mercator projection of the Earth, an analemma projection, a seasonal chart, a universal scale chart, and numerous smaller diagrams depicting planets and mathematical systems. All text is in English. The survey of this map starts in North America, much of which was, even in 1794, largely unknown.\nThis map",
"-29.88550554765243"
],
[
"consisting of 45° angle aerial imagery, offering a \"bird's eye view\" of cities. The first cities available were San Jose and San Diego. This feature was initially available only to developers via the Google Maps API. In February 2010, it was introduced as an experimental feature in Google Maps Labs. In July 2010, 45° imagery was made available in Google Maps in select cities in the United States and worldwide. Business listings Google collates business listings from multiple on-line and off-line sources. To reduce duplication in the index, Google's algorithm combines listings automatically based on address, phone number, or geocode,",
"-29.866869948979"
],
[
"with which the world may be fitted together and rearranged to illuminate special aspects of its geography.\" Fuller applied for a patent in the United States in February 1944, the patent application showing a projection onto a cuboctahedron. The patent was issued in January 1946.\nThe 1954 version published by Fuller, made with co-cartographer Shoji Sadao, the Airocean World Map, used a modified but mostly regular icosahedron as the base for the projection, which is the version most commonly referred to today. This version depicts the Earth's continents as \"one island\", or nearly contiguous land masses.\nThe Dymaxion projection is intended only",
"-29.864355816040188"
],
[
"surveying projects have been carried out by the military, such as the British Ordnance Survey: a civilian government agency, internationally renowned for its comprehensively detailed work.\nIn addition to location information, maps may also be used to portray contour lines indicating constant values of elevation, temperature, rainfall, etc. Scale and accuracy Many maps are drawn to a scale expressed as a ratio, such as 1:10,000, which means that 1 unit of measurement on the map corresponds to 10,000 of that same unit on the ground. The scale statement can be accurate when the region mapped is small enough for the curvature",
"-29.859326259727823"
],
[
"stereo-plotters to make maps for highway design and construction projects. In 1937 he developed a novel form of aircraft called \"The Explorer\", which was the first aircraft designed exclusively for aerial photography.\nDuring World War II, he founded the Abrams School of Aerial Surveying and Photo Interpretation to teach these skills to the US military, while his Instrument Corporation built reconnaissance cameras for aircraft.\nIn 1961, he sold the Abrams Instrument Corporation to Curtiss-Wright and went into semi-retirement.\nHe died in a nursing home in Lansing, Michigan on August 26, 1990, at the age of 95. Legacy Every year, the American Society for",
"-29.823638907488203"
],
[
"charts Zheng He's sailing charts, the Mao Kun map, were published in a book entitled the Wubei Zhi (A Treatise on Armament Technology) written in 1621 and published in 1628 but traced back to Zheng He's and earlier voyages. It was originally a strip map 20.5 cm by 560 cm that could be rolled up, but was divided into 40 pages which vary in scale from 7 miles/inch in the Nanjing area to 215 miles/inch in parts of the African coast.\nInvestigation into folios 19V to 20R of the Mao Kun Map which covers the Indian Ocean including South India, Sri Lanka, the",
"-29.814925663959002"
],
[
"an altitude above 30,000 feet for optimum coverage. The geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude) of the location of the aircraft (and therefore the aerial photo camera station) with respect to known stations on the ground was controlled horizontally by a system known as HIRAN (High Range Navigation Radar), a large and heavy system that required a large aircraft, such as the RB-50. High-quality horizontal geodetic control was established by the topographic surveyors on the bulky HIRAN ground stations by measuring their cardinal direction distances from nearby photo-identifiable points on which the surveyors established horizontal positions using theodolites and",
"-29.810052255979826"
],
[
"Imagery intelligence Origins Although aerial photography was first used extensively in the First World War, it was only in the Second World War that specialized imagery intelligence operations were initiated. High quality images were made possible with a series of innovations in the decade leading up to the war. In 1928, the RAF developed an electric heating system for the aerial camera. This allowed reconnaissance aircraft to take pictures from very high altitudes without the camera parts freezing.\nIn 1939, Sidney Cotton and Flying Officer Maurice Longbottom of the RAF suggested that airborne reconnaissance may be a task better suited to",
"-29.796171814887202"
],
[
"The aircraft was used by the IGN for photo-survey work and a few aircraft were also exported to Poland and Sweden for use on photo-mapping duties.",
"-29.792823204072192"
],
[
"fronts, per the Norwegian cyclone model, were being analyzed worldwide. Eventually, observation plotting went from a manual exercise to an automated task for computers and plotters. Surface analysis remains a manual and partially subjective exercise, whether it be via hand and paper, or via a workstation. Mid-Nineteenth century The use of weather charts in a modern sense began in the middle portion of the 19th century. Weather map pioneers include William Charles Redfield, William Reid, Elias Loomis, and Sir Francis Galton, who created the first weather maps in order to devise a theory on storm systems. The",
"-29.78544589423109"
],
[
"Geographic coordinate system History The invention of a geographic coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who composed his now-lost Geography at the Library of Alexandria in the 3rd century BC. A century later, Hipparchus of Nicaea improved on this system by determining latitude from stellar measurements rather than solar altitude and determining longitude by timings of lunar eclipses, rather than dead reckoning. In the 1st or 2nd century, Marinus of Tyre compiled an extensive gazetteer and mathematically-plotted world map using coordinates measured east from a prime meridian at the westernmost known land, designated the Fortunate Isles, off the",
"-29.77105514804134"
],
[
"give up, and by 1951 he had disbanded the Party. Inventor, healer and cartoonist In 1937 Hargrave became obsessed with solving the technological problems of using maps in moving aeroplanes. By 1938 a prototype of the Hargrave Automatic Navigator was ready to file with the Patent Office and articles of association had been prepared for 'Hargrave Aviation Ltd.'. The prototype was tested during the war, with government approval, but lack of capital meant that the invention was not developed further. The invention lay fallow until 1976 when Hargrave sued the British Government, claiming that the moving map display supplied by",
"-29.719347480742726"
],
[
"era was the 1940s military UTM DGGs, with finner granulaed cell identification for geocoding purposes. Similarly some hierarchical grid exists before geospatial computing, but only in coarse granulation.\nA global surface is not required for use on daily geographical maps, and the memory was very expansive before the 2000s, to put all planetary data into the same computer. The first digital global grids were used for data processing of the satellite images and global (climatic and oceanographic) fluid dynamics modeling.\nThe first published references to Hierarchical Geodesic DGG systems are to systems developed for atmospheric modeling and published in 1968. These systems",
"-29.6939385624828"
],
[
"by photomechanical means from the air. Two special cameras sited 70 metres apart would be installed on the airship that would be employed. Vertical and oblique photographs would be taken by both cameras simultaneously, so that maps could later be produced at any desired scale. Aerial surveys would be much superior to land surveys using theodolites and other conventional surveying instruments. Failure of the project Although there were no technical reason why this project could not have succeeded, the expedition did not take place. The concentration of talent and experience behind the planning was formidable. However, there was an",
"-29.683354559587315"
],
[
"began a trial of an enhanced moving map that featured Hidden Journeys content. Developed in partnership between Hidden Journeys and the IFE software company Airborne Interactive, the enhanced map is available for the Singapore-London route on the airline's brand new Boeing 777-300ER (flight number SQ308 and SQ319), and features a range of geographical facts and highlights, photography and maps, all curated by the Royal Geographical Society (with IBG). Information is delivered in real time, with content changing as the flight progresses, so for example, while a passenger is passing over the United Kingdom, they'll be met with a pop-up that",
"-29.677989944408182"
],
[
"platforms such as the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II. It was the first U.S. aircraft to have a modern head-up display, (made by Marconi-Elliott), now a standard instrument which displayed information such as dive angle, airspeed, altitude, drift and aiming reticle. The integrated navigation system allowed for another innovation – the projected map display system (PMDS) which accurately showed aircraft position on two different map scales.\nThe A-7 had a fast and smooth development. The YA-7A made its first flight on 27 September 1965, and began to enter Navy squadron service late in 1966. The first Navy A-7 squadrons reached",
"-29.67756282443588"
],
[
"duties. By the end of the war both sides maintained detailed maps of the front derived from mosaics of aerial photographs. Germany alone reportedly generated 4,000 images a day in 1918. Equipment All major combatants maintained traditional units of kite-balloons and airships for point surveillance and reconnaissance. These were vulnerable and tethered balloon observers were the first to use parachutes. Lighter-than-air platforms would soon be eclipsed, though not replaced, by fixed-wing aircraft.\nAt the beginning, France had a significant corps of Blériot type observation aircraft, soon replaced by a profusion of more capable types. The Royal Flying Corps entered the war",
"-29.66873226115422"
],
[
"the uses of this information for navigation. Essentially, the problem that occupied Wright was how to depict accurately a globe on a two-dimensional map according to the projection used by Gerardus Mercator in his map of 1569. Mercator's projection was advantageous for nautical purposes as it represented lines of constant true bearing or true course, known as loxodromes or rhumb lines, as straight lines. However, Mercator had not explained his method.\nOn a globe, circles of latitude (also known as parallels) get smaller as they move away from the Equator towards the North or South Pole. Thus, in the Mercator projection,",
"-29.660273654269986"
],
[
"floor of the aircraft and could be triggered by the pilot at intervals. Moore-Brabazon also pioneered the incorporation of stereoscopic techniques into aerial photography, allowing the height of objects on the landscape to be discerned by comparing photographs taken at different angles.\nBy the end of the war aerial cameras had dramatically increased in size and focal power and were used increasingly frequently as they proved their pivotal military worth; by 1918 both sides were photographing the entire front twice a day, and had taken over half a million photos since the beginning of the conflict. In January 1918, General Allenby",
"-29.65126265132585"
],
[
"creating a perception of depth that could aid in cartography and in intelligence derived from aerial images. The Royal Flying Corps recon pilots began to use cameras for recording their observations in 1914 and by the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in 1915, the entire system of German trenches was being photographed. In 1916 the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy made vertical camera axis aerial photos above Italy for map-making.\nThe first purpose-built and practical aerial camera was invented by Captain John Moore-Brabazon in 1915 with the help of the Thornton-Pickard company, greatly enhancing the efficiency of aerial photography. The camera was inserted into the",
"-29.646732925379183"
],
[
"images, stories and maps (many from the Society's geographical collections) into a series of interactive guides of popular flight paths, enabling people to explore the incredible places they fly over and might see from the air. Since launching, online guides have been published for more than 25 flight paths, including London to Johannesburg, New York City to Los Angeles, Sydney to Singapore, Madrid to Rio de Janeiro.\nThe Hidden Journeys project is also integrating its content with the moving maps aboard airliners, as a new form of in-flight entertainment (IFE) that has been termed geo-entertainment or geotainment.\nIn December 2013, Singapore Airlines",
"-29.632768667303026"
],
[
"aerial survey missions. One Fairchild aerial survey aircraft in 1935 carried unit that combined two synchronized cameras, and each camera having five six inch lenses with a ten-inch lenses and took photos from 23,000 feet. Each photo covered two hundred and twenty five square miles. One of its first government contracts was an aerial survey of New Mexico to study soil erosion. A year later, Fairchild introduced a better high altitude camera with nine-lens in one unit that could take a photo of 600 square miles with each exposure from 30,000 feet. World War II In 1939 Sidney Cotton and",
"-29.613499280065298"
],
[
"Aircraft Illustrated History and profile The magazine was founded in 1968 by Ian Allan Publishing. It included current civil and military aviation news, feature articles accompanied by large-scale (often colour) photography and other content aimed at the aviation enthusiast. Between 1995 and 1997 the title was extended to Aircraft Illustrated and Air Display International.\nFrom the August 2009 issue it was renamed simply Aircraft, and it became more focused on warbirds and historic aviation. In February 2012, it was renamed again as Classic Aircraft, shortly before the title was sold to Key Publishing. After the December 2012 issue, Classic Aircraft was",
"-29.6033514693263"
],
[
"the current location and direction of movement corresponded to a street in the map data. These and other techniques developed by Etak would perhaps now be viewed as very high-end features for a car navigation system. At the time, however, because there was no GPS to provide an approximate absolute location, they were critically important. The move to digital mapping The Navigator enjoyed a brief vogue, selling a few thousand units in a few years, and even finding its way to the dashboard of pop star Michael Jackson. It also appeared in a 1991 feature film \"Nothing But",
"-29.551293757278472"
],
[
"2013 has produced a new aerial map derived by the flight of a UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle) operated in March 2014. This is the first high-resolution map, derived from more than 100 aerial photograms, with an accuracy of 20 cm or less. A preview of the ORTHO-PHOTOMAP of Archaeological Site of UR is available online. Tal Abu Tbeirah Since 2012, a joint team of Italian and Iraqi archaeologists led by Franco D'Agostino have been excavating at Tal Abu Tbeirah, located 15 kilometers east of Ur and 7 kilometers south of Nasariyah. The site, about 45 hectares in area, appears to have",
"-29.51085606464767"
],
[
"is that information on aircraft movements can be delivered worldwide in a real-time fashion to spotters.\nThe hobbyist might travel long distances to visit different airports, to see an unusual aircraft, or to view the remains of aircraft withdrawn from use. Air shows usually draw large numbers of spotters as it is a chance to enter airfields and air bases worldwide that are usually closed to the public and to see displayed aircraft at close range. Some aircraft may be placed in the care of museums (see Aviation archaeology) – or perhaps be cannibalized in order to repair a similar aircraft",
"-29.46010425518034"
],
[
"last one. Stereoscopic imaging using overlapping exposures was refined and standardized for mapping. Color photography from the air was introduced in 1935 in the United States, but did not find widespread application. Experiments with flash bomb photography at night were carried out pre-war, but did not lead to an operational capability until later in the war. In the United States, apart from the case of small army-cooperation observation planes, the emphasis was almost completely on aerial mapping conducted by long-range bombers. In Germany, the Army Chief, Werner Freiherr von Fritsch, noted that in the next war, whoever had the best",
"-29.452206366695464"
],
[
"Marine chronometer History To determine a position on the Earth's surface, it is necessary and sufficient to know the latitude, longitude, and altitude. Altitude considerations can naturally be ignored for vessels operating at sea level. Until the mid-1750s, accurate navigation at sea out of sight of land was an unsolved problem due to the difficulty in calculating longitude. Navigators could determine their latitude by measuring the sun's angle at noon (i.e., when it reached its highest point in the sky, or culmination) or, in the Northern Hemisphere, to measure the angle of Polaris (the North Star) from the horizon (usually",
"-29.415513297601137"
],
[
"For some unexplained reason, the surveyors of the Army Map Service and the USGS eventually depicted a much less expansive version of the range when the first 15-minute topographic maps of the area were produced in the mid-1960s, and that depiction has carried over to more recent USGS maps produced today.",
"-29.352525516413152"
],
[
"the interim, the public were allowed to purchase War Office Cassini Grid maps. National Grid maps at 1:25,000 scale (often referred to as 2¹⁄₂ inches to the mile, or just 2¹⁄₂-inch maps) were not introduced until as late as 1950. Cassini Grid maps at this scale had been available, but apparently the public were discouraged from using them by the Ordnance Survey. They were poor quality, rushed into production for wartime needs, and had been produced by merely photographically reducing six-inch maps.\nThe long period of introduction of the National Grid resulted in National Grid and Cassini Grid",
"-29.329146457952447"
],
[
"of those maps had origins that were connected to the primary triangulation, and some did not. As a result, the county maps were only loosely tied to the principal triangulation and no attempt was made to revise them. Levelling of Great Britain, 1861 In addition to the determination of the precise location of the trigonometric points the Survey established the precise altitude of a number of fundamental benchmarks by spirit levelling over the years 1839 to 1860. This height survey was completely independent of the position survey, in contrast to modern GPS fixes which give both. The report of the",
"-29.31880931449996"
],
[
"Aircraft use The first operational use was in a Junkers Ju 88 on 2 September 1943. The unit, and others that were delivered during this time, proved extremely difficult to keep working. Even when they did work, their angle accuracy was limited, and it did not provide elevation or range information of any sort. Operators found it useful for finding the bomber stream, at ranges as great as 35 kilometres (22 mi), but could not use it to home in on individual aircraft. The Naxos Z system's rotating antenna for airborne use was driven by a DC motor, and comprised what",
"-29.305379257770255"
],
[
"Elevation Model (GDEM) was released to the public.\nA joint operation between NASA and Japan's Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI), the Global Digital Elevation Model is the most complete mapping of the earth ever made, covering 99% of its surface.\nThe previous most comprehensive map, NASA's Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, covered approximately 80% of the Earth's surface, with a global resolution of 90 meters, and a resolution of 30 meters over the USA.\nThe GDEM covers the planet from 83 degrees North to 83 degrees South (surpassing SRTM's coverage of 56 °S to 60 °N), becoming the first earth mapping system that provides",
"-29.292463720426895"
],
[
"late 16th century for maps of Asia and Africa. By the 18th century, it was replaced by the Bonne projection for continental maps. The Werner projection is only used today for instructional purposes and as a novelty. Meteorology Many consider Werner as a pioneer of modern meteorology and weather forecasting.\nBetween 1513 and 1520, Johann Werner made the first regular observations of the weather conditions in Germany. Problem of longitude To determine longitude in navigation, Werner proposed determining time by measuring the position of the moon relative to the background stars. He published this in In hoc opere haec continentur",
"-29.28769913665019"
],
[
"world mapping tool. AuthaGraph projection was developed by Japanese architect Hajime Narukawa in 1999. \"This projection method transfers a 3-dimentional [sic] sphere into a 2-dimensional rectangle while maintaining areas proportions. Using this method, the 'AuthaGraph world map' succeeds in transferring an image of the spherical Earth to a flat surface while evenly distributing distortion.\" Special exhibitions Every year between three and six specially curated exhibitions are produced and shown, with science and art often overlapping. They dealt with a wide range of topics from \"Toilet - Human Waste and Earth's Future\" to the \"Making of the Tokyo Sky Tree\"",
"-29.277413582080044"
]
] |
3kfsn9 | "Clutch" in Car. Why we have to press clutch to change gears? Why can't we directly change gears? | [
"Here's a way to mentally visualize it. Imagine a bunch of treadmills lined up side by side, each going at different speeds. You're on one treadmill running, and you want to move over to the next treadmill, but in order to move over, you have to make sure your legs are running at the speed of the new treadmill, otherwise you'll fall off. You can try and run directly onto the next treadmills, but you probably won't be able to change your running speed fast enough, and you'll fall down (Grind gears). Or you can step off the current treadmill (disengage the clutch), grab the rails of the new treadmill and hold yourself over the rotating belt until you're confident that your legs are running at the correct speed (modulate the clutch) , and let go of the rails (engage the clutch) and continue running.",
"This is how the clutch operates: When your engine is running, its job is to turn the up-and-down motion of the pistons into a circular motion. There are a whole series of linkages and feedback mechanisms, but ultimately the important part is that there is a *crankshaft* -- you can think of this as a long metal rod that rotates lengthwise. Now this turning motion of the crankshaft needs to be applied to the gearbox, so that the right amount of power gets ultimately sent to another long metal rod -- this one's called the driveshaft -- and ultimately to the wheels. So far, so straightforward. As always, the devil is in the detail. When the engine is running the crankshaft is rotating thousands of times per minute. This means that the gears are also rotating thousands of times per minute. If you were to try to shift gears (i.e. move from one rotating cog to another) at this speed, it would be almost impossible to do without grinding the gears against one another. So what's needed is a mechanism to slow down the gearbox rotation, which can be achieved if we temporarily disconnect the gearbox from the crankshaft which is giving it power. This mechanism is called the clutch. There are many ways in which a clutch can be designed, but the most common is very straightforward. At the end of the crankshaft is a large flat disk (picture it as a plate attached at the end of a broom handle). This disk obviously rotates with the crankshaft. Crucially, the disk is covered in a very rough material, which means it creates friction with whatever it touches. In the gearbox is another similar disk, also covered in a rough material. Now, when the clutch is disengaged (i.e. when you're not pushing the pedal down), the two disks are pushed against each other by a powerful spring. Because of their high-friction coatings this means that when the disk at the end of the crankshaft rotates, it also causes the gearbox disk to rotate, which transmits power to the gears, and your car moves forward. Now you push the clutch pedal down. The spring is forced away from the disks (this is why you need quite a strong left foot to push the clutch!) and the two rotating plates move apart from each other. We've now successfully disconnected the rotation of the crankshaft from the gearbox; the gear rotation slows down and you're able to smoothly shift into a different gear. As you gradually bring your foot up the clutch plates start to touch each other, and if you do this smoothly and gently then they begin to rotate in sync again. Bring your foot up too quickly however, and the speeds of the two disks are mismatched and the car could lurch forwards or even stall. (There are a number of additional complexities and refinements that I've left out, but this is the basic principle of how a clutch works and why you need it).",
"You can directly change gears, you just have to match the revs since the new gear is not spinning at the same speed as the current gear. Clutching eliminates having to match the revs.",
"You can drive without the clutch, nothing requires its use. 1. With the ignition off, put the car in first gear. Use the starter to get the car moving. After a few moments the car will be moving fast enough that it won't stall, and the engine will run.* 2. From there, \"slip shift\" through the gears. Basically you jam them in there. If you can't get gears to mesh, then put the car in neutral and \"hunt\" with the throttle. Eventually you will happen upon a point where the engine speed and the transmission speed match; the next gear will then mesh. Lots of grinding but with a light touch you won't hurt anything. Probably. 3. Downshift the same way (hunting, slip shifting). Try not to come to a complete stop. If you have to stop, let the engine stall and start the process over with the starter motor. *Modern prissy nanny-state cars have an electronic lockout which prevents the starter from engaging if the car is in gear. Because of pussy-ass panty waisted considerations like safety. If you really wanted to though you could defeat this simple safety switch and strike a blow for Freedom and America and drive without a clutch.",
"There's a gif floating around somewhere that shows the mechanism of a manual transmission. I'll try and find it. Edit. nevermind just watched it doesn't show how the clutch works.",
"Technically you can shift without a clutch. Think of the drive train as 2 halves joined by a clutch. The front half is the engine that provides the power, the back half is the transmission, driveshaft, axles, and everything else down to the wheels. The contact point of the 2 halves (for simplicity - the clutch is the contact point) are spinning at the same speed at the moment you want to change gears. When you want to change the gear ratio (shift up or down), the different gear will be spinning in the transmission at a different speed than what it previously was. For example, if you are in 1st gear, the gear ratio might be 3:1. That means for every 3 revolutions of the engine, the transmission is turning 1 revolution. When you shift to 2nd gear, the gear ratio might be 2:1. So, you have to let the engine rpm drop down to a ratio of 2:1 to match the rpm of the back half of the drive train, before you can slip it into 2nd gear. For simple math, if you are running 3000 rpm in first gear, you would need to pull the transmission out of 1st gear, and then wait until the engine dropped to 2000 rpm to slip it into 2nd gear. The clutch allows you leeway in matching the rpm's between the two halves by slipping until friction holds it in place."
] | [
[
"of changing gears which doesn't use the clutch, except for starts and stops, due to the physical effort of double clutching, especially with non-power-assisted clutches, faster shifts, and less clutch wear.\nDouble-clutching allows the driver to control the engine and transmission revolutions to synchronize, so that a smooth shift can be made; for example, when upshifting, the accelerator pedal is released and the clutch pedal is depressed while the gear lever is moved into neutral, the clutch pedal is then released and quickly pushed down again while the gear lever is moved to the next higher gear. Finally, the clutch pedal",
"-33.97632708285528"
],
[
"while engaging the clutch causes excessive clutch plate wear. Engaging the clutch abruptly when the engine is turning at high speed causes a harsh, jerky start. This kind of start is necessary and desirable in drag racing and other competitions, where speed is more important than comfort. Automobile powertrain In a modern car with a manual transmission the clutch is operated by the left-most pedal using a hydraulic or cable connection from the pedal to the clutch mechanism. On older cars the clutch might be operated by a mechanical linkage. Even though the clutch may physically be located very",
"-32.97033084416762"
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[
"gears is possible, as well as the risk of wheels locking up and a subsequent loss of proper vehicle control. Problems Even normal use of clutch control increases the wear (and decreases the lifespan) of the clutch. Excessive use of clutch control or \"riding the clutch\" will cause further damage. Prolonged use While the use of clutch control at low speed can be used to obtain greater control of acceleration and engine braking, once a car has picked up sufficient speed the clutch should be fully engaged (pedal released). Excessive engine revolutions Excessively revving the engine while using clutch control,",
"-31.328363487598835"
],
[
"or keeping the clutch partially engaged while accelerating with the gas pedal, can cause unnecessary damage to the clutch. Slipping the clutch Slipping the clutch (sometimes referred to as feathering the clutch) is a term used by automotive enthusiasts to describe when the driver alternately applies and releases the clutch to achieve some movement of the car. It's called slipping because the clutch plate will slip against the flywheel surface when such an action is performed. Slipping the clutch is known to be hard on the clutch surface due to the sliding friction created.\nDrivers can frequently be observed slipping the",
"-31.079566452419385"
],
[
"as a synchronizing function. Clutch brake Unlike any other type of transmission, non-synchronous transmissions often have a mechanism for slowing down, or stopping an idle gear. In commercial motor vehicles, this mechanism is called the clutch brake, and is used by depressing the clutch all the way to the floor, or pressing a button on the top of the gear lever. This is useful in 18-wheelers that have just started their diesel engines, and are releasing parking locks, and engaging the transmission from a stop. The clutch brake not only slows or stops the idle gear axis, but can also",
"-31.06787682743743"
],
[
"an incline, this problem is made worse because the amount of work needed to overcome the acceleration of gravity causes the clutch to heat up considerably more. For this reason, stop-and-go driving and hills tend to have an effect on the clutches to a certain degree.\nAutomatic transmissions are better suited for these applications because they have a hydraulic torque converter which is externally cooled, unlike a clutch. Torque converters also do not have a friction material that rubs off over time like a clutch. Some automatics even lock the output shaft so that the vehicle cannot roll backwards when beginning",
"-31.067868131036448"
],
[
"releasing the clutch as close to the correct engine speed for the gear and vehicle speed as possible. When upshifting, this will involve allowing the engine speed to fall. Conversely, when downshifting, increasing the engine speed with the accelerator prior to releasing clutch will result in a smoother transition and minimal clutch wear.\nRiding the clutch occurs when the driver does not fully release the clutch pedal. This results in the clutch disc slipping against the flywheel and some engine power not being transferred to the drive train and wheels. While inefficient, most drivers routinely use this",
"-30.845692267694176"
],
[
"plate allows the drive shaft to gradually equalize with the speed of the engine.\nAt a certain point while gently lifting the clutch, the car will begin to move as the clutch starts to slip, referred to as the biting point. Here, the accelerator pedal should be gently depressed to slowly increase the car's speed. Once the car reaches a suitable speed, the clutch can be fully engaged and speed can then be controlled either by varying the engine speed or by partially disengaging the clutch again if necessary.\nThis particular use of clutch control is frequently taught to learning drivers as",
"-30.444889372214675"
],
[
"drive, unlike the manual transmission that requires the use of two feet at once. Likewise, manual transmissions require the driver to remove one hand periodically from the steering wheel while the vehicle is in motion, which can be difficult or impossible to do safely for people with a missing or impaired arm, and requires increased coordination, even for those with full use of both hands. Stopping on hills The clutch experiences most of its wear in first gear because moving the vehicle from a standstill involves a great deal of friction at the clutch. When accelerating from a standstill on",
"-29.824594469275326"
],
[
"prevent shifting into gear until the clutch pedal is released a few inches off the floor. In order to shift into gear, the clutch must be half way off the floor, otherwise the clutch brake will prevent the transmission from being shifted into or out of gear. Mechanics must often repair or replace the clutch brake in a non-synchronous transmission when an inexperienced operator wears it out, it becomes inoperable, or has lost its function. Comparison of transmissions Non-synchronous transmissions are designed to depend upon an operator experienced in changing gears. The operators must understand how to shift the transmission",
"-29.772182355656696"
],
[
"or lever does not necessarily mean that the transmission is a manual transmission. Benefits Beyond the ease of use from a driver's standpoint, an additional benefit of sequential manual gearboxes is that use of the clutch via foot pedal or hand control can be minimized or completely obviated, with the clutch used only for starting from a complete stop. Formula One cars of the 1990s made the most high-profile debut of this technology in motor sports, and enhanced variations on this theme are still in use in many forms of road racing and drag racing today. The simple push-pull",
"-29.72932508942904"
],
[
"but power is not transmitted to the wheels.\nThe clutch is located between the engine and the gearbox, as disengaging it is usually required to change gear. Although the gearbox does not stop rotating during a gear change, there is no torque transmitted through it, thus less friction between gears and their engagement dogs. The output shaft of the gearbox is permanently connected to the final drive, then the wheels, and so both always rotate together, at a fixed speed ratio. With the clutch disengaged, the gearbox input shaft is free to change its speed as the internal ratio is changed.",
"-29.577753925230354"
],
[
"can pull away more quickly, and sometimes even the accelerator is used with the partially engaged clutch as the clutch alone cannot 'handle' such a steep incline and instead the engine would just stall. Using this option will wear out the clutch more quickly however in some steep inclines with stop-start moving traffic, it is the easiest option as using the handbrake would be time consuming. Deceleration Typically with motorcycles and in motor sport, the clutch is often used to facilitate the use of resistance from the engine spinning at high speeds to decelerate the vehicle more quickly, often accompanied",
"-29.564932793320622"
],
[
"Double clutch (technique) Manual transmission shifting In a gearbox with neutral between gears, a typical shift actually involves two gear changes, once into neutral, and again into the next gear. During any shift, disconnecting drive components via a clutch unloads the engine and transmission of the force from the opposing components. Using the clutch for each shift out of, and then into, each gear is double (de)clutching. Due to the absence of a neutral spacing, double clutching is impossible for sequential gear changes, as in a fully sequential gearbox used in most motorcycles.",
"-29.511955325957388"
],
[
"Other drivers will depress (disengage) the clutch, shift to neutral, then engage the clutch momentarily to force transmission parts to match the engine speed, then depress the clutch again to shift to the next gear, a process called double clutching. Double clutching is easier to get smooth, as speeds that are close but not quite matched need to speed up or slow down only transmission parts, whereas with the clutch engaged to the engine, mismatched speeds are fighting the rotational inertia and power of the engine.\nEven though automobile and light truck transmissions are now almost universally synchronized, transmissions for heavy",
"-29.478169238609553"
],
[
"apply the brake.\nSlipping the clutch is a popular term in drag racing culture and is done when launching a car, usually in a drag race. Some contend that slipping the clutch is the best way to launch a front-wheel drive (FWD) car as it prevents Torque steering that many FWD cars experience when too much power is put to the front wheels. Riding the clutch In a vehicle with a manual transmission, riding the clutch refers to the practice of needlessly keeping the clutch partially disengaged. This results in the clutch being unable to fully engage with the flywheel and",
"-29.39780104981037"
],
[
"the engine reaches the driveshaft, which is commonly known as half clutch. Benefits There are benefits to the use of clutch control in specific circumstances: Low gear and low speed When a car is in first gear, small variations in engine speed translate to large changes in acceleration and engine braking. However, with a combination of clutch control and careful use of engine speed, a much smoother ride can be achieved by allowing the clutch to slip. Variations in engine revs are not immediately translated into changes in drive shaft rotation speed, but rather the friction on the clutch",
"-29.323794540425297"
],
[
"the engine does not slow the vehicle as effectively when the automatic transmission driver releases the engine speed control. This leads to more usage of the brakes in vehicles with automatic transmissions, bringing shorter brake life. Brakes are also more likely to overheat in hilly or mountainous areas, causing reduced braking ability, brake fade, and the potential for complete failure with the automatic transmission vehicle. Push starting Vehicles with a manual transmission can often be push started when the starter motor is not operational, usually due to a low battery.\nWhen push starting, the energy generated by the wheels moving on",
"-29.18156403506873"
],
[
"pulling applies the brake. As there is no facility to work a clutch pedal, hand controls must generally be used in cars with automatic transmissions. With one hand continuously engaged working the hand controls, the steering wheel will generally also be fitted with a steering knob to allow one-handed use. More complex fittings may also connect into the electronic circuitry of the vehicle to place indicator and other switches in easy reach of the driver without requiring them to release the hand controls or steering knob. A guard plate may be fitted to prevent inadvertent contact between the driver's feet",
"-29.15119001338462"
],
[
"where the clutch simply “fags“ or “cams-over”, meaning that it signals the maximum torque has been achieved. Cushion clutch Cushion clutch or “slip clutch” styles are found in both electric screwdrivers and air screwdrivers. This clutch style is similar to the “cam-over” when once the final torque is reached because the clutch continues to cam over and slip. It will continue to run until the operator releases the throttle. Auto shutoff An auto-shutoff clutch switches off the tool once the maximum torque is reached. Auto shutoff tools are designed for critical applications. They provide precision torque control and reduce energy",
"-29.107152710319497"
],
[
"floor and move the gearstick from one position to another. This is especially true in regards to dual-clutch transmissions, which are specialized computer-controlled automatic transmissions that mechanically operate more like a manual transmission than a traditional automatic one. Ease of use Because manual transmissions require the operation of an extra pedal, and keeping the vehicle in the correct gear at all times, they require more concentration, especially in heavy traffic situations. The automatic transmissions, on the other hand, simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed, with the vehicle doing the work of choosing an appropriate",
"-29.09806338098133"
],
[
"Another benefit is that there is no need to break the power flow in order to swap gears (a conventional manual cannot transmit power while between gears, which is important because 1/100ths of a second are important in Top Fuel races). A traditional multiplate clutch would be more prone to overheating and failure, as all the plates must be subjected to heat and friction together until the clutch is fully engaged, while a Top Fuel car keeps its last clutches in \"reserve\" until the cars speed allows full engagement. It is relatively easy to design the last stages to be",
"-28.989645230118185"
],
[
"clutch when they are trying to stay stationary on a hill without using neutral and the brake. They apply the clutch to climb a bit, then release to roll back, then apply again, etc. so that the car stays in about the same place. With enough practice, alternating is no longer needed. Applying the correct amount of clutch pressure and throttle causes just enough force from the engine to counter gravity and keep the vehicle stationary (See Balancing the clutch). The alternative to this technique of staying stationary on a hill would be to put the vehicle in neutral and",
"-28.97809948399663"
],
[
"but a clutch brake is required as well. The clutch brake stops the rotation of the gears, and allows the truck to be put into gear without grinding when stationary. The clutch is pressed to the floor only to allow smooth engagement of low gears when starting from a full stop; when the truck is moving, the clutch pedal is pressed only far enough to break torque for gear changes. Wheels and tires Although dual wheels are the most common, use of two single, wider tires, known as super singles, on each axle is becoming popular among bulk cargo carriers",
"-28.92793606800842"
],
[
"the clutch. If the shifter is moved to a higher gear and the clutch is re-engaged quickly, the system will let the natural deceleration of the engine sync the drive train with the higher gear. If the clutch is depressed long enough for the engine to fall below the speed of the higher new gear, the computer will blip the throttle to bring the engine back to speed. Most usefully, if a new, lower gear is selected, the computer will accelerate the engine to the new estimated speed, even to the point of redline.\nIn all cases, the",
"-28.84769519919064"
],
[
"Clutch control Overview With the clutch pedal completely pressed or a motorcycle's lever pulled entirely towards the driver, there is no direct link between the engine and the driveshaft, so no power can pass from the engine to the driveshaft and wheels. With the pedal entirely released, there is full contact between the engine and the driveshaft, via the clutch plate, which means that the engine can apply power directly to the driveshaft. However, it is possible to have the clutch plate partially engaged, allowing the clutch to slip. As a result, only a fraction of the power from",
"-28.788451464046375"
],
[
"and flywheel and engaging the clutch plates. Professional operators of heavy equipment take extensive safety training before ever learning how to double-clutch. Once an operator is familiar with range, range selector, rpm, velocity, and torque of heavy equipment like an 18-wheeler, he can begin to anticipate when to shift gears. Operators become familiar with ranges of gears. They also learn not to leave their foot on the clutch while driving, because these types of transmissions use the clutch for some very different purposes. The depth the clutch is depressed to the floor will determine what the clutch will be doing",
"-28.740218111663125"
],
[
"Driveline shunt Reasons for occurrence It can occur due to slack within automatic gearboxes, but it can also occur from slack in the other driveline linkages especially where the drive-line is long due to the engine being the opposite end of the vehicle from the driven wheels. Due to the latter it can therefore occur in vehicles with a manual transmission. It has been known to occur even in very new and very high-end vehicles. With experience, most drivers simply allow for it and execute these torque transitions smoothly with finer control of the accelerator. Over time it is expected",
"-28.73851148007816"
],
[
"pressure on the clutch pedal to re-engage the engine to the driveshaft. If the pedal is released quickly, a definite lurch can be felt as the engine and driveshaft re-engage and their speeds equalize. However, if the clutch is released slowly the clutch disc will \"slip\" against the flywheel; this friction permits the engine a smoother transition to its new rotation speed. Such routine slippage causes wear on the clutch analogous to the wear-and-tear on a brake pad when stopping. Some amount of wear is unavoidable, but with better clutching/shifting technique it can be minimized by",
"-28.72544826264493"
],
[
"gear. Manual transmissions also place a greater workload on the driver in heavy traffic situations, when the driver must operate the clutch pedal quite often. Because the clutch pedal can require a substantial amount of force, especially on large trucks, and the long pedal travel compared to the brake or accelerator requires moving the entire leg, not just the foot near the ankle, a manual transmission can cause fatigue, and is more difficult for injured people to drive. Additionally, because automatic transmissions can be driven with only one foot, people with one leg that is missing or impaired can still",
"-28.677565189282177"
],
[
"the back of the engine in a bell housing and the drive shaft from the clutch output, located inside of a hollow protective torque tube, transfers power to the rear mounted transaxle (transmission + differential).Thus the Porsche driveshaft only rotates when the rear wheels are turning as the engine-mounted clutch can decouple engine crankshaft rotation from the driveshaft. So for Porsche, when the driver is using the clutch while briskly shifting up or down (manual transmission), the engine can rev freely with the driver's accelerator pedal input, since with the clutch disengaged, the engine and flywheel inertia is relatively low",
"-28.62409446039237"
],
[
"new gear ratio. It can be abused by exposure to the momentum and power of the engine, which is what happens when attempts are made to select a gear without fully disengaging the clutch. This causes extra wear on the rings and sleeves, reducing their service life. When an experimenting driver tries to \"match the revs\" on a synchronized transmission and force it into gear without using the clutch, the synchronizer will make up for any discrepancy in RPM. The success in engaging the gear without clutching can deceive the driver into thinking that the RPM of the layshaft and",
"-28.554811892507132"
],
[
"close to the pedal, such remote means of actuation are necessary to eliminate the effect of vibrations and slight engine movement, engine mountings being flexible by design. With a rigid mechanical linkage, smooth engagement would be near-impossible because engine movement inevitably occurs as the drive is \"taken up.\"\nThe default state of the clutch is engaged - that is the connection between engine and gearbox is always \"on\" unless the driver presses the pedal and disengages it. If the engine is running with the clutch engaged and the transmission in neutral, the engine spins the input shaft of the transmission",
"-28.506493649154436"
],
[
"wheel lockup if the clutch were to be released suddenly.\nA better method is to downshift to a lower gear that would spin the engine within its RPM limit and use the throttle to \"rev match\" the engine to the road speed before releasing the clutch fully. Effective engine braking is still achieved with little or no excessive clutch wear.\nOnce the clutch is entirely released and the vehicle has decelerated some, this cycle proceeds downwards through the gears to further assist deceleration. If the clutch is controlled improperly while this is being attempted, damage or extra wear to the engine and",
"-28.407923943188507"
],
[
"the clutch to disengage via a 12 volt solenoid operating the vacuum clutch, thereby allowing shifting between gears. Once the driver's hand was removed, the clutch would re-engage automatically. The transmission was also equipped with a torque converter, allowing the car to idle in gear, like an automatic. The torque converter was operated by transmission fluid. This would allow the car to stop in any gear and start from a standing stop in any gear. This transmission was first available on the 1968 Volkswagen Beetle (on sale in August 1967), and was made available on the Karmann Ghia during 1968.",
"-28.259588556960807"
],
[
"Synchronized down shift rev-matching system Purpose When a car with a manual transmission is in motion with the clutch engaged, there is a mechanical connection between the engine and wheels which keep them in sync with each other. When shifting however, depressing the clutch is required. This breaks the mechanical connection between the engine and wheels, and the engine speed is no longer linked to that of the wheels. When upshifting, this is usually not a problem, as the tendency of the engine to reduce speed itself without gas will slow it to loosely match the lower speed",
"-28.225243005435914"
],
[
"the \"auto-up\" button is pressed, which could be at any time on the circuit, it will do automatic changes until the next time drivers call for a gearchange with the levers. The software is so programmed that it recognises when a driver calls for a gearchange before the automatic system is ready to do so and immediately hands back control to the manual system. Electronics By 1993, Formula One had become very much a high-tech arena and the FW15C was at the very forefront, featuring active suspension, anti-lock brakes, traction control, telemetry, fly-by-wire controls, pneumatic valve springs, power steering, semi-automatic",
"-28.19957069004886"
],
[
"the end of the lever has to be pressed before the brake will lock on, which is the reverse of the normal arrangement—allowing for faster and more controlled application in a handbrake turn, and less liable to be accidentally locked on while doing such a maneuver.\nIn a rear-wheel drive manual transmission vehicle, it is also necessary to operate the clutch to prevent the handbrake from stalling the engine. Physics involved In a normal turn, rear wheels follow the front ones because resistance to motion in the forward direction (in which the wheels turn) is significantly less than in the sideways",
"-28.13463393339771"
],
[
"presses out his clutch, moves his hand lever forward, and lets in the clutch in the ordinary way with slight acceleration. Thereafter the whole of the drive is done with the accelerator pedal, the accelerator allowing the engine to run up and keep constant maximum speed governed by the control lever on the top of the steering wheel by which engine braking power can also be regulated. When the accelerator is pressed after being released the effect is rather similar to that with a free wheel in use, in that the engine picks up to the speed that is suitable",
"-28.012183578684926"
],
[
"of system fluid), the clutch would disengage, to prevent driving, while brake pressure reserves would allow safe braking to a standstill.\nUnlike an automatic transmission, there is no Park position on the transmission where the wheels are locked. In addition, the hydraulic clutch would disengage with the engine stopped, so the car could not be left in gear when parked. The only way to prevent the car from rolling (for example, if parked on a slope) is to use the parking brake. Manual—four-speed and five-speed The later and simpler ID19 had the same gearbox and clutch, manually operated. This",
"-28.00753728649579"
],
[
"transmissions use a mechanical clutch to transmit torque, rather than a torque converter, thus avoiding the primary source of loss in an automatic transmission. Manual transmissions also avoid the power requirement of the hydraulic control system, by relying on the human muscle power of the vehicle operator to disengage the clutch and actuate the gear levers, and the mental power of the operator to make appropriate gear ratio selections. Thus the manual transmission requires very little engine power to function, with the main power consumption due to drag from the gear train being immersed in the lubricating oil of the",
"-27.946318879257888"
],
[
"because of the difficulty in changing gears and the loud grinding sound that often accompanied. Newer manual transmissions on 4+-wheeled vehicles have all gears mesh at all times and are referred to as constant-mesh transmissions, with \"synchro-mesh\" being a further refinement of the constant mesh principle.\nIn both types, a particular gear combination can only be engaged when the two parts to engage (either gears or clutches) are at the same speed. To shift to a higher gear, the transmission is put in neutral and the engine allowed to slow down until the transmission parts for the next gear are at",
"-27.908313182881102"
],
[
"reverse gear must be used, with rear-wheel drive. The gearbox is constructed of carbon titanium, as heat dissipation is a critical issue, and is bolted onto the back of the engine. Full automatic gearboxes, and systems such as launch control and traction control, are illegal, to keep driver skill important in controlling the car. The driver initiates gear changes using paddles mounted on the back of the steering wheel and electro-hydraulics perform the actual change as well as throttle control. Clutch control is also performed electro-hydraulically, except to and from a standstill, when the driver operates the clutch using a",
"-27.854365570907248"
],
[
"Push start Push starting, also known as bump starting, clutch starting, popping the clutch or crash starting, is a method of starting a motor vehicle with an internal combustion engine by engaging the manual transmission while the vehicle is in motion. The technique is most commonly employed when other starting methods (automobile self starter, kick start, jump start etc.) are unavailable.\nThe most common way to push start a vehicle is to put the manual transmission in second gear typically, switching the ignition to on/run, depressing the clutch, and pushing the vehicle until it is at a speed of 5 to",
"-27.78316475910833"
],
[
"wheels, causing the vehicle to move forward. Depressing the accelerator pedal engages the clutch and causes an increase of forward vehicle speed. Pressing the throttle pedal to the floor (hard acceleration) will cause the gearbox to \"kick down\" to first gear to provide the acceleration associated with first, although there will be a slight hesitation while the gearbox deselects second gear and selects first gear. As the vehicle accelerates, the transmission's computer determines when the second gear (which is connected to the second clutch) should be fully used. Depending on the vehicle speed and amount of engine power being requested",
"-27.76458393705252"
],
[
"foot change, but the clutch is automatic. Clutch The clutch in a manual-shift motorcycle transmission is typically an arrangement of plates stacked in alternating fashion, one geared on the inside to the engine and the next geared on the outside to the transmission input shaft. Whether wet (rotating in engine oil) or dry, the plates are squeezed together by a spring, causing friction build up between the plates until they rotate as a single unit, driving the transmission directly. A lever on the handlebar exploits mechanical advantage through a cable or hydraulic arrangement to release the clutch spring(s), allowing the",
"-27.7287674077088"
],
[
"a proper speed to engage. The vehicle also slows while in neutral and that slows other transmission parts, so the time in neutral depends on the grade, wind, and other such factors. To shift to a lower gear, the transmission is put in neutral and the throttle is used to speed up the engine and thus the relevant transmission parts, to match speeds for engaging the next lower gear. For both upshifts and downshifts, the clutch is released (engaged) while in neutral. Some drivers use the clutch only for starting from a stop, and shifts are done without the clutch.",
"-27.72528477391461"
],
[
"computer continues to adjust the throttle to match the ever-changing target speed of the wheels when the clutch is partially engaged, as the vehicle speed may often change while shifting (for example due to shifting while going up or down a hill). In actual execution, the computer is able to \"blip\" the throttle due to the presence of an electronic throttle, in which the computer has direct control over both the fuel and air inputs to the engine. As the accelerator pedal in such a system has no direct mechanical connection to the throttle valve, the engagement of",
"-27.70996153357555"
],
[
"mechanism must be calibrated and tuned to deliver a fast gear change.\nGenerally, a dual-clutch transmission (DCT) shifts faster than a standard automatic or semi-automatic transmission. This is possible because the DCT can pre-select the next gear change and switch between two separate clutches to the next pre-determined gear, thus reducing shift times. Using a freewheel may reduce shift time as it may not be necessary to use the clutch. A shift kit is also intended to reduce the shift time of a manual vehicle.\nIn a manual transmission car, shift time for upshifts can be reduced by installing a lighter flywheel.",
"-27.70552847289946"
],
[
"transmission or gearbox to neutral position or disengaging the clutch, maintaining the engine in idle mode. Gliding a conventional vehicle Pushing the clutch pedal disengages the engine from the powertrain like wheels, drive shafts and gearbox. Releasing the accelerator makes the engine slow down to idle. Turning off the ignition has further effects. Pulling the key causes locking the steering wheel. Some vehicles drop headlights or brakelights when the ignition is turned off. After the engine is stopped, applying the brake takes a longer time or giving a few pushes to the brake releases the reserve of the vacuum servo,",
"-27.693608797271736"
],
[
"the car is equipped with disc brakes. For this reason, impact wrenches should properly be used only for removing lug nuts, not for tightening them, although in practice this rule is often ignored for convenience's sake, even by professional mechanics.\nWhen re-fitting a wheel, the nuts (or bolts) should be tightened in a criss-cross pattern (to even out the forces) and initially should only be tightened \"finger tight\" on all nuts. In this context \"finger tight\" is tight enough to reach the point where free play is taken up and proper tightening is about to begin, say, the tightening force using",
"-27.641459164908156"
],
[
"and so allowing the engine to accelerate further by way of clutch slip - the outward pressure of the weighted friction plates is sufficient that the clutch will enter full lock-up, the same as a conventional plate-clutch with a fully released lever or pedal. After this, there is no clutch slip, and the engine is locked to and providing all of its available power to the transmission; engine rpm is now dependent on the road speed and the current gear ratio (under either user control in a semi-auto, or reliant on road speed (and sometimes load/throttle position) in a CVT",
"-27.611199171777116"
],
[
"advanced techniques by the driver unnecessary, and accomplishes engine rev-matching automatically. Implementation and Experience The system employs sensors on the clutch pedal, gear shift, and transmission, and is coordinated by the ECU. When the clutch pedal is depressed, the system waits for the user to either move the shifter to a different position, or to re-engage the clutch. If a new gear is never selected but the clutch has been depressed long enough for the engine to lose speed, the system will bring the engine back to speed for the same gear if the driver begins to raise",
"-27.552442884189077"
],
[
"to float the transmission in and out of gear, beginning with dis-engaging the clutch by pressing the clutch pedal only part way, enough to pull the transmission out of gear, re-engaging the clutch in neutral (between gears by letting the clutch pedal all the way back out) to let the engine revolutions decelerate enough for the idle sprockets to shift, and free gear shafts to slow their revolutions per minute (RPM), then dis-engage the clutch again (by pressing the clutch pedal only part way to the floor) a second time, and float the higher gear into engaging the drive coupling",
"-27.532555909769144"
],
[
"technique effectively when driving in reverse (as fully engaging the reverse gear results in velocity too great for the short distance traveled) or in stop-and-go traffic (as it is easier to control the throttle and acceleration at very slow speeds).\nRiding the clutch should not be confused with \"freewheeling\" or \"coasting\", where the clutch is pressed down fully allowing the car to roll either downhill or from inertia. While this is not damaging to the car, it can be considered a dangerous way to drive since one forgoes the ability to quickly accelerate if needed. It is, however, a",
"-27.510664131492376"
],
[
"with a manual transmission in as little as an hour, although it may take weeks before it becomes \"second nature\". Additionally, if an inexperienced driver selects an inappropriate gear by mistake, damage to mechanical components and even loss of control can occur if not rectified quickly. \nLearning clutch/throttle pedal coordination can be made easier by using the clutch pedal only, on a level surface. This will allow the operator to gauge where the \"sweet spot\" of clutch engagement is. \nCorrect \"release speed\" of the clutch pedal (slow for smooth, fast for abrupt) will indicate when and where throttle pedal use",
"-27.448452291660942"
],
[
"shift, the distance it must travel to change gears is effectively reduced, thus reducing the time spent shifting. At the same time, the amount of force required to shift increases due to a shorter lever.\nSome major vehicle manufacturers such as Subaru, Mazda, and Porsche offer short shifters as stock modifications such as in the Subaru WRX, Subaru WRX STI, Subaru BRZ, Mazda Miata, and as an option such as in the Porsche 911. Fuel economy The manual transmission couples the engine to the transmission with a rigid clutch instead of the torque converter on an automatic transmission or the v-belt",
"-27.137099719431717"
],
[
"gear, but for safety reasons this is only possible when the motorcycle is stationary. Some models also have gear position indicators for all gear positions at the instrument panel. Semi-manual Some new transmissions (Alfa Romeo's Selespeed gearbox and BMW's Sequential Manual Gearbox (SMG) for example) are conventional manual transmissions with a computerized control mechanism. These transmissions feature independently selectable gears but do not have a clutch pedal. Instead, the transmission computer controls a servo which disengages the clutch when necessary.\nThese transmissions vary from sequential transmissions in that they still allow nonsequential shifts: the SMG system formerly used by BMW, for",
"-27.09347401582636"
],
[
"is a standard technique in most countries where manual transmissions remain popular, for example the UK. Cars equipped with a parking brake pedal are not suited for this maneuver unless it is released by hand, for example in the Citroen XM.",
"-27.080008185235783"
],
[
"Semi-automatic transmission History In the 1930s, automakers began to market cars with some sort of device that would reduce the amount of clutching and de-clutching and shifting required in stop and go driving. Most typically, a fluid coupling or a centrifugal clutch replaced the standard manual clutch to allow for stop and go driving without using the clutch pedal every time the car was brought to a stop. More sophisticated systems allowed for shifting while driving without using the clutch, and some systems did away with the clutch pedal altogether. Semi-automatic transmissions were phased out as technology advanced and automatic",
"-27.06937532298616"
],
[
"against the flywheel under pressure from the pressure plate. When the engine is running and the clutch is engaged (i.e., clutch pedal up), the flywheel spins the clutch plate and hence the transmission. As the clutch pedal is depressed, the throw out bearing is activated, which causes the pressure plate to stop applying pressure to the clutch disk. This makes the clutch plate stop receiving power from the engine so that the gear can be shifted without damaging the transmission. When the clutch pedal is released, the throw out bearing is deactivated, and the clutch disk is again held against",
"-27.060981300921412"
],
[
"a smooth gear change. Torque limiter Also known as a slip clutch or safety clutch, this device allows a rotating shaft to slip when higher than normal resistance is encountered on a machine. An example of a safety clutch is the one mounted on the driving shaft of a large grass mower. The clutch yields if the blades hit a rock, stump, or other immobile object, thus avoiding a potentially damaging torque transfer to the engine, possibly twisting or fracturing the crankshaft.\nMotor-driven mechanical calculators had these between the drive motor and gear train, to limit damage when the mechanism jammed,",
"-27.048525112099014"
],
[
"driver. As speed builds, the driver pulls a lever, which engages a second clutch, sending a bit more of the engine power to the wheels, and so on. This continues through several clutches until the car has reached a speed where the last clutch can be engaged. With all clutches engaged, the engine is now sending all of its power to the rear wheels. This is far more predictable and repeatable than the driver manually slipping the clutch himself and then shifting through the gears, given the extreme violence of the run and the speed at which it all unfolds.",
"-27.036994833440986"
],
[
"Manual, which refers to it as a \"noise reduction system\":\nWhenever the clutch pedal is depressed to shift into reverse, the mainshaft continues to rotate because of its inertia. The resulting speed difference between mainshaft and reverse idler gear produces gear noise [grinding]. The reverse gear noise reduction system employs a cam plate which was added to the reverse shift holder. When shifting into reverse, the 5th/reverse shift piece, connected to the shift lever, rotates the cam plate. This causes the 5th synchro set to stop the rotating mainshaft.\n— (13-4)\nA reverse gear implemented this way makes a loud whining sound, which is",
"-27.034108278807253"
],
[
"use hydraulics to select gears, depending on pressure exerted by fluid within the transmission assembly. Rather than using a clutch to engage the transmission, a fluid flywheel, or torque converter is placed in between the engine and transmission. It is possible for the driver to control the number of gears in use or select reverse, though precise control of which gear is in use may or may not be possible.\nAutomatic transmissions are easy to use. However, in the past, some automatic transmissions of this type have had a number of problems; they were complex and expensive, sometimes had reliability problems",
"-27.003683338407427"
],
[
"between the transmission and a foreshortened driveshaft. Since the overdrive function, if enabled, could be shifted by simply easing up on the accelerator without depressing the clutch pedal, the action was much like a semi-automatic. Also, an electrically operated solenoid would deactivate the unit via a switch under the accelerator pedal providing the equivalent of the kickdown of the automatic. A knob connected to a bowden cable, similar to some emergency brake applications, was also provided to lock out the unit mechanically. Using overdrive with the main 3-speed transmission in 2nd gear was similar in ratio to 3rd gear, and",
"-27.00271638124832"
],
[
"Any resulting difference in speed between the engine and gearbox is evened out as the clutch slips slightly during re-engagement.\nClutches in typical cars are mounted directly to the face of the engine's flywheel, as this already provides a convenient large diameter steel disk that can act as one driving plate of the clutch. Some racing clutches use small multi-plate disk packs that are not part of the flywheel. Both clutch and flywheel are enclosed in a conical bellhousing, which (in a rear-wheel drive car) usually forms the main mounting for the gearbox.\nA few cars, notably the Alfa Romeo Alfetta and",
"-27.000231128462474"
],
[
"with normal braking. This can be achieved by placing the vehicle in a gear that would ordinarily be too low for the current speed and momentum of the vehicle and by partly engaging the clutch. When this happens, momentum energy from the inertia of the vehicle is taken away to spin the engine as close as possible to its maximum capability. As the vehicle is decelerating, the clutch can be further released to transfer more energy to keep the engine spinning as quickly as possible. This method causes excessive clutch wear, however, and it could cause severe engine damage or",
"-26.971557777840644"
],
[
"may also be provided. Single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque (and sometimes direction) of motor output.\nIn motor vehicles, the transmission generally is connected to the engine crankshaft via a flywheel or clutch or fluid coupling, partly because internal combustion engines cannot run below a particular speed. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, which drives the wheels. While a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds (essential to avoid",
"-26.952452773577534"
],
[
"forward speeds. All gears are helical which substantially reduces gear noise, and the drive is direct through in top gear. The main foot-operated clutch could be latched in the disengaged position by depressing and moving the foot pedal to one side, allowing the engine to be started and idled without driving the wheels. Once the clutch pedal was released gear changes were made using a hand lever without the need to use the main clutch. This image also shows the gearbox attached to the four-cylinder engine and clearly shows the offset between the cylinders, and the flywheel at the front",
"-26.910072938379017"
],
[
"and so eliminate slippage under power when fully engaged.\nThe Hele-Shaw clutch was a wet clutch that relied entirely on viscous effects, rather than on friction.\nA dry clutch, as the name implies, is not bathed in liquid and uses friction to engage. Centrifugal clutch A centrifugal clutch is used in some vehicles (e.g., mopeds) and also in other applications where the speed of the engine defines the state of the clutch, for example, in a chainsaw. This clutch system employs centrifugal force to automatically engage the clutch when the engine rpm rises above a threshold and to automatically disengage the clutch",
"-26.826680881902575"
],
[
"on the right hand handlebar. Once started on its stand with the clutch disengaged, the choke is reset by fully opening the twist-grip throttle momentarily.\nPulling away from rest is easily achievable without pedal assistance owing to the relatively high torque the motor delivers but this is not recommended practice as the frail clutch will fail rapidly with this sort of treatment. Pedal assisted starts are therefore much recommended. In fact, engine starting can be done by pedalling away from rest with the clutch engaged using the decompressor.\nOnce under way the machine pulls strongly up to about 25 mph but any increase",
"-26.810075118684836"
],
[
"on brakes, and can help a driver maintain control of the vehicle. Active use of engine braking by shifting into a lower gear can help control speed while driving down very steep and long slopes, saving the brakes from overheating or excessive wear. If it is applied before the brakes have been used, it can leave the brakes available to make emergency stops. The desired speed is maintained by using engine braking to counteract gravitational acceleration. Potential transmission wear caused by engine braking can be mitigated by certain techniques. Slipping the clutch to complete a downshift wears the clutch plate",
"-26.805294944206253"
],
[
"Top Fuel cars actually use a single, fixed gear ratio, and a series of clutches that are engaged one at a time, rather than in unison, progressively allowing more power to the wheels. A single one of these clutch plates (as designed) cannot hold more than a fraction of the power of the engine, so the driver starts with only the first clutch engaged. This clutch is overwhelmed by the power of the engine, allowing only a fraction of the power to the wheels, much like \"slipping the clutch\" in a slower car, but working without requiring concentration from the",
"-26.78935607371386"
],
[
"only drive automatic cars.\nHowever, some commentators do recommend left-foot braking as routine practice when driving vehicles fitted with an automatic transmission, when maneuvering at low speeds.\nProponents of the technique note that in low-speed maneuvers, a driver of a vehicle with a manual transmission will usually keep a foot poised over the clutch pedal, ready to disengage power when the vehicle nears an obstacle. This means that disengagement is also possible in the event of malfunction such as an engine surge. However, the absence of a clutch on a vehicle with automatic transmission means that there is no such safety",
"-26.784209739242215"
],
[
"preset function can cause multiple stops to be pulled out or pushed in automatically. This is of particular benefit in pieces where a number of stops have to be pulled out or pushed in between sections. Devices known as couplers are sometimes available to link the manuals, so that the stops (and pipes) normally played on one can be played from another.",
"-26.753459065919742"
],
[
"or she may push or pull the lever to let the computer choose the gear for them, or they can use the splitter switch (the small switch under the lever) to pre-select gears. Either way, the gear is selected first, then the clutch is depressed. For example, if you're in fourth fast, pulling the splitter switch up once pre-selects fifth slow.\nThe left button (known as the 'flush button', as it is flush with the lever) is used to switch to neutral. Electronics Depending on model either Actros 1,2 or 3 the electronics may vary. For example, the braking system known",
"-26.71815273805987"
],
[
"in the case of adverse weather conditions, spinning the wheels. Balancing the clutch Normally, when a vehicle is stationary on an uphill slope it is necessary to use the handbrake in conjunction with clutch control to prevent the vehicle from rolling backwards when pulling away. However, in situations where the vehicle must be stopped briefly, for example in slow moving traffic, the clutch can be used to balance the uphill force from the engine with the downhill force of gravity. The benefit of this is that there is no need for the hand- or foot-brake, and the driver",
"-26.66448753408622"
],
[
"must be opened and closed at the appropriate time during the stroke of the piston. For this reason, the camshaft is connected to the crankshaft either directly, via a gear mechanism, or indirectly via a belt or chain called a timing belt or timing chain. Direct drive using gears is unusual because of the cost. The frequently reversing torque caused by the slope of the cams tends to cause gear rattle which for an all-metal gear train requires further expense of a cam damper. Rolls-Royce V8 (1954) used gear drive as, unlike chain, it could be made silent and",
"-26.625767094956245"
],
[
"point, partially or fully releasing the throttle can lead to the RPM falling off rapidly, thanks to the feedback loop of lower engine speed meaning less friction pressure. This toggle-like mode of operation can lead to certain characteristic centrifugal-clutch-automatic behaviour, such as being able to freewheel rapidly downhill from a standstill, with engine braking only being triggered by turning the throttle briefly (and not then cancellable without braking to quite a slow, gear-dependent pace), and lockup triggering at a lower speed with full versus minimal throttle. Construction Pre-unit construction, also called separate construction, is a motorcycle engine architecture where the",
"-26.619236908794846"
],
[
"because, with the flywheel spinning at about 1,000 RPM at idle, the starter, if engaged with the flywheel, would be forced to spin between 15,000 and 20,000 RPM. Once the engine has turned over and is running, the overrun clutch releases the starter from the flywheel and prevents the gears from re-meshing (as in an accidental turning of the ignition key) while the engine is running. A freewheel clutch is now used in many motorcycles with an electric starter motor. It is used as a replacement for the Bendix drive used on most auto starters because it reduces the electrical",
"-26.58302183286287"
],
[
"gearbox in neutral and clutch release. Cars with automatic transmissions shut down upon braking to a full stop - the shut down is activated by the footbrake pedal being in use when the car comes to a halt. If the car is slowed initially by manual use of the automatic gear box and final stoppage is by use of the handbrake the engine will not shut down. History Carbon monoxide emissions and fuel shortage/oil crisis of the 1970s pushed car manufacturers finding solutions to reduce gas consumption. The first vehicle to use the automatic on/off switch was the six-cylinder Toyota",
"-26.580529741763712"
],
[
"to change, and allowing the pinion to engage with the ring gear. When the engine starts, backdrive from the ring gear causes the drive pinion to exceed the rotative speed of the starter, at which point the drive pinion is forced back and out of mesh with the ring gear.\nThe main drawback to the Bendix drive is that it relies on a certain amount of \"clash\" between the teeth of the pinion and the ring gears before they slip into place and mate completely; the teeth of the pinion are already spinning when they come into contact with the static",
"-26.564936958020553"
],
[
"to cars with dual line locks (devices which locked the brakes on all four wheels electrically), and manual transmissions with the use of a hydraulic throw out bearing to hold the clutch plates apart, and also adapted to dragbikes that used pneumatics or hydraulics to actuate the clutch release, or centrifugal dragbike clutches known as \"slider clutches\" that engage with the engine's revolutions per minute (RPM) increase. When using a delay box on a motorcycle with a slider clutch, the engine RPM is electronically controlled (capped) by an electronic rev limiter connected to a delay box. When the delay box",
"-26.54438987467438"
],
[
"10 mph (8 to 16 km/h) or more, then quickly releasing the clutch to make the engine rotate and fire, then quickly depressing the clutch so it does not stall. This is done by one person pushing a lightweight automobile, pulling or being pushed by another vehicle or even rolling down a hill. Types Push starting is most successful when the automobile is using a gasoline engine, uses a carburetor, and uses a capacitor discharge ignition (CDI) or an inductive discharge ignition system. Automobiles with other types of engine, ignition, and fuel delivery configurations may work, but may be more difficult to",
"-26.51555805816315"
],
[
"lever mounted on the back of the steering wheel.\nA modern F1 clutch is a multi-plate carbon design with a diameter of less than 100 mm (3.9 in), weighing less than 1 kg (2.2 lb) and handling around 540 kW (720 hp). As of the 2009 race season, all teams are using seamless shift transmissions, which allow almost instantaneous changing of gears with minimum loss of drive. Shift times for Formula One cars are in the region of 0.05 seconds. In order to keep costs low in Formula One, gearboxes must last five consecutive events and since 2015, gearbox ratios will be fixed for each season (for",
"-26.479026771179633"
],
[
"the clutch system, the device which the master cylinder operates is called the slave cylinder; it moves the throw out bearing until the high-friction material on the transmission's clutch disengages from the engine's metal (or ceramic/carbon) flywheel. For hydraulic brakes or clutches alike, flexible high-pressure hoses or inflexible hard-walled metal tubing may be used; but the flexible variety of tubing is needed for at least a short length adjacent to each wheel, whenever the wheel can move relative to the car's chassis (this is the case on any car with steering and other suspension movements; some drag racers and go-karts",
"-26.44671338578337"
],
[
"starter brands use a high discharge lithium polymer or lithium-ion battery. Lithium jump starters are extremely compact and lightweight, as much as 90% smaller than lead-acid equivalents. Push starting A vehicle with a manual transmission may be push started. This requires caution while pushing the vehicle and may require the assistance of several persons or another vehicle. If the vehicle battery cannot provide power to the ignition system, push starting may be ineffective. Most vehicles with automatic transmissions cannot be started this way because the hydraulic torque converter in the transmission will not allow the engine to be driven by",
"-26.41775176837109"
],
[
"brake was pressed, the engine idle speed dropped to an rpm below the clutch engagement speed, thus preventing friction while stopped in gear at traffic lights. When the brake was released, the idle speed increased to the clutch dragging speed. The car would then creep forward much like automatic transmission cars. This drop in idle throttle position also caused the car to have more engine drag when the brakes were applied even before the car slowed to the idle speed in gear, preventing the engine from pulling against the brakes. In the event of loss of hydraulic pressure (following loss",
"-26.40599759318866"
],
[
"the road is transferred to the driveshaft, then the transmission and eventually the crankshaft. When the crankshaft spins as a result of the energy generated by the rolling of the vehicle, the motor is cranked over. This simulates what the starter is intended for. Complexity and learning curve For most people, there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission, which may be intimidating and unappealing for an inexperienced driver. Because the driver must develop a feel for properly engaging the clutch, an inexperienced driver will often stall the engine. Most drivers can learn how to drive a vehicle",
"-26.40281464101281"
],
[
"1.5 and 1 way below)\nAn alternative is to use the natural separation force of the gear teeth to load the clutch. An example is the center differential of the 2011 Audi Quattro RS 5.\nAs the input torque of the driveshaft tries to turn the differential center, internal pressure rings (adjoining the clutch stack) are forced sideways by the pinion cross shaft trying to climb the ramp, which compresses the clutch stack. The more the clutch stack is compressed, the more coupled the wheels are. The mating of the vertical ramp (80–85° in practice to avoid chipping) surfaces in a one-way",
"-26.389084497699514"
],
[
"clutch and a transmission. To start the engine, the rider had to either spin the front wheel while the cycle was on its stand, or push-start the cycle. The cylinders could be disassembled without having to remove all the wheel spokes in order to service the engine. However, the lack of a clutch meant the engine had to be stopped when the cycle was stationary. As an alternative, the owner's manual suggested the rider make small orbits in the road if at any point they had to halt.\nThe tires were tubed with the front inner-tube being a circular sausage-shape rather",
"-26.35189853538759"
],
[
"is a failure of the tensioner, and/or the various gear and idler bearings, causing the belt to derail.\nWhen an automotive timing belt is replaced, care must be taken to ensure that the valve and piston movements are correctly synchronized. Failure to synchronize correctly can lead to problems with valve timing, and this in turn, in extremes, can cause collision between valves and pistons in interference engines. This is not a problem unique to timing belts since the same issue exists with all other cam/crank timing methods such as gears or chains. Construction and design A timing belt is typically",
"-26.32382611313369"
],
[
"gear due to the open turbine brake. The transmission ratio of the 2nd gear corresponds to the input differential. When changing from 2nd into 3rd gear, the input clutch opens and the lockup clutch, is shut. As a result, the drive shaft is, by the outer rim of the locked up clutch, directly connected with the planetary gear shaft, and thus the output shaft. The ratio is now 1:1. Depending on the position of the accelerator pedal, the vehicle load and the topography, the shift from 3rd to 4th gear occurs automatically. During this transition, the locked up clutch opens",
"-26.317067733587464"
],
[
"up when rotated backwards, but also had some spring action. The inertia of the rotor going backwards engaged the clutch and wound the spring. As it unwound, it restarted the motor in the correct direction. Some designs had no explicit spring as such—but were simply compliant mechanisms. The mechanism was lubricated and wear did not present a problem. Lock-up clutch A Lock-up clutch is used in some automatic transmissions for motor vehicles. Above a certain speed (usually 60 km/h) it locks the torque converter to minimise power loss and improve fuel efficiency.",
"-26.23814411862986"
],
[
"needs to accelerate. This is referred to as \"time to speed\". In reality, this is what the end-user is most concerned with. Once it is known how much inertia is present for the clutch to start or for the brake to stop, then the torque can be calculated and the appropriate size of clutch can be chosen.\nMost CAD systems can automatically calculate component inertia, but the key to sizing a brake or clutch is calculating how much inertia is reflected back to the clutch or brake. To do this, engineers use the formula:\nT = (WK2 × ΔN) / (308 ×",
"-26.174726945522707"
],
[
"amount of true manual control provided is highly variable: some systems will override the driver's selections under certain conditions, generally in the interest of preventing engine damage. Since these gearboxes also have a throttle kickdown switch, it is impossible to fully exploit the engine power at low to medium engine speeds. Comparison with manual transmission Most cars sold in North America since the 1950s have been available with an automatic transmission, based on the fact that the three major American car manufacturers had started using automatics. Conversely, in Europe a manual gearbox is standard, with only 20% of drivers opting",
"-26.11108685832005"
],
[
"sports such as Formula 1 or drag racing. In the case of heavy equipment, which often deal with very high torque forces and drivetrain loads, a single plate clutch of the necessary strength would be too large to easily package as a component of the driveline.\nAnother, different theme on the multiplate clutch is the clutches used in the fastest classes of drag racing, highly specialized, purpose-built cars such as Top Fuel dragsters or Funny Cars. These cars are so powerful that to attempt a start with a simple clutch would result in complete loss of traction. To avoid this problem,",
"-26.09754494810477"
],
[
"on the mechanics of the car. Therefore, a staple of advanced or professional manual-transmission driving is the \"rev match\", or \"throttle blip\", in which the driver quickly brings the engine up to speed with the wheels by use of the throttle. As downshifting is often necessary when accelerating into or out of a curve or other slow-down, advanced techniques such as the \"heel-toe method\" are often required, in which the toe of the right foot presses on the brake pedal, while the heel of the same foot blips the throttle.\nNissan's SynchroRev Match system makes such throttle blipping and",
"-26.090215105887182"
],
[
"the crank, leading to excessive noise and wear. Fibre or nylon covered gears, with more resilience, are often used instead of steel gears where direct drive is used. Commercial engines and aircraft engines use steel gears only, as a fibre or nylon coated gear can fail suddenly and without warning.\nA belt or chain allows much more flexibility in the relative locations of the crankshaft and camshafts.\nWhile chains and gears may be more durable, rubber composite belts are quieter in their operation (in most modern engines the noise difference is negligible), are less expensive and more efficient, by dint of being",
"-26.082321067806333"
]
] |
28rtal | Why isn't Africa an economic super-power? Why are there no African cars, or clothes, manufactured and exported to other continents? | [
"There's plenty being exported from Africa. This has to do with a few factors. 1) Africa is geopolitically unstable: we invented most of the countries that exist there after WWI. As a result, they aren't like the homogeneous countries in Europe, which have their millennium long histories. These are places where there are hundreds of different tribes, with different identities. In Europe, we more or less eliminated the tribal system some time during the first millenium. 2) We fucked up Africa pretty hard with colonialism. I'm not entirely sure how relevant this point is now, but we didn't exactly do a great job of setting up infrastructure there. 3) The environment is fairly shitty: In NA, we used chemical warfare to eliminate disease bearing mosquitos. We never seemed to take this play to Africa, which might be for the best, given the ecological damage we did.",
"I think this question makes an assumption that Africa does not have economic super-powers, and that is wrong. Nigeria is now the 26th largest economy in the world, having just surpassed South Africa. FDI into much of Africa by China, the USA, and Europe is pretty astounding. Africa boasted 7/10 fastest growing economies of the last decades. Yes, there are problems that have been stated, like political instability, but these are also improving. Ghana, Botswana, Nigeria, to a much lesser extent Kenya and SA all have fairly stable governments that have peaceful transitions of power. Africa has been held back, but I think the world still suffers from an impression that Africa is a backwards continent, and it is not. It is growing and I think will appear as the next (and maybe last) great emerging market.",
"With the little bit I remember from my economics class I believed you answered your own question. They don't invest in infrastructure and manufacturing. They rely on natural resources and the profits get funneled to corrupt leaders. Anyone feel free to correct me if I'm wrong.",
"Guys: educate yourself about why the 54 *countries* of Africa do indeed export a lot more than you think. See the Atlas of Economic Complexity, which shows visually all the exports of every country in a mosaic. Here's Kenya. URL_0 ",
"From the book The shackled continent by Robert Guest: The great African novelist, Chinua Achebe, said of his homeland: “The trouble with Nigeria is simply and squarely a failure of leadership. There is nothing basically wrong with the Nigerian character. There is nothing wrong with the Nigerian land or climate or water or air or anything else. The Nigerian problem is the unwillingness or inability of its leaders to rise to the responsibility, to the challenge of personal example which are the hallmarks of true leadership.” Substitute “Africa” for “Nigeria” and this is a pretty good summary of what holds the continent back. Since independence, Africa’s governments have failed their people. Few allow ordinary citizens the freedom to seek their own fortunes without official harassment. Few uphold the rule of law, enforce contracts, or safeguard property rights. Many are blatantly predatory, serving as the means by which a small elite extracts rents from everyone else. Predatory governments usually make their countries poorer, as in Nigeria and the Central African Republic. Worse, when power confers riches, people sometimes fight for it, as in Congo and Liberia.",
"Europe divided Africa into territories under different spheres of influence: Belgium got a piece of land, England got a piece of land, etc. In this time, Africa was ruled by their own tribes and were seen as uncivilized by Europe. Europe took all of the resources and ran, leaving Africa subject to leadership by terrorist groups. Terrorist groups turned Africa upside down, which is why Africa isn't an economic powerhouse. Africa still hasn't recovered from the European \"Scramble for Africa\"",
"Government instability plays a huge role as well. Stable government=more investment, more investment = ability to produce. Botswana is a success story. Vehicles are produced on the continent as well, but it's cheaper to ship used cars from Japan.",
"\"Africa\" isn't a singular entity, it's an entire continent, the second most populous on Earth. Imagine asking why Asia was an economic superpower. It wouldn't make sense to assume that there's some universal quality of Asianness that had lead to economic growth in China, Japan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, etc. It's true that many of the factors described here are problems for many African nations (and post-colonial states on other continents as well), but Africa is a diverse group states, each with their own triumphs and failures, some doing better (e.g. Botswana, Ghana), and others floundering (e.g. Somalia, Nigeria). Perhaps the question \"What's wrong with Africa?\" plays a role in contributing to the problems so many of the continents' nations face.",
"There's a thriving auto industry in the nation of South Africa. Ford, for example, exports the modern Ranger pickup truck to the rest of Africa and the Middle East. Maybe... just maybe they're exported to Europe, too (Europe models may come from Thailand; I can't remember). The cool thing (you know, which a lot of historical negatives, too) about South Africa is that it wasn't hindered as much by colonialism; it was settled and kept by the settlers. It's a lot like the United States.",
"Let's break it up like this: Africa isn't a country, it's a continent, therefore: it's made of several different countries, with severl different kinds of people, ideas, clans, ethnic groups, etc. When colonisation was over, most of these countries kept the shape they were given during the Scramble for Africa. That means that etnies that hated each other like the Tutsis and the Hutus had to share the same country. Being unable to cooperate in even the smallest details, war was guaranteed for countries like these. Civil war means no progress, no progress means no cars. Another example is the Cold War. During this period several dictators and coup d'état winners made deals with the USSR or the USA for money, protection, legitimization of their governments, etc. In exchange for money, weapons to defeat internal opposition or simply in exchange for a blind eye in case of gross violations of human rights, these states would became supportive of one these two super-powers who were trying to rule the world. Right now, the problems are still the same. Countries like Sudan are still living this nightmare, South Sudan (rich in petrol and minerals) broke up from Sudan so they could live in peace. Right now they're living a new civil war because their elites don't want to share power, wealth and control with each other. Plus, we are living a new Scramble for Africa. China is attacking with all it's might and sending huge waves of migrants to African territories, providing cheaply made infrastructures like Hospitals, Roads and Schools in exchange for resources, political influence and international prestige. So yeah, Africa as a whole is still trying to get up on it's feet, time will tell if they can or can't.",
"One should not forget the impact of the cold war on developing countries in Africa. Some would argue that the cold war had an even bigger impact than colonialism. The argument that could be made is that money and influence from the superpowers flowed into the emerging new countries and destabilized them. Very simpliefied.",
"This question reminds me of a lecture I heard from an economics professor. The speech starts out \"let's stop referring to Africa as a country. It is a huge continent with vast diversity of everything from religion to climates. Now we can have serious conversation.\"",
"Europeans industrialized first, and spread, which made it even harder for Africa to catch up. I wonder if it's possible to study this without being considered to be racist.",
"Because of colonization! All the European powers carved out pieces of Africa for themselves for the large amount of resources available there. They then built infrastructure that was meant to take resources out of the colonies, not bring it in. Much of their infrastructure is still the same, so the countries there are not able to become manufacturing powers. The colonizers also made it so the Africans were very dependent on them so that the Africans would essentially remain children. The Europeans then had the argument that they had to continue their colonial empire because the Africans needed them. When they were finally forced to stop colonization after WWII, and abruptly pulled out of their African colonies, the Africans didn't know how to run the new economic and political systems, so they were never able to advance too much. This is just a small part of the explanation. I'm just seeing how much I remember from my World Geography class :)",
"Note that when African leaders DO try to counter the colonial legacy and seize control of their own resources and wealth, they are demonized in the west and portrayed as madmen and despots. We hit them with sanctions and pressure other countries to ostracise and not trade with them.. If they roll over and allow the big western companies to own them like all the rest and drag all the wealth out of their nations, then they're friendly governments.",
"If the recent National Geographic article is on point, Africa is due to be the world's next farming powerhouse. Farming is widespread across the continent, mostly sub-Saharan, but yields are generally well below average for various reasons. If some key reasons can be resolved such as irrigation, fertilizer, technology and organization then there is huge potential in Africa. A little bit of efficiency will go a long way there.",
"The issue needs to be examined on a regional basis; instability in Libya is different from that of the Central African Republic, etc",
"It's got no infrastructure, everyone is corrupt, it still uses tribe systems. It exports gold and other resources though."
] | [
[
"purchasing power parity at $23.12 trillion. Today, the PRC faces a growing shortage of raw materials such as oil, wood, copper, and aluminum, all of which are needed to support its economic expansion and the production of manufactured goods. Africa Africa has a population of roughly 1.018 billion and a surface of 30,221,532 km². Industrialization started marginally in the early 20th century in the colonies of the European nations, namely Portugal, Belgium, Spain, the Netherlands, Germany, France, Italy, and the United Kingdom. The continent's various wars for independence brought on the violent and disruptive division of Africa. Africa, being a major",
"-28.273670726099226"
],
[
"fixed investment.\" Africa According to Kevin O'Marah of Forbes magazine, Africa's consumer economies remained \"buoyant\" despite the worldwide collapse in the commodity industry, despite the fact that commodity extraction industries have long dominated the region. China Some analysts, including an anonymous columnist at The Economist stated in 2014 and early 2015 that China was likely to become a consumer economy. They regarded it as the second biggest consumer. Philippines The GDP in the country grew 6.3% in 2015. Their inflation rate was about 1.4%, and the service sector had grown, becoming a large part of GDP. The economy did not",
"-27.032043012303802"
],
[
"is likely to have been negative. Modernisation theory emphasises that colonial powers built infrastructure to integrate Africa into the world economy, however, this was built mainly for extraction purposes. African economies were structured to benefit the coloniser and any surplus was likely to be ‘drained’, thereby stifling capital accumulation. Dependency theory suggests that most African economies continued to occupy a subordinate position in the world economy after independence with a reliance on primary commodities such as copper in Zambia and tea in Kenya. Despite this continued reliance and unfair trading terms, a meta-analysis of 18 African countries found that a",
"-26.82724262859847"
],
[
"in Modern times its ability to promote development, specifically in Africa, has been less than so. Modernisation that has taken place in Africa can be described as something that has yet to benefit most of the African countries.\nModernisation through development has led to problems in Nigeria by bringing in private, foreign owned oil companies that have been exploiting the natural resource wealth of the country. Because the oil companies are generally owned by a different nation, the profits are mostly being exported from Nigeria with only one fifteenth of the wealth produced in the region returning to it.",
"-26.744421080729808"
],
[
"Africa among 11 Global Growth Generators countries.\nPreviously, economic development had been hindered by years of military rule, corruption, and mismanagement. The restoration of democracy and subsequent economic reforms have successfully put Nigeria back on track towards achieving its full economic potential. As of 2014 it is the largest economy in Africa, having overtaken South Africa.\nDuring the oil boom of the 1970s, Nigeria accumulated a significant foreign debt to finance major infrastructural investments. With the fall of oil prices during the 1980s oil glut Nigeria struggled to keep up with its loan payments and eventually defaulted on its principal debt repayments,",
"-26.628686319359986"
],
[
"to build a self-reliable economy. African exports to China In the other direction, China's growing thirst for raw materials led Chinese state-owned enterprises to the country with natural resources, such as wood and minerals (like those from the Gabonese forests). By the end of the 1990s, China had become interested in African oil, too.\nOver time, African laws adapted to China's demand, laws intended to force the local transformation of raw materials for export. This led to a new kind of manufacturing in Africa, managed by the Chinese, with African workers producing exports for Chinese, as well as European, American and",
"-26.363122043549993"
],
[
"The most direct consequence of low GDP is Africa's low standard of living and quality of life. Except for a wealthy elite and the more prosperous peoples of South Africa and the Maghreb, Africans have very few consumer goods. Quality of life does not correlate exactly with a nation's wealth. Angola, for instance, reaps large sums annually from its diamond mines, but after years of civil war, conditions there remain poor. Radios, televisions, and automobiles are rare luxuries. Most Africans are on the far side of the digital divide and are cut off from communications",
"-26.122692617267603"
],
[
"and Asia are fast catching up, and several authors writing in 2016 and later took the opposite view, speculating that the platform economy will help accelerate a shift of economic power towards Asia. Africa Numerous successful platforms have been launched in Africa, several of which have been home grown. In the early 2010s, there were reports by journalist, academics and development workers that Africa has been leading the world in some platform related technologies, such as by \"leapfrogging\" traditional fixed line internet applications and going straight to developing mobile apps. In the field of mobile money for example, it was",
"-26.110612799908267"
],
[
"priorities of many African countries. Moreover, China's increasing role as a global superpower seems appealing and this drives a desire to tie African economies more closely to China's economy.\nThrough the use of GONGOs (otherwise known as a Government-organized non-governmental organization), China exerts soft power through foreign aid and development in Africa. China has made a systematic effort to expand and give greater profile to its soft-power policies in Africa ever since the first Forum on China-Africa Cooperation in 2000. The commitments of China's soft power ranges from health, humanitarian assistance to academic, professional and cultural exchange.\nCultural exchange between China and",
"-25.73079727528966"
],
[
"Nations Economic Commission for Latin America after observing that economic growth in wealthy countries did not translate into economic growth in poor countries. Dependency theorists believe this is due to the import-export relationship between rich and poor countries. Walter Rodney, in his book How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, used this framework when observing the relationship between European trading companies and African peasants living in postcolonial states. Through the labour of peasants, African countries are able to gather large quantities of raw materials. Rather than being able to export these materials directly to Europe, states must work with a number of trading",
"-25.54194439711864"
],
[
"of the European countries, since, disregarding some few exceptions such as Norway, Europe is largely dependent on imports for its fossil fuels. Furthermore, just few European countries, such as Germany or France, have car manufacturers productive enough to satisfy their country's internal demand for cars. All these factors related to high motorisation rates, affect therefore the economic growth in the majority of the European countries. Most African countries are also dependent on imported cars, usually second-hand from Western countries, some of those vehicles being in a very worn-out state. Finally, even countries with oil resources could be deprived of refineries,",
"-25.445599704453343"
],
[
"clothing is imported from the United States. However, there are concerns that trade in secondhand clothing in African countries decreases development of local industries even as it creates employment in these countries. And the authors of Recycling of Low Grade Clothing Waste warn that in the long run, as prices and quality of new clothing continue to decline, the demand for used clothing will also diminish. Marketing controversies The increase in western consumers’ environmental interest is motivating companies to use sustainable and environmental arguments solely to increase sales. Because environmental and sustainability issues are complex, it is also easy to",
"-25.408403306487344"
],
[
"the past with only 10.2% of trade in the continent being done in Africa in 2010. The Chairperson of the African Union and President of Rwanda, Paul Kagame, writes, \"Increasing intra-African trade does not mean doing less business with the rest of the world.On the contrary, as we trade more among ourselves, African firms will become bigger, more specialized, and more competitive internationally.From now on, the clear wish of everyone is that consultation between business and political leadership, at all levels, becomes a continuous feature of continental deliberations.\" Evidence shows that liberalizing trade helps to bring sustained economic growth",
"-25.23240893802722"
],
[
"trading partners. The ability of the country to utilize its resources to increase its wealth is not at all bad. However, as many experts see it, the dependency of the developing countries like Africa to China in exchange of opportunistic loan offers is a sure way to deny the people of its sovereignty and self-sustaining growth in the longer-term scope. Domestic and international views and voices on the so-called \"debt trap diplomacy.\" Although the money invested by China in Africa may help it close the gap for its infrastructure needs, the practice is questionably unethical as China slows down and",
"-25.161448872924666"
],
[
"form of jobs, and natural resources. In economic theory and practice, any country can borrow from another country to finance its economic development. However, it is not always easy to find someone who will lend money even for logical reasons. The global competition on which country is best to invest money in is in fact, a country's sign of financial strength, which is why Africa does not consider the relationship as a debt-trap. Unemployment In the past decade, China has increased its investment relationship with African countries. In 2014, China created a program known as African Human Resources Development Fund",
"-25.15416577477663"
],
[
"admirable, successful introduction of computers to Africa necessitates more of the United Nations' Millennium Development goals approach which has been agreed to by countries and leading development institutions around the world to promote a comprehensive and coordinated approach to tackling many problems in developing countries (\"Microsoft technology, partnerships\", 2006). However, by 2008 Bill Gates had changed his perspective on technology solving problems in Africa stating, \"I mean, do people have a clear view of what it means to live on $1 a day? ... He openly dismisses the notion that the world's poorest people constitute a significant market for high-tech",
"-25.150575767191185"
],
[
"can be aborted if the present plans of manufacturing and retailing trade associations to set up \"kept\" consumer pressure groups (are) allowed to go forward unchecked.\" Eventually, industry and companies began to state citizens and organizations who criticized corporations were un-American and Communist. Africa African economies are heavily influenced by multinational corporations and lending institutions which have encouraged export-oriented industrialization. To become more attractive to investment in these circumstances many governments become willing to tolerate unfavorable conditions such as anti-competitive practices, receiving lower quality imports than would be acceptable in other markets, enduring misleading product claims, and",
"-24.978956222988927"
],
[
"sense, to dichotomize rich and poor nations, since, for example, filling a tank of an average car with biofuel, amounts to as much maize (Africa's principal food staple) as an African person consumes in an entire year.\nBrazil, the world's second largest producer of ethanol after the US, is considered to have the world's first sustainable biofuels economy and its government claims Brazil's sugar cane based ethanol industry has not contributed to the 2008 food crises. A World Bank policy research working paper released in July 2008 concluded that \"...large increases in biofuels production in the United States and Europe are",
"-24.976101799256867"
],
[
"a Chinese naval base to contain China's geopolitical rivals. Debt-trap Diplomacy and Africa’s Economy China is a major stakeholder in Africa's economy with a significant influence on many aspects of the continent's affairs. Recently, African countries have rapidly increased their borrowing from China. According to research conducted as part of the Jubilee Debt Campaign in October 2018, African countries owed China US$10 billion in 2010 increasing to over $30 billion by 2016. China's lending to African countries is part of a large-scale overseas investment boom forming part of the country's quest to become an economic superpower. The top five countries",
"-24.843229856582184"
],
[
"is ranked 20th (40th in 2005, 52nd in 2000), in the world in terms of Gross Domestic Product at purchasing power parity as of 2015, and largest within Africa, on track to become one of the 20 largest economies in the world in terms of nominal GDP by 2020. Its re-emergent, though currently under-performing, manufacturing sector is the third-largest on the continent, and produces a large proportion of goods and services for the West African region. Turkey Turkey's economy grew at 9.2% in 2010, faster than India and China, and was the third fastest-growing economy in the world. Economic growth",
"-24.759555965280015"
],
[
"democracy to the extent markets elsewhere would because frequently African markets provide few choices, and many activist groups tie the right to access goods with the right to enjoy benefits of democracy and economic development.\nThe Kenya Consumers' Organization, the Consumer Council of Zimbabwe, the Housewives League in South Africa, and the Institute for Consumer Protection in Mauritius are among the most prominent and oldest of consumer organizations, and these and most others formed before the late 1970s were founded by women. The organizations were vehicles to give women more equal access to basic goods and services and to connect",
"-24.68778609605215"
],
[
"from improper transfer pricing. Such capital flight from the developing world is estimated at ten times the size of aid it receives and twice the debt service it pays. The African Union reports estimates that about 30% of Sub-Saharan Africa's GDP has been moved to tax havens. One tax analyst believed that if the money were paid, most of the continent would be \"developed\" by now.\nAnother example is for instance some company producing cars, which has its HQ in Japan and its subsidiary in India. Suppose that the Japanese operations have losses whereas the Indian subsidiary has profits. Even though",
"-24.649478298219037"
],
[
"because the colonial division of labor kept Africa from developing its own industries. Africa and other developing countries received low prices for their exported commodities such as cocoa, which caused poverty to abound. Fair trade seeks to establish a system of direct trade from developing countries to counteract this unfair system. Most cocoa comes from small family-run farms in West Africa. These farms have little market access and thus rely on middlemen to bring their products to market. Sometimes middlemen are unfair to farmers. Farmers do not get a fair price for their product despite relying on cocoa sales for",
"-24.591048391761433"
],
[
"computers and information services are very high. Much of this is caused by the lack of infrastructure in place to manufacture advanced technologies and the limited development of ICT networks. Moreover, the networks in Africa, including both telephone and Internet infrastructure, are owned by American and European providers. Additionally, many of the brightest researchers and scientists in Africa are leaving the continent to pursue intellectual and trade development in other countries of the world, because the opportunities for professional development in Africa are limited. As a result, research and development within Africa lacks significantly, and education",
"-24.56274897720141"
],
[
"and investment, partly because of low disposable income; an inadequate education system results in an acute shortage of skilled manpower; a strong and volatile currency deters investors and makes its exports less competitive; the infrastructure, though far better than in the rest of Africa, suffers from severe bottlenecks, including scheduled power shortages, and urgently needs upgrading.\nIn 2011, after a year of observer status, South Africa officially joined the BRICS group of now-five emerging-market nations at the summit held in Sanya, Hainan, China.",
"-24.549731002498447"
],
[
"by multinational corporations and 1st world countries regarding trade, the environment, agriculture and economic control of the planet seldom include African and other 3rd world problems in the decision making process.\nThis is a top down system and makes no space for revitalization and empowerment from the bottom up. Arbitrary decisions based on politics, ego and building a specific brand with advertising on 4x4 motor vehicles do not contribute to finding lasting and sustainable solutions to poverty, starvation, unemployment and the other scourges that beset Africa and the 3rd world.\nIn order to address this gulf, that separates not only decision making",
"-24.418246774061117"
],
[
"second largest country in Africa who has historically relied heavily on mining, is no longer reflected in the GDP data as the mining industry has suffered from long-term \"uncertain legal framework, corruption, and a lack of transparency in government policy.\" The informal sector .\nIn her book entitled The Real Economy of Zaire, MacGaffey described a second, often illegal economy, \"system D,\" which is outside the official economy (MacGaffey 1991:27). and therefore is not reflected in the GDP.\nexploitation of mineral substances as MIBA EMAXON and De Beers \nThe economy of the second largest country in Africa relies heavily on mining. The",
"-24.417777404181834"
],
[
"state that automobile-purchasing decisions that may have global effects should not be left entirely up to individuals operating in a free market.\nAutomakers have said that small, fuel-efficient vehicles cost the auto industry billions of dollars. They cost almost as much to design and market but cannot be sold for as much as larger vehicles such as SUVs, because consumers expect small cars to be inexpensive. In 1999, USA Today reported small cars tend to depreciate faster than larger cars, so they are worth less in value to the consumer over time. However, 2007 Edmunds depreciation data show that some",
"-24.412614968510752"
],
[
"half of the countries in Sub Saharan Africa rose by over 4.5% annually, while generation capacity grew at a rate of 1.2%. Social, economic, and demographic diversity According to the World Development Report published by the World Bank in 2012, Africa’s economy is about the size of the Netherlands' economy, which is equivalent to only approximately six percent of the U.S. economy. Akin Iwayemi, a professor at University of Ibadan in Nigeria, suggests that there is potentially a “strong feedback relationship between the energy sector and the national economy.” Determining socio-economic indicators in Africa include population, population density, land area,",
"-24.402761138298956"
],
[
"is also a member, to its own informal nascent empire in commodity-rich Africa.\"\nThe accumulation of American debt, which has been estimated at over $800 billion, suggests the two nations are intrinsically linked; the economic symbiosis prevalent between the two suggests that separation would harm both countries and be disastrous for the global economy. Another way to measure this integration is the trade deficit. The US trade deficit with China was $295 billion in 2011, meaning the US imported that much more goods and services from China than it exported to China. The Economic Policy Institute estimated that from 2001–2011, 2.7",
"-24.325091818347573"
],
[
"Disruption of African manufacturing One contentious issue is the effect which large amounts of Chinese goods are having on local light manufacturing. While the dominant resource extraction industries are largely benefiting from Chinese capital investment, growing imports from China to many African nations underprice and crowd out local suppliers. Though Chinese imports allow poorer consumers to buy their first refrigerator, T-shirt, suitcases, or microwave ovens, they also hurt nascent local industries in countries trying to end reliance on resource commodities. By one interpretation, Chinese textile imports have caused 80% of Nigerian factories to shut down, resulting in 250,000 workers losing",
"-24.30424329453308"
],
[
"for textile and apparel trade in January 2005 reversed some of the gains made in the African textile industry due to increased competition from developing nations outside of Africa, particularly China. Some factories shut down in Lesotho, where most of the growth occurred. Orders from African manufacturers stabilised somewhat after the imposition of certain safeguard measures by U.S. authorities, but Africa's share of the U.S. market was still reduced after the phaseout.\nAGOA has resulted in limited successes in some countries. In addition to growth in the textile and apparel industry, some AGOA countries have begun to export new products to",
"-24.265052485716296"
],
[
"many platforms in Africa are accessible just by SMS, uptake of smartphones is also high, with the FT reporting in 2015 that mobile internet adoption is happening at double the global rate. Compared to other regions, there may have been less negative effects caused by platforms in Africa, as there has been less legacy economic infrastructure to disrupt, which also has provided an opportunity to build new systems from \"ground zero\". Though some legacy businesses have still been disrupted by the rise of platforms in Africa, with sometimes only the more productive firms being able to overcome barriers to adopting",
"-24.256457541661803"
],
[
"a learning period that would allow the least developed countries to acquire general and technical know-how in the fields of industrial production in order to become competitive on international markets. Free trade and poverty Sub-Saharan African countries have a lower income per capita in 2003 than 40 years earlier (Ndulu, World Bank, 2007, p. 33). Per capita income increased by 37% between 1960 and 1980 and fell by 9% between 1980 and 2000. Africa's manufacturing sector's share of GDP decreased from 12% in 1980 to 11% in 2013. In the 1970s, Africa accounted for more than 3% of world manufacturing output,",
"-24.194849255523877"
],
[
"Energy in Africa Energy in Africa describes energy production, consumption, and import in Africa.\nEnergy use and development varies widely across the continent, with some African countries exporting energy to neighbors or the global market, while others lack even basic infrastructures or systems to acquire energy. The World Bank has declared 32 of the 48 nations on the continent to be in an energy crisis. Energy development has not kept pace with rising demand in developing regions, placing a large strain on the continent's existing resources over the first decade of the new century. From 2001 to 2005, GDP for over",
"-24.109711298457114"
],
[
"capital flight has begun to reverse itself due to rapid growth and development in many African nations, and the emergence of an African middle class. Between 2001 and 2010, six of the world's ten fastest-growing economies were in Africa, and between 2011 and 2015, Africa's economic growth is expected to outpace Asia's. This, together with increased development, introduction of technologies such as fast Internet and mobile phones, a better-educated population, and the environment for business driven by new tech start-up companies, has resulted in many expatriates from Africa returning to their home countries, and more Africans staying at home to",
"-24.09184290919802"
],
[
"of African multinational production corporations and joint ventures. Internationally, the Plan called for Africa's world industrial production to reach 2% by the year 2000. The Plan also called for new financial policies at the national level and regional levels to encourage trade and financial cooperation among Member states. Measures to Build up and Strengthen Economic and Technical Co-Operation Africa's need for institutions that help develop capabilities and infrastructures essential for economic and social development was recognized by the Lagos Plan. Existing institutions have faced stifled growth due to the lack of governmental support. The Plan aimed to set guidelines around",
"-24.058328190425527"
],
[
"stock ownership, the farmers having incorporated. Africa Corporate farming has begun to take hold in some African countries, where listed companies such as Zambeef, Zambia are operated by MBAs as large businesses. In some cases, this has caused debates about land ownership where shares have been bought by international investors, especially from China. Middle East Some oil-rich middle east countries operate corporate farming including large-scale irrigation of desert lands for cropping, mostly through partially or fully state-owned companies. Anti–corporate farming laws To date, nine US states have enacted laws that restrict or prohibit corporate farming. The first",
"-23.982240357028786"
],
[
"Life in the African Union Economy The combined states of the African Union constitute the world's 17th largest economy with a nominal GDP of $500 billion, ranking after the Netherlands. By measuring GDP by PPP, the African Union's economy totals $1.515 trillion, ranking it 11th after Brazil. At the same time, they have a combined total debt of $200 billion.\nThe AU future confederation's goals include the creation of a free trade area, a customs union, a single market, a central bank, and a common currency, thereby establishing economic and monetary union. The current plan is to establish an African Economic Community with",
"-23.843531809715387"
],
[
"we can change governments every year, but without a change of mind-set, Africa will remain poor and under-developed.\nHe conclude that a government is as rich as its citizens and if the citizens are poor, the country will be poor. View on world resources Resources abound in the world and many are those not yet discovered, when their needs will arise, new discoveries will be made. Those who argue that the world will run out of resources are wrong. As long as human beings remain on earth, there will always find new ways to meet their needs.\nHistory tells us that",
"-23.820581252854026"
],
[
"stay of execution but the severe economic climate of the latter half of the 1970s proved too much. Growth The automotive industry catered to 303,000 employees in South Africa in 2003, and in 2004 the country exported fully assembled motor vehicles to 53 countries including many developed countries such as Japan, the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Germany, with many of the manufacturers based in South Africa now making it their main production base. In 2004, South Africa was responsible for the manufacture of 84% of all vehicles produced in Africa, 7 million of which are on the",
"-23.769191622028302"
],
[
"business in Africa, most of which are private companies investing in the infrastructure, energy and banking sectors Investments from Chinese entrepreneurial migration have culminated in positive (indirect jobs) and negative (displacing local traders) effects in local African societies Unconditional and low-rate credit lines (rates at 1.5% over 15 years to 20 years) have taken the place of the more restricted and conditional Western loans Since 2000, more than $10bn in debt owed by African nations to the PRC has been canceled.\nOne-third of China's oil supplies comes from the African continent, mainly from Angola. Investments of Chinese companies",
"-23.711900383361353"
],
[
"stressed the need for African governments to key into ITU's initiative for Africa, which emphasized infrastructure, investment, innovation and inclusivity. Furthermore, entrepreneurs were encouraged to address the specific challenges that Africans face in regards to accessing the Internet.\nIn a study conducted in 2011, they estimate that internet access is only available to roughly fourteen percent of the African population. This means that while the world's population is only composed of fifteen percent of Africans, around six percent of that subscribe to the internet. Poverty and Poor Infrastructure in Africa Even though technology has become more and more affordable, there is",
"-23.683327785951178"
],
[
"Africa is by then projected to contribute seven out of the ten fastest growing economies in the world. According to the World Bank, the economic growth rate in the region had risen to 4.7% in 2013, with a rate of 5.2% forecasted for 2014. This continued rise was attributed to increasing investment in infrastructure and resources as well as steady expenditure per household. Media Radio is the major source of information in Sub-Saharan Africa. Average coverage stands at more than a third of the population. Countries such as Gabon, Seychelles, and South Africa boast almost 100% penetration. Only five countries –",
"-23.67184103778345"
],
[
"Africa's production could be reversed because of the expected completion of the Moab Khotsong mine in 2006, the Dominion Mine in 2007, the Tshepong Decline project in 2008, the Phakisa Shaft in 2009, and the planned expansion of the Masimong Mine in 2010. By 2011, these projects could more than offset the shutdown of the Ergo and the North West Mines in 2005, the planned closure of the Crown Mine in 2009, and lower production from the Great Noligwa, the Kopanang, and the Tau Lekoa Mines.\nIn Ghana, the outlook is for a substantial increase in output because of the expected",
"-23.664197610785777"
],
[
"and now accounts for 1.5%. In an Op ed article for The Guardian (UK), Ha-Joon Chang argues that these downturns are the result of free trade policies, and elsewhere attributes successes in some African countries such as Ethiopia and Rwanda to their abandonment of free trade and adoption of a \"developmental state model\".\nThe poor countries that have succeeded in achieving strong and sustainable growth are those that have become mercantilists, not free traders: China, South Korea, Japan, Taiwan. Thus, whereas in the 1990s, China and India had the same GDP per capita, China followed a much more mercantilist policy and",
"-23.659582990119816"
],
[
"country’s GDP and about 10% of South Africa's manufacturing exports. In 2010 the National Association of Automobile Manufacturers of South Africa (NAAMSA) reported that new vehicle sales exceeded their initial expectations of 7%, with large local growth allowing it to reach 24%, providing a big boost after the 2008/09 recession. This was evident in 2010 with 271,000 vehicles being exported, more than double what was seen in previous years. Quality Quality is a big factor in production. A factor such as quality can be a defining factor in the success of an industry. Since around 7% of South Africa’s economic",
"-23.641882618976524"
],
[
"is more to these projects than just mere financial strategy, he stated “It’s also a vehicle for China to write new rules, establish institutions that reflect Chinese interests, and reshape ‘soft’ infrastructure.”\nThe negative effects of Chinese financial loans to Africa's economy include fear of losing local companies to those Chinese with strong buying powers. Debt from China has also promoted illicit trade among China and African countries. Such imports are cheap because of China's cheap labor and are thus preferred for locally manufactured goods. Examples of cheap imports from China include clothes and electronics. Trade between African countries and China",
"-23.619711315441236"
],
[
"South African roads. Also in 2004, the industry made a 6.7% contribution to the GDP of South Africa and 29% of all South African manufacturers made up the country's automotive industry. 2004 also saw 110,000 vehicles exported from South Africa of which 100,000 were passenger vehicles.\nIn 2007 and next years the automotive industry grew again, producing over 500,000 vehicles annually reaching peak of 616,000 in 2015. While amounting to a small fraction and 22nd place of the global vehicle production of near 100 million, this made great contributions locally, being supremely first in Africa and making up 7.5% of the",
"-23.604200614488946"
],
[
"This may happen at the expense of local companies that would have otherwise been able to dominate the domestic market, which would have spread profits around to a larger number of owners. On the other hand, globalized stock markets allow more people to invest internationally, and get a share of profits from companies they otherwise could not. Competitive advantages Businesses in developed countries tend to be more highly automated, have more sophisticated technology and techniques, and have better national infrastructure. For these reasons and sometimes due to economies of scale, they can sometimes out-compete similar businesses in developing countries. This",
"-23.60127154845395"
],
[
"new export markets, China is actively looking for African resources of every kind: oil, cobalt, copper, bauxite, uranium, aluminium, manganese, iron ore etc. African resources feed Chinese industries' hunger for minerals and electricity, fuel its economic boom, and thus keep the country's consumers happy and quiet.\nFor the Communist Party, enough supply of minerals means social stability. Like other power, China needs to supply its industry with raw materials, and its citizen in goods to keep them happy. Out of energy and raw materials shortage, analysts also notice that long-term factors threatening China's growth questions over its innovation capability, corruption and",
"-23.58471737178843"
],
[
"in Africa with the largest current Chinese debt, are Angola ($25 billion), Ethiopia ($13.5 billion), Kenya ($7.9 billion), the Republic of Congo ($7.3 billion), and North Sudan ($6.4 billion). Infrastructure Growing debt to China positively affects Africa's economy via much-needed developments in infrastructure. The main types of infrastructure that these debts improve include roads, railways and ports. Improved infrastructure favors internal trade, healthcare and education systems. One such example of infrastructure development is the The Merowe Dam Project in Sudan. This is set to more than double the power development in Sudan, which is currently severely lacking.\nAccording to the World",
"-23.570319784863386"
],
[
"example, Nigeria's inheritance of an outlet to the sea — and the trading opportunities a port affords — gives the nation a distinct economic advantage over its neighbor, Niger. Effectively, the early carving of colonial space turned naturally occurring factor endowments into state controlled assets. Differing colonial investments When European colonials entered a region, they invariably brought new resources and capital management. Different investment strategies were employed, which included focuses on health, infrastructure, or education. All colonial investments have had persistent effects on postcolonial societies, but certain types of spending have proven to be more beneficial than others. French economist",
"-23.524067131518677"
],
[
"to secure millions of dollars of investment. Through the intimate portrayal of these characters, the expanding footprint of a rising global power is laid bare - pointing to a radically different future, not just for Africa, but also for the world. Production During the production of Black Gold, Marc Francis and Nick Francis encountered a group of Chinese workers building a road in southern Ethiopia. This meeting sparked questions about China's role as a growing rising superpower.\nA few years later, the crew arrived in Zambia in the midst of Presidential elections, where the Zambian opposition leader was campaigning on an",
"-23.523584215377923"
],
[
"to be the most advanced nation on Earth. For example, Chinese gliders are capable of flying nonstop from China to Europe by using long-range boosters (nobody else has that technology).\nThe iron deficit had another effect on the world economy. The economy of all the nations on Earth is based on the iron standard, not gold standard. While gold is valuable, it is seen only as a decorative metal, while iron is both a currency and a good (iron is not only extremely rare but is also perishable). Several characters mention that the secret of \"cheap iron mining\" has been discovered",
"-23.465781873259402"
],
[
"2012 and exports of Chinese-made products, such as machinery, electrical and consumer goods and clothing/footwear increased 17.5% to reach $30.9 billion. China remained Africa's largest trading partner during 2011 for the fourth consecutive year (starting in 2008).\nThe need to protect China's increased investments in Africa have driven a shift away from China's traditional non-interference in the internal matters of other countries to new diplomatic and military initiatives to try to resolve unrest in South Sudan and Mali.\nDuring the December 2015 FOCAC meeting in Johannesburg, South Africa, Chinese President Xi Jinping pledged $60 billion over a three-year deal in loans and",
"-23.454220140440157"
],
[
"poor still require access to these products. Improving road and transportation infrastructure helps solve this major bottleneck. In Africa, it costs more to move fertilizer from an African seaport 60 miles inland than to ship it from the United States to Africa because of sparse, low-quality roads, leading to fertilizer costs two to six times the world average. Microfranchising models such as door to door distributors who earn commission-based income or Coca-Cola's successful distribution system are used to disseminate basic needs to remote areas for below market prices. Health care and education Nations do not necessarily need wealth to",
"-23.44249837998359"
],
[
"to transition the economy to be more reliant on high technology, based on the realisation that South Africa cannot compete with Far Eastern economies in manufacturing, nor can the republic rely on its mineral wealth in perpetuity.",
"-23.415911094220064"
],
[
"one of them. Society also benefits when globalisation occurs as an increase in market competition generally pushes the price of products down which means the consumers benefit by gaining a lower price point. This decreases the inequality gap as people who couldn't previously afford products when the market was controlled by local monopolies are able to purchase the product for cheaper.\nAlthough globalisation has benefits to the consumer it does not always benefit the producer with newer and smaller companies struggling to keep up with the low production costs of the multi-national competitors. This results in either a higher price and",
"-23.39018154682708"
],
[
"Africa and China increased a staggering 33% from the previous year to US $166 billion. This included Chinese imports from Africa equalling US $93 billion, consisting largely of mineral ores, petroleum, and agricultural products and Chinese exports to Africa totalling $93 billion, consisting largely of manufactured goods. Outlining the rapidly expanding trade between the African continent and China, trade between these two areas of the world increased further by over 22% year-over-year to US $80.5 billion during the first five months of the year 2012. Imports from Africa were up 25.5% to $49.6 billion during these first five months of",
"-23.37177236990101"
],
[
"with African countries rose from $10 billion in 2000 to $125 billion in 2010 and stands to reach $300 billion by 2015, surpassing the United States as Africa's largest trading partner. China's trade with Latin America has also increased dramatically, rising to 1,500% between 2000 and 2010 through loans and direct foreign investment. China is one of the primary winners of the Western sanctions against Iran, as it has allowed them to become its top trading partner, purchasing 400,000 barrels of oil per day all paid for with the yuan in an attempt to elevate the global standing of the",
"-23.3475542235974"
],
[
"key elements that make nations rich. \nSince the Renaissance, argues Reinert, successful countries – including England and the United States - have first protected their nascent manufactures, then opened themselves to the world markets. Citing Friedrich List, a 19th-century German economist, Erik Reinert suggest that protectionism is thus important and that free trade is only mutual beneficial among countries of the same level of development. \nNo country can achieve development without a sustained level of industrialization, and no poor country can achieve this in the strictures of free trade. For this reason, Reinert calls the Millennium development",
"-23.346227882488165"
],
[
"because of the depleted soil. Recently, more countries have initiated programs to change to traditional, sustainable forms of agriculture such as shifting cultivation and bush fallow in order to grow enough food to support the population while maintaining soil fertility which allows agriculture to continue in future generations. (Gyasi) Modern era Most African economies, especially sub-Saharan Africa stagnated during this time and the period ended with many of Africa's national economies in ruins partly due to lop-sided trade with the rest of the world. Some have argued that economic decline has been caused by the meddling in the internal affairs",
"-23.344111795624485"
],
[
"In 1954, Leontief found that the U.S. (the most capital-abundant country in the world by any criteria) exported labor-intensive commodities and imported capital-intensive commodities, in contradiction with Heckscher-Ohlin theory. Linder hypothesis (Staffan Burenstam Linder, 1961) The Linder hypothesis (demand-structure hypothesis) is a conjecture in economics about international trade patterns. The hypothesis is that the more similar are the demand structures of countries the more they will trade with one another. Further, international trade will still occur between two countries having identical preferences and factor endowments (relying on specialization to create a comparative advantage in the production of differentiated goods between",
"-23.33195930501097"
],
[
"ranked fourth for ease of accessing capital, fourth for cost of capital, sixth for its transport infrastructure (at the time considered better than that of China, India, Mexico, Brazil and Poland, but behind that of Korea and Chile), and seventh for foreign direct investment as a percentage of GDP: in 2008 it was over 3% of the GDP.\nNevertheless, South Africa is falling behind other emerging markets, such as India and China, owing to several factors: the country is relatively small, without the advantage of a huge domestic customer base; it has had for decades an unusually low rate of saving",
"-23.303660314530134"
],
[
"production, and remains inferior to the production of countries like Brazil.\nThe main economic organisations in the Arab World are the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), comprising the states in the Persian Gulf, and the Union of the Arab Maghreb (UMA), made up of North African States. The GCC has achieved some success in financial and monetary terms, including plans to establish a common currency in the Persian Gulf region. Since its foundation in 1989, the UMA's most significant accomplishment has been the establishment of a 7000 km highway crossing North Africa from Mauritania to Libya's border with Egypt. The central stretch of",
"-23.29169891913807"
],
[
"that investment by multinational corporations enriches few in underdeveloped countries and causes humanitarian, environmental and ecological damage to their populations. They argue that this results in unsustainable development and perpetual underdevelopment. These countries remain reservoirs of cheap labor and raw materials, while restricting access to advanced production techniques to develop their own economies. In some countries, monopolization of natural resources, while initially leading to an influx of investment, is often followed by increases in unemployment, poverty and a decline in per-capita income.\nIn the West African nations of Guinea-Bissau, Senegal and Mauritania, fishing was historically central to the economy. Beginning in",
"-23.279482210506103"
],
[
"Least Developed Countries (LDC) list. This offers duty-free and quota-free access to the European Union market for all exports aside from arms and armaments. \nThe majority of exports from the East African Community to the EU are primary products especially food. According to Engel's Law, these countries are exposed to the risk of a decrease in the relative price of food. This theory states that when per capita global income increases, demand for luxury goods increases causing the relative price fall of goods like food. The total exports to the EU was 2.4 billion Euros in 2017. The majority of",
"-23.232640655620344"
],
[
"negative growth in the fourth quarter of 2008, with GDP returning to positive in the first quarter of 2009.\nThe financial crisis did not affect developing countries to a great extent. Experts see several reasons: Africa was not affected because it is not fully integrated in the world market. Latin America and Asia seemed better prepared, since they have experienced crises before. In Latin America, for example, banking laws and regulations are very stringent. Bruno Wenn of the German DEG suggests that Western countries could learn from these countries when it comes to regulations of financial markets. Country specific details about",
"-23.21763128956809"
],
[
"manufacturing industry's contribution to the economy is relatively small, providing just 13.3% of jobs and 15% of GDP. Labour costs are low, but not nearly as low as in most other emerging markets, and the cost of the transport, communications and general living is much higher.\nThe South African automotive industry accounts for about 10% of South Africa's manufacturing exports, contributes 7.5% to the country's GDP and employs around 36,000 people. Annual production in 2007 was 535,000 vehicles, out of a global production of 73 million units in the same year. Vehicle exports were in the region of 170,000 units in",
"-23.14953704036816"
],
[
"ongoing concern for innovation, maintaining a high level of quality, be committed to corporate social responsibility, and continue to strive to provide the best business strategies and either goods or services possible while adapting to different countries and cultures. Absolute cost advantage (Adam Smith, 1776) Adam Smith claimed that a country should specialise in, and export, commodities in which it had an absolute advantage. An absolute advantage existed when the country could produce a commodity with less costs per unit produced than could its trading partner. By the same reasoning, it should import commodities in which it had an absolute",
"-23.139177496580487"
],
[
"high yield, pest and environmentally resistant crops in the hands of small farmers. The Bill and Melinda Gates foundation is a strong advocate and donor to this cause. Biotechnology and GM crops have met resistance both by natives and environmental groups.\nCash crops include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar, and tobacco.\nThe OECD says Africa has the potential to become an agricultural superbloc if it can unlock the wealth of the savannahs by allowing farmers to use their land as collateral for credit. There is such international interest in Sub-Saharan agriculture, that the World Bank increased its financing of African agricultural programs",
"-23.10951968545851"
],
[
"textile workers in United States factories and in China sweatshops. This means that the multinational corporations appropriate a disproportionally high share of the surplus value in \"developing\" countries. The argument usually holds that the continuation of this exploitation retards the development and prosperity of the developing nations. Hence, globalization and modern capitalism benefit mostly the golden billion, while people in the so-called \"developing\" countries are getting the short end of the stick. History The term was coined by A. Kuzmich (Anatoly Tsikunov) in his book The Plot of World Government: Russia and the Golden Billion and used in his articles. The",
"-23.102687919366872"
],
[
"alleged to be trading in fraudulently exported gold and diamonds from the DRC. Current Economy and Economic Prospects The country entered a high period of economic growth in 2006, and the following year managed to register 8% economic growth, a record it has sustained since, turning it into one of the fastest-growing economies in Africa. This sustained economic growth has succeeded in reducing poverty and also reducing fertility rates, with growth between 2006 and 2011 reducing the percentage of the country's population living in poverty from 57% to 45%.The country's infrastructure has also grown rapidly, with connections to electricity going",
"-23.101925036466127"
],
[
"2007, exported mainly to Japan (about 29% of the value of total exports), Australia (20%), the UK (12%) and the US (11%). South Africa also exported ZAR 30.3 billion worth of auto components in 2006.\nBMW, Ford, Volkswagen, Daimler-Chrysler, General Motors, Nissan and Toyota all have production plants in South Africa. Large component manufacturers with bases in the country are Arvin Exhaust, Bloxwitch, Corning and Senior Flexonics. There are also about 200 automotive component manufacturers in South Africa, and more than 150 others that supply the industry on a non-exclusive basis. The industry is concentrated in two provinces, the Eastern Cape and",
"-23.09615906916042"
],
[
"of African states by the IMF and World Bank. Africa also experienced major governance deficiencies, mismanagement and corruption, and this accelerated poverty further.\nThe wealthy elite in Africa in the late 20th century was characterized by civil servants functioning as \"gatekeepers\", holding positions with authority to approve foreign aid, humanitarian assistance, and private investment (typically foreign). Bribery and corruption became entrenched in some countries. Environmental and political catastrophe combined in several famines during the 1970s and 1980s in Ethiopia, Mali, Mauritania and Mozambique. The impact of drought and desertification of a large part of the continent came to widespread public attention",
"-23.08840674434032"
],
[
"2000, the Lagos Plan aimed for Africa to have \"2% of the world industrial production\" and recognized the need for the creation of a national industrial structure to achieve that goal. The Plan also emphasized the importance for cooperation between industry sectors for success in the long term. From 1980-1990, the Plan aimed for Africa to have \"1.4% of the world industrial production\" while achieving self-sufficiency in food, building materials, clothing, and energy\". In the short term, the Plan aimed to have \"at least 1% of the world industrial production\" and start the foundational process for achieving self-reliance in the",
"-23.0833140885552"
],
[
"Purdue University symposium. Human resources The widespread availability of cheap labor has often perpetuated policies that encourage inefficient agricultural and industrial practices, leaving Africa further impoverished. For example, author P.J. O'Rourke noted on his trip to Tanzania for his book Eat the Rich that gravel was produced with manual labor (by pounding rocks with tools), wherein almost everywhere else in the world machines did the same work far more cheaply and efficiently. He used Tanzania as an example of a nation with superb natural resources that nevertheless was among the poorest nations in the world.\nEducation is also a major problem,",
"-23.075927960759145"
],
[
"\"surprisingly large\" increase in imports from Africa. Deals can sometimes be negotiated to favor the developing country such as in China, where laws compel foreign multinationals to train their future Chinese competitors in strategic industries and render themselves redundant in the long term. In Thailand, the 51 percent rule compels multinational corporations starting operations in Thailand give 51 percent control to a Thai company in a joint venture. Capital, infrastructure and technology Long run economic growth per person is achieved through increases in capital (factors that increase productivity), both human and physical, and technology. Improving human capital, in the form",
"-23.07291831353359"
],
[
"Development Institute, the lack of infrastructure in many developing countries represents one of the most significant limitations to economic growth and achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Less than 40% of rural Africans live within two kilometers of an all-season road, the lowest level of rural accessibility in the developing world. Spending on roads averages just below 2% of GDP with varying degree among countries. This compares with 1% of GDP that is typical in industrialised countries, and 2–3% of GDP found in fast-growing emerging economies. Although the level of effort is high relative to the size of Africa's",
"-23.06112814892549"
],
[
"strategic goals of serving global 10 million profit businesses and 20 million consumers confirmed globalization, rural, big data and cloud computing these three strategies. And thus the formation of electricity providers, finance, logistics, cloud computing, globalization, networking and consumer media seven core business segments. At the same time, also pictures, health, sports, music and other aspects of the layout.\nAlibaba claimed that international is not equal in foreign business and factories,is not how much money, but to have international ideas and strategies. Some Chinese enterprises have an international facility, but does not mean they are international,some companies do not have to",
"-23.055751906995283"
],
[
"research and development ECOWAS countries still have a long way to go to reach the African Union's target of devoting 1% of GDP to gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD). Mali comes closest (0.66% in 2010), followed by Senegal (0.54% in 2010), according to the UNESCO Science Report (2015). They are trailed by Ghana (0.38% in 2010), Nigeria and Togo (0.22% in 2007 and 2012 respectively), Burkina Faso (0.20% in 2009), Gambia (0.13% in 2011) and Cabo Verde (0.07% in 2007). The strong economic growth experienced by the subregion in recent years owing to the commodity boom does,",
"-23.04976635458297"
],
[
"financial capacities and institutional frameworks needed for win-win multilateral cooperative actions and optimal solutions for all riparians. Water, jobs and the economy Africa has recently undergone its best decade (2005-2015) for economic growth since the post-independence period. The growth, however, has neither been inclusive or equitable. According to the World Bank, GDP growth in sub-Saharan Africa averaged 4.5% in 2014, up from 4.2% in 2013, supported by continuing infrastructure investment, increased agricultural production and buoyant services.\nAfrica’s population surpassed the 1 billion mark in 2010 and is projected to double by 2050. Demographically, it is expected to be the fastest growing",
"-23.030532761113136"
],
[
"Africa are immense: it is a relatively young democratic, highly inegalitarian country, with enormous socio-economic problems. Jobs are not being created in the South African labour market at a fast enough rate and there is an expectation from school-leavers that they must find work in the corporate world with scant attention given to creating their own businesses. An uncertainty of laws and policies correlate to the difficulty of starting a South African based company. Laws and policies are intended to inspire public trust and respect, and their enforcement requires an effective supporting institution such as the judiciary. Therefore, any inconsistencies",
"-22.997928352939198"
],
[
"the North. Discrepancies in the perspectives of these southern producers and northern consumers are often the source of ethical dilemmas such as how the purchasing power of consumers may or may not promote the development of southern countries. Amidst the continuous growth, \"[p]urchasing patterns of fairtrade products have remained strong despite the global economic downturn. In 2008, global sales of fairtrade products exceeded US$ 3.5 billion.\" Africa Africa's exports come from the places such as South Africa, Ghana, Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya. These exports are valued at $24 million USD. Between the years of 2004 and 2006 Africa quickly expanded",
"-22.99188015463824"
],
[
"for giant corporations), at most 10% of population could reach the level of wealth achieved by people in the richest countries. Peripheral economies, which would not create an independent and more complete economy, would continue to be poor countries, with increasing differences between poor and rich people inside this societies;\n3) About the World economic superstructure: The world superstructure of capitalist economy (mainly IMF and GATT, which originated WTO (World Trade Organization) would, on the one hand, increase control over the world economy, also increasing freedom for capital's flows and for big corporations' actions, and, on the other hand, would decrease",
"-22.987575605191523"
],
[
"near as globalized as some other industries. In the US, for instance, very few banks even worry about the Riegle–Neal Act, which promotes more efficient interstate banking. In the vast majority of nations around the globe the market share for foreign owned banks is currently less than a tenth of all market shares for banks in a particular nation.\nOne reason the banking industry has not been fully globalized is that it is more convenient to have local banks provide loans to small business and individuals. On the other hand, for large corporations, it is not as important in what nation",
"-22.978754626659793"
],
[
"than to buy. [...] If a foreign country can supply us with a commodity cheaper than we ourselves can make it, better buy it of them with some part of the produce of our own industry, employed in a way in which we have some advantage.\nThis statement uses the concept of absolute advantage to present an argument in opposition to mercantilism, the dominant view surrounding trade at the time which held that a country should aim to export more than it imports and thus amass wealth. Instead, Smith argues, countries could gain from each producing exclusively the goods in which",
"-22.952872073394246"
],
[
"economies, it remains little in absolute terms, with low-income countries spending an average of about US$7 per capita per year. Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very expensive, especially in such as areas as landlocked, rural and sparsely populated countries in Africa.\nInfrastructure investments contributed to Africa's growth, and increased investment is necessary to maintain growth and tackle poverty. The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average 30–40% returns for telecommunications (ICT) investments, over 40% for electricity generation and 80% for roads.\nIn Africa, it is argued that in order to meet the MDGs by 2015 infrastructure investments",
"-22.94860250570855"
],
[
"US$2.20 per day.\nAnti-globalization proponents cite high savings, increased capital investment in developing nations, diversification of their exports and their status as trade ports as the reason for their economic success rather than sweatshops and cite the numerous cases in the East Asian \"Tiger Economies\" where sweatshops have reduced living standards and wages. They believe that better-paying jobs, increased capital investment and domestic ownership of resources will improve the economies of sub-Saharan Africa rather than sweatshops. They point to good labor standards developing strong manufacturing export sectors in wealthier sub-Saharan countries such as Mauritius.\nAnti-globalization organizations argue that the minor gains made",
"-22.880449328685245"
],
[
"computers to Africa fail not only in the sustainability issue but also in training, support and feedback. Although in many cases access to the Internet via cable or wireless and electricity remain overwhelming issues. Less than one percent of Africans access broadband and only four percent use the Internet according to the BGBC in an article about Intel backing wireless access in Africa. The cost of wireless remains prohibitive to most Africans and possibly more important is that there is not an overall \"education model\" that supports how to integrate forms of hardware to provide the wireless network.\nKenya provides an",
"-22.835299424958066"
],
[
"Western Europe were dominant at the beginning of the century; by the 2010s, China became an emerging superpower and by some measures the world's largest economy. In terms of purchasing power parity India's economy became larger than that of Japan around the year 2011.\nThe ongoing impact of technological unemployment due to automation and computerization on job employment is massive: the rate of jobs disappearing—due to machines replacing them—is expected to escalate. Automation alters the number of jobs and their skills demands of industries. As of 2019, the manufacturing sectors of first world nations' production output was doubled when compared to",
"-22.813932067314"
],
[
"Africa, the member countries agreed to create a global financial institution which they intended to rival the western-dominated IMF and World Bank. After the summit, the BRICS stated that they planned to finalise the arrangements for this New Development Bank by 2014. However, disputes relating to burden sharing and location slowed down the agreements.\nAt the BRICS leaders meeting in St Petersburg in September 2013, China committed $41 billion towards the pool; Brazil, India and Russia $18 billion each; and South Africa $5 billion. China, holder of the world's largest foreign exchange reserves and who is to contribute the bulk of",
"-22.78664165949158"
],
[
"sectors. Climate change, water scarcity and variability have direct impact on the major sector outputs and thus ultimately on the overall economy of most African countries. Jobs in water-dependent sectors Currently, the most important water-dependent sector in Africa is agriculture, which forms the bedrock of most economies of African states. Both rain-fed and irrigated agriculture are important job-providing sectors in all African countries. Agriculture The role of agriculture as the main source of employment is decreasing in many African countries as a sustained growth in many economies is leading to increasing standards of living, improved education and the occurrence of",
"-22.770610729185137"
],
[
"America. Advances in technology and automation such as 3D printing technologies have made bringing manufacturing back to the United States, both cost effective and possible. Adidas, for example, plans producing highly customized shoes with 3D printers in the U.S. Industrialization Outsourcing has contributed to further levelling of global inequalities as it has led to general trends of industrialization in the Global South and deindustrialization in the Global North.\nNot all manufacturing should return to the U.S. The rise of the middle class in China, India and other countries has created markets for the products made in those countries. Just as the",
"-22.76298945271992"
],
[
"and in 2000, US$10 billion. By 2005, the total Sino-African trade had reached US$39.7 billion before it jumped to US$55 billion in 2006, making China the second largest trading partner of Africa after the United States, which had trade worth US$91 billion with African nations. The PRC also passed the traditional African economic partner and former colonial power France, which had trade worth US$47 billion. In 2010, trade between Africa and China was worth US$114 billion and in 2011, US$166.3 billion. In the first 10 months of 2012 it was US$163.9 billion.\nThere are an estimated 800 Chinese corporations doing",
"-22.733940266112768"
],
[
"expand the Doing Business in Africa Campaign: \"At today’s U.S.-Africa Business Forum, President Obama announced $7 billion in new financing to promote U.S. exports to and investments in Africa under the DBIA Campaign. U.S. companies announced new deals in clean energy, aviation, banking, and construction worth more than $14 billion, in addition to $12 billion in new commitments under the President’s Power Africa initiative from private sector partners, the World Bank, and the government of Sweden. Taken together, these new commitments amount to more than $33 billion, supporting economic growth across Africa and tens of thousands of U.S.",
"-22.720150200053467"
],
[
"trade. According to Reuters,Meles stated the need for a cap and trade mechanism and for different strategies towards Africa, since it did not contribute as much towards global warming. Economic growth A recent issue has been the shortage of cement to sustain the construction boom in the country. However, foreign and native investment, including the recent investment in a US$5 billion cement factory in Misraq Gojjam Zone of the Amhara Region, are an attempt to stabilize the situation. Still the brief severe shortage that occurred in 2005 was blamed on Meles Zenawi's policies that were alleged to ignore urban development.",
"-22.7196914676897"
],
[
"the continent of Africa alone has received $300 billion from the IMF, the World Bank, and affiliate institutions.\nA study by Bumba Mukherjee found that developing democratic countries benefit more from IMF programs than developing autocratic countries because policy-making, and the process of deciding where loaned money is used, is more transparent within a democracy. One study done by Randall Stone found that although earlier studies found little impact of IMF programs on balance of payments, more recent studies using more sophisticated methods and larger samples \"usually found IMF programs improved the balance of payments\". Exceptional Access Framework – sovereign debt The",
"-22.712605315988185"
],
[
"predominantly NATO and EU countries. This has been described as an African brain drain.\nSub-Saharan African countries spent on average 0.3% of their GDP on S&T (Science and Technology) in 2007. This represents a combined increase from US$1.8bn in 2002 to US$2.8bn in 2007. North African countries spend a comparative 0.4% of GDP on research, an increase from US$2.6bn in 2002 to US$3.3bn in 2007. Exempting South Africa, the continent has augmented its collective science funding by about 50% in the last decade. Notably outstripping its neighbor states, South Africa spends 0.87% of GDP on science and technology research.\nAlthough technology parks",
"-22.69124990174896"
]
] |
4fsseb | Money - If a bank takes a deposit and lends it out again have we got twice as much money as before? | [
"Yes and no. It depends really how you account for money. If you look at monetary base (for simplicity, just all the cash in an economy), then the bank did not increase the amount of money. If you look at M1 money supply (which is monetary base plus checking accounts) or M2 money supply (which is M1 plus savings accounts and time deposit accounts), then yes the bank created \"money\". This in economics is known as the money multiplier. It won't be twice as much because the bank has to hold onto a specific amount depending on the central bank. In the US, most large banks have to hold onto 10% of all deposits before loaning it out or investing it. So if we look at a simple money multiplier, the bank would only create 90% more money after a single transaction.",
"It depends on how you account for it. From a strict accounting standpoint, no. The bank has an asset (the money they are owed by the person who took out the loan) and has a liability (the money they owe you for the deposit). The person who took out the loan has an asset (the cash) and a liability (the loan they have to pay back). It all nets out to zero - the only person who has a net positive is you, since it's ultimately your money. Now, that all said, it does allow money to have increased [velocity]( URL_0 ) in the economy; despite the fact that you have your money \"sitting in the bank\" that money can still be used to buy goods and services, which is a big net benefit to commerce. It _functions_ like there is twice as much money in the economy.",
"No. As a depositor, you lend your money to the bank. That's why you get paid interest. All the bank has done is act as a broker between the depositor and the person taking out the loan.",
"If you deposit $1 in a bank they can lend it out 10 times. This is called fractional reserve banking and it does cause inflation."
] | [
[
"the model Diamond and Dybvig point out that under ordinary circumstances, savers' unpredictable needs for cash are likely to be random, as depositors' needs reflect their individual circumstances. Since depositors' demand for cash are unlikely to occur at the same time, by accepting deposits from many different sources the bank expects only a small fraction of withdrawals in the short term, even though all depositors have the right to withdraw their full deposit at any time. Thus, a bank can make loans over a long horizon, while keeping only relatively small amounts of cash on hand to pay any",
"-30.489490686684803"
],
[
"banks can expect only a small percentage of accounts withdrawn on any one day because individual expenditure needs are largely uncorrelated. A bank can make loans over a long horizon, while keeping only relatively small amounts of cash on hand to pay any depositors who may demand withdrawals.\nHowever, if many depositors withdraw all at once, the bank itself (as opposed to individual investors) may run short of liquidity, and depositors will rush to withdraw their money, forcing the bank to liquidate many of its assets at a loss, and eventually to fail. If such a bank were to attempt to",
"-30.104469142796006"
],
[
"as much cash on hand they would return the cash to the monetary authority, or offer the surplus to other banks. Bank deposits at central bank Commercial banks are usually required to keep funds in the bank's account with the central bank. Such funds are usually counted as part of the banks’ reserves. Some central banks pay interest on these deposits while others do not.",
"-29.705884028458968"
],
[
"long before it is able to pay all the depositors. The bank will be able to pay the first depositors who demand their money back, but if all others attempt to withdraw too, the bank will go bankrupt and the last depositors will be left with nothing.\nThis means that even healthy banks are potentially vulnerable to panics, usually called bank runs. If a depositor expects all other depositors to withdraw their funds, then it is irrelevant whether the banks' long term loans are likely to be profitable; the only rational response for the depositor is to rush to",
"-29.67814001161605"
],
[
"and these would continue to increase in size over the course of the 19th century.\nBank deposits are sums of money that a bank, backed by considerable collateral, may choose to deposit in the holder’s account as a loan which requires repayment with interest. The money comes into existence when the bank creates the deposit, and when the loan is paid off, the money disappears from the bank’s balance sheet. While a loan is effectively a cash advance provided by the bank to the customer, in the long term the effect of unrestricted creation of bank deposits (money) can lead to",
"-29.581272651441395"
],
[
"bank and others of cash going out. Banks do not have a reliable way of predicting what or how much those transactions will be. At the end of each day banks must reconcile their positions. The bank that finds itself with a surplus of cash would miss out earning interest on the cash, even if it's for only one night. Other banks may find that they had more money going out than coming in, and the bank must borrow cash to cover the shortfall. To meet its liquidity obligations, the bank with the shortfall would borrow from a bank with",
"-29.338437549740775"
],
[
"with transferring US$500 million from an account belonging to the central bank to a bank account in the UK. Authorities in the UK froze this amount as it was a suspicious transaction and the money can now be returned to the central bank.",
"-29.090173832664732"
],
[
"depositors would not normally trust banks with their deposits because they fear that when they want to withdraw their money, the bank may try to avoid repaying, or try to repay at a lower rate. However, if the bank does not have enough liquid assets to cover all depositor claims, a refusal to pay any one depositor the promised amount will prompt all other depositors to try to withdraw as well, and effectively cut off all lending to the bank. Banks voluntarily submit themselves to the risk of a bank run so that depositors will trust them with their loans,",
"-28.972038575589977"
],
[
"were needed. Many economists and bankers now realize that the amount of money in circulation is limited only by the demand for loans, not by reserve requirements.\nWhen a bank issues a loan of $1000 to a customer, they debit the customer's loan account with $1000 and at the same time they credit the customer's deposit account with $1000, ready for using. The bank now has a new asset of $1000 and a new liability of $1000. The bank's accounts are still in balance because the assets and liabilities are increased by the same amount. The bank's balance sheet is simply",
"-28.92818420640606"
],
[
"expanded with the amount of $1000. The bank does not take the $1000 out of its reserves. The $1000 are new circulating money that did not exist prior to the transaction.\nA study of banking software demonstrates that the bank does nothing else than adding an amount to the two accounts when they issue a loan. The observation that there appears to be no limit to the amount of credit money that banks can bring into circulation in this way has given rise to the often-heard expression that \"Banks are creating money out of thin air\".\nThe amount of money that is",
"-28.874887612597377"
],
[
"the receipt, and the price of the bank money, made up between them the full value of the bullion.\nThe bank allowed no withdrawal except by means of a receipt. There was, however, more bank money available than the combined value of all receipts – because some receipts have been allowed to expire, but the bank money, or credit, remained in the bank's books. In times of peace, a client who wished to withdraw his deposit had no trouble purchasing a receipt and making a withdrawal. In times of distress, however, as during the French invasion in 1672, the price or",
"-28.827486434969614"
],
[
"sold valuable possessions to buy essentials or traded them for gold and silver.\nIn the German hyperinflation, stocks held much more of their value than paper currency. Bonds denominated in the inflating currency may lose most or all value. Bank holidays, conversion or confiscation of accounts and new currency During severe financial crises, sometimes governments close banks. Depositors may be unable to withdraw their money for long periods, as was true in the United States in 1933 under the Emergency Banking Act. Withdrawals may be limited. Bank deposits may be involuntarily converted to government bonds or to a new currency of",
"-28.59779583872296"
],
[
"to the bank.\nThe bank maintained it did not lend any of the bullion deposited in it, not even that part for which the receipts expired, and which could not generally be claimed. Receipts When a holder of a receipt found himself in need of coinage, he could sell his receipt. Alternatively, when a holder of bank money found himself in need of bullion, he could buy a receipt. Receipts and credit were thus freely bought and sold. When a holder of a receipt wished to take out the bullion for which it stood, he had to purchase enough bank credit",
"-28.56428817358392"
],
[
"then they all lose the interest they could have earned, and some of them lose all their savings. Nonetheless, it is not obvious what any one depositor could do to prevent this mutual loss. Policy implications In practice, due to fractional reserve banking, banks faced with a bank run usually shut down and refuse to permit more withdrawals. This is called a suspension of convertibility, and engenders further panic in the financial system. While this may prevent some depositors who have a real need for cash from obtaining access to their money, it also prevents immediate bankruptcy, thus",
"-28.215376702602953"
],
[
"valuable service by aggregating funds from many individual deposits, portioning them into loans for borrowers, and spreading the risks both of default and sudden demands for cash. Banks can charge much higher interest on their long-term loans than they pay out on demand deposits, allowing them to earn a profit.\nIf only a few depositors withdraw at any given time, this arrangement works well. Barring some major emergency on a scale matching or exceeding the bank's geographical area of operation, depositors' unpredictable needs for cash are unlikely to occur at the same time; that is, by the law of large numbers,",
"-27.9808347349026"
],
[
"depositors that wish to make withdrawals. Mathematically, individual withdrawals are largely uncorrelated, and by the law of large numbers banks expect a relatively stable number of withdrawals on any given day.\nHowever a different outcome is also possible. Since banks lend out at long maturity, they cannot quickly call in their loans. And even if they tried to call in their loans, borrowers would be unable to pay back quickly, since their loans were, by assumption, used to finance long-term investments. Therefore, if all depositors attempt to withdraw their funds simultaneously, a bank will run out of money",
"-27.912104037415702"
],
[
"a huge task, not only in preparation for the change of the notes and coins, but also in the back office. Beginning in 1999, all deposits and loans were technically in euros, but deposits and withdrawals continued in the legacy currency. Statements would bear balances in both currencies beginning no later than 1 July 2001, and earlier if required by the customer's needs.\nBeginning on 1 December 2001, coins and notes were distributed from secure storage, first to large retailers, and then to smaller ones. It was widely expected that there would be massive problems on and after 1 January. Such",
"-27.88749443618508"
],
[
"hold the entire sum in reserve, but will loan most of the money out to other clients, in a process known as fractional-reserve banking. This allows providers to earn interest on the asset and hence to pay out interest on deposits.\nBy transferring the ownership of deposits from one party to another, banks can avoid using physical cash as a method of payment. Commercial bank deposits account for most of the money supply in use today. For example, if a bank in the United States makes a loan to a customer by depositing the loan proceeds in that customer's checking account,",
"-27.874874433972764"
],
[
"money repaid on demand. The terms and conditions may specify the methods by which a customer may move money into or out of the account, e.g., by cheque, internet banking, EFTPOS or other channels.\nFor example, a depositor depositing $100 in cash into a checking account at a bank in the United States surrenders legal title to the $100 in cash, which becomes an asset of the bank. On the bank's books, the bank debits its cash account for the $100 in cash, and credits a \"deposits\" liability account for an equal amount. (See double-entry bookkeeping system.)\nIn the audited financial statements",
"-27.746641138073755"
],
[
"that they will get their money back even in case of a bank run, they have no reason to participate in a bank run.\nThus, sufficient deposit insurance can eliminate the possibility of bank runs. In principle, maintaining a deposit insurance program is unlikely to be very costly for the government: as long as bank runs are prevented, deposit insurance will never actually need to be paid out. Bank runs became much rarer in the U.S. after the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation was founded in the aftermath of the bank panics of the Great Depression. On the other hand,",
"-27.694770313915797"
],
[
"redeem their notes at the same time. If, in response, a bank could not raise enough funds by calling in loans or selling bills, the bank would either go into insolvency or default on its notes. Such a situation is called a bank run and caused the demise of many early banks.\nThese early financial crises led to the creation of central banks. The Swedish Riksbank was the world's first central bank, created in 1668. Many nations followed suit in the late 1600s to establish central banks which were given the legal power to set the reserve requirement, and to specify",
"-27.667178124014754"
],
[
"the bank typically records this event by debiting an asset account on the bank's books (called loans receivable or some similar name) and credits the deposit liability or checking account of the customer on the bank's books. From an economic standpoint, the bank has essentially created economic money (although not legal tender). The customer's checking account balance has no dollar bills in it, as a demand deposit account is simply a liability owed by the bank to its customer. In this way, commercial banks are allowed to increase the money supply (without printing currency, or legal tender). Regulations Banking operates",
"-27.66685312923073"
],
[
"bank to buy back its currency on a specified future date at the same exchange rate. The second transaction unwinds the first. At the conclusion of the second transaction, the foreign central bank pays interest, at a market-based rate, to the Federal Reserve.\nWhen the foreign central bank lends the dollars it obtained by drawing on its swap line to institutions in its jurisdiction, the dollars are transferred from the foreign central bank's account at the Federal Reserve to the account of the bank that the borrowing institution uses to clear its dollar transactions. The foreign central bank remains obligated to",
"-27.63928414389011"
],
[
"then be lent out to another person. If the initial deposit was $100 and the bank lends out $100 to another customer the money supply has increased by $100. However, because the depositor can ask for the money back, banks have to maintain minimum reserves to service customer needs. If the reserve requirement is 10% then, in the earlier example, the bank can lend $90 and thus the money supply increases by only $90. The reserve requirement therefore acts as a limit on this multiplier effect. Because the reserve requirement only applies to the more narrow forms of money creation",
"-27.634181349378196"
],
[
"every penny must be accounted for. A document claiming that a sum of money has been borrowed as a loan, withdrawn by an individual depositor or transferred or invested can therefore be valuable to someone who wishes to conceal the fact that the bank's money has in fact been stolen and is now gone. Forgery and altered cheques Fraudsters have altered cheques to change the name (in order to deposit cheques intended for payment to someone else) or the amount on the face of cheques, simple altering can change $100.00 into $100,000.00. (However, transactions for such large values are routinely",
"-27.598837245242976"
],
[
"metal of the time. If a depositor did not claim his deposit back after six months, it fell to the bank, and the depositor was left with the credit he received in compensation.\nThe terms of deposit were such that deposits of bullion were most commonly made when the price was somewhat lower than ordinary, and taken out again when it rose. The proportions between the bank price (the credit which the bank gave for deposits of bullion), the mint price, and the market price of gold bullion were always nearly the same. A person could generally sell his receipt for",
"-27.597177128605836"
],
[
"Deposit insurance Why it exists Banks are allowed (and usually encouraged) to lend or invest most of the money deposited with them instead of safe-keeping the full amounts (see fractional-reserve banking). If many of a bank's borrowers fail to repay their loans when due, the bank's creditors, including its depositors, risk loss. Because they rely on customer deposits that can be withdrawn on little or no notice, banks in financial trouble are prone to bank runs, where depositors seek to withdraw funds quickly ahead of a possible bank insolvency. Because banking institution failures have the potential to trigger a broad",
"-27.59078577751643"
],
[
"loanable funds, particularly at banks, assuming the savings are held at banks, rather than currency itself being held (\"stashed under one's mattress\"). Thus an accumulation of savings yields an increase in potential lending, which will lower interest rates and stimulate borrowing. So a decline in consumer spending is offset by an increase in lending, and subsequent investment and spending.\nTwo caveats are added to this criticism. Firstly, if savings are held as cash, rather than being loaned out (directly by savers, or indirectly, as via bank deposits), then loanable funds do not increase, and thus a recession may be caused –",
"-27.560805393819464"
],
[
"hand to be spent immediately if the need arises, but some investments require time or effort to transfer into spendable form. The preference for cash is known as liquidity preference. A 1-year loan, for instance, is very liquid compared to a 10-year loan. A 10-year US Treasury bond, however, is still relatively liquid because it can easily be sold on the market. Spread The spread of interest rates is the lending rate minus the deposit rate. This spread covers operating costs for banks providing loans and deposits. A negative spread is where a deposit rate is higher than the lending",
"-27.556674957711948"
],
[
"will hold its value. Should the bank fail to get or maintain assets of adequate value, then the bank's money will lose value, just as any financial security will lose value if its asset backing diminishes. The real bills doctrine (also known as the backing theory) thus asserts that inflation results when money outruns its issuer's assets. The quantity theory of money, in contrast, claims that inflation results when money outruns the economy's production of goods.\nCurrency and banking schools of economics argue the RBD, that banks should also be able to issue currency against bills of trading, which is \"real",
"-27.54550555595779"
],
[
"of the bank, the $100 in currency would be shown on the balance sheet as an asset of the bank and the deposit account would be shown as a liability owed by the bank to its customer. The bank's financial statement reflects the economic substance of the transaction—which is that the bank has borrowed $100 from its depositor and has contractually obliged itself to repay the customer according to the terms of the agreement. These \"physical\" reserve funds may be held as deposits at the relevant central bank and will receive interest as per monetary policy.\nTypically, a bank will not",
"-27.534889443641077"
],
[
"money if it had been wrongly paid away, and (subject to agreement) claim profits made on the money. However, the courts have denied that bank customers have property rights. The same position has generally spread in banking practice globally, and Parliament has not yet taken the opportunity to ensure banks offer accounts where customer money is protected as property. Deposit protection Because insolvent banks do not enable customers to recover their money as a property right (only contract), governments have found it necessary to publicly guarantee depositors' savings. This follows the model, started in the Great Depression, the US set",
"-27.486999831162393"
],
[
"However, during a bank run or a generalized financial crisis, demands for withdrawal can exceed the bank's funding buffer, and the bank will be forced to raise additional reserves to avoid defaulting on its obligations. A bank can raise funds from additional borrowings (e.g., by borrowing in the interbank lending market or from the central bank), by selling assets, or by calling in short-term loans. If creditors are afraid that the bank is running out of reserves or is insolvent, they have an incentive to redeem their deposits as soon as possible before other depositors access the remaining reserves. Thus",
"-27.25994519105734"
],
[
"loan of $10,000 for the effort and all came through with the money for the request.\nThe bank was one of the most stable in the country and its banknotes were accepted throughout the Mississippi Valley and the Midwest. It only suspended exchange of paper money for hard money once, in 1837, when all the other banks in the nation did the same. The bank's coinage was almost exclusively silver, but it did contain a small amount of gold. It increased its gold holding significantly after the 1848 California Gold Rush led to more availability of gold, but silver remained the",
"-27.22370219088043"
],
[
"– say, $1,000 of loans (following the example above), which may then require that the bank borrow $100 of reserves either from depositors (or other private sources of financing), or from the central bank. This view is advanced in endogenous money theories, such as the Post-Keynesian school of monetary circuit theory, as advanced by such economists as Basil Moore and Steve Keen.\nFinn E. Kydland and Edward C. Prescott argue that there is no evidence that either the monetary base or Ml leads the cycle.\nJaromir Benes and Michael Kumhof of the IMF Research Department, argue that: the “deposit multiplier“ of the",
"-27.21415667166002"
],
[
"with banks was over-issuance of banknotes. These were redeemable in specie (gold or silver) upon presentation to the chief cashier of the bank. When people lost trust in a bank they rushed to redeem its notes, and because banks issued more notes than their specie reserves, the bank couldn't redeem the notes, often causing the bank to fail. In 1860 there were over 8,000 state chartered banks issuing notes. In 1861 the U.S. began issuing United States Notes as legal tender.\nBanks began paying interest on deposits and using the proceeds to make short term call loans, mainly to stock brokers.\nNew",
"-27.05799639178076"
],
[
"By the end of 1933, 4,004 small local banks were permanently closed and merged into larger banks. (Their depositors eventually received on average 86 cents on the dollar of their deposits; it is a common false myth that they received nothing back.) Abandonment of the gold standard To deal with deflation, the nation went off the gold standard. In March and April in a series of laws and executive orders, the government suspended the gold standard for United States currency. Anyone holding significant amounts of gold coinage was mandated to exchange it for the existing fixed price of US dollars,",
"-27.047014261072036"
],
[
"money because the money is not required to be lent out – it may instead result in a growth of unlent reserves (excess reserves). This situation is referred to as \"pushing on a string\": withdrawal of central bank money compels commercial banks to curtail lending (one can pull money via this mechanism), but input of central bank money does not compel commercial banks to lend (one cannot push via this mechanism).\nThis described growth in excess reserves has indeed occurred in the Financial crisis of 2007–2010, US bank excess reserves growing over 500-fold, from under $2 billion in August 2008 to",
"-26.983140641998034"
],
[
"of smaller, lesser-known institutions circulated locally. Farther from home it was only accepted at a discounted rate, if at all. The proliferation of types of money went hand in hand with a multiplication in the number of financial institutions.\nThese banknotes were a form of representative money which could be converted into gold or silver by application at the bank. Since banks issued notes far in excess of the gold and silver they kept on deposit, sudden loss of public confidence in a bank could precipitate mass redemption of banknotes and result in bankruptcy.\nThe use of banknotes issued by private commercial",
"-26.80775420711143"
],
[
"currency in the form of banknotes was issued by privately owned banks; the notes being redeemable for specie at the bank's office. They were not legal tender. Such notes had value only if the bank could be counted on to redeem them. If a bank failed, its notes became worthless.\nNational governments had in the past issued paper money and made it legal tender, but usually with at least the pretense that the notes would be redeemable for specie at some time. Continental dollars issued by the Continental Congress during the American Revolution had no such backing. They soon became almost",
"-26.788649696987704"
],
[
"typically have lower surrender charges if the money is withdrawn early compared to certificates of deposits and feature a longer grace period between terms (generally between 14–16 days). (See: Certificate of deposit.)",
"-26.74013846370508"
],
[
"who so wished could make payments and other business in cash at the bank offices that remained. Today (autumn 2019) very few cash handling bank offices still exist. \nAccording to the bank's head offices, cash was no longer required as withdrawals and deposits were possible (in limited amounts) through machines. But for \"safety\" regulations, the maximum amount a bank bank customer can withdraw is about 5.000 to 10.000 SEK per week. And there's similar \"security rules\" for depositing as well. \nBut this has resulted in severe blows to lots of smaller boutiques and shops, and even to many",
"-26.655936732538976"
],
[
"a return on funds \"parked\" for the short term, waiting to be invested, which puts those banks a disadvantage to conventional banks. \nBanks/financial institutions must balance liquidity — the ability to convert assets into cash or a cash equivalent quickly in an emergency when their depositors need them without\nincurring large losses — with a competitive rate of return on funds. Conventional banks are able to borrow and lend by using the interbank lending market — borrowing to meet liquidity requirements and investing for any duration including very short periods, and thereby optimize their earnings. Calculating the return for any period",
"-26.652891413628822"
],
[
"account.\nBanks can create new money when they make a loan. New loans throughout the banking system generate new deposits elsewhere in the system. The money supply is usually increased by the act of lending, and reduced when loans are repaid faster than new ones are generated. In the United Kingdom between 1997 and 2007, there was an increase in the money supply, largely caused by much more bank lending, which served to push up property prices and increase private debt. The amount of money in the economy as measured by M4 in the UK went from £750 billion to £1700",
"-26.58530900604501"
],
[
"make these loans themselves, since they know they may suddenly need immediate access to their funds, whereas the businesses' investments will only pay off in the future (moreover, by aggregating funds from many different depositors, banks help depositors save on the transaction costs they would have to pay in order to lend directly to businesses). Since banks provide a valuable service to both sides (providing the long-maturity loans businesses want and the liquid accounts depositors want), they can charge a higher interest rate on loans than they pay on deposits and thus profit from the difference. Nash equilibria of",
"-26.567366688104812"
],
[
"tried by the Fed or the Bank of England.\" However, it notes that \"Even then, people might refuse to spend the newly minted money, or the banks might also refuse to lend it.\" Some market monetarists like Bill Woolsey have suggested that \"The Fed could impose a fee on bank reserves, leaving banks to impose a negative interest rate on their customers’ deposits. That might simply serve to fill up sock-drawers as people took the money out of their accounts. But eventually, instead of hoarding currency, they would spend and invest it, bidding up prices and, with luck, boosting production.\"",
"-26.56417132012575"
],
[
"a medium of exchange (cash or a checking deposit/current account ) almost immediately.\nShort fixed term deposits (such as thirty-day treasury bills) and government bonds which are close to their maturity date are examples of assets which are not quite as liquid as a bank account that permits immediate withdrawal, but in many circumstances the difference is not important. Such assets are therefore often also regarded as \"near money\".",
"-26.527384153479943"
],
[
"was no national form of paper currency and an insufficient supply of coinage. Banknotes were the majority of the money in circulation. Banknotes were discounted relative to gold and silver (e.g. a $5 banknote might be exchanged for $4.50 of coins) and the discount depended on the financial strength of the issuing bank and distance from the bank. During financial crises many banks failed and their notes became worthless.\nThe popular song \"Sixteen Tons\" dramatizes this scenario, with the narrator telling Saint Peter (who would welcome him to Heaven upon his death), \"I can't go; I owe my soul to the",
"-26.499996739148628"
],
[
"a month, thus stabilizing the banking system. By the end of 1933, 4,004 small local banks were permanently closed and merged into larger banks. Their deposits totalled $3.6 billion; depositors lost a total of $540 million, and eventually received on average 85 cents on the dollar of their deposits; it is a common myth that they received nothing back. The Glass–Steagall Act limited commercial bank securities activities and affiliations between commercial banks and securities firms to regulate speculations. It also established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which insured deposits for up to $250,000, ended the risk of runs on",
"-26.478929505799897"
],
[
"stop this draining from destroying the banking system, the government froze all bank accounts, initially for 90 days. Only a small amount of cash was allowed for withdrawal on a weekly basis (initially 250 Argentine pesos, then 300), and only from accounts denominated in pesos. No withdrawals were allowed from accounts denominated in U.S. dollars, unless the owner agreed to convert the funds into pesos. Operations using credit cards, debit cards, cheques and other means of payment could be conducted normally, but the lack of cash availability caused numerous problems for the general public and for businesses. Immediate effects The",
"-26.44799739625887"
],
[
"but this is due to holding cash, not to saving per se. Secondly, banks themselves may hold cash, rather than loaning it out, which results in the growth of excess reserves – funds on deposit but not loaned out. This is argued to occur in liquidity trap situations, when interest rates are at a zero lower bound (or near it) and savings still exceed investment demand. Within Keynesian economics, the desire to hold currency rather than loan it out is discussed under liquidity preference.\nThird, the paradox assumes a closed economy in which savings are not invested abroad (to fund exports",
"-26.428857307502767"
],
[
"supply and how much of the good to purchase. Assets with slightly lower liquidity Thus near money can be considered as assets that fulfill the store-of-value function (as well as can be expected given the economic conditions) and are readily converted into a medium of exchange but are not themselves a medium of exchange. Deposits at a bank, savings and loan association, or building society etc. are a characteristic form of near money. Provided that the terms of the account permit immediate withdrawal, the deposit owner knows how much purchasing power he currently holds, and can turn the deposit into",
"-26.40726049562454"
],
[
"bank's depositors were able to retrieve the entirety of their deposits as they were covered by the Philippine Deposit Insurance Corporation.",
"-26.32706977109774"
],
[
"make to the borrowers' deposit accounts. Deposits created in this way are sometimes called derivative deposits and are part of the process of creation of money by commercial banks. Issuing loan proceeds in the form of paper currency and current coins is considered to be a weakness in internal control.\nThe money creation process is also affected by the currency drain ratio (the propensity of the public to hold banknotes rather than deposit them with a commercial bank), and the safety reserve ratio (excess reserves beyond the legal requirement that commercial banks voluntarily hold – usually a small amount). Data for",
"-26.30153846926987"
],
[
"could exchange cash within cash balances at the beginning of the day on July 26 and had to surrender them to the bank for the banking day on July 26. Amount of money handed over was not to exceed the limit set for the box office of the organization, and the amount of sales proceeds received by the cashier at the end of the day on July 25. Results The reform did not strengthen the ruble. In fact, it led to serious complications with its neighbours, as their currencies were tied to the ruble. The central bank had to transfer",
"-26.269174620778358"
],
[
"the notes represent. For every pound an authorised Scottish or Northern Irish commercial bank prints and issues in the form of its own notes, it must deposit the equivalent in pound sterling with the Bank of England. If necessary, notes from a struggling Scottish or Northern Irish commercial bank could be replaced with regular Bank of England issued cash.\nThe seven Scottish and Northern Irish banks must by law set aside assets worth at least the value of all banknotes in circulation; this funds the creation of £100,000,000 and £1,000,000 notes. This ensures that people with genuine banknotes issued by the",
"-26.26249671151163"
],
[
"or credit union. As long as the account balance is sufficient to cover the amount of the withdrawal, and the withdrawal takes place in accordance with procedures set in place by the financial institution, the funds may be withdrawn on demand. Banknotes The first European banknotes were issued by Stockholms Banco, a predecessor of Sweden's central bank Sveriges Riksbank, in 1661. These replaced the copper-plates being used instead as a means of payment, although in 1664 the bank ran out of coins to redeem notes and ceased operating in the same year.\nInspired by the success of the London goldsmiths, some",
"-26.184651357587427"
],
[
"country needs to progress in banking and economy.\nIf banks want to borrow money (for short term, usually overnight) from RBI then banks have to charge this interest rate. Banks have to pledge government securities as collateral. This kind of deal happens through a re-purchase agreement. If a bank wants to borrow ₹100 crore (US$14 million), it has to provide government securities at least worth ₹100 crore (could be more because of margin requirement which is 5%–10% of loan amount) and agree to repurchase them at ₹106.5 crore (US$15 million) at the end of borrowing period. So the bank has paid ₹6.5 crore (US$940,000)",
"-26.184170645836275"
],
[
"the bank to finance loans, however this soon became a problem as the deposits were usually short-term and the loans long-term, meaning that deposited money was unavailable to be withdrawn by account holders. \nPalmstruch's second innovation, and his solution to this problem, was the introduction in 1661 of credit paper (Kreditivsedlar), the first European banknotes, which would be exchangeable at any time for the gold and silver coins they were replacing. These were very successful, but the bank began lending more than it could afford and printed too many banknotes without the necessary collateral, leading to the",
"-26.18345112892257"
],
[
"for new lending by the bank. The bank will have higher IT costs, but counts on the multiplier effect of money creation and the interest rate spread to make it a profitable exercise.\nExample:\nSuppose the bank sells its IT installations for US$40 million. With a reserve ratio of 10%, the bank can create US$400 million in additional loans (there is a time lag, and the bank has to expect to recover the loaned money back into its books). The bank can often lend (and securitize the loan) to the IT services company to cover the acquisition cost of the IT installations.",
"-26.172771530633327"
],
[
"that sum to WeRe Bank within ten years. Smith has stated that \"over the past [period] since 2012, the people that have come on prior to this new formation have all pledged promissory notes to WeRe Bank. I think that rests at the moment at between 12-15 million that has been pledged already ... so according to conventional financial practice we are able to say that we have assets.\" He maintains that this means on the basis of these assets, the bank is able to back up any WeRe cheque and therefore the cheque should be accepted for value as",
"-26.13997843733523"
],
[
"in securing the charter of the First Bank of the United States. Supporters of soft money tended to want easy credit. Aspiring entrepreneurs, a number of them on the cotton frontier in the American southwest, resented the Bank not because it printed paper money, but because it did not print more and loan it to them. Banks have to lend more money than they take in. When banks lend money, new money is actually created, which is called \"credit\". This money has to be paper; otherwise, a bank can only lend as much as it takes in and hence new",
"-26.125324353110045"
],
[
"from oneself after occasionally getting \"beaten up and robbed\" always depend on how much you have.\nMoney may be transferred into your bank account for some interest. The player also has the option of borrowing money from Elder Brother Wu, the moneylender, although this amount is limited to twice the amount the player already has on hand (if the player has zero, they cannot borrow anything). \nGoods may be stored in the warehouse in Hong Kong, while waiting for prices to rise. However, purchases left in the warehouse may be stolen if left too long. Rates of theft are higher with",
"-26.125148698862176"
],
[
"the bank run by forbidding the withdrawal of money from bank accounts. Duhalde promised in his oath of office speech that \"The one who deposited dollars will receive dollars\". The minister of economy Jorge Remes Lenicov pointed out that that would be impossible, as the amount of dollars required was higher than even the foreign-exchange reserves of the Central Bank. Duhalde acknowledged two weeks later that he was mistaken. The bank accounts in dollars would be \"pesified\" at a 1.4 exchange rate, and the state financed the banks for the different rates with other operations. The taxes of public services",
"-26.113649828417692"
],
[
"$5,000 are not subject to deposit hold, except in the case of new accounts. The length of a hold varies (2 days to 2 weeks) depending on the bank. It is not clear what length of time may pass before a bank can be held responsible for accepting a bad cashier's check.\nIn Canada, bank drafts carry the same legal weight as standard checks but are provided as a service to clients as a payment instrument with guaranteed funds. Drafts (or money orders depending on the issuing institution) usually have better security features than standard checks, and as such are",
"-26.112577183519534"
],
[
"from the Bank of England, to replace funds it was unable to raise from the money market. This led to panic among individual depositors, who feared that their savings might not be available should Northern Rock go into receivership. The result was a bank run – the UK's first in 150 years – where depositors lined up outside the bank to withdraw all of their savings as quickly as possible, particularly since everyone else was doing the same.\nOn 22 February 2008, the bank was taken into state ownership as a result of two unsuccessful bids to take over the bank,",
"-26.059311509190593"
],
[
"allowing the bank to wait for its loans to be repaid, so that it has enough resources to pay back some or all of its deposits.\nHowever, Diamond and Dybvig argue that unless the total amount of real expenditure needs per period is known with certainty, suspension of convertibility cannot be the optimal mechanism for preventing bank runs. Instead, they argue that a better way of preventing bank runs is deposit insurance backed by the government or central bank. Such insurance pays depositors all or part of their losses in the case of a bank run. If depositors know",
"-26.0590287547966"
],
[
"the world today has an enforceable gold standard or silver standard currency system. Commercial bank Commercial bank money or demand deposits are claims against financial institutions that can be used for the purchase of goods and services. A demand deposit account is an account from which funds can be withdrawn at any time by check or cash withdrawal without giving the bank or financial institution any prior notice. Banks have the legal obligation to return funds held in demand deposits immediately upon demand (or 'at call'). Demand deposit withdrawals can be performed in person, via checks or bank drafts, using",
"-26.042617331258953"
],
[
"long as banks cannot easily replace the short-fall in deposits by issuing other uninsured liabilities. The abolition of reserve requirements on certificates of deposit in the mid-1980s made it much easier for banks facing falling retail deposits to issue new liabilities not backed by reserve requirements. This is not to say that the bank lending channel is no longer relevant. On the contrary, the fact that banks can raise funds through liabilities that pay market interest rates exposes banks to an external finance premium as well. Forms of uninsured lending carry some credit risk relative to insured deposits. The cost",
"-26.039280963334022"
],
[
"on the grounds that all bank-issued money is backed, either by the \"valuable and sufficient security\" offered as collateral by the borrower, or by the \"proper stock\" of the banker himself. Thus a banker need only take care to issue money to borrowers who offer sufficiently valuable collateral, and the value of the bank’s money will be preserved regardless of the quantity issued. This idea is the basis for what later became known as the real bills doctrine, and Clement was one of the earliest defenders of that doctrine. As recently as 1945 Clement’s exposition of real bills principles was",
"-26.03087510014302"
],
[
"would lose its value. This law allowed any Dane to exchange a total of 100 kroner to new notes, no questions asked. An amount up to 500 kroner would be exchanged, provided the owner signed a written statement explaining its origins. Any amount above this level would be deposited in an escrow account and only released or exchanged following scrutiny by tax officials examining the validity of the person's statement about the origins of this wealth. All existing bank accounts were also scrutinized. Multiple exchanges of cash by the same person were avoided by the requirement that currency would only",
"-26.004312231933"
],
[
" This soon became a problem, however, as deposits were usually short-term and the loans long-term, meaning that deposited money was unavailable to be withdrawn by account holders. This problem was rendered more acute when the copper content of the coins was lowered 17% in 1660 as account holders demanded the return of the copper daler they had deposited since they were now worth more as metal than as coins. It was impossible for the bank to fulfil these requests as the money had been paid out as loans. Kreditivsedlar - Europe's first banknotes Palmstruch's second major innovation",
"-25.990187190720462"
],
[
"non-existent entity and the loan merely an artifice to conceal a theft of a large sum of money from the bank. This can also be seen as a component within mortgage fraud (Bell, 2010). Empty ATM envelope deposits A criminal overdraft can result due to the account holder making a worthless or misrepresented deposit at an automated teller machine in order to obtain more cash than present in the account or to prevent a check from being returned due to non-sufficient funds. United States banking law makes the first $100 immediately available and it may be possible for much more",
"-25.977575390134007"
],
[
"or automobiles. On the other hand, individual savers (both households and firms) may have sudden, unpredictable needs for cash, due to unforeseen expenditures. So they demand liquid accounts which permit them immediate access to their deposits (that is, they value short maturity deposit accounts).\nThe banks in the model act as intermediaries between savers who prefer to deposit in liquid accounts and borrowers who prefer to take out long-maturity loans. Under ordinary circumstances, banks can provide a valuable service by channeling funds from many individual deposits into loans for borrowers. Individual depositors might not be able to",
"-25.95574942458188"
],
[
"don't make any money in bank accounts (in real economic terms), simply because you're not supposed to.\" On the other hand, he says, bank accounts and CDs are fine for holding cash for a short amount of time.\nEven if CD rates track inflation, this can only be the expected inflation at the time the CD is bought. The actual inflation will be lower or higher. Locking in the interest rate for a long term may be bad (if inflation goes up) or good (if inflation goes down). For example, in the 1970s, inflation increased higher than it had been, and",
"-25.940748609718867"
],
[
"in its fiscal duties as depository for the US Department of the Treasury. As such, the bank accepted circulating state bank paper money from individuals, businesses and importers when they paid taxes or custom duty fees. The central bank immediately credited these payments to the US Treasury with its own metallic reserves. The BUS, in turn, anticipated that the state banks which had issued the paper money would, upon demand, redeem their currency with gold and silver—\"convertibility\"—reimbursing the government bank.\nIn order to remain solvent, the state banks would, ideally, constrain their lending of paper money—however profitable—so as not to allow",
"-25.907427145240945"
],
[
"metals in some fixed amount. Now, when many currencies are fiat money, the \"promise to pay\" consists of the promise to accept that currency to pay for taxes.\nA central bank may use another country's currency either directly in a currency union, or indirectly on a currency board. In the latter case, exemplified by the Bulgarian National Bank, Hong Kong and Latvia (until 2014), the local currency is backed at a fixed rate by the central bank's holdings of a foreign currency.\nSimilar to commercial banks, central banks hold assets (government bonds, foreign exchange, gold, and other financial assets) and incur liabilities",
"-25.89009981745039"
],
[
"bonds, precious metals or gemstones. When they transfer funds to another institution, it may be characterized as a capital flight. As a bank run progresses, it generates its own momentum: as more people withdraw cash, the likelihood of default increases, triggering further withdrawals. This can destabilize the bank to the point where it runs out of cash and thus faces sudden bankruptcy. To combat a bank run, a bank may limit how much cash each customer may withdraw, suspend withdrawals altogether, or promptly acquire more cash from other banks or from the central bank, besides other measures.\nA banking panic or",
"-25.867804737354163"
],
[
"banking system under the Empire allowed the exchange of extremely large sums without the physical transfer of coins, which led to fiat money. With no central bank, a professional deposit banker (argentarius, coactor argentarius, or later nummularius) received and held deposits for a fixed or indefinite term, and lent money to third parties. Generally, available capital exceeded the amount needed by borrowers, so loans were made and credit was extended on risky terms. The senatorial elite were involved heavily in private lending, both as creditors and borrowers, making loans from their personal fortunes on the basis of social connections. Banks",
"-25.863763682627905"
],
[
"the assets need to be verified. Any large deposits, in fact, showing on bank statements will require an explanation from the borrower.\nFurthermore, if the borrower's employment is interrupted for any reason, the borrowers would have enough cash in reserve to pay their mortgage. The amount of cash reserves is qualified by the number of payments the borrower can make on his or her total housing expenditure (the total of the principal and interest payment, taxes, insurance, homeowners insurance, mortgage insurance, and any other applicable charges) before the reserves are completely exhausted. Often lenders will require anywhere from two to twelve",
"-25.774488297844073"
],
[
"Re Bank of Credit and Commerce International SA (No 8) Facts BCCI made loans to a number of companies and in its contract purported to take as security, in return for the loans, a charge over the money in the bank accounts these companies held with BCCI. In an earlier case, In re Charge Card Services Ltd Millett J had said it was \"conceptually impossible\" for a bank to have a charge over assets that were held in an account of its own, on the basis that a bank account is an intangible debt recorded in figures in the bank's",
"-25.747912714607082"
],
[
"an investment. This distinction is important as the investment risk can cause a capital loss when an investment is realized, unlike cash saving(s). Cash savings accounts are considered to have minimal risk. In the United States, all banks are required to have deposit insurance, typically issued by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation or FDIC. In extreme cases, a bank failure can cause deposits to be lost as it happened at the start of the Great Depression. The FDIC has prevented that from happening ever since.\nIn many instances the terms saving and investment are used interchangeably. For example, many deposit accounts",
"-25.734654199812212"
],
[
"assets and liabilities would split into good and bad bank, while the old bank would be liquidated, which the shareholders and subordinated bond holders would receive nothing due to bail-in.\nThe fund had also injected an additional €1.7 billion to the 4 banks to cover the losses.\nOn 3 May 2016, Decree-Law N°59/2016 was announced, which the retail investors of the bond of the 4 banks would be refunded (up to €100,000, same as deposit insurance) if they purchased the bond on or before 12 June 2014, the date of Bank Recovery and Resolution Directive was passed in the European Parliament. The",
"-25.694913766354148"
],
[
"with cash was particularly dangerous at the time. A deposit could be made with a banker in one town, in turn a bill of exchange was handed out, that could be redeemed in another town.\nThese bills could also be used as a form of payment by the seller to make additional purchases from his own suppliers. Thus, the bills – an early form of credit – became both a medium of exchange and a medium for storage of value. Like the loans made by the Egyptian grain banks, this trade credit became a significant source for the creation of new",
"-25.681877802337112"
],
[
"reserves for twenty per cent of the value of the notes. The next $3 million issued notes were required to be backed by gold reserves of twenty-five percent of the value of the notes.\nIn 1871, the federal Parliament also passed a new Bank Act which replaced all the pre-Confederation banking legislation and created a uniform system of banking regulation for the new country. One important change was that the banks could not issue low-denomination bank notes, initially being limited to notes in denominations of four dollars and over. This limit was raised to five dollars in 1881. Only the federal",
"-25.651826602377696"
],
[
"relatives or, for a small minority such as writers and artists, overseas royalties earnings) were obliged to deposit this in a dedicated foreign exchange account with the state bank. In order to encourage compliance, and thereby help “drain” the circulation of foreign currency from the economy, these accounts carried a 1% interest rate premium over the nationally determined fixed interest of 3.25% per annum paid on all other consumer saving accounts.\nHowever, although the interest rate on these accounts was 4.25% per annum, access to the hard currency in the account was far from easy. Technically the foreign currency on deposit",
"-25.588671100729698"
],
[
"countries, banks retain only a fraction of their demand deposits as cash. The remainder is invested in securities and loans, whose terms are typically longer than the demand deposits, resulting in an asset–liability mismatch. No bank has enough reserves on hand to cope with all deposits being taken out at once.\nDiamond and Dybvig developed an influential model to explain why bank runs occur and why banks issue deposits that are more liquid than their assets. According to the model, the bank acts as an intermediary between borrowers who prefer long-maturity loans and depositors who prefer liquid accounts. The Diamond-Dybvig",
"-25.523439948585292"
],
[
"circulation, nor is central bank money ‘multiplied up’ into more loans and deposits. Although commercial banks create money through lending, they cannot do so freely without limit. Banks are limited in how much they can lend if they are to remain profitable in a competitive banking system. Prudential regulation also acts as a constraint on banks’ activities in order to maintain the resilience of the financial system. And the households and companies who receive the money created by new lending may take actions that affect the stock of money – they could quickly ‘destroy’ the money or currency by using",
"-25.514950950509956"
],
[
"deposits of $127,236, had $456,065 of paper cash in circulation, $751,083 of cash on hand, and another $78,150 invested in other banks. This showed the bank to be in excellent financial health and to have a promising future. Operation The bank charter had various clauses to help prevent possible insolvency and reduce risks. Bank officers were not permitted to receive loans at a rate different from that offered to the public. The bank could not issue securities on its own stock, and any loan over $500 had to be approved by five-sevenths of banks board members. Any losses were to",
"-25.49177976779174"
],
[
"current accounts. This can be in different currencies as long as they are converted during calculation.\nThe right to set off is particularly important when a bank's exposures are reported to regulatory authorities, as is the case in the EU under financial collateral requirements. If a bank has to report that it has lent a large sum to a borrower and so is exposed because of the risk that the borrower might default, thereby leading to the loss of the money of the bank or its depositors, is thus replaced. The bank has taken security over shares or securities of the",
"-25.48063772256137"
],
[
"₹500 (US$7.20) which remain in the market for only 2 years. After a 2-year period is expired there should be a one-year grace period during which these currency notes should be submitted and accepted only in bank accounts. Following this grace period the currency notes will cease to be accepted as legal tender or destroyed under the instructions of The Reserve Bank of India. As a consequence turning most of the unaccountable money into accountable and taxable money. Holding United States currency Many people in India who want to stash black money keep it as cash in US$ which will",
"-25.479190300990012"
],
[
"lend liquid money to the insolvent bank creates a bank panic among the depositors as more depositors try to take out cash deposits from the bank. As such, the bank is unable to fulfill the demands of all of its depositors on time. Also, a bank may be taken over by the regulating government agency if Shareholders Equity (i.e. capital ratios) are below the regulatory minimum.\nThe failure of a bank is generally considered to be of more importance than the failure of other types of business firms because of the interconnectedness and fragility of banking institutions. Research has shown that",
"-25.440459868405014"
],
[
"results from the fact that the initially created funds have been transferred to another bank. If there was (conceptually) only one commercial bank then all the new credit (money) created would be redeposited in that bank (or held as physical cash outside it) and the requirement for interbank lending for this purpose would reduce. (In a fractional reserve banking model it would still be required to address the issue of a 'run' on the bank concerned). A source of funds for banks Interbank loans are important for a well-functioning and efficient banking system. Since banks are subject to",
"-25.425804436788894"
],
[
"This allows building a positive credit history.\nAlthough the deposit is in the hands of the credit card issuer as security in the event of default by the consumer, the deposit will not be debited simply for missing one or two payments. Usually the deposit is only used as an offset when the account is closed, either at the request of the customer or due to severe delinquency (150 to 180 days). This means that an account which is less than 150 days delinquent will continue to accrue interest and fees, and could result in a balance which is much higher",
"-25.399769055773504"
],
[
"the end of that month, the unprecedented worsening of the economic situation, investments away due to the complicated situation policy caused public distrust in the financial system, so strong withdrawals from bank deposits occurred. To stop them, the economy minister imposed restrictions involving the freezing of funds deposited in banks, measurement known as the \"corralito\" 44 The measure was enacted on December 1 and originally allowed only one withdrawal of 250 pesos weekly cash the ban on sending money out of the country and the obligation to perform most of the business operations by check, credit card or debit card,",
"-25.384398531698025"
],
[
"to the bank for discount. Banks would issue their own bank notes to the borrowers.\nBank notes were usually backed by specie or government bonds. The holder of the bank note had a claim on the bank's assets. The overwhelming determinate of value on a bank's notes would be the quality of that bank's assets. Many of the states regulations required for the banks to back their notes with state bonds. Banks in states that had safe bonds would thrive whereas banks in states that had risky bonds would suffer. Of course other factors could influence the value of a bank",
"-25.38422142333002"
],
[
"since depositors know that the bank will not be able to get away with their money without prompting a run. Lagunoff-Schreft Economists Roger Lagunoff and Stacey Schreft have argued that financial fragility arises from linked portfolios of investors. If investors have linked portfolios such that if one investor withdraws funds the investment will fail and the other investor will also take a loss, then any event that causes investors to change their portfolio could cause others to take losses. If these losses are large enough to prompt further portfolio changes, a small change could initiate a chain reaction of losses.",
"-25.342020941665396"
],
[
"banks and businesses agreed to exchange gold for the new silver coins, in which there was little public confidence. But in February 1885, faced with a government refusal to pay out gold (of which the Treasury was almost bare), the private businesses stopped this arrangement. Negotiations followed, and the government reluctantly agreed to sequester more than $550,000 of the coins in a special account to back the banknotes then in circulation. Although this left the government with little liquidity, the increased confidence in its finances allowed it to borrow on a short-term basis. By mid-1885, sugar prices were rising, and",
"-25.341076819167938"
],
[
"By January 31, 1792 monetary liabilities exceeded $2.17 million, and discounts reached $2.68 million – a very large sum at the time. Speculators took advantage of this new credit source, using it to make withdrawals from the Bank of New York, which placed undue stress on the bank’s reserves. From December 29 to March 9, cash reserves for the Bank of the United States decreased by 34%, prompting the bank to not renew nearly 25% of its outstanding 30-day loans. In order to pay off these loans, many borrowers were forced to sell securities that they had purchased, which caused",
"-25.311236422596266"
],
[
"the ability of other banks to issues notes was restricted.\nOn 22 November 1928 the Bank issued notes for ten shillings and one pound for the first time when the Bank took over responsibility for these denominations from the Treasury which had issued notes of these denominations three days after the declaration of war in 1914 in order to remove gold coins from circulation. The treasury bills had been printed by Waterlows, and the loss of the contract contributed to the closure of Waterlow's operations at Milton Street in Watford. De La Rue ownership Waterlow's was acquired by Purnell and Sons",
"-25.28120100859087"
]
] |
teq4i | - Tactically, where did the US go wrong in the Vietnam war? | [
"You're not using the word \"tactically\" properly. Tactics is the hour by hour planning of a single fight. Wars are only lost tactically if there is a huge pitched battle that crushes an army or navy, like the Battle of Midway or Waterloo. *Strategy* is the overall planning of a war, from supplies, weapons used, units brought into the theater, tactics they employ, and final objective. The US did not have a strategy for victory in Vietnam. In conventional war, capturing the enemy capital city is often the objective; the US never invaded North Vietnam at all, as this would have caused China and the USSR to become involved. Instead, they tried to fight communists in South Vietnam and hope they would get tired of fighting and quit. In fact, after the Tet offensive, the North Vietnamese were just about ready to stop active military campaigns in the south, but the threat wouldn't have ended at all.",
"Probably the biggest reason Vietnam was lost wasn't an issue of strategy per se but being there in the first place. It was obviously an extremely unpopular war throughout its conduct, and eventually Americans just had enough. That being said, not enough was done by American and allied forces to engender themselves to the local populace. Kill counts and free-fire zones were ultimately counterproductive and inefficient, and oftentimes after clearing an area we would simply leave and NVA/VC would reoccupy within a day.",
"The US didn't do their homework- the Vietnamese had been fighting off invaders for hundreds of years, they were hardened guerrilla fighters who absolutely refused to accept foreigners coming in and trying to \"take over\" their land. The US didn't realize the ferocity with which the Vietnamese would oppose new people invading Vietnam...and that was only the beginning.",
"Americans were able to take over any location on the map they wished, at any time they wished. the problem was that everyone there hated them, and so you had a problem similar to the shitty tint jobs you see on cars; you can squish the bubble to get rid of it, but it simply moves elsewhere. Kinda like Iraq now. if the people there dont want you there, and you can't nuke them into infinity, then eventually you will lose the game no matter what.",
"The United States misjudged how the war should have been fought and the resolve of their opponents. They interpreted it as a fight against communism whereas the North Vietnamese saw it as a fight for independence. The way they fought it was not practical. Moving villagers and peasants from their ancestral homes to \"safe zones\" lost them their hearts and minds and rendered many of them loyal to the Viet Cong and their backers in the north. Collateral damage caused by suspicious GIs, South Vietnamese troops, and air campaigns helped enlist many against the South Vietnamese. The United States let the media have free reign in what was a gruesome conflict, who then relayed many of these images back to the United States, in the age of television. Night after night, Americans would have the atrocities of war displayed in their living rooms. The Tet Offensive was a traumatizing affair - the United States Embassy under the attack from the Viet Cong was a traumatizing event for many who thought that the United States, as a world power, was untouchable. The escalation of the war (1965, half a million marines were sent) made it one of the biggest deployments since Korea. If it had stayed a limited engagement, it would have been much more manageable in the public sphere. Having a draft where the kids of the new middle class were being asked to fight did not help their cause. These factors lost them the war on the home front and on the battlefield.",
"Tl;Dr: America did not lost the war per say, they just didn't win. the problem with Vietnam is that the guerrilla fighters didn't need to win, if they held out long enough the war would become unpopular in the USA and the USA would leave.",
"For an in depth analysis, see [this]( URL_0 ). the short version is that from 64-69, the army put way to much effort into killing NVA soldiers and not enough time and effort into doing what mattered, training the south Vietnamese army and protecting the south Vietnamese people from northern guerrillas and regulars. After Nixon took over, this strategy changed and the South vietnamese got a lot more effective. They were able to repel a massive Northern Armored invasion in '72 with out american ground troops (but with american air support). The south didn't fall until 3 years later, when congress, in a fit of pique, made it illegal for the US to even give the south Vietnamese old ammunition stores, which they needed to use the equipment we have given them and trained them to use. A colossal fucking waste.",
"Read *The Best and the Brightest* by David Halberstam. Also *A Bright and Shining Lie* by Neil Sheehan."
] | [
[
"increasingly began to characterize the war as a stalemate. What shocked and dismayed the American public was the realization that either it had been lied to or that the American military command had been dangerously overoptimistic in its appraisal of the situation in Vietnam. The public could not understand how such an attack was possible after being told for several years that victory was just around the corner. The Tet Offensive came to embody the growing credibility gap at the heart of U.S. government statements. These realizations and changing attitudes forced the American public (and politicians) to face hard realities",
"-35.20307602911271"
],
[
"Vietnam's five largest cities. While the Tet offensive failed militarily, it was a psychological victory, definitively turning American public opinion against the war effort. In February 1968, influential news anchor Walter Cronkite expressed on the air that the conflict was deadlocked and that additional fighting would change nothing. Johnson reacted, saying \"If I've lost Cronkite, I've lost middle America\". Indeed, demoralization about the war was everywhere; 26 percent then approved of Johnson's handling of Vietnam, while 63 percent disapproved. Post-Tet Offensive The Tet Offensive convinced senior leaders of the Johnson administration, including the \"Wise Men\" and new Defense Secretary Clark",
"-34.998311448449385"
],
[
"American casualties that alienated public opinion back home.\nThe U.S. framed the war as part of its policy of containment of Communism in south Asia, but American forces were frustrated by an inability to engage the enemy in decisive battles, corruption and incompetence in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, and ever increasing protests at home. The Tet Offensive in 1968, although a major military defeat for the NLF with half their forces eliminated, marked the psychological turning point in the war. With President Richard M. Nixon opposed to containment and more interested in achieving détente with both the",
"-34.79467652419771"
],
[
"Tet Offensive United States During the fall of 1967, the question whether the U.S. strategy of attrition was working in South Vietnam weighed heavily on the minds of the American public and the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson. General William C. Westmoreland, the commander of the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV), believed that if a \"crossover point\" could be reached by which the number of communist troops killed or captured during military operations exceeded those recruited or replaced, the Americans would win the war. There was a discrepancy, however, between the order of battle estimates of the MACV and",
"-34.74535693646612"
],
[
"Offensive, which despite being a tactical victory, resulted in the deaths of thousands of American and South Vietnamese soldiers. The offensive included an invasion of the United States Embassy in Saigon, which led many Americans to believe that the North Vietnamese were stronger than had been reported, and that the war was not nearing an end. From this point, most Americans either believed that the war should be escalated to completely destroy the enemy or that all American troops should be withdrawn from Vietnam to prevent the use of any more resources for the \"hopeless task\". McCarthy decried the handling",
"-34.5606577247745"
],
[
"however, providing just enough military assistance to tie up American forces. From this point, the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), also known as the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) engaged in more conventional warfare with US and South Vietnamese forces.\nThe Tet Offensive of 1968 proved to be the turning point of the war. Despite years of American tutelage and aid the South Vietnamese forces were unable to withstand the communist offensive and the task fell to US forces instead. Tet showed that the end of US involvement was not in sight, increasing domestic skepticism of the war and giving rise to",
"-34.53574823649251"
],
[
"commit to the conduct of the war, but also due to the radical change which United States society experienced during the war, and more importantly because:\nThe American strategic goal was not the destruction of an organized military machine armed with tanks, planes, helicopters, and war ships, for which the United States had prepared, but the preservation of a fragile regime from the lightly armed attacks of both its own people and the North Vietnamese.\nThe United States did not intend to conquer North Vietnam for fear of a Chinese or Soviet military reaction. Likewise, the United States strategically assumed that the",
"-34.53081729853875"
],
[
"the following year. According to American sources, there has been an extreme reluctance among Vietnamese historians to discuss the decision-making process that led to the General Offensive General Uprising, even decades after the event. In official Vietnamese literature, the decision to launch the Tet Offensive was usually presented as the result of a perceived U.S. failure to win the war quickly, the failure of the American bombing campaign against North Vietnam, and the anti-war sentiment that pervaded the population of the U.S. The decision to launch the general offensive, however, was much more complicated.\nThe decision signaled the end of a",
"-34.43178993437323"
],
[
"Vietnamese launched the Tet Offensive against South Vietnam's five largest cities, including Saigon and the U.S. embassy there and other government installations. While the Tet offensive failed militarily, it was a psychological victory, definitively turning American public opinion against the war effort. Iconically, Walter Cronkite of CBS news, voted the nation's \"most trusted person\" in February, expressed on the air that the conflict was deadlocked and that additional fighting would change nothing. Johnson reacted, saying \"If I've lost Cronkite, I've lost middle America\". Indeed, demoralization about the war was everywhere; 26 percent then approved of Johnson's handling of Vietnam; 63 percent disapproved.",
"-34.350471980913426"
],
[
"war was not going well for the U.S. and South Vietnam, despite the optimism of official accounts. As reports from the field became increasingly accessible to citizens, public opinion began to turn against U.S. involvement, though many Americans continued to support it. Others felt betrayed by their government for not being truthful about the war. This led to an increase in public pressure to end the war. By early February 1968, a Gallup poll showed only 32 percent of the population approved of President Lyndon B. Johnson’s handling of the war and 57 percent disapproved (the rest had no opinion).\nCritical",
"-34.22063360763423"
],
[
"after the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. U.S. forces effectively established and maintained control of the \"traditional\" battlefield, but they struggled to counter the guerrilla hit and run tactics of the communist Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army. On a tactical level, U.S. soldiers (and the U.S. military as a whole) did not lose a sizable battle.\nDuring the 1960s, the Department of Defense continued to scrutinize the reserve forces and to question the number of divisions and brigades as well as the redundancy of maintaining two reserve components, the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve. In 1967, Secretary of",
"-34.15966979786754"
],
[
"Vietnam made a major conventional attack on the South, for which the U.S. provided major air support under Operation Linebacker I, which enabled the ARVN to regain substantial control. When North Vietnam, late in the year, left the negotiating table, Nixon authorized the intensive Operation Linebacker II campaign, which forced the North Vietnamese to negotiate; a peace treaty was signed and all U.S. combat forces were withdrawn. 1973 and ceasefire The Armed Forces of the Republic of Vietnam had some excellent ground combat units, but still had very serious problems of command, control, and communications at division level and above.\nMany",
"-33.99701134089264"
],
[
"the Vietnam War during the 1960s commissioned in 1969 by Thomas L. Hughes, then Director of INR. The review showed that INR had repeatedly warned of the weaknesses of the South Vietnamese Government and of the failing US strategy in Vietnam, and that, despite pressure from the military and Pentagon, INR had portrayed and projected the course of the war more accurately than any other source.\nIn June 2009, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) arrested former INR employee Walter Kendall Myers on charges of serving as an illegal agent of the Cuban government for nearly 30 years and conspiring to",
"-33.94951823915471"
],
[
"by analysts of a foreign enemy's ability to field combatants. Its wider effect involved a host of issues: the entire war in Southeast Asia and domestic public opinion, the politics of military intelligence and the utility of combat/support formations, presidential electioneering confronting an intelligence estimate suggested by the CIA.\nMagnifying its importance in the mid-1960s was the metrics of the American strategy of attrition in Vietnam. Complicating its resolution were the conflicting perspectives of the institutional players, in the year before a presidential election. The O/B controversy came to an unexpected denouement, however, as a result of a failed military offensive",
"-33.90693592662865"
],
[
"Quagmire theory The quagmire theory explains the cause of the United States involvement in the Vietnam War. The quagmire theory suggests that American leaders had unintentionally and mistakenly led the country into the Vietnam War. The theory is categorized as an \"orthodox\" interpretation of the Vietnam War. Theory The quagmire theory comes from David Halberstam's account of the U.S. military policy in Vietnam, The Making of a Quagmire. Halberstam, a New York Times reporter who was stationed in Vietnam during the war, worked closely with a secret North Vietnamese agent, Phạm Xuân Ẩn. Halberstam left Vietnam in 1964 and",
"-33.87724826250633"
],
[
"the Vietnam War assert that US troops were often used inefficiently. For example, the force structure came with a massive logistical burden, placing most of the manpower in support formations. The result was under-strength units up front, and huge wastage and theft of weapons, equipment and supplies in the rear. The US emphasis on \"kill ratios\" was logical in view of an attrition strategy, but such measures of success were often exaggerated and inflated. One study of captured enemy documents for example, alleged that actual enemy losses were 30 to 50 percent less than what MACV claimed in official reports.",
"-33.83668159932131"
],
[
"the war against the VC and the role of the ARVN became less and less significant. They were also plagued by continuing problems of severe corruption amongst the officer corps. Although the US was highly critical of the ARVN, it continued to be entirely US-armed and funded.\n\nAlthough the American news media has often portrayed the Vietnam War as a primarily American and North Vietnamese conflict, the ARVN carried the brunt of the fight before and after large-scale American involvement, and participated in many major operations with American troops. ARVN troops pioneered the use of the M113 armored personnel carrier as",
"-33.73276003688807"
],
[
"of public support for the war and ultimately helped the U.S. lose the war. Author William F. Buckley repeatedly wrote about his approval for the war and suggested that \"The United States has been timid, if not cowardly, in refusing to seek 'victory' in Vietnam.\" The hawks claimed that the liberal media was responsible for the growing popular disenchantment with the war and blamed the western media for losing the war in Southeast Asia as communism was no longer a threat for them. Antiwar movement As the Vietnam War continued to escalate, public disenchantment grew and a variety of",
"-33.68935305112973"
],
[
"comparison. Analysis Even though the Vietnam War is not mentioned until the last page of the novel, critical analyses concur that the novel itself is the implicit answer to the question the title poses: why is the US involved in military action in Vietnam? In her foreword to the 2017 release of WWVN, Maggie McKinley identifies dominant concerns in the novel: \"corrupt capitalism, corporate elitism, American imperialism, and aggressive hyper-masculinity\". These themes are realized through the technological superiority that allows the hunters to dominate and decimate the animals they hunt. This use of technology, opines Fulgham, reduces these hunters to",
"-33.668099337868625"
],
[
"the Tet Offensive and the complex strategies of the Vietnam War exist, Hanoi's ability to divide the strength of their opponents and maintain its grip on the population was a key part of its protracted war strategy. By 1972, the war was increasingly conventionalized, and population control became less critical as PAVN regulars took over most of the fighting. This final phase- victory by conventional forces was also part and parcel of the \"people's war\" approach.\nA 1968 review of American strategy under US Commander C. Abrams, by the MACV \"Long Range Planning Group\" testifies to the efficacy of the PAVN/NLF",
"-33.64866680352134"
],
[
"the Americans in Vietnam, should the United States decide to launch air raids against North Vietnam. Secondly, the attack would demonstrate to the South Vietnamese public that the Americans were vulnerable and could not be relied upon for protection. Xuan added that \"all the crimes committed by the Americans were directed from this nerve center\". In the month leading up to the attack, South Vietnamese military intelligence had seized communist documents indicating a strategy of attacking US military targets in urban areas during the Christmas period in order to lower the morale of the US public and therefore turn opinion",
"-33.584735918819206"
],
[
"the war means their thinking not only from the Vietnamese position but also from the China–United States relations. Lin mentions, during the Johnson administration, the Vietnam war escalated, among which, the sense of threat brought by China's \"wars of national liberation” in Vietnam was a major reason for the escalation. However, from the American perspective, such \"aid\" was a bigger plot, bringing great fear to them. In Johnson's view, against Communist expansionism in Asia was part of his administration. The perspective of this article and its interpretation of American policymakers are different from former works based on Chinese historical sources,",
"-33.57326979111531"
],
[
"exceeded our expectations\" while telling the president he saw \"no reasonable way to bring the war to an end soon\". Through McNamara reported to Johnson that American forces were inflicting heavy losses on the North Vietnamese and VC, he added that they could \"more than replace\" their losses and that \"full security exists nowhere\" in South Vietnam, even in areas supposedly \"pacified\" by the Americans. Worse of all, McNamara complained that the South Vietnamese were still not carrying their full share of the load, as they expected the Americans to do all the fighting for them, stating: \"This important war",
"-33.56330268039892"
],
[
"seen as Johnson's admission that the war was lost. As Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara noted, \"the dangerous illusion of victory by the United States was therefore dead.\"\nVietnam was a major political issue during the United States presidential election in 1968. The election was won by Republican party candidate Richard Nixon. Nuclear threats and diplomacy U.S. president Richard Nixon began troop withdrawals in 1969. His plan, called the Nixon Doctrine, was to build up the ARVN so that it could take over the defense of South Vietnam. The policy became known as \"Vietnamization\". Theater commander Creighton Abrams shifted to smaller",
"-33.529575535154436"
],
[
"fought in the 1975 Spring Offensive. In several incidents, the ARVN successfully defeated NVA T-34 and T-55 tanks and even slowed the North's offensive. However, due to shortages of fuel and munitions faced by the South Vietnamese military because of the US Congress-placed ban on the further funding and supply of military equipment and logistics to the country, the American-made tanks soon ran out of ammunition and fuel and were quickly abandoned to the NVA, which then put them in their service after the war ended in May 1975. In total, 250 of the ARVN's M48A3s were destroyed and captured",
"-33.52955262821342"
],
[
"of U.S. forces from Vietnam. During nearly two hours of discussions with committee members, Kerry related in some detail the findings of the Winter Soldier Investigation, in which veterans had described personally committing or witnessing atrocities and war crimes. Effects The opposition to the United States' involvement in the Vietnam War had many effects, which arguably led to the eventual end of the involvement of the United States. Howard Zinn, a controversial historian, states in his book A People's History of the United States that, \"in the course of the war, there developed in the United States the greatest antiwar",
"-33.50653764598246"
],
[
"launching an ambush. From the mid-1950s the American strategy of choice in Vietnam was conventional warfare, a contested decision, considered in hindsight a fatal mistake.\nThe Army rebuffed President Kennedy's efforts to develop a strong American counterinsurgency capability in general. The Army also declined regarding Vietnam in particular. Marine Lt. Gen. Victor Krulak, however, in Vietnam early favored pacification and opposed conventional attrition strategy. Yet Krulak had failed to convince first Gen. Westmoreland, then McNamara at Defense, and ultimately President Johnson. Châu, too, spoke with Westmoreland, unsuccessfully.\nThe Viet Cong generally avoided fielding regular army units until late in the war. The",
"-33.4900696172117"
],
[
"of the strategies associated with troop escalation, notably the air campaign over North Vietnam, which he saw as an aggressive measure causing civilian casualties that could draw the People's Republic of China or the Soviet Union into the conflict. He also feared that other American interests, including the economy, were suffering through U.S. involvement in the war, and that the U.S. was losing prestige internationally.\nShoup's opposition to the war only increased over time; he initially pushed for a negotiated settlement but later supported a unilateral pullout from the country. As the Vietnamization strategy took effect and the U.S. increased its",
"-33.42138428153703"
],
[
"by policy wars in Washington between the Departments of State and Defense and within the Department of Defense. A series of decisions on Mar. 8, 1965 to escalate U.S. involvement in Vietnam was the end result.",
"-33.344452226825524"
],
[
"detrimental effects. Tet Offensive: 1968 By 1968, America had officially been at war in Vietnam for four years, but US involvement in Vietnamese affairs had gone back as far as the early 1950s, when France required aid from the US and South Vietnam, essentially a puppet state of the US in maintaining control over French Indochina, and public support of the war had begun to wane. In January 1968, Viet Cong.troops launched a surprise attack in South Vietnam, known as the Tet Offensive; one of the points of attack was the U.S. Embassy in Saigon. Though US troops were able",
"-33.32274797061109"
],
[
"McNamara stated that the war would be winding down as the North Vietnamese were losing their will to fight, but shortly thereafter, they launched the Tet Offensive, in which they and Communist Vietcong forces launched simultaneous attacks on all government strongholds in South Vietnam. Though a U.S. military victory, Tet led many Americans to ponder whether the war was winnable or worth it. In addition, voters felt they could not trust their government's assessment and reporting of the war effort. The Pentagon called for sending several hundred thousand more soldiers to Vietnam. Johnson's approval ratings fell below 35%, and",
"-33.242042750478504"
],
[
"Cong, Hanoi emerged with a significant political victory as confidence in the American military and political leadership collapsed, as did public support for the war in the United States. Prior to Tet, American commanders and politicians had talked confidently about winning the war, arguing that General William Westmoreland's strategy of attrition had reached the point where the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong were losing soldiers and equipment faster than they could be replaced. Yet the scale of the offensive, and the surprise and violence with which it had been launched, had shocked the American public and contradicted such predictions of",
"-33.174663204845274"
],
[
"resulted in a change in both the concept of the war and its conduct. Abrams directed that the allied main effort would switch to protecting population centres, rather than searching for and attempting to destroy PAVN/VC main force units as they had done previously. Equally, the prosecution of the war would increasingly be handed over to the South Vietnamese under a policy of Vietnamization, with the Americans aiming to keep PAVN/VC units off balance to prevent them from interfering with resupply and reinforcement until the South Vietnamese could fight the war on their own. For the Australians the change in",
"-33.1263083256199"
],
[
"North Vietnam but rather to ensure the survival of the South Vietnamese government, measuring progress was difficult. All the contested territory was theoretically \"held\" already. Instead, the US Army used body counts to show that the US was winning the war. The Army's theory was that eventually, the Viet Cong (VC) and People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) would lose after the attrition warfare.\nAccording to historian Christian Appy, \"search and destroy was the principal tactic; and the enemy body count was the primary measure of progress\" in General Westmoreland’s war of attrition. Search and destroy was coined as a phrase in",
"-33.11896480858559"
],
[
"identified as General Frederick C. Weyand) who called the situation in Vietnam a \"stalemate.\" It was a view with which Wheeler agreed in more confidential circles. However, Wheeler was concerned that the American buildup in Vietnam depleted U.S. military capabilities in other parts of the world. He called for 205,000 additional ground troops, to be gained by mobilizing reserves, but intended these remain in the US as an active reserve. The president decided this was not easily accomplished. Together with the Tet Offensive and shifts in American public opinion, this abortive effort contributed to President Johnson's ultimate decision to de-escalate",
"-33.0894530165624"
],
[
"American intelligence. It held important implications for how the Vietnam War was described to the American people, the prospects for victory. When the year's Special National Intelligence Estimate for Vietnam (SNIE 14-3-67) was prepared, it became difficult to reconcile the competing number estimates for VC. Charges were made, e.g., by Sam Adams an analyst for the CIA, that MACV's low numbers were the result of political interference with the data of intelligence work. Later that year the controversy was resolved in favor of the lower numbers which MACV had forcefully and persistently asserted.\nIn January, 1968, communist forces dramatically changed their",
"-33.07899832475232"
],
[
"Vietnam as the prelude for the Tet Offensive.. During the Tet Offensive in 1968, Rostow in a report stated that a Vietcong attack against a remote village in South Vietnam had been timed to coincide with a debate in Congress about appropriations for the war, leading Karnow to sarcastically write \"as if tacticians in Hanoi consulted the Congressional Record before deploying their units\". During the debate in Washington in the aftermath of the Tet Offensive about whatever to send more troops to South Vietnam or not, Rostow argued that firmness in Vietnam was needed to deter \"aggression...in the Middle East,",
"-33.07562328642234"
],
[
"to fend off the Viet Cong and ultimately prevailed militarily, the attack signaled a turning point in both the US troops' morale and in the public trust of the government's reports on the progress of the war, as many Americans had no idea that the VC were capable of infiltrating American and South Vietnamese headquarters in the way that they did. Many Americans were unaware of the extent of the brutality involved in the war, but the Tet Offensive changed that, and American television cameras were available firsthand to record footage of the bombing of cities and the execution of",
"-33.06415781608666"
],
[
"Vietnam. The NVA received substantial military and economic aid from the Soviet Union and China, turning Vietnam into a proxy war.\nThe military history of the American side of the war involved different strategies over the years. The bombing campaigns of the Air Force were tightly controlled by the White House for political reasons, and until 1972 avoided the main Northern cities of Hanoi and Haiphong and concentrated on bombing jungle supply trails, especially the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The most controversial Army commander was William Westmoreland whose strategy involved systematic defeat of all enemy forces in the field, despite heavy",
"-33.02628799226659"
],
[
"Numerous Western histories of the Vietnam War, some scholars argue tend to assign the Vietnamese a secondary role in terms of the developments that led to victory by the North. For example, while American combat deaths are often referenced in the large number of Western histories, comparatively little mention is made of the 275,000 combat deaths suffered by the South Vietnamese, almost 5 times the American total. Just the evacuation of Da Nang in March 1975 cost the South Vietnamese an estimated 60,000 deaths, more than total US military losses for the entire conflict.\nThere is often heavy concentration on the",
"-33.00701954847318"
],
[
"that protracted warfare would cost many lives but that did not always translate into winning or losing the war. In the final analysis, Giap won the war despite losing many battles, and as long as the army survived to fight another day, the idea of Vietnam lived in the hearts of the people who would support it, and that is the essence of \"revolutionary war\".\n— Derek Frisby\nFor the remainder of his life, Westmoreland maintained that the United States did not lose the war in Vietnam; he stated instead that \"our country did not fulfill its commitment to South Vietnam. By virtue",
"-33.00604859118175"
],
[
"Vietnam decisions. Bundy hoped for the best, but realized the best was not always feasible in Vietnam. The representative from the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Vice Admiral Lloyd Mustin, was much more certain America could and should win a battle in North Vietnam. The two men's differing points of view were synthesized by John McNaughton, a personal representative of Robert McNamara in the working group, who called from \"translating the facets of a problem [namely the Vietnam War] into statistical probabilities in order to facilitate precise, objective decisions.\" McNaughton came to the view that \"progress inside SVN",
"-32.976209840984666"
],
[
"\"failures to convey\" occurred. During the 1968 Tet Offensive, the North Vietnamese government erred in its certainty that widespread assaults would trigger a supportive uprising of the population. People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and Viet Cong (VC) troops throughout the South attacked in force for the first time in the war; over the course of the offensive, 50,000 of these troops were killed (by Army of the Republic of Vietnam and American troops). The Viet Cong would never again fight effectively as a cohesive force. These reversals on the battlefield failed to register on the American home front, as shocking",
"-32.975027945038164"
],
[
"Vietnam from 1955 to 1963 that effectively giving the North the resources needed to begin the insurgency in the South. Confronting U.S. escalation The catalyst for the Vietnam War would be the controversial Gulf of Tonkin incident in August 1964. “To confront the increasing U.S. pressure in Indochina, Beijing stepped up its coordination with the Vietnamese and Laotian parties.”\nTo counter these U.S. overwhelming air strikes, Ho requested Chinese Anti-Aircraft Artillery (AAA) units in a meeting with Mao in May 1965. In response, People’s Liberation Army (PLA) forces began flowing into North Vietnam in July 1965 to help defend Hanoi and",
"-32.94727242112276"
],
[
"manpower for participating in battles in the South and maintaining the transport and communication lines between the North and the South. On the other hand, it played a role in deterring further American expansion of the war into the North. International concerns about China’s involvement The Vietnam War attached great importance to the course of the world in the second half of the 20th century, which affected the strategic interests of the People Republic of China, the United States, and the Soviet Union as well as the relations between these great powers. Thus, different perspectives can give different ideas about",
"-32.928178083806415"
],
[
"(and the U.S. military as a whole) did not lose a sizable battle. For instance in the Tet Offensive in 1968, the U.S. Army turned a large scale attack by communist forces into a massive defeat of the Viet Cong on the battlefield (though at the time the offensive sapped the political will of the American public) which permanently weakened the guerrilla force. Thereafter, most large scale engagements were fought with the regular North Vietnamese Army. In 1973 domestic political opposition to the war finally forced a U.S. withdrawal. In 1975, Vietnam was unified under a communist government.\nDuring the 1960s",
"-32.91595644317567"
],
[
"might be traced to overactive advisors.\" In his opinion, ARVN units were \"no match\" for their North Vietnamese opponents, and ARVN commanders relied too heavily on American air and artillery support now that it was available in quantity. In combat, they were simply unwilling to close with enemy forces. \"The failure is one of leadership... and one of will.\" but, Collins had to conclude, \"the one thing that can be said is that ARVN soldiers are doing the fighting and taking the casualties.\" The senior US adviser to the 2nd Battalion, 42nd Regiment concluded that the primary Vietnamese problem was",
"-32.903248658996745"
],
[
"the army of North Vietnam that was the main opponent. However the Tet Offensive proved a public relations disaster for Johnson, as the public increasingly realized the United States was deeply involved in a war that few people understood. Republicans, such as California Governor Ronald Reagan, demanded victory or withdrawal, while on the left strident demands for immediate withdrawal escalated. Controversially, out of the 2.5 million Americans who came to serve in Vietnam (out of 27 million Americans eligible to serve in the military) 80% came from poor and working-class backgrounds. Antiwar movement Starting in 1964, the antiwar movement",
"-32.885835632376256"
],
[
"campaign, which enabled American airpower to destroy rather than just threaten Hanoi's limited industrial infrastructure. Consequently, North Vietnamese leaders feared that if the Red River dikes were targeted by the Americans, Hanoi and the surrounding farmlands would be flooded. At the same time, the North Vietnamese government was afraid the VC may split in order to accommodate a resolution with the Saigon government, because the U.S.-backed government in the South was showing no sign of collapse.\nDespite the unfavorable developments in South Vietnam, PAVN General Trần Văn Trà believed North Vietnam could still win the war if they pursued a",
"-32.86517985086539"
],
[
"war planners counted on the psychological wear and tear of modern air-power upon a land-bound adversary. McNamara pictured enemy soldiers under combined assault in the South, utterly devoid of flying machines for mobility or retaliation in the sky.. 'They only thing that will prevent it [stalemate] Mr. President, is their morale breaking...' he said... 'that's the only chance we have of winning this thing... because we are just not killing enough of them to make it impossible for the North to continue to fight.\"\nThe North Vietnamese however kept fighting. The initial American Operation Rolling Thunder campaign while inflicting painful",
"-32.85254955707933"
],
[
"Americans felt the North Vietnamese would be defeated in time. Despite American technological and military superiority, by 1968, the war showed no signs of ending and most Americans wanted U.S. forces to end their involvement. The U.S. undercut support for the North by getting the Soviets and Chinese to stop supporting North Vietnam, in exchange for recognition of the legitimacy of mainland China's Communist government, and began withdrawing troops from Vietnam. In 1972, the last American troops left Vietnam and in 1975 South Vietnam fell to the North. In the following years Communism took power in neighboring Laos and Cambodia.\nBy",
"-32.8411621399282"
],
[
"was no debate or confusion within the administration regarding the incident.\nThe use of the set of incidents as a pretext for escalation of U.S. involvement followed the issuance of public threats against North Vietnam, as well as calls from American politicians in favor of escalating the war. On May 4, 1964, William Bundy called for the U.S. to \"drive the communists out of South Vietnam\", even if that meant attacking both North Vietnam and communist China. Even so, the Johnson administration in the second half of 1964 focused on convincing the American public that there was no chance of war",
"-32.82831072725821"
],
[
"in using military force to aid Vietnam and resist the United States, what Beijing may wish was only to deter but not confront Washington. However, American policymakers interpreted in another way. They perceived that the battles in South Vietnam and other parts of Southeast Asia were a crucial signal of further Communist expansion so that America increased the military involvement there and the Vietnam War intensified.\nFrom an ideological perspective, Anthony Short believes there are various reasons showing the US should intervene in the Vietnam War. On the one hand, he admitted American’s policy was based on European rather than on",
"-32.718966784188524"
],
[
"The North Vietnamese knew that the war was unpopular with the American people, and to counter the assumption in Hanoi that they merely had to wait until American public opinion forced him to withdraw American forces, Nixon planned a complex strategy of on one hand of maintaining military pressure by keeping the war going while on the other hand of reducing American casualties to counter the antiwar movement. To force the North Vietnamese to agree to American peace terms, Nixon planned a dual approach of the \"Madman theory\" that he would pose as a fanatical anti-Communist who was eager to",
"-32.68845627771225"
],
[
"Operation Crimp Military situation Although the initial American commitment to the war in Vietnam had been limited to advice and materiel support, by 1964 there were 21,000 US advisors in South Vietnam. However, with the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) weakened by successive defeats at the hands of the communists, the South Vietnamese government faltering, and Saigon threatened with a major offensive, the worsening situation led to a significant escalation of the war in 1965, with a large-scale commitment of US ground troops under the command of General William Westmoreland. At first the Americans had adopted a cautious",
"-32.67513827042421"
],
[
"the events of the attack the day before, and that, although Destroyers Maddox, and Turner Joy fired hundreds of shells at intermittent radar contacts, they were firing at false returns.\nA CIA analyst's assessment of Vietnam was that the U.S. was \"becoming progressively divorced from reality... [and] proceeding with far more courage than wisdom\". The CIA had created an exhaustive report, \"The Vietnamese Communist's Will to Persist\". This created a key flashpoint in the US government, PAVN troop levels,. Was it 500k or more as the CIA believed, or 300k or less as the commanders of US forces",
"-32.654961531821755"
],
[
"\nBut the raids did not break the stalemate in the South, nor halt the flow of supplies down the Ho Chi Minh trail. It did, however, give the North Vietnamese reason to return to negotiating with the United States. There could be no ultimate victory as long as the United States remained in South Vietnam. Diplomatic The North Vietnamese government complained that the U.S. had \"carpet-bombed hospitals, schools, and residential areas, committing barbarous crimes against our people\", citing the bombing of Bach Mai Hospital on 22 December and Kham Thien street on 26 December which they claimed had",
"-32.64247649850586"
],
[
"the war was a myth created after 1980 with the tacit approval of the Reagan administration, and that the psychological foundations of the myth arguably originated from justifications for the war offered by the Nixon before 1973, in that the war had to continue in order to bring the prisoners of war home. In the 1980s and 1990s, many Americans believed, incorrectly, that there were many \"prisoners of war are still being held in Indochina\" and that the American government was lying to the public about their existence. When Franklin was assembling an anthology in 1996 entitled The Vietnam War",
"-32.628100673959125"
],
[
"the war escalated, there were turf conflicts within the US effort because it lacked a unified command structure.\nAn example of the difficulties inherent in the enlarged war was the siting of Lima Site 85 on a mountaintop at Phou Pha Thi, Laos. This clandestine guidance radar facility was proposed at a mid-1967 meeting chaired by General Hunter Harris. Its purpose was radar directed air raids into Hanoi. Lair's opinion of the installation was asked, as he was the local expert, and he was being charged with its defense. He predicted that the Vietnamese would build a road toward the radar",
"-32.59921951024444"
],
[
"stated in interviews that they wanted to convince the American public that the United States was truly responsible for the calamity in Vietnam. The group began striking at night, bombing empty offices, with warnings always issued in advance to ensure a safe evacuation. According to David Gilbert, who took part in the 1981 Brink's robbery that killed two police officers and a Brinks' guard, and was jailed for murder, \"[their] goal was to not hurt any people, and a lot of work went into that. But we wanted to pick targets that showed to the public who was responsible for",
"-32.567908296434325"
],
[
"three US advisers strongly criticized the Nhus and advocated the pair's departure from South Vietnam to avoid a public relations disaster at the United Nations. Krulak felt that these problems were outweighed by what he believed to be a successful military effort and that the war would be won irrespective of the political leadership. He predicted that the ARVN had little ability to facilitate an improvement in governance and felt that they would not flex whatever muscle they had. Krulak optimistically concluded,\nExcluding the very serious political and military factors external to Vietnam, the Viet Cong war will be won if",
"-32.55597580680478"
],
[
"incorrect assessment of the situation in Vietnam led the U.S. leadership into a series of bad decisions that resulted in the Vietnam War, according to the quagmire theory. Vietnam and U.S. History The Vietnam saga started with the colonization of the country by the French in 1887. In 1941, Japan tried to expand their empire by invading Vietnam. The Vietminh, a communist guerilla group, formed in order to successfully drive off the Japanese. After World War II, Harry S. Truman, instituted the foreign policy of containment. First presented in 1946, the goal was to try to contain communism and",
"-32.51113400842587"
],
[
"matters stood until the massive PAVN/NLF Tet Offensive of early 1968. Although a tactical victory for American and South Vietnamese forces, Tet became a political disaster. The American public (who had been reassured by President Lyndon B. Johnson and the Pentagon that the communists were incapable of launching any such actions) were stunned by the size and ferocity of the offensive. The light at the end of the tunnel had been extinguished, if it had ever existed at all. The president, in an attempt to nudge Hanoi to the negotiating table, decreed an end to bombing operations in North Vietnam",
"-32.49929867655737"
],
[
"strategy of attrition. In other words, the PAVN/VC would have to fight on for as long as possible, until the United States recognized that the war was unwinnable and would disengage from the conflict in Vietnam. To achieve that objective at the tactical level, Tra argued that PAVN and VC forces would have to destroy American military units, and cause as many casualties as possible until they got tired and left. Indeed, towards mid-1967 General Thanh, who had the VC 7th and 9th Division at his disposal, was out to do just that. In June, U.S. military forces in III",
"-32.44861096970271"
],
[
"as the Viet Cong (VC), and provided NLF members with medicine, weapons, and training. Simultaneously, the North Vietnamese Army engaged in a more conventional war, at times committing large units to battle. The United States entered the war to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam as part of their wider strategy of containment. The U.S. was involved in Vietnam as early as 1950, when military advisors were sent to assist the French in the First Indochina War. The U.S. continued its advisory assistance to South Vietnam during the 1950s, with U.S. troop levels tripling in",
"-32.444469990674406"
],
[
"blistering attack on U.S. generals\" and a signal of the \"public emergence of a split inside the military between younger, mid-career officers and the top brass\". He argues that the U.S. general corps needs to be overhauled because it failed to anticipate the post-invasion insurgency in Iraq, and because of its reluctance to admit the onset of such an insurgency in 2004. He likened Iraq to the Vietnam War, stating, \"for the second time in a generation, the United States faces the prospect of defeat at the hands of an insurgency\". Because the Vietnam and Iraq wars were commanded by",
"-32.425539351126645"
],
[
"were capable of replacing those lost with new recruits from North Vietnam. In 1969, the year after the Tet battles, the US suffered 11,780 killed, the second highest annual total in the war. This was a clear indication that the North Vietnamese were capable of ongoing offensive actions, despite their losses at Tet. Most Americans were tired of suffering so many casualties without evidence that they were going to stop anytime in the foreseeable future. Walter Cronkite, anchorman of the CBS Evening News and a World War II combat veteran, argued for negotiations as an honorable way out in a",
"-32.42274698060646"
],
[
"Battle of Ong Thanh Background In the first half of 1967, United States military forces in Vietnam had inflicted losses on the VC, both in terms of infrastructure and manpower, through major ground operations such as Cedar Falls, Junction City and Manhattan. For North Vietnamese military leaders such as Generals Võ Nguyên Giáp and Nguyễn Chí Thanh, the operations carried out by the Americans in South Vietnam had been disastrous for their forces. Furthermore, the military situation in North Vietnam also prompted North Vietnamese leaders to question their war strategy. In 1967 the United States expanded their Rolling Thunder bombing",
"-32.39824542682618"
],
[
"argument.\nThe first argument is that the Paris Peace Accords that ended the direct American participation in the war was seriously flawed, because it permitted the North Vietnamese to maintain their forces within territorial South Vietnam after the signing of the agreement, thereby dooming the ceasefire. \nThe second argument is that the refusal of the United States government to take promised military action in the face of North Vietnamese violations of the ceasefire was key to the defeat. Adherents to this claim believed that South Vietnam could have been saved by another U.S. bombing campaign. The conflict between the executive and",
"-32.378511110990075"
],
[
"storage, and air defense systems on 10 May. During Linebacker, the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps lost 104 aircraft in combat while their North Vietnamese opponents lost 63. Aftermath At the conclusion of the ARVN counter-offensive, both sides were exhausted but considered their efforts to have been successful. While the South Vietnamese and Americans believed the policy of Vietnamization had been validated, the internal weaknesses of the South Vietnamese command structure, which had been rectified somewhat during the emergency, reappeared once it had passed. During the operations, more than 25,000 South Vietnamese civilians had been killed and almost",
"-32.32919083467277"
],
[
"the offensive was launched, had shocked the public, contradicting such predictions of imminent victory. Confidence in the military and political leadership declined, as did public support for the war in America. Ultimately, Tet was a publicity and media triumph for the PAVN/VC, and Hanoi emerged with a significant political victory.\nThe offensive had a similar effect on Australian public opinion, and caused growing uncertainty in the government about the determination of the United States to remain militarily involved in Southeast Asia. Amid the initial shock, Prime Minister John Gorton unexpectedly declared that Australia would not increase its military commitment in Vietnam",
"-32.30945365865773"
],
[
"internationally acceptable limits of covert warfare, an open war waged against them would become an actual war. As a response, the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China could be expected to change their methods of Cold War opposition to the United States. Adverse public opinion both domestic and foreign would plague the U.S. as a result.\nOne conclusion to be drawn was that air power would have little effect on North Vietnam's ability to wage war. It was concluded that the North Vietnamese had to ship only 15 tons per day of military supplies to the Viet Cong to",
"-32.302746169356396"
],
[
"America in Vietnam America in Vietnam is a book by Guenter Lewy about America's role in the Vietnam War. The book is highly influential, although it has remained controversial even decades after its publication. Lewy contends that the United States' actions in Vietnam were neither illegal nor immoral, and that tales of American atrocities were greatly exaggerated in what he understands as a \"veritable industry\" of war crimes allegations.\nThe text returned to the limelight during the 2004 US Presidential Election, when it was cited by several groups supporting the reelection of George W. Bush, in contending that Democratic presidential contender",
"-32.29343785308811"
],
[
"the PAVN/NLF that actually controlled the pace of the war, fighting only when their commanders believed that they had the upper hand and then disappearing when the Americans and/or ARVN brought their superiority in numbers and firepower to bear. North Vietnam, utilizing the Ho Chi Minh and Sihanouk Trails, matched the U.S. at every point of the escalation, funneling manpower and supplies to the southern battlefields.\nDuring the Vietnam War, the use of the helicopter, known as \"Air Mobile\", was an essential tool for conducting the war. In fact, the whole conduct and strategy of the war depended on it. Vietnam",
"-32.273842706519645"
],
[
"remote regions where U.S. artillery and aerial firepower could be applied indiscriminately, which meant that tactically and strategically, these operations made no sense. What the North Vietnamese had done was carry out the first stage of their plan: to fix the attention of the U.S. command on the borders and draw the bulk of U.S. forces away from the heavily populated coastal lowlands and cities.\nWestmoreland was more concerned with the situation at Khe Sanh, where, on 21 January 1968, a force estimated at 20,000–40,000 PAVN troops had besieged the U.S. Marine garrison. MACV was convinced that the PAVN planned to",
"-32.23944609112732"
],
[
"U.S. force manages to hold off the North Vietnamese with artillery, mortars, and helicopter airlifts of supplies and reinforcements. Eventually, Nguyen Huu An, the commander of the North Vietnamese division, orders a large-scale attack on the American position.\nAt the point of being overrun by the enemy and with no options left, Moore orders 1st Lt. Charlie Hastings, his Forward Air Controller, to call in \"Broken Arrow\" (a call for all available combat aircraft to assist and attack enemy positions, even those close to the U.S. troops' position, because a position is being overrun and can no longer be defended). The",
"-32.22851482522674"
],
[
"Despite its success, this was the last major South Vietnamese offensive of the war. The severe constraints on ammunition expenditures, fuel usage, and flying hours permitted no new initiatives. Although the South Vietnamese armed forces could react strongly to local threats within supporting distances of major bases, outlying threats were beyond their capability to cope with. For South Vietnam, a decline had begun to develop early in 1974 and would prove irreversible.",
"-32.22522396275599"
],
[
"to dictate to the United States as the Americans needed him more than he needed the Americans. The American National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger wrote in 1982 that because of the Vietnam War, it was not politically possible in the 1970s for the United States to fight a major war: \"There was no possibility of assigning any American forces to the Indian Ocean in the midst of the Vietnam War and its attendant trauma. Congress would have tolerated no such commitment; the public would not have supported it. Fortunately, Iran was willing to play this role.\" Consequently, the Americans badly",
"-32.22021656969446"
],
[
"F. Kennedy. According to the quagmire theory as described by Schlesinger, the quagmire metaphor represented the one-step-at-a-time process that the U.S. inadvertently became entrapped in the military and diplomatic swamp of Vietnam.\nSchlesinger detailed the process of American involvement in a war that was not really in the American interest and as a result of inadvertent decision making and false hope.\nIn retrospect, Vietnam is a triumph of the politics of inadvertence. We have achieved our present entanglement, not after due and deliberate consideration, but through a series of small decisions. It is not only idle, but unfair to seek out guilty",
"-32.21879047412949"
],
[
"Guard personnel, the unpopularity of the war with the American public, and frustrating restrictions placed on the Army by U.S. political leaders (i.e., no invasion of communist-held North Vietnam). While American forces had been stationed in the Republic of Vietnam since 1959, in intelligence and advisory/training roles, they did not deploy in large numbers until 1965, after the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. American forces effectively established and maintained control of the \"traditional\" battlefield, however they struggled to counter the guerrilla hit and run tactics of the communist Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army. On a tactical level, American soldiers",
"-32.135049092299596"
],
[
"of Defense James Schlesinger stated that the U.S. was not living up to its promise that it would retaliate in the event North Vietnam tried to overwhelm South Vietnam.\nWhen North Vietnam invaded in March 1975, the promised American intervention never materialized. Congress reflected the popular mood, halting the bombing in Cambodia effective 15 July 1973, and reducing aid to South Vietnam. Since Thiệu intended to fight the same kind of war he always had, with lavish use of firepower, the cuts in aid proved especially damaging. Capture In early 1975 North Vietnam realized the time was right to achieve its",
"-32.0790609418309"
],
[
"build-up between the U.S. and U.S.S.R. during the Cold War. \nSome observers believe that the Vietnam War was a necessary attritive component to this war — Soviet industrial capacity was diverted to conventional arms in North Vietnam, rather than development of new weapons and nuclear weapons — but evidence would need to be found that the then-current administration of the US saw it thus. Current consensus and evidence holds that it was but a failed defensive move in the Cold War, in the context of the Domino Doctrine.\nThe coup-de-grace is variously opined to be Stealth technology especially as",
"-32.07592933406704"
],
[
"the Cold War the United States tried to prevent the domino theory spreading of communism and thwart communist countries including that of the PRC. Revelations about the overt and ulterior motives behind the US intervention in Vietnam and the covert widening of combat operations to nearby Cambodia and Laos was leaked in the Pentagon Papers by Daniel Ellsberg in 1971.\nAlthough President Lyndon B. Johnson stated that the aim of the Vietnam War was to secure an \"independent, non-Communist South Vietnam\", a January 1965 memorandum by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara stated that an underlying justification was \"not to help",
"-32.07213665441668"
],
[
"Several senior American commanders were relieved of duty or were reprimanded after the event. Audaciously, the VC attacked the ruins of the firebase the following day with machine gun fire. One Vietnam War historian calls this incident the \"U.S. Army's most blatant and humiliating defeat in Vietnam.\" Improvements in PAVN performance over the 1972 Offensive Assessment of VC/NVA performance must look beyond the American interlude, and the guerrilla warfare phases to the final outcome of the Vietnam War in 1975. Well before the end, the Viet Cong were reduced to a minor force, and regular PAVN formations controlled the field.",
"-32.06815502212703"
],
[
"civilian meddling in military matters. It was argued that the civilian leadership failed to understand how to use military force and improperly restrained the use of force in achieving victory. Among the first to analyze the war critically was Harry Summers, who used Clausewitz as his theoretical basis. He argued that the principal reason for the loss of the Vietnam War was a failure on the part of the political leadership to understand the goal, which was victory. The Army, always successful on the battlefield, ultimately did not achieve victory because it was misused and misunderstood. Summers argued that the",
"-32.03807839532965"
],
[
"The military resented such review of its conduct of the war.\nThe American strategy had become the pursuit of a war of attrition. The objective was to make the Viet Cong enemy suffer more losses than it could timely replace. Accordingly, the number of combatants fielded by the communist insurgency at any one time was a key factor in determining whether the course of the war was favorable or not. The political pressure on the CIA to conform to the military's figures of enemy casualties became intense. Under Helms CIA reports on the Viet Cong order of battle numbers were usually",
"-32.012673761331826"
],
[
"Battle of Gang Toi Military situation Although the initial American commitment to the war in Vietnam had been limited to advice and materiel support, by 1964 there were 21,000 US advisors in South Vietnam. However, with the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) weakened by successive defeats at the hands of the communists, the South Vietnamese government faltering, and Saigon threatened with a major offensive, the situation led to a significant escalation of the war in 1965, with a large-scale commitment of US ground troops under the command of General William Westmoreland. At first the Americans had adopted a",
"-32.007904692552984"
],
[
"was led by the Communist Party, and Vietnam was geographically close to China and not far from North Korea, USA got interested in the conflict taking place in Indochina. To justify their intervention, the Americans referred to the \"Domino theory\" that if Vietnam fell into the hands of the Communists, neighboring countries would follow, earned by the contagion or assaulted by military forces from Hanoi. This shift would change radically forces East/West reports in whole Asia.\nIn the other camp, the battle of Dien Bien Phu's victory enabled Việt Minh to control the area of North-Laos, but Ho Chi Minh nourished",
"-32.004852013633354"
],
[
"the 9 division commanders, complaining that the army was led by officers unwilling to fight. In Washington, the news that despite the fact that South Vietnam had received American military aid worth hundreds of millions of dollars and had its army trained by American officers that the South Vietnamese Army was still incapable of winning battles provoked much worry about what was going on in South Vietnam. Lyman Kirkpatrick, the inspector-general of the CIA, visited the American embassy in Saigon that same month, and reported to Washington that he was \"...shocked by the number of our people and of the",
"-32.00170804433583"
],
[
"circumstances are we going to risk our entire military force for just such an offensive. On the contrary, we should endeavor to preserve our military potential for future campaigns.\"\nBy July 1974, following the cut-off of US aid to the South, the North Vietnamese leadership had decided to abrogate the Paris Peace Accords and to invade in 1975, instead of 1976 as previously planned, because they believed an earlier Vietnamese unification would put Vietnam in a stronger position against Chinese and Soviet influence. In his victory speech, Lê Duẩn stated: \"Our party is the unique and single leader that organised, controlled",
"-31.986777420064755"
],
[
"and that there should be no more US military involvement in Vietnam. Also, there should also be a return of all captured personnel of the parties, and most importantly the US must agree on South Vietnam's right to self determine their own government.\nOn March 12 of 1975 an anti-aircraft missile from North Vietnam struck an Air Vietnam DC-4 that was en route from Ventiane to Saigon, shortly after the aircraft communicated for the last time over a reporting point (PE9 on the G67 airway) near Pleiku. The ARVN had fallen apart partially due to the North Vietnamese offensive, but",
"-31.982687125899247"
],
[
"must be fought and won by the Vietnamese themselves. We have known this from the beginning. But the discouraging truth is that, as was the case in 1961 and 1963 and 1965, we have not found the formula, the catalyst, for training and inspiring them into effective action\". \nBecause the effects of Operation Rolling Thunder were more easily measured than with the ground war, McNamara was especially troubled by the revelation that the bombing offensive had not caused the collapse of North Vietnam's economy as predicated. In June 1967, American bombers hit North Vietnam's hydroelectric plants and reduced North Vietnam",
"-31.97431930818857"
],
[
"insurgents.\nFitzGerald wrote, \"But the American officials in supporting the Saigon government insisted that they were defending 'freedom and democracy' in Asia. They left the GIs to discover that the Vietnamese did not fit into their experience of either 'communist' or 'democrats.' Under different circumstances this invincible ignorance…\" She continued, \"Whatever strategy the American government uses to carry on the war, it will only be delaying the inevitable.\"\nThe book discusses the US government's ignorance of Vietnam's history, especially their determination to rid themselves of foreign invaders. They fought against Chinese domination for 1000 years, despite the latter's vastly superior",
"-31.97229734846951"
],
[
"willing to discuss a peace settlement regarding war in Vietnam; literally meaning dividing the country in half, one part communist another part capitalist. He assured Kosygin that the only reason for American bombing in North Vietnam was because of North Vietnamese intervention into South Vietnam. Johnson offered the Soviets to supervise the democratic election in South Vietnam in the aftermath of the war. Kosygin responded by returning to the original subject; the crisis in the Middle East. During their afternoon meeting, Kosygin told Johnson that he was recently in contact with Phạm Văn Đồng, the Prime Minister of North Vietnam,",
"-31.96560941480857"
],
[
"Vietnam War because it took money and resources that could have been spent on social welfare at home. The United States Congress was spending more and more on the military and less and less on anti-poverty programs at the same time. He summed up this aspect by saying, \"A nation that continues year after year to spend more money on military defense than on programs of social uplift is approaching spiritual death.\" He stated that North Vietnam \"did not begin to send in any large number of supplies or men until American forces had arrived in the tens of thousands\",",
"-31.955339397511125"
],
[
"William Bundy. In it he noted that prolonged commitment of U.S. forces with a steady drain of casualties in an indecisive war would frustrate the American public. He believed air attacks on the north were a critical variable in U.S. strategy. His solution was to prepare for a supervised election in the south.\nThat same day, General Maxwell Taylor predicted that the communists would be defeated by year's end. \"By the end of 1965, the North Vietnamese offensive will be bloodied and defeated without having achieved major gains....1965 could be a decisive year.\"\nSenior U.S. officials reviewed and discussed a video summary",
"-31.953258420791826"
],
[
"South Vietnam and North Vietnam violated the truce. Congress effectively ended any possibility of another American military intervention by passing the War Powers Resolution over Nixon's veto. China and the Soviet Union Nixon took office in the midst of the Cold War, a sustained period of geopolitical tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. The United States and Soviet Union had been the clear leaders of their respective blocs of allies during the 1950s, but the world became increasingly multipolar during the 1960s. U.S. allies in Western Europe and East Asia had recovered economically, and while they remained",
"-31.928490227641305"
],
[
"Douglas Kinnard also discusses the tension.\nGEN Cushman, formerly the III Marine Amphibious Corps commander in Vietnam and, in 1969, Commandant of the Marine Corps, said \"I felt, and I think that most Marines felt, that the time had come to get out of Vietnam.\"\nSubsequent actions in April and May were more holding actions than anything decisive; again, the goal may have been simply to pin forces while affecting American public opinion and politics. The North Vietnamese 320th Division fought the U.S. 3rd Marine Division i the area north of Dong Ha, resulting in heavy NVA casualties.\nA second Tet assault on",
"-31.926494353829185"
],
[
"support of the American public during the Vietnam War has been accepted and upheld by many scholars through present day.\nOn 3 November 1969, President Richard M. Nixon made a televised speech laying out his policy toward Vietnam. He promised to continue to support the South Vietnamese government (through Vietnamization) and held out a plan for the withdrawal of American combat troops. This \"silent majority\" speech, not the Tet Offensive, marked the real watershed of the American involvement. In it, Nixon permanently altered the nature of the issue. \"No longer was the question whether the United States was going to get",
"-31.91738445721421"
],
[
"Corps in Vietnam, was the unidentified high-ranking officer who told Apple and Fromson (reporting the same story for CBS) that:\nI've destroyed a single division three times ... I've chased main-force units all over the country and the impact was zilch. It meant nothing to the people. Unless a more positive and more stirring theme than simple anti-communism can be found, the war appears likely to go on until someone gets tired and quits, which could take generations.\nThe story was the first intimation that war was reaching a stalemate, and contributed to changing sentiment about the war. Personal life After retiring",
"-31.915429208544083"
]
] |
7vnayx | - does the human body really have a 24 hour body clock? | [
"Kinda, yes. We have a [circadian clock]( URL_0 ), a biological mechanism that works by releasing certain hormones over a 24 hour period, as well as taking external cues such as the Sun. Without external cues, the circadian clock can actually run a bit longer or shorter than 24 hours, and in babies it's still all messed up (which is why they have an irregular sleep schedule). Not just humans have a circadian clock, almost every animal does. This has nothing to do with leap years though, since leap years just add a whole day, not messing with our circadian clock.",
"Sort of. The human body does have a natural rhythm, but we can manipulate these given the right stimuli. Would love for someone more knowledgeable to chime in here; but I’ve heard that the US navy runs their submarines on 18 hour days, since there’s no external light sources the sailors bodies adjust to the schedule.",
"There have been a few experiments over time where people have isolated themselves to test this. [Michel Siffre]( URL_0 ) did some interesting experiments where he isolated hiself in a cave for months at a time to see how his cycle would change. For him, his cycle was ~24hrs for the first few weeks and then became pretty erratic.",
"The [US Navy Submarine Fleet]( URL_0 ) changed it's long-standing stance on the 18 hour days. Aside from limited skirmishes around the globe, the military generally does not do things that significant without just cause. So, I imagine the research supported that 24 hour days are more beneficial.",
"I thought I had read somewhere that if humans are left in darkness for long enough their circadian clock extends all the way out to 48 hours.",
"Sorry, no source. Long time ago i heard or read about a study where a person (woman) was put in a underground lab with no external indicators and marked her cycles of sleep/awake. It was just a little longer than 25 hours. So basically, afair, her \"day\" time (awake) was longer than noramal.",
"We condition ourselves to be on 24 hour cycles. But left to ourselves human internal clocks would vary anywhere from 12-48 hour cycles",
"Stefania Folini spent 3 months in a cave away from all indicators of time and the night day cycle. Her internal clock first shifted to 28 hour days and then 48 hour days. She would regularly spend 20+ hours awake and sleep for 10+ hours. When removed from the cave she guessed that 2 months had passed. The Wikipedia article on her is a short but interesting read.",
"I had read once that if put in a dark room long enough, the subject would naturally start a 36 hour sleep/wake cycle."
] | [
[
"rhythmicity to modulate circadian patterns of activity and other processes. However, the nature and system-level significance of this feedback are unknown.\nThe circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet Mars). Humans Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. However, this",
"-27.83244407757593"
],
[
"90 minutes in humans, 22 minutes in cats, and 12 minutes in rats. In utero, mammals spend more than half (50–80%) of a 24-hour day in REM sleep.\nSleeping reptiles do not seem to have PGO waves or the localized brain activation seen in mammalian REM. However they do exhibit sleep cycles with phases of REM-like electrical activity measurable by EEG. A recent study found periodic eye movements in the central bearded dragon of Australia, leading its authors to speculate that the common ancestor of amniotes may therefore have manifested some precursor to REMS.\nSleep deprivation experiments on non-human animals can be",
"-26.227598798519466"
],
[
"body clock to such an extent that the normal 24-hour day no longer lies within its range of entrainment.\" Recommended reading Czeisler CA, Richardson GS, Coleman RM, Zimmerman JC, Moore-Ede MC, Dement WC, & Weitzman ED. (1981). Chronotherapy: Resetting the circadian clocks of patients with delayed sleep phase insomnia. Sleep, 4, 11–21.",
"-26.188095923382207"
],
[
"from the circadian clock, this tells the body it needs to sleep. A person who regularly awakens at an early hour will generally not be able to sleep much later than his or her normal waking time, even if moderately sleep-deprived. The timing is correct when the following two circadian markers occur after the middle of the sleep episode and before awakening: maximum concentration of the hormone melatonin, and minimum core body temperature. Ideal duration Human sleep needs vary by age and amongst individuals; sleep is considered to be adequate when there is no daytime sleepiness or dysfunction. Moreover,",
"-25.6272175838385"
],
[
"24-hour cycle. Relative circadian time is plotted against phase-shift magnitude. The treatment is usually narrowly specified as a set intensity and colour and duration of light exposure to the retina and skin, or a set dose and formulation of melatonin.\nThese curves are often consulted in the therapeutic setting. Normally, the body's various physiological rhythms will be synchronized within an individual organism (human or animal), usually with respect to a master biological clock. Of particular importance is the sleep–wake cycle. Various sleep disorders and externals stresses (such as jet lag) can interfere with this. People with non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder often experience",
"-25.61613878270873"
],
[
"allowed them to move into much colder regions that would have previously been uninhabitable after the loss of body hair. Evidence of more complex management to change biomes can be found as far back as 200,000 to 100,000 years ago at a minimum. Furthermore, activity was no longer restricted to daylight hours due to the use of fire. Exposure to artificial light during later hours of the day changed humans' circadian rhythms, contributing to a longer waking day. The modern human's waking day is 16 hours, while most mammals are only awake for half as many hours. Additionally, humans",
"-25.32267744424462"
],
[
"Because circadian rhythms substantially shorter than 24 hours are extremely rare, this type of chronotherapy has remained largely experimental. Side effects The safety of chronotherapy is not fully known. While chronotherapy has been successful for some, it is necessary to rigidly maintain the desired sleep/wake cycle thenceforth. Any deviation in schedule tends to allow the body clock to shift later again.\nChronotherapy has been known to cause non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder in at least three recorded cases, as reported in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1992. Animal studies have suggested that such lengthening could \"slow the intrinsic rhythm of the",
"-25.237161731627566"
],
[
"refers to the human 24-hour cycle of sleep and wakefulness. This cycle is driven by light. The human body must photoentrain or synchronize itself with light in order to make this happen. The rod cells are the photoreceptor cells in the retina capable of sensing light. However, they are not what sets the biological clock. The photosensitive retinal ganglion cells contain a pigment called melanopsin. This photopigment is depolarized in the presence of light, unlike the rods which are hyperpolarized. Melanopsin encodes the day-night cycle to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) via the retinohypothalamic tract. The SCN evokes a response from",
"-25.15264989231946"
],
[
"brain area directly above the optic chiasm, is presently considered the most important nexus for this process; however, secondary clock systems have been found throughout the body.\nAn organism whose circadian clock exhibits a regular rhythm corresponding to outside signals is said to be entrained; an entrained rhythm persists even if the outside signals suddenly disappear. If an entrained human is isolated in a bunker with constant light or darkness, he or she will continue to experience rhythmic increases and decreases of body temperature and melatonin, on a period which slightly exceeds 24 hours. Scientists refer to such conditions as free-running",
"-25.00794759645214"
],
[
"nocturnal rodents than in humans. Enforced longer cycles Studies by Nathaniel Kleitman in 1938 and by Derk-Jan Dijk and Charles Czeisler in the 1990s put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep–wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day in dim light if at all, this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep",
"-24.6601536875678"
],
[
"AKTIP (therapeutic institute) Erratic Boulder award in the category of teams 2016 In the awards report its representatives also cite the statement of the head of AKTIP Jarmila Klímová that the human body is set for 400 years of life. “If we really lived only by biological hours, we could be at rest between 380 and 460 years, because this age is set up for our body ... And why do we live only 60 or 80 years? No, because the most important influence outside of ourselves, which fundamentally affects the length and quality of life, we do not accept.”",
"-24.3890869574534"
],
[
"of the primary markers for circadian rhythms. The body temperature also changes when a person is hungry, sleepy, sick, or cold. Natural rhythms Body temperature normally fluctuates over the day following Circadian rhythms, with the lowest levels around 4 a.m. and the highest in the late afternoon, between 4:00 and 6:00 p.m. (assuming the person sleeps at night and stays awake during the day). Therefore, an oral temperature of 37.3 °C (99.1 °F) would, strictly speaking, be a normal, healthy temperature in the afternoon but not in the early morning. An individual's body temperature typically changes by about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) between its",
"-24.34340026922291"
],
[
"and truck drivers (2012). Other research interests of his include studying wakefulness, sleep deprivation and how it can be prevented, and such influences on the clock as exercise and age. Czeisler’s research can be applied to medicine, space travel, and night occupations including shift-work. Sleep health and occupational safety In a 1999 interview with the Harvard Gazette regarding his team's characterization of a near-24-hour human circadian period, Czeisler noted that “accepting the near-24-hour period means that all the ideas about daily human rhythms that we take for granted must be rethought.” Understanding the internal circadian period makes problems dealing with",
"-24.270215235243086"
],
[
"and food intake. The circadian rhythm is controlled by two main cell groups in the hypothalamus. The anterior hypothalamus includes the suprachiasmatic nucleus and the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus which through gene expression cycles, generates a roughly 24 hour circadian clock. In the circadian day an ultradian rhythm takes control of the sleeping pattern. Sleep is an essential requirement for the body and brain and allows the closing down and resting of the body's systems. There are also findings that suggest that the daily build-up of toxins in the brain are removed during sleep. Whilst awake the brain consumes a fifth",
"-24.184510575687455"
],
[
"fast responding oscillator. This multi-clock system permits quick response to constantly changing sensory input while still maintaining the autonomic processes that sustain life. This method modulates and controls a great deal of bodily functions. Autonomic rhythms The autonomic nervous system is responsible for many of the regulatory processes that sustain human life. Autonomic regulation is involuntary, meaning we do not have to think about it for it to take place. A great deal of these are dependent upon a certain rhythm, such as sleep, heart rate, and breathing. Circadian rhythms Circadian literally translates to \"about a day\" in Latin. This",
"-24.10259799362393"
],
[
"hours each day because there may not always be a secondary activity. It is also important to note that including secondary time may make it appear that a person spends more than 24 hours a day on activities due to the overlapping nature primary and secondary time.",
"-24.07508362333465"
],
[
"proposed in the 2000s include the regulatory role of in inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Length The standard figure given for the average length of the sleep cycle in an adult man is 90 minutes. N1 (NREM stage 1) is when the person is drowsy or awake to falling asleep. Brain waves and muscle activity start to decrease at this stage. N2 is when the person experiences a light sleep. Eye movement has stopped by this time. Brain wave frequency and muscle tonus is decreased. The heart rate and body temperature goes down. N3 or even N4 are the most",
"-24.022549193861778"
],
[
"to address if the clocks in all tissues remain in synchrony with a change in light cycle, and the clock-related signals from the brain to peripheral tissues .\nRecently, Menaker discovered another mutant hamster, this time showing a free-running period of 25 hours in conditions of constant darkness. Menaker’s graduate student, Ashli Moore, was a teaching assistant in his colleague’s animal behavior course when an undergraduate student insisted on trading in her hamster for one that had a period more closely resembling that of her classmates’ hamsters. Menaker bred this mutant hamster with three different females to produce litters with",
"-24.005410349695012"
],
[
"Circadian rhythm sleep disorder Normal rhythm A circadian rhythm is an entrainable, endogenous, biological activity that has a period of roughly twenty-four hours. This internal time-keeping mechanism is centralized in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of humans and allows for the internal physiological mechanisms underlying sleep and alertness to become synchronized to external environmental cues, like the light-dark cycle. The SCN also sends signals to peripheral clocks in other organs, like the liver, to control processes such as glucose metabolism. Although these rhythms will persist in constant light or dark conditions, different Zeitgebers (time givers such as the light-dark cycle) give",
"-23.981542659545084"
],
[
"of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock. Importance in animals Circadian rhythmicity is present in the sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, brain wave activity, hormone production, cell regeneration, and other biological activities. In addition, photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of",
"-23.932022748573218"
],
[
"that he observed regularities at 23- and 28-day intervals in a number of phenomena, including births and deaths. He labeled the 23-day rhythm \"male\" and the 28-day rhythm \"female\", matching the menstrual cycle.\nIn 1904, Viennese psychology professor Hermann Swoboda came to similar conclusions. Alfred Teltscher, professor of engineering at the University of Innsbruck, developed Swoboda's work and suggested that his students' good and bad days followed a rhythmic pattern; he believed that the brain's ability to absorb, mental ability, and alertness ran in 33-day cycles. One of the first academic researchers of biorhythms was Estonian-born Nikolai Pärna, who published",
"-23.80876970596728"
],
[
"about 12 hours apart—for example, at 2:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. At those two times, the body clock is activated. At about 2 p.m. (14:00), it overrides the homeostatic buildup of sleep debt, allowing several more hours of wakefulness. At about 2 a.m. (02:00), with the daily sleep debt paid off, it is activated again to ensure a few more hours of sleep. Genetics It is hypothesized that a considerable amount of sleep-related behavior, such as when and how long a person needs to sleep, is regulated by genetics. Researchers have discovered some evidence that seems to support this assumption. Monozygotic (identical)",
"-23.491392579686362"
],
[
"awake time in the first ninety-minute sleep cycle, 8% in the second, 10% in the third, 12% in the fourth, and 13–14% in the fifth. Most of this awake time occurred shortly after REM sleep.\nToday, many humans wake up with an alarm clock; however, people can also reliably wake themselves up at a specific time with no need for an alarm. Many sleep quite differently on workdays versus days off, a pattern which can lead to chronic circadian desynchronization. Many people regularly look at television and other screens before going to bed, a factor which may exacerbate disruption of the",
"-23.446866153302835"
],
[
"that the length of time the brain could survive stopped blood circulation could be extended from 3 minutes to 10 minutes by cooling to 30 °C before circulation was stopped. He found that this time could be extended to 15 to 24 minutes at temperatures below 20 °C. He further found that at a temperature of 5 °C, groundhogs could endure two hours of stopped blood circulation without ill effects. This research was motivated by a desire to stop the heart from beating long enough to do surgery on the heart while it remained still. Since heart-lung machines, also known as cardiopulmonary",
"-23.267236690036952"
],
[
"ultradian rhythm throughout a 24-hour day, whether they are asleep or awake. According to this hypothesis, during the period of this cycle corresponding with REM, people tend to daydream more and show less muscle tone. Kleitman and others following have referred to this rhythm as the basic rest–activity cycle, of which the \"sleep cycle\" would be a manifestation. A difficulty for this theory is the fact that a long non-REM phase almost always precedes REM, regardless of when in the cycle a person falls asleep. Alteration The sleep cycle has proven resistant to systematic alteration by drugs. Although some drugs",
"-23.217860507880687"
],
[
"which heartbeat and all brain activity cease.\nAt normal body temperature of 37°C only several minutes of stopped blood circulation causes changes within the brain leading to permanent damage after circulation is restored. Reducing body temperature extends the time interval that such stoppage can be survived. At a brain temperature of 14 °C, blood circulation can be safely stopped for 30 to 40 minutes. There is an increased incidence of brain injury at times longer than 40 minutes, but sometimes circulatory arrest for up to 60 minutes is used if life-saving surgery requires it. Infants tolerate longer periods of DHCA than adults.\nApplications",
"-22.915683730000694"
],
[
"hours (oral) or 4 hours (i.v.) and in dogs it was 104 hours (oral) or 52 hours (i.v.). The authors made no prediction of a likely half-life in humans. Around two-thirds of the total dose was eliminated in the urine, about one-fifth in the faeces and the remainder was heavily metabolized in all species studied (rat, mouse, dog, monkey). Metabolism of BIA 10-2474 was essentially complete by 72 hours. Main metabolites were not described. The studies used total detectable radioactivity to calculate half-life and did not assess what proportion of this was due to metabolites.\nThe preliminary report by the French",
"-22.89925370477431"
],
[
"the basic metabolic functions of storing carbohydrates and regulating hormones. Reduction of sleep from eight hours to four hours produces changes in glucose tolerance and endocrine function. Researchers from the University of Chicago Medical Center followed 11 healthy young men for 16 consecutive nights. The first 3 nights, the young men slept for the normal 8 hours. The next 6 nights, they slept for 4 hours. The next 7 nights, they spent 12 hours in bed. They all had the same diet. They found that there were changes in glucose metabolism that resemble that of type 2 diabetes patients. When",
"-22.66849135280063"
],
[
"compared with that which is exhibited in daily life, is open to debate. However, the comparative literature strongly suggests that shorter, polyphasically-placed sleep is the rule, rather than the exception, across the entire animal kingdom (Campbell and Tobler, 1984; Tobler, 1989). There is little reason to believe that the human sleep/wake system would evolve in a fundamentally different manner. That people often do not exhibit such sleep organization in daily life merely suggests that humans have the capacity (often with the aid of stimulants such as caffeine or increased physical activity) to overcome the propensity for sleep when it is",
"-22.643231394671602"
],
[
"be achieved by doing 60 repetitions every hour for six weeks in a 16-hour daily waking period. The repetitions will take just a few minutes every hour.\nThe brain as a whole learns to compensate for motor deficits in the cerebellum (or the spinal cord where applicable). If the ataxia affects say, head movements, the patient can use a mirror or combination of mirrors to watch their own head movements. History The exercises were developed by Heinrich Frenkel, a Swiss neurologist who, one day in 1887, while examining a patient with ataxia, observed the patient's poor performance of the finger-to-nose",
"-22.509091279644053"
],
[
"line, and became a separate, distinct group. However, EEG recordings of the brain stem in monotremes show a firing pattern that is quite similar to the patterns seen in REM sleep in higher mammals. In fact, the largest amount of REM sleep known in any animal is found in the platypus. REM electrical activation does not extend at all to the forebrain in platypods, suggesting that they do not dream. The average sleep time of the platypus in a 24-hour period is said to be as long as 14 hours, though this may be because of their high-calorie crustacean diet.",
"-22.44868198009135"
],
[
"found to be around (or less than) 8 minutes in idiopathic hypersomnia patients. Some patients might even have a sleep onset latency of 5 minutes or less. These patients are often even more aware of sleeping during naps than narcolepsy patients. Actigraphy Actigraphy is used to record the sleep and wake cycles, by analyzing the patient’s limb movements. In order to report them, the patient has to wear continuously a device on his or her wrist, which looks like a watch and doesn't contain any electrodes.\nThe advantage actigraphy shows over polysomnography is that it is possible to record for 24-hours",
"-22.417364738415927"
],
[
"summarized that the differences came from personal breaks and unproductive activities at the workplace. Another, larger study found that afternoon declines in productivity were greater during longer work shifts.\nIt is important to note, however, that not all humans share identical circadian rhythms. One study across Italy and Spain had students fill out a questionnaire, then ranked them on a \"morningness–eveningness\" scale. The results were a fairly standard bell curve. Levels of alertness over the course of the day had a significant correlation with scores on the questionnaire. All categories of participants—evening types, morning types, and intermediate types—had high levels of",
"-22.394975689932835"
],
[
"Human body temperature Variations Temperature control (thermoregulation) is part of a homeostatic mechanism that keeps the organism at optimum operating temperature, as the temperature affects the rate of chemical reactions. In humans, the average internal temperature is 37.0 °C (98.6 °F), though it varies among individuals. However, no person always has exactly the same temperature at every moment of the day. Temperatures cycle regularly up and down through the day, as controlled by the person's circadian rhythm. The lowest temperature occurs about two hours before the person normally wakes up. Additionally, temperatures change according to activities and",
"-22.169064713154512"
],
[
"rest, the human brain receives 15% of total cardiac output, and uses 20% of the body's energy consumption. The brain is normally dependent for its high energy expenditure upon aerobic metabolism. The brain as a result is highly sensitive to failure of its oxygen supply with loss of consciousness occurring within six to seven seconds, with its EEG going flat in 23 seconds. Therefore, the brain's function would be disrupted if exercise affected its supply of oxygen and glucose.\nProtecting the brain from even minor disruption is important since exercise depends upon motor control. Because humans are bipeds, motor control is",
"-22.166500077786623"
],
[
"effects on the mental and physical health of the human population.\nRobots have taken over many basic tasks such as driving cars and even dressing humans. The main character, Alvar Kresh, decides to do an 'experiment' in which he tells his robot not to wake him up in the morning. On waking (late), he immediately realizes that he does not know where his clothes are stored, and that the clothes have fasteners which are specially designed for a robot's hands to operate. Ultimately he manages to get his clothes on but cannot fit them properly.\nThe planet's leading roboticist, Fredda Leving, gives",
"-22.15289118715964"
],
[
"with typical circadian clock function, there is variation in chronotypes, or preferred wake and sleep times, of individuals. Although chronotype varies from individual to individual, as determined by rhythmic expression of clock genes, people with typical circadian clock function will be able to entrain to environmental cues. For example, if a person wishes to shift the onset of a biological activity, like waking time, light exposure during the late subjective night or early subjective morning can help advance one's circadian cycle earlier in the day, leading to an earlier wake time. Diagnosis The International Classification of Sleep Disorders classifies Circadian",
"-22.045310146000702"
],
[
"rhythm is independent of the number of hours of sleep a person needs, Roenneberg calculates the rhythm based on the midpoint of the sleep period. A person who goes to bed at midnight and rises at 8 thus has the same chronotype as a person who goes to bed at 1 a.m. and rises at 7; the midpoint of sleep is 4 a.m. for both of these individuals.\nPeople with early chronotypes, will usually not be able to \"sleep in\", even if they have stayed up later than usual. Despite feeling refreshed in the morning and being accommodated by much of",
"-22.044939833824174"
],
[
"using simple tools—mostly through instinct and mimicry—human technology is vastly more complex, and is constantly evolving and improving through time. Sleep and dreaming Humans are generally diurnal. The average sleep requirement is between seven and nine hours per day for an adult and nine to ten hours per day for a child; elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours. Having less sleep than this is common among humans, even though sleep deprivation can have negative health effects. A sustained restriction of adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in physiology and",
"-22.033540150045155"
],
[
"involving the first and second cranial nerves (serving sight and smell) which are not tested when diagnosing brainstem death but which were described in cats in 1935 and 1938. In humans, light flashes have been observed to disturb the sleep-like EEG activity persisting after the loss of all brainstem reflexes and of spontaneous respiration.\nThere is also concern about the permanence of consciousness loss, based on studies in cats, dogs and monkeys which recovered consciousness days or weeks after being rendered comatose by brainstem ablation and on human studies of brainstem stroke syndrome raising thoughts about the \"plasticity\" of the nervous",
"-22.019816339277895"
],
[
"Circasemidian rhythm In chronobiology, a circasemidian rhythm is a physiological arousal cycle that peaks twice in a 24-hour day. Numerous studies have demonstrated that human circadian rhythms in many measures of performance and physiological activity have a 2-peak daily (circasemidian) pattern. The word, circasemidian, is based upon the Latin words circa (\"about\"), semi (\"half\") and dia (\"day\"). Thus, this is a rhythm that has two cycles per day, and some investigators have referred to it as the semicircadian rhythm. It usually serves to (1) deepen the pre-dawn nadir in body temperature and cognitive performance, (2) create a flat spot during",
"-22.006464487480116"
],
[
"be made available at short intervals so as to avoid entrainment to mealtimes. Subjects are thus forced to live by their internal circadian \"clocks\". Background The individual's or animal's circadian phase can be known only by the monitoring of some kind of output of the circadian system, the internal \"body clock\". The researcher can precisely determine, for example, the daily cycles of gene-activity, body temperature, blood pressure, hormone secretion and/or sleep and activity/alertness. Alertness in humans can be determined by many kinds of verbal and non-verbal tests; activity in animals by observation, for example of wheel-running in rodents.\nWhen animals or",
"-21.989001704045222"
],
[
"between sleep, circadian rhythms, and energy metabolism; the role of melatonin in sleep and circadian rhythms; and other topics regarding sleep and circadian rhythms.\nTurek's lab spends much of their time working on rodents, but they have also established working relationships with academic researchers. Studies in humans are aimed at shifting the human clock in an attempt to alleviate mental and physical problems that are associated with disorders in circadian time-keeping. Their sleep, circadian, and metabolic studies are focused on how disruption in these functions can lead to obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Center for Sleep & Circadian Biology Since 1995,",
"-21.968934283734143"
],
[
"than 7 to 8 hours per day has been consistently associated with increased mortality, though the cause is probably other factors such as depression and socioeconomic status, which would correlate statistically. Sleep monitoring of hunter-gatherer tribes from Africa and from South America has shown similar sleep patterns across continents: their average sleeping duration is 6.4 hours (with a summer/winter difference of 1 hour), afternoon naps (siestas) are uncommon, and insomnia is very rare (tenfold less than in industrial societies).\nPhysical exercise may increase life expectancy. People who participate in moderate to high levels of physical exercise have a lower mortality rate",
"-21.949403357997653"
],
[
"the human (or any large mammalian) cerebral cortex are quite small and diffuse and from the deeper smaller hippocampus they are much more difficult to register. This has meant the study of hippocampal activity has been largely restricted to that of the rat and less often the mouse.\nTheta rhythm with its low frequency of around 6–7 Hz in a steady oscillation has been observed in rats that are motionless but alert. This extends to that sleeping cycle characterised by rapid eye movement (REM). When eating, grooming, drowsy, or sleeping in slow-wave sleep (SWS), there has been observed in hippocampal",
"-21.948989849799545"
],
[
"energy use in REM sleep, as measured by oxygen and glucose metabolism, equals or exceeds energy use in waking. The rate in non-REM sleep is 11–40% lower. Brain stem Neural activity during REM sleep seems to originate in the brain stem, especially the pontine tegmentum and locus coeruleus. REM sleep is punctuated and immediately preceded by PGO (ponto-geniculo-occipital) waves, bursts of electrical activity originating in the brain stem. (PGO waves have long been measured directly in cats but not in humans because of constraints on experimentation; however comparable effects have been observed in humans during \"phasic\" events which occur during",
"-21.941183264600113"
],
[
"human lifespan to be around 125 years using a modified stretched exponential function for human survival curves. The analysis of dynamics of the body mass in human population indicates extremums, which correspond to mean (70–75 years), the commonly accepted maximum (100–110 years) and maximum known (140–160 years) lifespan.\nIn another study, researchers claimed that there exists a maximum lifespan for humans, and that the human maximal lifespan has been declining since the 1990s.\nThis study is now disputed on the basis of simple coding errors and biased sampling. This study also supports a continuing increase in both theoretical and observed upper human",
"-21.87576197620365"
],
[
"death for considerable periods. Blood circulation can be stopped in the entire body below the heart for at least 30 minutes, with injury to the spinal cord being a limiting factor. Detached limbs may be successfully reattached after 6 hours of no blood circulation at warm temperatures. Bone, tendon, and skin can survive as long as 8 to 12 hours.\nThe brain, however, appears to accumulate ischemic injury faster than any other organ. Without special treatment after circulation is restarted, full recovery of the brain after more than 3 minutes of clinical death at normal body temperature is rare. ",
"-21.8604119902011"
],
[
"synchronization (\"entrainment\") to 24 hours, external factors must play some role. The human circadian rhythm occurs typically in accordance with nature's cycle. The average activity rhythm cycle is 24.18 hours in adulthood but is shortened as age increases. One of the various factors that influence this entrainment is light exposure to the eyes. When an organism is exposed to a specific wavelength of light stimulus at certain times throughout the day, the hormone melatonin is suppressed, or prevented from being secreted by the pineal gland. Mechanism Light first passes into a mammal's system through the retina, then takes one",
"-21.757350310661423"
],
[
"extracorporeal circulation, in animals and in man. The body temperature was lowered to between 6 and 15 °C and complete circulatory arrest of up to 56 minutes was maintained without significant negative effects.\nAt Leeds Ionescu designed, created and implanted in the mitral position in humans, for the first time ever, porcine aortic valves attached to a Teflon cloth collar, starting in February 1967. This was followed by the creation of the Dacron covered titanium frame for mounting the porcine aortic valves to be able to implant them in all three cardiac locations (mitral, aortic, tricuspid). With various modifications and improvements,",
"-21.711925500218058"
],
[
"However, the actual effect on BMR is controversial and difficult to enumerate. Various studies suggest that the resting metabolic rate of trained muscle is around 55kJ per kilogram, per day. Even a substantial increase in muscle mass, say 5 kg, would make only a minor impact on BMR. Longevity In 1926, Raymond Pearl proposed that longevity varies inversely with basal metabolic rate (the \"rate of living hypothesis\"). Support for this hypothesis comes from the fact that mammals with larger body size have longer maximum life spans (large animals do have higher total metabolic rates, but the metabolic rate at the cellular",
"-21.695118113333592"
],
[
"influence of universal indoor lighting. Even if they have sleep debt, or feel sleepy, people can have difficulty staying asleep at the peak of their circadian cycle. Conversely they can have difficulty waking up in the trough of the cycle. A healthy young adult entrained to the sun will (during most of the year) fall asleep a few hours after sunset, experience body temperature minimum at 6 a.m., and wake up a few hours after sunrise. Process S Generally speaking, the longer an organism is awake, the more it feels a need to sleep (\"sleep debt\"). This driver of sleep",
"-21.670384767191536"
],
[
"a nearly complete absence of monoamine neurotransmitters histamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine.\nREM sleep is physiologically different from the other phases of sleep, which are collectively referred to as non-REM sleep (NREM sleep, NREMS, synchronized sleep). REM and non-REM sleep alternate within one sleep cycle, which lasts about 90 minutes in adult humans. As sleep cycles continue, they shift towards a higher proportion of REM sleep. The transition to REM sleep brings marked physical changes, beginning with electrical bursts called PGO waves originating in the brain stem. Organisms in REM sleep suspend central homeostasis, allowing large fluctuations in respiration, thermoregulation, and circulation",
"-21.658644845476374"
],
[
"years. Therefore, HES should not be administered for longer than 24 hours.",
"-21.654052432015305"
],
[
"physical activity, 0 hours screen time and 14 – 17 hours of sleep time per day.\nFor children in age 1 year: 180 minutes physical activity, 0 hours screen time, 11–14 hours of sleep time per day.\nFor children in age 2 year: 180 minutes physical activity, 1 hour screen time, 11–14 hours of sleep time per day.\nFor 3-4 year-old children: 180 minutes physical activity, 1 hour screen time, 10–13 hours of sleep time per day. Phone settings Many smartphone addiction activists (such as Tristan Harris) recommend turning one's phone screen to grayscale mode, which helps reduce time spent on mobile phones",
"-21.615476035920437"
],
[
"(115.7 °F) before beginning to perspire. In times of ample supply, oryx can use fluid loss through urination and feces to lower their body temperature to below 36 °C (97 °F) at night, giving more time before reaching maximum body temperature the following day. They can tolerate high temperatures that would be lethal to most mammals. They have a network of fine blood vessels that carry blood from the heart to the brain, passing close to the nasal passage and thus allowing the blood to cool by up to 3 °C (5 °F) before reaching the brain, which is one of the most heat-sensitive organs",
"-21.532301546569215"
],
[
"cited can be found within studies in ultrasonography, fetal heart monitoring, fetoscopy, and behavioral neuroscience. Studies in Neonatal perception suggest that the physiology required for consciousness does not exist prior to the 28th week, as this is when the thalamic afferents begin to enter the cerebral cortex. How long it takes for the requisite connection to be properly established is unknown at this time. Additionally, it is unclear whether the presence of certain hormones may keep the fetal brain sedated until birth.",
"-21.45576346560847"
],
[
"Neuroscience of rhythm The neuroscience of rhythm refers to the various forms of rhythm generated by the central nervous system (CNS). Nerve cells, also known as neurons in the human brain are capable of firing in specific patterns which cause oscillations. The brain possesses many different types of oscillators with different periods. Oscillators are simultaneously outputting frequencies from .02 Hz to 600 Hz. It is now well known that a computer is capable of running thousands of processes with just one high frequency clock. Humans have many different clocks as a result of evolution. Prior organisms had no need for a",
"-21.44123027747264"
],
[
"Rev-ErbA alpha clock gene facilitates diet-induced obesity and changes the balance between glucose and lipid utilization predisposing to diabetes. However, it is not clear whether there is a strong association between clock gene polymorphisms in humans and the susceptibility to develop the metabolic syndrome. Effect of light–dark cycle The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a free-running rhythm. Their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward each \"day\", depending on whether their \"day\", their endogenous period, is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues",
"-21.35634139120839"
],
[
"a person could be determined by calculating when the person's VO₂max value drops below the basal metabolic rate necessary to sustain life, which is approximately 3 ml per kg per minute. On the basis of this hypothesis, athletes with a VO₂max value between 50 and 60 at age 20 would be expected \"to live for 100 to 125 years, provided they maintained their physical activity so that their rate of decline in VO₂max remained constant\".\nLongitudinal variations of physiological indices, such as complete blood counts (CBC), along individual aging trajectories revealed a linear increase of the organism state fluctuations range with age.",
"-21.353396782770233"
],
[
"100 times per minute. This native rate is constantly modified by the activity of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers via the autonomic nervous system, so that the average resting cardiac rate in adult humans is about 70 beats per minute. Because the sinoatrial node is responsible for the rest of the heart's electrical activity, it is sometimes called the primary pacemaker. Secondary (AV junction and Bundle of His) If the SA node does not function properly and is unable to control the heart rate, a group of cells further down the heart will become the ectopic pacemaker of the heart.",
"-21.306840632561943"
],
[
"after REM sleep ends.\nDuring a night of sleep, humans usually experience about four or five periods of REM sleep; they are shorter (~15 min) at the beginning of the night and longer (~25 min) toward the end. Many animals and some people tend to wake, or experience a period of very light sleep, for a short time immediately after a bout of REM. The relative amount of REM sleep varies considerably with age. A newborn baby spends more than 80% of total sleep time in REM.\nREM sleep typically occupies 20–25% of total sleep in adult humans: about 90–120 minutes of",
"-21.287675217929063"
],
[
"be reduced with breaks and the availability of chairs.\nResearch has shown that the body experiences muscle fatigue after standing for five hours; this fatigue persists for more than 30 minutes after the end of the work day according to electronic measurements of fatigue. The perception of fatigue is subjective and does not necessarily correlate with the experimental indicators of fatigue. Pregnancy Walking or standing more than six hours per day has been linked with pre-term births, low birth weights as well as high blood pressure for the mother.\nResearchers have found that working more than 25 hours a week has been",
"-21.258951669733506"
],
[
"characterized by brain temperature, respiratory rate, heart rate, and blood pressure being measured at their lowest. Representing approximately 15-20% of an individual's total sleep, brain waves during this stage are seen in the delta range. When an individual awakes during this stage, they are likely to exhibit grogginess and require up to thirty minutes to regain normal function and consciousness. Diagnosis Though it is not possible for a definitive diagnosis of sexsomnia, a series of factors are considered to determine the presence of the condition. Clinical tests may also be utilized for further study. Electroencephalography Electroencephalograms, or EEG, are tests",
"-21.253761422805837"
],
[
"molecule used for short-term storage and transport of energy. (Since in quiet waking the brain is responsible for 20% of the body's energy use, this reduction has an independently noticeable impact on overall energy consumption.) During slow-wave sleep, humans secrete bursts of growth hormone. All sleep, even during the day, is associated with secretion of prolactin.\nAccording to the Hobson & McCarley activation-synthesis hypothesis, proposed in 1975–1977, the alternation between REM and non-REM can be explained in terms of cycling, reciprocally influential neurotransmitter systems. Sleep timing is controlled by the circadian clock, and in humans, to some extent by willed behavior.",
"-21.236579005564636"
],
[
"self-reported sleep duration is only moderately correlated with actual sleep time as measured by actigraphy, and those affected with sleep state misperception may typically report having slept only four hours despite having slept a full eight hours.\nResearchers have found that sleeping 6–7 hours each night correlates with longevity and cardiac health in humans, though many underlying factors may be involved in the causality behind this relationship.\nSleep difficulties are furthermore associated with psychiatric disorders such as depression, alcoholism, and bipolar disorder. Up to 90 percent of adults with depression are found to have sleep difficulties. Dysregulation detected by EEG includes disturbances",
"-21.22160609718412"
],
[
"sex, and baseline BMI, as compared to average duration sleepers (7–8 hours). Even after adjusting for energy expenditure and physical activity levels (among other covariates), these relationships remained significant. A U-shaped relationship between hours of sleep and type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease and weight is observed, but the metabolic mechanisms affected by long sleep duration are less clear than with sleep restriction and remain somewhat speculative.\nA Nurses’ Health Study analyzed a group of about 72,000 US women who did not report having coronary heart disease at the onset of the study, and assessed the relationship between their reported sleep",
"-21.208313162023842"
],
[
"eight hours' sleep, Van Cauter, Leproult, and Plat found that the men with a high percentage of SWS (average 24%) also had high growth hormone secretion, while subjects with a low percentage of SWS (average 9%) had low growth hormone secretion.\nThere is some supporting evidence of the restorative function of sleep. The sleeping brain has been shown to remove metabolic waste products at a faster rate than during an awake state. While awake, metabolism generates reactive oxygen species, which are damaging to cells. In sleep, metabolic rates decrease and reactive oxygen species generation is reduced allowing restorative processes to take",
"-21.206006971216993"
],
[
"the hours of midnight and six in the morning, and increases with the total length of the driver's trip.\nThe FMCSA identifies three main factors in driver fatigue: Circadian rhythm effects, sleep deprivation and cumulative fatigue effects, and industrial or \"time-on-task\" fatigue.\nCircadian rhythm effects describe the tendency for humans to experience a normal cycle in attentiveness and sleepiness through the 24-hour day. Those with a conventional sleep pattern (sleeping for seven or eight hours at night) experience periods of maximum fatigue in the early hours of the morning and a lesser period in the early afternoon. During the low points of this",
"-21.143759408500046"
],
[
"providing a useful life of 1 million heartbeats, roughly ten days in a human body. At the time, Cohrs and his team were experimenting with CAD software and 3D printing, striving to develop a model that would last up to 15 years. \"We cannot really predict when we could have a final working heart which fulfills all requirements and is ready for implantation. This usually takes years\", said Cohrs. Others A centrifugal pump or an axial-flow pump can be used as an artificial heart, resulting in the patient being alive without a pulse.\nA centrifugal artificial heart which alternately pumps the",
"-21.110499127826188"
],
[
"into a human of a fully implantable pacemaker was in 1958 at the Karolinska Institute in Solna, Sweden, using a pacemaker designed by Rune Elmqvist and surgeon Åke Senning, connected to electrodes attached to the myocardium of the heart by thoracotomy. The device failed after three hours. A second device was then implanted which lasted for two days. The world's first implantable pacemaker patient, Arne Larsson, went on to receive 26 different pacemakers during his lifetime. He died in 2001, at the age of 86, outliving the inventor as well as the surgeon.\nIn 1959, temporary transvenous pacing was first demonstrated",
"-21.095502936688717"
],
[
"to have more blood flow during REM sleep than even wakefulness- this includes the hippocampus, temporal-occipital areas, some parts of the cortex, and basal forebrain. The limbic and paralimbic system including the amygdala are other active regions during REM sleep. Though the brain activity during REM sleep appears very similar to wakefulness, the main difference between REM and wakefulness is that, arousal in REM is more effectively inhibited. This, along with the virtual silence of monoaminergic neurons in the brain, may be said to characterize REM.\nA newborn baby spends 8 to 9 hours a day just in REM sleep. By",
"-21.0797532859724"
],
[
"outside the body generally has a life expectancy which is considered to depend on pH, temperature, presence of air and other factors, and is unpredictable but smaller than the life expectancy inside the human body. For instance, sperm donors who collect the sample outside the clinic are advised to have handed in the sample no more than one hour from collection, and to keep it, if not at body temperature, then at least at room temperature.\nIn a non-harmful environment outside the body, such as in a sterile glass container the number of motile sperm decreases by approximately 5-10% per hour.",
"-21.063448259752477"
],
[
"significant effects on the energy balance the next morning, including reduced energy expenditure, enhanced hedonic stimulus processing in the brain underlying the drive to consume food, and overeating that goes beyond satiety. Further recent studies have shown that a reduction of sleep duration to four hours for two consecutive nights has been shown to decrease circulating leptin levels and to increase ghrelin levels, as well as self-reported hunger. Similar endocrine alterations have been shown to occur even after a single night of sleep restriction.\nIn a balanced order, nine healthy normal-weight men spent three nights in a sleep laboratory separated by",
"-21.06185154020568"
],
[
"change in the development of both the human brain and sleep. However, an infant goes through several sleep regressions starting at 1 week, which can occur weekly or fortnightly, until 8 years of age.\nThe relationship between the two is vital, as the control of sleep and the sleep-wake cycle are regulated by the CNS.\nThe long sustained sleep period (LSP) is the period of time that a child sleeps without awaking. The length of this period increases dramatically between the first and second months. Between the ages of three and twenty-one months, LSP plateaus, increasing on average only about 30",
"-20.96951181773329"
],
[
"Physiological It has been suggested that, like the 24-hour circadian rhythm, the body also has a yearly \"circannual\" biological rhythm. Vaiserman et al. have suggested that the climatic conditions at birth act as a zeitgeber that triggers internal stress and increases the chance of death. Statistical It is possible when processing death certificates to confuse the date of birth and date of death fields, which would increase the apparent number of certificates in which these coincide. Additionally, where the exact date is not known, the 1st and 15th of the month are often used as placeholders. These will cause an",
"-20.915744464218733"
],
[
"abdominal pain and heaviness, back pain, breast tenderness, and mittelschmerz (ovulation pains). Basal body temperature This usually refers to a temperature reading collected when a person first wakes up in the morning (or after their longest sleep period of the day). The true BBT can only be obtained by continuous temperature monitoring through internally worn temperature sensors. In women, ovulation will trigger a rise in BBT between 0.2º and 0.5 °C. (0.5 and 1.°F) that lasts approximately until the next menstruation. This temperature shift may be used to determine the onset of post-ovulatory infertility. (See ref. 30) Cervical mucus The appearance",
"-20.8754449363978"
],
[
"professionals with metabolic assessment and behavioral therapy products for the treatment of obesity, diabetes, and CVD. BodyMedia have been used in hundreds of clinical studies. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classifies BodyMedia as a Class II Medical Device.\nBodyMedia was demonstrated to be accurate in comparison to the doubly labeled water method for measuring energy expenditure per day. The mean absolute-percent difference per-person per-day in Kcalories was less than 10%. It was also shown that the standard WHO GPAQ survey underestimates physical activity bouts of at least 10 minutes. The clinical and research software and armband were",
"-20.826490230683703"
],
[
"Centre among others.\nThese days, in some countries it is a Primary Health Care Provider. Accredited Exercise Physiologists (AEP's) are university trained professionals who prescribe exercise based interventions to treat various conditions using specific dose response prescriptions specific to each individual. Energy expenditure Humans have a high capacity to expend energy for many hours during sustained exertion. For example, one individual cycling at a speed of 26.4 km/h (16.4 mph) through 8,204 km (5,098 mi) over 50 consecutive days expended a total of 1,145 MJ (273,850 kcal; 273,850 dieter calories) with an average power output of 182.5 W.\nSkeletal muscle burns 90 mg (0.5 mmol) of",
"-20.825308412895538"
],
[
"be approximated by the Q₁₀ rule, which states that the rate of biochemical reactions decreases by a factor of two for every 10 °C reduction in temperature. As a result, humans can sometimes survive periods of clinical death exceeding one hour at temperatures below 20 °C. The prognosis is improved if clinical death is caused by hypothermia rather than occurring prior to it; in 1999, 29-year-old Swedish woman Anna Bågenholm spent 80 minutes trapped in ice and survived with a near full recovery from a 13.7 °C core body temperature. It is said in emergency medicine that \"nobody is dead until they",
"-20.7704905968385"
],
[
"reorganise associative hierarchies, in which information from the hippocampus would be reinterpreted in relation to previous semantic representations or nodes.\" Timing In the ultradian sleep cycle an organism alternates between deep sleep (slow, large, synchronized brain waves) and paradoxical sleep (faster, desynchronized waves). Sleep happens in the context of the larger circadian rhythm, which influences sleepiness and physiological factors based on timekeepers within the body. Sleep can be distributed throughout the day or clustered during one part of the rhythm: in nocturnal animals, during the day, and in diurnal animals, at night. The organism returns to homeostatic regulation almost immediately",
"-20.759933406089658"
],
[
"questions in chronobiology and found that a singularity behavior (i.e. temporal stopping of circadian clocks) is caused by desynchronization of multiple cellular circadian oscillators, and that temperature-insensitive biochemical reactions underlie temperature compensation of mammalian circadian clocks. He also invented molecular-timetable methods to detect the circadian time of the body by measuring a snapshot information of circadian clocks. For sleep/wake cycles, he found that Ca2+ and CaMKII-dependent hyperpolarization pathways underlie sleep homeostasis, and that muscarinic receptors, M1 and M3, as essential genes for REM sleep. To accelerate these studies, he also invented whole-brain and whole-body clearing and imaging",
"-20.757710545587315"
],
[
"typical elimination half-life of 15 to 60 hours with a mean of around 22. However, metabolism rates vary greatly between individuals, up to a factor of 100, ranging from as few as 4 hours to as many as 130 hours, or even 190 hours. This variability is apparently due to genetic variability in the production of the associated cytochrome enzymes CYP3A4, CYP2B6 and CYP2D6. Many substances can also induce, inhibit or compete with these enzymes further affecting (sometimes dangerously) methadone half-life. A longer half-life frequently allows for administration only once a day in Opioid detoxification and maintenance programs. People who",
"-20.751153701770818"
],
[
"all mammals have a 36.7 °C core body temperature and only for short periods of fever or hypothermia in surgery can this be changed. They generated a transgenic mouse where the temperature set-point is manipulated during the entire life of the animal to 36.1 °C. This small but life-long hypothermia shows that the dogma is wrong and that these are healthy, fertile, normal-weight animals, who live about 25 percent longer than wild-type littermates. It was one of the last dogmas of physiology.\nThe discovery of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain (simultaneously with Sir Arnold Burgen and Solomon H. Snyder,",
"-20.746974861365743"
],
[
"as breathing cycles In utero. Studies also included the responses to stresses such as hypoxia and hemorrhage. Using this research, he was able to determine and later confirm that human fetus also slept in cycles. This led Dawes to consider the role of the central nervous control, not only in relation to sleep states, but also heart rate variability and responses to the stimulation of chemoreceptors.\nUsing his research Dawes designed a system of measurement, used in obstetric departments around the world, as the most precise non-invasive way of assessing the well-being of the human fetus.\nDawes was awarded the Gairdner Foundation",
"-20.72457013100575"
],
[
"human body and the physiological processes involved, see exercise physiology.",
"-20.701464892626973"
],
[
"Neuroscience of sleep Introduction Rapid eye movement sleep (REM), non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM or non-REM), and waking represent the three major modes of consciousness, neural activity, and physiological regulation. NREM sleep itself is divided into multiple stages – N1, N2 and N3. Sleep proceeds in 90-minute cycles of REM and NREM, the order normally being N1 → N2 → N3 → N2 → REM. As humans fall asleep, body activity slows down. Body temperature, heart rate, breathing rate, and energy use all decrease. Brain waves get slower and bigger. The excitatory neurotransmitter acetylcholine becomes less available in the",
"-20.687267894361867"
],
[
"factors for different foods were proposed. Recommended daily intake Increased mental activity has been linked with moderately increased brain energy consumption.\nOlder people and those with sedentary lifestyles require less energy; children and physically active people require more.\nAccording to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the average minimum energy requirement per person per day is about 7,500 kJ (1,800 kcal).\nRecommendations in the United States are 2,600 and 2,000 kcal (10,900 and 8,400 kJ) for men and women (respectively) between 31 and 35, at a physical activity level equivalent to walking about 2 to 5 km (1 ¹⁄₂ to 3 mi) per day at 5 to",
"-20.580216941511026"
],
[
"the early afternoon in the daytime increase in body temperature and cognitive performance (the \"post-lunch dip\"), and (3) heighten the early-evening peak in body temperature and cognitive performance. Broughton was the first to bring this characteristic of human performance to the attention of researchers. Evidence No evidence exists to support the presence of a circasemidian rhythm in the rhythmic cells of the suprachiasmatic nucleus, the accepted internal timing source for the major circadian rhythms of the body. Thus, though it falls in the domain of an ultradian rhythm, the circasemidian rhythm may be the first harmonic of the circadian rhythm",
"-20.561756545183016"
],
[
"humans. If a male has erectile dysfunction (ED) while awake, but has NPT episodes during REM, it would suggest that the ED is from a psychological rather than a physiological cause. In females, erection of the clitoris (nocturnal clitoral tumescence or NCT) causes enlargement, with accompanying vaginal blood flow and transudation (i.e. lubrication). During a normal night of sleep the penis and clitoris may be erect for a total time of from one hour to as long as three and a half hours during REM.\nBody temperature is not well regulated during REM sleep, and thus organisms become more sensitive to",
"-20.559746115621238"
],
[
"observed in urethane-anesthetized rats.\nMost of the available information on human hippocampal theta comes from a few small studies of epileptic patients with intracranially implanted electrodes used as part of a treatment plan. In the largest and most systematic of these studies, Cantero et al. (2003) found that oscillations in the 4–7 Hz frequency range could be recorded from both the hippocampus and neocortex. The hippocampal oscillations were associated with REM sleep and the transition from sleep to waking, and came in brief bursts, usually less than a second long. Cortical theta oscillations were observed during the transition from sleep",
"-20.55110841282294"
],
[
"and not an intrinsic rhythm. However, a number of published data sets have shown a daily two-peak error pattern in industrial and transportation environments. The pattern was also obvious in many of the charts shown in the review by Rutenfranz and Colquhoun, though they did not suggest a circasemidian rhythm as a mediator for the pattern. Other investigators have reported a circasemidian rhythm in body temperature, melatonin and slow-wave sleep. Recommendation These behavioral and physiological observations support the need to consider a 12-hour rhythmicity in the quantification of daily variations in physiological function and some kinds of cognitive performance in",
"-20.51908568151339"
],
[
"young men slept for the normal 8 hours. The next 6 nights, they slept for 4 hours. The next 7 nights, they spent 12 hours in bed. They all had the same diet. They found that there were changes in glucose metabolism that resemble that of type 2 diabetes patients. When the participants were tested after sleep deprivation, they took 40% longer than normal to regulate blood sugar levels after a high-carbohydrate meals. The secretion of insulin and the body's response to insulin decrease by 30%. Sleep deprivation also alters the productions of hormones, lowering the secretion of thyroid stimulating",
"-20.505947047728114"
],
[
"people free-run, experiments can be done to see what sort of signals, known as zeitgebers, are effective in entrainment. Also, much work has been done to see how long or short a circadian cycle to which different organisms can be entrained. For example, some animals can be entrained to a 22-hour day, but they can not be entrained to a 20-hour day. In recent studies funded by the U.S. space industry, it has been shown that most humans can be entrained to a 23.5-hour day and to a 24.65-hour day.\nThe effect of unintended time cues is called masking and can",
"-20.486698841312318"
],
[
"occurring.\nAn even lighter type of sleep has been seen in rats that have been kept awake for long periods of time. In a process known as local sleep, specific localized brain regions went into periods of short (~80 ms) but frequent (~40/min) NREM-like states. Despite the on and off periods where neurons shut off, the rats appeared to be awake, although they performed poorly at tests. Weight gain In rats, prolonged, complete sleep deprivation increased both food intake and energy expenditure with a net effect of weight loss and ultimately death. This study hypothesizes that the moderate chronic sleep debt",
"-20.458767138043186"
],
[
"role in the development of the human brain to perform daily bodily tasks and functions in order to maintain life. Academic There is evidence that sleep is correlated with GPA. GPA is associated with the students' overall academic performances in their classes. Students who had longer amounts of sleep had higher GPAs than students who had shorter amounts of sleep. In another study, researchers from the Sleep Health Institute and Division of Sleep and Circadian Disorder at the Departments of Medicine and Neurology in the Brigham and Women's Hospital, created a study to discover how irregular sleep patterns are associated",
"-20.4570078717079"
],
[
"smaller than invalid cues (words and arrows), but in synesthetes the response time differences for months are larger than those of non-synesthetes (Teuscher et al. 2010). Differences with number line These number forms can be distinguished from the non-conscious mental number line that we all have by the fact that they are 1) conscious, 2) idiosyncratic (see image) and 3) stable across the lifespan. Although this form of synesthesia has not been as intensively studied as Grapheme → color synesthesia, Hubbard and colleagues have argued that similar neural mechanisms might be involved, but acting in different brain regions (Hubbard et",
"-20.443514238038915"
],
[
"and wakefulness including sleep latency and other functions - both physiological, behavioral, and cognitive. Human health Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock, chronotherapeutics, may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions.\nA number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a power-nap, does not have any measurable effect on normal circadian rhythms but can decrease stress and improve productivity.\nHealth problems can result from a disturbance to the circadian rhythm. Circadian rhythms also play a part in the reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a state of",
"-20.443060205943766"
],
[
"rate, breathing, digestion, and sexual arousal, also has links to the uterus and brain.\" No similar studies have yet been conducted on humans.",
"-20.442687418602873"
],
[
"and mechanisms of sleep are the subject of substantial ongoing research.\nSleep is a highly conserved behavior across animal evolution.\nHumans may suffer from various sleep disorders, including dyssomnias such as insomnia, hypersomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea; parasomnias such as sleepwalking and REM behavior disorder; bruxism; and circadian rhythm sleep disorders. The advent of artificial light has substantially altered sleep timing in industrialized countries. Physiology The most pronounced physiological changes in sleep occur in the brain. The brain uses significantly less energy during sleep than it does when awake, especially during non-REM sleep. In areas with reduced activity, the brain restores",
"-20.433393132290803"
]
] |
8fe4h9 | If a CEO of a major company is worth billions of dollars, how does that translate into them having lots of money? If all their money is tied up in stocks, then how do they have billions to spend? | [
"They can sell a small portion of their stock. Or they can get a loan against the value of the stock, which can be sold in the future.",
"They don't have billions to spend necessarily... most people of that kind of weath only need a small fraction to cover even a lavish lifestyle, so they typically have set trades of their shares to give them enough money for living expenses and diversifying their portfolio. Say they have $5 billion in stock in a company they founded... each quarter they sell, say, $10 million worth of stock, no matter what the price is (to prevent accusations of insider trading). That's still only 0.2% of their wealth/shares so it has no impact on their control of the company.",
"Any transaction on the order of billions of dollars is not going to be done immediately. They'd have time to liquidate assets.",
"All of their money is not tied up in stocks. Many CEO's get paid a lot of actual money. Some make millions of dollars per year.",
"You can't spend billions of dollars. You can just rearrange what it is billions of dollars worth of. If I give you a hundred bucks you can go out and buy a pair of shoes. Once you wear them they are worthless. If I give you 10,000.00 you can go and buy a car, and once you have driven it around enough it is worthless. If I give you 1,000,000 though you can't really spend that in such a way that you won't have it - at least not without some effort. You will get a house, and then you own an asset that can appreciate in value. If I give you 100,000,000 even if you tried to spend it... a dozen hookers full time servicing you while world famous chefs cooked for you and you drank 10K a bottle booze and stayed at the fanciest of hotels... well odds are pretty good the interest you are earning on that money is more than you can spend every hour despite your best efforts. With billions the problem only gets worse.",
"You're talking about the subject of \"liquidity\". In short, it's a major concern but money that isn't \"liquid\" (immediately able to be spent) isn't useless. It's all on a spectrum anyways. If you have a typical bank account there's a limit to how much cash you can withdraw at once, often about $1000 per day, so if somebody stole your card/info they couldn't empty the account (along with other reasons, I'm sure). Writing checks or spending money with a debit card *might* be similarly limited, depending on the bank etc. Does this mean you can't spend it all? No, I'd say $10,000 in a checking account is one of the more flexible/convenient ways to hold onto money. But it doesn't mean there is *zero* limit or inconvenience involved in moving it around.",
"Generally it's not the CEO, but the OWNER of the company that gets his worth from the company value. Sometimes the owners are the CEO (Musk, Bezos, Zuckerberg used to be ?(not sure if he is anymore)... But when you speak of stock, the 'owner' has cashed out already, as he is the one selling the stock so you can buy it. Then comes a \"Board of Directors\" that the CEO reports to... and on and on."
] | [
[
"most talented CEO, that company's value would increase by only 0.016 per cent.\nFounder of the largest mutual fund group in America, John Bogle, laments that \"the managers of our public corporations\" have come \"to place their interests ahead of the interests of their company's owners\". Bogle believes that executive outlook and compensation is too focused on speculative short term return, with executives tending to treat their stock options as lottery winnings, to be exercise and sold almost immediately (i.e. as soon as they are vested), rather than as investments. Corporations often buy the stock their executives are selling to avoid",
"-30.14299507951364"
],
[
"medium $5,000 and hardest $2,500.\nOther selections include naming the corporation and selecting a CEO. Each CEO has a unique benefit that he or she brings with labels like \"Talented,\" \"Whiz Kid\" or \"Banker.\" These benefits add, as examples, five percent per level to all computer points generated (Whiz Kid) or let you go twice as deep in debt before becoming bankrupt and losing the game (Banker).\nGameplay in Tom Clancy's ruthless.com is turn-based. Each turn, you gives CEO two orders, choosing from the Corporate, R&D, Marketing, Admin, Human Resources, Acquisitions, Legal, Security and Computer groups. Each group contains action orders such",
"-29.834211437533668"
],
[
"elected by them could prevent this. Why was negotiation of the CEO pay package \"like having labor negotiations where one side doesn't care ... there's no one representing shareholders\"—as one anonymous CEO of a Fortune 500 company told Fortune magazine in 2001.\nCompanies with dispersed ownership and no controlling shareholder have become \"the dominant form of ownership\" among publicly traded firms in the United States. According to Clive Crook, the growth of power of professional managers vis-a-vis stockholders\nlies partly in the changing pattern of shareholding. Large shareholders in a company have both the means and the motive to remind managers whom",
"-28.4711505593732"
],
[
"valued somewhere between $33.4 million and $87.9 million in 2015 and was invested in many sectors, including public companies such as tobacco distributors, retail outlets, pharmaceutical companies, industrial manufacturing companies, financial conglomerates, oil companies, high technology firms and defense contractors. Public stock investments within his portfolio include General Electric, Chevron, UPS, Coca-Cola, Home Depot, Comcast, Sanofi, Ford, ConocoPhillips, Energy Transfer Partners, Altera, Verizon Communications, Procter & Gamble, Bank of America, Nike, Google, Apple Inc., Philip Morris, Citigroup, Morgan Stanley, Whole Foods, Intel, IBM, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Johnson & Johnson, Caterpillar, Kinder Morgan, AT&T and Facebook. He has at least $78 million",
"-28.46283545269398"
],
[
"regarding financial assets and net worth are presented by household, the term is also often used to describe only the individual who has amassed the assets as millionaire. That is, even though the term statistically refers only to households, common usage is often in reference only to an individual. Influence While millionaires constitute only a small percentage of the population, they hold substantial control over economic resources, with the most powerful and prominent individuals usually ranking among them. The total amount of money held by millionaires can equal the amount of money held by a far higher number of poor",
"-28.460281692969147"
],
[
"dollar value of compensation in a standardized form in annual public filings of the corporation.\nWhile an executive may be any corporate \"officer\"—including president, vice president, or other upper-level manager—in any company, the source of most comment and controversy is the pay of chief executive officers (CEOs) (and to a lesser extent the other top five highest-paid executives) of large publicly traded firms. Most of the private sector economy in the United States is made up of such firms where management and ownership are separate, and there are no controlling shareholders. This separation of those who run a company from those",
"-28.20132319354161"
],
[
"to advance their own agendas.\"\nWhile admitting there is \"little correlation between CEO pay and stock performance—as detractors delight in pointing out,\" business consultant and commentator Dominic Basulto believes \"there is strong evidence that, far from being paid too much, many CEOs are paid too little.\" Elites in the financial industry (where the average compensation for the top 25 managers in 2004 was $251 million—more than 20 times as much as the average CEO), not to mention the entertainment and sports industry, are often paid even more.\nRobert P. Murphy, author and adjunct scholar of the libertarian Ludwig von Mises Institute, challenges",
"-27.993856961315032"
],
[
"have founder CEOs, who have been with the company for at least 5 years. In aggregate, these companies have generated a 5-year average return of 170%, significantly greater than the 56% 5-year S&P 500 gain. Of these companies, 14 have outperformed the market over the past three years. These companies include: Facebook, Netflix, Under Armour, Nvidia, Amazon.com, Starbucks, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, L Brands, VeriSign, FedEx, Salesforce.com, Akamai Technologies, Intercontinental Exchange, and SanDisk. Equity stake Fahlenbrach, like many other scholars, concluded that founder CEOs have a larger equity stake in the firm, potentially reducing the principal agent problem. Founder CEOs",
"-27.80084104416892"
],
[
"the world, 259th in the U.S.) making him one of the richest politicians in American history and the first billionaire American president. During the three years since Trump announced his presidential run in 2015, Forbes estimated his net worth declined 31% and his ranking fell 138 spots. When he filed mandatory financial disclosure forms with the Federal Elections Commission (FEC) in July 2015, Trump claimed a net worth of about $10 billion; however FEC figures cannot corroborate this estimate because they only show each of his largest buildings as being worth over $50 million, yielding total assets worth more than $1.4 billion and",
"-27.762970964889973"
],
[
"stock on the open market in a transaction dated May 8, 2015. The stock was sold at an average price of $60.99, for a total transaction of $2,340,064.32. Following the sale, the executive vice president now directly owns 31,985 shares of the company’s stock, currently valued at approximately $1,950,765.15.",
"-27.61517677595475"
],
[
"40 percent of the top 0.1 percent income earners in the United States are executives, managers, or supervisors (and this doesn't include the finance industry)—far out of proportion to less than 5 percent of the working population that management occupations make up. Highest paid CEOs In 2012, the highest-paid CEO in the US was Lawrence J. Ellison of Oracle, with $96.2 million.\nThat year the top 200 executives earned a total of $3 billion in compensation. The median cash compensation was $5.3 million, the median stock and option grants were $9 million.\nIn 2016, the highest was Thomas M. Rutledge, CEO of",
"-27.566371015971527"
],
[
"The Millionaire Next Door UAWs versus PAWs Under Accumulator of Wealth (UAW) is a name coined by the authors used to represent individuals who have a low net wealth compared to their income. A doctor earning $250,000 per year could be considered an \"Under Accumulator of Wealth\" if their net worth is low relative to lifetime earnings. Take for example a 50-year-old doctor earning $250,000. According to the formula he should have about $1.25 million in net worth (50*250,000*10%). If his net worth is lower, he is an \"Under Accumulator\". The UAW style is based more on consumption of",
"-27.50507711415412"
],
[
"2001 sold almost $3 billion worth of their companies' stock during that time and two preceding years as the collective market value of the firms dropped from $210 billion to zero. And among firms whose shares fell by at least 75 percent, 25 had executives sell a total of \"$23 billion before their stocks plummeted.\"\nLarge loans to executives were involved in more than a couple of these companies, one of the most notable being WorldCom. WorldCom loaned (directly or indirectly) hundreds of millions of dollars—approximately 20 percent of the cash on the firm's balance sheet—to its CEO Bernard Ebbers to",
"-27.317247790284455"
],
[
"of the S&P 500 companies spent $4 trillion on stock buybacks, about 50% of profits, with another 40% going to dividends. During 2018 alone, a record $1 trillion was spent on buybacks. Stock buybacks shift wealth upwards, because the top 1% own about 40% of shares and the top 10% own about 85%. Further, corporations directing profits to shareholders are not reinvesting the money in the firm or paying workers more. They wrote: \"If corporations continue to purchase their own stock at this rate, income disparities will continue to grow, productivity will suffer, the long-term strength of companies will diminish",
"-27.249591658677673"
],
[
"that kind of task. Thus it is reasonable for boards of directors of large corporations to pay very high salaries to top executives who can perform. To ensure performance, it is usual to link the compensation to measures of the business's success, e.g. by paying the executive mostly in stock or call options which are deferred (to give the stock market a chance to evaluate the executive's performance before he can cash in on it). When especially successful, the executive can expect to receive compensation exceeding the average of other executives in comparable positions.\nSome say the opposition to such high",
"-27.138034537783824"
],
[
"he pleases in defiance of the hundreds or thousands of holders of the remaining stock. The laws for stock corporations are nearly always made on the theory that the object of the organization is to make money by carrying on a certain business, using capital supplied by a large number of persons whose control of the business should be in proportion to the capital they have put into the concern. The people who have furnished the majority of the capital should control the organization, and yet they may live in different parts of the country, or be traveling at the",
"-27.025148972985335"
],
[
"on CEO Compensation. According to bizjournals.com the country's highest-paid CEO, Stephen Hemsley, made $101.96 million in 2010. In 2011 he was named the highest paid CEO by Forbes following a large gain in the value of his stock ownership. In late 2011, Hemsley's most recent annual compensation was estimated by Forbes at $48.8 million. Other positions He serves as a trustee of the University of St. Thomas, Minnesota, and as a trustee of Minnesota Public Radio. Additionally, he is a member of the National Executive Board of the Boy Scouts of America, the organization's governing body.",
"-26.88424394815229"
],
[
"list. Business The current or recent president, CEO, or chairman of each of the following Fortune 500 companies is a Duke alumnus: Apple (Tim Cook), Bear Stearns (Alan Schwartz), BB&T (John A. Allison IV), Chesapeake Energy (Aubrey McClendon), Cisco Systems (John Chambers), General Motors (Rick Wagoner), Ingersoll Rand (Michael Lamach), JPMorgan Chase (Steven Black), Kaplan (Andrew S. Rosen), Medtronic (William A. Hawkins), Morgan Stanley and Credit Suisse First Boston (John J. Mack), Norfolk Southern (David R. Goode), Northwest Airlines (Gary L. Wilson), Panda Restaurant Group (Tom Davin), PepsiCo (Karl von der Heyden), Procter & Gamble (David S. Taylor), Pfizer",
"-26.862487181497272"
],
[
"operate. This is particularly true when senior executives can make millions of dollars in based on the short-term performance of their companies without having to return that money if the company subsequently fails due to behavior that is short sighted at best and often fraudulent. In many cases, this includes corruption in government described in Republic, Lost. This corruption has led to substantial deregulation of many industries, especially finance, which even extended to the \"de facto decriminalization of elite financial fraud,\" in the words of William K. Black. Black was a lead litigator during the Savings",
"-26.849913501020637"
],
[
"the CEO of a betting company is paid 22 times more than the whole industry ‘donates’ to treatment.\" In 2018, it was announced that her salary had increased to £265 million, around 9,500 times more than the average UK salary, with Luke Hildyard of the High Pay Centre commenting, \"Obviously, people who build successful companies need to be rewarded for their hard work, but this is an obscene amount of money for someone who is already a billionaire. It's weird to think that someone so rich would want to get their hands on even more, rather than put it to",
"-26.84123260997876"
],
[
"Millionaire A millionaire is an individual whose net worth or wealth is equal to or exceeds one million units of currency. It can also be a person who owns one million units of currency in a bank account or savings account. Depending on the currency, a certain level of prestige is associated with being a millionaire, which makes that amount of wealth a goal for some and almost unattainable for others. In countries that use the short scale number naming system, a billionaire is someone who has at least a thousand times a million dollars, euros or the currency of",
"-26.775897622457705"
],
[
"they can have quick access to cash when consumption habits rise. Then there are some UAWs who have considerable knowledge of the specific market of a company or type of investment, but do not utilize that knowledge to their advantage. The Millionaire Next Door uses Mr. Willis as an example. He is a six-figure, very successful executive for Walmart. He has been employed there for 10 years, during which the company has been explosively growing. Stock prices have shot up in this 10-year period of time. During this enormous growth period, Mr. Willis bought zero",
"-26.770326998783275"
],
[
"its stock is held by employees, through the Employee Stock Ownership Plan (ESOP), known as \"Profit Sharing.\" Any employees who works more than 1,000 hours a year become eligible for this kind of stock. For 2017, the company is said to have contributed $11 million to it.",
"-26.769309020834044"
],
[
"business to send their way. At the moment [2006], companies do not have to disclose these relationships.\"\nThe New York Times examined one case in 2006 where the compensation for one company's CEO jumped 48 percent (to $19.4 million), despite an earnings decline of 5.5 percent and a stock drop of 26 percent. Shareholders had been told the compensation was devised with the help of an \"outside consultant\" the company (Verizon) declined to name. Sources told the Times that the consultant was Hewitt Associates, \"a provider of employee benefits management and consulting services\", and recipient of more than $500 million in",
"-26.737702038604766"
],
[
"company whose net worth may be negative. If some party agrees to take it over and assume its liabilities as well as its assets, the seller may actually agree to make a large payment to the buyer. But the buyer must still make some payment, however small, for the company in order to establish that both sides have given consideration. Concealing the value of consideration A peppercorn is also used in more balanced contracts, where one side wishes to conceal the nature of their payment. For example, since real estate contracts are generally matters of public record, the purchaser of",
"-26.706777168205008"
],
[
"Forbes Billionaire list since 2008 and in 2012 had a net worth of $1.1 billion.\nIn the years since, American investor Robert Smith, with a net worth of $4.4 billion, and American sports executive Michael Jordan, with $1.65 billion, have risen to the list. In 2018, Smith was ranked by Forbes as the 163rd richest person in America. He was No. 480 on Forbes 2018 list of the world's billionaires, with a net worth of $4.4 billion. In 2017, Smith was named by the magazine as one of the 100 greatest living business minds. In a 2018 cover story, Forbes declared",
"-26.67318453745247"
],
[
"CEO Brad Anderson, Best Buy founder Richard Schulze, and Estee Lauder heir Ronald Lauder, who gave $1.1 Million .",
"-26.6260962242377"
],
[
"in assets, making him among the five wealthiest members of Congress. Most of his wealth is from his automotive empire, which includes several dealerships in Florida. He also reported ownership interests in about fifty other businesses, including offshore reinsurance companies, and a charter-jet business. He reported receiving at least $19.5 million in income from these businesses in 2006. American Speedy Printing In May 1976, Buchanan convinced the owner of a Michigan printing company, Jim McDonald that he could help the business grow. The two founded American Speedy Printing, which grew through franchising to more than 730 stores in 44 states.",
"-26.574840726563707"
],
[
"person with an estimated net worth of US$53.1 billion compared with Buffet's US$52.4 billion.\nOn August 4, 2007, The Wall Street Journal ran a cover story profiling Slim. The article said, \"While the market value of his stake in publicly traded companies could decline at any time, at the moment he is probably wealthier than Bill Gates\". According to The Wall Street Journal, Slim credits part of his ability to \"discover investment opportunities\" early to the writings of his friend, futurist author Alvin Toffler.\nOn August 8, 2007, Fortune magazine reported that Slim had overtaken Gates as the world's richest person. Slim's estimated fortune",
"-26.526387367979623"
],
[
"billion. During the three years since Trump announced his presidential run in 2015, Forbes estimated his net worth declined 31% and his ranking fell 138 spots. Discrepancies in estimates of various organizations is due in part to the uncertainty of appraised property values, as well as Trump's own assessment of the value of his personal brand.\nIn its 2018 billionaires ranking, Forbes estimated Trump's net worth at $3.1 billion (766th in the world, 248th in the U.S.). Bloomberg Billionaires Index listed Trump's net worth as $2.48 billion on May 31, 2018, and Wealth-X listed it as at least $3.8 billion on July 16,",
"-26.467522582854144"
],
[
"in at such a high level may be in a precarious financial position. Their use has caused some investors concern since they do not specify that the executive had to perform well. In some high-profile instances, executives cashed in their stock options, while under their stewardship their companies lost millions of dollars and thousands of workers were laid off.",
"-26.463590371413375"
],
[
"may not exceed $100 million. Executive pay limits If the Treasury purchases assets directly from a company, and also receives a meaningful equity or debt position in that company, the company is not allowed to offer incentives that encourage \"unnecessary and excessive risks\" to its senior executives (that is, the top five executives). Also, the company is prohibited from making golden parachute payments to a senior executive. Both of these prohibitions expire when the Treasury no longer holds an equity or debt position in that company. The company also is given \"clawback\" permission; that is, the opportunity to recover senior",
"-26.453983457409777"
],
[
"earnings performance. Measuring average pay of CEOs from 1980 to 2004, Vanguard mutual fund founder John Bogle found it grew almost three times as fast as the corporations the CEOs ran—8.5 percent/year compared to 2.9 percent/year. Whether CEO pay has followed the stock market more closely is disputed. One calculation by one executive compensation consultant (Michael Dennis Graham) found \"an extremely high correlation\" between CEO pay and stock market prices between 1973 and 2003, while a more recent study by the liberal Economic Policy Institute found nominal CEO compensation growth (725 percent) \"substantially greater than stock market growth\" from 1978",
"-26.39961049379781"
],
[
"Stewart a billionaire on paper and the first female, self-made billionaire in the U.S. The stock price slowly went down to $16 per share by February 2002. Stewart was then and continues to be the majority shareholder, commanding 96% control of voting power in the company. Stock trading case and conviction According to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), Stewart avoided a loss of $45,673 by selling all 3,928 shares of her ImClone Systems stock on December 27, 2001, after receiving material, nonpublic information from Peter Bacanovic, who was Stewart's broker at Merrill Lynch. The day following her sale,",
"-26.36517028871458"
],
[
"to the CEO is often very limited. CEOs generally share information among higher position stakeholders, for example, directors, chairmen, system or product developers, and other stakeholders who have authority. Lower level employees, workers and those who tend to have more of a relationship with their customers or the audience for whom they are trying to direct a product, receive their information over the line of command. Another name for them is the workforce, as they are the people who help with the sales or manufacturing of an organization for the most part.\nThe workforce consists of managers, sales assistants, manufacturers and",
"-26.360584637208376"
],
[
"dollars. However, when a living individual has dispersed his or her wealth to immediate family members, it is included under a single listing provided that individual is still living. Royal families and dictators that have their wealth contingent on a position are always excluded from these lists. Annual rankings The rankings are published annually in March, so the net worths listed are snapshots taken at that time. These lists only show the top 10 wealthiest billionaires for each year.",
"-26.350102293188684"
],
[
"head of state; in reality, the people's power is restricted to voting in elections.\nIn business, the business owner traditionally occupied the pinnacle of the organization. In most modern large companies, there is now no longer a single dominant shareholder, and the collective power of the business owners is for most purposes delegated to a board of directors, which in turn delegates the day-to-day running of the company to a managing director or CEO. Again, although the shareholders of the company are the nominal top of the hierarchy, in reality many companies are run at least in part as personal fiefdoms",
"-26.34889013157226"
],
[
"and that the government-owned companies are very large compared to the rest of the economy.",
"-26.288337779114954"
],
[
"in stock, no more than $100 can be lost. On the other hand, a corporation (Corp.) or a limited liability company (LLC) may hold assets such as real estate, cars or boats. If a shareholder of a corporation is personally involved in a lawsuit or bankruptcy, these assets may be protected. A creditor of a shareholder of a Corp. or LLC cannot seize the assets of the company. However, the creditor can seize ownership shares in the corporation, as they are considered a personal asset.\nIn the United States, corporations can sometimes be taxed at a lower rate than individuals. Also,",
"-26.270232717477484"
],
[
"have a market value approximating $137,000,000, whose profits have exceeded $56,000,000, and whose bank balance tops $30,000,000, surely must be regarded as a very practical authority on what makes for success.\n— Automotive Giants of America: Men Who Are Making Our Motor Industry\nHe is described as the \"greatest rags to riches story in American automobile history.\"",
"-26.269234558043536"
],
[
"in 1978, remaining as the chairman and CEO until 1989, when the company was sold. He is also a director of Banco Nacional de Mexico, which forms part of Grupo Financiero Banamex, Consejo Mexicano de Hombres de Negocios, and Grupo Televisa.\nAccording to Forbes, he is worth US$17 billion, and the second richest man in Mexico, after Carlos Slim. Personal life He is married, and lives in Mexico City.",
"-26.256274925079197"
],
[
"individual's holdings. Finally, positions in a publicly traded stock are priced to market on a date roughly a month before publication. Privately held companies are priced by the prevailing price-to-sales or price-to-earnings ratios. Known debt is subtracted from assets to get a final estimate of an individual's estimated worth in United States dollars. Since stock prices fluctuate rapidly, an individual's true wealth and ranking at the time of publication may vary from their situation when the list was compiled.\nFamily fortunes dispersed over a large number of relatives are included only if those individuals' holdings are worth more than a billion",
"-26.255613157409243"
],
[
"worth $2.3 billion. In 2008, with an estimated current net worth of around $12 billion, he was ranked by Forbes as the 20-richest person in America and the richest person in Oklahoma. In March 2009, in the face of the general world economic downturn, Forbes reported that Kaiser's net worth had dropped to $9 billion, ranking him in a tie for 43rd-richest person in the world. It has since risen to $9.8 billion as the markets recovered. As of 2019, George's net worth was estimated at $7.6 billion. Professional sports In April 2014, Kaiser bought Tom L. Ward's interest in The Professional Basketball Club,",
"-26.247018325258978"
],
[
"fourth and fifth largest shareholder.\nOther shareholders in the top 10 were National Social Security Fund (0.28%), a index-tracking fund of China Construction Bank (0.21%) and Everbright Securities (0.21%).",
"-26.236904563149437"
],
[
"no man gets rich simply by his own labor, no matter how mighty a genius he is, and that, if you want to get rich, you must make other men work for you, and pay you for the privilege of doing so.(Ch. VIII)\nThe banker then adds that, as an entrepreneur, working \"for the profit of all\" (as suggested by Homos) rather than working for one's own profit would be \"contrary to the American spirit. It is alien to our love of individuality\". Anyone who wants to be successful in this world will try to do so by getting rich. As",
"-26.234110534656793"
],
[
"In a study completed on the S&P 1500 firms by Lee, Hwang, and Chen, it was concluded that founder CEOs use fewer negative words in both personal tweets and statements regarding earnings. This optimism was observed to exist at the executive level as well. Founder CEOs also provide more optimistic earnings estimates than their non-founder counterparts. Investors are unaware of this overconfidence bias among founder CEOs and take them at face value indicating no discount taken into consideration in the financial markets.\nIn a 1988 study completed by researchers at Purdue University, this overconfidence was seen when 3,000 entrepreneurs, founders, claimed",
"-26.20797758572735"
],
[
"2018.\nIn its 2019 billionaires ranking, Forbes estimated Trump's net worth at $3.1 billion (715th in the world, 259th in the U.S.) as of 5 March 2019. FEC filings and debt In July 2015, federal election regulators released new details of Trump's self-reported wealth and financial holdings when he became a Republican presidential candidate, reporting that his assets are worth above $1.4 billion, which includes at least $70 million in stocks, and a debt of at least $265 million. According to Bloomberg, for the purposes of Trump's FEC filings Trump \"only reported revenue for [his] golf properties in his campaign filings even though the",
"-26.200303394045477"
],
[
"salaries has been approximately zero.\" Four years after the Frank Dodd \"say-on-pay\" was instituted, shareholder votes have shown that \"ordinary shareholders are pretty much as generous as boards are. And even companies with a single controlling shareholder, who ought to be able to dictate terms, don’t seem to pay their C.E.O.s any less than other companies.\" Market forces Defenders of executive pay in America say that lucrative compensation can easily be explained by the necessity to attract the best talent; the fact that the demands and scope of a CEO are far greater than in earlier eras; and that the",
"-26.15479092973692"
],
[
"of the decade. The six runners-up, all founder CEOs, were: Bill Gates, Warren Buffett, Martha Stewart, Bernard Madoff, Sergey Brin and Oprah Winfrey. Stock performance According to some scholars such as Rudiger Fahlenbrach, firms led by founder CEOs outperform those led by non-founder CEOs, in both stock performance and market valuation. Between the time period of 1993 and 2002 an equally weighted portfolio, consisting of companies led by founder CEOs, would have earned an annual benchmark-adjusted return of 8.3%. In other words, an excess abnormal return of 4.4% annually.\nAs of March 2016, 16 companies in the S&P 500 still",
"-26.149988563498482"
],
[
"surrendered all disposition of it to those in control of the enterprise.” III The concentration of economic power This part proceeds to emphasize the ubiquity of corporations in production in the modern economy.\n“These great companies form the very framework of American industry. The individual must come in contact with them almost constantly. He may own an interest in one or more of them, he may be employed by one of them, but above all he is continually accepting their service.”\n“In conclusion, then, the huge corporation, the corporation with $90m of assets or more, has come to dominate most major industries",
"-26.11488669423852"
],
[
"Chief executive officer The chief executive officer (CEO), or just chief executive (CE), is the most senior corporate, executive, or administrative officer in charge of managing an organization – especially an independent legal entity such as a company or nonprofit institution. CEOs lead a range of organizations, including public and private corporations, non-profit organizations and even some government organizations (notably Crown corporations). The CEO of a corporation or company typically reports to the board of directors and is charged with maximizing the value of the entity, which may include maximizing the share price, market share, revenues or another element. In",
"-26.10180138342548"
],
[
"The Last Millionaire Format The Last Millionaire takes 12 of Britain's most successful young entrepreneurs and drops them into six of the world's most exciting and demanding cities. Here they face the ultimate business challenge; to make money from scratch in just five days.\nUsed to running successful businesses, these award-winning entrepreneurs have proved themselves at home, but can they do it abroad? This time they'll be stripped of their legions of staff, company contacts, personal cash/credit cards and all their business lifelines. All they have left is a small amount of start up capital plus their raw money making talent.\nTo",
"-26.083418493857607"
],
[
"(about $403 million) and large companies are those with the shares value of over one trillion rials (about $40 million). As of November 2014, the value of shares transferred over the mentioned 1.5 years (about $9.2 billion) is tantamount to the value of shares transferred since the establishment of the organization 12.5 years ago.\nAs of 2016, regarding privatizations conducted by the IPO, 25% of such entities were divested to the Civil Servants Pension Organization, 15% to the Farmers, Villagers and Nomads’ Social Insurance Fund and 25% to the Social Security Organization and only 5% to the \"real private sector\".\nFor years",
"-26.046677305275807"
],
[
"the U.S. Internal Revenue Code (1993), making it cost effective to pay executives in equity. As a result, executives had a financial incentive to focus their efforts on increasing stock price. In the short run, some executives even manipulated accounting numbers (Enron, Global Crossing) to achieve the goal. NYT article 2005 In the long run, executives outsourced labor to reduce costs and then used the resulting savings to repurchase stock, thus increasing their own compensation as well as enriching shareholders. Since 2018 corporations have invested heavily in buybacks, including over $1 trillion from 2018-2019. Recently, stock buybacks and shareholder",
"-26.041746059898287"
],
[
"of the largest companies around the world to see which companies are getting the best value from their CEO.\nWilson was listed in the 2016 Debrett's 500 List as one Britain's most influential people in finance for returning the insurance multinational to profit and overseeing the Friends Life acquisition. Business experience Wilson was credited with steering AIA through the financial crisis – a period that saw parent company AIG bailed out by the US government. He prepared AIA for its flotation on the stock market in Hong Kong in 2010, increasing the company's value to $36bn at the time of listing.\nHe",
"-26.03800834773574"
],
[
"in a letter to James Agate that Bennett was not \"the typical businessman, with his mean and narrow outlook\". Sitwell cited a letter from Bennett to a friend of Agate, who remains anonymous, in Ego 5:\nI find I am richer this year than last; so I enclose a cheque for 500 pounds for you to distribute among young writers and artists and musicians who may need the money. You will know, better than I do, who they are. But I must make one condition, that you do not reveal that the money has come from me, or",
"-25.994522326713195"
],
[
"among its members than any other family, which also makes them the family with the most wealthy members in history. At least 14 members of the family are billionaires. \nTwo branches of the Cargill family exist. Following the death of William W. Cargill, his son-in-law, John MacMillan, saved the company from a debt crisis. The MacMillans are estimated by Forbes to be worth $1.2 billion each. The wealth of James Cargill and Margaret Cargill were estimated to be $1.8 billion each.",
"-25.9768905947858"
],
[
"of the world's millionaires got that way through paid work, consisting mostly of skilled professionals or managers. Millionaires are, on average, 61 years old with $3.05 million in assets. Multimillionaire Dated ways of describing someone worth n millions are \"n-fold millionaire” and \"millionaire n times over\". Still commonly used is multimillionaire, which usually refers to individuals with net assets of 10 million or more of a currency. By this definition there are approximately 584,000 US$ multimillionaires worldwide in 2017. Roughly 1.5% of US$ millionaires can are \"ultra-high-net-worth individuals\" (ultra-HNWIs), defined those with a net worth or wealth of $30 million",
"-25.965486533874355"
],
[
"file \"financial disclosure statements that [would] show his net worth [was] in excess of $7 billion with more than $250 million of cash, and very little debt\". Although Trump did not run as a candidate in the 2012 elections, his \"professionally prepared\" 2012 financial disclosure was published in his book, which claimed a $7 billion net worth.\nOn June 16, 2015, just prior to announcing his candidacy for president of the United States, Trump released a one-page financial statement \"from a big accounting firm—one of the most respected\"—stating a net worth of $8,737,540,000. \"I'm really rich\", Trump said. Forbes believed his claim of",
"-25.955266382865375"
],
[
"in the Harvard Business Review, in which they argued that the trouble with American business, was that\n`the compensation of top executives is virtually independent of performance. On average, corporate America pays its most important leaders like bureaucrats. Is it any wonder then that so many CEOs act like bureaucrats rather than the value-maximizing entrepreneurs companies need to enhance their standing in world markets?`\nThey argued stock options would tie executive pay more closely to performance since the executives' options are valuable only if the stock rises above the \"strike price\".\nJensen and Murphy believed companies didn't link pay to performance because of",
"-25.946198414778337"
],
[
"a stock market investor, but that prime real estate at good prices was hard to find at that time and that stocks and equity securities were cheap and generating good cash flow from dividends. He profited from 40 of the 45 stocks he purchased which he sold in 2014, making it almost a 90% success rate in capital appreciation in addition to millions in earned dividends. The biggest gainers in his stock portfolio were Bank of America Corporation, The Boeing Company and Facebook, Inc earning a windfall profit of $6.7 million, $3.96 million and $3.85 million, respectively.\nTrump's stock portfolio was",
"-25.93794218968833"
],
[
"if not all industry in the United States.”\nA number of consequences result, the fifth being that,\n“The economic power in the hands of the few persons who control a giant corporation is a tremendous force which can harm or benefit a multitude of individuals, affect whole districts, shift the currents of trade, bring ruin to one community and prosperity to another. The organizations which they control have passed far beyond the realm of private enterprise - they have become more nearly social institutions.” IV The dispersion of stock ownership In this Chapter, Berle and Means present considerable statistical evidence of the",
"-25.935096195637016"
],
[
"frequently treated the assets of corporations he controlled as if they were his own. However, things should be seen in the context of the time. IBM, for example, consolidated all its accounts in one named Plant, Property, Equipment, Machines, Patents and Goodwill. American Can doubled its reported net earnings in 1913 by claiming only $1 million of depreciation after having claimed $2.5 million the previous year. Many companies set up arbitrary reserves in good times to be used in bad years and few holding companies published consolidated financial statements.\nAccounting standards and auditors' responsibility for the accuracy of financial statements evolved",
"-25.91697168839164"
],
[
"profit from this . His net worth was estimated at one million dollars, when fewer than a thousand Americans could claim to possess such a figure.",
"-25.907304713502526"
],
[
"$41,399,010, which included a base salary of $800,000, stocks granted of $36,179,923, and options granted of $4,019,934.\nIn 2008, he earned a total compensation of $1,235,097, which included a base salary of $800,000 and other compensation of $435,097. He did not receive any cash, stock, or options.\nIn 2014, Mack defended the high fees paid to CEOs, saying on Bloomberg Television that the discussion of compensation was healthy, but that CEOs earn the rates. Financial crisis of 2007–2008 Mack guided the firm through the financial crisis of 2007–2008, building its capital position and overseeing the firm's conversion to a bank holding company.",
"-25.895078247092897"
],
[
"global list of known U.S. dollar billionaires every year and updates an Internet version of this list in real time. The American oil magnate John D. Rockefeller became the world's first confirmed U.S. dollar billionaire in 1916, and still holds the title of history's wealthiest individual.\nAs of 2018, there are over 2,200 U.S. dollar billionaires worldwide, with a combined wealth of over US$9.1 trillion, up from US$7.67 trillion in 2017. According to a 2017 Oxfam report, the top eight richest billionaires own as much combined wealth as \"half the human race\". Current U.S. dollar billionaires According to the Forbes report released in",
"-25.8929654678941"
],
[
"billionaire is US$3 billion, with a liquidity on average of 18% of net worth. 60% of the world's billionaires are self-made, 20% have inherited their fortune and 20% have both inherited and grown their wealth. 18% of the world's billionaires have derived their wealth from finance, banking and investment; as opposed to 9% from industrial conglomerates and 7% from the real estate industry. The average billionaire is 62 years old, and 89% of the world's billionaires are male. Approximately 68% of them have a bachelor's degree or higher levels of education. UHNWI role in economies: luxury industry and UHNW individuals",
"-25.883487276965752"
],
[
"$3.5 billion according to Fortune magazine. Although successful in finding investors, Lin has expressed a desire to avoid quickly taking the company public. In a column penned for Fast Company he wrote about a litany of negatives associated with an IPO. His column especially focused on the downsides of \"quarterly scrutiny\" endured by public companies which would get in the way of the \"slow and steady implementation\" he wanted.",
"-25.882281213067472"
],
[
"largest in U.S. history (just ahead of AT&T Wireless and behind only General Motors and Visa Inc.). The stock price left the company with a higher market capitalization than all but a few U.S. corporations – surpassing heavyweights such as Amazon.com, McDonald's, Disney, and Kraft Foods – and made Zuckerberg's stock worth $19 billion. The New York Times stated that the offering overcame questions about Facebook's difficulties in attracting advertisers to transform the company into a \"must-own stock\". Jimmy Lee of JPMorgan Chase described it as \"the next great blue-chip\". Writers at TechCrunch, on the other hand, expressed skepticism, stating,",
"-25.866944485795102"
],
[
"$9 billion was \"a whopper\", figuring it was actually $4.1 billion. In June 2015, Business Insider published Trump's June 2014 financial statement, noting that $3.3 billion of that total is represented by \"Real Estate Licensing Deals, Brand and Branded Developments\", described by Business Insider as \"basically [implying] that Trump values his character at $3.3 billion\". Forbes reduced its estimate of Trump's net worth by $125 million following Trump's controversial 2015 remarks about Mexican illegal immigrants, which ended Trump's business contracts with NBCUniversal, Univision, Macy's, Serta, PVH Corporation, and Perfumania.\nIn 2016, Forbes estimated Trump's net worth at $3.7 billion, and Bloomberg $3",
"-25.84865410719067"
],
[
"CEO of a company is not necessarily the owner of the company. International use In some countries, there is a dual board system with two separate boards, one executive board for the day-to-day business and one supervisory board for control purposes (selected by the shareholders). In these countries, the CEO presides over the executive board and the chairman presides over the supervisory board, and these two roles will always be held by different people. This ensures a distinction between management by the executive board and governance by the supervisory board. This allows for clear lines of authority. The aim is",
"-25.844757975515677"
],
[
"prompt disclosure of expenditures can provide shareholders and citizens with the information needed to hold corporations and elected officials accountable for their positions and supporters. Shareholders can determine whether their corporation’s political speech advances the corporation’s interest in making profits, and citizens can see whether elected officials are \"in the pocket\" of so-called moneyed interests... This transparency enables the electorate to make informed decisions and give proper weight to different speakers and messages. Concurrences Chief Justice Roberts, with whom Justice Alito joined, wrote separately \"to address the important principles of judicial restraint and stare decisis implicated in this case\".\nRoberts wrote",
"-25.82854479411617"
],
[
"into a conglomerate with annual revenues of over US$4.8 billion.",
"-25.811394087329973"
],
[
"the few big firms that did disclose its executive pension liability—GE—reported $1.13 billion for the year 2000.\nAn example of how much deferred compensation for a CEO at a major firm can amount to is the $1 billion the CEO of Coca-Cola earned in compensation and investment gains over a 17-year period. In addition, almost all of the tax due on the $1 billion was paid by Coca-Cola company rather than the CEO.\nAn example of how pensions have been used as \"stealthy\" compensation mentioned above was a change in the formula for determining the pension that one retiring CEO (Terrence Murray",
"-25.793297459182213"
],
[
"women; however, only 11% of these businesses have annual revenues that exceed $100,000 as opposed to 29% of male privately owned business which exceed $100,000. In fact, female-owned firms generate just 19 cents to every dollar that is generated by male-owned business. Reports in 2017 show 71% of all reporting non-profit organizations have a female CEO. Of these organizations, only 46.1% operate with budgets that exceed $1 million. Of the remaining 29% of non-profit organizations that are led by men, 53.9% operate on budgets above $1 million.\nVermont's 2017 Status Report indicated that only 8% of Vermont's highest",
"-25.764299642061815"
],
[
"total compensation of $17,962,579, which included a base salary of $1,375,000, a cash bonus of $4,500,000, stocks granted worth $3,756,556, options granted worth $7,926,420, and other compensation worth $404,603. In 2009, he was included in the list of the 24 \"TopGun CEOs\" in the US, published by Brendan Wood International, an advisory agency.\nHe is also a member of the Lambda Chi Alpha Fraternity.",
"-25.744614509050734"
],
[
"The World's Billionaires Methodology Each year, Forbes employs a team of more than 50 reporters from a variety of countries to track the activity of the world's wealthiest individuals. Preliminary surveys are sent to those who may qualify for the list. According to Forbes, they received three types of responses – some people try to inflate their wealth, others cooperate but leave out details, and some refuse to answer any questions. Business deals are then scrutinized and estimates of valuable assets – land, homes, vehicles, artwork, etc. – are made. Interviews are conducted to vet the figures and improve the estimate of an",
"-25.741154944407754"
],
[
"and the 220th richest in the United States, with an estimated wealth of US$2.1 billion. He lives in Fort Worth, Texas.",
"-25.73341877385974"
],
[
"information. Nixon is currently the second largest shareholder in the company, behind Capital Group.\nIn December 2015, The Guardian reported that his next share sale, on which he avoided British capital gains tax at 28% having moved to Jersey in 2013, would make him a billionaire. In 2016 Nixon sold his remaining 6.9% stake for £124m. In May 2017, the Sunday Times Rich List estimated his net worth at £1.176 billion. \nNixon runs an international luxury holiday rental website, Simon Escapes, offering holiday homes in some of his favourite destinations.\nNixon has said that backing fast-growing businesses helped him become a billionaire. He",
"-25.726689072791487"
],
[
"company with at least $500 million in shareholders' equity. This was because Salleh Marican's company had only averaged shareholders' equity of about $258 million for its last three financial years, which was \"considerably below\" $500 million. Moreover, the principal activities of the company \"were those of an investment holding company, retailing of garments, holding of property as investment for rental income, investing in equities, and trading in bonds and equities\". As the only qualified candidate, Halimah Yacob was declared elected as President on nomination day, 13 September 2017, without the need for a poll. Application for community certificate With",
"-25.709045114577748"
],
[
"the value of the shares held by minority shareholders.\nThe largest shareholders (in terms of percentages of companies owned) are often mutual funds, and, especially, passively managed exchange-traded funds. Application The owners of a private company may want additional capital to invest in new projects within the company. They may also simply wish to reduce their holding, freeing up capital for their own private use. They can achieve these goals by selling shares in the company to the general public, through a sale on a stock exchange. This process is called an initial public offering, or IPO.\nBy selling shares they",
"-25.69267549761571"
],
[
"for private companies than they do for public companies. These events happen because private companies frequently issue large amounts of new stock every time they raise money from investors. \nPrivate company investors often acquire large ownership stakes (20%-35%) and invest large sums of money as part of the venture capital process. To accommodate this, private companies must issue large amounts of stock to these investors. The issuance of stock to new investors creates significant dilution for founders and existing shareholders. \nCompany founders start with 100% ownership of their company but frequently have less than 35% ownership",
"-25.679602532705758"
],
[
"News since March 2012. It tracks the 500 wealthiest people in the world. The ranking was designed to provide a more transparent and accountable presentation of the world's biggest personal fortunes. At first, the index only tracked the 20 richest people in the world, and then expanded to 100, 200, 400 and later 500 in October 2016.\nAt its launch in 2012, Mexican telecommunications tycoon Carlos Slim was in the top spot, with an estimated $65.8 billion net worth. Beginning in May 2013, Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates was the world's top billionaire. Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos and Spanish fashion retailer Amancio",
"-25.64722542942036"
],
[
"to take a long-term view and consider their firm their lifetime achievement, resulting in them holding a larger equity stake in their firm than non-founder CEOs. Darius Palia, S. Abraham Ravid, and Chia-Jane Wang developed this idea further and concluded that founder CEOs become less influenced by managerial incentives as they continue to devote resources to their firm whereas the opposite is true for non-founder CEOs. Non-founder CEOs are less invested in their company and are more likely to tailor their performance according to managerial incentives. Scholars such as Joon Mahn Mahn Lee, Jongsoo Jays Kim, and Joonhyung Bae,",
"-25.646959928781143"
],
[
"the Forbes magazine list of the nation's wealthiest people in 2005, with a fortune the magazine estimated at $1.2 billion. As lieutenant governor, which was a part-time job, he forwarded his $34,673 state salary to charity.",
"-25.63896864565322"
],
[
"The Millionaires Plot synopsis What started as the perfect crime for a pair of employees at the private banking firm of Greene & Greene takes a turn for the worse. Charlie and Oliver Caruso work at Greene & Greene, a private bank that is so exclusive you need at least two million dollars just to be a client. The brothers are denied a promotion. As one opportunity closes, though, another reveals itself. A mysterious benefactor brings to their attention an abandoned bank account. No one knows of the account's existence, it doesn't belong to anyone, and it contains three million",
"-25.63737492734799"
],
[
"and US$47 billion respectively. He was the first Mexican to top the list. It was the first time in 16 years that the person on top of the list was not from the United States. It was also the first time the person at the top of the list was from an \"emerging economy\". Between 2008 and 2010, Slim more than doubled his net worth from $35 to $75 billion.\nIn March 2011 Forbes stated that Slim had maintained his position as the wealthiest person in the world, with his fortune estimated at US$74 billion.\nIn December 2012, according to the Bloomberg Billionaires Index, Carlos",
"-25.63439490570454"
],
[
"Management The Chief Executive Officer (the top manager) of the organization has overall responsibility for designing and implementing effective internal control. More than any other individual, the chief executive sets the \"tone at the top\" that affects integrity and ethics and other factors of a positive control environment. In a large company, the chief executive fulfills this duty by providing leadership and direction to senior managers and reviewing the way they're controlling the business. Senior managers, in turn, assign responsibility for establishment of more specific internal control policies and procedures to personnel responsible for the unit's functions. In a",
"-25.628673524712212"
],
[
"investors in the company by representing that company revenues far exceeded the actual figures.”\nThe government alleges that actual 2006 revenues were $582,789 but the pair inflated the revenues to nearly $4 million; actual 2007 revenues were $1.4 million inflated to $6.2 million; and actual 2008 revenues were $1.7 million inflated to $5.2 million.\nThe false revenue numbers, according to the government, were used by the pair to attract millions of dollars in private investment, including $19 million from Ignition Partners, of Bellevue. Two Ignition partners told government investigators that they never would have made such an investment had they known the actual revenue figures.\nForty Entellium staff",
"-25.615080826406484"
],
[
"indifference about his position on Forbes list of the world's richest people. He has said he has no interest in becoming the world's richest person. When asked to explain his sudden increase in wealth at a press conference soon after Forbes annual rankings were published, he said, \"The stock market goes up ... and down\", and noted that his fortune could quickly drop.\nSlim was criticized by the Dutch minister of economic affairs, Henk Kamp, in 2013 for attempting to expand his telecom empire beyond the Americas by América Móvil's buy-out offer to KPN, a Dutch landline and mobile telecommunications company privatized",
"-25.611928234808147"
],
[
"state-owned banks, is ranked as the world's third-largest bank with $2.7 trillion in assets, according to S&P Global. In March 2001, he was appointed assistant president of Agricultural Bank of China, nine month later, he rose to become vice-president. In January 2009 he was promoted again to become president and deputy party chief of the bank, replacing Xiang Junbo. In November 2015 he was taken away by the authorities under investigation as Communist Party General Secretary Xi Jinping's continues a campaign against corruption at all levels of government. Zhang resigned in the following month.",
"-25.58813747134991"
],
[
"capital stock of the corporations paying the same of the value, approximately stated, of 564 millions of dollars.\"\n\"That it appears, as is shown by the books and published report of the Secretary of Internal Affairs for the year 1881, that the total valuation throughout the state for that year of\"\n\"all mortgages, money owing by solvent debtors, whether by promissory note, penal or single bill, bond, or judgment, also all articles of agreement and accounts bearing interest, owned or possessed by any person or persons whatsoever (except notes or bills for work or labor done, and all obligations given to banks",
"-25.57939366484061"
],
[
"corporations). Large companies have factories or production facilities in less developed countries, these factories create wealth for the company which is then not transferred to the economy of the host country and instead to that of the corporation involved. The economic value of goods and/or profits lost here is leakage.",
"-25.577933083521202"
],
[
"income in 2009 was $41,751, 12th in the nation.\nAmong its resident billionaires, Washington boasts Jeff Bezos, Chairman & CEO of Amazon, who, with a net worth of $154.4 billion, is the wealthiest man in the world, and Bill Gates, technology advisor and former Chairman & CEO of Microsoft, who, with a net worth of $91.3 billion, is the second wealthiest man in the world as of December 2017. Other Washington state billionaires include Paul Allen (Microsoft), Steve Ballmer (Microsoft), Craig McCaw (McCaw Cellular Communications), James Jannard (Oakley), Howard Schultz (Starbucks), and Charles Simonyi (Microsoft). Trade Significant amounts of trade with",
"-25.506855706655188"
],
[
"corporations can own shares in other corporations and receive corporate dividends 80% tax-free. There are no limits on the amount of losses a corporation may carry forward to subsequent tax years. A sole proprietorship, on the other hand, cannot claim a capital loss greater than $3,000 unless the owner has offsetting capital gains.\nA corporation is capable of continuing indefinitely. Its existence is not affected by the death of shareholders, directors, or officers of the corporation. Ownership in a Corp. or LLC is easily transferable to others, either in whole or in part. Some state laws are particularly corporate-friendly. For example,",
"-25.496539559215307"
],
[
"Fortune 500 The Fortune 500 is an annual list compiled and published by Fortune magazine that ranks 500 of the largest United States corporations by total revenue for their respective fiscal years. The list includes publicly held companies, along with privately held companies for which revenues are publicly available. The concept of the Fortune 500 was created by Edgar P. Smith, a Fortune editor, and the first list was published in 1955. The Fortune 500 is more commonly used than its subset Fortune 100 or superset Fortune 1000. History The Fortune 500, created by Edgar P. Smith, was first",
"-25.489639994688332"
],
[
"To compute it, add the market cap (see above) and the total net debt of the company. The total net debt is equal to total long and short term debt plus accounts payable, minus accounts receivable, minus cash. The enterprise value is the best approximation of what a company is worth at any point in time because it takes into account the actual stock price instead of balance sheet prices. When analysts say that a company is a \"billion dollar\" company, they are often referring to its total enterprise value. Enterprise value fluctuates rapidly based on stock price changes. EV",
"-25.485312319826335"
],
[
"International versions of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? This table lists all international variants in the television game show franchise Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? that have been broadcast since the debut of the original British version of the show on 4 September 1998.",
"-25.481539126718417"
],
[
"he valued as a key component of his legacy. Michael Bloomberg, a billionaire, has pledged to give away all of his wealth. As of 2016, she is listed as the 87th most powerful woman in the world by Forbes. Personal life Harris is married to attorney Mark Lebow, a member of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority’s board.",
"-25.474758728058077"
],
[
"in its 2017 World's Billionaires list, making him the richest man in China with a net worth of US$31.3 billion. However, on May 14, Jack Ma overtook Wang Jianlin as the richest man in China, thanks to Ma's Alibaba Group's increases in stock prices. Personal life He is married to Lin Ning (Chinese: 林宁; pinyin: Lín Níng), and has a son, Wang Sicong (Chinese: 王思聪; pinyin: Wáng Sīcōng; born 1988), educated at Winchester College and University College London in the UK. Wang Sicong is currently a board member of the Wanda Group and a venture capitalist in China through his",
"-25.467090921505587"
]
] |
4gjagn | How a nuclear reactor works to produce energy. | [
"The core itself is like a hot rock, more or less. It's continually having coolant of some sort passed by it to keep it from getting too hot. This heats up that coolant quite a bit. That coolant, in turn, passes it's heat on to water sitting in a boiler, heating it up to several hundred degrees, creating steam. That steam is then used to spin massive turbine generators, which output electrical power. There's a lot in there about choice of coolant and how heat is transferred across materials, but essentially: hot rock makes hot liquid, makes hot water/steam, spins turbine.",
"[GIF explaining pretty much everything]( URL_0 ) I'm going to explain using the gif i linked. In the reactor vessel you have plutonium (radioactive) producing heat when it **decays** (correction thanks to ToastGiraffe :)). The control rods control this reaction in the plutonium, stopping the reactor from overheating. The heated water from the reactor vessel is pumped around through the steam generator which produces steam. The steam passes though a turbine that drives a generator. When the steam has passed the turbine it is cooled in the condenser and pumped back into the steam generator and the circle is complete. The only thing the gif doesn't show is how the \"external\" cooling water is cooled. This can be done in many ways, but the most used ones is either by large cooling towers (you have seen them!) or by pumping it through a large assembly of water (lake/sea). Anything else you want to know, just ask! :)",
"Hot rock is very hot Hot placed next to water Water boils Use turbine to get energy from steam",
"Nuclear reactors use fissionable materials (Usually Uranium or Plutonium) that emit “fast” neutrons naturally through radioactive decay. These neutrons are usually moving too fast to actually be absorbed by the fuel normally, but they do travel into a moderator (usually water because it is stable and doubles as a coolant) that can slow them down by letting the neutrons bounce around a bit, transferring the energy to the moderator molecules in the form of heat. When these neutrons have slowed enough, they are considered “thermalized” and they drift back into the fuel region and are able to be absorbed by the fissionable material which destabilizes it, causing fission which releases a lot more fast neutrons that go and do the same thing. The heat generated by the neutron in the moderator is transferred to a coolant (if they aren't the same thing) and can either cause boiling in the core (such as with a boiling water reactor) or is transferred to a lower pressure system through a heat exchanger called a steam generator which causes boiling in this secondary system (in a Pressurized Water Reactor). The high pressure steam is then sent through a turbine that spins to generate electricity. Any leftover low pressure steam after the turbine has the excess heat transferred out into an outside source of water (coolant tower, lake, river, ocean, etc.) through another heat exchanger called a condenser. The condensed water is then pumped back into the Reactor core or Steam Generator to repeat the process. Each system is self-enclosed and the water never mixes. The neutron creation in the core is controlled by using moveable control rods made out of a material that can absorb neutrons such as boron or by chemically adding the neutron absorber to the core in controlled amounts. The amount of neutron absorber added or Control Rod movement will control exactly how many neutrons are absorbed, preventing them from going back into the core to create more fissions which directly control the heat generated by the reactor, thus the power generated. tl;dr: Hot core creates steam which pushes a turbine around which generates power. The heat level of the core is controlled by chemicals and/or rods. EDIT: spelling, grammar",
"The short story? It's a steam engine, nothing more.",
"Atoms are big clumps or elementary particles. The number and composition determines what type of atom and what isotope of that atom it is. Some isotopes are however very unstable and will easily shatter into smaller pieces. In a nuclear reactor there are isotopes of uranium or plutonium that is just one neutron away from shattering. To start a reactor you just shoot a few neutrons into the core which will hit an atom and make it shatter into smaller atoms and elementary particles with lots of energy. When the atom smashes there are more neutrons created which crashes into more atoms and make them shatter. If you had a high concentration of these isotopes you would have a nuclear bomb as all energy would be released at once. However in a nuclear reactor there are lots of other material in the core to slow down the reaction. To fine tune the reaction speed there are control rods that can be lowered into the core and slow down the reaction. All the energy that is released will make the core heat up. Too cool it down you pump water through the reactor core. This water is then turned into high pressure steam which is used to turn a steam turbine that make electricity. You are then left with low pressure steam which is very hard to get any energy from so it is cooled in giant cooling towers so it can be reused.",
"The same way a steam powered generator does. You have the radioactive material, which is pretty hot, turning water into steam. The steam is used to drive a steam turbine, which uses the energy of the steam to create energy using magnetic fields. You could take the nuclear part of the power plant and replace it with coal or gas, and the principal of operation would not change significantly.",
"Nuclear reactors are basically just the world's most complex way to boil water. The nuclear reaction makes the core insanely hot, and that heat is used to heat water (or sometimes other fluids) to extremely high pressures. That pressure is used to drive a turbine, and the turbine produces electricity.",
"So eh.. super weird question here.. But im dying to know how hot the insides of a reactor get? what amount of heat do we use to boil the water?.. in my mind its \"oh god nuclear stuff, its probably a gazillion degrees!\""
] | [
[
"Nuclear reactor A nuclear reactor, formerly known as an atomic pile, is a device used to initiate and control a self-sustained nuclear chain reaction. Nuclear reactors are used for electricity generation and in nuclear marine propulsion. Heat from nuclear fission is captured in a liquid, gas or multiphase working fluid, and passed through heat exchangers to steam turbines. The rotation can be used directly as in an ocean vessel or to generate electricity. Nuclear generated steam in principle can be used for industrial process heat or for district heating. Some reactors are used to produce isotopes for medical and industrial",
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"Accelerator-driven subcritical reactor An accelerator-driven subcritical reactor is a nuclear reactor design formed by coupling a substantially subcritical nuclear reactor core with a high-energy proton accelerator. It could use thorium as a fuel, which is more abundant than uranium.\nThe neutrons needed for sustaining the fission process would be provided by a particle accelerator producing neutrons by spallation. These neutrons activate the thorium, enabling fission without needing to make the reactor critical. One benefit of such reactors is the relatively short half-lives of their waste products. The high energy proton beam impacts a molten lead target inside the core, chipping",
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"the reaction rate.\nA fission nuclear power plant is generally composed of a nuclear reactor, in which the nuclear reactions generating heat take place; a cooling system, which removes the heat from inside the reactor; a steam turbine, which transforms the heat in mechanical energy; an electric generator, which transform the mechanical energy into electrical energy. Life cycle of nuclear fuel The life cycle of nuclear fuel starts with Uranium mining, which can be underground, open-pit, or in-situ leach mines. The uranium ore is then typically converted into a stable and compact uranium ore concentrate form known as \"yellowcake\", more",
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" In current nuclear power reactors, about 3% of the uranium in the fuel is converted into fission products as a by-product of energy generation. Most of these fission products remain in the fuel unless there is fuel element failure or a nuclear accident, or the fuel is reprocessed. Power reactors In commercial nuclear fission reactors, the system is operated in the otherwise self-extinguishing prompt subcritical state. The reactor specific physical phenomena that nonetheless maintains the temperature above the decay heat level, are the predictably delayed, and therefore easily controlled, transformations or movements of a vital class of fission",
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"In order for this to happen, each ship essentially contains a small nuclear power plant. The power generated by this reactor is created through nuclear fission. During the process of nuclear fission, there are two products of significant importance in the reactor: heat and radiation. The heat is generated from the breaking down of the fuel source (uranium). Uranium creates heat through a self-sustaining reaction as it is bombarded by free neutrons created during fission and then reabsorbed to continue the reaction. The heat generated from the reaction heats water in the steam generator. Due to the",
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"use, or for production of weapons-grade plutonium. As of early 2019, the IAEA reports there are 454 nuclear power reactors and 226 nuclear research reactors in operation around the world. How a nuclear reactor works Just as conventional thermal power stations generate electricity by harnessing the thermal energy released from burning fossil fuels, nuclear reactors convert the energy released by controlled nuclear fission into thermal energy for further conversion to mechanical or electrical forms. Fission When a large fissile atomic nucleus such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239 absorbs a neutron, it may undergo nuclear fission. The heavy nucleus splits into",
"-37.79676134645706"
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[
"of fission reactions within a reactor core can be adjusted by controlling the quantity of neutrons that are able to induce further fission events. Nuclear reactors typically employ several methods of neutron control to adjust the reactor's power output. Some of these methods arise naturally from the physics of radioactive decay and are simply accounted for during the reactor's operation, while others are mechanisms engineered into the reactor design for a distinct purpose.\nThe fastest method for adjusting levels of fission-inducing neutrons in a reactor is via movement of the control rods. Control rods are made of neutron poisons and therefore",
"-37.760409534676"
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"pressurization of the system, the water that cools the reactor does not boil, but creates a media to transfer the heat to the steam plants to create steam. As steam is produced, it is forced through a series of pipes and past different turbines, causing the turbine to spin and generate electrical power or propel the ship. The steam is then cooled and converted back to water, which is then sent back to the steam generator and the process is repeated. Environmental impact Nuclear reactors create energy through fission, as opposed to burning fuel. Because of this, no",
"-37.650349781266414"
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"reactors A thermal reactor is a nuclear reactor that uses slow or thermal neutrons. A neutron moderator is used to slow the neutrons emitted by fission to make them more likely to be captured by the fuel. Very-high-temperature reactor The very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR) concept uses a graphite-moderated core with a once-through uranium fuel cycle, using helium or molten salt as a coolant. This reactor design envisions an outlet temperature of 1,000°C. The reactor core can be either a prismatic-block or a pebble bed reactor design. The high temperatures enable applications such as process heat or hydrogen production via the thermochemical",
"-37.57210094196489"
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"fuel is reprocessed, it is referred to as a closed fuel cycle. Basic concepts Nuclear power relies on fissionable material that can sustain a chain reaction with neutrons. Examples of such materials include uranium and plutonium. Most nuclear reactors use a moderator to lower the kinetic energy of the neutrons and increase the probability that fission will occur. This allows reactors to use material with far lower concentration of fissile isotopes than are needed for nuclear weapons. Graphite and heavy water are the most effective moderators, because they slow the neutrons through collisions without absorbing them. Reactors using heavy",
"-37.483859199885046"
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"neutrons, which make it ideal for either nuclear reactors or nuclear bombs.\nMost reactor designs in existence are thermal reactors and typically use water as a neutron moderator (moderator means that it slows down the neutron to a thermal speed) and as a coolant. But in a fast breeder reactor, some other kind of coolant is used which will not moderate or slow the neutrons down much. This enables fast neutrons to dominate, which can effectively be used to constantly replenish the fuel supply. By merely placing cheap unenriched uranium into such a core, the non-fissionable U-238 will be turned into",
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"Nuclear power Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions that release nuclear energy to generate heat, which most frequently is then used in steam turbines to produce electricity in a nuclear power plant. Nuclear power can be obtained from nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion reactions.\nPresently, the vast majority of electricity from nuclear power is produced by nuclear fission of uranium and plutonium.\nNuclear decay processes are used in niche applications such as radioisotope thermoelectric generators.\nGenerating electricity from fusion power remains at the focus of international research.\nThis article mostly deals with nuclear fission power for electricity generation.\nCivilian nuclear power",
"-37.023503527394496"
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"nuclear fuel contains at least ten million times more usable energy per unit mass than does chemical fuel. The energy of nuclear fission is released as kinetic energy of the fission products and fragments, and as electromagnetic radiation in the form of gamma rays; in a nuclear reactor, the energy is converted to heat as the particles and gamma rays collide with the atoms that make up the reactor and its working fluid, usually water or occasionally heavy water or molten salts.\nWhen a uranium nucleus fissions into two daughter nuclei fragments, about 0.1 percent of the mass of the uranium nucleus",
"-37.00141756935045"
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"fall to the base of the reactor to be collected. At full power the reactor used up 1 to 6 fuel elements per day depending on enrichment and porosity of the fuel element. It produced 3MW of thermal energy. Advantages A typical nuclear reactor prevents the coolant medium from directly contacting the fuel pellets either by cladding the fuel pellets, sealing the fuel pellets inside a fuel rod or running the coolant through separate piping. This prevents contamination of the cooling medium. One of the disadvantages of a sealed fuel assembly includes buildup of fission",
"-36.93878200824838"
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"the steam has gone through the turbine, it is cooled in a condenser; the water obtained in this manner is pumped again toward the nuclear reactor, to restart the generation cycle.\nSteam flow rate from each reactor is 3944 kilotons/hour (kt/h) to generate 682 MW of electric power. Both Reactor Units (U1 and U2) operate using 444 enriched uranium assemblies, storing power equal to 38.9 million oil barrels. This nuclear fuel is specifically designed to be admitted into the core of the reactor. The fuel is purchased only from qualified vendors worldwide. After 18 months of operation, between 25% and 30%",
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"Uranium-238 Nuclear energy applications In a fission nuclear reactor, uranium-238 can be used to generate ²³⁹Pu, which itself can be used in a nuclear weapon or as a nuclear-reactor fuel supply. In a typical nuclear reactor, up to one-third of the generated power does come from the fission of ²³⁹Pu, which is not supplied as a fuel to the reactor, but rather, produced from ²³⁸U. Breeder reactors ²³⁸U is not usable directly as nuclear fuel, though it can produce energy via \"fast\" fission. In this process, a neutron that has a kinetic energy in excess of 1 MeV can cause the",
"-36.868244860641425"
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[
"of heat and radiation. \nThe split atom will also release neutrons, which can then be absorbed by other unstable nuclei, causing a chain reaction. A sustained fission chain is necessary to generate nuclear power.\nSMR designs include thermal-neutron reactors and fast-neutron reactors.\nThermal-neutron reactors rely on a moderator to slow neutrons and generally use ²³⁵\nU as fissile material. Most currently operating nuclear reactors are of this type.\nFast reactors don’t use moderators to slow down the neutrons, therefore they rely on the nuclear fuel being able to absorb neutrons travelling at higher speeds. \nThis usually means changing the fuel arrangement within the core,",
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"60 years, provided that safety can be maintained, to increase energy security and preserve low-carbon generation sources. Research into nuclear reactors that can last 100 years, known as Centurion Reactors, is being conducted. Nuclear power station Just as many conventional thermal power stations generate electricity by harnessing the thermal energy released from burning fossil fuels, nuclear power plants convert the energy released from the nucleus of an atom via nuclear fission that takes place in a nuclear reactor. When a neutron hits the nucleus of a uranium-235 or plutonium atom, it can split the nucleus into two smaller nuclei.",
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"Nuclear reactor heat removal Theoretical framework The thermal energy produced in nuclear fuel comes mainly from the kinetic energy of fission fragments. Therefore, the heat generated per volume unit is proportional to the fraction of nuclear fissionable fuel burned in the unit of time:\nwhere represents the number of atoms in a cubic meter of fuel, a is the amount of energy released in the fuel in each fission reaction (~181 MeV), is the neutronic flux, and is the effective section of the fission.\nThe total heat produced in the nuclear reactor is:\nwhere is the mean neutronic flux and",
"-36.52543373283697"
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"1990s, numerous nuclear reactor power systems have been proposed using heat pipes for transporting heat between the reactor core and the power conversion system. The first nuclear reactor to produce electricity using heat pipes was first operated on September 13, 2012 in a demonstration using flattop fission. Wankel rotary combustion engines Ignition of the fuel mixture always takes place in the same part of Wankel engines, inducing thermal dilatation disparities that reduce power output, impair fuel economy, and accelerate wear. SAE paper 2014-01-2160, by Wei Wu et al., describes: 'A Heat Pipe Assisted Air-Cooled Rotary Wankel Engine for",
"-36.48143553745467"
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[
"of 93%) uranium-235. Light water is used as both neutron-moderator and reactor coolant. Hafnium Control rods are used to control the operation of the reactor. Extracting the rods to a calculated height allows the reactor to reach criticality, the point at which the nuclear fission reactions reach a self-sustaining level. Thereafter, steam flow (from the steam generators) regulates reactor power as explained below. The control rods are \"shimmed\" in or out to regulate average coolant temperature or lowered to the bottom of the reactor vessel to shut the reactor down — either done in a slow controlled manner or",
"-36.2481711753062"
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"Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the reactor's rated capacity was described as 500 MWt of thermal power and 160 MWe of electrical power.\nThe reactor was designed for an expected lifetime of 60 years. Fuel and refueling B&W mPower uses standard fuel enriched to 5%, similar to the fuel loaded in the other PWRs. It was designed for a 4-year refueling cycle. In the process of refuelling, the entire core will be completely removed in a single evolution, and replaced in a second separate evolution, making the core nearly \"plug and play\", unlike traditional reactors, which require fuel handling and movement of individual fuel rods during",
"-36.22351455851458"
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[
"be shut down by draining the fuel salt from the Core-unit into storage tanks.\nA failsafe backup is provided in the form of meltable cans, filled with a liquid neutron absorbing material that will permanently shut down the reactor in the event of a severe overheating event. Cooling A nuclear reactor is a thermal power system—it generates heat, transports it and eventually converts it to mechanical energy in a heat engine, in this case a steam turbine. \nSuch systems require that the heat is removed, transported and converted at the same rate it is generated.\nA fundamental issue for nuclear reactors is",
"-36.17254868306918"
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"US National Reactor Testing Station (now the Idaho National Laboratory) in a series of tests called the BORAX experiments. Reactor design The light-water reactor produces heat by controlled nuclear fission. The nuclear reactor core is the portion of a nuclear reactor where the nuclear reactions take place. It mainly consists of nuclear fuel and control elements. The pencil-thin nuclear fuel rods, each about 12 feet (3.7 m) long, are grouped by the hundreds in bundles called fuel assemblies. Inside each fuel rod, pellets of uranium, or more commonly uranium oxide, are stacked end to end. The control elements, called control",
"-35.944550922489725"
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"Pu-239, \"breeding\" fuel.\nIn thorium fuel cycle thorium-232 absorbs a neutron in either a fast or thermal reactor. The thorium-233 beta decays to protactinium-233 and then to uranium-233, which in turn is used as fuel. Hence, like uranium-238, thorium-232 is a fertile material. Fueling of nuclear reactors The amount of energy in the reservoir of nuclear fuel is frequently expressed in terms of \"full-power days,\" which is the number of 24-hour periods (days) a reactor is scheduled for operation at full power output for the generation of heat energy. The number of full-power days in a reactor's operating cycle (between refueling",
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"Fast fission Fast reactors vs. thermal reactors Fast neutron reactors use fast fission to produce energy, unlike most nuclear reactors. In a conventional reactor, a moderator is needed to slow down the neutrons so that they are more likely to fission atoms. A fast neutron reactor uses fast neutrons, so it does not use a moderator. Moderators may absorb a lot of neutrons in a thermal reactor, and fast fission produces a higher average number of neutrons per fission, so fast reactors have better neutron economy making a plutonium breeder reactor possible. However, a fast neutron reactor must use relatively",
"-35.6683690432983"
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"contains liquid metal which is impacted by the beam, thus releasing neutrons and is cooled by circulating the liquid metal such as lead-bismuth towards a heat exchanger. The nuclear reactor core surrounding the spallation neutron source contains the fuel rods, the fuel being preferably Thorium. Thereby, for each proton intersecting the spallation target, an average of 20 neutrons is released which fission the surrounding fissile part of the fuel and enrich the fertile part. The neutron balance can be regulated or indeed shut off by adjusting the accelerator power so that the reactor would be below criticality. The additional neutrons",
"-35.63341041124659"
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"cooled using forced circulation through heat exchangers to a secondary coolant system. The heat from the reactor is ultimately dissipated to the atmosphere via the secondary cooling system using two modular Tower Tech cooling towers – model TTXL-081950;.\nThe reactor uses highly enriched uranium fuel, in the form of uranium-aluminum cermet with aluminum cladding.\nRefueling takes place 3 to 4 times every year. A single refueling consists of rearranging the assemblies in the core or a combination of rearranging and replacement of old assemblies with new ones. This is more frequent than both nuclear power plants, which may go",
"-35.57623371866066"
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[
"of fuel. In practice it is economics that determines the lifetime of nuclear fuel in a reactor. Long before all possible fission has taken place, the reactor is unable to maintain 100%, full output power, and therefore, income for the utility lowers as plant output power lowers. Most nuclear plants operate at a very low profit margin due to operating overhead, mainly regulatory costs, so operating below 100% power is not economically viable for very long. The fraction of the reactor's fuel core replaced during refueling is typically one-third, but depends on how long the plant",
"-35.48484719170665"
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"reactor pressure vessel and neutron reflector material. The higher operating temperatures would be expected to deliver specific impulse performance on the order of 1300 to 1500 seconds (12.8–14.8 kN·s/kg).\nA liquid-core reactor would be extremely difficult to build with current technology. One major issue is that the reaction time of the nuclear fuel is much longer than the heating time of the working fluid. If the nuclear fuel and working fluid are not physically separated, this means that the fuel must be trapped inside the engine while the working fluid is allowed to easily exit through the nozzle. One possible solution is",
"-35.473209190240595"
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[
"but sometimes a gas or a liquid metal (like liquid sodium) or molten salt — is circulated past the reactor core to absorb the heat that it generates. The heat is carried away from the reactor and is then used to generate steam. Most reactor systems employ a cooling system that is physically separated from the water that will be boiled to produce pressurized steam for the turbines, like the pressurized water reactor. However, in some reactors the water for the steam turbines is boiled directly by the reactor core; for example the boiling water reactor. Reactivity control The rate",
"-35.40347911033314"
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"atoms themselves. As these neutrons are in thermal equilibrium with the fuel, they are referred to as thermal neutrons.\nDuring moderation it helps to separate the neutrons and uranium, since ²³⁸U has a large affinity for intermediate-energy neutrons (\"resonance\" absorption), but is only easily fissioned by the few energetic neutrons above ≈1.5–2 MeV. Since most of the fuel is usually ²³⁸U, most reactor designs are based on thin fuel rods separated by moderator, allowing the neutrons to travel in the moderator before entering the fuel again. More neutrons are released than are needed to maintain the chain reaction; when uranium-238 absorbs just",
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[
"Subcritical reactor A subcritical reactor is a nuclear fission reactor concept that produces fission without achieving criticality. Instead of a sustaining chain reaction, a subcritical reactor uses additional neutrons from an outside source. There are two general classes of such devices. One uses neutrons provided by a nuclear fusion machine, a concept known as a fusion-fission hybrid. The other uses neutrons created through spallation of heavy nuclei by charged particles such as protons accelerated by a particle accelerator, a concept known as an accelerator-driven system (ADS) or accelerator-driven sub-critical reactor. Motivation A subcritical reactor can be used to destroy heavy",
"-35.29049226199277"
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[
"can be burners or breeders. They can be fast or thermal or epithermal. Thermal reactors typically employ a moderator (usually graphite) to slow the neutrons down and moderate temperature. They can accept a variety of fuels (low-enriched uranium, thorium, depleted uranium, waste products) and coolants (fluoride, chloride, lithium, beryllium, mixed). Fuel cycle can be either closed or once-through. They can be monolithic or modular, large or small. The reactor can adopt a loop, modular or integral configuration. Variations include: Liquid-salt very-high-temperature reactor This approach involves using a fluoride-salt as the coolant. Both the traditional MSR and the very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR)",
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[
" On the other hand, a neutron absorber will decrease the reactivity of a nuclear reactor. These two mechanisms are used to control the thermal power output of a nuclear reactor.\nIn order to keep a nuclear reactor intact and functioning, and to extract useful power from it, a cooling system must be used. Some reactors circulate pressurized water; some use liquid metal, such as sodium, NaK, lead, or mercury; others use gases (see advanced gas-cooled reactor). If the coolant is a liquid, it may boil if the temperature inside the reactor rises. This boiling leads to",
"-35.25341514105094"
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[
"also be used to produce various radioisotopes through the process of neutron activation, which is a type of neutron capture.\nExperimental nuclear fusion reactors produce free neutrons as a waste product. However, it is these neutrons that possess most of the energy, and converting that energy to a useful form has proved a difficult engineering challenge. Fusion reactors that generate neutrons are likely to create radioactive waste, but the waste is composed of neutron-activated lighter isotopes, which have relatively short (50–100 years) decay periods as compared to typical half-lives of 10,000 years for fission waste, which is long due primarily to",
"-35.23048447592737"
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[
"overheat and release radioactive materials.\nThirdly, a rapid increase of the reactor power is possible if the chain reaction cannot be controlled in certain reactor designs.\nThese three characteristics have to be taken into account when designing nuclear reactors.\nReactors are designed so that an uncontrolled increase of the reactor power is prevented by natural feedback mechanisms: if the temperature or the amount of steam in the reactor increases, the fission rate inherently decreases by designing in a negative void coefficent of reactivity. The chain reaction can also be manually stopped by inserting control rods into the reactor core. Emergency core cooling systems",
"-35.22505206451751"
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[
"controlled rate in a nuclear reactor or with a very rapid uncontrolled rate in a nuclear weapon.\nThe most common fissile nuclear fuels are uranium-235 (²³⁵U) and plutonium-239 (²³⁹Pu). The actions of mining, refining, purifying, using, and ultimately disposing of nuclear fuel together make up the nuclear fuel cycle. Not all types of nuclear fuels create power from nuclear fission. Plutonium-238 and some other elements are used to produce small amounts of nuclear power by radioactive decay in radioisotope thermoelectric generators and other types of atomic batteries. Also, light nuclides such as tritium (³H) can be used as fuel for",
"-35.19635723101692"
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"to build a nuclear reactor from natural uranium at Columbia University, where George B. Pegram headed the physics department. There was disagreement about whether fission was produced by uranium-235, which made up less than one percent of natural uranium, or the more abundant uranium-238 isotope, as Fermi maintained. Fermi and Szilárd conducted a series of experiments and concluded that a chain reaction in natural uranium could be possible if they could find a suitable neutron moderator. They found that the hydrogen atoms in water slowed neutrons but tended to capture them. Szilárd then suggested using carbon as a moderator. They",
"-35.06097078783205"
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[
"up of the reactor neutron sources were located within the core to provide sufficient neutrons to initiate the nuclear reaction. Other aspects of the design included the use of flux shaping or flattening bars or controls rods to even out (to some extent) the neutron flux density across the core. If not used, the flux in the centre would be very high relative to the outer areas leading to excessive central temperatures and lower power output limited by the temperature of the central areas. Each fuel channel would have several elements stacked one upon another to form a stringer. This",
"-35.015444019343704"
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[
"experimental reactors at Piqua in the US and Arbus at the Research Institute of Atomic Reactors in the USSR ever generated power, and then only experimentally. Fission basics Conventional fission power plants rely on the chain reaction caused when nuclear fission events release neutrons that cause further fission events. Each fission event in uranium releases two or three neutrons, so by careful arrangement and the use of various absorber materials, you can balance the system so one of those neutrons causes another fission event while the other one or two are lost. This careful balance is known as criticality.\nNatural uranium",
"-35.01356942974962"
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[
"one neutron from each fission goes on to cause another fission, the reactor is just barely \"critical\" and the chain reaction proceeds at a constant power level.\nMost neutrons produced in fission are \"prompt\", i.e., created with the fission products in less than about 10 nanoseconds (a \"shake\" of time). But certain fission products produce additional neutrons when they decay up to several minutes after their creation by fission. These delayed-release neutrons, a few percent of the total, are key to stable nuclear reactor control. Without delayed neutrons, in a reactor that was just barely above critical, reactor power would increase",
"-34.99668648903025"
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[
"Research reactor Purpose The neutrons produced by a research reactor are used for neutron scattering, non-destructive testing, analysis and testing of materials, production of radioisotopes, research and public outreach and education. Research reactors that produce radioisotopes for medical or industrial use are sometimes called isotope reactors. Reactors that are optimised for beamline experiments nowadays compete with spallation sources. Technical aspects Research reactors are simpler than power reactors and operate at lower temperatures. They need far less fuel, and far less fission products build up as the fuel is used. On the other hand, their fuel requires more highly enriched uranium,",
"-34.978505594830494"
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[
"provided by the spallation neutron source provide the degree of control as do the delayed neutrons in a conventional nuclear reactor, the difference being that spallation neutron source-driven neutrons are easily controlled by the accelerator. The main advantage is inherent safety. A conventional nuclear reactor's nuclear fuel possesses self-regulating properties such as the Doppler effect or void effect, which make these nuclear reactors safe. In addition to these physical properties of conventional reactors, in the subcritical reactor, whenever the neutron source is turned off, the fission reaction ceases and only the decay heat remains. Technical challenges There are technical difficulties",
"-34.97765381641511"
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[
"that could deliver at least 825 seconds of specific impulse, at least 50,000 pounds of thrust, at least 10 minutes of continuous operation at full thrust, and have the ability to start up on its own with no external energy source. Liquid hydrogen served as the propellant that was supplied to the reactor core by turbopumps and also provided regenerative cooling. The cylindrical graphite core was surrounded by twelve rotating control drums with beryllium on one side to reflect neutrons and boral on the other side to absorb neutrons to control the rate of the nuclear reaction in the core.",
"-34.934021910099545"
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[
"research having started in the 1950s, no commercial fusion reactor is expected before 2050. The ITER project is currently leading the effort to harness fusion power. Nuclear fuel cycle Thermal reactors generally depend on refined and enriched uranium. Some nuclear reactors can operate with a mixture of plutonium and uranium (see MOX). The process by which uranium ore is mined, processed, enriched, used, possibly reprocessed and disposed of is known as the nuclear fuel cycle.\nUnder 1% of the uranium found in nature is the easily fissionable U-235 isotope and as a result most reactor designs require enriched fuel.\nEnrichment involves increasing",
"-34.89974382709988"
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[
"pellet explosion debris, and capturing the neutrons that carry 80 percent of the energy so as to make a practical power system. Fusion-fission hybrid reactor studies In fusion-fission hybrid reactors, high-energy fast neutrons generated by nuclear fusion can be used to convert fertile materials such as Thorium-232 or Uranium-238 into fissionable fuels for fission reactors such as Uranium-233 or Plutonium-239. The high-energy fusion-generated neutrons can also be used to trigger nuclear fission in traditional nuclear fuels such as Uranium-235. The hybrid reactor concept has a fusion reactor at the core and a surrounding “blanket” of fertile material, either Thorium-232 or",
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],
[
"to fission a fissionable heavy nucleus as it exceeds a kinetic energy of one MeV or more (so-called fast neutrons). Such high energy neutrons are able to fission U-238 directly (see thermonuclear weapon for application, where the fast neutrons are supplied by nuclear fusion). However, this process cannot happen to a great extent in a nuclear reactor, as too small a fraction of the fission neutrons produced by any type of fission have enough energy to efficiently fission U-238 (fission neutrons have a mode energy of 2 MeV, but a median of only 0.75 MeV, meaning half of them have",
"-34.798379414191004"
],
[
"applies to reactors in which the moderator/coolant is neither liquid nor gas (supercritical water reactor). Explanation Nuclear fission reactors run on nuclear chain reactions, in which each nucleus that undergoes fission releases heat and neutrons. Each neutron may impact another nucleus and cause it to undergo fission. The speed of this neutron affects its probability of causing additional fission, as does the presence of neutron-absorbing material. On the one hand, slow neutrons are more easily absorbed by fissile nuclei than fast neutrons, so a neutron moderator that slows neutrons will increase the reactivity of a nuclear reactor.",
"-34.794083902728744"
],
[
"steam which will then drive a steam turbine that turns an alternator and generates electricity. Early reactors The neutron was discovered in 1932 by British physicist James Chadwick. The concept of a nuclear chain reaction brought about by nuclear reactions mediated by neutrons was first realized shortly thereafter, by Hungarian scientist Leó Szilárd, in 1933. He filed a patent for his idea of a simple reactor the following year while working at the Admiralty in London. However, Szilárd's idea did not incorporate the idea of nuclear fission as a neutron source, since that process was not yet discovered. Szilárd's ideas",
"-34.7933574069757"
],
[
"with graphite or beryllium (a neutron moderator) on one side and boron (a neutron poison) on the other. The reactor's power output could be controlled by rotating the drums. To increase thrust, it is sufficient to increase the flow of propellant. Hydrogen, whether in pure form or in a compound like ammonia, is an efficient nuclear moderator, and increasing the flow also increases the rate of reactions in the core. This increased reaction rate offsets the cooling provided by the hydrogen. Moreover, as the hydrogen heats up, it expands, so there is less in the core to remove heat, and",
"-34.78915459814016"
],
[
"to determine the feasibility of a nuclear reactor using light water as a moderator and coolant, and cladded solid uranium as fuel. The results showed that, with a lightly enriched uranium, criticality could be reached. This experiment was the first practical step toward the light-water reactor.\nAfter World War II and with the availability of enriched uranium, new reactor concepts became feasible. In 1946, Eugene Wigner and Alvin Weinberg proposed and developed the concept of a reactor using enriched uranium as a fuel, and light water as a moderator and coolant. This concept was proposed for a reactor whose purpose was",
"-34.730990532170836"
],
[
"operates between refueling. Plants typically operate on 18 month refueling cycles, or 24 month refueling cycles. This means that 1 refueling, replacing only one-third of the fuel, can keep a nuclear reactor at full power for nearly 2 years. The disposition and storage of this spent fuel is one of the most challenging aspects of the operation of a commercial nuclear power plant. This nuclear waste is highly radioactive and its toxicity presents a danger for thousands of years. After being discharged from the reactor, spent nuclear fuel is transferred to the on-site spent fuel",
"-34.7035570144767"
],
[
"down, as the nuclear fuel burns up over time.\nIn a nuclear power reactor, the main sources of radioactivity are fission products, alongside actinides and activation products. Fission products are the largest source of radioactivity for the first several hundred years, while actinides are dominant roughly 10³ to 10⁵ years after fuel use.\nFission occurs in the nuclear fuel, and the fission products are primarily retained within the fuel close to where they are produced. These fission products are important to the operation of the reactor because some fission products contribute delayed neutrons that are useful for reactor control while",
"-34.68438345016784"
],
[
"placed under extreme duress. Nuclear fuel is a material that can be 'burned' by nuclear fission or fusion to derive nuclear energy. Nuclear fuel can refer to the fuel itself, or to physical objects (for example bundles composed of fuel rods) composed of the fuel material, mixed with structural, neutron moderating, or neutron reflecting materials.\nMost nuclear fuels contain heavy fissile elements that are capable of nuclear fission. When these fuels are struck by neutrons, they are in turn capable of emitting neutrons when they break apart. This makes possible a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy with a",
"-34.60624652635306"
],
[
"forms the reactor core. Each BWR fuel rod is back filled with helium to a pressure of about three atmospheres (300 kPa). Moderator A neutron moderator is a medium which reduces the velocity of fast neutrons, thereby turning them into thermal neutrons capable of sustaining a nuclear chain reaction involving uranium-235. A good neutron moderator is a material full of atoms with light nuclei which do not easily absorb neutrons. The neutrons strike the nuclei and bounce off. After sufficient impacts, the velocity of the neutron will be comparable to the thermal velocities of the nuclei; this neutron is then",
"-34.59696753649041"
],
[
"allowing various negative feedbacks to stabilize the reaction.\nOn the other hand, the fission neutrons are thoroughly slowed down before they reach another fuel rod, meaning that it takes neutrons a longer time to get from one part of the reactor to the other. Thus if the chain reaction accelerates in one section of the reactor, the change will propagate itself only slowly to the rest of the core, giving time to respond in an emergency. The independence of the neutrons' energies from the nuclear fuel used is what allows such fuel flexibility in a CANDU reactor, since every fuel bundle",
"-34.59404004190583"
],
[
"poison in the fuel rods. This allows the reactor to be constructed with an excess of fissionable material, which is nevertheless made relatively safe early in the reactor's fuel burn cycle by the presence of the neutron-absorbing material which is later replaced by normally produced long-lived neutron poisons (far longer-lived than xenon-135) which gradually accumulate over the fuel load's operating life. Electrical power generation The energy released in the fission process generates heat, some of which can be converted into usable energy. A common method of harnessing this thermal energy is to use it to boil water to produce pressurized",
"-34.567404684756184"
],
[
"of nuclear fission reactions, and implies the great amount of energy that can be released by a nuclear fission chain reaction, used in both nuclear weapons and nuclear power. By measuring the mass of different atomic nuclei and subtracting from that number the total mass of the protons and neutrons as they would weigh separately, one gets the exact binding energy available in an atomic nucleus. This is used to calculate the energy released in any nuclear reaction, as the difference in the total mass of the nuclei that enter and exit the reaction. History While Einstein was the first",
"-34.538816877116915"
],
[
"can produce self-sustaining reactions.\nEnergy released in most nuclear reactions is much larger than in chemical reactions, because the binding energy that holds a nucleus together is greater than the energy that holds electrons to a nucleus. For example, the ionization energy gained by adding an electron to a hydrogen nucleus is 13.6 eV—less than one-millionth of the 17.6 MeV released in the deuterium–tritium (D–T) reaction shown in the adjacent diagram. Fusion reactions have an energy density many times greater than nuclear fission; the reactions produce far greater energy per unit of mass even though individual fission reactions are generally much more energetic",
"-34.510530704374105"
],
[
"Traveling wave reactor A traveling-wave reactor (TWR) is a proposed type of nuclear fission reactor that can convert fertile material into usable fuel through nuclear transmutation, in tandem with the burnup of fissile material. TWRs differ from other kinds of fast-neutron and breeder reactors in their ability to use fuel efficiently without uranium enrichment or reprocessing, instead directly using depleted uranium, natural uranium, thorium, spent fuel removed from light water reactors, or some combination of these materials. The concept is still in the development stage and no TWRs have ever been built. \nThe name refers to the fact that fission",
"-34.47759480844252"
],
[
"and did not generate electricity.\nIn 1951, the first nuclear fission power plant was the first to produce electricity at the Experimental Breeder Reactor No. 1 (EBR-1), in Arco, Idaho, ushering in the \"Atomic Age\" of more intensive human energy use.\nHowever, if the mass is critical only when the delayed neutrons are included, then the reaction can be controlled, for example by the introduction or removal of neutron absorbers. This is what allows nuclear reactors to be built. Fast neutrons are not easily captured by nuclei; they must be slowed (slow neutrons), generally by collision with the nuclei of a neutron",
"-34.4761931062676"
],
[
"the neutrons are captured by U-235 atoms and initiate fission, thus reducing the reactor's power output and placing an inherent upper limit on the temperature of the fuel. The geometry and design of the fuel pebbles provides an important passive safety component.\nSingle fluid fluoride molten salt reactors feature fissile, fertile and actinide radioisotopes in molecular bonds with the fluoride coolant. The molecular bonds provide a passive safety feature in that a loss-of-coolant event corresponds with a loss-of-fuel event. The molten fluoride fuel can not itself reach criticality but only reaches criticality by the addition of a neutron",
"-34.475934808840975"
],
[
"fission and the subsequent absorption of some of these neutrons in fissile isotopes. When an atom undergoes nuclear fission, a few neutrons (the exact number depends on uncontrollable and unmeasurable factors; the expected number depends on several factors, usually between 2.5 and 3.0) are ejected from the reaction. These free neutrons will then interact with the surrounding medium, and if more fissile fuel is present, some may be absorbed and cause more fissions. Thus, the cycle repeats to give a reaction that is self-sustaining.\nNuclear power plants operate by precisely controlling the rate at which nuclear reactions occur, on",
"-34.45899762271438"
],
[
"Uranium-238. In a hybrid reactor, high-energy neutrons from fusion reactions are used to produce fissionable materials such as Uranium-233 or Plutonium-239 which would need then to be reprocessed and used as fuel in a fission nuclear power plant. One fusion hybrid plant can provide enough fuel for as many as five nuclear power plants of the same power.\nConn’s work on inertial fusion hybrid reactors was conducted under the SOLASE-H program at the University of Wisconsin, and was supported by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). University of California, Los Angeles In 1980, Conn left Wisconsin to join the University",
"-34.44023410056252"
],
[
"increases the sustainability of nuclear fission and lowers the volume of high level nuclear waste. \nOne third of the energy/fissions at the end of the practical fuel life in a thermal reactor are from plutonium, the end of cycle occurs when the U-235 percentage drops, the primary fuel that drives the neutron economy inside the reactor and the drop necessitates fresh fuel being required, so without design change, one third of the fissile fuel in a new fuel load can be fissile reactor-grade plutonium with one third less of Low enriched uranium needing to be added to continue the chain",
"-34.422196585917845"
],
[
"necessary to do a certain amount of enrichment of the uranium fuel before the necessary criticality of the reactor can be maintained. The light-water reactor uses uranium 235 as a fuel, enriched to approximately 3 percent. Although this is its major fuel, the uranium 238 atoms also contribute to the fission process by converting to plutonium 239; about one-half of which is consumed in the reactor. Light-water reactors are generally refueled every 12 to 18 months, at which time, about 25 percent of the fuel is replaced.\nThe enriched UF₆ is converted into uranium dioxide powder that is then processed into",
"-34.416604192054365"
],
[
"reactor to explode like a nuclear bomb since the fuel is never sufficiently enriched for this to occur.\nNuclear reactors can fail in a variety of ways. Should the instability of the nuclear material generate unexpected behavior, it may result in an uncontrolled power excursion. Normally, the cooling system in a reactor is designed to be able to handle the excess heat this causes; however, should the reactor also experience a loss-of-coolant accident, then the fuel may melt or cause the vessel in which it is contained to overheat and melt. This event is called a nuclear meltdown.\nAfter shutting down, for",
"-34.41141388087999"
],
[
"Nuclear reactor safety system Reactor protection system (RPS) A reactor protection system is designed to immediately terminate the nuclear reaction. By breaking the nuclear chain reaction, the source of heat is eliminated. Other systems can then be used to remove decay heat from the core. All nuclear plants have some form of reactor protection system. Control rods Control rods are a series of rods that can be quickly inserted into the reactor core to absorb neutrons and rapidly terminate the nuclear reaction. They are typically composed of actinides, lanthanides, transition metals, and boron, in various alloys with structural backing such",
"-34.4099574109423"
],
[
"A4W reactor History These nuclear fission pressurized water reactors (PWRs) were jointly designed by Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory and Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory and built by Westinghouse Electric Company. Their reactor cores are expected to operate for about 20 years before refueling is required. The only ships to use these nuclear reactors are the Nimitz-class supercarriers, which have two reactors rated at 550 MWₜₕ each. These generate enough steam to produce approximately 100 MW of electricity, plus 140,000 shaft horsepower (104 MW) for each of the ship's four shafts – two per propulsion plant.",
"-34.38862588640768"
],
[
"neutrons. A power reactor operating at steady state (constant power) will therefore have an average reactivity of $1, with small fluctuations above and below this value.\nReactivity can also be expressed in relative terms, such as \"5 cents above prompt critical\".\nWhile power reactors are carefully designed and operated to avoid prompt criticality under all circumstances, many small research or \"zero power\" reactors are designed to be intentionally placed into prompt criticality (reactivity > $2) with complete safety by rapidly withdrawing their control rods. Their fuel elements are designed so that as they heat up, reactivity is automatically and quickly reduced through",
"-34.380710529047064"
],
[
"the other hand, nuclear weapons are specifically engineered to produce a reaction that is so fast and intense it cannot be controlled after it has started. When properly designed, this uncontrolled reaction will lead to an explosive energy release. Nuclear fission fuel Nuclear weapons employ high quality, highly enriched fuel exceeding the critical size and geometry (critical mass) necessary in order to obtain an explosive chain reaction. The fuel for energy purposes, such as in a nuclear fission reactor, is very different, usually consisting of a low-enriched oxide material (e.g. UO₂). Prompt neutron lifetime The prompt neutron lifetime,",
"-34.36306022590725"
],
[
"reactor and allowing the escape of radioactive material (see SL-1 or Chernobyl disaster). With a subcritical reactor, the reaction will cease unless continually fed neutrons from an outside source. However, the problem of heat generation even after ending the chain reaction remains, so that continuous cooling of such a reactor for a considerable period after shut-down remains vital in order to avoid overheating. Principle Most current ADS designs propose a high-intensity proton accelerator with an energy of about 1 GeV, directed towards a spallation target or spallation neutron source. The source located in the heart of the reactor core",
"-34.33888041855971"
],
[
"power when hydrogen gas at a sufficient temperature and pressure is admitted to the core (made up of granulated uranium metal) and reacts with the uranium metal to form uranium hydride. Uranium hydride is both a nuclear fuel and a neutron moderator; apparently it, like other neutron moderators, will slow neutrons sufficiently to allow for fission reactions to take place; the uranium-235 atoms within the hydride also serve as the nuclear fuel. Once the nuclear reaction has started, it will continue until it reaches a certain temperature, approximately 800 °C (1,500 °F), where, due to the chemical properties of uranium hydride, it",
"-34.3079603578808"
],
[
"and the control room. The building is a reinforced concrete frame and block structure. Nuclear reactor operations The reactor consists of a tubed calandria vessel of austenitic stainless steel, which contains the heavy water moderator/reflector and 208 coolant tube assemblies. The moderator system consists of the calandria, coolers, pumps and purification system in the heavy water circuit, and control valves, dump valves and helium blowers in the helium circuit. The fuel is natural uranium in the form of sintered uranium dioxide pellets sheathed in thin zirconium alloy tubes to form solid fuel elements about 19.1 inches (48.53 cm) long by 0.6 inches (1.4 cm)",
"-34.29615863063373"
],
[
"two or more lighter nuclei, (the fission products), releasing kinetic energy, gamma radiation, and free neutrons. A portion of these neutrons may be absorbed by other fissile atoms and trigger further fission events, which release more neutrons, and so on. This is known as a nuclear chain reaction.\nTo control such a nuclear chain reaction, neutron poisons and neutron moderators can change the portion of neutrons that will go on to cause more fission. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to shut the fission reaction down if monitoring detects unsafe conditions. Cooling A nuclear reactor coolant — usually water",
"-34.22781662971829"
],
[
"minimize the possibility of a nuclear accident. These designs have yet to be commercialized. (See: Molten salt reactor) Some forms of nuclear power can \"burn\" nuclear waste through a process known as nuclear transmutation, such as an Integral Fast Reactor. Nuclear power plants can be more or less eliminated from their problem of nuclear waste through the use of nuclear reprocessing and newer plants such as fast breeder plants. Fuel switching For a given unit of energy produced, the greenhouse gas emissions of natural gas are around half the emissions of coal when used to generate electricity, and around two-thirds",
"-34.20574466348626"
],
[
"International Atomic Energy Agency there are at least 100 research reactors in the world fueled by highly enriched (weapons-grade/90% enrichment) uranium. Theft risk of this fuel (potentially used in the production of a nuclear weapon) has led to campaigns advocating conversion of this type of reactor to low-enrichment uranium (which poses less threat of proliferation).\nFissile U-235 and non-fissile but fissionable and fertile U-238 are both used in the fission process. U-235 is fissionable by thermal (i.e. slow-moving) neutrons. A thermal neutron is one which is moving about the same speed as the atoms around it. Since all atoms vibrate proportionally",
"-34.198376433356316"
],
[
"than the fuel. However, and in clear contrast with classical nuclear thermal rockets (including liquid and gas nuclear rockets), the thermal energy from the decay of fission daughters is unwanted.\nVery high instantaneous propellant temperatures are hypothetically attainable by pulsing the solid nuclear core, only limited by the rapid radiative cooling after pulsation. Liquid core Liquid core nuclear engines are fueled by compounds of fissionable elements in liquid phase. A liquid-core engine is proposed to operate at temperatures above the melting point of solid nuclear fuel and cladding, with the maximum operating temperature of the engine instead being determined by the",
"-34.1894787559213"
],
[
"thermal reactors run on a once-through fuel cycle, mainly due to the low price of fresh uranium, though many reactors are also fueled with recycled fissionable materials that remain in spent nuclear fuel. The most common fissionable material that is recycled is the reactor-grade plutonium (RGPu) that is extracted from spent fuel, it is mixed with uranium oxide and fabricated into mixed-oxide or MOX fuel. The first LWR designs certified to operate on a full core of MOX fuel, the ABWR and the System 80, began to appear in the 1990s. The potential for recycling the spent fuel a",
"-34.186484786565416"
],
[
"neutrons from fission are moderated to lower their speed, since the probability for fission with slow neutrons is greater. A fission chain reaction produces intermediate mass fragments which are highly radioactive and produce further energy by their radioactive decay. Some of them produce neutrons, called delayed neutrons, which contribute to the fission chain reaction. The power output of nuclear reactors is adjusted by the location of control rods containing elements that strongly absorb neutrons, e.g., boron, cadmium, or hafnium, in the reactor core. In nuclear bombs, the reaction is uncontrolled and the large amount of energy released creates a nuclear",
"-34.18206172762439"
],
[
"energy as ionizing radiation (specifically, neutrons), but these are all thermonuclear devices which rely on the nuclear fusion stage to produce the extra radiation. The energy dynamics of pure fission bombs always remain at about 6% yield of the total in radiation, as a prompt result of fission.\nThe total prompt fission energy amounts to about 181 MeV, or ~ 89% of the total energy which is eventually released by fission over time. The remaining ~ 11% is released in beta decays which have various half-lives, but begin as a process in the fission products immediately; and in delayed gamma emissions",
"-34.17008050261211"
],
[
"wave in the TWR design does not move from one end of the reactor to the other but gradually from the inside out. Moreover, as the fuel's composition changes through nuclear transmutation, fuel rods are continually reshuffled within the core to optimize the neutron flux and fuel usage at any given point in time. Thus, instead of letting the wave propagate through the fuel, the fuel itself is moved through a largely stationary burn wave. This is contrary to many media reports, which have popularized the concept as a candle-like reactor with a burn region that moves down a stick",
"-34.13917762681376"
],
[
"magnetosphere. Gas core The final fission classification is the gas-core engine. This is a modification to the liquid-core design which uses rapid circulation of the fluid to create a toroidal pocket of gaseous uranium fuel in the middle of the reactor, surrounded by hydrogen. In this case the fuel does not touch the reactor wall at all, so temperatures could reach several tens of thousands of degrees, which would allow specific impulses of 3000 to 5000 seconds (30 to 50 kN·s/kg). In this basic design, the \"open cycle\", the losses of nuclear fuel would be difficult to control, which has led",
"-34.066577707822034"
],
[
"in test reactors, engineers can cause hydrogen nuclei to collide and fuse – creating for short amounts of time a nuclear fusion reaction that generates heat. One of the unsolved challenges of controlled nuclear fusion energy is to sustain a reaction that generates more energy than what goes into just maintaining the operation of the reactor plasma itself.\nIn his early work, Conn studied numerous aspects of plasma for fusion applications, including how it can be confined with magnetic fields, thereby increasing its density and the likelihood that atomic nuclei collide and fuse. Conn also studied the boundary conditions between the",
"-34.06646796752466"
],
[
"light water reactors, thus closing the nuclear fuel cycle. Alternatively, if configured differently, they can also breed more actinide fuel than they consume. Gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR) The gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR) system features a fast-neutron spectrum and closed fuel cycle for efficient conversion of fertile uranium and management of actinides. The reactor is helium-cooled and with an outlet temperature of 850 °C it is an evolution of the very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR) to a more sustainable fuel cycle. It will use a direct Brayton cycle gas turbine for high thermal efficiency. Several fuel forms are being considered for their potential to",
"-34.055946892360225"
],
[
"of 10 billion, whilst still retaining a small environmental footprint. In breeder mode, fast reactors are therefore often proposed as a form of renewable or sustainable nuclear energy. Though the \"[reactor-grade]plutonium economy\" it would generate, presently returns social distaste and varied arguments about proliferation-potential, in the public mindset.\nAs is typically found in civilian European thermal reactors, a 5.3% plutonium MOX fuel-bundle, produced by conventional wet-chemical/PUREX reprocessing of an initial fuel assembly that generated 33 GWd/t before becoming spent nuclear fuel, creates, when it itself is burnt in the thermal reactor, a spent nuclear fuel with a plutonium isotopic composition of",
"-34.04905629088171"
],
[
"Producing Power and Plutonium(PIPPA) and as this codename suggests, the reactor was designed as both a power plant and, when operated with low fuel \"burn-up\"; as a producer of plutonium-239 for the nascent nuclear weapons program in Britain. This intentional dual-use approach to building electric power-reactors that could operate as production reactors in the early Cold War era, was typical of many nations, in the now designated, \"Generation I nuclear reactors\". With these being designs all focused on giving access to fuel after a short burn-up, which is known as Online refuelling.\nThe 2006 North Korean nuclear test, the first by",
"-34.00732011790387"
],
[
"Solar energy is conducted using heat from the sun, which is absorbed by wind turbines, in capturing wind that generates wind power. The use of solar renewable technologies plays a large roll in emission reduction for mitigating climate change, reducing air pollution and addressing concerns with energy security. Nuclear Energy (NE) Nuclear power is conducted by the released nuclear energy from nuclear reactions. The power is ignited heat from reactions, which is most commonly used in the powering of electricity-producing steam turbines, located in nuclear power plants. Nuclear fission is a type of nuclear reaction that is a leading form",
"-33.98669262812473"
],
[
"nuclear reactor, the two types of device must be engineered quite differently (see nuclear reactor physics). A nuclear bomb is designed to release all its energy at once, while a reactor is designed to generate a steady supply of useful power. While overheating of a reactor can lead to, and has led to, meltdown and steam explosions, the much lower uranium enrichment makes it impossible for a nuclear reactor to explode with the same destructive power as a nuclear weapon. It is also difficult to extract useful power from a nuclear bomb, although at least one rocket propulsion system, Project",
"-33.96544563898351"
],
[
"energy needed to sustain the reaction. This balance is today known as the Lawson criterion.\nIn a successful fusion reactor design, the fusion reactions generate an amount of power designated Pfus. Some amount of this energy, Pₗₒₛₛ, is lost through a variety of mechanisms, mostly convection of the fuel to the walls of the reactor chamber and various forms of radiation that cannot be captured to generate power. In order to keep the reaction going, the system has to provide heating to make up for these losses, where Pₗₒₛₛ = Pₕₑₐₜ to maintain thermal equilibrium.\nThe most basic definition of breakeven is",
"-33.94873121753335"
],
[
"metal, making the mechanical cycle self-sustaining. The implosion cycle would be repeated every few seconds. The LINUS reactor can thus be regarded as a fusion engine, except that there is no shaft output; all the energy appears as heat.\nThe liquid metal acts as both a compression mechanism and heat transfer mechanism, allowing the energy from the fusion reaction to be captured as heat. LINUS researchers anticipated that a lithium liner could also be used to breed tritium fuel for the power plant, and would protect the machine from high-energy neutrons by acting as a regenerative first wall. Experiments Several experimental",
"-33.92530620028265"
],
[
"50% of the energy generated in a CANDU reactor comes from the in situ fission of plutonium created in the uranium fuel), and this plutonium could be used in a nuclear explosive if separated and converted to metallic form (albeit only as reactor-grade plutonium, and therefore of limited military usefulness). Accordingly, CANDU reactors, like most power reactors in the world, are subject to safeguards under the United Nations which prevent possible diversion of plutonium. CANDU reactors are designed to be refuelled while running, which makes the details of such safeguards significantly different from other reactor designs. The end result, however,",
"-33.91981358436169"
],
[
"nucleus of ²³⁸U to split in two. Depending on design, this process can contribute some one to ten percent of all fission reactions in a reactor, but too few of the average 2.5 neutrons produced in each fission have enough speed to continue a chain reaction.\n²³⁸U can be used as a source material for creating plutonium-239, which can in turn be used as nuclear fuel. Breeder reactors carry out such a process of transmutation to convert the fertile isotope ²³⁸U into fissile ²³⁹Pu. It has been estimated that there is anywhere from 10,000 to five billion years worth of ²³⁸U",
"-33.919624333808315"
],
[
"enormous, since there are many possibilities for each component of a reactor—fuel, coolant, moderator. The fissile material may be ²³³U, ²³⁵U, or ²³⁹Pu; the coolant may be: water, heavy water, gas, or liquid metal; the moderator may be: water, heavy water, beryllium, graphite—or, in a fast- neutron reactor, no moderator. I have calculated that, if one counted all the combinations of fuel, coolant, and moderator, one could identify about a thousand distinct reactors. Thus, at the very beginning of nuclear power, we had to choose which possibilities to pursue, which to ignore.\nThe ultimate success of the pressurized water reactor, he",
"-33.91528934700182"
],
[
"or using different fuel types. ²³⁹\nPu is more likely to absorb a high-speed neutron than ²³⁵\nU.\nA benefit of fast reactors is that they can be designed to be breeder reactors. \nAs these reactors produce energy, they also let off enough neutrons to transmute non-fissionable elements into fissionable ones. \nA very common use for a breeder reactor is to surround the core in a \"blanket\" of ²³⁸\nU, which is the most easily found isotope of uranium. \nOnce the ²³⁸\nU undergoes a neutron absorption reaction, it becomes ²³⁹\nPu, which can be removed from the reactor once it is time to refuel, and",
"-33.90350262673746"
],
[
"reactor from supercritical to critical; as the fuel is depleted, the reactivity control is withdrawn to support continuing fission. In a fast breeder reactor, the above applies, though the reactivity from fuel depletion is also compensated by breeding either ²³³\nU or ²³⁹\nPu and ²⁴¹\nPu from thorium-232 or ²³⁸\nU, respectively. Control Like thermal reactors, fast-neutron reactors are controlled by keeping the criticality of the reactor reliant on delayed neutrons, with gross control from neutron-absorbing control rods or blades.\nThey cannot, however, rely on changes to their moderators because there is no moderator. So Doppler broadening in the moderator, which affects thermal neutrons,",
"-33.87110914220102"
],
[
"14 years, and has slightly higher thermal neutron cross sections than ²³⁹Pu for both fission and absorption. While nuclear fuel is being used in a reactor, a ²⁴¹Pu nucleus is much more likely to fission or to capture a neutron than to decay. ²⁴¹Pu accounts for a significant proportion of fissions in thermal reactor fuel that has been used for some time. However, in spent nuclear fuel that does not quickly undergo nuclear reprocessing but instead is cooled for years after use, much or most of the ²⁴¹Pu will beta decay to americium-241, one of the minor actinides, a strong",
"-33.84811760298908"
],
[
"Fast-neutron reactor A fast-neutron reactor (FNR) or simply a fast reactor is a category of nuclear reactor in which the fission chain reaction is sustained by fast neutrons (carrying energies of 5 MeV or greater), as opposed to thermal neutrons used in thermal-neutron reactors. \nSuch a reactor needs no neutron moderator, but requires fuel that is relatively rich in fissile material when compared to that required for a thermal-neutron reactor. Fast fission, breeders Although ²³⁵\nU and ²³⁹\nPu are less sensitive to higher-energy neutrons, they still remain somewhat reactive well into the MeV range. If the fuel is enriched, eventually a threshold",
"-33.846479975036345"
],
[
"used to enhance the efficiency and yield of fission bombs and the fission stages of hydrogen bombs in a process known as \"boosting\" as well as in external neutron initiators for such weapons. Neutron initiator These are devices incorporated in nuclear weapons which produce a pulse of neutrons when the bomb is detonated to initiate the fission reaction in the fissionable core (pit) of the bomb, after it is compressed to a critical mass by explosives. Actuated by an ultrafast switch like a krytron, a small particle accelerator drives ions of tritium and deuterium to energies above the 15 keV",
"-33.83638951659668"
]
] |
4npio8 | Why do we trust data in research papers and studies to not be manipulated | [
"There are two main ways. The most important is repetition. Scientists often repeat each others' experiments, and tend not to accept anything unless it's been shown to be repeatable. The other is peer reviews, where other scientists review each paper before it gets published. This might not catch the specific issue of deliberately falsifying data, but it does guard against people publishing things with serious errors or misunderstandings in them.",
"We don't. We read around the subject, see how many people have researched it. Gather evidence, critique the papers, find patterns and anomalys and we make our own conclusions. Research where you're getting your information. If it's a newspaper then take it with a pinch of salt. Go to the source, the people who published it.",
"The point about scientific research is that the methods and results should be able to be reproduced by other researchers. Unfortunately this rarely happens. However, you should always look into sample size and methods.",
"Also, if the research is done in association with a university (in the US at least), they have to run eeeeverything by an IRB, which reviews the experiment itself making sure it's legit/ethical.",
"I guess this gets very existential, but why believe anything, in that case? Have you ever been to Mongolia? How do you know it exists?"
] | [
[
"the free sharing of data. Since privacy for research participants is a priority, though, various proposals for protecting participants have been made for different purposes. Replacing the real data with synthetic data allows the researchers to show data which gives a conclusion equivalent to the one drawn by the researchers, but the data may have problems such as being unfit for repurposing for other research. Other strategies include \"noise addition\" by making random value changes or \"data swapping\" by exchanging values across entries. Still another approach is to separate the identifiable variables in the data from the rest, aggregate the",
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"data aggregated by third parties.\nThis means it's essential to ensure the data is as 'clean' as possible, before undertaking any data analysis. For example, eliminating activity from bots, staging websites, or incorrect configurations of tools such as Google Analytics.\nData can be numeric or text-based, nominal or ordinal. Bad or missing values are handled gracefully.\nData may be geographic, contextual, frequential, demographic, behavioral, customer based, etc. Hypothesis After data collection, forming a hypothesis is the next step. This process forms the foundation of why changes are made. Hypotheses are made based on observation and deduction. It is important that each hypothetical",
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"be accurate and should be carefully reviewed by researchers.\nIt is important for researchers to review responses in order to avoid altering sound data. Participants in a study may have knowledge of incomplete or incorrect information that leads to misinformed responses. Likewise, they may also respond falsely in order to avoid social judgment or societal views on the subject, despite anonymity. Participants’ responses may also stem from myth-based knowledge or delusional thinking (Douglas, 1976). When hypotheses are formed, researchers often have predictions on the outcome; therefore, it is vital that researchers avoid their own biases to data. Avoidance of",
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"A study of scientists in training indicated many had already experienced data withholding. This study has given rise to the fear the future generation of scientists will not abide by the established practices. Differing approaches in different fields Requirements for data sharing are more commonly imposed by institutions, funding agencies, and publication venues in the medical and biological sciences than in the physical sciences. Requirements vary widely regarding whether data must be shared at all, with whom the data must be shared, and who must bear the expense of data sharing.\nFunding agencies such as the NIH and NSF tend to",
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"influences. Rather, data are shaped by the vision or goals of a research team, and during the data collection process, certain things are quantified, stored, sorted and even discarded by the research team. A critical approach is thus necessary in order to understand and reveal the intent behind the information being presented. Moreover, data alone cannot speak for itself; in order to possess any concrete meaning, data must be accompanied by theoretical insight or alternative quantitative or qualitative research measures. Dalton and Thatcher argue that if one were to only think of data in terms of its exploitative power, there",
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"keep all study data for later examination even after publication. Both scientific and academic censure can result from a failure to keep primary data; the case of Ranjit Chandra of Memorial University of Newfoundland provides an example of this. Many scientific journals also require that authors provide information to allow readers to determine whether the authors may have commercial or non-commercial conflicts of interest. Outlined in the author disclosure statement for the American Journal of Human Biology, this is a policy more common in scientific fields where funding often comes from corporate sources. Authors are also commonly required to provide",
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"Because of its nature, Data in Use is of increasing concern to businesses, government agencies and other institutions. Data in use, or memory, can contain sensitive data including digital certificates, encryption keys, intellectual property (software algorithms, design data), and personally identifiable information. Compromising data in use enables access to encrypted data at rest and data in motion. For example, someone with access to random access memory can parse that memory to locate the encryption key for data at rest. Once they have obtained that encryption key, they can decrypt encrypted data at rest. \nThreats to data",
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" If the result of this test is statistically significant, you have real evidence at last.\" Data manipulation Informally called \"fudging the data,\" this practice includes selective reporting (see also publication bias) and even simply making up false data.\nExamples of selective reporting abound. The easiest and most common examples involve choosing a group of results that follow a pattern consistent with the preferred hypothesis while ignoring other results or \"data runs\" that contradict the hypothesis.\nPsychic researchers have long disputed studies showing people with ESP ability. Critics accuse ESP proponents of only publishing experiments with positive results and shelving those that",
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"the standard academic practices”.\nTheir final aim being to provide “information on the what, where, why, how and who of the data”.\nThe intent of a data paper is to offer descriptive information on the related dataset(s) focusing on data collection, distinguishing features, access and potential reuse rather than on data processing and analysis. Because data papers are considered academic publications no different than other types of papers they allow scientists sharing data to receive credit in currency recognizable within the academic system, thus \"making data sharing count\". This provides not only an additional incentive to share data, but also through the",
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"for handling secret, confidential and personal information. So because of the sensitivity and confidentiality, data transfer and all in-between information must be encrypted. Data quality Data quality is another serious constraint. For better management and to maintain good quality of data, the common practice is to store the data at one location and share with different people and different systems and/or applications from different locations. It helps in preventing inconsistencies in the data.",
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"environment the data aggregator has little to no influence on the data publisher. Data is often erroneous, and combining data often aggravates the problem. Especially when performing reasoning (automatically inferring new data from existing data), erroneous data has potentially devastating impact on the overall quality of the resulting dataset. Hence, a challenge is how data publishers can coordinate in order to fix problems in the data or blacklist sites which do not provide reliable data. Methods and techniques are needed to: check integrity and accuracy; highlight, identify and corroborate evidence; assess the probability that a given statement is true; equate",
"-28.941759232264303"
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"discovery algorithms. \nMany currently available methods rely on a voting strategy to define the true value of a data item. Nevertheless, recent studies, have shown that, if we rely only on majority voting, we could get wrong results even in 30% of the data items.\nThe solution to this problem is to assess the trustworthiness of the sources and give more importance to votes coming from trusted sources.\nIdeally, supervised learning techniques could be exploited to assign a reliability score to sources after hand-crafted labeling of the provided values; unfortunately, this is not feasible since the number of needed labeled examples should",
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"while many value privacy, the affordances of data sharing are also quite valuable, although they may contradict one's conception of privacy. Attitudes against data sharing may be based in a perceived loss of control over data and a fear of the exploitation of personal data. However, it is possible to extract the value of data without compromising privacy.\nSome scholars such as Jonathan H. King and Neil M. Richards are redefining the traditional meaning of privacy, and others to question whether or not privacy still exists. In a 2014 article for the Wake Forest Law Review, King and Richard argue that",
"-28.885567586861725"
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"peer review process, increases the quality of metadata and thus reusability of the shared data.\nThus data papers represent the scholarly communication approach to data sharing.\nDespite their potentiality, data papers are not the ultimate and complete solution for all the data sharing and reuse issues and, in some cases, they are considered to induce false expectations in the research community. Data journals Data papers are supported by a rich array of journals, some of which are \"pure\", i.e. they are dedicated to publish data papers only, while others – the majority – are \"mixed\", i.e. they publish a number of articles",
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"years. Information Technology, with Intranets and the Internet, has improved our ability to find such data. If secondary data doesn't solve the problem then original data (primary data) is sought. It is useful to think of different primary methods in these terms: we can ask people what they are doing; we can watch them or detect what they have done by counting or we can manipulate some variables to discover the effect. This creates three categories: questioning; observation and experimentation.\nPrimary data collection techniques can be subdivided into: interviewer-administered or respondent-administered; direct or indirect; personal or impersonal. Processing data, analysis and",
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"does not necessarily have a closer claim on objective truth\". Recent developments in BI domain, such as pro-active reporting especially target improvements in usability of big data, through automated filtering of non-useful data and correlations. Big structures are full of spurious correlations either because of non-causal coincidences (law of truly large numbers), solely nature of big randomness (Ramsey theory) or existence of non included factors so the hope, of early experimenters to make large databases of numbers \"speak for themselves\" and revolutionize scientific method, is questioned.\nBig data analysis is often shallow compared to analysis of smaller data sets. In many",
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"monetary cost. Still according to those three researchers, the data analysis is becoming increasingly efficient, that is why there are more and more concerns about the progress of collecting data. Regulations are appearing, such as the EU data protection directive or the US children’s online privacy protection act, but the industry is always evolving, so that it seems important to continue keeping an eye on the economics of privacy. Privacy and Information Breaches Methods can be purposely crafted to obtain one's personal information illegally. These directed attacks are commonly referred to as hacking, though that term refers to the general",
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"the data. Tables are helpful to a user who might look up specific numbers, while charts (e.g., bar charts or line charts) may help explain the quantitative messages contained in the data. Barriers to effective analysis Barriers to effective analysis may exist among the analysts performing the data analysis or among the audience. Distinguishing fact from opinion, cognitive biases, and innumeracy are all challenges to sound data analysis. Confusing fact and opinion Effective analysis requires obtaining relevant facts to answer questions, support a conclusion or formal opinion, or test hypotheses. Facts by definition are irrefutable, meaning that any person involved",
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"ability to handle noisy data but lose data information by having a binary representation of the genes. Also, artificial neural networks omit using a hidden layer so that they can be interpreted, losing the ability to model higher order correlations in the data. Using a model that is not constrained to be interpretable, a more accurate model can be produced. Being able to predict gene expressions more accurately provides a way to explore how drugs affect a system of genes as well as for finding which genes are interrelated in a process. This has been encouraged by the DREAM competition",
"-28.630201727966778"
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"new data ecosystem.\"\nAnalysis of data sets can find new correlations to \"spot business trends, prevent diseases, combat crime and so on.\" Scientists, business executives, practitioners of medicine, advertising and governments alike regularly meet difficulties with large data-sets in areas including Internet searches, fintech, urban informatics, and business informatics. Scientists encounter limitations in e-Science work, including meteorology, genomics, connectomics, complex physics simulations, biology and environmental research.\nData sets grow rapidly, in part because they are increasingly gathered by cheap and numerous information-sensing Internet of things devices such as mobile devices, aerial (remote sensing), software logs, cameras, microphones, radio-frequency identification (RFID) readers",
"-28.465073768093134"
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"large data sets to uncover hidden patterns, unknown correlations, market trends, customer preferences and other useful business information. They apply machine learning algorithms etc. to the data which transforms the data. Due to the humongous size of the data, there could be unknown features in the data, possibly even outliers. It is pretty difficult for a data scientist to actually debug an unexpected result.\nThe massive scale and unstructured nature of data, the complexity of these analytics pipelines, and long runtimes pose significant manageability and debugging challenges. Even a single error in these analytics can be extremely difficult to identify and",
"-28.457341409826768"
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"widespread high-resolution data are needed before more confident conclusions can be reached\". They said that \"the uncertainties were the point of the article\", and that it was \"hard to imagine how much more explicit\" they could have been about the uncertainties surrounding their work. They suggested that \"poor communication by others\" had led to the \"subsequent confusion\".\nAt the Wegman Report hearings in July 2006, Gerald North testified that, \"Dr. Wegman's criticisms of the statistical methodology in the papers by Mann et al. were consistent with our findings,\" referring to the NRC report that found that the methodology did not have",
"-28.416629324718087"
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"of study participants with their input into the study.\nMany study participants have experienced problems when their privacy was not upheld after participating in research. Sometimes privacy is not kept because of insufficient study protection, but also sometimes it is because of unanticipated problems with the study design which inadvertently compromise privacy. The privacy of research participants is typically protected by the research organizer, but the institutional review board is a designated overseer which monitors the organizer to provide protection to study participants. Information privacy Researchers publish data that they get from participants. To preserve participants' privacy, the data goes through",
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"a very political issue, interested parties could try to corrupt the data by, say, entering temperature figures that are too high or too low. Because three sets of records for each data point will be entered, any set from a digitiser showing a marked deviation from the other records should be easily checkable and eliminated. Large-scale fraud is unlikely because the data is entered one log page at a time, and so is immune to a spam type of attack. Collaborative projects such as Linux and Wikipedia have for the most part been able to rely on the transparent honesty",
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"such individual information. Some agencies do this by intentionally introducing small statistical errors to prevent the identification of individuals in marginal populations; others swap variables for similar respondents. Whatever is done to reduce the privacy risk, new improved electronic analysis of data can threaten to reveal sensitive individual information. This is known as statistical disclosure control.\nAnother possibility is to present survey results by means of statistical models in the form of a multivariate distribution mixture. The statistical information in the form of conditional distributions (histograms) can be derived interactively from the estimated mixture model without any further access to the",
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"Research Data Repositories, and Psychfiledrawer.org. Sites like Open Science Framework offer badges for using open science practices in an effort to incentivize scientists. However, there has been concern that those who are most likely to provide their data and code for analyses are the researchers that are likely the most sophisticated. John Ioannidis at Stanford University suggested that \"the paradox may arise that the most meticulous and sophisticated and method-savvy and careful researchers may become more susceptible to criticism and reputation attacks by reanalyzers who hunt for errors, no matter how negligible these errors are\". Funding for replication studies In",
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"often problematic to accurately describe the process that has been followed in searching and discarding data. In other words, one wants to keep all data (regardless of whether they tend to support or refute the hypothesis) from \"good tests\", but it is sometimes difficult to figure out what a \"good test\" is. It is a particular problem in statistical modelling, where many different models are rejected by trial and error before publishing a result (see also overfitting, publication bias).\nThe error is particularly prevalent in data mining and machine learning. It also commonly occurs in academic publishing where only reports of",
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"increasing chances of deviant behavior and creating punishments that are not equitable to their actions. Additionally, monitoring can cause resistance and backlash because it insinuates an employer’s suspicion and lack of trust. Data mining and profiling Data mining is the application of statistical techniques and programmatic algorithms to discover previously unnoticed relationships within the data. Data profiling in this context is the process of assembling information about a particular individual or group in order to generate a profile — that is, a picture of their patterns and behavior. Data profiling can be an extremely powerful tool for psychological and social network",
"-28.243579554252847"
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"that can't easily share information. Therefore, knowledge workers within large organizations often don't have access to the information they need to best do their jobs. When they do have access to the data, the data quality may be poor. By setting up a data governance practice or Corporate Data Authority, these problems can be mitigated.\nThe structure of a data governance initiative will vary not only with the size of the organization, but with the desired objectives or the 'focus areas' of the effort. Implementation Implementation of a Data Governance initiative may vary in scope as well as origin. Sometimes,",
"-28.176685093854758"
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"such data for reputational reasons, or because it represents a heightened liability and security risk. It may also be the case that, at least in relation to the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation, such data falls under the 'special category' provisions (Article 9), and therefore comes with more restrictions on potential collection and processing.\nSome practitioners have tried to estimate and impute these missing sensitive categorisations in order to allow bias mitigation, for example building systems to infer ethnicity from names, however this can introduce other forms of bias if not undertaken with care. Machine learning researchers have drawn upon",
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"its importance. Failure to fully analyze the data occurs when researchers do not use the data to support their analysis beyond simply describing or paraphrasing the content of the data. Researchers conducting thematic analysis should attempt to go beyond surface meanings of the data to make sense of the data and tell an accurate story of what the data means. Phase 6: Producing the report After final themes have been reviewed, researchers begin the process of writing the final report. While writing the final report, researchers should decide on themes that make meaningful contributions to answering research questions which should",
"-28.140456014745723"
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"take, hastily comparing it with material received the previous day. They then produced in 'assembly line fashion' items which may have reflected perceptive intuition but which [did not] accrue from a systematic consideration of an accumulated body of integrated evidence.\nWriters on analysis have suggested reasons why analysts come to incorrect conclusions, by falling into cognitive traps for intelligence analysis. Without falling into the trap of avoiding decisions by wanting more information, analysts also need to recognize that they always can learn more about the opponent. Setting goals for an intelligence analysis Stating the objective from the consumer's standpoint is an",
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"is a challenge. Contrived or artificial environment also may influence the interactions and responses, thus leading to biased results. Ethical issues may arise regarding confidentiality aspect. Measurement validity may be low. Using computers in qualitative data analysis There are many computer programs are available to help in analyzing qualitative data. The capacity of computers to effectively sort, store and retrieve information makes their use in qualitative data analysis appealing. However, it is important to notice that computers can only aid in some parts of analysis; computer software do not code data or replace the conceptual processes. It cannot analyse qualitative",
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"small amount of decision-consistent and decision-inconsistent information. The study showed that in situations such as this, an individual becomes more doubtful of their initial decision due to the unavailability of resources. They begin to think that there is not enough data or evidence in this particular field in which they are told to make a decision about. Because of this, the subject becomes more critical of their initial thought process and focuses on both decision-consistent and inconsistent sources, thus decreasing his level of selective exposure. For the group who had plentiful pieces of information, this factor made them confident in",
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"statistical inference based on aggregated data can lead researchers to erroneous conclusions, suggesting relationships that in fact do not exist or obscuring relationships that do in fact exist. This issue is known as the modifiable areal unit problem. For example, New York public health officials worried that cancer clusters and causes would be misidentified after they were forced to post maps showing cancer cases by ZIP code on the internet. Their assertion was that ZIP codes were designed for a purpose unrelated to public health issues, and so use of these arbitrary boundaries might lead to inappropriate groupings",
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"data starts either with an OFFICIAL OR SECRET classification depending on the nature of threat and its acceptability to the business, and thereafter moves up or down accordingly based on consequence of compromise.\nOFFICIAL data may therefore rise to TOP SECRET, but cannot be SECRET unless the risk previously accepted for a capable attacker is revised.\nSECRET data may be reduced to OFFICIAL where no serious consequences can be identified from a potential breach, or SECRET can also rise to TOP SECRET if serious consequences could arise. \nImpact levels also consider integrity and availability, but CESG's system of Business Impact Levels (BIL)",
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"easy to remember. Data quality In many investigations the data that can be found might have omissions or is misleading. As one layer of data-driven journalism a critical examination of the data quality is important. In other cases the data might not be public or is not in the right format for further analysis, e.g. is only available in a PDF. Here the process of data-driven journalism can turn into stories about data quality or refusals to provide the data by institutions. As the practice as a whole is in early development steps, examinations of data sources, data sets, data",
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"in genetic studies, modern methods for data collection in field and laboratory should be considered, as high-throughput platforms for phenotyping and genotyping. These tools allow bigger experiments, while turn possible evaluate many plots in lower time than a human-based only method for data collection.\nFinally, all data collected of interest must be stored in an organized data frame for further analysis. Power and statistical error When testing a hypothesis, there are two types of statistic errors possible: Type I error and Type II error. The type I error or false positive is the incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis and",
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"a personal advantage the data is analyzed for supporting evidence. Following that the hypothesis is refined or discarded.\nThe combination of different databases, in particular data from different systems or sources is highly effective. These data sources are either unknown to the perpetrator or such that they can not be manipulated by the perpetrator afterwards.\nData Visualization is often used to display the results.",
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"is under review too and in most practical contexts have now fallen into disuse. \nIt is therefore no longer strictly the case that the greater the consequences if the data confidentiality were to be compromised, the higher the classification, since data with a high impact (including material which could result in threat to life) may still be classified as OFFICIAL if the relevant business owner believes it is not necessary to protect this from an attacker who has the capabilities of a Foreign Intelligence Service or Serious and Organised Crime.\nConversely some data with much lower consequences (for example ongoing Police",
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"of any particular data for any given hypothesis is decided by human beliefs and assumptions about what kinds of data can support what kinds of hypotheses. Moreover, even when the relevance of evidence is decided, there remains a logical gap between evidence and full justification of interesting scientific theories (the traditional philosophical problem of underdetermination of theories). This gap, too, must be bridged by beliefs and assumptions about legitimate reasoning in order for evidence to help us decide which hypotheses to accept as true.\nFortunately, the use of diverse perspectives to criticize hypotheses can turn some of those hypotheses into scientific",
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"data to determine these functions, include machine learning and analytics algorithms (including artificial neural networks), as well as more traditional regression analysis. Results from operations research and many other quantitative approaches have a similar role to play.\nWhen data is not available (or is too noisy, uncertain, or incomplete), these dependency links can take on the form of rules as might be found in an expert system or rule-based system, and so can be obtained through knowledge engineering.\nIn this way, a decision model represents a mechanism for combining multiple relationships, as well as symbolic and subsymbolic reasoning, into a complete solution",
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"of particular aspects of the data. Many times the particular aspects come about in the form of human information (i.e. name, home address, IP address, telephone number, social security number, credit card number, etc.). Usefulness Synthetic data are generated to meet specific needs or certain conditions that may not be found in the original, real data. This can be useful when designing any type of system because the synthetic data are used as a simulation or as a theoretical value, situation, etc. This allows us to take into account unexpected results and have a basic solution or remedy,",
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"A common approach for data sharing that includes confidential material is through de-identification or anonymization. There are numerous techniques for the de-identification of data including simply removing specific variables or by using statistical techniques such as top-coding, collapsing or combining, sampling, swapping, or disturbing the data. For qualitative data, redaction can be used to hide data elements that cannot be made public. However, it is important that future research requirements be taken into consideration when developing a de-identification or anonymization plan. Peer review and quality control A key element of the scholarly communication process is ensuring that research meets a",
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"manage student data within the regulatory structure that controls data management. Further than this, student information is then brought to light which can threaten them as well. As vast amounts of data continues to be actively collected, potential breaching through hacking, physical theft, and by vendors becomes more probable.\nPreventative Measures\nThose who study the implications of data breaches emphasize that data should be kept to a minimum and that steps should be taken in order to see who can be trusted to regulate this information in order to keep data private and not accessible to all employees. They also talk about",
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"participants as well as investigators wanting to be more responsive to their participants and restrain some of their results. Ultimately this causes the researcher's study to be invalid. Many consider member checking to be the best method of establishing credibility, but one of the main drawbacks is the way in which the researcher views the research as being intended to generalize the findings. This may clash with the participant’s view that their account is specific and solely their experience. Due to the different views regarding interpretation of data, member checks may be better suited as being identified as",
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"data mining. In data dredging, large compilations of data are examined in order to find a correlation, without any pre-defined choice of a hypothesis to be tested. Since the required confidence interval to establish a relationship between two parameters is usually chosen to be 95% (meaning that there is a 95% chance that the relationship observed is not due to random chance), there is a thus a 5% chance of finding a correlation between any two sets of completely random variables. Given that data dredging efforts typically examine large datasets with many variables, and hence even larger numbers of",
"-27.7599793462432"
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"i.e., the amount of error that would normally be in such measurements does not appear, a conclusion can be drawn that the data may have been forged. Error analysis alone is typically not sufficient to prove that data have been falsified or fabricated, but it may provide the supporting evidence necessary to confirm suspicions of misconduct. Data sharing Kirby Lee and Lisa Bero suggest, \"Although reviewing raw data can be difficult, time-consuming and expensive, having such a policy would hold authors more accountable for the accuracy of their data and potentially reduce scientific fraud or misconduct.\" Notable individual cases Andrew",
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"data information, then we have to evaluate the system development and measure the system's ability to correctly predict the categories of new information. This step is simplified by separating the training data in a new series called \"test data\" that we will use to measure the error rate. As a general rule it is important to distinguish between types of errors (false positives and false negatives). For example, in the case on an aggregator of content for children, it doesn't have the same gravity to allow the passage of information not suitable for them, that shows violence or pornography, than",
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"copy of your own data. Others should be restricted in their access to what is yours. Knowing what data others keep is a near impossible task. The simpler approach would be to cloak yourself in nonsense. To ensure that corporations or institutions do not have a copy of your data it is possible to send noise to confuse the data that they have. For example, a robot could randomly search terms that you would not be inclined to usually search for making that data obtained by the search engine useless through confusion (see: Track Me Not by New York University).\nOwnership",
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"Scientific data about how people use the information tools available to them today is still incomplete because experimental research methodologies haven’t been able to keep up with the rapid pace of change. Many challenges, such as contextualized search, personal information management, information integration, and task support, still need to be addressed.",
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"it is possible to alter data contained in a computer is plainly insufficient to establish untrustworthiness\" (US v. Bonallo, 858 F. 2d 1427 - 1988 - Court of Appeals, 9th).\nNevertheless, the \"more comprehensive\" foundation required by Scholle remains good practice. The American Law Reports lists a number of ways to establish the comprehensive foundation. It suggests that the proponent demonstrate \"the reliability of the computer equipment\", \"the manner in which the basic data was initially entered\", \"the measures taken to ensure the accuracy of the data as entered\", \"the method of storing the data and the precautions taken to prevent",
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"become a data breach if the staff member retains access to the data after termination of the trust relationship. In distributed systems, this can also occur with a breakdown in a web of trust. Data quality is one way of reducing the risk of a data breach, partly because it allows the owner of the data to rate data according to importance and give better protection to more important data.\nMost such incidents publicized in the media involve private information on individuals, e.g. social security numbers. Loss of corporate information such as trade secrets, sensitive corporate information, and details of",
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"argues, has always been distinguished by its ability to the tell small, personal, and nuanced narratives that data doesn't reflect.\nIn terms of method, there is a disagreement in whether it is possible to conduct research exclusively online or if research will only be complete when the subjects are studied holistically, both online and offline. Tom Boellstorff, who conducted a three-year research as an avatar in the virtual world Second Life, defends the first approach, stating that it is not just possible but necessary to engage with subjects “in their own terms”. Others, such as Daniel Miller, have argued that an",
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" One such scenario is for datasets that are simply too large for a human to effectively analyze, or where analysis of them would be cost prohibitive relative to the value of information they contain. Another scenario is when the chief value of a dataset is the extent to which it contains \"red flags\" (e.g., searching for reports of certain adverse events within a lengthy journal dataset from patients in a clinical trial) or \"green flags\" (e.g., searching for mentions of your brand in positive reviews of marketplace products). Many researchers would consider these procedures on their data sets",
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"data, both past and present, has the potential to inform future research in many study areas. Much of this data has become inaccessible due to obsolete software and file formats. The resulting impossibility of reviewing data from older research disrupts the overall scientific research project. Approach Brown Dog describes itself as the \"super mutt\" of software (thus the name \"Brown Dog\"), serving as a low-level data infrastructure to interface digital data content across the internet. Its approach is to use every possible source of automated help (i.e., software) in existence in a robust and provenance-preserving manner to create a service",
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[
"then it might be possible to determine the suppressed value by subtracting the other sales from that total. But there might also be combinations of additions and subtractions that might cause the private information to be revealed. The number of combinations that needed to be checked increases exponentially with the number of publications, and it is potentially unbounded if data users are able to make queries of the statistical database using an interactive query system.\nIn 1977 Tore Dalenius formalized the mathematics of cell suppression.\nIn 1979, Dorothy Denning, Peter J. Denning and Mayer D. Schwartz formalized the concept of a",
"-27.446783239676734"
],
[
"information that was collected never being utilized because it does not meet the exact needs for the collection requirement. Thus important data may be cast aside and never used even though it may be relevant again at a later date. Analysis And Production Analysts are the voice of the Intelligence Community. Therefore, the analysis that they perform is expected to be accurate on a regular basis. Failure in analysis can be approached from two points of view: the tactical/operational point of view and the analysts point of view. Tactical/Operational A problem occurs when looking at current issues versus long-term issues.",
"-27.406566430292514"
],
[
"(FIFO).\nDecision-makers increasingly face computer-generated information and analyses that could be collected and analyzed in no other way. Precisely for that reason, going behind that output is out of the question, even if one has good cause to be suspicious. In short, the computer analysis becomes a credible references point although based on poor data. Uses The term can also be used as an explanation for the poor quality of a digitized audio or video file. Although digitizing can be the first step in cleaning up a signal, it does not, by itself, improve the quality. Defects in the original",
"-27.32279517056304"
],
[
"is. This surplus of data is too much for people to sort through and analyze, thus creating a need for algorithms. Solutions Although data exhaust is not a new concept, it plays a much larger role in the contemporary world. The increase of technology has caused for and increase in data exhaust. The collection and distribution of this data is not illegal, but there are steps that must be taken to ensure that the use of this data is ethical. In order to keep the privacy of users safe, when the information is sold it can be kept anonymous. ",
"-27.28258003469091"
],
[
"attempt to detect corruption at many layers and then recover or correct the corruption; this is almost always successful but very rarely the information arriving in the systems memory is corrupted and can cause unpredictable results.\nData corruption during transmission has a variety of causes. Interruption of data transmission causes information loss. Environmental conditions can interfere with data transmission, especially when dealing with wireless transmission methods. Heavy clouds can block satellite transmissions. Wireless networks are susceptible to interference from devices such as microwave ovens.\nHardware and software failure are the two main causes for data loss. Background radiation, head crashes, and",
"-27.267174017099023"
],
[
"if the results prove to be unsatisfactory. Synthetic data are often generated to represent the authentic data and allows a baseline to be set. Another use of synthetic data is to protect privacy and confidentiality of authentic data. As stated previously, synthetic data is used in testing and creating many different types of systems; below is a quote from the abstract of an article that describes a software that generates synthetic data for testing fraud detection systems that further explains its use and importance.\n\"This enables us to create realistic behavior profiles for users and attackers. The data is used to",
"-27.25839334235934"
],
[
"effectiveness of this data exchange depends largely on the policies that clients use to determine to whom to send data. Clients may prefer to send data to peers that send data back to them (a \"tit for tat\" exchange scheme), which encourages fair trading. But strict policies often result in suboptimal situations, such as when newly joined peers are unable to receive any data because they don't have any pieces yet to trade themselves or when two peers with a good connection between them do not exchange data simply because neither of them takes the initiative. To counter these effects,",
"-27.2277115836514"
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[
"a plethora of internet-connected health devices have triggered a data deluge that will reach the exabyte range in the near future. Data Ethics is of increasing relevance as the quantity of data increases because of the scale of the impact.\nBig data ethics is different from information ethics because the focus of information ethics is more concerned with issues of intellectual property and concerns relating to librarians, archivists, and information professionals, while big data ethics is more concerned with collectors and disseminators of structured or unstructured data such as data brokers, governments, and large corporations. Principles Data Ethics is concerned with",
"-27.145926354714902"
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[
"data, but only do so by chance. For example, suppose we are considering a collection of 10,000 items and looking for rules containing two items in the left-hand-side and 1 item in the right-hand-side. There are approximately 1,000,000,000,000 such rules. If we apply a statistical test for independence with a significance level of 0.05 it means there is only a 5% chance of accepting a rule if there is no association. If we assume there are no associations, we should nonetheless expect to find 50,000,000,000 rules. Statistically sound association discovery controls this risk, in most cases reducing the risk of",
"-27.133299534812977"
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[
"not been discovered without this method.\nOne potential use of a clinical data repository would be for clinical trials. This would allow for researchers to have all the information from a study in one place as well as let other researchers benefit from the data to further innovation. They would also be advantageous since they are digital and real-time. This would be easier to log data and keep it accurate since it would be digital rather than in paper form.\nThe clinical data repository is not without its weaknesses, however. Since they usually don't integrate with other non-clinical sources, following patient treatment",
"-27.112510719904094"
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[
"individual characteristics and merits.\nAnother important concern is that the companies collecting the data for a specific purpose might use the data for totally different purposes, and this essentially violates the user’s interests.\nThe growing trend of selling personal data as a commodity encourages website owners to trade personal data obtained from their site. This trend has increased the amount of data being captured and traded increasing the likeliness of one’s privacy being invaded. The companies which buy the data are obliged make it anonymous and these companies are considered authors of any specific release of mining patterns. They are legally responsible",
"-27.099320969271503"
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[
"data by virtue of its high entropy and an attacker needs to only test for matching keys in areas of memory or storage that have high entropy.\nThe contrast between the low entropy of most data and the high entropy of key data is sufficient as to be apparent by visual inspection. The image to the right shows an example of this. Analytical key finding While statistical key finding can be effective for reducing the amount of memory that needs to be searched, it still requires high-entropy areas to be tested to check if they contain the correct key material. In",
"-27.09472596642445"
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[
"being examined in the study. Also referred to as random response, this is an area of concern in research studies and data collection due to the possible impacts that error data could have on the significance conclusion to be drawn later. Attention and interest are both factors that have a possible influence on the validity of an individual's responses. Careless data can lead to lower reliability which will ultimately decrease the intensity of correlation, if one exists. A method known as data screening is recommended as a means of discerning between response data that is valid and that which",
"-27.054951654019533"
],
[
"confidentiality could be reinforced to allow respondents to give more truthful responses. Disadvantages Self-report studies have many advantages, but they also suffer from specific disadvantages due to the way that subjects generally behave. Self-reported answers may be exaggerated; respondents may be too embarrassed to reveal private details; various biases may affect the results, like social desirability bias. There are also cases when respondents guess the hypothesis of the study and provide biased responses that 1) confirm the researcher's conjecture; 2) make them look good; or, 3) make them appear more distressed to receive promised services.\nSubjects may also forget pertinent details.",
"-27.035514267488907"
],
[
"Uncertainty In the media Uncertainty in science, and science in general, may be interpreted differently in the public sphere than in the scientific community. This is due in part to the diversity of the public audience, and the tendency for scientists to misunderstand lay audiences and therefore not communicate ideas clearly and effectively. One example is explained by the information deficit model. Also, in the public realm, there are often many scientific voices giving input on a single topic. For example, depending on how an issue is reported in the public sphere, discrepancies between outcomes of multiple scientific studies",
"-27.005736387600336"
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[
"data of groups is still organised around the individual. Many of the processes that are being made more efficient concern individuals and group dynamics. However, data is not necessarily organised around the individual, rather, data is being controlled by the owner of the sensors.\nIn China, the government largely owns data. In one Chinese province data was used to generate a social index score per person based on online and offline individual behaviour, such as jay walking and amount of toilet paper used in a public lavatory. The social index determines access to particular public services. Consent If an individual",
"-26.987546039250446"
],
[
"the data in context of the literature, and drawing conclusions) should be each undertaken once (or at most a small number of times) in a research study. In qualitative research however, all of the four stages above may be undertaken repeatedly until one or more specific stopping conditions are met, reflecting a nonstatic attitude to the planning and design of research activities. An example of this dynamicism might be when the qualitative researcher unexpectedly changes their research focus or design midway through a research study, based on their 1st interim data analysis, and then makes further unplanned changes again based",
"-26.966117509462492"
],
[
"predictions based on trends. Real-time data gives value because you can act instantaneously.\nHow much are tech services such as a search engine, a communications channel and a digital map actually worth, for example in dollars? The difference in value between the services facilitated by tech companies and the equity value of these tech companies is the difference in the exchange rate offered to the citizen and the 'market rate' of the value of their data. Scientifically there are many holes to be picked in this rudimentary calculation: the financial figures of tax evading companies are unreliable, would revenue or profit",
"-26.962449640002205"
],
[
"enormous amount of information that can be generated. A deficiency in any of these areas can cause an organization to miss signs of unauthorized activity, intrusion, and loss of data, which creates additional risk.",
"-26.952680393282208"
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"Veritas or Lucidworks. Furthermore, many organisations do not realise the value of dark data right now, for example in healthcare and education organisations deal with large amounts of data that could create a significant \"potential to service students and patients in the manner in which the consumer and financial services pursue their target population\".",
"-26.890711276768343"
],
[
"by freely harvested personal data?\nWhile initially it is realistic to assume that data would be traded for money, it is possible to imagine a future where data would be traded for data. The ‘I’ll show you yours if you show my mine’ scenario could replace money altogether. Importantly, this is a future scenario and the first step is to focus on exchanging personal data for existing monetary currency. Openness The idea of open data is centred around the argument that data should be freely available and should not have restrictions that would prohibit its use, such as copyright laws. Many",
"-26.868101390093216"
],
[
"disclosed. Synthetic data holds no personal information and cannot be traced back to any individual; therefore, the use of synthetic data reduces confidentiality and privacy issues.",
"-26.849148751025496"
],
[
"is important to establish the authenticity of evidence.\nAttorneys have argued that because digital evidence can theoretically be altered it undermines the reliability of the evidence. US judges are beginning to reject this theory, in the case US v. Bonallo the court ruled that \"the fact that it is possible to alter data contained in a computer is plainly insufficient to establish untrustworthiness.\" In the United Kingdom guidelines such as those issued by ACPO are followed to help document the authenticity and integrity of evidence.\nDigital investigators, particularly in criminal investigations, have to ensure that conclusions are based upon factual evidence and",
"-26.818459233283647"
],
[
"and can help to get better insights into the processes behind the data. Although the traditional data analysis techniques can indirectly lead us to knowledge, it is still created by human analysts.\nTo go beyond, a data analysis system has to be equipped with a substantial amount of background knowledge, and be able to perform reasoning tasks involving that knowledge and the data provided. In effort to meet this goal, researchers have turned to ideas from the machine learning field. This is a natural source of ideas, since the machine learning task can be described as turning background knowledge and examples",
"-26.793847874050698"
],
[
"a large number of participants to generate any useful and reliable data. For example, researchers testing the effectiveness of a treatment for severe depression might need two groups of twenty patients for a control and a test group. If they wanted to add another treatment to the research, they would need another group of twenty patients. The potential scale of these experiments can make between-group designs impractical due to limited resources, subjects and space.\nAnother major concern for between-group designs is bias. Assignment bias, observer-expectancy and subject-expectancy biases are common causes for skewed data results in between-group experiments, which can lead",
"-26.78065623843859"
],
[
"big data projects, there is no large data analysis happening, but the challenge is the extract, transform, load part of data preprocessing.\nBig data is a buzzword and a \"vague term\", but at the same time an \"obsession\" with entrepreneurs, consultants, scientists and the media. Big data showcases such as Google Flu Trends failed to deliver good predictions in recent years, overstating the flu outbreaks by a factor of two. Similarly, Academy awards and election predictions solely based on Twitter were more often off than on target.\nBig data often poses the same challenges as small data; adding more data does not",
"-26.780192141755833"
],
[
"data.\" Statistical flaws in his work have been proposed by others in the parapsychological community and within the general scientific community. The physicist Robert L. Park said of PEAR, \"It’s been an embarrassment to science, and I think an embarrassment for Princeton\". Psychokinesis on random number generators The advent of powerful and inexpensive electronic and computer technologies has allowed the development of fully automated experiments studying possible interactions between mind and matter. In the most common experiment of this type, a random number generator (RNG), based on electronic or radioactive noise, produces a data stream that is recorded and analyzed",
"-26.771153919042263"
],
[
"caveat for OFFICIAL data where it is particularly important to enforce need to know rules. OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE documents should be marked, but they are not necessarily tracked. SECRET \"Very sensitive information\", which might (for example) seriously harm national defence or crime investigations. Data should only be marked as SECRET if the Senior Information Risk Owner (which is a board level position in an organisation) agrees that it is high-impact and that the data must be protected against very capable attackers. Although some specialist technology might be used to protect the data, there is still strong emphasis on reuse of commercial security",
"-26.768863938588765"
],
[
" Canadian and US courts have been more cautious in permitting neuroimaging data as legal evidence. One of the reasons legal systems have been slow to adopt neuroimaging data as an accepted form of evidence is the possible error and misinterpretations that could result from such a new technology; courts in the US typically follow the Daubert standard set for evidence evaluation by the Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Supreme Court case, which established that the validity of scientific evidence must be determined by the trial judge. The Daubert standard serves as a safeguard for the reliability",
"-26.750366951033357"
],
[
"disclosure risks from both the researcher and the checker. It encourages the researcher to produce safe results in the first place. However, this also means that the outcome may be inconsistent and uncertain. It requires extensive training and a high understanding of statistics and data analysis.\nThe UK Data Service employs a principles-based approach to statistical disclosure control. Critiques Many contemporary statistical disclosure control techniques, such as generalization and cell suppression, have been shown to be vulnerable to attack by a hypothetical data intruder. For example, Cox showed in 2009 that Complementary cell suppression typically leads to \"over-protected\" solutions because of",
"-26.747894976961106"
],
[
"of a system that is being examined; therefore the results need to be carefully considered.\nAs the complexity of real systems increases models need to be more and more complex to represent the reality most accurately. In result, they may become increasingly difficult to understand and to be operated. Their complex nature can cause problems with using and managing results.\nAs models constitute a simpler version of reality, certain factors can be omitted, and in consequence can lead to mistakes. Such mistakes are not easy to be found and corrected. Social network analysis Social network analysis (also sometimes called network theory) has",
"-26.711812469163306"
],
[
"to allow for them to be implemented in diverse research projects. One advantage of this approach is that data is available for analysis at a single site, using a uniform schema. Some disadvantages are that the datasets are often huge and difficult to keep up to date. Another problem with this method is that it is costly to compile such a warehouse.\nStandardized formats for different types of data (ex: protein data) are now emerging due to the influence of groups like the Proteomics Standards Initiative (PSI). Some data warehousing projects even require the submission of data in one of these",
"-26.709735889606236"
],
[
"of trying to handle a vast amount of logs on an account as a result of too many user actions. Harmful user actions can easily be overlooked with thousands of user actions being compiled every day. Overall risk According to the Verizon Data Breach Incident Report, “The first step in protecting your data is in knowing where it is and who has access to it.” In today’s IT environment, “there is a lack of oversight and control over how and who among employees has access to confidential, sensitive information.” This apparent gap is one of many factors",
"-26.697852538743426"
],
[
"errors will always occur if the accuracy of initial retrieval and location of data is poorly self-regulated.\nSocial priming\nSteering cognition provides an explanation of how the mind is non-consciously influenced by the environmental cues, or primes, around it. Steering cognition studies have produced data of attentional bias and blindness best explained by environmental priming.",
"-26.67600415938182"
],
[
"pledge of confidentiality for the purpose of producing statistics that, by their production, do not compromise the privacy of those individuals who provided the data.)\nThe intuition for the 2006 definition of ε-differential privacy is that a person's privacy cannot be compromised by a statistical release if their data are not in the database. Therefore with differential privacy, the goal is to give each individual roughly the same privacy that would result from having their data removed. That is, the statistical functions run on the database should not overly depend on the data of any one individual.\nOf course, how much any",
"-26.664831661208154"
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[
"data fed to a machine additionally reflects \"human decisionmaking processes\" as data is being selected.\nFinally, he noted that machines might also transfer good information with unintended consequences if users are unclear about how to interpret the results. Weizenbaum warned against trusting decisions made by computer programs that a user doesn't understand, comparing such faith to a tourist who can find his way to a hotel room exclusively by turning left or right on a coin toss. Crucially, the tourist has no basis of understanding how or why he arrived at his destination, and a successful arrival does not mean the",
"-26.633462099181997"
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[
"the recording or the entity owning the sensor controls what happens to that data by default. For example, banks control banking data, researchers control research data, and hospitals control health record data. Due to historical reasons the current scenario is such that research institutions hold data about a fragment of data describing part of an individual. Health research data in Europe exist in a fragmented manner controlled by different institutions. Data categories often describe more about who controls that data and where it is stored rather than what the data is describing or the application it could be applied to.",
"-26.59498391946545"
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[
"raises some challenges. Firstly with regard to privacy: can participants' data and identity truly be anonymised and sensitive data be kept safe and confidential? Individuals, in general, are not aware of how their personal information is used, for what purpose and which parties have a copy. They are not usually given the opportunity to declare their specific consents and privacy-related personal data management preferences. Secondly, with regard to consent: informed consent requires a person to know in advance what they are agreeing to and what the likely risks and benefits of agreeing will be. But with these large, linked data",
"-26.591412588686126"
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[
"prefer information that supports their personal position. People generate and evaluate evidence in arguments that are biased towards their own beliefs and opinions. Heightened confidence levels decrease preference for information that supports individuals' personal beliefs.\nAnother experiment gave participants a complex rule-discovery task that involved moving objects simulated by a computer. Objects on the computer screen followed specific laws, which the participants had to figure out. So, participants could \"fire\" objects across the screen to test their hypotheses. Despite making many attempts over a ten-hour session, none of the participants figured out the rules of the system. They typically attempted to",
"-26.583955794872054"
],
[
"discussed during the day? Is it necessary to look at all the tweets to determine the sentiment on each of the topics? In manufacturing different types of sensory data such as acoustics, vibration, pressure, current, voltage and controller data are available at short time intervals. To predict downtime it may not be necessary to look at all the data but a sample may be sufficient. Big Data can be broken down by various data point categories such as demographic, psychographic, behavioral, and transactional data. With large sets of data points, marketers are able to create and utilize more",
"-26.572690654487815"
],
[
"of agreement between judgments of data obtained after periodical monitored negotiations in the context of maximum possible disagreement. For this purpose, the definition of data itself, i.e. data elements and data structures in a systems context, was widened to conceive data as information and knowledge.\nThis part of Ivanov's work parallels, and can be seen as a theoretical contribution to groupthink, to the wisdom of crowds and the Wiki-idea itself. It required, however, some reservations for problems of social psychology as implied by the study of popular mind. Its conclusions appear to be relevant also for general data quality, information quality,",
"-26.530294564448923"
],
[
"what is not through an information cascade.\nInformation cascades have strong influence causing individuals to imitate the actions of others, whether or not they are in agreement. For example, when downloading music, people don't decide 100% independently which songs to buy. Often they are influenced by charts depicting which songs are already trending. Since people rely on what those before them do, one can manipulate what becomes popular among the public by manipulating a website's download rankings. Experts paid to predict sales often fail but not because they are bad at their jobs; instead, it is because they cannot control the",
"-26.524635313442673"
],
[
"data. Rob Kitchin identifies both technical and organizational issues of data, as well as some normative and ethical questions. Technical and organization issues concerning data range from the scope of datasets, access to the data, the quality of the data, the integration of the data, the application of analytics and ecological fallacies, as well as the skills and organizational capabilities of the research team. Some of the normative and ethical concerns addressed by Kitchin include surveillance through one's data (dataveillance), the privacy of one's data, the ownership of one's data, the security of one's data, anticipatory or corporate governance, and",
"-26.513582865478384"
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[
"information without losing their way. Most specifically it combines related data — “anything from pictures, videos and maps to batting averages and financials — into large collections that can then be manipulated, sorted, filtered and examined visually”. In this way, the data itself can help shape and inform the way it is presented. Thus, instead of having to struggle to understand data and then apply it to a problem, Pivot works in unison with a person to come to an optimal solution.\nCurrently information seekers are stuck in the old way of viewing information, limited by browsers to view information only",
"-26.455835215099796"
]
] |
8kb219 | In the United States, why is soccer such a popular sport for little kids, but not as popular among older kids (high school, college) | [
"For most people soccer is the cheapest sport to put your kid in as well. Until they move up in skill they need minimal equipment to play.",
"Soccer at a young age is taught as more of a physical activity rather than a defined sport in the US. People here are raised to believe that all you do in soccer is run and kick the ball. The youth levels aren’t taught about proper positioning, shape, attacking, or goaltending. It’s all very rudimentary. In order to learn more and develop as a player you have to be invested enough to seek out those few and far between programs and academies that actually do teach you about the sport. Because of that and the popularity of baseball, basketball, and football you lose a lot of potential athletes for soccer. It really is a problem at the youth level, but until there is more interest in the sport here at the top levels, it will never fully adapt.",
"Soccer requires a ball, everything else is cheap or publicly provided. I think that is why soccer is so globally popular. Almost anyone can afford a ball or two between a dozen kids. Americans tend to have more disposable income and that turns into more expensive sports.",
"Strangely similar in New Zealand, but rugby is the dominant sport. We even called it 'soccer' when I was a kid and rugby was footy. I'm not sure about now though, it's been a while since I was home.",
"So, this is starting to change slowly, but at its most basic level, it is because soccer is not as established in North America. Because North America is very isolated from the rest of the world, it developed differently. When football was being established on this continent, it was the Rugby Union game that dominated. Though the game has changed over the past century and a half, the basic structure of the game - scoring points by carrying an egg-shaped ball over a goal line and/or kicking it through a pair of uprights, defense being achieved via bringing the ball carrier to the ground - is shared. But by the time it was able to spread out of the US and Canada, other games had already established dominance (similarly, Australian football, while very popular in Australia, is virtually unknown in the Northern Hemisphere). The same is true in the other direction. By the time that large numbers of soccer playing immigrants crossed the Atlantic, we already had our own football, and soccer wasn't going to displace it. The immigrant communities did play soccer, but it was as much a cultural thing as it was athletic. When I was in high school, I found a copy of the 1959 yearbook, which was the year that the school first fielded a soccer team. It was noted in the blurb about the team that nearly all of the players had started the season having never played the game before. This scenario has an effect on future generations. A parent who doesn't know anything about soccer is less likely to put their child in soccer, and even if they do, they will have to learn if they want to be able to follow their kid's game or talk to them about the sport. As my generation, who grew up playing soccer, are now at the age where we are having children of our own, we are far more likely to choose soccer as an activity for them. As for the age drop off, in the US, it is a big thing to keep kids in lots of activities. There's swimming lessons, karate, dance, music, and sports to fill your kid's time with. Sports tend to have defined seasons, and they don't necessarily overlap, so you can put your children in tee-ball in the spring, soccer in the fall, basketball in the winter. That way, they are always busy. Soccer is especially popular for younger children because it is easy to scale the field down based on age, and it is relatively low on contact, so children are less likely to get hurt. Up to a certain point, it is even reasonable to have co-ed programs. Once kids get older, the player base starts to diverge. It's especially noticeable with boys, as the biggest competitor for players is football, which is by and large the province of males. Let's say that most boys who are involved in organized sports play soccer from age 5-9. Once they turn 10, they are old enough for football, so a bunch of those kids will go off to the gridiron. As they get older, kids will start to specialize too. Maybe they play soccer, swim competitively, and take piano lessons. That eats up a huge amount of time, so at some point, a choice has to be made. The money aspect is a big deal too. Colleges can and do offer full scholarships for soccer, but there isn't the kind of money in MLS that there is in the NFL or NBA. A good soccer player could try to go to Europe to play professionally, but they end up competing with players who have been playing in an organized club environment that is based around developing future professionals (rather than being just an extracurricular activity) from a very young age and likely started their professional career before age 20, compared to a 21 or 22 year old who is graduating from college, where they practiced and played during the season, but were restricted as to what they could do in the off-season, and also had to balance a full-time course load.",
"I don't think the divide is so much with youth to high school to college as it is between recreational and professional soccer. High school soccer is pretty popular. It's not football in Texas popular, but every high school with an athletic program that I'm familiar with fields a soccer team. College soccer is less popular than college football or basketball, but it's about as popular as any other college sport (wrestling, volleyball, crew, etc). Most universities with an athletic program offer soccer. On the other hand, in US pro sports, soccer lags significantly behind football, baseball, basketball, hockey, NASCAR, etc etc etc. I think the divide you're noticing between youth and teens/college soccer isn't so much that people shun soccer, but that once you are high school age there are a lot more activities available to do. When I was in grade school, there was soccer, karate, ballet, piano lessons, and maybe some other sport appropriate for younger kids like tee ball. By the time I was in high school you could be on the debate team or work on the school paper or play tennis or run track or hold a student government office. And then in college, extracurriculars that aren't connected to a specific career path (for example sports) are drastically de-emphasized for most students. You're not expected to play sports or practice an art form just for fun anymore. And I think that trail off from \"there are only so many kid-appropriate pastimes\" to \"doing any school-organized pastime is discouraged\" is what you're noticing.",
"Youth soccer is cheap, easy, and relatively safe. Put a bunch of kids in a field with a ball and tell them to kick it around. It's not really \"soccer\" in the sense of the competitive sport, but it keeps the kids occupied and gets them exercise. Baseball is more expensive \\(you need balls, bats, protective gear, and a more specialized field\\) and more dangerous \\(kids throwing a small hard ball at each other is not a great idea when they are too young\\) and requires more structure \\(need to teach kids where to stand and how to run the bases etc.\\). T\\-ball offers a safer alternative and was fairly popular when I was young \\(I played both soccer and T\\-ball as a kid\\). Football has similar problems to baseball for youth. More dangerous. More rules/structure has to be taught. Basketball is probably the closest thing to Soccer in this context. Requires a bit more specialized court to play on, and might be too difficult to score for young ones \\(kicking into a big goal is a lot easier than throwing into a small hoop for a kid\\). tl;dr Soccer is just the most convenient sport for keeping kids occupied. It has little to do with the popularity of the sports for teens/adults.",
"I thinks it’s about stays. Americans love their sports stats. And advertising breaks. When you play a game like soccer that is mostly uninterrupted and often go with very few goals it’s hard to fit in with how Americans like to enjoy sports. It’s also likely that the common “cheating” and the fact that’s it’s “European” may have something to do with it. A shame really. Fantastic sport."
] | [
[
"sports organizations have turned to soccer as a supplement to American football, and most American high schools offer both boys and girls soccer. Due to the rising number of youths playing, the term \"soccer mom\" is used in American social and political discourse to describe middle- or upper-middle-class suburban women with school-age children. Americans between the ages of 12 and 24 rank professional soccer as their second favorite sport behind only American football. And in 2011, the FIFA video game ranked as the #2 most popular video game in the country, behind only Madden NFL.\nThough organized locally by organizations all",
"-34.612482444324996"
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[
"played team sport by high school boys, and soccer overtook softball to become the #3 most played team sport by high school girls. As of 2006, the U.S. was the #1 country in the world for participation in youth soccer, with 3.9 million American youths (2.3 million boys and 1.6 million girls) registered with U.S. Soccer. Among girls, the U.S. has more registered players than all other countries combined. The number of high school soccer players more than doubled from 1990 to 2010, giving soccer the fastest growth rate among all major U.S. sports. In recent decades, more youth",
"-30.87779082148336"
],
[
"even wrestling is way off the mark.\" About the launch of Major League Soccer, Lavalle was quoted as saying in 1994, \"There is no chance it will survive. Absolutely no chance whatsoever.\" \nMajor League Soccer has now operated continuously since 1996 and has expanded to 19 teams in the United States and Canada; in 2011 it had a higher average attendance than either the NBA or the NHL. In 2012, a Luker/ESPN survey showed that soccer was the second most popular sport among Americans aged 12–24, behind only NFL football; seven percent of this age bracket",
"-30.105736180994427"
],
[
"United States in recent years. Soccer is played by over 13 million people in the U.S., making it the third-most played sport in the U.S., more widely played than ice hockey and football. Most NCAA Division I colleges field both a men's and women's varsity soccer team, and those that field only one team almost invariably field a women's team.\nThe United States men's national team and women's national team, as well as a number of national youth teams, represent the United States in international soccer competitions and are governed by the United States Soccer Federation (U.S. Soccer). The U.S. women's",
"-29.10618915874511"
],
[
"over the United States, there are three main youth soccer club leagues working nationwide through affiliated local associations. The United States Youth Soccer Association boasts over three million players between the ages of five and 19, while American Youth Soccer Organization has more than 600,000 players between the ages of four and 19. Finally, the USL offers a number of youth leagues, including the Super-20 League and the Super Y-League, which have almost 1,000 teams and tens of thousands of players from the ages of 13 to 20.\nAlso, the National Federation of State High School Associations features 800,000 soccer players.",
"-28.357729564770125"
],
[
"the sport, due to factors such as the U.S. hosting of the 1994 FIFA World Cup and the formation of Major League Soccer, as well as increased U.S. television coverage of soccer competitions. Many immigrants living in the United States continue to follow soccer as their favorite team sport. United States will host the 2026 FIFA World Cup sharing with Canada and Mexico.\nWomen's professional soccer in the United States has not seen sustained success. Following the demise of two professional leagues in the early 21st century, the Women's United Soccer Association (1999–2001) and Women's Professional Soccer (2009–2011), U.S. Soccer established",
"-28.20016781414597"
],
[
"play in organised competitions. 2017 research found 10.6% of 6–13 year-olds regularly play T-ball, making it the 14th most popular children's sport in Australia. This does not appear to translate into increased participation in baseball and softball which are not popular sports for teenagers older than 14.",
"-28.10786401873702"
],
[
"combined.)\nBaseball has been regarded as the national sport since the late 19th century, with Major League Baseball (MLB) being the top league, while American football is now by several measures the most popular spectator sport, with the National Football League (NFL) having the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world and a Super Bowl watched by millions globally. Basketball and ice hockey are the country's next two leading professional team sports, with the top leagues being the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the National Hockey League (NHL). These four major sports, when played professionally, each occupy a",
"-27.798326574324165"
],
[
"found that engagement with mixed martial arts had increased in the 21st century and was more popular than boxing and wrestling for Americans aged 18 to 34 years old, in contrast to those aged 35 and over who preferred boxing. In the United States, while the popularity of American football and the National Football League has declined among millennials, the popularity of Association football and Major League Soccer has increased more among millennials than for any other generation, and as of 2018 was the second most popular sport among those aged 18 to 34. The other popular activities included outdoor",
"-27.77827120589791"
],
[
"many older schools do not have outdoor facilities readily available.\nSports culture is stronger in independent schools in the United Kingdom, and these schools contribute disproportionate numbers of elite competitors in almost all sports with the exceptions of football, rugby league, boxing and perhaps athletics.\nIn addition to many of the sports already mentioned, popular sports at junior level include netball and rounders, both of which are played almost entirely by girls.\nThe leading body for physical education in the United Kingdom is the Association for Physical Education.\nIn 2006, the UK School Games was established by the Youth Sport Trust as an annual",
"-27.63520109083038"
],
[
"is most popular among those who live in the eastern United States and rural areas, while college football is most popular in the southern United States and among people with graduate and post-graduate degrees. Football is also the most-played sport by high school and college athletes in the United States. In a 2012 study, the NCAA estimated there were around 1.1 million high school football players and nearly 70,000 college football players in the United States; in comparison, the second-most played sport, basketball, had around 1 million participants in high school and 34,000 in college. The Super Bowl is the most popular",
"-27.035203562118113"
],
[
"a modified version of American football, at the international level. United States \"Baseball is still called the national pastime, but football is by far the more popular sport in American society\", according to ESPN.com's Sean McAdam. In a 2014 poll conducted by Harris Interactive, professional football ranked as the most popular sport, and college football ranked third behind only professional football and baseball; 46% of participants ranked some form of the game as their favorite sport. Professional football has ranked as the most popular sport in the poll since 1985, when it surpassed baseball for the first time. Professional football",
"-26.863113060724572"
],
[
"competition is not as important in American sports as it is in the sporting culture of most other countries, although Olympic ice hockey and basketball tournaments do generate attention. The first international baseball tournament with top-level players, the World Baseball Classic, also generated some positive reviews after its inaugural tournament in 2006.\nThe major professional sports leagues operate drafts once a year, in which each league's teams selected eligible prospects. Eligibility differs from league to league. Baseball and ice hockey operate minor league systems for players who have finished education but are not ready or good enough for the major leagues.",
"-26.701954368967563"
],
[
"one of the founders of the Brazilian \"form\" of American football after experimenting with boxing and judo. A significant number of female spectators are attracted to American football in Brazil; even to the point where they go to parties where the American football players pretend to speak English. Children between the ages of 8 to 13 are being encouraged by educational organizations to start participating in American football.\nOther traditional fixtures in the Brazilian sports lifestyle like volleyball and Formula One are slowly losing their fanbase to American football. Once the game transitioned from sand to grass, the popularity of",
"-26.67490736355103"
],
[
"international tournaments, soccer remained a niche sport in the U.S. for many years. In the three decades after the 1950 World Cup, the only victories for the United States came against Haiti, Bermuda, Honduras, Canada, Poland, and China. 1980s After the enthusiasm caused by the creation and rise of the North American Soccer League in the 1960s and 1970s, it seemed as though the U.S. men's national team would soon become a powerful force in world soccer. These hopes were not realized, however. The United States played only two international matches from 1981–1983.\nTo provide a more stable national team program",
"-26.658725332046743"
],
[
"English Premier League and the Spanish La Liga they make up the top six sports leagues by revenue in the world. In addition, the sports of these four leagues were all developed in their modern forms in North America, and all except American football have become popular internationally. Because the leagues enjoy a significant place in popular culture in the U.S. and Canada, the best players from these leagues often become cultural icons in both countries. Each Big Four league, as well as Major League Soccer and the Canadian Football League, averages at least 15,000 fans in attendance per game",
"-26.65427207679022"
],
[
"compete for the championship. Minor ice hockey and junior ice hockey serve an identical purpose for ice hockey and the National Hockey League (NHL). To a certain extent, Little League Baseball serves a similar purpose for professional baseball, although the vast majority of development and recruitment comes at the high school level.\nThe other major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada do not have a youth development system. The National Football League's players are developed predominantly through the educational system, first with high school football and then college football. Basketball players are typically developed and recruited straight out",
"-26.48367917726864"
],
[
"typically organised commercially and paid for by parents. Many children attend several a week, and occasionally even more than one per day. Similar activities also occur at weekends.\nThere is typically less focus on the managed \"enrichment\" than in the US, beyond the basic choice of activity; for example football (soccer) is physically active and develops teamwork. United States After school programs are very common today in the United States. The 40 largest national youth organizations today have a total membership of about 40 million youths. The Boys & Girls Clubs of America focus mainly on positive youth development. Their",
"-26.434157094656257"
],
[
"in 2014 and 2015. Modern history of youth and high school football (1933–present) American has become a popular participatory sport among youth. One of the earliest youth football organizations was founded in Philadelphia, in 1929, as the Junior Football Conference. Organizer Joe Tomlin started the league to provide activities and guidance for teenage boys who were vandalizing the factory he owned. The original four-team league expanded to sixteen teams in 1933 when Pop Warner, who had just been hired as the new coach of the Temple University football team, agreed to give a lecture to the boys in the league.",
"-26.316605326443096"
],
[
"States, women's international soccer basically didn’t exist. According to FIFA, there were only three national teams and two international matches played in 1971.\nAdditionally, in the years following Title IX, American high schools and colleges have been steadily embracing girls' and women's soccer. According to the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS), the U.S. had little more than 10,000 girls playing high school soccer in the late 1970s. This number had increased to 120,000 by 1991 when the USWNT claimed its first World Cup title, and 250,000 by 1999, the year of the second World Cup title. In 2015,",
"-26.275033571524546"
],
[
"Professional sports in the Western United States Professional sports have existed in the United States since the late 19th century. The NFL, MLB, NBA and NHL have millions of fans across the nation, and are an important part of American culture. Professional sports did not enter into the American West until the mid-twentieth century. However, the expansion of professional sports into the West has helped to increase the popularity of each of the professional leagues and has changed the landscape of professional sports in America. History Prior to World War II, top-level professional sports in the United States",
"-26.068630578767625"
],
[
"soccer created more popularity for the game in the 1980s. However, there were few professional opportunities for women in the United States, and the first national women's league, the USL W-League, wouldn't be established until 1995. National team The women's national team was formed in 1983, but wouldn't play its first games until 1985. In its first years, it played in little more than friendly tournaments, primarily against European teams, as few competitions for women's national teams yet existed. After the first FIFA Women's World Cup was announced for 1991 and especially on the United States being awarded the 1994",
"-26.049990090425126"
],
[
"with family, crime and other lack of opportunity.\nIn Global North nations, the evolving and complex youth sport system requires significant resources such as time, access, and money to develop as an athlete and play competitively. The financial costs involved in facilitating organized sport at an elite level ranges from an average of a few thousand dollars per year, to more than 20,000 dollars per year in some sports. For these financial reasons, participation is not feasible for a majority of kids growing up in lower income families.\nIn recent years, youth sports have become more expensive in the United States. ",
"-25.934809909116666"
],
[
"States, unlike their other Caribbean counterparts, where cricket, rugby, and netball have proven to be more popular.\nDexter Cambridge, Rick Fox, Ian Lockhart, Magnum Rolle, Buddy Hield and Deandre Ayton are a few Bahamians who joined Bahamian Mychal Thompson of the Los Angeles Lakers in the NBA ranks. Over the years American football has become much more popular than soccer, though not implemented in the high school system yet. Leagues for teens and adults have been developed by the Bahamas American Football Federation. However soccer, as it is commonly known in the country, is still a very popular sport amongst high",
"-25.859547261032276"
],
[
"leagues, in that there is no system of promotion and relegation between lower and higher leagues, but rather a minor league system, generally the same as almost all other top-level pro sports leagues in North America. In addition, teams playing in American soccer leagues are not private clubs founded independently of the league that join a league in order to ensure regular fixtures but are instead usually franchises of the league itself. Finally, the soccer leagues in the United States also incorporate features common to other American sports leagues, most notably the determination of champions by playoffs between the top",
"-25.835923933802405"
],
[
"in Division I soccer. Americans playing in foreign leagues Since the early 1990s, several Americans have found opportunities playing soccer at the highest levels of foreign leagues. Among the first Americans to become regulars in foreign leagues were John Harkes at Sheffield Wednesday and Derby County in England, Eric Wynalda at Saarbrücken in Germany, and Kasey Keller at Millwall in England. Since then, other Americans have played for clubs that have participated in the knockout rounds of the Champions League and Europa League, such as Brad Friedel with Tottenham Hotspur, DaMarcus Beasley with PSV Eindhoven, and Christian Pulisic with Borussia",
"-25.8125504180789"
],
[
"high school football and its impact on small town communities has been documented by landmark non-fiction works such as the 1990 book Friday Night Lights and the subsequent fictionalized film and television series. American football outside the United States (1874–present) American football has been played outside the US since the 1920s and accelerated in popularity after World War II, especially in countries with large numbers of U.S. military personnel, who often formed a substantial proportion of the players and spectators.\nIn 1998, the International Federation of American Football, was formed to coordinate international amateur competition. At present, 45 associations from the",
"-25.796411538634857"
],
[
"made up primarily of college and amateur players, leaving professionals such as Rick Davis and Hugo Perez off the roster. At the time, the United States did not have a top division outdoor soccer league, the North American Soccer League having folded in 1985. Most domestic professionals at the time played in indoor leagues, and Gansler felt that the skills required for indoor soccer conflicted with the outdoor game. In addition, the United States had been awarded the 1994 World Cup, and Gansler may have wanted to expose the core of the 1994 team to the World",
"-25.751903880620375"
],
[
"which (unlike other sports, which were primarily independent club activities) was cultivated at colleges and universities. As a result, players entering the professional football system are generally several years older and more physically mature than first-time professional athletes in other sports, thus reducing the need for a farm system.\nIn the 1930s, the Chicago Bears and New York Giants owned teams in the American Association, which became the first true minor league in professional football. In the 1960s, several NFL teams had agreements with the Atlantic Coast Football League to use their teams as farm teams, though they were not owned",
"-25.68952494086261"
],
[
"the United Kingdom, particularly British rock bands such as The Beatles and Herman's Hermits, The Rolling Stones, while its American precursor, the blues, greatly influenced British electric rock. Sport Despite sports being a major cultural interest in both the United States and the United Kingdom. The most popular team sports in each country, which are in the UK: football (soccer), rugby union, rugby league and cricket and the U.S.: [American] football, baseball, ice hockey and basketball are considered minor sports in either other country. However, there is a growing interest the other countries sports in each other country. Another area",
"-25.687749867443927"
],
[
"entirely of college soccer players who use the league as an opportunity to play competitive soccer in front of professional scouts during the summer, while retaining amateur status and NCAA eligibility.\nThe United States Adult Soccer Association governs amateur soccer competition for adults throughout the United States, which is effectively the amateur fifth division of soccer in the United States. Cup competitions The Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup is a knockout tournament in American soccer. The tournament is the oldest ongoing national soccer competition in the U.S. and was historically open to all United States Soccer Federation affiliated teams, from amateur",
"-25.659525363589637"
],
[
"promoted by adults. Sports Sportive activities are one of the most universal forms of play. Different continents have their own popular/dominant sports. For example, European, South American, and African countries enjoy soccer (also known as ‘football’ in Europe), while North American countries prefer basketball, ice hockey, baseball, or American football. In Asia, sports such as table tennis and badminton are played professionally; however soccer and basketball are played amongst common folks. Events such as The Olympic Games and FIFA World Cup showcase countries competing with each other and are broadcast all over the world.\nSports can be played as a leisure",
"-25.642516320658615"
],
[
"high schools and colleges have sports programs which include softball. Like baseball, softball in Japan is intensely competitive. Japan's win over the United States at the 2008 Olympics reflects the advanced level of play in this East Asian country. China Since the silver medal at the Atlanta Olympics, the Chinese have now made softball a priority at all levels. The game is played in most schools and with a 1.3 billion population; the number of great players is turning out to be a boon for China. The Chinese have frequently toured the US and have now similar caliber coaching and",
"-25.640264441084582"
],
[
"music \"lively\".\nThe developers found that 90% of players make positive decisions. Young boys initially thought the concept of girls playing soccer controversial; after playing the game, nearly 90% \"agreed that girls can play soccer\". Research by State University of New York at Buffalo \"demonstrated that the game had a profound impact on participants' awareness and attitudes, and also indicated behavioral change.\"\nThe game has been played in 185 countries, and led to mixed-gender youth soccer camps in El Salvador and the Palestinian territories (Hebron), the latter \"[challenging] social norms.\"",
"-25.627249107696116"
],
[
"match the goals of Knoxville's adult teams. As soccer has continued to grow in popularity throughout the United States, so has the number of adults interested in playing the sport, and the philosophy of the NPSL and WPSL has shifted to focus more on national player development and advancing the teams from one league level to the next. Emerald Youth’s goal with the adult teams was not to utilize them as a path to a major league soccer team. Instead, the focus was on leadership and character development.” Staff Derek Broadley was appointed head coach of the Force in February",
"-25.615539419846755"
],
[
"most popular sport. The men's national teams of Argentine, Uruguay and Spain have won the FIFA World Cup a total five times. The Spanish La Liga is one of the most popular in the world, known for FC Barcelona and Real Madrid. Meanwhile, the Argentine Primera División and Mexican Primera División are two of the strongest leagues in the Americas.\nHowever, baseball is the most popular sport in some Central American and Caribbean countries (especially Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and Venezuela), as well as in the diaspora in the United States. Notable Hispanic teams in early baseball are the All",
"-25.55684773484245"
],
[
"in the sport - have taken a step back. The lack of participation can be blamed on lack of leadership at the higher levels of the sport. In turn, this is due to a lack of knowledge of the sport in schools across Canada. Adding to the problem is that broomball is often confused with ringette and curling. Parents tend to sign their children up for mainstream sports such as hockey, although broomball is more well known in rural areas but lacks funding to become more popular in urban areas. Funding Broomball is recognized as one of the first 6",
"-25.485112313879654"
],
[
"Cup in 2017 in Guatemala, with Russia winning the title. Youth organisations The popularity of five-a-side youth football has grown tremendously within the U.S. Many organisations have chosen this format and modified it slightly to promote an environment where children can excel early in youth sports. American Youth Soccer Organization, United States Youth Soccer Association, and Fun Fair Positive Soccer are among the largest organisations bringing this format to the regional US-based youth soccer arena. Sponsorships In recent years a few five-a-side teams have found themselves with sponsorship deals amounting up to thousand of pounds contracts. Sponsors feel with the",
"-25.474072035372956"
],
[
"baseball's professional minor leagues are more extensive. Moving directly from high school to the professional level is more common in baseball than in football or basketball. However, if players enroll at a four-year college, they must complete three years to regain eligibility, unless they reach age 21 before starting their third year of attendance. Players who enroll at junior colleges (i.e., two-year institutions) regain eligibility after one year at that level, Bryce Harper being a notable example. In 2013, there are 298 NCAA Division I teams in the United States.\nAs with most other U.S. intercollegiate sports, competitive college baseball is",
"-25.470403464976698"
],
[
"According to the president of the International Baseball Federation, between 300,000 and 500,000 women and girls play baseball around the world, including Little League and the introductory game of Tee Ball.\nA varsity baseball team is an established part of physical education departments at most high schools and colleges in the United States. In 2015, nearly half a million high schoolers and over 34,000 collegians played on their schools' baseball teams. By early in the 20th century, intercollegiate baseball was Japan's leading sport. Today, high school baseball in particular is immensely popular there. The final rounds of the two annual tournaments—the",
"-25.37037297076313"
],
[
"American Soccer League, they had few opportunities for playing outdoor soccer. Even the indoor leagues began struggling in the late 1980s. Several U.S. players moved overseas, but others, like Krumpe, found themselves moving from one financially struggling U.S. club to another. In 1991, having reached the highest levels of the game, at the 1990 World Cup, he decided to hang up his cleats and enter the coaching career field. Coaching In 1989, Krumpe had worked with the coaching staff of the Cal State Dominguez Hills women’s soccer team. That gave him a taste for coaching and",
"-25.31149699521484"
],
[
"60s, 70s and 80s the sport saw the most growth in the area. Most schools, even small rural schools had a football program.\nDuring this time period is when most of the area's schools' rivalries came to fruition. Modern years (1991–present) After the massive growth of the sport, football has continued its success in this region. Fans have continued to support their local schools or colleges in the area with a passion. Even though there is no professional franchise in the area many people root for either the Philadelphia Eagles or Pittsburgh Steelers. High school level football Of the 102 public",
"-25.29734349870705"
],
[
"the dawn of the twentieth century.\nDespite the difference in popularity of their respective professional leagues, association football overtook ice hockey in the 1980s and 1990s as the sport with the most registered players in the country. In 2008, there were 873,032 footballers, compared to 584,679 registered hockey players in Canada in 2008–09. Major League Soccer Major League Soccer (MLS) is the highest level of professional soccer in the United States and Canada. Currently there are three MLS teams located in Canada. Toronto FC became the first Canadian club in 2007. An MLS franchise was awarded to Vancouver in 2009 and",
"-25.217643634881824"
],
[
"in schools also in the rise, Mind Sports South Africa reports that there are now over 30 schools that participate in the official league, with school teams competing on an equal footing with many of the best private clubs in the country.\nNigeria, Kenya and Uganda are the other top game developers in Africa. The gaming industry is bringing millions of dollars in for their countries per year. This is in all categories of gaming: mobile, PC, Xbox, and PS. Because it was not the culture of the African people, the people are slowly growing into the gaming entertainment.\nSouth Africa also",
"-25.19646765559446"
],
[
"field, basketball, baseball, softball, volleyball and Association football where primary and high schools compete against each other. Today cricket is still enjoyed by a few locals and immigrants in the country, usually from Jamaica, Guyana, Haiti and Barbados. Cricket is played on Saturdays and Sundays at Windsor Park and Haynes Oval.\nThe only other sporting event that began before cricket was horse racing, which started in 1796. The most popular spectator sports are those imported from the United States, such as basketball, American football, and baseball, rather than from the British Isles, due to the country's close proximity to the United",
"-25.16736934954679"
],
[
"obscure sports often operate at a semi-professional level due to cost concerns. Because the cost of running a fully professional American football team is prohibitive, semi-pro football is common at the adult levels, particularly in the indoor variety, providing an outlet for players who have used up their NCAA eligibility and have no further use for maintaining amateur status; as a sport that normally plays only one game per week, football is especially suited for semi-pro play. The National Lacrosse League, whose teams also typically play only one game per week, pays a salary that is enough to be considered",
"-25.107841441989876"
],
[
"very popular and serve as those sports' most prominent competitions with levels of media coverage, competition, and fan following comparable to the major professional team sports. Amateur competitions such as college football and college basketball, at the upper echelons, also enjoy strong media coverage and fan followings but are generally recognized as inferior to the major professional leagues in level of play because of the inherent limits of the amateur sports system. Major League Baseball Major League Baseball is the highest level of play of baseball in North America. It consists of the National League (founded in 1876) and the",
"-25.088516461866675"
],
[
"first-year player draft. In Asia, baseball is among the most popular sports in Japan and South Korea.\nThe major league game in the United States was originally targeted toward a middle-class, white-collar audience: relative to other spectator pastimes, the National League's set ticket price of 50 cents in 1876 was high, while the location of playing fields outside the inner city and the workweek daytime scheduling of games were also obstacles to a blue-collar audience. A century later, the situation was very different. With the rise in popularity of other team sports with much higher average ticket prices—football, basketball, and hockey—professional",
"-25.083683213219047"
],
[
"child playing ice hockey, while 25% of households have a child playing soccer, and 24% of households have a child participating in swimming. The sport faces increasing competition from other popular sports such as basketball, soccer, and field hockey, which all have high participation rates. Another factor facing participation rates is the relative higher cost of hockey equipment. In 2013, the average cost of ice hockey equipment for youth was estimated at CA$730 while basketball equipment cost $310 and soccer equipment cost $160. Women's ice hockey Women's hockey in Canada is growing. The professional Canadian Women's Hockey League (which includes",
"-25.04369813980884"
],
[
"team, they may start out in the American Hockey League, which is similar to the minor leagues in baseball. Hockey has a little bit bigger of a roster compared to other professional sports, which makes it hard to have so many players on the bubble.",
"-25.01401774707483"
],
[
"part of education, or sometimes even with the specific goal of becoming a professional.\nAssociation football is one of the most popular sports played by the male population on the island. In recent years, there has been an increasing number of female footballers as well. Children often start playing football at an early age, and many play active for several years. As their skills develop, they are systematically graded up (or down) in divisions, a type of ranking system. Notable soccer players, such as Arne Larsen Økland, Geirmund Brendesæter, and Gunnar Meling, started their careers in Bremnes IL, one of the",
"-24.949481750896666"
],
[
"Professional sports leagues in the United States Professional sports leagues in the United States include several major leagues as well as other professional and semi-professional leagues. Major leagues The major sports leagues tend to have the greatest fan interest, have national TV contracts, draw high fan attendance, and have teams located throughout the largest metropolitan areas in the United States. Major League Baseball Major League Baseball is the highest level of play of baseball in North America. It consists of the National League (founded in 1876) and the American League (founded in 1901). Cooperation between the two leagues began in",
"-24.928952956821377"
],
[
"American football jumped. Players are only asked to practice occasionally and women have been embraced into even the \"full contact\" leagues. Copacabana Beach is considered to be the birthplace of American football in Brazil; where 20 men played the first game of American football in Brazilian history. All American football games not done on the beach are played out in public parks and teams must pay up to $300 to the municipality as rent. All Brazil had for equipment in 1989 was mouthguards from boxing rings and imported American footballs.\nProhibitive travel expenses would prevent the National Football League from expanding",
"-24.927439092687564"
],
[
"United States national beach soccer team Early years The sport of beach soccer originated in Brazil, where locals played soccer on the beaches for recreation. In 1992, the United States created official rules and a national team for the South American sport, which led other countries to do the same. Then in 1993, the United States held the first ever professional beach soccer event, which included national teams from Brazil, Argentina, and Italy. A year later in 1994, the U.S. team competed in the first ever Beach Soccer World Championship tournament in Brazil. The U.S. team competed in World Championships",
"-24.905029034373"
],
[
"in 1972 in an attempt to increase the number of U.S.- and Canadian-born players in the league. The foreign image of soccer was not helped, however, by a league that brought in many older, high-profile foreign players, and frequently left Americans on the bench. This effort was often doubly futile, as while many of the foreign players were perhaps \"big names\" in their home countries, almost none of them qualified as such in North America, and they quickly absorbed most of the available payroll, such as it was, which could have otherwise been used to pay North American players better.",
"-24.85344225895824"
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[
"favorite sport was 9%, compared to pro football at 37%. In 1985, the respective figures were pro football 24%, baseball 23%. Because there are so many more major league games played, there is no comparison in overall attendance. In 2008, total attendance at major league games was the second-highest in history: 78.6 million, 0.7% off the record set the previous year. The following year, amid the U.S. recession, attendance fell by 6.6% to 73.4 million. Eight years later, it dropped under 73 million. Attendance at games held under the Minor League Baseball umbrella set a record in 2008, with 43.3",
"-24.843836801039288"
],
[
"extant indoor leagues date to the mid-2000s and are regional in nature.\nDedicated women's football is seldom seen. A few amateur and semi-professional leagues exist, of varying degrees of stability and competition. Football is unique among scholastic sports in the U.S. in that no women's division exists for the sport; women who wish to play football in high school or college must compete directly with men. Basketball Of those Americans citing their favorite sport, basketball is ranked second (counting amateur levels) behind football. However, in regards to money the NBA is ranked third in popularity. More Americans play basketball than any",
"-24.84000977757387"
],
[
"Other sports with significant support are hockey, swimming, athletics, golf, boxing, tennis and netball. Although association football commands the greatest following among the youth, other sports like basketball, surfing, and skateboarding are increasingly popular.\nFamous boxing personalities include Baby Jake Jacob Matlala, Vuyani Bungu, Welcome Ncita, Dingaan Thobela, Gerrie Coetzee and Brian Mitchell. Footballers who have played for major foreign clubs include Lucas Radebe and Philemon Masinga, (both formerly of Leeds United), Quinton Fortune (Atlético Madrid and Manchester United), Benni McCarthy (Ajax Amsterdam, F.C. Porto, Blackburn Rovers and West Ham United), Aaron Mokoena (Ajax Amsterdam, Blackburn Rovers and Portsmouth), Delron Buckley",
"-24.834512077795807"
],
[
"common in a country with few luxuries. Informal games are often played by youths using a bundle of rags as a ball. Professional game Men's soccer has so far outpaced the women's game—or any other sport—as the focus of public attention as a spectator sport. History The French introduced the game to what was then French Soudan in the early 20th century, and the first organised leagues open to Africans appeared in the 1930s. Jeanne d'Arc du Soudan, founded in 1938 by two French-Africans and the missionary Révérend Père Bouvier, borrowed its name from the Senegalese club Jeanne d'Arc",
"-24.827171360870125"
],
[
"Expansion of major sports leagues in the United States and Canada The expansion of major sports leagues in the United States and Canada has occurred throughout the twentieth century for all of the major professional sports leagues in those two countries. United States Professional sports leagues as known today evolved during the decades between the Civil War and World War II, when the railroad was the main means of intercity transportation. As a result, virtually all major league teams were concentrated in the northeastern quarter of the United States, within roughly the radius of a day-long train ride. No MLB",
"-24.78245426320791"
],
[
"occupy a season at different but overlapping, times of the year. College football and basketball attract large audiences. In soccer, the country hosted the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the men's national soccer team qualified for ten World Cups and the women's team has won the FIFA Women's World Cup four times; Major League Soccer is the sport's highest league in the United States (featuring 21 American and 3 Canadian teams). The market for professional sports in the United States is roughly $69 billion, roughly 50% larger than that of all of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa combined.\nEight Olympic Games",
"-24.76898054103367"
],
[
"including Jack Thompson and Anita Sarkeesian, have met extreme resistance from the gaming public in response to the perceived politicizing of their art form. Sports The United States recognizes eSports players as professional athletes. Major League Gaming has eSports arenas and studios across the nation. Robert Morris University has a League of Legends varsity team, whose members are eligible for scholarships. Trends Players become fourth-party developers, allowing for more open source models of game design, development and engineering. Players also create modifications (mods), which in some cases become just as popular as the original game for which they were created.",
"-24.7573504926404"
],
[
"1989 and works with nearly 2,000 youth each year. The organization empowers underserved youth through soccer, character development, mentoring, and employability programs. Throughout the 1990s, Soccer in the Streets introduced soccer to many urban and underserved communities through soccer clinics, especially during the 1994 and 1998 FIFA World Cups and the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup. In recent years, Soccer in the Streets has developed programming geared towards preparing youth for success on and off the field. Year round programming serves youth from kindergarten through early adulthood. Global organizations Sport for Social Development is a worldwide",
"-24.709070000069914"
],
[
"children. As in baseball, teams alternate half-innings. The team with the most runs after a predefined number of innings wins.\nKickball is a popular playground game and is typically played among young, school-age children. The lack of both specialized equipment and highly skill-based positions (like pitcher) makes the game an accessible introduction to other sports. It is just as popular among adults, who are more commonly known to play similar games like softball and baseball.\n\"The game seems to afford equal enjoyment to the children and it gives a better understanding of the national game (Baseball), and at the same time affords",
"-24.699694614857435"
],
[
"most played sport with all demographics, including ethnic origin, ages and genders. Professional teams exist in many cities in Canada – with a trio of teams in North America's top pro league, Major League Soccer – and international soccer competitions such as the FIFA World Cup, UEFA Euro and the UEFA Champions League attract some of the biggest audiences in Canada. Other popular team sports include curling, street hockey, cricket, rugby league, rugby union, softball and Ultimate frisbee. Popular individual sports include auto racing, boxing, karate, kickboxing, hunting, sport shooting, fishing, cycling, golf, hiking, horse racing, ice skating, skiing, snowboarding, swimming, triathlon,",
"-24.684398727782536"
],
[
"improving the social, mental and physical well-being of inner-city residents.\nSocial agencies such as the YMCA and YWCA, as well as Boys and Girls Clubs, and Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts, provided most of the organized sports to youth in America prior to 1954. While athletics was encouraged by the social gospel movement, youth sports were often organized by youth themselves through the social agencies. This shifted to adults organizing youth sports programs, which was exemplified with the advent of Little League Baseball by Carl Stotz. Little League Baseball was formed in 1939, with a three team league, while in",
"-24.682725240301806"
],
[
"regular season games. Early professional soccer activity was concentrated almost entirely on an East Coast corridor from Baltimore to Boston, though a series of leagues located solely within the St. Louis metropolitan area also served as de facto major leagues for periods.\nAs travel and settlement patterns changed, so did the geography of professional sports. With the arguable exception of the western hockey teams which competed for the Stanley Cup in the early 20th century and the independent Los Angeles Bulldogs football team of the 1930s and 1940s, there were no major league teams in the far west until after World",
"-24.657302438714396"
],
[
"Comparisons between the National Football League and NCAA football The National Football League (NFL) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) are respectively the most popular professional and amateur football organizations in the United States. The National Football League was founded in 1920 and has since become the largest and most popular sport in the United States. The NFL has the highest average attendance of any sporting league in the world, with an average attendance of 66,960 persons per game during the 2011 NFL season. While the NFL championship game, the Super Bowl, is a large sporting event in club",
"-24.578869842618587"
],
[
"National League, giving MLB a legal monopoly over professional baseball in the US.\nThe other major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada have followed the MLB model of a closed shop with no merit-based promotion or relegation since their inceptions. Early football leagues in England In contrast to baseball's NABBP, the first governing body in English football survived the onset of professionalism, which it formally accepted in 1885. Perhaps the great geographical concentration of population and the corresponding short distances between urban centres was crucial. Certainly it provided the opportunity for more clubs' developing large fan bases without",
"-24.57482701598201"
],
[
"the United States. \nIn 1862, The Oneida Football Club in Boston was the first organized team to play any kind of \"football/soccer\" in the United States. It was founded by Gerrit Smith \"Gat\" Miller, a graduate of the Latin School of Epes Sargent Dixwell, a private college preparatory school in Boston, who grew tired of the chaotic, disorganized, and very violent games that arose from different schools, as well as the rule variations of soccer that existed as a by-product of no formal rules for the game during that era. Miller organized other recent preparatory school graduates from relatively elite",
"-24.56567227951018"
],
[
"players became a concern and was limited. In 2002, Canada won its first men's ice hockey title in 50 years, at the Olympics in Salt Lake City, using NHL players. The Canadian team won another title in 2010, at the Olympics held in Vancouver, where the Olympics used Canadian standard-sized rinks. Football, rugby and soccer The game of Soccer goes back centuries in England, where around 1823 was transformed into rugby. The first game in Canada came in the 1860s with British officers playing university students in Montreal. Universities quickly adopted the new sport, as did rowing clubs that",
"-24.539498978527263"
],
[
"football as the most popular sport in the country. Recent years have been characterized by increasing attendance and ticket prices for professional baseball games. The Korea Professional Baseball league, a 10-team circuit, was established in 1982. The South Korea national team finished third in the 2006 World Baseball Classic and second in the 2009 tournament. The team's 2009 final game against Japan was widely watched in Korea, with a large screen at Gwanghwamun crossing in Seoul broadcasting the game live. In the 2008 Summer Olympics, South Korea won the gold medal in baseball. Also in 1982, at the Baseball Worldcup,",
"-24.526163117639953"
],
[
"field, the future of baseball was questioned as there was an absence of young players coming through the ranks. Southern Softball was experiencing a similar problem so Baseball Tasmania and the Southern Softball Association formed a joint venture to re-introduce t-ball to school children and through that, give them the skills and options to play baseball or softball. The Batter Up T-ball League was formed and the first games were played on Saturday 24 October 2015.",
"-24.518486807792215"
],
[
"season at different, but overlapping, times of the year. College football and basketball attract large audiences. In soccer, the country hosted the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the men's national soccer team qualified to seven World Cups and the women's team has won the FIFA Women's World Cup four times; Major League Soccer is the sport's highest league in the United States.\nBoxing and horse racing were once the most watched individual sports, but they have been eclipsed by golf and auto racing, particularly NASCAR.",
"-24.50402750496869"
],
[
"in the Australian Football League to date there is still no AFL competition in the country. Traditional sports Sport in older times had a practical place, apart from recreation, helping train young warriors. One such practice would have the older men bring the male children a severally injured captive of war, allowing the boys to practice their archery skills against this living target. There were other sports that were practiced in older times which are not practiced now. Notable traditional sports used to be played were tiqa, ulutoa, veisaga, and veisolo.",
"-24.463548439205624"
],
[
"American football in Brazil Summary Historically, American football games were played on sand, as to avoid the use of exported equipment from the United States of America and to reduce the impact of the tackles. The 2010s have seen most Brazilian states develop American football teams of various types; including flag football, tackle American football and women's football. A Brazilian Portuguese forum regarding American football was founded in 1998 in order to get more people watching the games on ESPN. As of 2013, there are 2500 Brazilian people who play American football. The first organized American football game between two",
"-24.449912071191648"
],
[
"Soccer which operates in the United States and Canada as well as for many teams of the lower divisions of the United States soccer pyramid. Supporter culture in the United States, like the United States itself, has elements from many different countries including England, Italy, Argentina, Germany and many others. Major League Soccer holds an annual \"Supporters' Summit\" to meet with the leadership of most of its supporter groups to discuss issues including: security, self-policing, supporter group managed sections, and strategies for league success. Many teams in other leagues including the National Premier Soccer League, USL Pro, USL Premier Development",
"-24.291547064353836"
],
[
"was in New Orleans that many of the first games of soccer in America were held. The origins of the game in general trace back to ancient Greece, Rome, Egypt, or China. It is difficult to say for sure which country was the true origin.\nOneida Football Club has been named as the first association football club in the United States but there is still discussion on what rules the club used, and it broke up within the space of a few years. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, the club is often credited with inventing the \"Boston Game\", which allowed players to",
"-24.290761817932434"
],
[
"Like sibling care, employment is another obstacle that prevents low-income youth from taking advantage of after school programs. Youth from less affluent homes are likely to work longer hours than youth from more affluent homes. According to television broadcast statistics, Hispanic and African-American teen and children are now more targeted by fast food restaurants, Spanish-language advertisement on TV has increased by 8%, and restaurants such as KFC and Burger King have increased their spending on Spanish advertisements from 35% to 41% while decreasing English-language advertising. Access to space Between the years 1980 and 2000, obesity rates doubled among young children",
"-24.27679740189342"
],
[
"metropolitan areas, continued to see excessive popularity of the sport, specifically with ethnic groups and expatriates. The popularity of soccer in these areas reflected on the Challenge Cup during the later Great Depression years, through the World War II years. Most clubs participating were either top amateur teams or semi-professional clubs that hoisted a handful of U.S. internationals, who worked part-time jobs. World War II and ASL II As World War II raged on, the National Challenge Cup continued to hold the annual tournament, in spite of several other European nations putting their domestic cups on hold. During the",
"-24.276335222073612"
],
[
"Major League Baseball Urban Youth Academy The Major League Baseball Youth Academy are a series of academies opening in cities across the United States and one in Puerto Rico that provides free year-round instruction in baseball and softball to the area's youth. History The first Youth Academy opened in 2002 in Puerto Rico as the Puerto Rico Baseball Academy and High School. In 2006, the first Major League Baseball Urban Youth Academy in the United States was opened in Compton, California, providing free baseball and softball instruction to Southern California youth, ages 8–17. Since then academies have opened in Houston,",
"-24.260716197786678"
],
[
"studies, mathematics, science, music, fine arts, industrial arts, homemaking, health, and physical education. Moral education and special activities continue to receive attention. Extracurricular activities Many students participate in after-school clubs. Sports clubs, such as baseball are especially popular among boys, while wind bands are the most popular club for girls. Soccer (football) clubs are gaining popularity. Judo clubs attract boys and girls. They may be inspired by the many Japanese judo athletes who have won medals at the World Judo Championships and the Olympic Games. Other popular sports clubs include tennis, basketball, gymnastics, and volleyball. In every sport, many games",
"-24.24490983824944"
],
[
"in the Rugby League Conference with seven teams, including four in the Glasgow/West Scotland area having formed in 2006. But, unlike in England, rugby league is not one of the ten most played sports in Scotland amongst adults. Junior development has been much more rapid, with several Conference teams having junior squads as well as other clubs who don't run an open-age squad having various junior squads. An estimated 2,500 children play rugby league in Scotland, with that figure growing to 12,500 when you add the number of children who play the sport in various school programmes. In terms of",
"-24.227795034836163"
],
[
"College soccer College soccer is played by teams composed of soccer players who are enrolled in colleges and universities. While it is most widespread in the United States, it is also prominent in South Korea and Canada. The institutions typically hire full-time professional coaches and staff, although the student athletes are strictly amateur and are not paid. College soccer in the United States is sponsored by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the sports regulatory body for major universities, and by the governing bodies for smaller universities and colleges. This sport is played on a rectangular field of",
"-24.1986019515316"
],
[
"are one of the greatest soccer programs in the history of the sport. The Hoosiers have won eight national championships in men's soccer (1982, 1983, 1988, 1998, 1999, 2003, 2004 and 2012), second only to St. Louis' 10. Indiana owns more wins, has appeared in more College Cups (19) and has a higher winning percentage in both regular season and post-season play than any other school in Division I soccer.\nThe Hoosiers have also dominated conference play. Since the Big Ten began sponsoring men's soccer in 1991, Indiana has won 11 Big Ten tournament titles. Indiana has also been crowned regular",
"-24.198428058121863"
],
[
"in developing their talent than their university coaches. Some sports are attempting to adapt to new conditions in which a far higher proportion of British teenagers attend university than in the past, notably cricket, which has established several university centres of excellence. School sport Sport is compulsory for all students up to the age of sixteen, but the amount of time devoted to it is often small. There are frequent complaints that state sector schools do too little to encourage sport and a healthy lifestyle. In the 1980s, the government sold many schools sports fields to housing developers; as such,",
"-24.185509203583933"
],
[
"All Elite Wrestling (AEW).\nJudo in the United States is not very popular and is eclipsed by more popular martial arts like karate and taekwondo. Swimming and water sports Swimming is a major competitive sport at high school and college level, but receives little mainstream media attention outside of the Olympics.\nSurfing in the United States and watersports are popular in the U.S. in coastal areas. California and Hawaii are the most popular locations for surfing. The Association of Surfing Professionals was founded in 1983. American football Football has the most participants of any sport at both high school and college levels,",
"-24.182335039280588"
],
[
"competition have increased, schools have expanded their facilities, and in general the league has positioned itself as one of the state's most competitive high school competitions.\nSoccer has long been the dominant sport among MCC schools; while several schools have had competitive football teams (including state championships won by DeSmet in 2005 and CBC in 2014, 2017, and 2018), it has been \"the beautiful game\" where the MCC has excelled. It is not uncommon for even the league's two smallest schools, Chaminade and Vianney, to field four teams, such is the popularity of soccer among their students. In fact, there has",
"-24.171816595713608"
],
[
"hockey, lacrosse and soccer. The state's major professional sporting teams include: Cincinnati Reds (Major League Baseball), Ohio Machine (Major League Lacrosse), Cleveland Indians (Major League Baseball), Cincinnati Bengals (National Football League), Cleveland Browns (National Football League), Cleveland Cavaliers (National Basketball Association), Columbus Blue Jackets (National Hockey League), and the Columbus Crew (Major League Soccer).\nOhio played a central role in the development of both Major League Baseball and the National Football League. Baseball's first fully professional team, the Cincinnati Red Stockings of 1869, were organized in Ohio. An informal early-20th-century American football association, the Ohio League, was the direct predecessor of",
"-24.17177894053748"
],
[
"game would go on to be introduced to Yale University, Columbia University, Cornell University, & Boston's Harvard University. This hybrid form of football, that would evolve into what is now American football, would eventually adopt codified rules based primarily on those established for English rugby, gained prominence & acceptance within the college circles, & upper-class status, relegating the uncodified \"soccer\" variety of the game to working class status, that was adopted by the immigrant communities that brought along their soccer customs & traditions with them to the region. \n1967 brought about the birth of nationwide professional soccer featuring two competing",
"-24.085697273665573"
],
[
"and women who come from Australian regional and rural cities. It is argued that regional and rural cities offer children more space to play, a range of sports, participation with adults due to low participation numbers and local sporting heroes. It has been stated that 60 per cent of the Australian team at the 2004 Athens Olympics grew up in rural and regional Australia. Besides developing international athletes, many Australian Football League (AFL) and National Rugby League players have their origins in country areas. In 2010, one-third of AFL players came from country Victoria.",
"-24.078768006758764"
],
[
"The Other Kids The Other Kids was an American alternative pop band formed in Madison, Wisconsin in 1985 by Steve Watson (lead vocals, guitars), Allyn Watson (bass, vocals), and Chris Fink (drums, vocals). One of the most popular Madison rock bands of the mid-to-late 80s, The Other Kids disbanded in 1992, just as the alternative pop sound they were known for began to break into the commercial mainstream. The Milwaukee Shepherd called The Other Kids \"probably Wisconsin's best classic pop-rock band, working those Alex Chiltonesque melodies together with empathetic intelligent lyrics, edgy guitars and a solid beat.\" The band's sound",
"-24.071453544311225"
],
[
"1993; this proved a costly blunder, as four teams folded and the fifth moved to Montreal. After surviving the closing of the Ottawa Rough Riders in 1996 and bankruptcies by the Toronto and Hamilton teams in 2003, football has recovered and is in fair health in the 21st century.\nSoccer in Canada has grown in popularity in recent decades, especially as a school sport for boys and girls. It has more players than ice hockey. At the professional level, the Toronto FC in 2007 became the first Canadian club in the American Major League Soccer (MLS). In 2009, another MLS franchise",
"-24.064316095857066"
],
[
"sport originated in the 19th century out of older games related to modern rugby football, more specifically rugby league football. American and Canadian football developed alongside each other and were originally more distinct before Canadian teams adopted features of the American game. Both varieties are distinguished from other football sports by their use of hard plastic helmets and shoulder pads, the forward pass, the system of downs, a number of unique rules and positions, measurement in customary units of yards (even in Canada, which mostly metricated in the 1970s, yards are still used), and a distinctive brown leather ball in",
"-24.058762112661498"
],
[
"teams, and the revenue of the ticket sales. The indirect impacts didn’t stop there either; the newly introduced professional league in the United States engendered one of the fastest growing youth sports in the country. Youth soccer took off and the selling of apparel and gear for the sport was a target for private businesses to focus on selling.\nHowever, a critic has argued that the event cost the United States $5.6 billion. Asia In the 2002 World Cup, several other advantages were discovered when the host was split between Japan and Korea. This was the first time the tournament had",
"-23.99871025819448"
],
[
"also been growing in popularity in both men and women and with international participation in world of this discipline being among the best teams in the world, the sport was introduced by Americans residing in the Canal Zone for veterans and retirees who even had a festival called the Turkey Ball. Other popular sports are American football, rugby, hockey, softball and other amateur sports including skateboarding, BMX and surfing, because the many beaches of Panama such as Santa Catalina and Venao that have hosted events the likes of ISA World Surfing Games.\nLong jumper Irving Saladino became the first Panamanian Olympic",
"-23.973640395066468"
],
[
"the earliest and strongest areas for American soccer, spawning dozens of teams from the towns of Harrison, Kearny and East Newark. The areas strength in soccer rested on two Scottish companies, Clark Thread Company and Michael Nairn & Company, which established their American operations in the area. The two companies drew Scottish immigrants to their plants which then served as the basis for many of the areas powerhouse teams. In Harrison, the West Hudson A.A. drew its players from the city at large, rather than operating as a company team like many others in the area. Records do not currently",
"-23.969524217733124"
],
[
"in private schools, although it is gaining ground in public schools where it can be played on futsal grounds. The national team is considered the best in South America, and the sport is gaining in media coverage. The national league is broadcast on cable television, sponsored by Petrobras. Brazil women's national handball team were crowned world champions for the first time at the 2013 Championship. Beach handball At the Beach Handball World Championships Brazil has more titles for both genders than any country. American football American football is played by young people in some states. The most popular varieties are",
"-23.96832675164478"
],
[
"season in the face of rapidly declining fan interest and a poor reputation. However, XFL stars such as Tommy Maddox and Rod \"He Hate Me\" Smart later saw success in the NFL. Youth and high school football (1863–present) Football is a popular participatory sport among youth. One of the earliest youth football organizations was founded in Philadelphia, in 1929, as the Junior Football Conference. Organizer Joe Tomlin started the league to provide activities and guidance for teenage boys who were vandalizing the factory he owned. The original four-team league expanded to sixteen teams in 1933 when Pop Warner, who had",
"-23.93515961081721"
],
[
"Comparison of American football and rugby league Origins Both sports descend from the older game of rugby football, which originated in 19th Century England. British colonists and the British military in Canada brought football to North America. It became popular in American and Canadian universities and prep schools. At the time, association football and rugby football were not as differentiated as they are now and teams would negotiate the rules before playing each game. The sports of American football and Canadian football evolved from these intercollegiate games.\nMeanwhile, in England a schism developed in rugby football between those who favoured",
"-23.92938666031114"
]
] |
2m013c | Why are motorcycles built to be so loud? / Why do people want loud motorcycles? | [
"This has always bothered me. How come some guy blaring his car stereo at 90 decibels deserves a ticket, but some guys motorcycle blasting down my street at 180 decibels so loud it's rattling my windows and scaring small children is socially acceptable?",
"As someone who lives in a residential neighborhood in a large city, I can tell you I have zero respect for people who ride with unreasonably loud tailpipes. Some might think that if they dress like a leather pirate and make a lot of noise, others will respect them or fear them or think they're interesting. Nothing of the sort is true ... they might be impressing each other and teenage boys but to everyone else, it's a sad and pathetic annoyance that wakes people up at night, interrupts patio conversations and scares the crap out of dogs and babies. It can ruin time spent outdoors and on mountain roads when you're trying to get away to quiet. Sadly, many thrive off the idea they are annoying people and the perception of getting attention. It aligns with the immature philosophy of freedom to do whatever they want at any cost, a false sense of pride and the facade of manliness and the bad-boy image. Like they are part of a naughty gang. I'm not buying the safety argument. If that's the concern, buy a safer form of transportation. There are a lot of motorcycles on the road that aren't a quarter as loud that follow safety protocol just fine.",
"The loudness argument is largely BS. I generally cannot hear a bike until it's right on top of me. Their answer? Get louder. They just want to sound cool, and are looking for an excuse to justify it.",
"Motorcycles are not built from the factory to be 'loud' if they are for street use. What happens is that people modify the bikes by putting on an aftermarket exhaust or just removing the stock mufflers. There are four camps to this: 1) Loud pipes save lives. By making more noise, other drivers will hear me and therefore I'm safer. 2) Loud noise = I'm cool. You know who you are, you spend more time cleaning than riding and revving unnecessarily while not moving. 3) Loud noise = I think I'm faster than I am. I can make my motorcycle loud and it sounds just like [Rossi]( URL_0 ) so I'm as good as Rossi. 4) I want to go faster = I want more hp to go faster than what it was stock. One of the cheapest ways to do this is to change the exhaust. Usually a person who goes to the track. There are an exception or two out there, but for the most part you'll find them in one of the categories above.",
"Motorcycles aren't, \"built to be loud.\" The acceptable dB limit varies state-to-state in the US, but manufacturers usually just take the most restrictive state's requirement and build to that to avoid the cost and hassle of having multiple parts to meet differing requirements. That said, tons of motorcyclists buy aftermarket pipes, sold for \"off road use only\" -- mostly broken into two different camps: - The ones wanting to pick up a few extra horsepower. These pipes tend to be a little louder, but not ridiculously so. - The ones that are desperate for attention: HEY AIN'T I FUCKING COOL AND REBELLIOUS RATTLING YOUR WINDOWS WHILE WEARING THIS PUDDING CUP OF A HELMET LOOK AT ME LOOK AT ME! *PS LOUD PIPES SAVE LIVES AND I'M STICKING TO THAT STORY LOOK AT ME!",
"Well it would really depend which kind of motorcycle you are talking about. The general idea behind louder pipes is that it allows for less back pressure, it takes some strain off the engine and allows it work faster better, etc. Essentially you get more hp from it. Most of these comments are addressing aftermarket pipes, not stock pipes. Why someone would want to put a louder pipe on their bike can be for one of two reasons, or both. As you know hp gain, also they tend to be lighter, so bike = faster. The second is the whole \"loud pipes save lives\" I've personally tested this with my R6(has aftermarket pipes) and a car. Needless to say you wont be heard unless you are right on top of someone on the highway. BUT if you are a pedestrian or aren't moving very quickly you will definitely hear me coming. The effects in terms of safety are still an issue that most motorcyclists will fight about. My opinion on loud pipes save lives? \"Common sense save lives\" should be the real slogan. Every time I ride like an idiot there are issues, close calls, regrets, etc. Otherwise I've had maybe 1 close call in 6 months of riding when I'm not being an asshat(97% of the time).",
"because many people that ride loud motorcycles are attention whores and are so proud of their motorcycle they want people to swivel their head and and look at them. Now before all the hates hate I agree that the loud pipes are a good way to be noticed on the road. I ride a bike with cobra pipes but I don't gun it in heavy residential areas or when I start it up in a parking lot like so many douchebags do .",
"Why do people like loud cars? or huge v8's? or tomato juice? Beyond that a bike can be louder then a car because of higher revs and not having the entire body of a car to dampen the sound. Most importantly I feel like your talking specifically about harleys or people with straight cut pipes, that's not all motorcycles. [woo wooooo]( URL_0 )",
"Due to the amount of debates generated by the question and large influx of personal opinions and low-effort explanations, I have decided to lock this thread. As a friendly reminder, questions of subjective nature and debates (\"Why do people think/want/like X?\") belong on /r/AskReddit or /r/changemyview. Regards.",
"Well motorcycles aren't necessarily BUILT to be loud, the louder bikes you hear out there are actually modified to be loud at the expense of performance. Opening up a carborator for instance, makes more noise, but reduces fuel efficiency. As for why people want them to be so loud, it's mostly little dick syndrome or compensating for some other short coming. An effort to be rebellious and obnoxious in a society of polite people that mostly won't say anything, but you should really check out the episode of southpark about bikers and fags, it's pretty accurate.",
"I can't really speak for Harleys, but modern sport bikes (aka crotch rockets) often only get loud at higher rpm (most cars barely break 3k when driving, where most sport bikes reach over 12k regularly). When idling, an OEM exhaust is fairly quiet, not much louder than a car. Most exhaust mufflers use packing (a kind of synthetic cotton) and baffles to quiet a bike by disturbing airflow. These chambers are often reduced in size and density (less weight+better airflow=better performance) in aftermarket exhaust systems, meaning less noise suppression, thus louder bikes. Here is a common sport bike muffler cut open. URL_0 ",
"Some people like them to be loud to make themselves feel cool. However, they are loud enough at first because there isn't much of an exhaust system on a motorcycle. They can't have a big muffler like a car can. It would be terribly unsightly to strap a car muffler to a bike."
] | [
[
"by V-twin, common crankpin motorcycle engines when the goods are in use.\" Nine of Harley-Davidson's competitors filed oppositions against the application, arguing that cruiser-style motorcycles of various brands use the same crankpin V-twin engine which produces the same sound. After six years of litigation, with no end in sight, in early 2000, Harley-Davidson withdrew their application.\nOther companies have been more successful in registering their distinctive sounds: MGM and their lion's roar; the NBC chimes; famous basketball team the Harlem Globetrotters and their theme song \"Sweet Georgia Brown\"; Intel and the three-second chord sequence used with the Pentium processor;",
"-29.47498890166753"
],
[
"video systems.\nThe current solo motorcycle used is the BMW 1200RT-P although some older 1150cc and 650cc models remain. Although motorcycles carry less equipment than cars, they are far more agile through traffic congestion and are essential for escorting convoys, processions and demonstrations.",
"-28.606127799168462"
],
[
"because they are too commonplace and utilitarian, while motorcycles retain a unique romance.\nThe interior of the Guggenheim's spiral ramp was covered in reflective stainless steel, a design by Frank Gehry, with a stylized pavement under the tires of the exhibits, and the bikes not leaned over on their kickstands, but rather standing up, as if in motion, held by thin wires and small clear plastic chocks under the wheels. Early examples from the 19th century, steam cycles and three wheelers mostly, were in a single room near the entrance. The first series produced motorcycle, and the first motorcycle",
"-28.36730888564489"
],
[
"them cleaner and quieter than motorcycles, as well as having more built-in storage space. Automatic clutches and continuously variable transmissions (CVT) make them easier to learn on and to ride. Scooters usually have smaller wheels than motorcycles. Scooters usually have the engine as part of the swingarm, so that their engines travel up and down with the suspension.\nUnderbones are small-displacement motorcycles with a step-through frame, descendants of the original Honda Super Cub. They are differentiated from scooters by their larger wheels and their use of footpegs instead of a floorboard. They often have a gear shifter with an automatic clutch.\nThe",
"-27.671263473806903"
],
[
"application for the distinctive sound of the Harley-Davidson motorcycle engine: \"The mark consists of the exhaust sound of applicant's motorcycles, produced by V-twin, common crankpin motorcycle engines when the goods are in use\". Nine of Harley-Davidson's competitors filed comments opposing the application, arguing that cruiser-style motorcycles of various brands use a single-crankpin V-twin engine which produce a similar sound. These objections were followed by litigation. In June 2000, the company dropped efforts to federally register its trademark. Revolution engine The Revolution engine is based on the VR-1000 Superbike race program, co-developed by Harley-Davidson's Powertrain Engineering team and Porsche Engineering in",
"-27.322936821437906"
],
[
"1980s-1990s, the world's fastest motorcycle in the quarter mile at the time, the Yamaha R1, the motorcycle with greatest top speed at the time, the Honda CBR1100XX, and no police motorcycles at all. James Hyde of Art in America pointed to the omission of the Moto Guzzi V8.\nSlate's Jacob Weisberg found 114 motorcycles in the catalog to be too many, and too boring for the non-motorcycle aficionado. In contrast to critics like Zakaria, Perl, and Hilton Kramer, who want museums to challenge and educate the public with difficult art like abstract expressionism, which might require a little homework",
"-27.320989711181028"
],
[
"but are highly valued for the same reasons.\nAmong custom motorcycle culture, certain names have become famous for their creations and have led to mainstream acceptance of previously unacceptable design solutions such as extreme ergonomics, totally rigid rear wheels without the benefit of suspension, minimal lighting and limited ground clearance for cornering. These design characteristics are purely emotional in nature, being led by styling and image rather than technical or performance considerations. \"Specials\" Custom and specials motorcycles are similar to the above but tend to be super sport type motorcycles, or at least high-performance based, using many special add-on parts, one-of-a-kind",
"-27.181278069561813"
],
[
"in Europe it has a 750cc engine. All versions use Honda's Dual Clutch Transmission (DCT) system to provide both automatic and semi-automatic control. Problems faced The problems faced by the designer or marketer of an FF motorcycle are many. Some of these are perceptual. Experienced motorcyclists tend to be resistant to the idea, arguing that it's not a \"proper\" bike, and there is nothing wrong with the standard motorcycle. To car drivers, many of the disadvantages of the car are either not recognised or simply put up with and the overall convenience is hard to give up. Many car drivers",
"-27.15480849618325"
],
[
"excellence. In The Telegraph, the late Kevin Ash wrote that \"choppers exist outside the realm of motorcycles I understand.\" Dexter Ford said in The New York Times that the one \"thing wrong with the Fury is the same thing that is so right about it: it’s a Honda.\" Competition Motorcycles such as the Honda Fury are sometimes categorized by the mutually exclusive terms factory custom, referring to a major manufacturer's attempt to follow the chopper fad. Harley-Davidson had taken the first steps in the 70s and 80s, but the motorcycle press generally acknowledged that Honda's effort was the most daring",
"-27.044841168797575"
],
[
"AM3 consulted the motorcycle racing team Castrol/Honda Racing Corporation, who helped them on a number of points, including studies on where sound comes from on a motorcycle and how it travels to the ear of the rider. The team determined that they needed four sound outputs to recreate this experience realistically. Because the Model 2 arcade board has only two sound outputs, they used a Model 1 sound board for the additional two sound outputs.\nBecause it takes more polygons to render a motorcycle than to render a car with a similar level of detail, AM3's wish for the game to",
"-27.04447924665874"
],
[
"power, even (dare I say it?) its speed.\"\n\nMotorcycles are versatile and may be put to many uses as the rider sees fit. In the past there were few if any specialized types of motorcycles, but the number of types and sub-types has proliferated, particularly in the period since the 1950s. The introduction of the Honda CB750 in 1969 marked a dramatic increase in the power and speed of practical and affordable sport bikes available to the general public. \nThis was followed in the 1970s by improvements in suspension and braking commensurate with the power of the large inline fours that",
"-26.81703649670817"
],
[
"break on Japan's poor roads of the time, they were considered better looking than the pressed-steel D-Type. The bikes' narrow space between the tire and fender was prone to filling with mud. Competitors had introduced four-stroke motorcycles, and Fujisawa told Honda that their motorcycle was not selling well was because its two-stroke made \"unpleasant, high-pitched noises\". Honda would address these issues with his next motorcycle, the E-Type, which was unveiled in 1951.\nHonda did not export motorcycles from Japan until 1952, when the Type-F Cub was introduced to Taiwan. Any bikes that made it out of Japan prior to that did",
"-26.683708528085845"
],
[
"have been developed to damp vibrations before they reach the rider. These include materials, such as carbon fiber, either in the whole frame or just key components such as the front fork, seatpost, or handlebars; tube shapes, such as curved seat stays;, gel handlebar grips and saddles and special inserts, such as Zertz by Specialized, and Buzzkills by Bontrager. In motorcycles In addition to the road surface, vibrations in a motorcycle can be caused by the engine and wheels, if unbalanced. Manufacturers employ a variety of technologies to reduce or damp these vibrations, such as engine balance shafts, rubber engine",
"-26.61004882265115"
],
[
"or limited series frames, racing wheels and parts or hand-made components to maximise performance. While modifying motorcycles is an activity as old as the motorcycle itself, the \"special\" culture or \"streetfighter\" began to flourish in the mid-1970s as a response to the myriad high performance Japanese motorcycles then available, but whose power far exceeded their handling. Individuals would choose premanufactured parts from catalogs or from other bikes and redesign their particular machine to suit their desires. In general this activity is limited to one-of-a-kind vehicles and, as with custom motorcycles, uses very little genuine engineering or design methodology, although some",
"-26.593905590416398"
],
[
"'muscle-cars' may prefer their vehicle to be louder (at least at idling or low speeds), and such noise (often from modified exhaust systems) can only be controlled by on-going inspection and sanctions.\nSeveral studies have concluded that reducing traffic noise pollution is low-cost or cost-effective. Such studies include consideration of the reduced value of noise-affected real-estate, the costs of supporting a dispersed population 'trying to get away from all the noise', and the increased healthcare costs statistically attributable to a noisier environment.\nEuropean technology began to emulate the United States treatment of roadway noise by the 1980s, although the national requirements of",
"-26.58651702234056"
],
[
"Harley-Davidson began to participate in the Sound Quality Working Group, founded by Orfield Labs, Bruel and Kjaer, TEAC, Yamaha, Sennheiser, SMS and Cortex. This was the nation's first group to share research on psychological acoustics. Later that year, Harley-Davidson participated in a series of sound quality studies at Orfield Labs, based on recordings taken at the Talladega Superspeedway, with the objective to lower the sound level for EU standards while analytically capturing the \"Harley Sound\". This research resulted in the bikes that were introduced in compliance with EU standards for 1998.\nOn February 1, 1994, the company filed a sound trademark",
"-26.58346747912219"
],
[
"Turbo. BMW plays a recorded sample of its motors through the car speakers, using a different samples according to the engine’s load and power. Legality Extremely loud sound systems in automobiles may violate the noise ordinance of some municipalities, some of which have outlawed them. In 2002 the U.S. Department of Justice issued a guide to police officers on how to deal with problems associated with loud audio systems in cars.",
"-26.571417936633225"
],
[
"does not \"give a damn\" about the motorcycle industry point of view, because the Tomahawk was successful in its real purpose, \"creating an almighty furor within the automotive world.\"\nMotorcyclist's Jeff Karr speculated the boredom with having designed too many outlandish show cars, especially with DaimlerChrysler's history of doing the unexpected, made the designers want to do this for \"the sheer outrage of the exercise\", creating \"a machine so resolutely evil, it has chunks of V-Max in its stool\", \"the ultimate bad-ass ride.\" Karr was positive about the \"simultaneously futuristic and nostalgic\" appearance where Glynn Kerr saw indecisiveness.\nIn response to automotive",
"-26.568546568534657"
],
[
"support, such as tubes or longerons, the frame is more properly called a \"semi-monocoque\". An example is Peter Williams' semi-monocoque Norton racer. Engine as a stressed member For rider comfort, a motorcycle's engine can be mounted on rubber bushings to isolate vibration from the rest of the machine. This strategy means the engine contributes little to frame stiffness, and absorbing rather than dissipating vibration can lead to stress damage to the frame, exhaust pipes, and other parts.\nInstead, if the engine is rigidly mounted to the frame, vibrations pass to and are dissipated via the whole frame, and the rider. Rigid",
"-26.545931339554954"
],
[
"made the valve noise more obvious, so ramp type cams were introduced for aluminium alloy head models to reduce the noise.\nAnother motorcycle based on the wartime generator engine was the 498 cc TR5 Trophy Twin, also introduced at the 1948 Motor Cycle Show. It used a single carburettor, low compression version of the Grand Prix engine. Britain won the prestigious 1948 International Six Days Trial. The Triumph works team had finished unpenalised. One team member, Allan Jefferies, had been riding what amounted to a prototype version.\nTo satisfy the American demand for motorcycles suited to long distance riding, Turner built a 650 cc",
"-26.4710683295707"
],
[
"are cheap to build and maintain and are suitable as cheap utility motorcycles.\nUntil the mid-1960s, road-racing machines, like the UK's Matchless, AJS and Norton, tended to be large singles, but since then multicylinder racers have become the norm. Off-road and smaller dual-sport bikes tend to use single-cylinder engines. The simplicity of these engines, often relying on a single carburetor, make them relatively easy to maintain and repair in remote locations with few tools.\nCompared to lightweight off-road singles, the modern category of heavier off-road adventure bikes tend to forgo such simplicity, and instead have larger and more powerful parallel-twin, flat-twin, or",
"-26.45240088381979"
],
[
"and gravel roads but are less than ideal on more difficult off-pavement terrain.\nSupermoto motorcycles were designed to compete on a single course that alternated between three genres of motorcycle racing: road racing, track racing, and motocross. This increasingly popular type of motorcycle is often a dual-sport that has been fitted by the manufacturer with smaller rims and road tires. Supermotos are quickly gaining popularity as street bikes due to their combination of light weight, durability, relatively low cost, and sporty handling. Scooters, underbones and mopeds Scooter engine sizes range smaller than motorcycles, 50–850 cc (3.1–51.9 cu in), and have all-enclosing bodywork that makes",
"-26.44289711548481"
],
[
"of the pipe to further protect riders and pillions. The bike's sound is unique among its two- and four-stroke contemporaries but also quite loud. Early in production (December 1974, Frame #11901), Suzuki reduced the size of the spark arrestor tubes, which both reduced noise and horsepower, but the RE5 exhaust note remains distinctive.",
"-26.353128027083585"
],
[
"Honda, riders tend to choose bikes that are lightweight and with high torque so that they can quickly achieve the speed required to complete loops within the sphere. Many riders may also have to go from high speeds to a dead stop very quickly. While mass market bikes are cheaper to use in the globe many riders customize their bikes to their liking; this is because the globe of death stunt does not require a bike with a powerful engine, suspension, and drive train as they require a top speed of only 40 to 65 miles per hour or 65",
"-26.35085958102718"
],
[
"cruiser class that have significantly higher levels of power. They often come with upgraded brakes and suspensions, better ground clearance, and premium surface finishes, as well as more exotic or non-traditional styling. Sport bike Sport bikes emphasize top speed, acceleration, braking, handling and grip on paved roads, typically at the expense of comfort and fuel economy in comparison to less specialized motorcycles. Because of this, there are certain design elements that most motorcycles of this type will share. Sport bikes have comparatively high performance engines resting inside a lightweight frame. Inline-four engines dominate the sport bike category, with V-twins having",
"-26.340030144358025"
],
[
"Triumph and BSA offered versions of their relatively light street motorcycles with high exhaust pipes, and called them scramblers.\nYamaha is credited with rekindling popular interest in dirt worthy motorcycles that could also be ridden on the street. In 1968 they introduced the hugely successful DT-1 based on a 250 cc two-stroke engine. Other manufacturers soon followed with similar models called \"enduros\". These light weight machines were good on trails and adequate on pavement. Some manufacturers approached the trend from the opposite direction, beginning with a street motorcycle and modifying it for adequate off-road performance. For instance, the Honda CL350 Scrambler was",
"-26.32473441498587"
],
[
"is also a unique piece of machinery because the exact same motorcycle could have been created 70 years ago. The solutions applied to its engineering, mechanics, and design were available back then. Besides, the motorcycle was built to establish an absolute speed record.\nYuri Shif says that it was born for speed, and every millimeter of its body could support that. This motorcycle is a symbol of that dream about speed dedicated to all generations of engineers, designers, racers. The Machine motorcycle is a tribute to the enthusiasts and romantics of speed of all generations. The bike's heart is a specific",
"-26.31594877736643"
],
[
"handling of the motorcycle. Because of the complexity of modeling all the possible movements of different sized riders, to approach perfect tuning of a motorcycle's weight distribution and suspension is often only possible by having a bike customized or at least adjusted to fit a specific rider. Generally, road racing style sport bikes have shorter wheelbases than those intended for more comfortable touring, and the current trend in sport bike design is towards shorter wheelbases, giving quicker turning at the expense of a greater tendency for unintentional wheelies and stoppies under hard acceleration and braking, respectively. Variations Sport touring motorcycles",
"-26.31265025457833"
],
[
"consistent with several indicators in the design of carelessness and laziness. Kerr called to task the car designers for a lack of curiosity about the basic tenets of motorcycle design, saying they were \"underwhelmed\" by the challenge. He said the Tomahawk \"illustrates how the automotive industry considers motorcycles a lesser form of its own discipline\" and so \"feel entirely qualified to redesign one whenever they run out of ideas for sports cars.\" \nKerr blamed this disregard of the rules of motorcycle design for the use of \"too much over-simplified bodywork\" on the Pininfarina Morbidelli V8, which the Tomahawk at least",
"-26.271513490064535"
],
[
"until the early 2000's, when EU noise and pollution regulations mostly stopped this practice, forcing companies to use other methods to increase performance of the motorcycle. Trucks In many trucks / lorries all or most of the exhaust system is visible, often with a vertical exhaust pipe. Often in such trucks the silencer is surrounded by a perforated metal sheath to avoid people getting burnt touching the hot silencer. This sheath may be chrome plated as a display feature. \nPart of the pipe between the engine and the silencer is often flexible metal industrial ducting, which helps to avoid vibration",
"-26.27066068099157"
],
[
"Motorcycling Motorcycling is riding a motorcycle. For some people, motorcycling may be the only affordable form of individual motorized transportation, and small-displacement motorcycles are the most common motor vehicle in the most populous countries, including India, China and Indonesia.\nIn developing countries, motorcycles are overwhelmingly utilitarian due to lower prices and greater fuel economy. Of all motorcycles, 58% are in the Asia Pacific and Southern and Eastern Asia regions, excluding car-centric Japan.\nMotorcycles are mainly a luxury good in developed nations, where they are used mostly for recreation, as a lifestyle accessory or a symbol of personal identity. Beyond being a mode",
"-26.252534409577493"
],
[
"common than motorcycles. In developed nations, motorcycles are frequently owned in addition to a car, and thus used primarily for recreation or when traffic density means a motorcycle confers travel time or parking advantages as a mode of transport.\nIn the developing world a motorcycle is more likely to be the primary mode of transport for its owner, and often the owner's family as well. It is not uncommon for riders to transport multiple passengers or large goods aboard small motorcycles and scooters simply because there is no better alternative. Cost of ownership considerations regarding maintenance and parts, especially in remote",
"-26.244857602083357"
],
[
"motorcycles often meant that repairs had to be done on the road-side miles from home. Modern motorcycles are as reliable as automobiles but many riders feel that their motorcycle is more than just a means of transportation which leads them to want to do maintenance on the motorcycles themselves.",
"-26.18878973653773"
],
[
"to typical cars; this contrast is particularly strong with heavy-duty trucks. There are several aspects of truck operations that contribute to the overall sound that is emitted. Continuous sounds are those from tires rolling on the roadway, and the constant hum of their diesel engines at highway speeds. Less frequent noises, but perhaps more noticeable, are things like the repeated sharp-pitched whistle of a turbocharger on acceleration, or the abrupt blare of an exhaust brake retarder when traversing a downgrade. There has been noise regulation put in place to help control where and when the use of engine braking retarders",
"-26.161656853472323"
],
[
"Two-wheels A police motorcycle is a motorcycle used by various police forces and departments. They may be custom designed to meet the requirements unique of a particular use. A police motorcycle is often called a \"motor\" by police officers in the United States. Similarly, motorcycle units are known as motor units and motorcycle officers are known as motor officers.\nThe maneuverability of the motorcycle on crowded streets offer advantages not provided by larger, more traditional police vehicles. The motorcycle's relatively small size allows it to get to accident scenes more quickly when incidents such as traffic collisions slow down access by",
"-26.13877331482945"
],
[
"type, such as road racing and street bikes, or motocross and dirt bikes.\nStreet bikes include cruisers, sportbikes, scooters and mopeds, and many other types. Off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing classes such as motocross and are not street legal in most areas. Dual purpose machines like the dual-sport style are made to go off-road but include features to make them legal and comfortable on the street as well.\nEach configuration offers either specialised advantage or broad capability, and each design creates a different riding posture.\nIn some countries the use of pillions (rear seats) is restricted. Experimentation and invention",
"-26.06388704782148"
],
[
"but mostly off road motocross low-power mopeds, small scooters and step-through underbones where they still compete strongly with four-strokes (including the highest-selling motorcycle of all time, the 50 cc Honda Super Cub). The major markets of two-stroke motorcycles are in dirt bikes and developing nations. Cylinder heads (four-stroke) Cylinder head design has a significant effect on the efficiency of combustion, and hence the power output of the engine. The head may be flat, in which case the combustion chamber resides within the cylinder and/or a depression in the piston crown, but usually a \"dome\" within the cylinder head provides most of",
"-26.052114235120825"
],
[
"later teamed with Harman in 2009 to develop a more complete noise reduction system, including road noise, tire noise, and chassis vibrations. One benefit of active noise control is that the car can weigh less, with less sound-deadening material used, and without a heavy balance shaft in the engine. Removing the balance shaft also increases fuel efficiency. The 2013 Honda Accord used an active noise control system, as did the 2013 Lincoln luxury line and the Ford C-Max and Fusion models. Other operating data may also play a part in the DSP, data such as the engine's speed in revolutions",
"-26.007665671844734"
],
[
"and a rear subframe attached to the engine. Materials In the early days, motorcycles were little more than motorised bicycles, and consequently frames were tubular steel. While the use of steel tubing is still common, in modern times other materials, such as titanium, aluminium, magnesium, and carbon-fibre, along with composites of these materials, are now used. As different motorcycles have varying design parameters (such as cost, complexity, weight distribution, stiffness, power output and speed), there is no single ideal frame design, and designers must make an informed decision of the optimum choice. Semi-monocoque If a \"monocoque\" frame uses additional",
"-25.967663494855515"
],
[
"Motorcycle wheel Motorcycle wheels are made to cope with radial and axial forces. They also provide a way of mounting other critical components such as the brakes, final drive and suspension. Wheels, and anything directly connected to them, are considered to be unsprung mass. Traditionally motorcycles used wire-spoked wheels with inner tubes and pneumatic tyres. Although cast wheels were first used on a motorcycle in 1927, it would not be until the 1970s that mainstream manufacturers would start to introduce cast wheels on their roadgoing motorcycles. Spoked wheels are usually made using steel spokes with steel or aluminium rims. Cast",
"-25.937738211126998"
],
[
"to learn to like, Weisberg complained that the information accompanying the motorcycle exhibits was too technical and bewildering to the non-gearhead, with talk of self-aligning bearings, compression ratios and near-hemispherical combustion chambers. That is, he wrote, \"the approach is design-technical rather than design-aesthetic or design-cultural,\" and thus it failed to make the case that industrial design is more than just the \"stepchild of fine art\" and that \"the cross-fertilization of high and pop is an important part of the story of artistic modernism.\"\nThe selection of motorcycles was overwhelmingly Western, and mostly limited to motorcycles of the United States market,",
"-25.81374613387743"
],
[
"largest motorcycles to that country, and to export far fewer sub-600 cc (37 cu in) models to the American market. Types Almost all production motorcycles have gasoline internal combustion engines. Both four-stroke and two-stroke engines are used, but strict emission laws have led to far fewer two-strokes. A few have used Wankel rotary engines, but no Wankel bikes are currently in production. Motorcycle engines can be air cooled or liquid cooled, and optionally include oil cooling as well. Some scooters use batteries and an electric motor. The 2009 TT races introduced a new category 'TTX' (renamed as TT Zero) for electric bikes using",
"-25.803734370798338"
],
[
"a noise nuisance order, which meant that the circuit had to reduce its noise level. The British Formula Three Championship and the British GT Championship were both louder than permitted, and so were prevented from returning. Present Races include a home-circuit championship with classes for Saloon cars, Sports & GTs, and Formula Ford. Racing clubs from around the UK include the track in the events for their championships, including the 750 Motor Club, and BRSCC. Once a year motorcycle racing takes place over two days during the summer. The weekend includes a sidecar championship and an historic race, as well",
"-25.80119304145046"
],
[
"motorcycles were mounted horizontally along the frame, but all current four-cylinder BMW motorcycles have transverse engines. The modern Triumph company has offered inline-four-powered motorcycles, though they were discontinued in favour of triples.\nThe 2009 Yamaha R1 has an inline-four engine that does not fire at even intervals of 180°. Instead, it uses a crossplane crankshaft that prevents the pistons from simultaneously reaching top dead centre. This results in better secondary balance, which is particularly beneficial in the higher rpm range, and \"big-bang firing order\" theory says the irregular delivery of torque to the rear tire makes sliding in the corners at",
"-25.702797320554964"
],
[
"remarkably tolerant of poor sound quality, and the distortion inherent in limited-range drivers may enhance their output at high frequencies, increasing clarity when listening to spoken word material. Subwoofer A subwoofer is a woofer driver used only for the lowest-pitched part of the audio spectrum: typically below 200 Hz for consumer systems, below 100 Hz for professional live sound, and below 80 Hz in THX-approved systems. Because the intended range of frequencies is limited, subwoofer system design is usually simpler in many respects than for conventional loudspeakers, often consisting of a single driver enclosed in a suitable box or enclosure. Since sound",
"-25.672232747005182"
],
[
"clutch of previous superbikes from Ducati. The manufacturer claims it reduces weight, improves both service life and \"feel\" of the clutch and reduces noise. Ducati has in the past held to only dry clutches in accordance with marketing their bikes as obeying the design imperatives of racing above all, unlike, as Ducati would have it, ordinary street bikes. While a dry clutch \"rattles like a bucket of rocks,\" Ducati and its adherents felt the clutch's \"typical noise is music to bikers' ears.\" The 848's wet clutch is a stark departure from this, because, \"Ducati made it very",
"-25.59337202151073"
],
[
"motorcycles. Trailer manufacturers often offer trailers specifically designed for carrying motorcycles.\nGeneral purpose enclosed trailers, as seen in the photo above left, have the advantage of providing a more secure way of locking up the motorcycles contained within it, keeping them out of sight, and protecting them from all kinds of weather. However, as they are heavier than open trailers and create more wind resistance, pulling a general purpose enclosed trailer can decrease the fuel efficiency of the tow vehicle. Conversely, an enclosed motorcycle-specific trailer can be built low enough so that wind resistance is reduced. As a result, fuel",
"-25.569219619443174"
],
[
"and mostly of the high end, leaving out utilitarian examples. One scooter is present, and one motorcycle truly for the masses, the Honda Super Cub. That motorcycles are the number one mode of transport in a great many countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia, and thus central to the lives of most of the world's population was completely ignored by The Art of the Motorcycle, and little mention was made of the design context of creating motorcycles for this market. Creative uses of motorcycles in the developing world, such as the tuk tuk and similar vehicles, was overlooked.",
"-25.55399218344246"
],
[
"the types of motorcycles with the greatest problems were touring, off-road/dual sport, sport-touring, and cruisers. There were not enough sport bikes in the survey for a statistically significant conclusion, though the data hinted at reliability as good as cruisers. These results may be partially explained by accessories including such equipment as fairings, luggage, and auxiliary lighting, which are frequently added to touring, adventure touring/dual sport and sport touring bikes. Trouble with fuel systems is often the result of improper winter storage, and brake problems may also be due to poor maintenance. Of the five brands with enough data to draw",
"-25.52294642267225"
],
[
"asked Weiss about the location of the motorcycle with the open microphone—\"Would you consider that to be an essential ingredient in the ultimate conclusion of your analysis?\"— Weiss answered, \"It is an essential component of it, because, if you do not put the motorcycle in the place that it is —the initial point of where it was receiving the [sound of the gunfire]—, and if you do not move it at the velocity at which it is being moved on paper in this re-creation, you do not get a good, tight pattern that compares very well with the observed impulses",
"-25.431841266225092"
],
[
"Legal definition of motorcycle The legal definition of a motorcycle for the purposes of registration, taxation and rider licensing in most countries is a powered two-wheel motor vehicle. Most countries distinguish between mopeds up to 49 cc (scooters do not count as a separate category) and the more powerful, larger, vehicles known as motorcycles. Many jurisdictions include some forms of three-wheelers as motorcycles. Australia and New Zealand In New Zealand, a motorcycle is any two- or three-wheeled motor vehicle weighing less than 1000 kg, that can travel faster than 50 km/h or that has an engine capacity exceeding 50 cc. A moped is a",
"-25.410918194713304"
],
[
"cycles include motorbike, motorbicycle, motorized bicycle, motor-driven cycle, and goped (motorized inline skateboard with T-bar). History The term \"moped\" now only applies to low-power (often super-economy) vehicles, but pedals were fitted to some early motorcycles, such as the pictured 1912 Douglas. Pedaling away from stationary was a great improvement over \"run and jump\" and light pedal assistance (LPA) was valuable for climbing hills. Better transmissions with wider ranges, better clutches and much better engine performance made pedals obsolete on most motorcycles by 1918 but the pedals on mopeds remained valuable for their original purposes as late as the 1990s.\nThe earliest",
"-25.381633238415816"
],
[
"fuel-cells or batteries.\nMotorcycle engines can be mounted transversely; with the crankshaft aligned perpendicular to the frame or longitudinally, with the crankshaft parallel to the frame. Motorcycles with transversely mounted engines are more suited to have chain or belt final-drive. Motorcycles with longitudinally mounted engines are more suited for shaft final-drive.\nMotor scooters often have the engine as part of the rear suspension, so the engine is not fixed rigidly to the main frame. Instead, the combined engine-transmission-swingarm assembly is pivoted to follow the road surface and is part of the \"unsprung weight\". The chain final-drive of scooters runs in an oil-bath",
"-25.317496444331482"
],
[
"behavior at low revs, the engine sound was described with words like \"a pail of nuts and bolts being poured through a Magimix\", rattling clutch, grinding transmission, crackling chassis, rumbling and groaning body contributing to the impression of imminent breakdown. Driving in the city was sheer torture, worsened by the first gear being far too tall for stop-and-go traffic according to Auto Motor und Sport.\nSales performance was disappointing. Jaguar had intended to produce up to 350 cars, but production ceased in 1994 with 281 production cars produced, not all of which had been sold; some left-hand drive examples were still",
"-25.266798258788185"
],
[
"NSX at La Sarthe.” Critique found the 348 difficult in traffic due to heavy steering and controls, though transformative on open road, “the further we traveled and the harder we drove in France, the more special, the more unique the Ferrari felt. We argued long and hard over which of the two made the best noise under full throttle, although no one disputed the fact that the NSX was more refined overall and had vastly superior gearchange. But ultimately this is as much the Honda's problem as it is its strength. Because it is so well honed as an all-rounder,",
"-25.24807526409859"
],
[
"Touring motorcycle A touring motorcycle is a type of motorcycle designed for touring. Although almost any motorcycle can be used for this purpose, manufacturers have developed specific models designed to address the particular needs of these riders. Touring motorcycles commonly have large displacement fairings and windshields that offer a high degree of weather and wind protection, large-capacity fuel tanks for long ranges between fill-ups, engines with a great deal of low-end horsepower, and a more relaxed, upright seating position than sport bikes. \nParticularly in the USA, touring motorcycles may be given names such as bagger, full bagger, full dresser, full",
"-25.236888554820325"
],
[
"has sold more than 8.5 million to date. Other major producers are Bajaj and TVS Motors. Construction Motorcycle construction is the engineering, manufacturing, and assembly of components and systems for a motorcycle which results in the performance, cost, and aesthetics desired by the designer. With some exceptions, construction of modern mass-produced motorcycles has standardised on a steel or aluminium frame, telescopic forks holding the front wheel, and disc brakes. Some other body parts, designed for either aesthetic or performance reasons may be added. A petrol powered engine typically consisting of between one and four cylinders (and less commonly, up to eight",
"-25.229761417387635"
],
[
"MV Agusta Liberty Background After the Nuovo codice della strada (traffic code) came into force, motorcycles with a cylinder capacity of less than 50 cc and a maximum speed of 40 km/h were the only motor vehicles that could be used by people without a driving license.\nSome Italian motorcycle manufacturers, seeing their production fall due to the availability of low-cost utility cars, decided to enter the light motorcycle sector, creating economical models equipped with refined and robust four-stroke engines. Overview As a motorcycle aimed at youngsters not old enough to hold a licence, the MV technicians focused giving the machine",
"-25.22855215819436"
],
[
"Wilkinson in the United Kingdom.\nThe first across-the-frame 4-cylinder motorcycle was the 1939 racer Gilera 500 Rondine, it also had double-over-head camshafts, forced-inducting supercharger and was liquid-cooled. Modern inline-four motorcycle engines first became popular with Honda's SOHC CB750 introduced in 1969, and others followed in the 1970s. Since then, the inline-four has become one of the most common engine configurations in street bikes. Outside of the cruiser category, the inline-four is the most common configuration because of its relatively high performance-to-cost ratio. All major Japanese motorcycle manufacturers offer motorcycles with inline-four engines, as do MV Agusta and BMW. BMW's earlier inline-four",
"-25.21673503529746"
],
[
"motorcycles to allow higher cornering speeds and greater lean angles. Fairings may or may not be used on a sport bike; when used, fairings are shaped to reduce aerodynamic drag as much as possible and provide wind protection for the rider.\nThe combination of rider position, location of the engine and other heavy components, and the motorcycle's geometry help maintain structural integrity and chassis rigidity, and determine how it will behave under acceleration, braking, and cornering. Correct front-to-rear weight distribution is of particular importance to the handling of sport bikes, and the changing position of the rider's body dynamically changes the",
"-25.178329095622757"
],
[
"a thinness commonly associated with basic motorcycles and needed therefore to be pumped to a relatively high pressure. The hardness of the tires and the minimalist approach taken to shock absorption made the cars strikingly uncomfortable. Except for users of cabriolet versions with the roof open, above average agility was vital for anyone wishing to get in or out of a Champion. Driver fitness was also encouraged by the need to start the engine with a starting handle, there being no electric starter-motor.\nThe selling price was initially, DM 2,400 rising to DM 2,650 for the twin-cylinder version: this compares with",
"-25.12855347781442"
],
[
"appellate panel ruled that \"hog\" had become a generic term for large motorcycles and was therefore unprotectable as a trademark.\nOn August 15, 2006, Harley-Davidson Inc. had its NYSE ticker symbol changed from HDI to HOG. Bobbers Harley-Davidson FL \"big twins\" normally had heavy steel fenders, chrome trim, and other ornate and heavy accessories. After World War II, riders wanting more speed would often shorten the fenders or take them off completely to reduce the weight of the motorcycle. These bikes were called \"bobbers\" or sometimes \"choppers\", because parts considered unnecessary were chopped off. Those who made or rode choppers and",
"-25.12127893610159"
],
[
"efficiency is better than towing a general purpose enclosed trailer.\nCollapsible or folding motorcycle trailers are available to overcome storage problems that might prevent use of a non-collapsible trailer, some such trailers are sufficiently compact to allow the user to carry the trailer in the trunk of a car when not in use. Trailers pulled behind motorcycles Trailers towed behind motorcycles are distinguished by their relatively small size, especially narrow wheelbase. They are also often styled to match the look of the motorcycle they are intended to be towed behind. This styling can include the overall shape, fender shape, lights, chrome,",
"-25.08192470454378"
],
[
"real reverse gear. Motorcycles Early Boss Hoss releases were considered cumbersome and unfinished. The bikes were difficult to ride, and were largely considered an expensive novelty. Since they were fitting a high-end automotive motor onto a motorcycle frame, they found themselves stuck between using aftermarketparts intended for the Harley-Davidson and muscle car markets. They were stuck somewhere between Küryakyn and Edelbrock and this left the bikes with an unbalanced appearance as well as unbalanced hardware capabilities.\nEarly models were almost as notable for their jury rigged appearance as they were for their girth and conspicuous V8 engine. They often had",
"-25.079788289411226"
],
[
"with more cylinders is capable of producing more power. If comparable bore to stroke ratios are employed, an engine with more cylinders will have a greater piston area and a shorter stroke. The increased piston area permits an increase in the total valve area, allowing more air and fuel to be drawn into the engine, and the shorter stroke permits higher revs at the same piston speed, allowing the engine to pump still more air and fuel with the potential to produce more power, but with more fuel consumption too. In 2004 motorcycles were entered with three-, four-and five-cylinder configurations.",
"-25.059770741441753"
],
[
"may have raked-out forks, small fuel tanks and high handlebars. Choppers were popularised in the Peter Fonda film Easy Rider. Being designed primarily for visual effect, choppers will not usually be the most efficient riding machines. \nRelated to the chopper motorcycle is the bobber which is created by \"bobbing\" a factory bike by removing dead weight and bodywork from a motorcycle to reduce mass and increase performance. A common element of these motorcycles is a shortened rear fender that creates a \"bobbed\" look. \n \nPower cruiser is a name used to distinguish bikes in the",
"-25.000958153279498"
],
[
"are often the basis for custom motorcycle projects that result in a bike modified to suit the owner's ideals, and as such are a source of pride and accomplishment.\nPower cruiser is a name used to distinguish bikes in the cruiser class that have higher levels of power. They often come with upgraded brakes and suspensions, better ground clearance, and premium surface finishes, as well as more exotic or modern muscular (non-traditional cruiser) styling.\nMany power cruisers and Japanese cruisers of the 1980s have more neutral riding positions. While traditional cruisers have limited performance and turning ability due to a low-slung design,",
"-24.97803506096534"
],
[
"the first American riders to use Honda motorcycles in desert races, helping usher in the era of lightweight, smaller-displacement off-road motorcycles. In the late 1950s, most desert racers preferred heavy, ungainly, British parallel twin cylinder motorcycles. He competed in many of the most prestigious West Coast off-road races aboard motorcycles as small as 100ccs in displacement, often finishing ahead of competitors on larger motorcycles, including an overall victory at the 1967 Greenhorn Enduro aboard a 100cc Zundapp.\nIn 1962 he and Bill Robertson rode a Honda CL72 motorcycle almost the entire length of Mexico's Baja California Peninsula in less than 40",
"-24.964806619558658"
],
[
"Dual-sport motorcycle Evolution of dual-sports The concept of a versatile motorcycle equally at home on dirt and pavement is as old as motorcycling itself. Most roads were still unpaved when motorized bicycles first appeared around 1900. In a sense, all motorcycles at that time were dual-sports, intended to be used on dirt as well as pavement. Advertisements well into the 1920s depict motorcycles on dirt roads, raising clouds of dust. By 1940, most roads in developed countries were paved and motorcycles had become heavier and more oriented to the street. In the 1950s and 1960s British manufacturers such as",
"-24.96324885590002"
],
[
"Motorcycle engine A motorcycle engine is an engine that powers a motorcycle. Motorcycle engines are typically two-stroke or four-stroke internal combustion engines, but other engine types, such as Wankels and electric motors, have been used. \nAlthough some mopeds, such as the VéloSoleX, had friction drive to the front tire, a motorcycle engine normally drives the rear wheel, power being sent to the driven wheel by belt, chain or shaft. Historically, some 2,000 units of the Megola were produced between 1921-1925 with front wheel drive, and the modern Rokon, an all terrain motorcycle with both wheels driven, has been produced since",
"-24.961529722320847"
],
[
"used to reduce the radio's exposure to vibration imparted by the motorcycle's modal, or resonant, shaking.\nSome mobile radios use noise-canceling microphones or headsets. At speeds over 100 MPH, the ambient road and wind noise can make radio communications difficult to understand. For example, California Highway Patrol mobile radios have noise-canceling microphones which reduce road and siren noise heard by the dispatcher. Most fire engines and radios in heavy equipment use noise-canceling headsets. These protect the occupant's hearing and reduce background noise in the transmitted audio. Noise-canceling microphones require the operator speak directly into the front of the microphone. Hole arrays",
"-24.950334356050007"
],
[
"was typically enormously strong, many Suzuki engines get fully deserved \"bulletproof\" reputations, as many drag racers found out - over 300BHP was perfectly possible and many ended up being turbocharged and tuned.\nThe GSX750ES was well thought of too, especially for its fine handling, but again also was another machine that represented the most refined development of its own current generation.\nAt Suzuki it was felt that something much newer was needed for the future, both in chassis and engine terms.\nBy the mid-1980s the motorcycle industry was in a period of decline. Honda and Yamaha had engaged in a production war in",
"-24.941917598625878"
],
[
"Fury was among the earliest to be manufactured at Honda’s completely new motorcycle factory in Kumamoto, Japan, and exported to America. \nThe Fury was generally well received; Motorcycle Cruiser magazine named the Honda Fury as their \"2010 Cruiser of the Year,\" after editorializing that choppers cannot be mass-produced, and that the Fury was in actuality a cruiser. The Visordown website included the Fury in their list of \"Top 7 cruisers with huge engines,\" despite the fact that the Honda's displacement was relatively modest. But some reviewers had difficulties reconciling the form-over-function chopper ethos with a motor company known for engineering",
"-24.923438637495565"
],
[
"unit of the Jaguar and the Jazzmaster help produce sympathetic resonance since there is a considerable length of string between the bridge and the tailpiece. On top of that, when the strings are strummed behind the bridge, a characteristic chiming sound is created, which has been exploited by artists like Sonic Youth. Reissue Fender reissued the 1962 version of the Jaguar in 1999 as part of its American Vintage Reissue (AVRI) Series (lower cost Japanese-made versions were available between 1984-2015, originally made of basswood and then alder like their American counterparts). Several other variations have been released within the last",
"-24.917159907738096"
],
[
"there were fewer oil compartments, due to the transmission and clutch being integrated with the engine crankcase, providing fewer ways for the oil to leak. In addition, an optional drive chain enclosure could keep chain lubricant off the motorcycle and the rider's clothing. Drivetrain The engine components were designed for ease of access and maintenance. The valve guides and valves could be removed without removing the engine from the motorcycle. The cylinder heads were integral with the engine. The intake and exhaust manifolds were cast as one piece such that the exhaust would heat the fuel mixture to improve",
"-24.906141877465416"
],
[
"to moderate speeds, cruisers are more comfortable than other styles, but riding for long periods at freeway speeds can lead to fatigue from pulling back on the handlebars to resist the force of the wind against the rider's chest. Cruisers have limited cornering ability due to a lack of ground clearance.\nChoppers are a type of cruiser, so called because they are a \"chopped\", or cut-down, version of a production cruiser. Choppers are usually custom projects that result in a bike modified to suit the owner's ideals, and, as such, are a source of pride and accomplishment. Stereotypically, a chopper",
"-24.88234201297746"
],
[
"side of a motorcycle's lower frame. As well as their supposed protective function, they are valuable as a mount point for accessories like highway pegs, lights and, on police motorcycles, sirens, cameras and radar guns. One variation is the sump-guard, primarily for off-road riding. Custom Tires Specialized tires based on the purpose of the bike are common. Bikes meant for drag racing will have fatter, thicker tires, cross country bikes will often have whitewalls or lettering on their tires, and high end bikes will often have custom spokes as well - both in type and color. Bikes driven in",
"-24.861479578004946"
],
[
"(removed) in favour of lightness and handling ability. Under-seat exhausts, dual headlights and the widest sport tyres were de-rigueur.\nActor Huggy Leaver is credited with being inspired to build such customized motorcycles in this style and there was a proliferation of 'ratted' streetfighters in London around the late 1980s. The term streetfighter was first applied to a custom street bike by a British photojournalist and bike builder to a Harley-Davidson customized sports-bike, and later extended to the Japanese four-cylinder customs being created at the time.",
"-24.833901872872957"
],
[
"loud noise of a gunshot, while possibly amplifying quieter sounds to normal levels. While rich in features, these electronic devices are extremely expensive, compared to their foam counterparts.\nIn other activities, hobby motorcyclists and skiers may also choose to use decibel reduction earplugs, to compensate for the ongoing noise of the wind against their head or helmet. Musicians' earplugs Musicians are exposed to potentially harmful levels of sound, which can lead to hearing loss, tinnitus, and other auditory symptoms. Because of this, musicians may choose to use earplugs.\nMusician's earplugs (also called Hi-Fi or Lossless earplugs) are designed to attenuate sounds evenly",
"-24.800915481653647"
],
[
"Motorcycle A motorcycle, often called a bike, motorbike, or cycle, is a two- or three-wheeled motor vehicle. Motorcycle design varies greatly to suit a range of different purposes: long distance travel, commuting, cruising, sport including racing, and off-road riding. Motorcycling is riding a motorcycle and related social activity such as joining a motorcycle club and attending motorcycle rallies.\nIn 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle, and the first to be called a motorcycle. In 2014, the three top motorcycle producers globally by volume were Honda(28%), Yamaha(17%)(both from Japan), and Hero MotoCorp (India).\nIn developing countries, motorcycles are considered",
"-24.79523083967797"
],
[
"the public are more domesticated models for road use rather than outright racing, for example the Suzuki DR-Z400SM. \nDue to the popularity, versatility, excitement and durability of these motorcycles, some owners modify them for street use. In order to do this, headlights, tail lights, horn, mirrors and street-legal tires among other occasional modifications are needed. Some state motor vehicle departments take a dim view of turning off-road bikes into street legal bikes, such as California, which requires an on-road emissions designation from the manufacturer.\nIn countries like South Africa it is not possible to convert a dirt bike to road legal,",
"-24.711735258824774"
],
[
"for satisfying low frequency response. Conversely, large drivers may have heavy voice coils and cones that limit their ability to move at very high frequencies. Drivers pressed beyond their design limits may have high distortion. In a multi-way loudspeaker system, specialized drivers are provided to produce specific frequency ranges, and the incoming signal is split by a crossover. Drivers can be sub-categorized into several types: full-range, tweeters, super tweeters, mid-range drivers, woofers, and subwoofers. Applications Speaker drivers are the primary means for sound reproduction. They are used among other places in audio applications such as loudspeakers, headphones, telephones, megaphones, instrument",
"-24.70722605328774"
],
[
"motorcycles featuring gear-driven ohc cams and a very high build quality. The first three or four iterations of VFR motorcycles re-established Honda's reputation for quality, and the motorcycles received almost universal praise from journalists and riders alike.\nThe VFR was originally a 750 cc, but became an 800 cc in due course. New models featured technological innovation, such as a single-sided swingarm, linked braking, ABS, and VTEC. The VFR1200 became the first motorcycle to feature a dual-clutch transmission. Not all of these innovations proved popular with riders, who often preferred the simple robustness of the earlier models.\nHonda also developed a limited edition VFR,",
"-24.70477928093169"
],
[
"be \"beautifully crafted pieces of metallurgical art,\" perhaps only unintentionally. Many were also originally racing machines.\nMade popular by European riders, this type of custom motorcycle gained worldwide popularity, and motorcycle manufacturers responded in the late 1990s by adopting the terminology and producing factory-built streetfighters, beginning with the 1994 Triumph Speed Triple and the 1999 Honda X11, up through the 2009 Ducati Streetfighter. History Though it has its styling roots in the café racer culture of the 1950s and 1960s, the streetfighter is very much inspired by the new Japanese bikes of the late 1970s and early 1980s, possibly from young",
"-24.665040527732344"
],
[
"been attributed to the search for more bass and treble response from loudspeakers that did not extend as low or as high as desired, especially in the 1970s and 1980s. It has also been seen as either a useful or a detrimental tool for shaping the sound of a bass guitar. Car audio Many cars which have a graphic equalizer have been observed to have it set as a smiley face curve which emphasizes low and high frequencies. Graphic equalizer use leading to speaker damage is common — large amounts of bass boost and treble boost can distort music and",
"-24.66250674283947"
],
[
"the \"Big Four.\" \nThe motorcycle manufacturing industry and many government entities around the world have taken actions to clean up the reputation and activities of motorcyclists. Maintenance Motorcyclists will refer to maintenance or repair of a motorcycle as wrenching in the USA and \"spannering\" in the UK. A do it yourself self-sufficiency is said to be part of motorcycles' allure in an \"increasingly monolithic, unfixable world\" and being able to maintain one's own motorcycle is seen as part of the competency of being a motorcyclist.\nHistorically, motorcycle maintenance was a necessary skill for riders, since the materials and technology used in",
"-24.650872074067593"
],
[
"within the engine casings. \"Step-through\" motorcycles may have a rigidly fixed engine, or may have a scooter-type arrangement. Two-stroke and four-stroke Two-stroke engines have fewer moving parts than four-stroke engines, and produce twice the number of power strokes per revolution.\nFuel economy is better in four-strokes due to more complete combustion of the intake charge in four-stroke engines.\nNevertheless, two-strokes have been largely replaced on motorcycles in developed nations due to their environmental disadvantages. Cylinder lubrication is necessarily total-loss and this inevitably leads to a smokey exhaust, particularly on wide throttle openings. Two-stroke-engined motorcycles continue to be made in large numbers,",
"-24.631232588988496"
],
[
"term \"UJM\" for Universal Japanese Motorcycle, which began with Honda's CB-750 of 1969.\nThese bikes were available in a variety of sizes from 350cc to 1200cc from all four of the Japanese manufacturers, and beginning in 1976 served as the basis for production-based race bikes in the American Motorcycle Association (AMA) Superbike Series. As a result of the experience on the race track it became obvious that the big UJMs were not ideal for racing. Weight was high, frames lacked stiffness and flexed in disturbing ways, power from the big motors overwhelmed the tire technology of the day.\nBeginning around 1980",
"-24.59121916384902"
],
[
"Motorcycle trailer A motorcycle trailer is either a trailer used to carry motorcycles or one to be pulled by a motorcycle in order to carry additional gear. Motorcycle carrying trailers Motorcycle carrying trailers may be open or enclosed. They may be wide, for two machines side-by-side, or narrow, for just a single machine. The main features that distinguish them from other flatbed or enclosed trailers are track(s) to keep the wheels from sliding side to side and sufficient tiedown points to keep the motorcycle(s) from tipping. They may also tilt, or include ramp(s) to facilitate the loading and unloading of",
"-24.579937723465264"
],
[
"Types of motorcycles There are many systems for classifying types of motorcycles, describing how the motorcycles are put to use, or the designer's intent, or some combination of the two. Six main categories are widely recognized: cruiser, sport, touring, standard, dual-purpose, and dirt bike. Sometimes sport touring motorcycles are recognized as a seventh category. Strong lines are sometimes drawn between motorcycles and their smaller cousins, mopeds, scooters, and underbones, but other classification schemes include these as types of motorcycles.\nThere is no universal system for classifying all types of motorcycles. There are strict classification systems enforced by competitive motorcycle sport",
"-24.57670201640576"
],
[
"techniques of screaming that results in different ways of screaming. In rock and metal music singers are developing very demanding guttural and growled sounds.\nScream is also used predominant as an esthetic element in “cante jondo”, a vocal style in flamenco. The name of this style is translated as “deep sing”. The origins of flamenco and also of its name are still not clear. Flamenco is related to the gypsies’ music and it is said to have appeared in Andalusia in Spain. In cante jondo, that is a subdivision of flamenco, which is considered to be more serious and deep, the",
"-24.575834657996893"
],
[
"of city streets. Highway noise is today less affected by motor type, since the effects in higher speed are aerodynamic and tire noise related. Other contributions to the reduction of noise at the source are: improved tire tread designs for trucks in the 1970s, better shielding of diesel stacks in the 1980s, and local vehicle regulation of unmuffled vehicles.\nThe most fertile areas for roadway noise mitigation are in urban planning decisions, roadway design, noise barrier design, speed control, surface pavement selection, and truck restrictions. Speed control is effective since the lowest sound emissions arise from vehicles moving smoothly",
"-24.54548985560541"
],
[
"sanctioning bodies, or legal definitions of a motorcycle established by certain legal jurisdictions for motorcycle registration, emissions, road traffic safety rules or motorcyclist licensing. There are also informal classifications or nicknames used by manufacturers, riders, and the motorcycling media. Some experts do not recognize sub-types, like naked bike, that \"purport to be classified\" outside the six usual classes, because they fit within one of the main types and are recognizable only by cosmetic changes. Street Street motorcycles are motorcycles designed for being ridden on paved roads. They have smooth tires with a light tread pattern and engines generally in the",
"-24.51780823431909"
],
[
"several steam two- and three-wheelers that preceded the Reitwagen might have been technically motorcycles, none are candidates for the historical milestone of \"the first motorcycle\" because the technology they used was a dead end. Instead, the recognition should go to the internal combustion Reitwagan because it blazed a trail that was followed by the thousands of successful motorcycles subsequently built in the 20th century. As Cycle World's Technical Editor Kevin Cameron noted, \"History follows things that succeed, not things that fail.\"\nAllan Girdler and Glynn Kerr nonetheless still favor the Roper, even by Cameron's criterion. The reason, they say, is that",
"-24.5149880544559"
],
[
"the tank.\nIn late 1980 when the GSX1100S Katana hit the street, it was claimed by Suzuki to be the fastest mass-production motorcycle in the world, ensuring the new looks were matched by unprecedented performance levels. So radical was the design departure from previous mass-market cycles that most major motorcycle magazines of the era thought the design would not appeal to the masses. Nevertheless, it was a sales success, and the motorcycle had a lasting impact on motorcycle design. Portions of the design ethos are still visible in many current sport motorcycles, including the faired-in aspects of both the seat and",
"-24.50280796631705"
],
[
"utilitarian due to lower prices and greater fuel economy. Of all the motorcycles in the world, 58% are in the Asia-Pacific and Southern and Eastern Asia regions, excluding car-centric Japan.\nAccording to the US Department of Transportation the number of fatalities per vehicle mile traveled was 37 times higher for motorcycles than for cars. Types The term motorcycle has different legal definitions depending on jurisdiction (see #Legal definitions and restrictions).\nThere are three major types of motorcycle: street, off-road, and dual purpose. Within these types, there are many sub-types of motorcycles for different purposes. There is often a racing counterpart to each",
"-24.47553177224472"
],
[
"front wheels. It wasn't, however, a success, as Butler failed to find sufficient financial backing.\nMany authorities have excluded steam powered, electric motorcycles or diesel-powered two-wheelers from the definition of a 'motorcycle', and credit the Daimler Reitwagen as the world's first motorcycle. Given the rapid rise in use of electric motorcycles worldwide, defining only internal-combustion powered two-wheelers as 'motorcycles' is increasingly problematic.\nIf a two-wheeled vehicle with steam propulsion is considered a motorcycle, then the first motorcycles built seem to be the French Michaux-Perreaux steam velocipede which patent application was filled in December 1868, constructed around the same time as the American",
"-24.463869937928393"
],
[
"the type of setup that is used on most motorcycles. Often, the axle is inserted into slotted dropouts and the chain is adjusted by moving the wheel forward or backward within the slots. This allows the engine to be mounted which makes the bike's drive train much more rigid and reliable. There are also other advantages to this type of axle, including the possibility of a cleaner and more attractive rear axle area, but this setup is often more expensive than a live axle and custom parts are much more difficult to locate. Custom parts Custom parts are what make",
"-24.426800192137307"
],
[
"avoided, while still \"missing the point about bikes.\" The indecision between making a sport bike or cruiser led to the uncomfortable ergonomics of a dragster motorcycle, but it did not matter because the Tomahawk was \"not intended to be taken seriously\", notwithstanding the intention to produce a limited production run. While he found the basic shape \"not unpleasant\", the unseriousness led to an unfinished result, pointing out the lack of harmonization in the twin ram-air intakes, and the \"incongruous\" use of a retro single vertical stalk planted in the fuel tank in an otherwise futuristic design. Kerr acknowledges that DaimlerChrysler",
"-24.40538777020265"
],
[
"designed horns have the effect of making the speaker cone transfer more of the electrical energy in the voice coil into the air; in effect the driver appears to have higher efficiency. Horns can help control dispersion at higher frequencies which is useful in some applications such as sound reinforcement. The mathematical theory of horn coupling is well developed and understood, though implementation is sometimes difficult. Properly designed horns for high frequencies are small (above say 3 kHz or so, a few centimetres or inches), those for mid-range frequencies (perhaps 300 Hz to 2 kHz) much larger, perhaps 30 to 60 cm (1 or",
"-24.393142467422877"
]
] |
2gm843 | If American football is the most popular sport in the U.S., then why is there only one pro league? | [
"By that logic there are many tiers of football. NCAA football isn't \"pro\" but it's pretty much the minor leagues. There's also arena football, and tons of other leagues that would be the equivalent of the bottom tiers of English soccer.",
"The career of a pro football player is pretty short compared to that of other sports. It doesn't allow a player the time to rise through the ranks the same way they would if they were playing something like baseball.",
"It's a good question and I'm not sure there's a clear answer but here are some reasons I can think of... * College football serves as \"minor leagues\" for younger players * NFL rosters are pretty huge and contain many players that are just on the \"practice squad.\" And second-stringers have no problem getting playing time as there are unlimited substitutions so there's no need to move guys to another league just to get them \"match fit.\" * In some cases, Canadian football, Arena football (defunct), NFL Europe (defunct), or the German/Australian leagues can serve as second-tier leagues * Unlike golf or baseball where some guys can spend years in the lower-tier leagues for pretty low pay, football is very hard on the body and frankly isn't worth playing unless you're paid really well. You don't see a lot of adult recreational full-contact gridiron football leagues. Even good players sometimes retire in their prime because they don't want to play.",
"College football, that's what different. The UK doesn't have the same sort of tradition college sports being a gateway to professional sports that the US does. College football lives in much the same niche as secondary tier soccer, and had capture the fan base to a degree that makes it hard for a secondary pro league to be profitable. That said, there are other football leagues in North American...Area Football, various short term startups like the UFL and XLF, Canadian Football, etc.",
"There used to be another professional league, but it merged with the NFL. Source: URL_0 \"In 1966, the NFL agreed to merge with the rival American Football League (AFL), effective 1970; the first Super Bowl was held at the end of that same season in January 1967.\" Edit: Oops! I forgot to answer your question. If you define a professional football league as an entity that pays its players, then we have the Arena Football League. It's in-door professional (American) football league. We probably don't have another league on par with the NFL because it would be too hard to compete against them. The better players would most likely sign with the NFL because it's more established, and the new league would probably only sign not-so-good players. We did, briefly, have the United States Football league."
] | [
[
"Comparisons between the National Football League and NCAA football The National Football League (NFL) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) are respectively the most popular professional and amateur football organizations in the United States. The National Football League was founded in 1920 and has since become the largest and most popular sport in the United States. The NFL has the highest average attendance of any sporting league in the world, with an average attendance of 66,960 persons per game during the 2011 NFL season. While the NFL championship game, the Super Bowl, is a large sporting event in club",
"-28.204062036988034"
],
[
"obscure sports often operate at a semi-professional level due to cost concerns. Because the cost of running a fully professional American football team is prohibitive, semi-pro football is common at the adult levels, particularly in the indoor variety, providing an outlet for players who have used up their NCAA eligibility and have no further use for maintaining amateur status; as a sport that normally plays only one game per week, football is especially suited for semi-pro play. The National Lacrosse League, whose teams also typically play only one game per week, pays a salary that is enough to be considered",
"-28.123656613664934"
],
[
"Football League was founded in 1987 as the first major professional league to play the sport. Several other indoor football leagues have since been founded and continue to play today.\nAmerican football's parent sport of rugby continued to evolve. Today, two distinct codes known as rugby union and rugby league are played throughout the world. Since the two codes split following a schism on how the sport should be managed in 1895, the history of rugby league and the history of rugby union have evolved separately. Both codes have adopted innovations parallel to the American game; the rugby union scoring system",
"-27.91735823120689"
],
[
"All American Football Gameplay One of the main differences between it, and its predecessor, John Elway's Team Quarterback is that it was the first (and possibly, only coin-op game) to allow users to select from a list of \"college\" teams in addition to \"pro\" teams representing the 26 cities/regions which had NFL teams at the time. It is also the only game in the series to allow users to purchase power-up items such as \"beef\" (for boosting the offensive line) and \"go juice\" (for a second wind on long gains) from a \"sideline shop\" during the game.\nThe game did",
"-27.86979678363423"
],
[
"leagues, in that there is no system of promotion and relegation between lower and higher leagues, but rather a minor league system, generally the same as almost all other top-level pro sports leagues in North America. In addition, teams playing in American soccer leagues are not private clubs founded independently of the league that join a league in order to ensure regular fixtures but are instead usually franchises of the league itself. Finally, the soccer leagues in the United States also incorporate features common to other American sports leagues, most notably the determination of champions by playoffs between the top",
"-27.82489925500704"
],
[
"a modified version of American football, at the international level. United States \"Baseball is still called the national pastime, but football is by far the more popular sport in American society\", according to ESPN.com's Sean McAdam. In a 2014 poll conducted by Harris Interactive, professional football ranked as the most popular sport, and college football ranked third behind only professional football and baseball; 46% of participants ranked some form of the game as their favorite sport. Professional football has ranked as the most popular sport in the poll since 1985, when it surpassed baseball for the first time. Professional football",
"-27.44015021144878"
],
[
"All-Pro Football 2K8 Overview All-Pro Football 2K8 features a fictional league called the \"All-Pro League\", or 'APL'. The APL consists of 24 teams that are grouped into six divisions of four teams each. The league runs a sixteen-game schedule and holds a championship game at the end of the playoffs, similar to the NFL.\nSince the exclusivity deal the NFL has with EA only covers active players, 2K contracted the individual rights to over 240 retired NFL players to appear in the game.\nEven though there are no NFL teams in the game, the player can still create teams that resemble their",
"-27.368277397705242"
],
[
"English Premier League and the Spanish La Liga they make up the top six sports leagues by revenue in the world. In addition, the sports of these four leagues were all developed in their modern forms in North America, and all except American football have become popular internationally. Because the leagues enjoy a significant place in popular culture in the U.S. and Canada, the best players from these leagues often become cultural icons in both countries. Each Big Four league, as well as Major League Soccer and the Canadian Football League, averages at least 15,000 fans in attendance per game",
"-27.12720936407277"
],
[
"Comparison of American football and rugby league Origins Both sports descend from the older game of rugby football, which originated in 19th Century England. British colonists and the British military in Canada brought football to North America. It became popular in American and Canadian universities and prep schools. At the time, association football and rugby football were not as differentiated as they are now and teams would negotiate the rules before playing each game. The sports of American football and Canadian football evolved from these intercollegiate games.\nMeanwhile, in England a schism developed in rugby football between those who favoured",
"-27.07628838228993"
],
[
"Orleans), and Pat Bowlen (Denver), but very rarely did they ever promote or demote any players between the AFL and NFL, due in part to significant differences in the playing schedules and the style of play between outdoor and indoor football. All of the NFL owners backed out of the league when it went bankrupt, was sold off and reorganized.\nIn Canada, intercollegiate sport has never attained a similar level of following compared to the United States, mainly due to ice hockey being the most popular sport in the country. In hockey, the National Hockey League has historically overlooked intercollegiate sport",
"-26.878595411559218"
],
[
"History of the National Football League championship Throughout its history, the National Football League (NFL) and other rival American football leagues have used several different formats to determine their league champions, including a period of inter-league matchups determining a true national champion.\nFollowing its founding in 1920, the NFL first determined champions through end-of-season standings, but switched to a playoff system in 1933. The rival All-America Football Conference (AAFC) and American Football League (AFL) have since merged with the NFL (the only two AAFC teams that currently exist joined the NFL in 1950—the Cleveland Browns and the San Francisco 49ers),",
"-26.85516426038521"
],
[
"Professional sports leagues in the United States Professional sports leagues in the United States include several major leagues as well as other professional and semi-professional leagues. Major leagues The major sports leagues tend to have the greatest fan interest, have national TV contracts, draw high fan attendance, and have teams located throughout the largest metropolitan areas in the United States. Major League Baseball Major League Baseball is the highest level of play of baseball in North America. It consists of the National League (founded in 1876) and the American League (founded in 1901). Cooperation between the two leagues began in",
"-26.844153292557166"
],
[
"of Columbia. USA Football is the governing body for youth and amateur football, and Pop Warner Little Scholars is the largest organization for youth football. Rival professional leagues Several professional football leagues have been formed as rival leagues to the NFL. The most successful was the American Football League (AFL), which existed from 1960 to 1969. The AFL became a significant rival in 1964 before signing a five-year, US$36 million television deal with NBC. AFL teams began signing NFL players to contracts, and the league's popularity grew to challenge that of the NFL. The two leagues merged in the 1970 season,",
"-26.772198797261808"
],
[
"Association of Professional Football Leagues The Association of Professional Football Leagues was a compact formed in 1946 among the National Football League and three minor leagues of professional American football: the American Association (which subsequently changed its name to the American Football League), the Dixie League, and the Pacific Coast Professional Football League. While the NFL had an informal farm system in the pre-World War II AA, this was the first time in which it had a working arrangement with multiple leagues whose local popularity rivaled that of the major league. The agreement lasted less than two years, its termination",
"-26.767183398173074"
],
[
"league. \"Why wouldn't a second league work\", Hunt recalled. \"There was an American and National League in baseball, why not football?\" Hunt contacted several other individuals who had expressed interest in the Cardinals franchise—Bud Adams, Bob Howsam, Max Winter and Bill Boyer—and gauged their interest in forming a second league.\nOn August 14, the first meeting of the new league was held in Chicago. Charter memberships were issued to six original cities — Dallas, New York, Houston, Denver, Los Angeles and Minneapolis. The league was officially christened the American Football League on August 22. Ralph Wilson was extended the league's seventh",
"-26.761704735516105"
],
[
"combined.)\nBaseball has been regarded as the national sport since the late 19th century, with Major League Baseball (MLB) being the top league, while American football is now by several measures the most popular spectator sport, with the National Football League (NFL) having the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world and a Super Bowl watched by millions globally. Basketball and ice hockey are the country's next two leading professional team sports, with the top leagues being the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the National Hockey League (NHL). These four major sports, when played professionally, each occupy a",
"-26.7069724596804"
],
[
"league, known as the National Football League (not the same as the modern league) began play in 1902 when several baseball clubs formed football teams to play in the league, including the Philadelphia Athletics, Pittsburgh Pirates and the Philadelphia Phillies. The Pirates' team the Pittsburgh Stars were awarded the league championship. However, the Philadelphia Football Athletics and Philadelphia Football Phillies also claimed the title. A five-team tournament, known as the World Series of Football was organized by Tom O'Rouke, the manager of Madison Square Garden. The event featured the first-ever indoor pro football games. The first professional indoor game came",
"-26.63102588360198"
],
[
"American League (founded in 1901). Cooperation between the two leagues began in 1903, and the two merged on an organizational level in 2000 with the elimination of separate league offices; they have shared a single Commissioner since 1920. There are currently 30 member teams, with 29 located in the U.S. and one in Canada. Traditionally called the \"National Pastime\", baseball was the first professional sport in the U.S. National Basketball Association The National Basketball Association is the premier basketball league in the world. It was founded as the Basketball Association of America in 1946, and adopted its current name in",
"-26.559460580610903"
],
[
"the ball, this rule was wholly adopted into all Harvard play following the two games with McGill. While the American team bested the Canadian (3–0 and a following tie game), both countries' flavours of football were forever changed and linked to one another. Both the Canadian and American games still have some things in common with the two varieties of rugby, especially rugby league, and because of the similarities, the National Football League (NFL) had a formal relationship with the Canadian Football League (CFL) between 1997 and 2008.\nMany, perhaps most, of the rules differences have arisen because of rules changes",
"-26.52593258973502"
],
[
"form of football is the most popular in the regional context in which the word appears. For example, \"football\" unqualified primarily refers to American football in the U.S., Canadian football in Canada, and association football in Mexico. The word soccer is instead used to refer to association football in the U.S. and Canada. American football The National Football League (NFL) is the highest professional level of American football in the world, with teams across the United States. College football in the U.S. is primarily organized by the NCAA. The NCAA further divides its Division I football teams into the Football",
"-26.497297097332194"
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[
"expansion Some of the Big Four sports leagues have in recent years looked to expand their revenues by playing overseas games in attempt to develop a wider international fan base. NFL American football is the member of the top four major league sports with the least international exposure. The NFL has attempted to promote its game worldwide by scheduling selected pre-season games since 1976 in Mexico, Europe, Australia, and Japan. The NFL had promoted the game abroad through NFL Europe, but NFL Europe was never profitable and ceased operations in 2007.\nIn 2005, the NFL held its firstregular-season game outside the",
"-26.388831086980645"
],
[
"in reverse order. However, all major sports have had a rival league achieve at least some of these goals in the last half of the 20th century. Baseball's proposed Continental League did not play a game but only because Major League Baseball responded to the proposal by adding teams in some of the new league's proposed cities. The American Basketball Association (ABA) and World Hockey Association (WHA) each succeeded in getting some of their franchises accepted into the established leagues, which had both unsuccessfully attempted to cause their upstart rivals to fold outright by adding more teams.\nHowever, the upstart",
"-26.265705010853708"
],
[
"American Association (19th century) History The American Association distinguished itself in several ways from what it considered to be the puritanical National League. The new league established teams in what the NL leaders pejoratively called \"river cities\", including Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Louisville and St. Louis, with the inherent implication of lower morality or social standards in those cities. In contrast to the NL, the AA offered cheaper ticket prices, Sunday games and alcoholic beverages to its patrons. As such, the American Association was the world's first professional sports league designed to out-compete another by better accommodating blue-collar tendencies and",
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],
[
"country.\nAs of 2005 the AFL is one of only five professional sports leagues in the world with an average attendance above thirty thousand (the others are the NFL in the United States and Major League Baseball in the U.S. and Canada, and the top division soccer leagues in Germany and England). In 2007, the average attendance of 38,113 made the AFL the second best attended domestic club league in the world, after only the NFL in the United States.\nThe Melbourne Cricket Ground is the largest stadium used for Australian rules football and the permanent home of the AFL Grand Final.",
"-26.163533793820534"
],
[
"Bowl Subdivision and the Football Championship Subdivision. The Football Bowl Subdivision has the largest and most competitive schools, and is noted for its system of postseason bowl games.\nUSA Football is the governing body for amateur American football in the U.S., and is a member of the International Federation of American Football (IFAF), the international governing body of American football associations. Several other North American counties are a part of IFAF Americas, the federation of IFAF members in the Americas.\nIn Mexico, the Liga de Fútbol Americano Profesional is the professional league, while ONEFA organizes college football. Canadian football The Canadian Football",
"-26.113281051366357"
],
[
"National League, giving MLB a legal monopoly over professional baseball in the US.\nThe other major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada have followed the MLB model of a closed shop with no merit-based promotion or relegation since their inceptions. Early football leagues in England In contrast to baseball's NABBP, the first governing body in English football survived the onset of professionalism, which it formally accepted in 1885. Perhaps the great geographical concentration of population and the corresponding short distances between urban centres was crucial. Certainly it provided the opportunity for more clubs' developing large fan bases without",
"-26.076929873466725"
],
[
"not have licenses from the NFL, NFLPA or the NCAA. Because of this, pro teams were only referred to by city (Green Bay, Pittsburgh, etc.), state (Minnesota) or region (New England). Most of the college teams featured were ones with names that were based geographically (Michigan, Wisconsin, etc.) or militaristic (Army and Navy). This feature was purely cosmetic as the teams all played the same regardless of which one was chosen. It also allowed users to choose their own team colors no matter which team they chose.\nLike its predecessors, All-American Football involved the use of a \"spring stick,\" which required",
"-26.05112843902134"
],
[
"All-Pro All-Pro is an honor bestowed upon professional American football players that designates the best player at each position during a given season. All-Pro players are typically selected by press organizations, who select an \"All-Pro team,\" a list that consists of at least 22 players, one for each offensive and defensive position, plus various special teams players depending on the press organization that compiles the list. All-Pro lists are exclusively limited to the major leagues, usually only the National Football League; in the past, other leagues recognized as major, such as the American Football League of the 1960s or the",
"-26.050301219169796"
],
[
"of the 15 teams in the other league, a historically high number (until 1997, interleague play was limited to exhibition matches and the postseason World Series, and thus MLB teams did not play the other league's teams at all).\nIn Australia, the two largest football leagues, the AFL (Australian rules football) and NRL (rugby league), both grew out of competitions held within a single city (respectively Melbourne and Sydney) and only began expanding to the rest of the country when inexpensive air travel made a national league possible. These leagues use a single table instead of being split into divisions. The",
"-26.034219094493892"
],
[
"is almost identical to the American game, while rugby league uses a gridiron-style field and a six-tackle rule similar to the system of downs in American Football.",
"-26.020190438313875"
],
[
"American Football League (1940) Origin Although the third American Football League was not directly connected to any previous American football leagues of the same name, its formation was at the cost of an already-existing minor football league of the same name.\nBy the spring of 1940, the former American Professional Football Association announced intentions of turning itself into a major league with the addition of a Milwaukee team for the upcoming season over the protests of the Green Bay Packers. As the teams prepared for the upcoming season, the announcement of a rival major league resulted in the fracturing of this",
"-26.013877445133403"
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[
"very popular and serve as those sports' most prominent competitions with levels of media coverage, competition, and fan following comparable to the major professional team sports. Amateur competitions such as college football and college basketball, at the upper echelons, also enjoy strong media coverage and fan followings but are generally recognized as inferior to the major professional leagues in level of play because of the inherent limits of the amateur sports system. Major League Baseball Major League Baseball is the highest level of play of baseball in North America. It consists of the National League (founded in 1876) and the",
"-25.933073009480722"
],
[
"city or the league chooses to expand with new franchises.\nAll American sports leagues use the same type of schedule. After the regular season, the 10–16 teams with the best records enter a playoff tournament leading to a championship series or game. American sports, except for soccer, have no equivalent to the cup competitions that run concurrently with leagues in European sports. Even in the case of soccer, the cup competition, the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup, draws considerably less attention than the regular season. Also, the only top-level U.S. professional teams that play teams from other organizations in meaningful games",
"-25.903897760639666"
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[
"of the existing league. In many cases, the major leagues have absorbed the most successful franchises from their failing rivals, or merged outright with them.\nBaseball's National League withstood three challenges in its first quarter century of existence. The American Association began in 1882 in several lucrative markets without a NL team. For several years, the AA was a viable competitor to the NL, and the NL and AA champions competed in an informal World Series. Four of the AA's teams defected to the NL in its later years, before the AA expired in 1891. Labor problems led to the formation",
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[
"carried it and it serves as a means for advertisers to debut elaborate and expensive commercials for their products. The NFL has grown to become the most popular spectator sports league in the United States.\nOne of the things that have marked the modern NFL as different from other major professional sports leagues is the apparent parity between its 32 teams. While from time to time, dominant teams have arisen, the league has been cited as one of the few where every team has a realistic chance of winning the championship from year to year. The league's complex labor",
"-25.84650256947498"
],
[
"Expansion of major sports leagues in the United States and Canada The expansion of major sports leagues in the United States and Canada has occurred throughout the twentieth century for all of the major professional sports leagues in those two countries. United States Professional sports leagues as known today evolved during the decades between the Civil War and World War II, when the railroad was the main means of intercity transportation. As a result, virtually all major league teams were concentrated in the northeastern quarter of the United States, within roughly the radius of a day-long train ride. No MLB",
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[
"other independent leagues like the Texas-Louisiana League and Northeast League. The Atlantic League has had more marquee players than any other independent league, including Jose Canseco, Rickey Henderson, Ozzie Canseco, Rubén Sierra, Carlos Baerga, and John Rocker. The Northern League alumni include Leon \"Bull\" Durham, J. D. Drew, and Darryl Strawberry.\nIndependent leagues have flourished in northeastern states, where dense populations can often support multiple franchises. Because they are not subject to the territorial limitations imposed on affiliated minor-league teams, independent clubs can relocate as close to affiliated teams (and one another) as they choose to. For example, the city",
"-25.783681058266666"
],
[
"two major professional sporting leagues in Australia are the Australian Football League (AFL) and National Rugby League (NRL). Both competitions were originally based in one city (Melbourne and Sydney respectively) and expanded to a national level, and through that process, there have been team moves, mergers and closures in both leagues. The clubs are owned by members, not privately, but the North American franchise model exists, which means entry to the league is restricted. The hybrid model has meant that the leading promoter of moving is the league itself, trying to grow the football code by encouraging poorly performing clubs",
"-25.716356635733973"
],
[
"XFL suffered from poor television ratings and the low quality of play. The United Football League (UFL) began in 2009 but folded after suspending its 2012 season due to financial issues. International play American football leagues exist throughout the world, but the game has yet to achieve the international success and popularity of baseball and basketball. It is not an Olympic sport, but it was a demonstration sport at the 1932 Summer Olympics. At the international level, Canada, Mexico, and Japan are considered to be second-tier, while Austria, Germany, and France would rank among a third tier. These countries rank",
"-25.665043191052973"
],
[
"Non-League football Non-League football describes football leagues played outside the top leagues of a country. Usually it describes leagues which are not fully professional. The term is primarily used for football in England, where it describes football played at a level below that of the Premier League (20 clubs) and the three divisions of the English Football League (EFL; 72 clubs). The term non-League was commonly used well before 1992 when the top football clubs in England all belonged to The Football League (from 2016, the EFL); all clubs who were not a part of The Football",
"-25.661282139190007"
],
[
"in Canada, football is used inclusively of Canadian football with American and Canadian football generally seen as two variants of the same sport. The term \"North American football\" is sometimes used to refer to both games together.\nThe sport of association football is commonly called \"soccer\" in the United States. The word derives from \"association\" – as in the Football Association – in contrast to \"rugger\", or rugby football. It is English in origin, and caught on in the United States to distinguish the game from the locally better known American football; it also became predominant in other countries where another",
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],
[
"division, expanding the sport into Africa, and overcoming the current worldwide competitive imbalance that is in favor of American teams. Similar codes of football Other codes of football share a common history with American football. Canadian football is a form of the game that evolved parallel to American football. While both games share a common history, there are some important differences between the two. A more modern sport that derives from American football is Arena football, designed to be played indoors inside of hockey or basketball arenas. The game was invented in 1981 by Jim Foster and the Arena",
"-25.63701860018773"
],
[
"and all the AFL teams joined the NFL. An earlier league, the All-America Football Conference (AAFC), was in play from 1946 to 1949. After it had dissolved, two AAFC teams, the Cleveland Browns and the San Francisco 49ers, became members of the NFL; another member, the Baltimore Colts joined the league, but folded after just a year in the NFL.\nOther attempts to start rival leagues have been far less successful. The World Football League (WFL) played for two seasons, in 1974 and 1975, but faced such severe monetary issues it could not pay its players. In its second and final",
"-25.51716141757788"
],
[
"League was considered the strongest domestic league outside of North America. It has recently been overtaken by the Spanish ACB, but is still one of the top leagues in Europe, along with the VTB United League in Russia with teams in other nearby nations, the Greek Basket League, the Adriatic League, and the Baltic League. Famous club teams include Olimpia Milano, Virtus Bologna, Pallacanestro Varese, Pallacanestro Cantù, Fortitudo Bologna, Victoria Libertas, Pallacanestro Treviso, Mens Sana 1871, Virtus Roma, Pallacanestro Trieste, JuveCaserta and Scaligera Verona. Rugby union Rugby union enjoys a good level of popularity, especially in the north of the",
"-25.493874823790975"
],
[
"World Football League (2008–2010) The World Football League was a minor professional American football league which operated for three seasons, from 2008 through 2010. It was named for the short-lived World Football League which served as a competitor to the NFL in the mid-1970s. History In 2007, the rights to the \"World Football League\" name and logo were purchased by Chip Pierce of Beaumont, Texas. The league was brought back to life as a minor league system that did not compete with the NFL, but gave players of a higher talent level than that of the many players involved in",
"-25.47784958925331"
],
[
"way to play the sport in all climates. The PIHA is the league with the largest number of professional teams in the nation. Street hockey is a non-standard version of inline hockey played by amateurs in informal games.\nRugby league in the United States is played by the USA Rugby League (USARL) is a 14 team semi-professional rugby league football competition based on the East Coast of the United States. The league was founded in 2011 by clubs that had broken with the established American National Rugby League (AMNRL), plus expansion franchises. The USARL began its inaugural season in 2011. In",
"-25.447494501189794"
],
[
"American Football Association (1978–1983) The American Football Association (AFA) was a professional American football league that operated from 1977 to 1983.\nThe AFA was concentrated in the southern United States and served as the second tier of professional football between the World Football League, which folded in 1975, and the United States Football League, which began play in 1983. Unlike the WFL or USFL, the AFA always fashioned itself as a minor league, and never planned to rival the National Football League for \"major league\" status. Players were paid one percent of gross gate revenue, which often meant players were paid",
"-25.447338658210356"
],
[
"Stadium. The success of the International Series has led to speculation that London will be chosen as home of an NFL franchise in the future. Brazil American football has been played in Brazil since the 1990s. The official organization governing American football in Brazil is the American Football Association of Brazil, in Portuguese Associação de Futebol Americano de Brasil (AFAB). Similar codes of football A modern sport that derives from American football is Arena football, designed to be played indoors inside of hockey or basketball arenas. The game was invented in 1981 by Jim Foster and the Arena Football",
"-25.439268800582795"
],
[
"the television networks that have carried it and it serves as a means for advertisers to debut elaborate and expensive commercials for their products. The NFL has grown to become the most popular spectator sports league in the United States.\nOne of the things that have marked the modern NFL as different from other major professional sports leagues is the apparent parity between its 32 teams. While from time to time, dominant teams have arisen, the league has been cited as one of the few where every team has a realistic chance of winning the championship from year to year.",
"-25.421428441724856"
],
[
"the United States.\nNFL games are the most attended of domestic professional leagues in the world in terms of per-game attendance, and the most popular in the U.S. in terms of television ratings and merchandising. Its championship game, the Super Bowl, is the most watched annual event on U.S. television, with Super Bowl XLIX being the single most-watched program in U.S. television history.\nThe NFL is the only one of the major leagues not to have a presence in Canada, where the Canadian Football League is the premier professional league in the sport. National Hockey League The National Hockey League is the",
"-25.387342932837782"
],
[
"unpredictable player movement, as well as the illegal payment of college players who were still in school. The National Football League (NFL), a group of professional teams that was originally established in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association, aimed to solve these problems. This new league's stated goals included an end to bidding wars over players, prevention of the use of college players, and abolition of the practice of paying players to leave another team. By 1922, the NFL had established itself as America's premier professional football league.\nThe dominant form of football at the time was played at the",
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[
"league. Johnson led the Western League into major league status and soon became the president of the newly renamed American League. The American League has one notable difference over the National League, and that is the designated hitter rule. Under the rule, a team may use a batter in their lineup who is not in the field defensively, compared to the old rule that made it mandatory for the pitcher to hit. Early history The earliest predecessor to the American League was the Northwestern League, a minor league with teams based in the Midwestern United States. Along with the National",
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[
"other North American countries use promotion and relegation systems, where teams are transferred between two divisions based on their performance at the end of each season.\nThe major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada dominate organized men's professional team sports in those two countries: Major League Baseball (MLB), the National Basketball Association (NBA), the National Football League (NFL), the National Hockey League (NHL), Major League Soccer (MLS) and the Canadian Football League (CFL). Liga MX, the top level Association football in Mexico is also widely popular. Caribbean, where cricket is popular, that region's major domestic competitions include",
"-25.366565829899628"
],
[
"American Football League All-Star game The American Football League All-Star game was the annual game which featured each year's best performers in the American Football League (AFL). The game was first played in 1961 and the final AFL All-Star game occurred in 1969, prior to the AFL-NFL merger. All-League Teams The Sporting News published American Football League All-League Teams for each season played by the American Football League, 1960 through 1969. From 1960 through 1966, the All-League team was selected by the AFL players, and from 1967 through 1969 it was selected by a consensus of The Sporting News (TSN),",
"-25.362916481200955"
],
[
"sport originated in the 19th century out of older games related to modern rugby football, more specifically rugby league football. American and Canadian football developed alongside each other and were originally more distinct before Canadian teams adopted features of the American game. Both varieties are distinguished from other football sports by their use of hard plastic helmets and shoulder pads, the forward pass, the system of downs, a number of unique rules and positions, measurement in customary units of yards (even in Canada, which mostly metricated in the 1970s, yards are still used), and a distinctive brown leather ball in",
"-25.296443069833913"
],
[
"Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada The major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada are the highest professional competitions of team sports in those countries. The four leagues universally included in the definition are Major League Baseball (MLB), National Basketball Association (NBA), National Football League (NFL), and National Hockey League (NHL). Other prominent leagues include Major League Soccer (MLS) and Canadian Football League (CFL).\nMLB, NBA, NFL, and NHL are commonly referred to as the \"Big Four.\" Each of these is the wealthiest professional club competition in its sport worldwide, and along with the",
"-25.26022722525522"
],
[
"non-league opponents, with the last interleague game having come in 1972 and the last game against a team other than an NFL team (the all-NFL rookie College All-Stars) was held in 1976.\nExhibition games are quite unpopular with many fans, who resent having to pay regular-season prices for two home exhibition games as part of a season-ticket package. Numerous lawsuits have been brought by fans and classes of fans against the NFL or its member teams regarding this practice, but none have been successful in halting it. The Pro Bowl, traditionally played after the end of the NFL season (since 2011",
"-25.249337585410103"
],
[
"ESPN-owned website FiveThirtyEight has argued that there is a case to be made for the inclusion of Major League Soccer in the major professional sports leagues of North America. Lacrosse: NLL and MLL The National Lacrosse League (NLL) is a men's professional box lacrosse league in North America. It currently has 13 teams: 8 in the United States and 5 in Canada. The NLL plays its games in the winter and spring. The league's American teams have historically been concentrated in the northeastern United States, and two of the league's longest-established and most commercially successful teams, the Buffalo Bandits and",
"-25.234806227555964"
],
[
"Ireland, New Zealand, and Australia. Early history American football evolved from the sports of soccer and rugby. Rugby, like American football, is a sport where two competing teams vie for control of a ball, which can be kicked through a set of goalposts or run into the opponent's goal area to score points.\nWhat is considered to be the first American football game was played on November 6, 1869, between Rutgers and Princeton, two college teams. They consisted of 25 players each and used a round ball that could not be picked up or carried. It could, however, be kicked or",
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[
"despite most other professional sports leagues in North America being cross-border enterprises. The substantially different rules and fields of the Canadian and American games and the popularity of the National Football League and NCAA Division I-A football in the United States were generally seen to inhibit the chances of any sort of expansion into the United States. Lackluster CFL television ratings in the United States during the 1982 NFL strike seemed to bolster this argument. A proposal by Bill Tatham to have his Arizona Outlaws and possibly other teams of the moribund United States Football League enter the CFL after",
"-25.191305204993114"
],
[
"American football Etymology and names In the United States, American football is referred to as \"football\". The term \"football\" was officially established in the rulebook for the 1876 college football season, when the sport first shifted from soccer-style rules to rugby-style rules. Although it could easily have been called \"rugby\" at this point, Harvard, one of the primary proponents of the rugby-style game, compromised and did not request the name of the sport be changed to \"rugby\". The terms \"gridiron\" or \"American football\" are favored in English-speaking countries where other types of football are popular, such as the United Kingdom,",
"-25.174472386046546"
],
[
"College football College football is gridiron football consisting of American football played by teams of student athletes fielded by American universities, colleges, and military academies, or Canadian football played by teams of student athletes fielded by Canadian universities. It was through college football play that American football rules first gained popularity in the United States.\nUnlike most other sports in North America, no minor league farm organizations exist in American or Canadian football. Therefore, college football is generally considered to be the second tier of American football in the United States and Canadian football in Canada; one step ahead of high",
"-25.15475827899354"
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[
"group once each, for a total of two group-stage games. Teams will then advance to the second round, and from there to the placement and medal games.\nBecause American football is far more dominant in the United States than anywhere else in the world, the United States did not field a team in the tournament for its first two editions. The United States has fielded a squad for the last three iterations, but with extremely restrictive criteria that make most American football players ineligible for the team. Despite the restrictions, the United States has won all three world championships in which",
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],
[
"Pros Vs Heroes About The game has former NFL, current NFL, and other professional athletes travel around the country to play in flag football games against police officers,firefighters, armed forces and EMT personnel. The game was created in 2014 and is now expanding to different areas around the United States. Motor Media produces the games to raise money and give back to communities. Since its first game in June 2014, the program has raised money and awareness for several causes.\nIn the last year, five games have been played in the Pros Vs. Heroes series. The first and second game",
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],
[
"stage. Major League Baseball is increasingly luring away the stars from the Japanese leagues, the European hockey leagues have become a major source of star talent for National Hockey League clubs, and the National Basketball Association frequently recruits talent from professional leagues in Europe, Latin America, Australia and China.\nAll four leagues are considered to be the top league in their respective sports, not only in revenue, but also in quality of talent, player salaries, and worldwide interest. However, of the four major leagues, the NFL has the least presence outside both countries; it is mainly an American and Canadian interest.",
"-25.131274971085077"
],
[
"an NFL roster spot as an undrafted free agent. History Even after the emergence of the professional National Football League (NFL), college football remained extremely popular throughout the U.S. \nAlthough the college game has a much larger margin for talent than its pro counterpart, the sheer number of fans following major colleges provides a financial equalizer for the game, with Division I programs — the highest level — playing in huge stadiums, six of which have seating capacity exceeding 100,000 people. In many cases, college stadiums employ bench-style seating, as opposed to individual seats with backs and arm rests (although",
"-25.09388045343735"
],
[
"American Professional Soccer League History In 1989, Fort Lauderdale Strikers, the winners of the American Soccer League defeated San Diego Nomads, the winners of the Western Soccer League in a play-off game and as a result were declared United States soccer champions. In 1990, the two leagues merged as the American Professional Soccer League. However, during its inaugural season, in order to avoid high travel expenses, the APSL remained essentially two separate leagues. The ASL became the American Soccer Conference and featured teams from the East Coast, while the WSL became the Western Soccer Conference and featured teams from",
"-25.084761710371822"
],
[
"players from other leagues, such as the All-American Football League (AAFL), Arena Football League (AFL), American Indoor Football Association (AIFA), Continental Indoor Football League (CIFL), arenafootball2 (af2), Indoor Football League (IFL), and some from practice squads of National Football League (NFL) franchises.",
"-25.061969572358066"
],
[
"Conference in 1949 and merged with the American Football League in 1970. It has 32 teams, all located in the United States.\nNFL games are the most attended of domestic professional leagues in the world in terms of per-game attendance, and the most popular in the U.S. in terms of television ratings and merchandising. Its championship game, the Super Bowl, is the most watched annual event on U.S. television, with Super Bowl XLIX being the single most-watched program in U.S. television history.\nThe NFL is the only one of the major leagues not to have a presence in Canada, where the Canadian",
"-25.05195776000619"
],
[
"American National Rugby League Origins The roots of the American National Rugby League date to 1997, when Super League America was formed to organize a national team, establish an amateur domestic competition, and build the sport in the United States. The organization was initially established by Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation in an attempt to spread rugby league to the United States. The organization was run by former professional player David Niu, who had come to Philadelphia in 1992 and had been active in promoting the sport there. Super League America's domestic competition began its inaugural season in 1998, and was",
"-25.046319481858518"
],
[
"Canadian Football League in the United States The Canadian Football League (CFL), the sole major professional sports league in the United States and Canada to feature only teams from Canada, has made efforts to gain further audience in the United States, most directly through expansion into the country from 1993 to 1995. The CFL plays Canadian football, a form of gridiron football which is somewhat different from the more common American football played in the United States and the world.\nThe first American team, the Sacramento Gold Miners, joined in 1993. The league added three more American teams in 1994, after",
"-25.02430620029918"
],
[
"and defensive linemen in American football correspond to forwards in rugby league and other players are somewhat similar to backs. Basically the job of the forwards in rugby league is to get the ball over the advantage line and give the backs space and a chance to be creative and move the ball around, which will hopefully result in points. However, rugby league footballers are far less specialised than American football players.\nMany of the positions have similar names but in practice are very different. A fullback in American football is very different from a fullback in rugby league. However, some",
"-25.014839774572465"
],
[
"to American football—both sports developed from rugby and are considered to be the chief variants of gridiron football. Although both games share a similar set of rules, there are several key rule differences: for example, in Canadian football the field measures 150 by 65 yards (137 by 59 m), including two 20-yard end zones (for a distance between goal lines of 110 yards), teams have three downs instead of four, there are twelve players on each side instead of eleven, fair catches are not allowed, and a rouge, worth a single point is scored if the offensive team kicks the ball",
"-25.005165069720533"
],
[
"a minor league, the American Association, appropriated the American Football League name for itself, and the All-America Football Conference replaced the suspended league as the primary rival of the National Football League.",
"-25.002857828338165"
],
[
"years. One strong rival to the NFL was the All-America Football Conference of 1946–1949; three of their seven teams merged with the NFL for the 1950 season, and two of the three still exist in the NFL. Four (all unrelated) rivals were named American Football League; the last American Football League existed from 1960–1970, winning the last two of the four pre-merger Super Bowl games, before merging with the NFL in 1970. The NFL has beaten back other significant rival football leagues, often placing expansion or relocation teams in those cities following that league's demise: the World Football League of",
"-24.977602240629494"
],
[
"the use of the one-platoon system, primarily due to financial reasons. The system allowed only one player to be substituted between plays, which effectively put an end to the use of separate specialized units. Tennessee head coach \"General\" Robert Neyland praised the change as the end of \"chickenshit football\".\nFollowing the enormous success of the National Football League's 1958 championship game, college football no longer enjoyed the same popularity as the NFL, at least on a national level. While both games benefited from the advent of television, since the late 1950s, the NFL has become a nationally popular sport while college",
"-24.96332324969262"
],
[
"Professional sports in the Western United States Professional sports have existed in the United States since the late 19th century. The NFL, MLB, NBA and NHL have millions of fans across the nation, and are an important part of American culture. Professional sports did not enter into the American West until the mid-twentieth century. However, the expansion of professional sports into the West has helped to increase the popularity of each of the professional leagues and has changed the landscape of professional sports in America. History Prior to World War II, top-level professional sports in the United States",
"-24.949414914648514"
],
[
"such as the Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft and the Super Tourenwagen Cup. American Football The Austrian Football League (AFL) is the top level of american football in Austria founded in 1984, being considered one of the better leagues in Europe",
"-24.86673114844598"
],
[
"one of the most popular sports leagues in the United States. Journalist Tex Maule said of the contest, \"This, for the first time, was a truly epic game which inflamed the imagination of a national audience.\" American Football League, merger and Vince Lombardi (1959–1969) In 1959, longtime NFL commissioner Bert Bell died of a heart attack while attending an Eagles/Steelers game at Franklin Field. That same year, Dallas, Texas businessman Lamar Hunt led the formation of the rival American Football League, the fourth such league to bear that name, with war hero and former South Dakota Governor Joe Foss as",
"-24.85568102169782"
],
[
"the AP, the NFL was loved or liked a lot by 42.8% of Americans over 18.\nThe NFL has the highest per-game attendance of any domestic professional sports league in the world. The NFL's overall attendance, however, is only approximately 20 percent of Major League Baseball, because of the latter's longer schedule (162-game scheduled regular season).\nA 2007 Turnkey Sports & Entertainment's Team Brand Index for \"team loyalty\" ranked NFL teams in twelve of the top twenty-five spots out of 122 total between the four major sports leagues. The Pittsburgh Steelers and their fanbase had the top spot, while the New England",
"-24.85223654685251"
],
[
"League Soccer), FC Cincinnati (Major League Soccer), and Ohio Machine (Major League Lacrosse).\nOhio played a central role in the development of both Major League Baseball and the National Football League. Baseball's first fully professional team, the Cincinnati Red Stockings of 1869, were organized in Ohio. An informal early 20th century American football association, the Ohio League, was the direct predecessor of the NFL, although neither of Ohio's modern NFL franchises trace their roots to an Ohio League club. The Pro Football Hall of Fame is located in Canton.\nOhio teams have won 7 World Series (5 Cincinnati Reds, 2",
"-24.850669209932676"
],
[
"subsequently been viewed as one of the most controversial game endings in college football history.\nThe National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) governs American football as played by the teams representing the largest universities in the United States, termed Division I-A (Changed in 2006 to FBS — Football Bowl Subdivision). Although smaller schools participate in formal NCAA tournaments to determine the national college football championships in Divisions I-AA, II, and III, Division I-A lacks such a tournament.\nDuring this time frame, before the College Football Playoff system was implemented, the \"mythical national championship\" of Division I-A was determined by polls of coaches and/or",
"-24.79707718989812"
],
[
"the Federal League (1914–1915). Both the UA and AA are considered major leagues by many baseball researchers because of the perceived high caliber of play and the number of star players featured. Some researchers, including Nate Silver, dispute the major-league status of the UA by pointing out that franchises came and went and that the St. Louis club was deliberately \"stacked\"; the St. Louis club was owned by the league's president and it was the only club that was close to major-league caliber. Dead-ball era The period between 1900 and 1919 is commonly referred to as the \"Dead-Ball Era.\" Games",
"-24.79488792491611"
],
[
"regular-season record in games involving the two teams. The concept is comparable to rivalry trophies played for by U.S. college football teams. Timeline League member Former member Future member Other leagues History Major League Soccer is the most recent of a series of men's premier professional national soccer leagues established in the United States and Canada. The predecessor of MLS was the North American Soccer League (NASL), which existed from 1968 until 1984. Establishment In 1988, in exchange for FIFA awarding the right to host the 1994 World Cup, U.S. Soccer promised to establish a Division 1 professional soccer league.",
"-24.751282222990994"
],
[
"Catholic or Jewish sports groups. General sports organizations can also exist for the army and other groups, but they usually are medium-sized, as they do not have that much of a budget to work with.\nProfessional sports leagues are usually the highest level of play in sport, specifically if they consist of the best players around the world in a certain sport. Because of this, they usually work with national or international federations, but there is usually a separation between the different federations. Most North American professional leagues usually do not have amateur divisions, as the amateur divisions are mostly run",
"-24.748904020292684"
],
[
"American Football League (1936) Origin The brainchild of former New York Giants personnel director Harry March, plans for the formation of the second American Football League were announced on November 15, 1935. Fifteen cities bid for charter franchises for the new league, and on April 11, 1936, eight (Boston, Cleveland, Jersey City, New York, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Providence, and Syracuse) were awarded.\nWithin a few months, Jersey City, Providence, and Philadelphia pulled out and Rochester was granted a franchise. Two weeks later, the newest franchise was transferred to Brooklyn even though there was no stadium available at the time.\nThe league was envisioned",
"-24.74205777766474"
],
[
"athletic scholarship to students. In Canada, college sports are organized by U Sports for universities and the Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association for colleges. The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) has members in both the U.S. and Canada. Football North America is the birthplace of gridiron football, the form of football that originally developed, and is primarily played, in the U.S. and Canada. Both major forms, American football and Canadian football, developed in the late 19th century out of the original games now known as rugby football and association football. Gridiron football is distinguished by the forward pass, the system",
"-24.708846419118345"
],
[
"ESL decided to expand the Pro League to 28 teams, so that there would be fourteen teams per league. This also meant that six teams from each region would qualify for the offline finals. For each regular season, teams would play every team twice in its respective league, so that each team played twenty-two games for the first three seasons and twenty-four games from season four to season seven. However, in Season 7, two teams – Counter Logic Gaming and Misfits – dropped their rosters and forfeited their Pro League licenses, reducing the number of North American teams to twelve.",
"-24.67551007180009"
],
[
"League were therefore 'non-League' clubs. The term can be confusing as the vast majority of non-league football clubs in England play in a type of league. Currently, a non-League team would be any club playing in the National League and below and therefore would not play in the EFL Cup. English Football League The \"League\" of \"non-League football\" refers to the English Football League, rather than leagues in general — \"non-League\" clubs play most of their football in league competitions. There are many leagues below the level of the EFL, and some, such as the Northern League, are almost as",
"-24.642867506659968"
],
[
"in the nation. The National Lacrosse League is the national box league, while the Premier Lacrosse League is the professional Field Lacrosse league. Major League Lacrosse is a semi-professional Field Lacrosse league also operating nationally. Volleyball Volleyball is also a notable sport in the United States, especially at the college and university levels. Unlike most Olympic sports which are sponsored widely at the collegiate level for both sexes, the support for college volleyball is dramatically skewed in favor of the women's game. In the 2011–12 school year, over 300 schools in NCAA Division I alone (the highest of three",
"-24.62493956036633"
],
[
"to NFL football. It is likely that the average American sports fan will attend many more major league baseball games than NFL football games in his or her lifetime, due in part to baseball's longer schedule and football's (generally) higher ticket prices.\nAdvocates of football, in turn, point to football's large television audience, including the Super Bowl, though the sport is also facing some negative publicity in the world of youth sports due to media coverage of documented health and injury risks posed to players, including the potential long-term health concerns that concussions pose for children or teenagers. Certain teams of",
"-24.61499406665098"
],
[
"the same league, The 1986 World Series between the New York Mets and the Boston Red Sox is considered a classic especially the 6th game and the famous Bill Buckner error. The New York Giants and New England Patriots have played two classic Super Bowls: Super Bowl XLII which features the Helmet Catch and Super Bowl XLVI, There is also a rivalry between the Boston Celtics and the Brooklyn Nets. While Major League Soccer has two teams in the New York area and one in the Boston area, the rivalry between New York City FC and the New York Red",
"-24.603367079485906"
],
[
"Indian Super League Origins Football in India has existed in many forms since the game first arrived in the country during the 19th century with the first nationwide club competition, the Durand Cup, being founded in 1888. Despite India's early history in the game, the country's first nationwide football league did not begin until the semi-professional National Football League commenced in 1996. Prior to the creation of the National Football League, most clubs played in state leagues or select nationwide tournaments.\nTen years after the formation of the National Football League, the All India Football Federation, the governing body for the",
"-24.583096521964762"
],
[
"Sports. (Unlike in the United States, no junior colleges play football in Canada, and the sanctioning body for junior college athletics in Canada, CCAA, does not sanction the sport.) However, amateur football outside of colleges is played in Canada, such as in the Canadian Junior Football League. Organized competition in American football also exists at the collegiate level in Mexico (ONEFA), the UK (British Universities American Football League), Japan (Japan American Football Association, Koshien Bowl), and South Korea (Korea American Football Association).",
"-24.54518907170859"
],
[
"Premier League—top level of the English football league system. According to BBC America, there is a \"social stigma\" surrounding American football in the UK, with many Brits feeling the sport has no right to call itself \"football\" due to the lack of emphasis on kicking. Nonetheless, the sport has retained a following in the United Kingdom; the NFL operates a media network in the country, and since 2007 has hosted the NFL International Series in London. Super Bowl viewership has also rebounded, with over 4.4 million Britons watching Super Bowl XLVI. The sport is played in European countries like Switzerland, which",
"-24.540764937526546"
],
[
"adult club teams to the professional clubs of Major League Soccer. Since the 2016 edition, professional teams that are majority-owned, or whose playing staff is managed, by a higher-division outdoor professional team have been barred from the competition; all other U.S. Soccer-affiliated teams remain eligible to enter. The Open Cup was first held in 1913–14 when it was called the National Challenge Cup. American leagues vs. European leagues The overall league structure in the United States is significantly different from that used in almost all the rest of the world, but similar to that used by other American team sports",
"-24.534676244831644"
],
[
"sports it does not compare in popularity to cricket and international football (soccer), which both have billions of spectators. It is played between the champions of the National Football Conference (NFC) and the American Football Conference (AFC), and its winner is awarded the Vince Lombardi Trophy.\nCollegiate football ranks third in overall popularity in the United States, behind baseball and pro football. The NCAA, the largest collegiate organization, is divided into three Divisions: Division I, Division II and Division III. Division I football is further divided into two subdivisions: the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) and the Football Championship Subdivision (FCS). The",
"-24.524268171866424"
],
[
"development of both Major League Baseball and the National Football League. Baseball's first fully professional team, the Cincinnati Red Stockings of 1869, were organized in Ohio. An informal early-20th-century American football association, the Ohio League, was the direct predecessor of the NFL, although neither of Ohio's modern NFL franchises trace their roots to an Ohio League club. The Pro Football Hall of Fame is located in Canton.\nOn a smaller scale, Ohio hosts minor league baseball, arena football, indoor football, mid-level hockey, and lower division soccer. Individual sports The Mid-Ohio Sports Car Course has hosted several auto racing championships, including CART",
"-24.513585029475507"
],
[
"football. Of all the leagues that challenged the NFL, only the American Football League of the 1960s influenced the NFL more than the AAFC.\nThe Cleveland Browns, San Francisco 49ers, and original Baltimore Colts began in the AAFC.\nFifteen AAFC alumni are enshrined in pro football's Hall of Fame.\nThe AAFC played a 14-game schedule more than a decade before the NFL, and played a major role in popularizing zone defenses in pro football.\nThe AAFC put the first pro football teams in Baltimore, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Miami. Indeed, the AAFC was a coast-to-coast league more than a decade before Major League",
"-24.502096608295687"
],
[
"league's 13 teams to allocate the rest of the AAFC players.\nThe 13 teams were realigned into the American and National conferences, which lasted for three seasons. The merged league briefly flirted with the name \"National-American Football League\", but restored the name \"National Football League\" a few months later on March 3, 1950. Under the alignment, both conferences had a team in New York and Chicago. The \"American Conference\" (formerly the Eastern Division) had six teams including the Giants and the Cardinals, and the \"National Conference\" (the old Western Division) had seven teams including the Yanks and the",
"-24.49748750454455"
]
] |
5crd18 | Why do multi billionaires continue striving to earn more money and waste decades to earn more money when they've reached a place we're their ancestors would never have to work again for the next 200 years? | [
"There's actually a psychological principle called \"habituation,\" where you get used to something and the novelty wears off. Whatever income level you have becomes normal, and you want to break beyond it. Regardless of actual income, the average human being thinks they'll be happier earning \"10-15% more\" than whatever you currently make. But happiness is better understood as a personality trait, not something that comes from a reaction to the quality of your life. So this means that most people feel like they're chasing their happiness/contentedness, but really they're just slightly unhappy people. Think of it like a drug addiction. You're middle class, but want to be upperclass. You feel unhappy because you can only afford to rent an apartment, you have a crappy car, you vacation to New Jersey, etc. Then you make a million dollars, and all of a sudden you can afford a nice house, a nice car, take more exotic vacations, etc. Then that begins to feel like the baseline \"norm.\" You want something additional to make you happier. You want more money to get that vacation home, three cars, be able to take vacations 3 months out of the year. That drive to move forward and have a little more never ends. And the more you get, the higher your tolerance is. It takes more and more to get that same \"happy\" rush you got from being able to afford your first house. All of a sudden you want original picasos, exotic animals, you want a penthouse suite in Dubai. And so on.",
"Same reason some people want the high score in a video game. Or some people want to be the fastest person alive. Something in our evolution said \"You need to be the best in order to mate and pass on your genes\" Some people that evolutionary trait is ~~very common~~ *hyperactive*. Some people it's a point of pride or spite. Anger or emotion keep them doing things. Some people just enjoy doing what they're doing and happen to make a lot of money from it.",
"Because successful people don't work for money, they work to win. There is always another foe to vanquish.",
"Why does man climb the mountain? Some people are greedy assholes, but I'd wager that there is very little you can do with $2 billion that you can't do with 1. No, they do it for a variety of reasons. 1. It's what they're good at. No one lucks into that much money. Sure, they benefited from fortunate circumstances, but they also had skill that allowed them to \"win the game\" so to speak. They also probably enjoy what they do, otherwise they would have retired to a private island much sooner. If you really liked something and were good at it, would you quit and watch Netflix all day? 2. Some people want to build something. It's not about the strict dollar figure, it's about the tangible result. Steve Jobs, Jeff Bezos, Andrew Carnegie. These people created things that were enduring and changed the world. Would you give that up just because you \"had enough money\" already? 3. Some people want to win the game. They derive pleasure and satisfaction from being successful and on top. It's not inherently about the money, but since we measure business success in dollars, that's the result.",
"When you work all your life on something you cant just drop it on a whim, people often see their companies like their children, its not just 'x amount of money every year'. It is more easily undrrstood with actors or musicians, they built their career all their life sothey wouldnt stop just because the money is not a problem anymore. As odd as it seems people can feel like that about their companies or investments too.",
"Because for some, making money is a byproduct of how they choose to live their life, not the goal."
] | [
[
"Some may use the extra free time to improve their quality of life, for example pursuing creative activities such as art and crafts. Developing a detachment from money has led some individuals, such as Suelo and Mark Boyle, to live with no money at all. Reducing expenses may also lead to increasing savings, which can lead to financial independence and the possibility of early retirement.\nThe 100 Thing Challenge is a grassroots movement to whittle down personal possessions to one hundred items, with the aim of de-cluttering and simplifying life. The small house movement includes individuals who chose to live in",
"-34.376535573537694"
],
[
"necessary to create wealth. To survive and to flourish, individuals need to engage in economic activity and individuals will be both freer and more prosperous if government intervention in people’s choices is minimized.\nMerit: A freer world would be far more meritorious than the world of today. Hard work, more work, higher-quality work and more and cleverer ideas are all meritorious, and they all create value. Market is not perfect but market and merit work well together.\nThe virtue of production: Like in the past there was a reaction against those who lived off the productive labor of other people, Contraditório now",
"-33.93846641422715"
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[
"said that \"We can no longer pretend that the creation of wealth for a few will inevitably benefit the many – too often the reverse is true.\" The 2018 Oxfam report said that the income of the world's billionaires in 2017, $762 billion, was enough to end extreme global poverty seven times over.\nJared Bernstein and Elise Gould of the Economic Policy Institute suggest that poverty in the United States could have been significantly mitigated if inequality had not increased over the last few decades. Housing In many poor and developing countries, much land and housing is held outside the formal",
"-33.76974780845194"
],
[
"life harder for everyone else – particularly those at the bottom of the economic ladder.\" It has been reported that only 1% of the world population controls 50% of the wealth today, and the other 99% is having access to the remaining 50% only, and the gap has sharply increased in the recent past. In 2018, Oxfam reported that the gains of the world's billionaires in 2017, which amounted to $762 billion, was enough to end extreme global poverty seven times over.\nJosé Antonio Ocampo, professor at Columbia University and former finance minister of Colombia, and Magdalena Sepúlveda Carmona, former UN",
"-33.69074148114305"
],
[
"are often left to survive on their own means. Unlike their superiors, they do not have made men beneath them to kick up money to them. However, they are now better positioned to organize and lead their own group of associates and wannabes eager to prove their worth. Far too often, they live lavish and extravagant lifestyles while not saving any legitimate money. They may also spend exorbitant sums of money on lawyer's fees while their earning ability is thwarted by incarceration or police surveillance. They can also be millionaires through their own prowess by having full access to their",
"-33.6136546448688"
],
[
"UAWs have is that \"money is the most easily renewable resource\". This belief usually is another leading cause for UAW's consumption and investment habits. Money is more easily spent now than it is saved. In America it is easier to generate a high income than it is to accumulate wealth. Spending habits When it comes to spending habits, UAWs are everything but frugal. A typical UAW tends to live in luxury, style, and above all, comfort. Not all UAWs fit these characteristics. A $50,000-a-year janitor can be more of a PAW than a $700,000-a-year doctor. The",
"-33.161964336426536"
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[
"the society cannot really become more prosperous by paying an increasing number of its citizens unproductively. The article also points out that even early retirees with private pension funds become a burden on society as they also depend on equity and bond income generated by workers.",
"-32.9505140136971"
],
[
"no man gets rich simply by his own labor, no matter how mighty a genius he is, and that, if you want to get rich, you must make other men work for you, and pay you for the privilege of doing so.(Ch. VIII)\nThe banker then adds that, as an entrepreneur, working \"for the profit of all\" (as suggested by Homos) rather than working for one's own profit would be \"contrary to the American spirit. It is alien to our love of individuality\". Anyone who wants to be successful in this world will try to do so by getting rich. As",
"-32.88987173806527"
],
[
"Wealthy families pass down their assets allowing future generations to develop even more wealth. The poor, on the other hand, are less able to leave inheritances to their children leaving the latter with little or no wealth on which to build...This is another reason why wealth inequality is so important, its accumulation has direct implications for economic inequality among the children of today's families.\nCorresponding to financial resources, the wealthy strategically organize their money so that it will produce profit. Affluent people are more likely to allocate their money to financial assets such as stocks, bonds, and other investments which hold",
"-32.732034010768984"
],
[
"The Last Millionaire Format The Last Millionaire takes 12 of Britain's most successful young entrepreneurs and drops them into six of the world's most exciting and demanding cities. Here they face the ultimate business challenge; to make money from scratch in just five days.\nUsed to running successful businesses, these award-winning entrepreneurs have proved themselves at home, but can they do it abroad? This time they'll be stripped of their legions of staff, company contacts, personal cash/credit cards and all their business lifelines. All they have left is a small amount of start up capital plus their raw money making talent.\nTo",
"-32.49094390287064"
],
[
"Poor money management Lacking knowledge in money management, personal budgeting and saving, people seldom track their spending habits and savings to review their expenses. According to a survey conducted by the University of Hong Kong, less than one third of the respondents would save their income before spending, or even spend more than what they are earning in a month. Consumer culture Being bombarded by commercial advertisements, people with relatively high incomes feel compelled to pursue personal wellbeing and happiness through material possessions. An easy access to a variety of entertainment and activities may be the reason for the increase",
"-32.4092104883166"
],
[
"so will generally have much less as a percentage of income than older wealth accumulators due to compounded growth.\nMost of the millionaire households that they profiled did not have the extravagant lifestyles that most people would assume. This finding is backed up by surveys indicating how little these millionaire households have spent on such things as cars, watches, clothing, and other luxury products/services. Most importantly, the book gives a list of reasons for why these people managed to accumulate so much wealth (the top one being that \"They live below their means\"). The authors make a distinction between the",
"-32.39968288965429"
],
[
"most people's sheer lack of money renders that potential quite low much of the time. Money's homogenizing nature encourages greater liberty and equality and melts away forms of feudalism and patronage, even as it minimizes exceptional, incommensurable achievements in art and love.",
"-32.18952464184258"
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[
"I did not yet know. But I had already learnt that to have any chance of success in life one must be able to ‘take it’; that tact can be worth all the genius in the world; that unless you specialise you will never make more than £800 a year; that it is madness to disbelieve in luck and the cycles of luck; that you have to spend money to make money; that you must at all costs keep your youthful enthusiasms; that the two greatest influences in a man’s life are his mother and his wife; that marriage will",
"-32.13956848109956"
],
[
"market, in which \"lots of people are trying to fill holes in their income by monetizing their stuff and their labor in creative ways\", and in many cases, people join the sharing economy because they've recently lost a full-time job, including a few cases where the pricing structure of the sharing economy may have made their old jobs less profitable (e.g. full-time taxi drivers who may have switched to Lyft or Uber). The magazine writes that \"In almost every case, what compels people to open up their homes and cars to complete strangers is money, not trust. ... Tools that",
"-32.00046251330059"
],
[
"individual millionaires from across the country who leave their affluent lifestyle to go undercover to experience life in some of the most impoverished communities that need help the most.",
"-31.957140512720798"
],
[
"will gain more utility from money for additional spending than the wealthy. For instance, if a homeless family is given a gift certificate for a house, they will be able to use it to provide shelter for themselves. If a very rich person is given such a gift, he may spend it on a vacation residence which he will only use a few weeks of the year.\nAs such, aggregated utility would be maximized by taking wealth from the rich and giving it to the poor, and the state of optimized utility would be perfect economic equality. As Lerner",
"-31.92693769239122"
],
[
"realize other savings and loan options exist and they are not opposed to their children paying some part of their educational costs. The mass affluent generally may worry about replacing their paycheck in retirement, and may need to be encouraged to spend more money during their retirement years. They often wish to leave an inheritance to their children. The mass affluent will have between US$500,000 and $1.5 million in investable assets upon retirement with a net worth between $500,000 and $2.5 million. They spend between $4,000 and $10,000 per month in retirement.",
"-31.89845506066922"
],
[
"population. In money terms, the world's 1,100 richest people have almost twice the assets of the poorest 2.5 billion people representing 40% of the world population. In his famous book Capital in the Twenty-First Century, Thomas Piketty suggests that if present trends continue, there will be an even more gigantic concentration of wealth in the future.\nIn that case, there is no real physical scarcity with regard to the goods satisfying basic human needs anymore. It's more a question of political will and social organisation to improve the lot of the poor, or, alternatively, for the poor to organise themselves to",
"-31.876533187030873"
],
[
"is more difficult for lower-income individuals and households to save and invest because they need to use a higher percentage of their income for fixed and variable costs thus leaving them with a more limited amount of disposable income to optimize their consumption. Accordingly, a natural wealth gap exists in any market as some workers earn higher wages and thus are able to divert more income towards savings and investment which build wealth.\nThe wealth gap in the United States is large and the large majority of net worth and financial wealth is concentrated in a relatively very small percentage",
"-31.773318360064877"
],
[
"of the exigencies of survival and need. On the other hand, the rich tend to overutilize and destroy other kinds of resources, such as non-renewable resources, often out of greed. Thus, only by increasing social equity, and eradicating poverty, can humankind make an impact on environmental conservation and reduce the threats to the resource base.",
"-31.77300329512218"
],
[
"income, more than the 10% required for the basic Giving What We Can pledge. They may live frugally to donate more money. Jobs in finance, particularly in quantitative trading, are popular for those pursuing earning to give. Debate David Brooks criticized the concept in his New York Times opinion column, arguing that, while altruists may start doing \"earning to give\" to realize their deepest commitments, their values may erode over time, becoming progressively less altruistic. In addition, Brooks objected to the view on which altruists should turn themselves \"into a machine for the redistribution of wealth.\" Peter Singer responded to",
"-31.741018023632932"
],
[
"the best houses, the best educations, the best doctors, and the best lifestyles, but there is one thing that money doesn't seem to have bought: an understanding that their fate is bound up with how the other 99% live. Throughout history, this is something that the top 1% eventually do learn. Too late.\nEarlier uses of the term the \"the one percent\" to refer to the wealthiest people in society include the 2006 documentary The One Percent (film) about the growing wealth gap between the wealthy elite compared to the overall population, and a 2001 opinion column in the MIT student",
"-31.66723265335895"
],
[
"the world. This then leaves a massive shadow economy which although very wealthy, does not fully contribute to the economy and does not help its participants fully achieve their potential.",
"-31.664440066553652"
],
[
"with the richest nations benefiting from educational resources of the nations who can least afford to lose the most productive career years of their highly skilled professionals. This factor disincentives investment in education in both the developing and developed world, as foreign students and foreign workers limit opportunities for citizens in the receiving countries. Some developing countries see the migration of domestically trained professionals abroad not as a drain but as a gain, a \"brain bank\" from which to draw at a price; for these professionals, on their return with their accumulated skills, would contribute to the growth of the",
"-31.547045017767232"
],
[
"Microfinance Ways in which poor people manage their money Rutherford argues that the basic problem that poor people face as money managers is to gather a 'usefully large' amount of money. Building a new home may involve saving and protecting diverse building materials for years until enough are available to proceed with construction. Children's schooling may be funded by buying chickens and raising them for sale as needed for expenses, uniforms, bribes, etc. Because all the value is accumulated before it is needed, this money management strategy is referred to as 'saving up'.(Hermes, 2014).\nOften, people don't have enough money when",
"-31.515997903930838"
],
[
"A smaller stake is owned by the Omidyar Network, funded by billionaire eBay founder Pierre Omidyar.\nAccording to a study conducted by United Income, retirees spend less because they are pessimistic about their future financial health.",
"-31.457657045131782"
],
[
"Under Accumulators of Wealth will promise to start investing once they have earned ten percent more in annual income. Unfortunately when most receive that extra ten percent of income, there isn't an investment made. These claims and ideas usually branch off an initial belief that a lack of wealth can simply be solved by an increase in income. Even among those that do invest money, most invest only because they have an excess of income. Between 2001 and 2004, the median family income dropped 2.3% and in response, the percentage of families who owned investment stocks fell by 3.3% showing",
"-31.352042254482512"
],
[
"concentrate in the pockets of the very few rich people in the society. The masses indeed cannot benefit from the growth, and their living standard is on the decline.\n(end of quote from China post)\nAlso the most prevalent behaviour that is contributing to the income gap is consumerism. With social media and globalisation, everyone is more connected than ever, thus enabling a certain product to reach its mass presence easier. This is especially true for big corporation with huge budget for advertising & marketing. By conditioning everyone's mind to only buy things that depreciate (lifestyle products), not many will buy assets",
"-31.28344427468255"
],
[
"able to utilize these funds because they may never receive them. Because of this, there is concern from John Cassidy that the wealth of a few may be able to determine what organizations receive the most funding.\nIt was also noticed by Linsey McGoey that many current and past philanthropists amassed their fortunes by predatory business practices which enhanced the very social problems their philanthropy is intended to alleviate. Finally there are concerns of the existence of ulterior motives. These ulterior motives can range from business owners avoiding capital-gains taxes by donating their company's excess stock instead of selling it",
"-31.266281506657833"
],
[
"be given to them. \"The people of this country, as a rule, receive well. Do we get much from the rich? No; if we depended upon the rick I think our old people would starve. It is from the working people, the poorer people, we get most. They always have ten cents for us or a loaf of bread. We never provide for more than one day. We have no funds at all, but depend upon what good people will give us.\"\nIt goes on to describe the Home itself where the 200 residents lived. From the corridors, sitting rooms to",
"-31.182407713960856"
],
[
"ensured by the organization and its managers.\n3. Income for family and oneself - Income is necessary to support oneself. However, data does not show that people who earn more money are more gainfully employed than those who earn less.\n4. A purpose derived from providing a product or service - An individual may derive purpose in life from the work that he or she completes. Many individuals describe their work as a calling, or in other words, “a vocation to which the employee brings a passion—a commitment to the work for its own sake”.\n5. Happiness and satisfaction - Enthusiasm and attitude",
"-31.176265936344862"
],
[
"why is it so hard for them to save money” which required the investigation of social pressures on spending and consumer culture. \nIn an interview discussing her book Plentitude: The New Economics of True Wealth she says, \"When people work too many hours they tend to feel deprived and they use consumption to reward themselves, whether that be for an expensive vacation, kitchen remodel or a bigger diamond. The downturn has actually opened up space for people to think about different trajectories for their consumption expectations over their lifetimes.”\nIn addition, at an early age, Schor strived to make her work",
"-31.140471718565095"
],
[
"dramatically than for any other. As a result, the gap between those who make less than one and half million dollars annually (99.9% of households) and those who make more (0.1%) has been steadily increasing, prompting The New York Times to proclaim that the \"Richest Are Leaving Even the Rich Far Behind.\"\nThe income disparities within the top 1.5% are quite drastic. While households in the top 1.5% of households had incomes exceeding $250,000, 443% above the national median, their incomes were still 2200% lower than those of the top 0.1% of households. One can therefore conclude that almost any household,",
"-31.04458342106227"
],
[
"to the eye, or if it is truly needed. Increasing self-sufficiency One way to simplify life is to get back-to-the-land and grow your own food, as increased self-sufficiency reduces dependency on money and the economy. Tom Hodgkinson believes the key to a free and simple life is to stop consuming and start producing. This is a sentiment shared by an increasing number of people, including those belonging to the millennial generation such as writer and eco blogger Jennifer Nini, who left the city to live off-grid, grow food, and \"be a part of the solution; not part of the problem.\"\nForest",
"-31.011021514772438"
],
[
"Fortunate 400 Summary The Fortunate 400 are basically the richest people in the United States. In 1992, when the IRS starting tracking the people who make the most money, the 400th richest person in America made $24 million. Then In 2007, the 400th richest human produced $138 million (or $87 million, inflation-adjusted). These riches have come from capital gain, and the rich keep making more money. There is a constant question and debate in politics whether or not the rich need more tax cuts or need to pay more taxes.",
"-30.998782565584406"
],
[
"and an impoverished population in countries with a low standard of business morality. This is natural because these people concentrate on cheating one another instead of trying to create value.\nWe are granting you the profit share not because we feel a need to give money to the people just out of the goodness of the heart. No, we are aiming at other goals by this step. By this measure we want to reach a further decrease of production costs. We want to reach the situation that the shoes are cheaper and workers earn even more. We think that our products",
"-30.97210459271446"
],
[
"world with more resources than all our future greed might exhaust, more opportunities than there will ever be entrepreneurs enough to exploit, and a peculiar kind of real estate that expands with development. Imagine a place where trespassers leave no footprints, where goods can be stolen infinite number of times and yet remain in the possession of their original owners, where business you never heard of can own the history of your personal affairs.'\"\nHis writings include \"A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace\", which was written in response to the enactment of the Communications Decency Act in 1996 as the",
"-30.925044294286636"
],
[
"other people's money (OPM). Kiyosaki writes, \"While the financial advice of saving money and investing in mutual funds may be good advice for the poor and middle class, it is not good advice for people who want to become rich.\" Composition and publication Prior to their work together on the book, Donald Trump had established himself in the business of real estate development and written The Art of the Deal, and Robert Kiyosaki authored The New York Times best seller Rich Dad Poor Dad. The coauthors became familiar with each other through encounters at the company The Learning Annex. Trump",
"-30.88995215552859"
],
[
"We're Rich Again Premise A formerly wealthy family tries to stave off bankruptcy until one of them can marry a rich man.",
"-30.877696901967283"
],
[
"be an expectation that some sacrifices will have to be made, in our generation, so that future generations can have the opportunities that we've had to grow and thrive and prosper, so that our private sector can do what a private sector does best in creating jobs. So, yeah, with some practical things that have to be made, some decisions here, with perhaps changing, in future years, not adversely affecting those who are reliant on retirement benefits today, for instance, Social Security benefits, but changing, perhaps, the eligibility in future years. That has to be something that we're brave enough,",
"-30.859146588947624"
],
[
"me I should become a billionaire, I decided no one needs to be a billionaire — you should know when enough is enough. So I decided on a minimal business model, and that's worked out pretty well. This means I can give away tremendous amounts of money to the nonprofits I believe in.\" Politics In 2014, he was one of 60 Democratic Party donors who urged the creation of a system of public election funding.\nIn 2016, Newmark joined with the progressive RAD Campaign and Lincoln Park Strategies (founded by Democratic Party stalwart Stefan Hankin) to commission a poll examining user perceptions about",
"-30.77847595413914"
],
[
"people born into an affluent, information driven world. Younger generations live much more intellectually diverse lives and cites much user generated content as being mostly produced outside of the monetary economy. He affirms Cowen's acknowledgment that this has brought large increases in human happiness with correspondingly little economic activity. Relationship to the 2008 financial crisis and recession The Economist criticized Cowen for associating the economic problems resulting from the 2008 financial crisis to his broader thesis, arguing instead that this was mostly caused by a demand shock and mostly preventable. Some scholars, such as Jim Rickards, Howard Qi, Hongbin",
"-30.73121899238322"
],
[
"buying and filling this void of acceptance and approval. Realizing there was this emptiness of being able to get anything they want, there was no meaning behind what they had. This called for a change in mindset with what they see as important and truly valuable before they can begin any other practices or lifestyle habits. Reducing consumption, work time, and possessions Some people practice simple living by reducing consumption. By lowering expenditure on goods or services, the time spent earning money can be reduced. The time saved may be used to pursue other interests, or help others through volunteering.",
"-30.68031342269387"
],
[
"wealth\" in order to mitigate the problem of overconsumption of resources by the wealthy, but said \"the rich who now run the global system — that hold the annual 'world destroyer' meetings in Davos — are unlikely to let it happen.\" Simon–Ehrlich wager Julian Simon, a cornucopian economist, argued that overpopulation is not a problem as such and that humanity will adapt to changing conditions. Simon argued that eventually human creativity will improve living standards, and that most resources were replaceable. Simon stated that over hundreds of years, the prices of virtually all commodities have decreased significantly and persistently. Ehrlich termed Simon",
"-30.654784633254167"
],
[
"societies. A wide spread of eco-sufficiency will only occur, if people find the new lifestyles sufficiently attractive. It needs to be shown that less material wealth can bring increased well-being or happiness to individuals and societies. For example, it has been shown that downsizing or relocating consumers can be motivated by purely selfish reasons such as improving one’s health, avoiding stress, the nostalgia for a “good old time” and so on.\nAn important aspect here is related to the so-called work-and-spend cycle. If leisure and forms of work other than employment (incl. self-employment), such as caring, do it yourself and community",
"-30.636244474211708"
],
[
"Sabatier amassed $1.25 million and reached financial independence by age 30. Publication Sabatier has written a book, Financial Freedom: A Proven Path to All the Money You Will Ever Need, which has been translated into 8 languages and is popular in the FIRE Movement. Blog MIllennial Money focuses on helping others \"make smarter financial decisions, build more successful companies, reach financial independence and live richer lives.",
"-30.599371733071166"
],
[
"create an amount of wealth equal to or greater than the amount we create at the present time in 1,600 hours per year or 40,000 to 50,000 hours in a working life, we must all be able to obtain a real income equal to or higher than our current salaries in exchange for a greatly reduced quantity of work. In practice, this means that in the future we must receive our full monthly income every month even if we work full-time only one month in every two or six months in a year or even two years out of four,",
"-30.57824313538731"
],
[
"This would not be a \"one time\" solution, but a continuous policy that would also generate income for governments. However, during periods of employment the 'life' of goods could be extended:\nWouldn't it be profitable to spend a sum of—say—two billion dollars to buy up, immediately, obsolete and useless buildings, machinery, automobiles and other outworn junk, and in their place create from twenty to thirty billion dollars worth of work in the construction field and in the factory? Such a process would put the entire country on the road to recovery and eventually would restore normal employment and business prosperity.",
"-30.50039763667155"
],
[
"able to earn a living without having to rely on the use of the property of others to do so. Examples of people earning a living in this way would be farmers who own their own land and related machinery, carpenters and plumbers who own their own tools, etc. The \"cooperative\" approach advances beyond this perspective to recognise that such property and equipment may be \"co-owned\" by local communities larger than a family, e.g., partners in a business.\nIn Rerum novarum, Leo XIII states that people are likely to work harder and with greater commitment if they themselves possess the",
"-30.447734533110633"
],
[
"being rich will contribute greatly to making them happier, and the American society reflects this growing materialism. Although wealth is associated with some positive outcomes, i.e. lighter prison sentences for the same crime, better health, and lower infant mortality, and can act as a buffer in certain instances, as mentioned previously, the overall relationship between money and happiness is marginal.\nHowever, beyond a low threshold where the basic needs are met, money has a very small impact on happiness. There is also the concept of the diminishing marginal utility of income (DMUI), which is that money has no effect on",
"-30.4175899818365"
],
[
"billionaire is US$3 billion, with a liquidity on average of 18% of net worth. 60% of the world's billionaires are self-made, 20% have inherited their fortune and 20% have both inherited and grown their wealth. 18% of the world's billionaires have derived their wealth from finance, banking and investment; as opposed to 9% from industrial conglomerates and 7% from the real estate industry. The average billionaire is 62 years old, and 89% of the world's billionaires are male. Approximately 68% of them have a bachelor's degree or higher levels of education. UHNWI role in economies: luxury industry and UHNW individuals",
"-30.4054116543266"
],
[
"small percentage of their funds into real estate. Wealth Migrate summarized that by using technology and crowdfunding, investments in large developments could be made by individuals acting in groups, allowing them to receive a much higher return on investment, compared to the individual acting alone.\nOne of the major examples that were quoted on CNBC Africa, was the investment made in the medical market. The company CEO stated that they invested close to hospitals geographically, which allowed a steady return on the investment. Another example given was the investment and purchasing of commercial property around London, where they would then rent",
"-30.324717261188198"
],
[
"worse equipped to manage their finances. Secondly, aspirational consumption describes the process of middle income earners aspiring to achieve the standards of living enjoyed by their wealthier counterparts and one method of achieving this aspiration is by taking on debt. The result leads to even greater inequality and potential economic instability. Poverty Oxfam asserts that worsening inequality is impeding the fight against global poverty. A 2013 report from the group stated that the $240 billion added to the fortunes of the world's richest billionaires in 2012 was enough to end extreme poverty four times over. Oxfam Executive Director Jeremy Hobbs",
"-30.2880991154816"
],
[
"also published You're So Money: Live Rich Even When You're Not. The book focuses on financial advice for young people. Her next book, Psych Yourself Rich was published in 2010 by FT Press.\nIn 2010, Farnoosh joined Yahoo! Finance to host a weekly video series entitled Financially Fit. The series ended in December 2013.\nIn 2014, Farnoosh published her third book, When She Makes More: 10 Rules for Breadwinning Women. In it, she candidly addresses how income imbalances affect relationships and family dynamics, and presents a bold strategy to achieving happiness at work and home.\nOn January 14, 2015, Farnoosh launched the award-winning",
"-30.27473518619081"
],
[
"Founder & CEO Nick Baily, in a speech at the Wall Street Green Trading Summit in 2008, spoke directly to both sides of this point, stating: \"So why go straight to the affluent? Because it’s precisely those who have had the most impact that have the means to create a solution.\". This line of reasoning has been common in press interviews with Baily and Stewart, with Baily telling financial news anchor Maria Bartiromo in a televised NBC interview: \"The top seven percent of the world's affluent are responsible for half of its carbon footprint. If you're not addressing that,",
"-30.271031806711107"
],
[
"act. The accumulation of wealth grants more options and eliminates restrictions about how one can live life. Dennis Gilbert asserts that the standard of living of the working and middle classes is dependent upon income and wages, while the rich tend to rely on wealth, distinguishing them from the vast majority of Americans. A September 2014 study by Harvard Business School declared that the growing disparity between the very wealthy and the lower and middle classes is no longer sustainable. Statistics In 2007, the top 20% wealthiest possessed 80% of all financial assets. In 2007 the richest 1% of the",
"-30.250523143102328"
],
[
"and bad investments. The current Forbes 400 is now primarily made up of newly wealthy business owners, not heirs and heiresses. In parallel research, the University of Chicago's Steven Kaplan and Stanford University's Joshua Rauh note that 69% of those on the Forbes list are actually first generation wealth creators. That figure has risen dramatically since 1982 when it stood at 40%.\nEd Dolan supports the globalization and superstar hypothesis but points out that the high earnings are based, to some extent, on moral hazard like \"Bonus-based compensation schemes with inadequate clawback for losses\" and the shift of losses to shareholders,",
"-30.210173755302094"
],
[
"to distribute and sell their creations, with 2.1 million items listed on its online marketplace. At its height circa 2006, hundreds of thousands of dollars were changing hands daily as residents created and sold a wide variety of virtual commodities. Second Life also quickly became profitable due to the selling and renting virtual real estate. 2006 also saw Second Life's first real-world millionaire; Ailin Graef, better known as Anshe Chung (her avatar), converted an initial investment of US$9.95 into over one million dollars over the course of two and a half years. She built her fortune primarily by buying, selling,",
"-30.20308262796607"
],
[
"corporations channeling wealth from poorer countries to richer ones dictates that the gap will not diminish.\nAvailable data indicates convergence of income for many developing countries.\nIn his book The Ultimate Resource, Julian Simon offers the view that scarcity of physical resources can be overcome by the human mind. For example, the argument of scarcity of oil could be overcome by some of energy development strategies, such as use of synthetic fuels.\nModern estimations indicate that mineral shortages will not become a threat for many centuries \nConcerning exploitation of the former colonies, Gregory Clark notes: \"Yet generations of research by economic historians –",
"-30.202960909547983"
],
[
"this is known as the \"resource curse\".\nExtractive industries represent a large growing activity in many less-developed countries but the wealth generated does not always lead to sustainable and inclusive growth. People often accuse extractive industry businesses as acting only to maximize short-term value, implying that less-developed countries are vulnerable to powerful corporations. Alternatively, host governments are often assumed to be only maximizing immediate revenue. Researchers argue there are areas of common interest where development goals and business cross. These present opportunities for international governmental agencies to engage with the private sector and host governments through revenue management and expenditure accountability,",
"-30.144895264814295"
],
[
"for giant corporations), at most 10% of population could reach the level of wealth achieved by people in the richest countries. Peripheral economies, which would not create an independent and more complete economy, would continue to be poor countries, with increasing differences between poor and rich people inside this societies;\n3) About the World economic superstructure: The world superstructure of capitalist economy (mainly IMF and GATT, which originated WTO (World Trade Organization) would, on the one hand, increase control over the world economy, also increasing freedom for capital's flows and for big corporations' actions, and, on the other hand, would decrease",
"-30.14218534604879"
],
[
"Money became a value-determinant than utility. This brought about frauds in various sectors. This latter aspect is not limited to youths but even company executives, and politicians of many societies. Technological advancement has made privacy less safer for intrusion and people more safer for protection. The supposedly good of technological advancement in the neomodern era has included whistle blow such as Wikileaks' Julian Assange. The more good has been in the level of innovations and innovators it has sprung up such as Facebook's Mark Zuckerberg and easier business models and broader social connectivity. This latter part has lessened more amity",
"-30.141209386230912"
],
[
"of affordability.\nAs a result of their business strategy, non-profits lack the financial and technical resources of for-profits, thus, forcing them to rely on multiple funding sources such as public and private grants and subsidies in order to cover development costs. Using multiple funding sources is risky because it creates complex financing which can be both timely and expensive. Most of these public and private sources exist exclusively for non-profit entities and although this provides an advantage for the non-profit industry, for-profits would often refrain from spending the uncompensated time and effort for such complicated deals. Issues during",
"-30.10725788655691"
],
[
"service dictates that if Forever cannot sustain customers' accounts, it will use the Forever Guarantee Fund to give the customers' data back to Forever customers. Reception Michael Spring, a professor at the University of Pittsburgh School of Information Sciences, said, \"It seems a little overpriced. It may end up being a service used more by those who have disposable income\".\nIn an April 2018 Photography Life review, Bob Vishneski, who works in the media software industry, wrote, \"as people begin to grasp and appreciate the importance of Digital Estate Planning, I believe Forever and others that venture into this space will",
"-30.10473918505886"
],
[
"and limited ways to save income; therefore, individuals are more prone to spend than save. That eventually results in an adoption of a UAW lifestyle. Criticism Nassim Nicholas Taleb criticised the premise of the book on the basis of two instances of survivorship bias: that there is no mention of the accumulators who have accumulated underperforming assets, and that the United States had just gone through the greatest bull market in its history at the time of the book's publication. He suggested that the authors should lower the net worth of the observed millionaires to compensate for the effect",
"-30.07852567062946"
],
[
"argue that the interest they earn can be recycled to benefit other organisations and is therefore, more efficient for the social sector overall than a grant.\nThe sources of funds vary across the spectrum of social lenders but most often includes government monies or donations from private individuals and foundations or trusts. Lenders may restrict themselves to funding newly started organisations or may fund organisations throughout their life cycle; however the focus of investment is usually in building the capacity of the investee to achieve their stated social outcomes while becoming financially sustainable. In Britain In the British context, the",
"-30.050042955903336"
],
[
"thing is to know that you've lived your life to the fullest.... You could be a billionaire, and you couldn't pay to do the things we've done.\"\nIn early September 2009, she entered a hospice in Rochester, Minnesota, where she died on March 21, 2010, at the age of 59.",
"-30.0477598158177"
],
[
"poor for most of his life, suddenly found himself looking for ways that he could do the greatest good for with his money. He wrote, \"My greatest care now is how to spend this large income to do the greatest good to those who are properly dependent on me, to the poor and to posterity.\" Cornell's self-education and hard work would lead him to the conclusion that the greatest end for his philanthropy was in the need of colleges for the teaching of practical pursuits such as agriculture, the applied sciences, veterinary medicine and engineering, and in finding opportunities for",
"-30.032639979937812"
],
[
"swoop, John Fontanelli has become by far the richest person in the world, his net worth being bigger than the GDP of most countries. Yet, his ancestor has charged his heir with the task of using the inheritance to give back mankind its lost future.\nAfter some hither and thither, he accepts the role assigned to him by his ancestor and tries to better the world socially and ecologically. On the advice of his mysterious new consultant, Malcolm McCaine, he founds a huge corporation called Fontanelli Enterprises and strategically invests the inherited fortune in a diversified group of projects to grow",
"-29.994037338648923"
],
[
"new to me, but I was a little unhappy that the social enterprise idea was already 12 years old. Then I discovered that having a for-profit operation generate funding for a non-profit organization providing the same service was quite new. So, is saving lives not good enough? I'm not saying it's not good enough. It is. Is managing logistics not good enough? It is. But doing both of those and creating a new form of social enterprise all in one? That's the trifecta.\nSpeaking with students on the occasion of receiving a Distinguished Alumnus Award from his alma mater, Indian Institute",
"-29.948019367962843"
],
[
"else the cycle of life holds for them. With tons of money in their disposal but with powerful elites on their search, they are forced to alter their plans following impending pressures.",
"-29.93048306624405"
],
[
"most people who work in finance and other high-paying industries value money for selfish reasons and that being surrounded by these people will cause effective altruists to become less altruistic. Peter Singer responded to these criticisms in his book The Most Good You Can Do by giving examples of people who have been earning to give for years without losing their altruistic motivation. In The Week, Pascal-Emmanuel Gobry argued that the practice was \"unsettling\". Cause priorities Effective altruism aspires to be cause-neutral, meaning it is in principle open to helping in whichever areas allow them to do the most good.",
"-29.929940202040598"
],
[
"business. By January 2019, three years after launch, more than 1400 entrepreneurs have pledged an estimated total value of $700 million based on the founders' equity and the companies' valuation and at least $91 million were raised. Career selection Effective altruists argue that selection of one's career is an important determinant of the amount of good one does, both directly (through the services one provides to the world) and indirectly (through the ways one directs the money earned based on the career).\n80,000 Hours is an organisation in the effective altruism community that conducts research on which careers have the largest",
"-29.918523252592422"
],
[
"in the eye, you know that nothing's going with you, and life is but a thread. It's a pretty tenuous thing we're hanging on to. So, what is the point of making money? I concluded it certainly isn't for accumulating it. That's the most stupid thing I ever heard of. So, there can be only one point, and that's to spend it. Now, I'm not ridiculously wasteful, but I may be slightly extravagant. As Andrew Carnegie said, to die rich is to die disgraced.\"",
"-29.886474305269076"
],
[
"will typically rise hence reducing income inequality and poverty.\nThe lack of financial access limits the range of services and credits for household and enterprises. Poor individuals and small enterprises need to rely on their personal wealth or internal resources to invest in their education and businesses, which limits their full potential and leading to the cycle of persistent inequality and diminished growth.\nAccess to finance varies greatly between countries and ranges from about 5 percent of the adult population in Papua New Guinea and Tanzania to 100 percent in the Netherlands (for a comprehensive list of estimated measures of access",
"-29.838143810105976"
],
[
"that we can donate people out of poverty, that national economic growth will end poverty, and that Big Business, operating as it does now, will end poverty. Economic models which lead to national growth and more big business will not necessarily lead to more opportunities for self-sufficiency. However, businesses designed with a social goal in mind, such as micro finance banks, may be able to make a difference. Growth vs. state intervention: comparative perspective in China, India, Brazil A 2012 World Bank research article, “A Comparative Perspective on Poverty Reduction in Brazil, China, and India,” looked at the three nations’",
"-29.825101268521394"
],
[
"of the country's wealth and the bottom 80% of the population owned 15%. Financial inequality was greater than inequality in total wealth, with the top 1% of the population owning 42.7%, the next 19% of Americans owning 50.3%, and the bottom 80% owning 7%. However, according to the federal reserve, \"For most households, pensions and Social Security are the most important sources of income during retirement, and the promised benefit stream constitutes a sizable fraction of household wealth\" and \"including pensions and Social Security in net worth makes the distribution more even\". When including household wealth from pensions and social",
"-29.809073714888655"
],
[
"62 people between the World's Billionaires increased by $500bn (£350bn) to $1.76tn. This number has fallen dramatically from 388 as recently as 2010. More recently, in 2017 an Oxfam report noted that just eight billionaires have as much net worth as \"half the human race\".",
"-29.797414147120435"
],
[
"Challenges and problems In the contemporary era, several issues are faced in the world.\nFirst of all, wealth is concentrated among the G8 and Western industrialized nations, along with several Asian nations and OPEC countries. The richest 1% of adults alone owned 40% of global assets in the year 2000 and that the richest 10% of adults accounted for 85% of the world total. The bottom half of the world adult population owned barely 1% of global wealth. Another study found that the richest 2% own more than half of global household assets. Despite this, the distribution has been changing quite",
"-29.77156808890868"
],
[
"the Boston Consulting Group, around 70% of the nation's wealth will be in the hands of millionaires and billionaires by 2021. Early 20th century Pioneering work by Simon Kuznets using income tax records and his own well-researched estimates of national income showed a reduction of about 10% in the portion of national income going to the top 10%, a reduction from about 45–50% in 1913 to about 30–35% in 1948. This period spans both The Great Depression and World War II, events with significant economic consequences. This is called the Great Compression. Wealth inequality and child poverty In 2013 UNICEF",
"-29.7453958139522"
],
[
"of 40, while the list of American-only billionaires, as of 2010, had an average age of 66.\nIn 2019 there are now a record 607 billionaires in the U.S. That includes 14 of the world’s 20 richest. Jeff Bezos is again number 1 in the world, followed by Bill Gates at number 2. Billionaires who own the same wealth as half the world According to a 2016 Oxfam report, the wealth of the poorest 95% dropped by 38% between 2010 and 2015, despite an increase in the global population of 400 million. In the same period, the wealth of the richest",
"-29.72816598362988"
],
[
"Super-Rich are Changing our Lives. In The Guardian, Polly Toynbee said of it: \"Reading Peston's book, you can only be flabbergasted all over again at how Labour kowtowed to wealth, glorified the City and put all the nation's economic eggs into one dangerous basket of fizzy finance.\"\nIn September 2012, Hodder & Stoughton published How Do We Fix This Mess? The Economic Price of Having it All and the Route to Lasting Prosperity. The Observer described it as \"A must read...mandatory reading for anyone who wants to have a voice in where we go from here.\"\nHis latest book WTF? was published",
"-29.718290383083513"
],
[
"driven by extraordinary levels of human creativity, where abnormally talented individuals and entities are able to realize new levels of human potential and economic achievement. It is \"a new economic era where the main source of national wealth is no longer resource rent but the socio-economic infrastructure that allows every person to realise his or her intellectual or creative potential.\" But, according to Fridman – based on his observations of recent economic indicators, political and market volatility, and historical patterns – it is also an era that will generate winners and losers as lagging countries and groups fail to adapt",
"-29.705800544354133"
],
[
"all summer, and who by the application of brain and muscle to the natural resources of the country creates wealth, is as much a business man as the man who goes upon the Board of Trade and bets upon the price of grain; the miners who go down a thousand feet into the earth, or climb two thousand feet upon the cliffs, and bring forth from their hiding places the precious metals to be poured into the channels of trade are as much business men as the few financial magnates who, in a back room, corner the money of the",
"-29.67715527609107"
],
[
"\"bad billionaires\" who make money by \"digging stuff out of the ground,\" at the expense of \"good billionaires\", who work in productive industries like technology.\nRecently he has written that the \"China-commodity connection\" is breaking, and that the retreat of commodity prices will undercut commodity economies that thrived in the last decade based on spiking prices. Those include Russia, Brazil and \"nasty petro states\", and their retreat will greatly help commodity importers such as the United States. He says that, if anything, Americans underestimate the negative impact of high oil prices, noting that a sharp increase in oil prices has laid",
"-29.669311903242487"
],
[
"means that the money you contribute now is more important than the money you contribute 1 year from now. This is because it will have more time to grow, thus it is the most powerful contribution. Just as last year's contributions are more powerful than this year's contributions. Publications Dunn is author of What Your Dad Never Taught You About Budgeting (SPS Publishing, 2006) and 60 Days to Change: A Daily How-To Guide with Actionable Tips for Improving Your Financial Life (Channel V Books, 2009). Personal Dunn resides in Carmel, Indiana with his wife, Sarah, his daughter, Olivia, and son,",
"-29.653535869554617"
],
[
"of a society are we going to have if it consists of highly paid people doing high-value-added work—and masses of unemployed?\"\nHe felt that employment growth depended on those companies' ability or willingness to scale up within the U.S. According to Grove, Silicon Valley's \"innovation machine\" over the last few decades has not been adding many jobs, although American tech companies have instead been adding jobs in Asia \"like mad.\" He noted that while our investments in startups have increased dramatically, those investments have in fact resulted in fewer jobs: \"Simply put,\" he wrote, \"the U.S. has become wildly inefficient at",
"-29.575847499683732"
],
[
"wealthy, breaking even (Spartan), spender, broke, and breaking even (Lavish). Spending tomorrow's cash today The most prominent idea shared by UAWs and American society in general is \"spending tomorrow's cash today\". This is the leading cause of debt and a lack of net worth in the UAW category. This contradicts the common belief of a PAW: \"save today's cash for tomorrow\". Many UAWs do plan, under certain conditions (such as a rise in income), to use investment strategies to accumulate wealth; however, most don't actually use investment strategies to accumulate wealth once the initial conditions are met. For example,",
"-29.572164530254668"
],
[
"the prevailing system of social relations governing legitimate cooperation and competition. The wealth of some may depend on the poverty of others.\nSome scarcity is truly physical scarcity; other scarcity is purely socially constructed, i.e. people are excluded from wealth not by physical scarcity but through the way the social system functions (the system of property rights and distributing wealth that it has). In modern times, calculations have been done of the type that an annual levy of 5.2% on the fortunes of the world's 500 or so billionaires would be financially sufficient to guarantee essential needs for the whole world",
"-29.55738677154295"
],
[
"over a long period of time can accumulate a large sum of money. Mr. Friend’s poor parents were smokers and drinkers. They smoked at least three packs of cigarettes a day during the week. Three packs a day over 46 years translated into a sum of money that exceeded the value of their home by $33,000. Even more extraordinary, if the Friends had invested and reinvested that money over a 46-year period, the portfolio would have exceeded $2 million. The value of a small amount of money over a long period of time is amazing.",
"-29.55542098222213"
],
[
"wealth and spending ability of the rich, many of whom will spend or invest this money in the rich countries, thus not even creating a trickle-down effect. They argue that the money would be far better spent in specific aid projects that actually help the poor. They further argue that it would be unfair to third-world countries that managed their credit successfully, or do not go into debt in the first place. That is, it actively encourages third-world governments to overspend in order to receive debt relief in the future.\nOthers argue against the conditionalities attached to debt relief. These conditions",
"-29.550626066971745"
],
[
"Middle Class Millionaire Overview Written by Lewis Schiff (The Armchair Millionaire) and Russ Allen Prince (Cultivating the Middle-class Millionaire: Why Financial Advisors Are Failing Their Wealthy Clients and What They Can Do About It) the book introduces an entirely new way of understanding why certain trends are gaining momentum and where that momentum will lead to next.\nThe book shows us how this subset of America, labeled the Middle-Class Millionaire, manages to thrive with one foot in the world they came from (the middle-class) and one foot in the world they now inhabit (the wealthy).\nThe Middle-Class Millionaire is based on extensive",
"-29.534757975263346"
],
[
"in the Forbes list of world billionaires, with a net worth of US$5.0 billion. Philanthropy In 2000, he established LIFE (Landmark International Foundation of Empowerment), to support underprivileged children in India, through school and healthcare development programmes, homes for destitute children, vocational and non-formal schools, community clinics and medical camps for slum-dwellers and an old age home Chennai.",
"-29.53326853114413"
],
[
"the possibility of capital appreciation. Those who are not wealthy are more likely to have their money in savings accounts and home ownership. This difference comprises the largest reason for the continuation of wealth inequality in America: the rich are accumulating more assets while the middle and working classes are just getting by. As of 2007, the richest 1% held about 38% of all privately held wealth in the United States. while the bottom 90% held 73.2% of all debt. According to The New York Times, the richest 1 percent in the United States now own more wealth than the",
"-29.50203002267517"
],
[
"to affect at least a billion people (i.e., have universal appeal), it had to be able to be delivered to customers living where there was not a FedEx office or even a road, and it had to be \"radically affordable\" to attract someone who earned less than $2 a day. Creating entrepreneurs Rather than encouraging multinational businesses to meet the needs of the poor, some organizations such as iDE, the World Resources Institute, and the United Nations Development Programme began to focus on working directly with helping bottom-of-the-pyramid populations become local, small-scale entrepreneurs. Since so much of this population is",
"-29.49574481858872"
],
[
"of their creating, usually maintained by trust funds, which independently own and operate large computing resources for their sakes, separated physically and economically from most of the rest of the world's computing power, which is privatized as a fungible commodity. Although the wealthiest copies face no financial difficulties, they can still be threatened because copies lack political and legal rights (they are considered software), especially where the global economy is in recession. Hence they cannot afford to retreat into solipsism and ignore what is happening in the real world.\nAt the opposite end from the wealthy Copies are those who can",
"-29.495061100664316"
],
[
"stages. Traditionally, people accumulate wealth in their younger and middle-aged, years, and spend that wealth in their later retirement years. Clearly, as Modigliani's life-cycle saving-spending hypothesis illustrates, this is a purposeful simplification of a complex life span dynamic; many people continue to (work and) accumulate in their older years just as, of course, younger and middle-aged persons spend during the accumulation years of their wealth span. Changes in balance Beyond a concern with the stages of accumulation and expenditure, the wealth span model offers two valuable tools of analysis useful for both academic research and financial practice: (1) changes in",
"-29.47725037255441"
],
[
"of the global top 1% increased approximately 60%, while the middle classes of the emerging economies (those around the 50th percentile of the global income distribution in 1988) rose 70–80%. For example, in 2000, 5 million Chinese households earned between $11,500 and $43,000 in 2016 dollars. By 2015, 225 million did. On the other hand, those in the middle class of the developed world (those in the 75th to 90th percentile in 1988, such as the American middle class) experienced little real income gains. The richest 1% contains 60 million persons globally, including 30 million Americans (i.e., the top 12%",
"-29.470284280600026"
],
[
"country’s economy starts to grow, all assets, including mine and other businessmen’s, will become more costly. We will become richer. This is the business model; people are not aware that the projects are not created for profit here and now. Our projects have longer than a ten-year horizon”, stated Vasyl Khmelnytsky.\nHe is the majority shareholder at the UDP company. As of 2018, the UDP company has launched construction projects with an area of more than 3 million square meters and has become one of the largest real estate developers and infrastructure enterprises in the country. Among its most famous projects",
"-29.46756632139295"
]
] |
369sjs | Why does stomach gas feel painful only occasionally, while other times it flows freely from my anus? | [
"Sometimes it gets trapped and builds up pressure. The pressure is what causes pain. It gets trapped because there is other stuff in the way. When it flows freely from your anus, it is not trapped. ^() ^^^\\(Sorry ^^^for ^^^taking ^^^the ^^^subreddit ^^^literally, ^^^but ^^^it ^^^came ^^^out ^^^that ^^^way, ^^^and ^^^I ^^^thought ^^^it ^^^was ^^^funny. ^^^No ^^^offense ^^^meant.)",
"It depends on where and how much is generated. If there is too much gas generated (dependent on what you eat and how it breaks down, how much air you swallow), it impinges on your muscles in the tummy and makes it hurt. You're also forgetting about burps, which are basically farts from the mouth.",
"The pain is from stretching of the intestines. You can pass larger bubbles easier, so lots of small bubbles (like foam, if you want to imagine that...) will hurt more because it's more difficult to vent it out the chute. This can be from stuff you eat, or stuff you eat interacting with certain bacteria which tend to release gasses. People with lactose intolerance can testify to that. Things like simethecone reduce the foaming property and allow you to pass the gas much easier. So, lay off the dish soap or you might be in pain."
] | [
[
"much like burping, but helps the body pass gas through the anus, not the mouth. Bacteria present in the intestinal tract cause gas to be expelled from the anus. They produce the gas as food is digested and moved from the small intestine. This gas builds up and causes swelling or bloating in the abdominal area before it is released. Constipation A common gastrointestinal problem is constipation—infrequent bowel movements, hard stools, or strain during the movements—which causes serious cases of bloating. Since most cases of constipation are temporary, simple lifestyle changes, such as getting more exercise and increasing one's intake",
"-35.30099852976855"
],
[
"gas distention, which causes this affected piece of bowel to rise upward in the abdomen.\nAbdominal distention may occasionally be seen in adult horses in the flank region, if the cecum or large colon is affected. Foals, however, may show signs of gas within the small intestines with severe abdominal distention. Pelvic flexure impaction This is caused by an impaction of food material (water, grass, hay, grain) at a part of the large bowel known as the pelvic flexure of the left colon where the intestine takes a 180 degree turn and narrows. Impaction generally responds well to medical treatment, usually",
"-34.625723812147044"
],
[
"types of complaints that relate to intestinal gas, which may present individually or in combination. Bloating and pain Patients may complain of bloating as abdominal distension, discomfort and pain from \"trapped wind\". In the past, functional bowel disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome that produced symptoms of bloating were attributed to increased production of intestinal gas. However, three significant pieces of evidence refute this theory. First, in normal subjects, even very high rates of gas infusion into the small intestine (30 ml/min) is tolerated without complaints of pain or bloating and harmlessly passed as flatus per rectum. Secondly, studies aiming to",
"-33.03825215972029"
],
[
"poorly absorbed in the small intestine and subsequently fermented by the bacteria in the distal small and proximal large intestine. This is a normal phenomenon, common to everyone. The resultant production of gas potentially results in bloating and flatulence.\nNevertheless, although FODMAPs can cause certain digestive discomfort in some people, not only do they not cause intestinal inflammation, but they help to prevent it because they produce beneficial alterations in the intestinal flora that contribute to maintain the good health of the colon.\nFODMAPs are not the cause of irritable bowel syndrome nor other functional gastrointestinal disorders, but rather a person develops",
"-33.02073163312161"
],
[
"lead to the stomach's inability to contract and lose its ability to empty itself. Side effects of gastroparesis include chronic indigestion, nausea and vomiting.",
"-32.44064024777617"
],
[
"it can also occur from a blockage at the distal end of stomach, a cancer or a stroke. Symptoms of gastroparesis includes abdominal pain, fullness, bloating, nausea, vomiting after eating food, loss of appetite and feeling of fullness after eating small amounts of food. Diarrhea During digestion, food is stored in the liquid present in the stomach. The food that is not digested travels to the large intestine and colon in liquid form. These organs begin to absorb the water turning the food into a more solid form. Different viruses or bacteria can increase the amount of liquid that is",
"-32.23882751399651"
],
[
"diverticulum may also result in halitosis due to aging food retained in the esophagus. Stomach The stomach is considered by most researchers as a very uncommon source of bad breath. The esophagus is a closed and collapsed tube, and continuous flow of gas or putrid substances from the stomach indicates a health problem—such as reflux serious enough to be bringing up stomach contents or a fistula between the stomach and the esophagus—which will demonstrate more serious manifestations than just foul odor.\nIn the case of allyl methyl sulfide (the byproduct of garlic's digestion), odor does not come from the stomach, since",
"-32.11788860638626"
],
[
"to state that \"Stomach inflation is a complex problem that may cause regurgitation, [gastric acid] aspiration, and, possibly, death.\" When stomach inflation leads to vomiting of highly acidic stomach acids, delivery of subsequent breaths can force these caustic acids down into the lungs where they cause life-threatening or fatal lung injuries including Mendelson's syndrome, aspiration pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome and \"pulmonary injuries similar to that seen in victims of chlorine gas exposure\". Apart from the risks of gastric inflation causing vomiting and regurgitation, at least two reports have been found indicating that gastric insufflation itself remains",
"-32.04401764267823"
],
[
"stomach emptying time than men. A hormonal link has been suggested, as gastroparesis symptoms tend to worsen the week before menstruation when progesterone levels are highest. Neither theory has been proven definitively. Mechanism Gastroparesis can be connected to hypochlorhydria and be caused by chloride, sodium and/or zinc deficiency, as these minerals are needed for the stomach to produce adequate levels of gastric acid (HCl) to properly empty itself of a meal.\nOn the molecular level, it is thought that gastroparesis can be caused by the loss of neuronal nitric oxide expression since the cells in the GI tract secrete nitric oxide.",
"-31.522692980070133"
],
[
"in the upper gastrointestinal tract, and the fact that this is primarily re-absorbed in parts of the intestine downstream from the obstruction. The first problem with this degree of fluid loss from circulation is one of decreased plasma volume, leading to a reduced cardiac output, and acid-base disturbances.\nThe intestine becomes distended due to the trapped fluid and gas production from bacteria. It is this distension, and subsequent activation of stretch receptors within the intestinal wall, that leads to the associated pain. With progressive distension of the intestinal wall, there is occlusion of blood vessels, firstly the less rigid veins, then",
"-31.427534085931256"
],
[
"affecting millions of people. Gastritis is basically inflammation of the stomach wall lining and has many causes. Smoking, excess alcohol consumption and the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen, account for the majority of causes of gastritis. In some cases, gastritis may develop after surgery, a major burn, infection or emotional stress. The most common symptoms of gastritis include sharp abdominal pain which may radiate to the back. This may be associated with nausea, vomiting, abdominal bloating and a lack of appetite. When the condition is severe it may even result in loss of blood on the",
"-31.105101018445566"
],
[
"gas gangrene, present in humans. This gas builds up in infected tissue, usually large muscles, and causes the tissue to make a crackling or popping sound when pressed. Large gas-filled blisters can also form, which can be extremely painful as they build up in the tissues. Clinical presentations When infection begins, the animal may develop a fever, and the affected limb can feel hot to the touch. The limb usually swells significantly, and the animal can develop lameness on the affected leg. Crepitation (the sensation of air under the skin) can be noticed in many infections, as the area seems",
"-31.079086983692832"
],
[
"and stomach acid being secreted. This, combined with the damage from ammonium, leads to ulceration of the stomach wall.",
"-30.91890249926655"
],
[
"Gastrointestinal perforation Signs and symptoms Signs and symptoms may include a sudden pain in the epigastrium to the right of the midline indicating the perforation of a duodenal ulcer, while a gastric ulcer perforation reveals itself by burning pain in epigastrium, with flatulence and dyspepsia.\nIn intestinal perforation, pain starts from the site of perforation and spreads across the abdomen.\nGastrointestinal perforation results in severe abdominal pain intensified by movement, nausea, vomiting and hematemesis. Later symptoms include fever and or chills. In any case, the abdomen becomes rigid with tenderness and rebound tenderness. After some time the abdomen becomes silent and heart",
"-30.88216572708916"
],
[
"much research to be done on the brain-gut connection, research thus far has indeed shown that your stomach does indeed churn differently when you are emotionally aroused, and this could be the basis of the gut feeling that many people describe experiencing. Gender differences In recent years, some research has been done about gender differences in the perception and experience of disgust. One such study, upon presenting both male and female subjects with video clips designed to trigger disgust and found that although women reported feeling more disgust than men at these stimuli, the physiological responses did not show",
"-30.785601877840236"
],
[
"Fecal impaction Signs and symptoms Symptoms include chronic constipation. There can be fecal incontinence and paradoxical or overflow diarrhea (encopresis) as liquid stool passes around the obstruction. Complications may include necrosis and ulcers of the rectal tissue. Abdominal pain and bloating could also be present depending on the severity of the condition. Loss of appetite can also occur. Causes There are many possible causes; for example, physical inactivity, not eating enough (particularly of fiber), and not drinking enough water. Medications such as opioid pain relievers (suboxone, methadone, codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, etc.) and certain sedatives that reduce intestinal movement may cause",
"-30.75175192207098"
],
[
"central nervous system, adrenal glands, kidneys, and liver appear.\nIngestion of ricin causes pain, inflammation, and hemorrhage in the mucosal membranes of the gastrointestinal system. Gastrointestinal symptoms quickly progress to severe nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and difficulty swallowing (dysphagia). Haemorrhage causes bloody feces (melena) and vomiting blood (hematemesis). The low blood volume (hypovolemia) caused by gastrointestinal fluid loss can lead to organ failure in the pancreas, kidney, liver, and GI tract and progress to shock. Shock and organ failure are indicated by disorientation, stupor, weakness, drowsiness, excessive thirst (polydipsia), low urine production (oliguria), and bloody urine (hematuria).\nSymptoms of ricin inhalation are different",
"-30.73045298748184"
],
[
"Gastrojejunocolic fistula A gastrojejunocolic fistula is a disorder of the human gastrointestinal tract. It may form between the transverse colon and the upper jejunum after a Billroth II surgical procedure. (The Billroth procedure attaches the jejunum to the remainder of the stomach.) Fecal matter thereby passes improperly from the colon to the stomach, and causes halitosis.\nPatients may present with diarrhea, weight loss and halitosis as a result of fecal matter passing through the fistula from the colon into the stomach.",
"-30.720482480945066"
],
[
"population within the intestinal lumen.\nInflammation of the intestine leads to the secretion of a large amounts of electrolytes, primarily sodium and chloride, into its lumen, resulting in the osmotic movement of water. The production of fluid is thought to be due to active hypersecretion, passive secretion of proteins secondary to damage to epithelium of the mucosa and capillaries, and a functional ileus which prevents removal of this fluid. Massive fluid production results in extensive reflux, usually produced at a rate of 50–100 mL/min, in addition to distention of the proximal small intestine, dehydration, and possible shock secondary to hypovolemia. Proximal",
"-30.667322276247432"
],
[
"much food or liquid in your stomach if your stomach doesn’t have that capability can make you vomit.\" Thus, the vomiting response is likely due to an inability for the stomach to contain the substances.",
"-30.621430344735927"
],
[
"Bloating Symptoms The most common symptoms associated with bloating is a sensation that the abdomen is full or distended. Rarely, bloating may be painful or cause shortness of breath.\nPains that are due to bloating will feel sharp and cause the stomach to cramp. These pains may occur anywhere in the body and can change locations quickly. They are so painful that they are sometimes mistaken for heart pains when they develop on the upper left side of the chest. Pains on the right side are often confused with problems in the appendix or the gallbladder.\nOne symptom of gas that is",
"-30.537043806747533"
],
[
"Urinary incontinence Mechanism Continence and micturition involve a balance between urethral closure and detrusor muscle activity. Urethral pressure normally exceeds bladder pressure, resulting in urine remaining in the bladder. The proximal urethra and bladder are both within the pelvis. Intra abdominal pressure increases (from coughing and sneezing) are transmitted to both urethra and bladder equally, leaving the pressure differential unchanged, resulting in continence. Normal voiding is the result of changes in both of these pressure factors: urethral pressure falls and bladder pressure rises.\nThe body stores urine — water and wastes removed by the kidneys — in the urinary bladder, a",
"-30.468763448552636"
],
[
"even destroy the stomach or its lining. In some cases bile, normally used to aid digestion in the small intestine, will enter through the pyloric valve of the stomach if it has been removed during surgery or does not work properly, also leading to gastritis. Gastritis may also be caused by other medical conditions, including HIV/AIDS, Crohn's disease, certain connective tissue disorders, and liver or kidney failure. Since 1992, chronic gastritis lesions are classified according to the Sydney system. Metaplasia Mucous gland metaplasia, the reversible replacement of differentiated cells, occurs in the setting of severe damage of the",
"-30.32801246829331"
],
[
"resulting in the inability of the aqueous fluid to flow from the posterior to the anterior chamber and then out of the trabecular network. This accumulation of aqueous humor causes an acute increase in pressure and pain.\nThe inconsistent relationship of glaucomatous optic neuropathy with increased intraocular pressure has provoked hypotheses and studies on anatomic structure, eye development, nerve compression trauma, optic nerve blood flow, excitatory neurotransmitter, trophic factor, retinal ganglion cell/axon degeneration, glial support cell, immune system, aging mechanisms of neuron loss, and severing of the nerve fibers at the scleral edge. Absolute glaucoma Absolute glaucoma (H44.5) is the end",
"-30.276988489436917"
],
[
"tract will cause it to build up in the stomach, a process that can eventually lead to stomach rupture, which is inevitably fatal.\nBacking up of fluid through the intestinal tract is usually due to a downstream obstruction, ileus, or proximal enteritis, and its presence usually indicates a small intestinal disease. Generally, the closer the obstruction is to the stomach, the greater amount of gastric reflux will be present. Approximately 50% of horses with gastric reflux require surgery. Abdominal ultrasound Ultrasound provides visualization of the thoracic and abdominal structures, and can sometimes rule out or narrow down a diagnosis. Information that",
"-30.24080017430242"
],
[
"typically is accompanied by dysuria (pain when urinating). Diastasis recti or abdominal separation During pregnancy, many women experience a separation of their stomach muscles, known as diastasis recti. It affects the rectus abdominis muscle.\nThe rectus abdominis muscle is divided down the middle by the tendinous line called the linea alba. It is kept in line by the transverse abdominal and oblique abdominal muscles. During pregnancy, the growth of the fetus exerts pressure on abdominal cavity muscles, in particular the rectus abdominis. In pregnancies that experience rapid fetus growth or women with particularly weak abdominal muscles, this pressure can sometimes causes",
"-30.228875142114703"
],
[
"acid and pepsin which would damage the walls of the stomach and mucus is secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients",
"-30.13917661877349"
],
[
"junction of the stomach with the duodenum.\nThe stomach is surrounded by parasympathetic (stimulant) and sympathetic (inhibitor) plexuses (networks of blood vessels and nerves in the anterior gastric, posterior, superior and inferior, celiac and myenteric), which regulate both the secretory activity of the stomach and the motor (motion) activity of its muscles.\nIn adult humans, the stomach has a relaxed, near empty volume of about 75 millilitres. Because it is a distensible organ, it normally expands to hold about one litre of food. The stomach of a newborn human baby will only be able to retain about 30 millilitres. The maximum stomach",
"-30.116197960684076"
],
[
"appearance. The gases produced also cause natural liquids and liquefying tissues to become frothy. As the pressure of the gases within the body increases, fluids are forced to escape from natural orifices, such as the nose, mouth, and anus, and enter the surrounding environment. The buildup of pressure combined with the loss of integrity of the skin may also cause the body to rupture.\nIntestinal anaerobic bacteria transform haemoglobin into sulfhemoglobin and other colored pigments. The associated gases which accumulate within the body at this time aid in the transport of sulfhemoglobin throughout the body via the",
"-30.020002862234833"
],
[
"is to digest food and regulate the intestinal flora. The harmful bacteria in rancid food, for example, creates gas. The colon has distension sensors that can tell when there is unexpected gas pushing the colon walls out—thus the \"second brain\" tells the person that he or she is having intestinal difficulties by way of the sensation of nausea. Doctors typically recommend either total anesthesia or a partial twilight sedative to either preclude or to lessen the patient's awareness of pain or discomfort, or just the unusual sensations of the procedure. Once the colon has been inflated, the doctor inspects it",
"-29.982967609539628"
],
[
"of the intestinal lumen. Such luminal distension may induce pain, a sensation of bloating, abdominal distension and motility disorders. Therapeutic approaches seek to reduce factors that lead to distension, particularly of the distal small and proximal large intestine. Food substances that can induce distension are those that are poorly absorbed in the proximal small intestine, osmotically active, and fermented by intestinal bacteria with hydrogen (as opposed to methane) production. The small molecule FODMAPs exhibit these characteristics.\nOver many years, there have been multiple observations that ingestion of certain short-chain carbohydrates, including lactose, fructose and sorbitol, fructans and galactooligosaccharides, can induce gastrointestinal",
"-29.93871900148224"
],
[
"routed through the vagus nerve and release of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40% of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and G cell (secretes gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin.\nThe gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the",
"-29.832824873330537"
],
[
"gas. Some patients may exhibit over-sensitivity to bad flatus smell, and in extreme forms, olfactory reference syndrome may be diagnosed. Incontinence of flatus \"Gas incontinence\" could be defined as loss of voluntary control over the passage of flatus. It is a recognised subtype of faecal incontinence, and is usually related to minor disruptions of the continence mechanisms. Some consider gas incontinence to be the first, sometimes only, symptom of faecal incontinence. Cause Intestinal gas is composed of varying quantities of exogenous sources and endogenous sources. The exogenous gases are swallowed (aerophagia) when eating or drinking or increased swallowing during times",
"-29.826036305465095"
],
[
"can be voluntarily elicited by tensing the rectum or \"bearing down\" on stomach or bowel muscles and subsequently relaxing the anal sphincter, resulting in the expulsion of flatus. Management Since problems involving intestinal gas present as different (but sometimes combined) complaints, the management is cause-related. Pain and bloating While not affecting the production of the gases themselves, surfactants (agents that lower surface tension) can reduce the disagreeable sensations associated with flatulence, by aiding the dissolution of the gases into liquid and solid faecal matter. Preparations containing simethicone reportedly operate by promoting the coalescence of smaller bubbles into larger ones more",
"-29.771691957022995"
],
[
"tube is wider and forms the sucking stomach. When the sucking stomach's powerful muscles contract, the stomach is increased in cross-section, creating a strong sucking action that permits the tarantula to suck its liquefied prey up through the mouth and into the intestines. Once the liquefied food enters the intestines, it is broken down into particles small enough to pass through the intestine walls into the hemolymph (blood stream), where it is distributed throughout the body. After feeding, the leftovers are formed into a small ball by the tarantula and thrown away. In a terrarium, they often put them into",
"-29.670851376780774"
],
[
"prokinetic effect of rectal distension on the rate of transit of intestinal gas. It is now known that gas is moved along the gut independently of solids and liquids, and this transit is more efficient in the erect position compared to when supine. It is thought that large volumes of intestinal gas present low resistance, and can be propelled by subtle changes in gut tone, capacitance and proximal contraction and distal relaxation. This process is thought not to affect solid and liquid intra-lumenal contents.\nResearchers investigating the role of sensory nerve endings in the anal canal did not find them to",
"-29.601473301307124"
],
[
"Rectocele Signs and symptoms Mild cases may simply produce a sense of pressure or protrusion within the vagina, and the occasional feeling that the rectum has not been completely emptied after a bowel movement. Moderate cases may involve difficulty passing stool (because the attempt to evacuate pushes the stool into the rectocele instead of out through the anus), discomfort or pain during evacuation or intercourse, constipation, and a general sensation that something is \"falling down\" or \"falling out\" within the pelvis. Severe cases may cause vaginal bleeding, intermittent fecal incontinence, or even the prolapse of the bulge through the mouth",
"-29.581652831926476"
],
[
"Gastric volvulus Organoaxial type In an organoaxial gastric volvulus, the stomach rotates around an axis that connects the gastroesophageal junction and the pylorus. The antrum rotates in opposite direction to the fundus of the stomach.This is the most common type of gastric volvulus, occurring in approximately 59% of cases, and it is usually associated with diaphragmatic defects. Strangulation and necrosis commonly occur with organoaxial gastric volvulus and have been reported in 5–28% of cases. The key imaging feature of organoaxial volvulus is that the greater curvature is located above the lesser curvature of the stomach. Mesenteroaxial type The mesenteroaxial axis",
"-29.575036168738734"
],
[
"in another abdominal area can often be seen and felt. When standing, such a bulge becomes more obvious. Besides the bulge, other symptoms include pain in the groin that may also include a heavy or dragging sensation, and in men, there is sometimes pain and swelling in the scrotum around the testicular area.\nIrreducible abdominal hernias or incarcerated hernias may be painful, but their most relevant symptom is that they cannot return to the abdominal cavity when pushed in. They may be chronic, although painless, and can lead to strangulation (loss of blood supply), obstruction (kinking of intestine), or both. Strangulated",
"-29.57111403113231"
],
[
"stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and gastric acid secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid. Gastric acid is about 0.5% hydrochloric acid (HCl), which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1–3. Acid release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine.\nThe intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing",
"-29.563749549910426"
],
[
"bisects the lesser and greater curvatures. The antrum rotates anteriorly and superiorly so that the posterior surface of the stomach lies anteriorly. The rotation is usually incomplete and occurs intermittently. Vascular compromise is uncommon. This cause comprises approximately 29% of cases of gastric volvulus. The key imaging feature of mesenteroaxial volvulus is that the antrum is above the gastroesophageal junction. Combined type The combined type of gastric volvulus is a rare form in which the stomach twists mesentericoaxially and organoaxially. This type of gastric volvulus makes up the remainder of cases and is usually observed in patients with chronic volvulus.",
"-29.557445405982435"
],
[
"Gastric atresia Cause Gastric atresia is a birth defect. It can be genetic, inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, and associated with conditions like Down syndrome and junctional epidermolysis bullosa (medicine). In about 60% of cases, the outlet of the stomach is covered by a membrane. In around 35% of cases, solid tissue blocks the outlet. In the remaining cases (less than 10%), there is a complete separation of the stomach and the small intestine. Diagnosis Polyhydramnios is often seen during pregnancy, and prenatal diagnosis is common. Infants with gastric atresia will exhibit forceful vomiting upon the first feeding. Imaging",
"-29.475972793530673"
],
[
"Intussusception (medical disorder) Signs and symptoms Early symptoms can include periodic abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting (sometimes green in color from bile), pulling legs to the chest area, and intermittent moderate to severe cramping abdominal pain. Pain is intermittent—not because the intussusception temporarily resolves, but because the intussuscepted bowel segment transiently stops contracting. Later signs include rectal bleeding, often with \"red currant jelly\" stool (stool mixed with blood and mucus), and lethargy. Physical examination may reveal a \"sausage-shaped\" mass, felt upon palpating the abdomen. Children, or those unable to communicate symptoms verbally, may cry, draw their knees up to their",
"-29.45715552708134"
],
[
"regular intervals into the small intestine, which stimulates the pancreas to release fluid containing a high concentration of bicarbonate. This fluid neutralizes the gastric juices, which can damage the lining of the intestine and result in duodenal ulcer. Other secretions from the pancreas, gallbladder, liver, and glands in the intestinal wall help in digestion.\nWhen food particles are sufficiently reduced in size and composition, they are absorbed by the intestinal wall and transported to the bloodstream. Some food material is passed from the small intestine to the large intestine. In the large intestine, bacteria break down any proteins and starches in",
"-29.448460374725983"
],
[
"not normally associated with it is the hiccup. Hiccups are harmless and will diminish on their own; they also help to release gas that is in the digestive tract before it moves down to the intestines and causes bloating. Important but uncommon causes of abdominal bloating include ascites and tumors. Fiber Most cases of stomach bloating are due to improper diet. Gas occurs because of the bacteria in the colon and is a by-product of soluble fiber digestion. Inadequate or irregular intake of fiber and water will cause a person to experience bloating or constipation. The most common natural sources",
"-29.412185590394074"
],
[
"end stage of type I and type II hernias occurs when the whole stomach migrates up into the chest by rotating 180° around its longitudinal axis, with the cardia and pylorus as fixed points. In this situation the abnormality is usually referred to as an intrathoracic stomach. Treatment In the great majority of cases, sufferers experience no life-altering discomfort, and no treatment is required. If there is pain or discomfort, 3 or 4 sips of room temperature water will usually relieve the pain. Symptomatic patients should elevate the head of their beds and avoid lying down directly after meals. If",
"-29.386394782632124"
],
[
"Rovsing's sign Referral of pain This anomaly occurs because the pain nerves deep in the intestines do not localize well to an exact spot on the abdominal wall, unlike pain nerves in muscles. Pain from a stomach ulcer or gallstone can be interpreted by the brain as pain from the stomach, liver, gall bladder, duodenum, or first part of the small intestine. It will \"refer\" pain often to the mid upper abdomen, the epigastrum.\nBecause the appendix is a piece of intestine, it follows a similar referral pattern. An appendix with some early inflammation may give a non-specific irritation",
"-29.379316184669733"
],
[
"to chronic infections of the involved site. Esophageal dysmotility Presents as a sensation of food getting stuck (dysphagia) in the mid- or lower esophagus, atypical chest pain, or cough. People often state they must drink liquids to swallow solid food. This motility problem results from atrophy of the gastrointestinal tract wall smooth muscle. This change may occur with or without pathologic evidence of significant tissue fibrosis. Sclerodactyly Though it is the most easily recognizable manifestation, it is not prominent in all patients. Thickening generally only involves the skin of the fingers distal to the metacarpophalangeal joints in CREST.",
"-29.320996734590153"
],
[
"pelvic flexure, but may also occur in the right dorsal colon and the cecum of the large intestines. The sand can cause colic signs similar to other impactions of the large colon, and often causes abdominal distention As the sand or dirt irritates the lining of the bowel it can cause diarrhea. The weight and abrasion of the sand or dirt causes the bowel wall to become inflamed and can cause a reduction in colonic motility and, in severe cases, leads to peritonitis.\nDiagnosis is usually made by history, environmental conditions, auscultation of the ventral abdomen, radiographs, ultrasound, or fecal examination",
"-29.312786405382212"
],
[
"(Ileus), which can cause excessive accumulation of fluid in the gastrointestinal tract. This is a functional rather than mechanical blockage of the intestine, but like the mechanical blockage seen with simple obstructions, it can have serious effects including severe dehydration. Inflammation of the bowel may lead to increased permeability and subsequent endotoxemia. The underlying cause of inflammation may be due to infection, toxin, or trauma, and may require special treatment in order to resolve the colic.\nUlceration of the mucosal surface occurs very commonly in the stomach (gastric ulceration), due to damage from stomach acid or alteration in protective mechanisms of",
"-29.275963373482227"
],
[
"often increased throughout the day and then resolving during sleep. The increase in girth combined with the fact that the total volume of flatus is not increased led to studies aiming to image the distribution of intestinal gas in patients with bloating. They found that gas was not distributed normally in these patients: there was segmental gas pooling and focal distension. In conclusion, abdominal distension, pain and bloating symptoms are the result of abnormal intestinal gas dynamics rather than increased flatus production. Excessive volume As mentioned above, the normal range of volumes of flatus in normal individuals varies hugely (476–1,491 ml/24 h).",
"-29.242072671302594"
],
[
"of flatus in normal subjects. The volume of gas produced is partially dependent upon the composition of the intestinal microbiota, which is normally very resistant to change, but is also very different in different individuals. Some patients are predisposed to increased endogenous gas production by virtue of their gut microbiota composition. The greatest concentration of gut bacteria is in the colon, while the small intestine is normally nearly sterile. Fermentation occurs when unabsorbed food residues may arrive in the colon. Therefore, even more than the composition of the microbiota, diet is the primary factor that dictates the volume of flatus",
"-29.239747819956392"
],
[
"signs and symptoms. The chest pain caused by GERD has a distinct 'burning' sensation, occurs after eating or at night, and worsens when a person lies down or bends over. It also is common in pregnant women, and may be triggered by consuming food in large quantities, or specific foods containing certain spices, high fat content, or high acid content. If the chest pain is suspected to be heartburn, patients may undergo an upper GI series to confirm the presence of acid reflux.\nHeartburn or chest pain after eating or drinking and combined with difficulty swallowing may indicate esophageal spasms. GI",
"-29.22691048955312"
],
[
"Dysmenorrhea Signs and symptoms The main symptom of dysmenorrhea is pain concentrated in the lower abdomen or pelvis. It is also commonly felt in the right or left side of the abdomen. It may radiate to the thighs and lower back.\nSymptoms often co-occurring with menstrual pain include nausea and vomiting, diarrhea or constipation, headache, dizziness, disorientation, hypersensitivity to sound, light, smell and touch, fainting, and fatigue. Symptoms of dysmenorrhea often begin immediately after ovulation and can last until the end of menstruation. This is because dysmenorrhea is often associated with changes in hormonal levels in the body that occur with",
"-29.195250692777336"
],
[
"strain to defecate (presents as an arched back and lifted tail), and may start showing overt signs of colic such as rolling and getting up and down. In later stages, the abdomen will distend as it continues to fill with gas and feces. Meconium impactions are often diagnosed by clinical signs, but digital examination to feel for impacted meconium, radiographs, and ultrasound may also be used.\nTreatment for meconium impaction typically involves the use of enemas, although persistent cases may require mineral oil or IV fluids. It is possible to tell that the meconium has passed when the foal begins to",
"-29.15492115926463"
],
[
"negative intra-abdominal pressure during\nexhalation and bowel peristaltic motion.\nInitially, peritoneal fluid accumulates in gravity-dependent spaces, the deep recesses of the pelvis and the lateral\nparavesical spaces and then ascends cephalad through the paracolic gutters reaches the subdiaphragmatic spaces. As\nthe left paracolic gutter is shallow and discontinuous with left subdiaphragmatic space at the phrenicocolic ligament,\nmost of the fluid takes path through the right paracolic gutter. Completion of the circulatory pathway takes place\ncaudally by redirection of fluid into the pelvis through the inframesocolic compartment13 (Fig. 3).\nIn pathologic conditions the excessive fluid collects in well-defined areas of stasis or arrested flow including the\nperitoneal recesses of",
"-29.14152984987959"
],
[
"lining can cause the tissue to become swollen and congested. Ulceration is thought to be caused by resulting poor blood supply (ischemia), combined with repeated frictional trauma from the prolapsing lining, and exposure to increased pressure are thought to cause ulceration. Trauma from hard stools may also contribute.\nThe site of the ulcer is typically on the anterior wall of the rectal ampulla, about 7–10 cm from the anus. However, the area may of ulceration may be closer to the anus, deeper inside, or on the lateral or posterior rectal walls. The name \"solitary\" can be misleading since there may be more",
"-29.05206831661053"
],
[
"to connect the stomach to the duodenum so as to facilitate the passage of food from one to the other. This tube is called a gastroduodenostomy. Stenosis Pyloric stenosis refers to a pylorus that is narrow. This is due to congenital hypertrophy of the pyloric sphincter. The lumen of the pylorus is narrower, and less food is able to pass through. This problem is often detected in the early weeks of life. When it is present, a newborn baby may projectile vomit after eating, but despite vomiting remain hungry. Pyloric stenosis may be managed by the insertion of a stent,",
"-28.94810561160557"
],
[
"of the stomach is lined with cilia (minute hairs) that compress undigested solids, which then pass through the intestine and out through the anus.\nThere are no nephridia (\"little kidneys\") or other excretory organs in bryozoa, and it is thought that ammonia diffuses out through the body wall and lophophore. More complex waste products are not excreted but accumulate in the polypide, which degenerates after a few weeks. Some of the old polypide is recycled, but much of it remains as a large mass of dying cells containing accumulated wastes, and this is compressed into a \"brown body\". When the degeneration",
"-28.94629369303584"
],
[
"hernias, in which the LES protrudes above the diaphragm along with the stomach, and only 5% are the \"rolling\" type (paraesophageal), in which the LES remains stationary, but the stomach protrudes above the diaphragm. \nHiatal hernias are most common in North America and Western Europe and rare in rural African communities. Some have proposed that insufficient dietary fiber and the use of a high sitting position for defecation may increase the risk.",
"-28.937408320838585"
],
[
"movement within the intestines slows down is the most common complication following cystectomy. This is due to a variety of factors including manipulation of the intestines due to their proximity of the bladder, the actual operation on the intestines to create a urinary diversion, or even certain medications such as narcotics. In addition to slowing of the small intestine, the small intestine can also become obstructed. After creation of a urinary diversion, intestinal contents can leak at the site where the intestine are reconnected. Urinary tract With creation of a urinary diversion it is possible for the",
"-28.915477864677086"
],
[
"in the stomach and proximal duodenum, which are separated by the pyloric sphincter, creating the appearance of two bubbles visible on x-ray. Since the closure of the duodenum is complete in duodenal atresia, no air is seen in the distal duodenum.\nAtresias occurring distal to the duodenum are usually caused by vascular accidents or ischemic insult, such as jejunoileal atresia. Physical examination During pregnancy, duodenal atresia is associated with increased amniotic fluid in the uterus, which is called polyhydramnios. This increase in amniotic fluid is caused by the inability of the fetus to swallow the amniotic fluid and absorb",
"-28.900557618217135"
],
[
"may or may not be bloody. The nature of the diarrhea in Crohn's disease depends on the part of the small intestine or colon involved. Ileitis typically results in large-volume, watery feces. Colitis may result in a smaller volume of feces of higher frequency. Fecal consistency may range from solid to watery. In severe cases, an individual may have more than 20 bowel movements per day and may need to awaken at night to defecate. Visible bleeding in the feces is less common in Crohn's disease than in ulcerative colitis, but may be seen in the setting of Crohn's colitis.",
"-28.84607912681531"
],
[
"oral intake. Eliciting a careful dietary history from patients with suspected malabsorption is therefore crucial. Excessive flatus and abdominal bloating may reflect excessive gas production due to fermentation of unabsorbed carbohydrate, especially among patients with primary or secondary disaccharidase deficiency. Malabsorption of dietary nutrients and excessive fluid secretion by inflamed small intestine also contribute to abdominal distention and bloating. Prevalence, severity, and character of abdominal pain vary considerably among the various disease processes associated with intestinal malabsorption. For example, pain is common in patients with chronic pancreatitis or pancreatic cancer and Crohn's disease, but it is absent in many patients",
"-28.80346738625667"
],
[
"organisms, such as Salmonella and Clostridial species, but other possible contributing factors include Fusarium infection or high concentrate diets. The inflammation of the intestine leads to large secretions of electrolytes and fluid into its lumen, and thus large amounts of gastric reflux, leading to dehydration and occasionally shock.\nSigns include acute onset of moderate to severe pain, large volumes orange-brown and fetid gastric reflux, distended small intestine on rectal examination, fever, depression, increased heart rate and respiratory rate, prolonged CRT, and darkened mucous membranes. Pain level usually improves after gastric decompression. It is important to differentiate DPI from small intestinal obstruction,",
"-28.75747374398634"
],
[
"Azotorrhea Azotorrhea is the excessive discharge of nitrogenous substances in the feces or urine. As in when people eat a diet high in protein they may suffer from increased amount of amino acid byproduct (nitrogen) being broken and excreted through defecation or urination.\nThis condition may also be present in situations of pancreatic disease, such as in chronic alcoholism or cystic fibrosis.",
"-28.68964912550291"
],
[
"the stomach, and is usually not life-threatening. The right dorsal colon may also develop ulceration, usually secondary to excessive NSAID use, which alters the homeostatic balance of prostaglandins that protect the mucosa. Types This list of types of colic is not exhaustive but details some of the types which may be encountered. Gas and spasmodic colic Gas colic, also known as tympanic colic, is the result of gas buildup within the horse's digestive tract due to excessive fermentation within the intestines or a decreased ability to move gas through it. It is usually the result of a change in diet,",
"-28.664146560593508"
],
[
"sphincter of the stomach, and delayed stomach emptying. Historically, vagotomy was combined with pyloroplasty or gastroenterostomy to counter this problem.",
"-28.62657067901455"
],
[
"Gas gangrene Presentation Gas gangrene can cause myonecrosis (muscle tissue death), gas production, and sepsis. Progression to toxemia and shock is often very rapid. It can easily be noticed by the large, blackened sores that form, as well as a degree of loud and distinctive crepitus caused by gas escaping the necrotic tissue. Pathophysiology Gas gangrene is caused by exotoxin-producing Clostridium species (most often C. perfringens, and C. novyi,\nbut less commonly C. septicum or C. ramnosum), which are mostly found in soil, but also found as normal gut flora, and other anaerobes (e.g., Bacteroides and anaerobic streptococci). The exotoxin is commonly found",
"-28.535799576318823"
],
[
"produced. Diets that aim to reduce the amount of undigested fermentable food residues arriving in the colon have been shown to significantly reduce the volume of flatus produced. Again, increased volume of intestinal gas will not cause bloating and pain in normal subjects. Abnormal intestinal gas dynamics will create pain, distension, and bloating, regardless of whether there is high or low total flatus volume. Smell Although flatus possesses physiological smell, this may be abnormally increased in some patients and cause social distress to the patient. Increased smell of flatus presents a distinct clinical issue from other complaints related to intestinal",
"-28.489322082372382"
],
[
"will be no purulent discharge. There may be regional lymphadenitis.\nWhen pus forms, the pressure increases, with increasing pain, until it spontaneously drains and relieves the pain. When pus drains into the mouth, a bad taste and smell are perceived. Usually drainage occurs via the periodontal pocket, or else the infection may spread as a cellulitis or a purulent odontogenic infection. Local anatomic factors determine the direction of spread (see fascial spaces of the head and neck). There may be systemic upset, with an onset of malaise and pyrexia. Diagnosis Periodontal abscesses may be difficult to distinguish from periapical abscesses. Since",
"-28.44013926162006"
],
[
"sounds can be heard all over. Patient stops passing flatus and motion, abdomen is distended.\nThe symptoms of esophageal rupture may include sudden onset of chest pain. Causes Underlying causes include gastric ulcers, duodenal ulcers, appendicitis, gastrointestinal cancer, diverticulitis, inflammatory bowel disease, superior mesenteric artery syndrome, trauma and ascariasis. Typhoid fever, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, ingestion of corrosives may also be responsible.\nEating multiple magnets can also lead to perforation if the magnets attract and stick to one another through different loops of the intestine. Diagnosis On x-rays, gas may be visible in the abdominal cavity. Gas is easily visualized on x-ray while",
"-28.429803166771308"
],
[
"acid and the wall lining which is protected by mucus. When this mucus lining is disrupted for whatever reason, signs and symptoms of acidity result. This may result in upper abdominal pain, indigestion, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting and heartburn. When the condition is allowed to progress, the pain may become continuous; blood may start to leak and be seen in the stools. If the bleeding is rapid and of adequate volume it may even result in vomiting of bright red blood (hematemesis). When the acidity is uncontrolled, it can even cause severe blood loss (anemia) or lead to perforation",
"-28.417112202383578"
],
[
"Type 1 Gastric volvulus of unknown cause comprises two thirds of cases and is presumably due to abnormal laxity of the gastrosplenic, gastroduodenal, gastrophrenic, and gastrohepatic ligaments. Type 1 gastric volvulus is more common in adults but has been reported in children. Type 2 Type 2 gastric volvulus is found in one third of patients and is usually associated with congenital or acquired abnormalities that result in abnormal mobility of the stomach. Diagnosis On chest radiography, a retrocardiac, gas-filled viscus may be seen in cases of intrathoracic stomach, which confirms the diagnosis. Plain abdominal radiography reveals a massively distended viscus",
"-28.357965369417798"
],
[
"Gastroenteritis Signs and symptoms Gastroenteritis usually involves both diarrhea and vomiting. Sometimes, only one or the other is present. This may be accompanied by abdominal cramps. Signs and symptoms usually begin 12–72 hours after contracting the infectious agent. If due to a virus, the condition usually resolves within one week. Some viral infections also involve fever, fatigue, headache and muscle pain. If the stool is bloody, the cause is less likely to be viral and more likely to be bacterial. Some bacterial infections cause severe abdominal pain and may persist for several weeks.\nChildren infected with rotavirus usually make a full recovery",
"-28.346943427313818"
],
[
"ensuring that it does not become too acidic. These cells also produce mucus, which forms a viscous physical barrier to prevent gastric acid from damaging the stomach. The pancreas further produces large amounts of bicarbonate and secretes bicarbonate through the pancreatic duct to the duodenum to completely neutralize any gastric acid that passes further down into the digestive tract.\nThe main constituent of gastric acid is hydrochloric acid which is produced by parietal cells (also called oxyntic cells) in the gastric glands in the stomach. Its secretion is a complex and relatively energetically expensive process. Parietal cells contain an extensive",
"-28.294260534923524"
],
[
"severe than those induced by food allergy, but can include anaphylaxis. Research directions FODMAPs are fermentable oligo-, di-, monosaccharides and polyols, which are poorly absorbed in the small intestine and subsequently fermented by the bacteria in the distal small and proximal large intestine. This is a normal phenomenon, common to everyone. The resultant production of gas potentially results in bloating and flatulence. Although FODMAPs can produce certain digestive discomfort in some people, not only do they not cause intestinal inflammation, but they avoid it, because they produce beneficial alterations in the intestinal flora that contribute to maintain the good health",
"-28.291758214472793"
],
[
"results in loss of stomach acid (hydrochloric acid). The vomited material does not contain bile because the pyloric obstruction prevents entry of duodenal contents (containing bile) into the stomach. The chloride loss results in a low blood chloride level which impairs the kidney's ability to excrete bicarbonate. This is the factor that prevents correction of the alkalosis leading to metabolic alkalosis.\nA secondary hyperaldosteronism develops due to the decreased blood volume. The high aldosterone levels causes the kidneys to avidly retain Na⁺ (to correct the intravascular volume depletion), and excrete increased amounts of K⁺ into the urine (resulting in a low",
"-28.289777570636943"
],
[
"and the serosa. The mucosa, the inner most layer and lining of the esophagus, is composed of stratified squamous epithelium, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae. At the end of the esophagus is the lower esophageal sphincter, which normally prevents stomach acid from enteringthe esophagus. \nIf the sphincter is not sufficiently tight, it may allow acid to enter the esophagus, causing inflammation of one or more layers. Esophagitis may also occur if an infection is present, which may be due to bacteria, viruses, or fungi; or by diseases that affect the immune system. \nIrritation can be caused by GERD, vomiting, surgery,",
"-28.266597100067884"
],
[
"or rectovaginal fistulae can develop (holes that allow urine or faeces to seep into the vagina). This and other damage to the urethra and bladder can lead to infections and incontinence, pain during sexual intercourse and infertility. Painful periods are common because of the obstruction to the menstrual flow, and blood can stagnate in the vagina and uterus. Complete obstruction of the vagina can result in hematocolpos and hematometra (where the vagina and uterus fill with menstrual blood). The swelling of the abdomen and lack of menstruation can resemble pregnancy; Asma El Dareer, a Sudanese physician, reported in 1979 that",
"-28.237988191804106"
],
[
"stomach. As ureases they hydrolyze urea to produce ammonia and carbonic acid. As the bacteria are localized to the stomach ammonia produced is readily taken up by the circulatory system from the gastric lumen. This results in elevated ammonia levels in the blood and is coined as hyperammonemia, eradication of Heliobacter pylori show marked decreases in ammonia levels.\nUrease in peptic ulcers\nHelicobacter pylori is also the cause of peptic ulcers with its manifestation in 55–68% reported cases. This was confirmed by decreased ulcer bleeding and ulcer reoccurrence after eradication of the pathogen. In the stomach there is an increase in",
"-28.223975797416642"
],
[
"The stomach is then pushed through the esophageal hiatus (the hole where the esophagus passes through the diaphragm) and is joined to the remaining upper part of the esophagus at the neck.\nThe traditional transthoracic approach enters the body through the chest, and has a number of variations. The thoracoabdominal approach opens the abdominal and thoracic cavities together, the two-stage Ivor Lewis (also called Lewis–Tanner) approach involves an initial laparotomy and construction of a gastric tube, followed by a right thoracotomy to excise the tumor and create an esophagogastric anastomosis. The three-stage McKeown approach adds a third incision in the neck",
"-28.200620563235134"
],
[
"gallbladder to the intestines. Gallstones can get trapped in the gastrointestinal tract, most commonly at the connection between the small and large intestines (ileocecal valve). When a gallstone gets trapped, it can lead to an intestinal obstruction, called gallstone ileus, leading to abdominal pain, vomiting, constipation, and abdominal distension. Causes Cholecystitis occurs when the gallbladder becomes inflamed. Gallstones are the most common cause of gallbladder inflammation but it can also occur due to blockage from a tumor or scarring of the bile duct. The greatest risk factor for cholecystitis is gallstones. Risk factors for gallstones include female",
"-28.184871574572753"
],
[
"Cricopharyngeal spasm Causes Causes include stress and anxiety. Other causes are not yet clear. In some cases, eating certain foods may bring on acute spasms, in susceptible individuals. Peanuts, pumpkin seeds and other nuts may trigger these spasms. Physiology There are two sphincters in the oesophagus. They are normally contracted and they relax when one swallows so that food can pass through them going to the stomach. They then squeeze closed again to prevent regurgitation of the stomach contents. If this normal contraction becomes a spasm, these symptoms begin.",
"-28.182766892692598"
],
[
"wound. (By contrast, we do not perceive the shedding of the stomach lining as a structural failure.) This wound perception is reinforced by the fact that, during menstruation, the woman bleeds and may suffer from pain and discomfort. Martin contends that menstruation is a normal physiological function and process (not a dirty thing or a “secret illness”), which should be viewed as a success - i.e., the success of the female body in avoiding pregnancy, the success of the female body in ridding itself of potentially harmful material from the uterus. Yet, our language and culture prevent this.",
"-28.143807071519404"
],
[
"Gastric outlet obstruction Signs and symptoms The main symptom is vomiting, which typically occurs after meals, of undigested food devoid of any bile. A history of previous peptic ulcers and loss of weight is not uncommon. In advanced cases, signs to look for on physical examination are wasting and dehydration. Visible peristalsis from left to right may be present. Succussion splash is a splash-like sound heard over the stomach in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen on shaking the patient, with or without the stethoscope. Bowel sound may be increased (borborygmi) due to excessive peristaltic action of the",
"-28.141844039433636"
],
[
"quantify the total volume of gas produced by patients with irritable bowel syndrome (some including gas emitted from the mouth by eructation) have consistently failed to demonstrate increased volumes compared to healthy subjects. The proportion of hydrogen produced may be increased in some patients with irritable bowel syndrome, but this does not affect the total volume. Thirdly, the volume of flatus produced by patients with irritable bowel syndrome who have pain and abdominal distension would be tolerated in normal subjects without any complaints of pain.\nPatients who complain of bloating frequently can be shown to have objective increases in abdominal girth,",
"-28.11791115097003"
],
[
"the stomach is empty and to stop when the stomach is stretched). Leptin is produced by adipose tissue to signal fat storage reserves in the body, and mediates long-term appetitive controls (i.e. to eat more when fat storages are low and less when fat storages are high). Although administration of leptin may be effective in a small subset of obese individuals who are leptin-deficient, most obese individuals are thought to be leptin resistant and have been found to have high levels of leptin. This resistance is thought to explain in part why administration of leptin has not been shown to",
"-28.110019396059215"
],
[
"stomach. Fullness in the left hypochondrium may also be present. Pathophysiology In a peptic ulcer it is believed to be a result of edema and scarring of the ulcer, followed by healing and fibrosis, which leads to obstruction of the gastroduodenal junction (usually an ulcer in the first part of the duodenum). Diagnosis The most confirmatory investigation is endoscopy of upper gastrointestinal tract.\nLaboratory often find hypochloremic, hypokalemic, and alkalotic due to loss of hydrogen chloride and potassium. High urea and creatinine levels may also be observed if the patient is dehydrated.\nAbdominal X-ray may show a gastric fluid level which would",
"-28.10837537673069"
],
[
"notices that Jack feels no pain when she presses his belly. Cameron shows the team Jack's x-rays. She says he's constipated. Foreman diagnoses Hirschsprung's disease. They do a barium enema and a biopsy to confirm.\nCameron reviews the x-rays they've done on Jack over the course of over a week which show his colon is clear. Cameron checks Jack's belly and says while it feels better, it appears larger. Just then, Jack's right eye fixes (lateral rectus palsy) and he seizes. They give him diazepam for the seizure. Foreman sees Jack's optic disc is swollen, indicating intracranial hypertension. They give him",
"-28.061195579124615"
],
[
"somewhere near the umbilicus (belly button). Should the inflammation become severe, it may actually irritate the inner lining of the abdominal cavity called the peritoneum. This thin layer of tissue lies deep to the abdominal wall muscles. Now the pain has become \"localized\". If pressure is applied to the muscles of the right lower abdomen (or iliac fossa) near a very irritated appendix, then the muscle fibers in that area will be stretched and will hurt. Process A Rovsing's sign is elicited by pushing on the abdomen far away from the appendix in the left lower quadrant. The appendix, in",
"-28.027747214306146"
],
[
"Abdominal distension Treatment Bloating is not life-threatening. In most cases, bloating can be handled with simple home remedies and changes in lifestyle. Persistent or recurrent bloating may be caused by intestinal parasites, other infections, or other medical conditions. Foods Certain foods have been known to worsen bloating. Poorly digested components of many foods are excreted into the large intestine where they are degraded by bacteria, producing excess gas. Depending on the undigested component, this may affect the odor and the volume of gas created.\nExcess dietary fiber intake is a known cause of belching, gas and bloating. \nMany vegetables",
"-28.018272737797815"
],
[
"ulcers. Perianal candidiasis can cause anal itching; the lesion can be red, papular, or ulcerative in appearance, and it is not considered to be a sexually transmissible disease. Abnormal proliferation of the candida in the gut may lead to dysbiosis. While it is not yet clear, this alteration may be the source of symptoms generally described as the irritable bowel syndrome, and other gastrointestinal diseases. Causes Candida yeasts are generally present in healthy humans, frequently part of the human body's normal oral and intestinal flora, and particularly on the skin; however, their growth is normally limited by the human immune",
"-27.990256544668227"
],
[
"of proteins, no substantial pressure gradient can be established to draw fluids from the tissue back into the blood stream. This results in the pooling of fluids, causing the swelling and distention of the abdomen.\nThe low protein intake leads to some specific signs: edema of the hands and feet, irritability, anorexia, a desquamative rash, hair discolouration, and a large fatty liver. The typical swollen abdomen is due to two causes: ascites because of hypoalbuminemia (low oncotic pressure), and enlarged fatty liver.\nIgnorance of nutrition can be a cause. Dr. Michael Latham, former director of the Program in International Nutrition at Cornell",
"-27.983081117272377"
],
[
"erroneously believed that gastritis was the cause of ascites, typhoid fever, and meningitis. In 1854, Charles Handfield Jones and Wilson Fox described the microscopic changes of stomach inner lining in gastritis which existed in diffuse and segmental forms. In 1855, Baron Carl von Rokitansky first described hypetrophic gastritis. In 1859, British physician, William Brinton first described about acute, subacute, and chronic gastritis. In 1870, Samuel Fenwick noted that pernicious anemia causes glandular atrophy in gastritis. German surgeon, Georg Ernst Konjetzny noticed that gastric ulcer and gastric cancer are the result of gastric inflammation. Shields Warren and Willam A. Meissner described",
"-27.979447231278755"
],
[
"by pushing stool from the anal canal back into the rectum.\nOnce the voluntary signal to defecate is sent back from the brain, the abdominal muscles contract (straining) causing the intra-abdominal pressure to increase. The pelvic floor is lowered causing the anorectal angle to straighten out from ~90ᵒ to <15ᵒ and the external anal sphincter relaxes. The rectum now contracts and shortens in peristaltic waves, thus forcing fecal material out of the rectum, through the anal canal and out of the anus. The internal and external anal sphincters along with the puborectalis muscle allow the feces to be passed by pulling",
"-27.976643572736066"
],
[
"back into the abdominal cavity, either spontaneously or with manipulation. However, it is more likely to occur spontaneously. This is the most common type of femoral hernia and is usually painless.\nAn irreducible femoral hernia occurs when a femoral hernia cannot be completely reduced, typically due to adhesions between the hernia and the hernial sac. This can cause pain and a feeling of illness.\nAn obstructed femoral hernia occurs when a part of the intestine involved in the hernia becomes twisted, kinked, or constricted, causing an intestinal obstruction.\nA strangulated femoral hernia occurs when a constriction of the hernia limits or completely obstructs",
"-27.94692253798712"
],
[
"use of an endoscope. A gastric emptying scan is considered the gold standard to assess gastric emptying rate.\nA large number of studies have indicated that most cases of peptic ulcers, and gastritis, in humans are caused by Helicobacter pylori infection, and an association has been seen with the development of stomach cancer.\nA stomach rumble is actually noise from the intestines.\nThe stomach has to regenerate a new layer of mucus every two weeks, or else damage to the epithelium may result. Surgery In humans, many bariatric surgery procedures involve the stomach, in order to lose weight. A gastric band may be",
"-27.853125962312333"
],
[
"main site of digestion. The intestine opens, via a short rectum, to an anus located at the terminal end of the body. Some species only defecate when they molt, leaving the feces behind with the shed cuticle.\nThe brain develops in a bilaterally symmetric pattern. The brain includes multiple lobes, mostly consisting of three bilaterally paired clusters of neurons. The brain is attached to a large ganglion below the esophagus, from which a double ventral nerve cord runs the length of the body. The cord possesses one ganglion per segment, each of which produces lateral nerve fibres that run into the",
"-27.839778450783342"
],
[
"a functional \"defect\", allowing part of the stomach to (periodically) \"herniate\" into the chest. Hiatus hernias may be either \"sliding\", in which the gastroesophageal junction itself slides through the defect into the chest, or non-sliding (also known as para-esophageal), in which case the junction remains fixed while another portion of the stomach moves up through the defect. Non-sliding or para-esophageal hernias can be dangerous as they may allow the stomach to rotate and obstruct. Repair is usually advised.\nA congenital diaphragmatic hernia is a distinct problem, occurring in up to 1 in 2000 births, and requiring pediatric surgery. Intestinal organs may",
"-27.790033840574324"
]
] |
2t5hga | What causes sociopathy? | [
"You will not, it's part inherited, part developed through childhood trauma. You will not likely recognize it in a person, because a sociopath has learned to emulate all emotions like a regular one. However since they are unable to feel empathy or love you could approach them with those subjects.",
"I am a diagnosed sociopath, I do not remember any traumatic event in my childhood whatsoever. Also, I have been like this for as long as I can remember so I think it's probably pretty genetic. My therapist says it may be because I didn't recieve emotional stimuli as a toddler so I didn't developp well the areas of the brain associated with that.",
"I have had several serious head injuries and feel like I have sociopathic tendencies as a result. I definitely remember being more emotionally sensitive. People are amazed about how cold I can be, and I know I wasn't always this way. If someone is depressed or experiencing grief I do my best to comfort them but on the inside I am annoyed by what I perceive as weakness. It depresses me because I also feel like less of a person.",
"I wonder if there are various degrees of being a sociopath ? For instance one can become emotional at some point, have a moral code within them not associated by emotions, and still on the larger scale lack the ability to feel in most situations. Because they know they are considered off, they learn to mimic behavior of the average person. I doubt if all sociopaths manipulate their envirnoment any more than the average normal person.",
"Although I am not a psychologist, I believe sociopathic tendencies are much more complicated than they look. I would also love to see professional opinion about this.There might be people that develop it early in life, as a survival mechanism after a major traumatic event, there also might be people that just didn't have those sympathetic connections wired through their brains at infancy. There also might be a physical trauma that injures said connections in the brain. As a \"condition\", as far as I know sociopaths are apathetic to other peoples feelings, and lack the conscience that says what is right and what is wrong on an emotional level. They might learn to define between those things, but they wouldn't care. With that in mind sociopaths can learn to read and imitate emotional reactions that are hot-wired into normal peoples brains, and so be aware of everything you feel and everything they let you see about them. So they can manipulate sympathetic people to their benefit.",
"Follow up: Why don't you ever hear of sociopaths just leading normal lives? Why do they often become serial killers, at least in the popular consciousness?",
"They learn to hide it from silent observation and researching how they should display emotion.",
"I have a little sort of hobby, where I try and find as much out of a person as I can by just looking, one guy who was a friend of mine always showed emotion and things like that but every time something sad happened or something unhappy was going on nothing, decided to look into it a little further. He was a sociopath, never felt guilt, sadness or anything of the sorts, he cheated on his girlfriend more than once and managed to weasel his way out of it, until he then cheated on her with my girlfriend of almost two years after we had a fight. We split up and she made me promise not to say anything for fear this guys girlfriend would hate her. Fuck me.",
"If I recall correctly, personality disorders, like sociopath and psychopathy aren't rooted in any sort of neurotransmitter deficiency or overabundance like most disorders (depression, schizophrenia, etc.) So they're looking into genetic predisposition and environmental triggers. But I could be wrong, it's been a while since college. A great book, which I'm rereading currently, is The Psychopath Test by Jon Ronson. Entertaining and extremely informative, written by a phenomenal investigative journalist.",
"There's and evolutionary response: you get the creeps or someone creeps you out. It is a warning sign that your brain detects something not quite right, even if you aren't aware of it.",
"Genetics, natal exposure to certain chemicals, nobody really knows. Just be clear that a socio path isn't necessarily bad unless they actually do something bad."
] | [
[
"who violated legal or moral expectations or was considered inherently socially undesirable in some way.\nThe term sociopathy was popularized from 1929/30 by the American psychologist George E. Partridge and was originally intended as an alternative term to indicate that the defining feature was a pervasive failure to adhere to societal norms in a way that could harm others. The term psychopathy also gradually narrowed to the latter sense, based on interpretations of the work of a Scottish psychiatrist and especially checklists popularized by an American psychiatrist and later a Canadian psychologist. Psychopathy became defined in these quarters as a constellation",
"-32.18918079555442"
],
[
"reflect the user's views on the origins and determinants of the disorder. Hare contended that the term sociopathy is preferred by those that see the causes as due to social factors and early environment, and the term psychopathy preferred by those who believe that there are psychological, biological, and genetic factors involved in addition to environmental factors. Hare also provides his own definitions: he describes psychopathy as not having a sense of empathy or morality, but sociopathy as only differing from the average person in the sense of right and wrong. Precursors Ancient writings that have been connected to psychopathy",
"-31.92353003792232"
],
[
"psychopaths judged such actions to be more morally permissible. This result has been considered a reflection of psychopaths' failure to appreciate the emotional aspect of the victim's harmful experience. Cause Behavioral genetic studies have identified potential genetic and non-genetic contributors to psychopathy, including influences on brain function. Proponents of the triarchic model believe that psychopathy results from the interaction of genetic predispositions and an adverse environment. What is adverse may differ depending on the underlying predisposition: for example, it is hypothesized that persons having high boldness may respond poorly to punishment but may respond better to rewards and secure attachments.",
"-31.25582140287588"
],
[
"make social judgments, and may cause reflexive aggression. A common retort to these findings is that the higher incidence of cerebral lesions among the criminal population may be due to the peril associated with a life of crime. Along with this reasoning, it would be assumed that some other personality trait is responsible for the disregard of social acceptability and reduction in social aptitude.\nFurthermore, some think the dysfunction cannot be entirely to blame. There are interacting environmental factors that also have an influence on the likelihood of criminal action. This theory proposes that individuals with this deficit are less able",
"-30.724551985425933"
],
[
"irrational and maladaptive beliefs out of one's mind. Sociocultural influences The term sociocultural refers to the various circles of influence on the individual ranging from close friends and family to the institutions and policies of a country or the world as a whole. Discriminations, whether based on social class, income, race, and ethnicity, or gender, can influence the development of abnormal behaviour. Multiple causality The number of different theoretical perspectives in the field of psychological abnormality has made it difficult to properly explain psychopathology. The attempt to explain all mental disorders with the same theory leads to reductionism (explaining a",
"-30.706164806731977"
],
[
"nature that makes it prone to misuse. Signs and symptoms Socially, psychopathy expresses extensive callous and manipulative self-serving behaviors with no regard for others, and often is associated with repeated delinquency, crime and violence. Mentally, impairments in processes related to affect (emotion) and cognition, particularly socially related mental processes, have been found in those with the disorder. Developmentally, symptoms of psychopathy have been identified in young children with conduct disorder, and is suggestive of at least a partial constitutional factor that influences its development. Criminality In terms of simple correlations, the PCL-R manual states an average score of 22.1 has",
"-30.65127728151856"
],
[
"children exhibited characteristic behaviors of psychopathy, including: lack of empathy, lack of affection, and inappropriate social relationships (DSM III). This differed from \"socialized\" individuals, who were able to form healthy social attachments to others, and whose aggressive and antisocial acts typically derived from engagement in a deviant social group (e.g. youth gangs).\nFollowing the publication of DSM-III, these distinctions prompted research, but there were still issues with the terminology in diagnosing the core features of the undersocialized versus socialized subtype. The word undersocialized was used in order to avoid the negative connotations of psychopathy, but was commonly misinterpreted to mean that",
"-30.623820697453993"
],
[
"and antisocial personality disorder are adult externalizing disorders. Externalizing psychopathology is associated with antisocial behavior, which is different from and often confused for asociality. Signs and symptoms Externalizing disorders often involve emotion dysregulation problems and impulsivity that are manifested as antisocial behavior and aggression in opposition to authority, societal norms, and often violate the rights of others. Some examples of externalizing disorder symptoms include, often losing one's temper, excessive verbal aggression, physical aggression to people and animals, destruction of property, theft, and deliberate fire setting. As with all DSM-5 mental disorders, an individual must have functional impairment in at least",
"-30.522093224528362"
],
[
"is a core characteristic of this disorder: they can have significant difficulties in maintaining stable employment as well as fulfilling their social and financial obligations, and people with this disorder often lead exploitative, unlawful, or parasitic lifestyles.\nThose with antisocial personality disorder are often impulsive and reckless, failing to consider or disregarding the consequences of their actions. They may repeatedly disregard and jeopardize their own safety and the safety of others and place themselves and others in danger. They are often aggressive and hostile and display a dysregulated temper and can lash out violently with provocation or frustration. Individuals are prone",
"-30.279928070376627"
],
[
"with the generation of pleasurable feelings when a non-moral act is performed towards a hostile entity, a phenomenon called Schadenfreude. The cingulate cortex allows for conflict regulation when performing an immoral action and the feeling of envy when self identified entities are overcome by non identified ones. Psychopathy Psychopathy is a brain disorder remarked by lack of moral emotions, empathy, remorse and guilt. People with psychopathy appear to have defects in moral judgement, but not in moral reasoning. Neuroimaging of the psychopathic brain has revealed hypoperfusion and hypometabolism in areas of the frontal cortex. The areas of the medial prefrontal",
"-30.20699347955815"
],
[
"the definition of psychopathy to antisocial personality, and from 1930 suggested that a more apt name for it would be sociopathy. He suggested that anyone, and indeed groups of people acting together, could be considered sociopathic at times, but that sociopaths – or technically 'essential sociopaths' - were chronically and pervasively so in their motivation and behavior.!n 1933, American Psychiatrist Harry Stack Sullivan first coined the term \"Psychopathic child,\" which is now thought to be the first formulation of autism spectrum disorder, to describe interpersonal deficiency which starts from childhood. Scottish psychiatrist David Henderson published in 1939 a theory of \"psychopathic",
"-30.201857260166435"
],
[
"\"individuals who are chronically in trouble and do not seem to change as a result of experience or punishment, with no loyalties to anyone\", as well as being frequently callous and lacking responsibility, with an ability to 'rationalize' their behaviour. The dyssocial reaction was for \"individuals who disregard societal rules, although they are capable of strong loyalties to others or groups.\" Although the sociopathy category was very broad by today's definitions, the DSM-I itself pointed out that it was more specific and limited than the then current notions of 'constitutional psychopathic state' or 'psychopathic personality'.\nMeanwhile, other subtypes of psychopathy were",
"-30.094825970922102"
],
[
"Disorder\", which is believed to occur when groups or pairs of people are isolated from the world, developing paranoia, and in which one partner dominates the other. This is especially true of Léa, whose meek personality was overshadowed by obstinate and dominant Christine.\nThe case had a huge impact on the community and was debated furiously by the intelligentsia. Some people considered that the murders had been the result of \"exploitation of the workers\", considering that the maids worked fourteen-hour days, with only half a day off each week. Intellectuals empathized with the sisters' oppressive struggle of social classes. Les Bonnes",
"-29.82118775046547"
],
[
"suggested that autism is not caused by an innate deficit in a specific social circuitry in the brain, also citing other research suggesting that specificalized social brain mechanisms may not exist even in neurotypic people, but that particular features of appearance and/or minor details in behavior are met with exclusion from socialization that shows up as apparently reduced social ability. Psychopathy Psychopathy is a personality disorder partly characterized by antisocial and aggressive behaviors, as well as emotional and interpersonal deficits including shallow emotions and a lack of remorse and empathy. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and",
"-29.75706180427369"
],
[
"Social Risk Factors In many studies, the individuals displaying antisocial behavior developed in a family exhibiting \"deviant behavior,\" in an \"adverse home environment,\" or in something similar. However most studies do not specify the exact traits that characterize the tested 'deviant' or 'adverse' environment. Many that are cited include abuse, neglect, socioeconomic status, parental antisocial behavior, etc. There is no evidence that social factors, such as these, can induce antisocial behavior without accompanying biological factors. Adolescence-limited offenders Although the biological risk factor do not apply to this group, one point worth noting is that the myelination",
"-29.663266945572104"
],
[
"an environmental influence on the development of psychopathy because of evidence of its strong heritability. Brain injury Researchers have linked head injuries with psychopathy and violence. Since the 1980s, scientists have associated traumatic brain injury, such as damage to the prefrontal cortex, including the orbitofrontal cortex, with psychopathic behavior and a deficient ability to make morally and socially acceptable decisions, a condition that has been termed \"acquired sociopathy\", or \"pseudopsychopathy\". Individuals with damage to the area of the prefrontal cortex known as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex show remarkable similarities to diagnosed psychopathic individuals, displaying reduced autonomic response to emotional stimuli,",
"-29.63970238114416"
],
[
"and anti-social or violent behaviour. Such a morally pejorative concept is said to have not been intended by Koch; he had applied the term 'psychopathic' to mean originating from an organic defect in the brain, and the term inferiority to simply refer to dysfunction. However, it was probably his concept and terminology that provided the unfortunate conglomeration of aspects of inferiority, amorality and socially harmful behavior.",
"-29.632957840629388"
],
[
"population about OCD, largely as a result of gross misinformation about the disorder, often leads to assumptions that sufferers are criminals or deviants. This can then reinforce the belief in the mind of the sufferer that they really have committed a crime or immoral act, when they have not, or lead to doubts. This causes great distress for an OCD sufferer, and occasionally leads to the sufferer making \"confessions\" – sometimes to the police – and suicidal thoughts or attempts.\nIn the midst of the thoughts, the sexual obsessions may seem real. Occasionally, individuals with OCD believe that their",
"-29.407889930935198"
],
[
"personality disorder, and had more charges and convictions for criminal offenses. This brain maldevelopment was especially linked to lifelong antisocial behavior, i.e. a reckless disregarded for self and others, lack of remorse, and aggression.\nBigger right hippocampus. A 2004 study suggested that the psychopaths’ right hippocampus that partially controls emotions and regulates aggression was significantly bigger than the left. This asymmetry was also true in normal people, but it was much more noticeable in psychopaths.\nIncrease in the volume of the striatum. A study in 2010 found that psychopathic individuals showed a 10 percent increase in the volume of the striatum.\nDamage by",
"-29.396628820890328"
],
[
"of violent characters helps to reduce violent effects in the individual. Cause and effects Families greatly impact the causation of anti-social behaviour. Some other familial causes are parent history of anti-social behaviours, parental alcohol and drug abuse, unstable home life, absence of good parenting, physical abuse, parental instability (mental health issues/PTSD) and economic distress within the family.\nThere is a small link between antisocial personality characteristics in adulthood and more TV watching as a child. The risk of early adulthood criminal conviction increased by nearly 30 percent with each hour children spent watching TV on an average weekend. Peers can also",
"-29.393307805195946"
],
[
"the observed behaviour, in this case, anti-social behaviour. Antisocial Personality Disorder can only be diagnosed when a pattern of anti-social behaviour began being noticeable during childhood and/or early teens and remained stable and consistent across time and context. In the official DSM IV-TR for ASPD, it is specified that the anti-social behaviour has to occur outside of time frames surrounding traumatic life events or manic episodes (if the individual is diagnosed with another mental disorder). The diagnosis for ASPD cannot be done before the age of 18. For example, someone who exhibits anti-social behaviour with their family but pro-social behaviour",
"-29.389445566106588"
],
[
"abnormal population.\nDr. Hincks's committee describes a causal link between mental abnormality and immorality (illegitimacy, criminality, prostitution, dependency). The suggestion that bad behaviour and sexual immorality were directly related to mental deficiency gave rise to concern by the public and politicians that these individuals posed a threat to society.\nIn addition, the committee assumed that mental abnormality could be detected early in life with various test instruments. In the course of their examination, they also reviewed student behaviour at the elementary level by administering intelligence quotient tests to children who had been described by their teachers as “troublesome, mischief makers",
"-29.21956990752369"
],
[
"varying or contradictory views.\"\nNevertheless, criminologist sociologists William and Joan McCord were influential in narrowing the definition of psychopathy in some quarters to mean an antisocial lack of guilt accompanied by reactive aggression. From another direction, sociologist Lee Robins was also an influential figure in sociopathy research, stemming largely from her research-based 1966 book 'Deviant Children Grown Up: a sociological and psychiatric study of sociopathic personality', based on operational criteria provided by Eli Robins, which would shape the later diagnosis of Antisocial Personality Disorder.\nIn the Mental Health Act in England, a new category of 'Psychopathic Personality' was added in 1959, renamed",
"-29.21583485638257"
],
[
"them. Some violent offenders, however, have subtle structural or functional abnormalities and even highly experienced neuroradiologists cannot detect these irregularities right away. Yet, the abnormalities can be detected using brain imaging and state-of-the-art analytic tools. Neurophysiological studies Studies on structural deficiencies suggest that people consistently behaving antisocially have structurally impaired brains. The abnormalities can be either of general character or affect specific regions of the brain that control emotions, aggression or are responsible for ethical decisions:\nLow number of neurons in the prefrontal cortex.\nA study in 2000 determined that people with a history of persistent antisocial behavior had an 11 percent",
"-29.172393060696777"
],
[
"If social needs such as empathy, support, and understanding are not met, individuals are prone to this phenomenon. While anybody who has experienced victimization is susceptible to secondary victimization, prevalence rates are significantly elevated for some populations. This includes females, children, racial and sexual minorities, and those sexually assaulted by an acquaintance or stranger. Moreover, those experiencing a certain type of violence are at increased likelihood to experience secondary victimization. These include physical assault, sexual assault, and domestic violence Notably, rape victims are at highest risk of secondary victimization from the criminal justice system, with about half who report",
"-29.162057631183416"
],
[
"likely to link these physical cues to problems of social cohesion and consensus, of declining quality of social bonds and informal social control. Interpersonal communication and the mass media Hearing about events; knowing others who have been victimised– these are thought to raise perceptions of the risk of victimisation. This has been described as a 'crime multiplier', or processes operating in the residential environment that would 'spread' the impacts of criminal events. Such evidence exists that hearing of friends' or neighbours' victimisation increases anxiety that indirect experiences of crime may play a stronger role in anxieties about victimisation than direct",
"-29.158856350797578"
],
[
"and higher rates of health and social problems (obesity, mental illness, homicides, teenage births, incarceration, child conflict, drug use), and lower rates of social goods (life expectancy, educational performance, trust among strangers, women's status, social mobility, even numbers of patents issued per capita), on the other. The authors argue inequality leads to the social ills through the psychosocial stress, status anxiety it creates.\nA 2011 report by the International Monetary Fund by Andrew G. Berg and Jonathan D. Ostry found a strong association between lower levels of inequality and sustained periods of economic growth. Developing countries (such as Brazil, Cameroon, Jordan)",
"-29.155007366411155"
],
[
"psychopathy or criminal behavior, Mednick, William Gabrielli, and Barry Hutching in an article for Science showed anti-social behavior to have a genetic component, at least in relation to property crimes. Using an adoption paradigm, the authors found no correlation between criminal conviction in the adoptive parents and their children, but there was a correlation between biological father conviction and child conviction. The authors stressed that genetic influences do not mean that anti-social behavior is completely genetically determined, but that it has a genetic component. Earlier in his career, Mednick had hypothesized that autonomic under-arousal may be a genetic factor predisposing",
"-29.154603928080178"
],
[
"is used to explain extreme behaviors like genocide, harsh immigration policies, and eugenics, but it can also happen on a more regular, everyday discriminatory level. In laboratory studies, people who are portrayed as lacking human qualities have been found to be treated in a particularly harsh and violent manner.\nDehumanized perception has been indicated to occur when a subject experiences low frequencies of activation within their social cognition neural network. This includes areas of neural networking such as the superior temporal sulcus and the medial prefrontal cortex. A study by Frith & Frith in 2001 suggests the criticality of social interaction",
"-29.078601138666272"
],
[
"the spread of infectious diseases. Other characteristics such as strong in-group–out-group bias and willingness to defend the ingroup's honor may promote violence. A study found strong associations between several forms of violent criminal behavior and both infectious disease rates across U.S states and degree of cultural collectivism across U.S. states. The associations remained strong after controlling for income inequality. Specific forms Evolutionary psychology researchers have proposed several evolutionary explanations for psychopathy. One is that psychopathy represents a frequency-dependent, socially parasitic strategy. This may benefit the psychopath as long as there are few other psychopaths in the community since more psychopaths",
"-29.0676222720067"
],
[
"lower-classes live in close proximity this can result in feelings of anger, hostility, social injustice and frustration. Criminals experience poverty; and witness affluence they are deprived of and which is virtually impossible for them to attain through conventional means. The concept of neighborhood is central to this theory, as it defines the social learning, locus of control, cultural influences and access to social opportunity experienced by criminals and the groups they form. Fear of or lack of trust in mainstream authority may also be a key contributor to social disorganization; organized crime groups replicate such figures and thus ensure",
"-29.067046861251583"
],
[
"friends. Lesions in the right hemisphere's frontal lobe are associated with antisocial states and left frontal lesions are associated with increase in violent behaviors. Individuals with focal lesions in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the orbitofrontal cortex exhibit amoral choices in moral tasks and lack of empathy, compassion, shame, and guilt. Clinical neuropsychiatry The study of brain areas that relate to morality can be utilized to promote moral behavior through transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct-current stimulation. Stimulation of the medial prefrontal cortex results in reduction of racial biases and increase in rejection of unfair offers. Stimulation of the dorsolateral",
"-29.018057226174278"
],
[
"\"society\" as the cause. Hence, environmental criminology and other sub-schools study the spatial distribution of crimes and offenders (see Adolphe Quetelet, who discovered that crimes rates are relatively constant, and the Chicago School which, under the leadership of Robert E. Park, viewed the city as a form of superorganism, zoned into areas engaged in a continuous process of invasion, dominance, and succession). Meanwhile, Émile Durkheim identified society as a social phenomenon, external to individuals, with crime a normal part of a healthy society. Deviancy was nothing more than \"boundary setting,\" pushing to determine the current limits of morality",
"-28.983952987859084"
],
[
"on sex offenders is generally extremely negative, with sex offenders being one of the most hated types of people in society. Daniel J. Wood wrote, \"Many studies have been conducted to evaluate the public's attitude toward sex offenders and most, to put it bluntly, would like to torture them before they are sentenced to death\". Pedophiles and child molesters are also some of the most hated types of people in society. Pedophilia is one of the most stigmatized disorders. One study reported high levels of anger, fear and social rejection towards pedophiles who have not committed a crime. Society's attitude",
"-28.954202626424376"
],
[
"criminology.\nMillon, Simonsen and Birket-Smith have stated that \"K. Birnbaum (1909), writing in Germany at the time of Kraepelin's later editions, was the first to suggest that the term \"sociopathic\" might be the most apt designation for the majority of these cases\"\nThe term sociopathy would later gradually become popular in America, especially as expounded by psychologist George E. Partridge (1930) and adopted into early versions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and is still referred to as an alternative term for antisocial personality disorder. Birnbaum proposed several subtypes of sociopathy and argued that while there may be varying",
"-28.95387585568824"
],
[
"psychosocial health, nutrition, wellness, access to healthcare services, and threat of violence. The exchange of these elements in a home mediates in the impacts of geographical, cultural, and household patterns that result in inequality in health status and outcomes. Health-related behaviors, access and use of healthcare, stress, and psychosocial resources like social ties, coping, and spirituality all serve as factors that mediate health inequality. Household discrimination causes missing girls at birth, and the persistence of discrimination and poor service delivery perpetuates high female mortality. Societal causes Socioeconomic status has long been related to health, those higher in the social",
"-28.947828277065128"
],
[
"Psychopathy Definition A person suffering from a chronic mental disorder with abnormal or violent social behavior. Measurement An early and influential analysis from Harris and colleagues indicated that a discrete category, or taxon, may underlie PCL-R psychopathy, allowing it to be measured and analyzed. However, this was only found for the behavioral Factor 2 items they identified, child problem behaviors; adult criminal behavior did not support the existence of a taxon. Marcus, John, and Edens more recently performed a series of statistical analyses on PPI scores and concluded that psychopathy may best be conceptualized as having a \"dimensional latent structure\"",
"-28.93546353917918"
],
[
"International Classification of Diseases (ICD) list antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) and dissocial personality disorder, stating that these have been referred to or include what is referred to as psychopathy.\nA large body of research suggests that psychopathy is associated with atypical responses to distress cues (e.g. facial and vocal expressions of fear and sadness), including decreased activation of the fusiform and extrastriate cortical regions, which may partly account for impaired recognition of and reduced autonomic responsiveness to expressions of fear, and impairments of empathy. Studies on children with psychopathic tendencies have also shown such associations. The underlying biological surfaces for processing",
"-28.934622044758726"
],
[
"Psychopathy in the workplace The presence of psychopathy in the workplace—although psychopaths typically represent a relatively small percentage of workplace staff—can do enormous damage when in senior management roles. Psychopaths are usually most common at higher levels of corporate organizations and their actions often cause a ripple effect throughout an organization, setting the tone for an entire corporate culture. Examples of detrimental effects are increased bullying, conflict, stress, staff turnover and absenteeism; reduction in productivity and in social responsibility. Ethical standards of entire organisations can be badly damaged if a corporate psychopath is in charge. A 2017 UK study found",
"-28.92986792987722"
],
[
"Antisocial personality disorder Signs and symptoms Antisocial personality disorder is defined by a pervasive and persistent disregard for morals, social norms, and the rights and feelings of others. Individuals with this personality disorder will typically have no compunction in exploiting others in harmful ways for their own gain or pleasure and frequently manipulate and deceive other people, achieving this through wit and a façade of superficial charm or through intimidation and violence. They may display arrogance, think lowly and negatively of others, and lack remorse for their harmful actions and have a callous attitude to those they have harmed. Irresponsibility",
"-28.90748334636737"
],
[
"crime can be locked into social deprivation. Contributors to Social exclusion has many contributors. Major contributors include race, income, employment status, social class, geographic location, personal habits and appearance, education, religion, and political affiliation. Global and structural Globalization (global-capitalism), immigration, social welfare, and policy are broader social structures that have the potential to contribute negatively to one's access to resources and services, resulting in the social exclusion of individuals and groups. Similarly, increasing use of information technology and the company outsourcing have contributed to job insecurity and a widening gap between the rich and the poor. Alphonse, George & Moffat",
"-28.88094341872784"
],
[
"Sexual offending Psychopathy has been associated with commission of sexual crime, with some researchers arguing that it is correlated with a preference for violent sexual behavior. A 2011 study of conditional releases for Canadian male federal offenders found that psychopathy was related to more violent and non-violent offences but not more sexual offences. For child molesters, psychopathy was associated with more offences. A study on the relationship between psychopathy scores and types of aggression in a sample of sexual murderers, in which 84.2% of the sample had PCL-R scores above 20 and 47.4% above 30, found that 82.4% of those",
"-28.827849760709796"
],
[
"behavioral and moral dysfunction in the absence of an obvious mental illness or intellectual disability. He applied the term psychopathic inferiority (psychopathischen Minderwertigkeiten) to various chronic conditions and character disorders, and his work would influence the later conception of the personality disorder.\nThe term psychopathic came to be used to describe a diverse range of dysfunctional or antisocial behavior and mental and sexual deviances, including at the time homosexuality. It was often used to imply an underlying \"constitutional\" or genetic origin. Disparate early descriptions likely set the stage for modern controversies about the definition of psychopathy. 20th century An influential figure",
"-28.779316734930035"
],
[
"found to be negatively correlated to cognitive and affective empathy. Bully-victims There is a strong positive relationship between engaging in bullying behaviors and having been victimized by bullying behaviors. This is both a common finding in review of the research and is in tune with what is commonly observed during human adolescence; often victims of bullying go on to become bullies themselves. A history of victimization often leads to a perpetuation of similar behavior. Having low emotional intelligence increases the likelihood of being both a victim and a bully, which are apparently not mutually exclusive roles. This dual status is",
"-28.71619512118923"
],
[
"psychopathy, which describes its core affective (e.g. lack of empathy, fearlessness) and interpersonal (e.g. grandiosity, manipulativeness) personality disturbances. This is suggestive of two different forms, one associated more with impulsive behavior and emotional dysregulation, and the other with predatory aggression and affective disturbance, of the disorder.\nVarious other gene candidates for ASPD have been identified by a genome-wide association study published in 2016. Several of these gene candidates are shared with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, with which ASPD is comorbid. Hormones and neurotransmitters Traumatic events can lead to a disruption of the standard development of the central nervous system, which can generate",
"-28.690365164693503"
],
[
"Socioeconomic status and mental health Numerous studies around the world have found a relationship between socioeconomic status and mental health. There are higher rates of mental illness in groups with lower socioeconomic status (SES), but there is no clear consensus on the exact causative factors. The two principal models that attempt to explain this relationship are the social causation theory, which posits that socioeconomic inequality causes stress that gives rise to mental illness, and the downward drift approach, which assumes that people predisposed to mental illness are reduced in socioeconomic status as a result of the illness. Most literature on",
"-28.68605336858309"
],
[
"relative deprivation explains that people who feel jealous and discontent of others might turn to crime to acquire the things that they can not afford. Rural Criminology Rural criminology is the study of crime trends outside of metropolitan and suburban areas. Rural criminologists have used social disorganization and routine activity theories. The FBI Uniform Crime Report shows that rural communities have significantly different crime trends as opposed to metropolitan and suburban areas. The crime in rural communities consists predominantly of narcotic related crimes such as the production, use, and trafficking of narcotics. Social disorganization theory is used to examine the",
"-28.669911113087437"
],
[
"and the notion of the Deviancy Amplification Spiral. It helped to shift the focus of Criminology away from the causes of crime towards social reaction, the sociology of crime and Social Control. Cohen suggested the media overreact to an aspect of behaviour which may be seen as a challenge to existing social norms. However, the media response and representation of that behaviour actually helps to define it, communicate it and portrays it as a model for outsiders to observe and adopt. So the moral panic by society represented in the media arguably fuels further socially unacceptable behaviour.\nAlthough Cohen is credited",
"-28.63764545324375"
],
[
"have noted that psychopathy is dissociable from and not synonymous with violence.\nIt has been suggested that psychopathy is associated with \"instrumental\", also known as predatory, proactive, or \"cold blooded\" aggression, a form of aggression characterized by reduced emotion and conducted with a goal differing from but facilitated by the commission of harm. One conclusion in this regard was made by a 2002 study of homicide offenders, which reported that the homicides committed by homicidal offenders with psychopathy were almost always (93.3%) primarily instrumental, significantly more than the proportion (48.4%) of those committed by non-psychopathic homicidal offenders, with the instrumentality of",
"-28.63255702245806"
],
[
"may affect different areas of the nervous system at different times and ages. These range from social deprivation, genetic and metabolic diseases, immune disorders, infectious diseases, nutritional factors, physical trauma, and toxic and environmental factors. Some neurodevelopmental disorders, such as autism and other pervasive developmental disorders, are considered multifactorial syndromes which have many causes that converge to a more specific neurodevelopmental manifestation. Social deprivation Deprivation from social and emotional care causes severe delays in brain and cognitive development. Studies with children growing up in Romanian orphanages during Nicolae Ceauşescu's regime reveal profound effects of social deprivation and language deprivation on",
"-28.621627012078534"
],
[
"bullied in the workplace may have deteriorated self-esteem, suffer from isolation and become fearful and avoidant after being victimized. They may disengage and withdraw from their work community. Both child and adult victims are at greater risk of developing mental pathology. EI is found to be a significant predictor of variance in adolescent peer victimization in bullying and also has a negative correlation with adolescent bullying. Victim peer relations showed strong negative correlations with the emotional management and facilitation dimensions of EI conceptualized as Emotional Management and Control and Emotions Direct Cognitions respectively, both of which made significant semi-partial",
"-28.57514934951905"
],
[
"of personality traits allegedly associated with immorality, criminality, or in some cases socioeconomic success.\nOfficial psychiatric diagnostic manuals adopted a mixture of approaches, eventually going by the term antisocial or dissocial personality disorder. In the meantime concepts of psychopaths/sociopaths had become notorious among the general public and as characters in fiction. Early literature Labels for personality and behavior patterns consistent with psychopathy exist in most cultures. In rural Nigeria, the term Aranakan, was used by the Yoruba people to describe an individual who \"always goes his own way regardless of others, who is uncooperative, full of malice, and bullheaded.\" Similarly, the",
"-28.5742944709491"
],
[
"concept of psychopathy. It was used to indicate that the defining feature is violation of social norms, or antisocial behavior, and has often also been associated with postulating social as well as biological causation.\nThe term is used in various different ways in contemporary usage. Robert Hare stated in the popular science book entitled Snakes in Suits that sociopathy and psychopathy are often used interchangeably, but in some cases the term sociopathy is preferred because it is less likely than is psychopathy to be confused with psychosis, whereas in other cases the two terms may be used with different meanings that",
"-28.541650290833786"
],
[
"or her, the perception of rejection or humiliation at the hands of others, being under the influence of substances or a history of antisocial personality disorder, frontal lobe dysfunction or head injury. Associated psychopathology People who have homicidal ideation are at higher risk of other psychopathology than the normal population. This includes suicidal ideation, psychosis, delirium, or intoxication. It is well established that people with schizophrenia have an increased risk of committing violent acts, including homicide.\nHomicidal ideation may arise in relation to behavioural conditions such as personality disorder (particularly conduct disorder, narcissistic personality disorder and antisocial personality disorder). A study",
"-28.534171140068793"
],
[
"being cited as a cause of psychopathy. The concept fell into disrepute due partly to its use by the Nazis to justify eradicating their opposition. Early 20th century The meaning gradually narrowed, initially as 'psychopathic inferiors' covering all of what today might be called personality disorders and various other conditions, then intertwining with the terminology of the 'sociopath' (and eventually antisocial personality disorder), though psychopathy remained variously defined in both broad and narrow ways.\nEarly representations of psychopaths in film were often caricatured as sadistic, unpredictable, sexually depraved, and emotionally unstable (manic) characters with a compulsion to engage in random violence",
"-28.49584126487025"
],
[
"social periods of disruption result in greater anomie and higher rates of suicide and crimes. Merton theorizes that anomie (normative breakdown) and some forms of deviant behavior derive largely from a disjunction between “culturally prescribed aspirations” of a society and “socially structured avenues for realizing those aspirations\". In The Division of Labor in Society, Durkheim described anomie as one result of an inequitable division of labour within the society. Broadly speaking, then, during times of great upheaval, increasing numbers of individuals \"cease to accept the moral legitimacy of society,” as sociologist Anthony R. Mawson, University of Keele, UK, notes.\nCritical theory",
"-28.489121030870592"
],
[
"AIDS is related to homosexuality.\nEven so, research has found that societal structure and beliefs influence the prevalence stigma and discrimination. \"The two concepts of right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation have proven to be strong and reliable predictors of different types of prejudice.\" Similar to sexism, racism, and other forms of discrimination, the raised and taught belief to view PLHIV as deviants and outcasts as children who become adults with warped view of PLHIV. \"In order to cope with threat, people may adhere to a submissive authoritarian ideology, which will lead them to reject other groups that are perceived",
"-28.445442515570903"
],
[
"associated with psychopathic trends in young people. Intervention and treatment As a high prevalence mental health problem in children, many interventions and treatments are developed to prevent anti-social behaviours and to help reinforce pro-social behaviours.\nSeveral factors are considered as direct or indirect causes of developing anti-social behaviour in children. Addressing these factors are necessary to develop a reliable and effective intervention or treatment. Children's perinatal risk, temperament, intelligence, nutrition level, and interaction with parents or caregivers can influence their behaviours. As for parents or caregivers, their personality traits, behaviours, socioeconomic status, social network, and living environment can also affect children's",
"-28.437283541759825"
],
[
"Psychopathic Disorder in 1983 (then in 2007 removed entirely). This was a legal subcategory in addition to 'mental illness' which did not equate to any one psychiatric diagnosis but covered anyone with \"a persistent disorder or disability of mind which results in abnormally aggressive or seriously irresponsible conduct.\"\nOn the other hand, various analysts began to identify \"successful\" psychopaths in society, some even suggesting it was but an adaption to the social or economic mores of the age, others noting they could be hard to spot either because they were so good at hiding their lack of conscience, or because many",
"-28.43381057926308"
],
[
"of isolation and loneliness due to their overwhelming dependence on other people. Generally people with DPD are also pessimistic: they expect the worst out of situations or believe that the worst will happen. They tend to be more introverted and are more sensitive to criticism and fear rejection. Risk factors People with a history of neglect and an abusive upbringing are more susceptible to develop DPD, specifically those involved in long-term abusive relationships. Those with overprotective or authoritarian parents are also more at risk to develop DPD. Having a family history of anxiety disorder can play a role in the",
"-28.43275160578196"
],
[
"negative effects similar to the victimized children themselves.\"\nWhile most bullies, in the long term, grow up to be emotionally functional adults, many have an increased risk of developing antisocial personality disorder, which is linked to an increased risk of committing criminal acts (including domestic violence). Negative impact on educational quality and outcomes The educational effects on victims of school violence and bullying are significant. Violence and bullying at the hands of teachers or other students may make children and adolescents afraid to go to school and interfere with their ability to concentrate in class or participate in school activities. It",
"-28.42151961172931"
],
[
"sense, any behaviour or experience which causes impairment, distress or disability, particularly if it is thought to arise from a functional breakdown in either the cognitive or neurocognitive systems in the brain, may be classified as psychopathology. It remains unclear how strong the distinction between maladaptive traits and mental disorders actually is, e.g. neuroticism is often described as the personal level of minor psychiatric symptoms. DSM/RDoc debate Some scholars have argued that field should switch from the DSM categorical approach of mental disorders to the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) dimensional approach of mental disorders, although the consensus at present is",
"-28.417559052511933"
],
[
"stress disorder (PTSD), and major depression.\nIn mobbing targets with PTSD, Leymann notes that the \"mental effects were fully comparable with PTSD from war or prison camp experiences.\" Some patients may develop alcoholism or other substance abuse disorders. Family relationships routinely suffer. Workplace targets and witnesses may even develop brief psychotic episodes occupational psychosis generally with paranoid symptoms. Leymann estimated that 15% of suicides in Sweden could be directly attributed to workplace mobbing. Development of the concept Konrad Lorenz, in his book entitled On Aggression (1966), first described mobbing among birds and animals, attributing it to instincts rooted in the Darwinian",
"-28.41624164646737"
],
[
"cases where psychopathy is often seen as aggravating the crime.\nHare wants the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders to list psychopathy as a unique disorder, saying psychopathy has no precise equivalent in either the DSM-IV-TR, where it is most strongly correlated with the diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder, or the ICD-10, which has a similar diagnosis called dissocial personality disorder. Both organizations state their diagnoses have been referred to as or include the disorder of psychopathy. But only a minority of those in institutions whom Hare and his followers would diagnose as psychopaths are violent offenders. Other PCL-R findings",
"-28.38416970646358"
],
[
"Victimisation Victimisation (or victimization) is the process of being victimised or becoming a victim. The field that studies the process, rates, incidence, effects, and prevalence of victimisation is called victimology. Peer victimisation Peer victimisation is the experience among children of being a target of the aggressive behaviour of other children, who are not siblings and not necessarily age-mates. Prevalence Secondary victimization (also known as post crime victimization or double victimization ) refers to further victim-blaming from criminal justice authorities following a report of an original victimization. Rates of victimization are high, with an estimated 5.7 million individuals experiencing",
"-28.360886207141448"
],
[
"social norms that discourage or suppress accomplishment or even competence as forms of inequality. Violence Violence is prevalent in many dystopias, often in the form of war; urban crimes led by gangs (often of teenagers) (e.g. A Clockwork Orange) rampant crime met by blood sports (e.g. Battle Royale, The Running Man, The Hunger Games and Divergent). Also explained in Suzanne Berne's essay \"Ground Zero\", where she explains her experience of the aftermath of 11 September 2001. Nature Fictional dystopias are commonly urban and frequently isolate their characters from all contact with the natural world. Sometimes they require their characters to",
"-28.32031338021625"
],
[
"this category; a view that emotion is central to the disorder rather than necessarily deficient intellect; description of nearly 20 subtypes of psychopathic personalities (more akin to personality disorders than psychopathy as often defined today); a pivotal role for life events and social conditions in shaping whether someone with various psychopathic dispositions would end up engaging in antisocial or criminal behavior or not, and an insistence that even lifelong criminality does not necessarily mean underlying psychopathy.\nBirnbaum suggested that some forms of psychopathy involving moral or emotional immaturity or instability could be overcome by social-educative methods or spiritual leadership.\nIn 1930 in",
"-28.276402386072732"
],
[
"and is sometimes thought to be punishment for sins or moral transgressions. Socioeconomic factors also have a direct impact. Lower-class domestic workers who are often employed by those in a higher socioeconomic class may find their employment in jeopardy as physical manifestations of the disease become apparent. Skin discoloration and darker pigmentation resulting from the disease also have social repercussions.\nIn extreme cases in northern India, leprosy is equated with an \"untouchable\" status that \"often persists long after (individuals with leprosy) have been cured of the disease, creating lifelong prospects of divorce, eviction, loss of employment, and ostracism from family and",
"-28.268171807954786"
],
[
"who commit disorder and crime have a clear tie to groups suffering from financial instability and may be of minority status: \"The use of racial context to encode disorder does not necessarily mean that people are racially prejudiced in the sense of personal hostility.\" He notes that residents make a clear implication of who they believe is causing the disruption, which has been termed as implicit bias. He further states that research conducted on implicit bias and stereotyping of cultures suggests that community members hold unrelenting beliefs of African-Americans and other disadvantaged minority groups, associating them with crime, violence, disorder,",
"-28.258174046214208"
],
[
"be made up of societal, political, economic, or personal factors which create a sense of injustice. It is not based on absolute poverty, a condition where one cannot meet a necessary level to maintain basic living standards. Rather, relative deprivation enforces the idea that even if a person is financially stable, he or she can still feel relatively deprived. The perception of being relatively deprived can result in criminal behavior and/or morally problematic decisions. Relative deprivation theory has increasingly been used to partially explain crime as rising living standards can result in rising crime levels. In criminology, the theory of",
"-28.255532947054235"
],
[
"and motivations, social influence may constitute underhanded manipulation. Psychopathy Being manipulative is in Factor 1 of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist (PCL). In the workplace The workplace psychopath may often rapidly shift between emotions – used to manipulate people or cause high anxiety.\nThe authors of the book Snakes in Suits: When Psychopaths Go to Work describe a five phase model of how a typical workplace psychopath climbs to and maintains power. In phase three (manipulation) - the psychopath will create a scenario of \"psychopathic fiction\" where positive information about themselves and negative disinformation about others will be created, where your role",
"-28.245317961602268"
],
[
"degrees of 'constitutional' disposition towards disorders that could lead to maladjustment and crime, it was the effect of social forces and environments which shaped the eventual outcome.\nBirnbaum published in 1914 a large encyclopedic volume on criminal psychopaths, a second and revised edition of which would be released in 1926. Reviewers at the time noted different themes—a view of constitutional psychopathy as a form of degeneration with both inherited (genetic 'taint') and prenatally acquired (through injury to 'germ plasm') types, resulting in a disposition towards mental disorder or a reduced capacity to resist anti-social tendencies; rejection of the term 'inferiors' for",
"-28.217104957402626"
],
[
"unknown. Definition Social anhedonia is defined as a disinterest in social contact and a lack of pleasure in social situations, and is characterized by social withdrawal. This characteristic typically manifests as an indifference to other people. In contrast to introversion, a nonpathological dimension of human personality, social anhedonia represents a deficit in the ability to experience pleasure. Additionally, social anhedonia differs from social anxiety in that social anhedonia is predominantly typified by diminished positive affect, while social anxiety is distinguished by both decreased positive affect and exaggerated negative affect. This trait is currently seen as a central characteristic to, as",
"-28.202642845190894"
],
[
"violence on victims, there is little information on the economic effect, especially for economically vulnerable victims such as Black and Latina women. These consequences of sexual violence disproportionately harm these specific demographics, because they make up a large portion of the group afflicted by income-poverty and asset poverty. Simply being from one of these poverty backgrounds increases the risk of sexual violence and discourages victims from reporting a rape crime as there is less confidence in the police services and there is a higher crime rate in areas of poverty. Effects on men \"Toxic masculinity\"—a concept posited by some feminist",
"-28.199543579337842"
],
[
"rather than two ends of a continuum. Emotional and behavioral reactions Research has found that, depending on how the victim handles social undermining, it can have damaging effects when it comes to increased counterproductive behaviors, reciprocated social undermining, and decreased job satisfaction. These negative outcomes can cause the person to have depression, a decreased self-esteem and even psychosomatic symptoms.\nIn a study of victims' perceptions of undermining they had experienced, Crossley found that when an offense was severe, the victim was more likely to believe that the offender committed the action with malicious intent or due to personal greed. Generally, victims'",
"-28.19437976361951"
],
[
"related to specific (performance) social phobia, for example, regarding public speaking (Stemberg et al., 1995). As well as direct experiences, observing or hearing about the socially negative experiences of others (e.g. a faux pas committed by someone), or verbal warnings of social problems and dangers, may also make the development of a social anxiety disorder more likely. Social anxiety disorder may be caused by the longer-term effects of not fitting in, or being bullied, rejected or ignored (Beidel and Turner, 1998). Shy adolescents or avoidant adults have emphasised unpleasant experiences with peers or childhood bullying or harassment (Gilmartin, 1987). In",
"-28.192355869650783"
],
[
"socially deprived children have imbalances with hormones associated with affiliative and positive social behaviour, specifically oxytocin and vasopressin. Institutionalized children showed a marked decrease in vasopressin and oxytocin levels while interacting with their caregiver compared to controls. Failure to receive proper social interaction at a young age disrupts normal neuroendocrine system developments that mediate social behaviour. Mental illness A lack of social networking predisposes people to mental illness. Mental illness can be attributed to instability within the individual. Society provides a sense of stability and socially deprived people fail to fit within this social structure. It becomes",
"-28.191680915217148"
],
[
"children who exhibit anti-social behaviours at later ages had court appearances and police contact as a result of their behaviour.\nMany of the studies regarding the media's influence on anti-social behaviour have been deemed inconclusive. Violence, racism, sexism, and other anti-social acts are attributed to things such as genetic predisposition and violence in the home. Some reviews have found strong correlations between aggression and the viewing of violent media, while others find little evidence to support their case. The only unanimously accepted truth regarding anti-social behaviour is that parental guidance carries an undoubtedly strong influence; providing children with brief negative evaluations",
"-28.18752318265615"
],
[
"deficits in aversive conditioning, similar preferences in moral and economic decision making, and diminished empathy and social emotions like guilt or shame. These emotional and moral impairments may be especially severe when the brain injury occurs at a young age. Children with early damage in the prefrontal cortex may never fully develop social or moral reasoning and become \"psychopathic individuals ... characterized by high levels of aggression and antisocial behavior performed without guilt or empathy for their victims\". Additionally, damage to the amygdala may impair the ability of the prefrontal cortex to interpret feedback from the limbic system, which could result",
"-28.14608596279868"
],
[
"is bereavement, and troubled parental or partner relationships. Factors such as war, poverty, and unemployment may also contribute. Other predictors of self-harm and suicidal behavior include feelings of entrapment, defeat, lack of belonging, and perceiving oneself as a burden along with less effective social problem-solving skills. Self-harm is frequently described as an experience of depersonalisation or a dissociative state. As many as 70% of individuals with borderline personality disorder engage in self-harm. An estimated 30% of individuals with autism spectrum disorders engage in self-harm at some point, including eye-poking, skin-picking, hand-biting, and head-banging. The onset of puberty has also been",
"-28.13663346665271"
],
[
"and grievous bodily harm was done in intimate relations or within families. The violence in one form or another was observed in almost every fourth family. The reasons for domestic crimes were different and included quarrels and scandals, hostile relations on the basis of families' problems, housing and domestic conflicts, which were often of long-lasting character.\nAs the main causes over the whole population Artamoshkin referred to \"low morale\" and income problems, while in wealthy families crimes happened also due to jealousy and avarice. High unemployment frustrated people and led to the abuse of alcohol and violence towards women and adolescents.",
"-28.117783037516347"
],
[
"direct and indirect bullying behaviors. Bullies high in CU traits will probably be resistant to many of the interventions successful with bullies who are not. Although a defining characteristic of CU is a lack of empathy, which overlaps with bullies deficits in empathy as highlighted above, the other characteristics of the concept would make bullies high in CU less malleable than those who simply have lower EI. Victimization and emotional intelligence Being bullied can have a negative impact on the victim's life: Bullied children may go on to be maladjusted socially and emotionally, and worsen in behavior. Adults who are",
"-28.114005819516024"
],
[
"status is correlated with increased rates of morbidity and mortality. Mental health disorders are an important health problem for those of low socioeconomic status; they are two to five times more likely to suffer from a diagnosable disorder than those of high socioeconomic status, and are more likely to face barriers to getting treatment. Furthermore, this lack of treatment for mental disorders can affect educational and employment opportunities and achievement. Residential segregation Important to the understanding of migrant community health is the increasingly stratified American society, manifested in residential segregation. Beginning in the 1970s, the low to moderate",
"-28.104072021204047"
],
[
"tendencies have also shown such associations. Meta-analyses have also found evidence of impairments in both vocal and facial emotional recognition for several emotions (i.e., not only fear and sadness) in both adults and children/adolescents. Moral judgment Psychopathy has been associated with amorality—an absence of, indifference towards, or disregard for moral beliefs. There are few firm data on patterns of moral judgment. Studies of developmental level (sophistication) of moral reasoning found all possible results—lower, higher or the same as non-psychopaths. Studies that compared judgments of personal moral transgressions versus judgments of breaking conventional rules or laws found that psychopaths rated them",
"-28.101900684589054"
],
[
"Genetic Genetically informed studies of the personality characteristics typical of individuals with psychopathy have found moderate genetic (as well as non-genetic) influences. On the PPI, fearless dominance and impulsive antisociality were similarly influenced by genetic factors and uncorrelated with each other. Genetic factors may generally influence the development of psychopathy while environmental factors affect the specific expression of the traits that predominate. A study on a large group of children found more than 60% heritability for \"callous-unemotional traits\" and that conduct problems among children with these traits had a higher heritability than among children without these traits. Environment A study",
"-28.100819357903674"
],
[
"and poor self-esteem. Various theories suggest that psychopathology is a factor, and that abuse experienced as a child leads some people to be more violent as adults. Correlation has been found between juvenile delinquency and domestic violence in adulthood.\nStudies have found high incidence of psychopathology among domestic abusers. For instance, some research suggests that about 80% of both court-referred and self-referred men in these domestic violence studies exhibited diagnosable psychopathology, typically personality disorders. \"The estimate of personality disorders in the general population would be more in the 15–20% range [...] As violence becomes more severe and chronic in the relationship,",
"-28.097205067781033"
],
[
"such as psychopathy, borderline, narcissistic, and schizoid personality disorders; conduct disorder; schizophrenia; bipolar disorder; and depersonalization. Lack of affective empathy has also been associated with sex offenders. It was found that offenders that had been raised in an environment where they were shown a lack of empathy and had endured the same type of abuse, felt less affective empathy for their victims. Autism The interaction between empathy and autism is a complex and ongoing field of research. Several different factors are proposed to be at play.\nA study of high-functioning adults with autistic spectrum disorders found an increased prevalence of alexithymia,",
"-28.08905852175667"
],
[
"is the concept that criminal acts or the people doing said crimes do them because of internal factors driving them. It differs from biological positivism in the thought that that school of thought says criminals are born criminals, whereas the psychological perspective recognizes the internal factors are results of external factor such as, but are not limited to, abusive parents, abusive relationships, drug problems, etc.\nSocial Positivism, which oftentimes referred to as Sociological Positivism, discusses the thought process that criminals are produced by society. This school claims that low income levels, high poverty/unemployment rates, and poor educational systems create and fuel",
"-28.08777504740283"
],
[
"behavior which has not regard for the good of society and of individuals, and is therefore frequently destructive of both. \n CROSS: Is psychopathic personality a recognized mental disease? \n BINGER: It is... \n CROSS: Will you tell us, Dr. Binger, what some of the symptoms of a psychopathic personality are? \n BINGER: Well, they are quite variegated. They include chronic, persistent and repetitive lying; they include stealing; they include acts of deception and misrepresentations; they include alcoholism and drug addiction; abnormal sexuality; vagabondage; panhandling; inability to form stable attachments; and a tendency to make false accusations.\n In his",
"-28.076777762005804"
],
[
"in an area with more crime in said area. A 2013 study from Sweden argued that there was little effect of neighbourhood deprivation on criminality per se and rather that the higher rates of crime were due to observed and unobserved family and individual level factors, indicating that high-risk individuals were being selected into economically deprived areas.\nA World Bank study said, “Crime rates and inequality are positively correlated within countries and, particularly, between countries, and this correlation reflects causation from inequality to crime rates, even after controlling for other crime determinants.” Geographic factors Associated factors include areas with population size, neighborhood quality, residential",
"-28.03712276366423"
],
[
"and negative mob types, as the distinctive characteristics and behaviors of key figures can be positive or negative in nature. An antisocial leader can incite violent action, but an influential voice of non-violence in a crowd can lead to a mass sit-in. When a crowd described as above targets an individual, anti-social behaviors may emerge within its members.\nA major criticism of this theory is that the formation and following of new norms indicates a level of self-awareness that is often missing in the individuals in crowds (as evidenced by the study of deindividuation). Another criticism is that the idea of",
"-28.031516584102064"
],
[
"the increased incidence of these conditions in people with lower socioeconomic status (SES) suggest they are the result of poor diet, low levels of exercise, dangerous jobs (exposure to toxins etc.) and increased levels of smoking and alcohol intake in socially deprived populations. Hesdorffer et al. found that low SES, indexed by poor education and lack of home ownership, was a risk factor for epilepsy in adults, but not in children in a population study. Low socioeconomic status may have a cumulative effect for the risk of developing epilepsy over a lifetime. Classification Mesial temporal sclerosis is a specific pattern",
"-28.01010340891662"
],
[
"and on unifying and integrating forces at individual, group, social and spiritual levels that are associated with the limiting of crime and recovery from victimization. In traditional approaches the study of crime, violence and related behaviors emphasizes the negative aspects in people’s lives that are associated with deviance, criminality and victimization. A common understanding is that human relationships are affected more by destructive encounters than by constructive or positive ones. Positive criminology and victimology argue that a different approach is viable, based on three dimensions – social integration, emotional healing and spirituality – that constitute positive direction indicators. Prison abolition",
"-27.991185259932536"
],
[
"cruelty to animals during childhood are also linked to the development of antisocial personality. The condition is more common in males than in females, and among people who are in prison. Genetic Research into genetic associations in antisocial personality disorder is suggestive that ASPD has some or even a strong genetic basis. Prevalence of ASPD is higher in people related to someone afflicted by the disorder. Twin studies, which are designed to discern between genetic and environmental effects, have reported significant genetic influences on antisocial behavior and conduct disorder.\nIn the specific genes that may be involved, one gene that has",
"-27.963610535211046"
],
[
"the societal reaction is the most determinant of one's entry into this role of chronically ill. \nAccording to Scheff hospitalization of a mentally ill person further reinforces this social role and forces her/him to take this role as her/his self-perception. Once the person is institutionalized for mental disorder, s/he has been publicly labeled as \"crazy\" and forced to become a member of a deviant social group. It then becomes difficult for a deviant person to return to her/his former level of functioning as the status of 'patient' causes unfavorable evaluations by self and by others. Frank Tannenbaum Frank Tannenbaum is",
"-27.948463302949676"
],
[
"other factors. Furthermore, the prevalence of disabilities in impoverished populations has been predicted to follow a cyclical pattern by which those who live in poverty are more likely to acquire a disability and those who have a disability are more likely to become impoverished. The vicious circle Experts from the United Kingdom Disabled Persons Council attribute the connection between disability and poverty to many systemic factors that promote a “vicious circle.” Statistics affirm the mutually reinforcing nature of special needs and low socioeconomic status, showing that people with disabilities are significantly more likely to become impoverished and people who are",
"-27.90849079884356"
],
[
"Asociality Schizophrenia In schizophrenia, asociality is one of the main 5 \"negative symptoms\", the others being avolition, anhedonia, reduced affect and alogia. Due to a lack of desire to form relationships, social withdrawal is common in people with schizophrenia. People with schizophrenia may experience social deficits or dysfunction as a result of the disorder, leading to asocial behavior. Frequent or ongoing delusions and hallucinations can deteriorate relationships and other social ties, isolating individuals with schizophrenia from reality and in some cases leading to homelessness. Even when treated with medication for the disorder, they may be unable to engage in social",
"-27.902414814612712"
],
[
"lower performance appraisals among corporate professionals. The psychologist Oliver James identifies psychopathy as one of the dark triadic traits in the workplace, the others being narcissism and Machiavellianism, which, like psychopathy, can have negative consequences.\nAccording to a study from the University of Notre Dame published in the Journal of Business Ethics, psychopaths have a natural advantage in workplaces overrun by abusive supervision, and are more likely to thrive under abusive bosses, being more resistant to stress, including interpersonal abuse, and having less of a need for positive relationships than others. In fiction Characters with psychopathy or sociopathy are some of",
"-27.89980345100048"
],
[
"an underlying factor that interacts with the immediate factors to result in a disorder. Both causes play a key role in the development of a psychological disorder. For example, high neuroticism antedates most types of psychopathology.",
"-27.82776931989065"
],
[
"even more difficult for a person to fit in once labelled mentally ill because they now also carry a social stigma and receive a negative social attitude from the community.\nSocial deprivation is difficult to dissect because certain issues that may be considered outcomes of social exclusion may also be factored into causes of social stigma. Outcomes of adult social deprivation may include young parenthood, adult homelessness, lack of qualifications, or residence in social housing – yet all of these factors may cause society to treat the individual with disdain or intolerance, thus furthering their exclusion. These reciprocal influences can become",
"-27.817072745725454"
]
] |
468snf | If a cat is an "outside" cat, why does it return home and not go to another home? | [
"A reliable food source, basically. Sometimes you can 'poach' cats by putting out a reliable food source. Had this happen to one of our cats once.",
"My childhood cat was an \"outside cat\" he started not coming back at night, then a couple days, then over a week. And eventually stopped coming back all together. He had moved into a neighbors house, they renamed him Bob and he still walks the neighborhood from time to time. that treacherous bastard Bob!",
"Its for the food. Funny story, we have 3 outside cats and they always come home, but we feed 4 cats. There is a neighbor cat who comes to our house for food. We finally met the neighbor and talked to her and found out that she was putting her cat on a diet. He would then come to our house and my daughter would feed him as much as he wanted. He would come in our house and even sleep. I think he was ready to move in.",
"They want a reliable source of food, water, and (depending on the cat) affection. But sometimes they don't return home, and sometimes they move between homes. There's an outside cat that spends its time hanging around on my deck. Not sure if it's feral or just someone else's cat that likes my food better.",
"Growing up we had two cats, one was predominantly an outdoor cat, the other was mostly an indoor cat. After a few years we'd see less of Rocky (the outdoor one) and just figured he was sleeping outside.. turned out he was sleeping next door and still coming back to our house just for food/treats.",
"I've found that \"my\" outside cat liked to househop. Kinda made me sad when I found out \"my\" cat was food-whoring a good portion of the neighborhood and I was just another notch in her profurrbial belt. The only thing that made it better was knowing that I was the only one she would gift with decapitated chipmunks. No one else got gifts.",
"Cats can be weird. I inherited a cat that had beeen poorly socialized who was terrified of everything and everyone. I only got her to let me touch her by bribing her with ice cream. After I had had her for a year I moved to a fairly busy neighbourhood, with tons of foot traffic on the street. That cat's personality changed over-night, and she suddenly became everyone's freind. I'd come home from work, and find her getting pets and belly-rubs from complete strangers on the sidewalk. One day, I was riding my bike along the next block, and sufdenly I saw her come scampering out of a neighbours house. The neighbour told me that she was well known in the area, and at least 3 different places let her in, and fed her.",
"So, this apparently happened when I was little... We had a white outdoor cat (Mr. Cat, of course) that disappeared. Upon investigation and canvassing the neighborhood, we found out what happened. A neighbor had seen the cat on our roof while we were not home, assumed it was a stray (!?!?), brought a ladder over to \"rescue\" the cat, and had given it away to someone they knew. Thankfully, we were able to get the cat back!",
"Cats generally have two \"zones\" of territory: The inner, safe zone, where the food, water, bedding, etc. are. Then there's the outer zone, where the cat will patrol, looking for potential new threats, new sources of food, and the like. Indoor cats do the same thing, dividing up the house into zones.",
"Sometimes they do go to another home. My ex-girlfriend saw someone chasing after her outside cat once, and they actually got into a fight about whose cat it was. Apparently this cat that my ex had rescued from being a stray at a plant nursery had been going to this lady's house on off nights and eating her food and taking advantage of her hospitality. Cats also have defined territories they won't go beyond. When my ex would walk her dogs, the cat would follow sometimes, but would always stop at a certain street corner and just meow until she came back. It was calling her back as it refused to go beyond its territory into another cat's. Although there are frequently turf wars. The cat would occasionally come home with a bloodied ear and we'd hear some pretty crazy noises sometimes when cats were fighting over territory.",
"Animals also have territories, or ranges, that they live in and consider home. Tigers and Lions have big ones. I don't know the size a house cat would have, but our next door neighbor's cat uses our yard as much as his own (unfortunately... but chasing him is one of the few forms of exercise our chihuahua gets, lol). Generally, if a cat is fixed so it doesn't feel the need to roam for mates, and has plenty of food and shelter, it doesn't have a compelling reason to leave. I'm sure there are plenty of antidotes to the contrary, but just think about it from the animal's perspective. If you don't need to leave to have sex, find food, or have a good place to sleep, why would you?",
"Those kinds of cats often have multiple houses to visit or \"rounds\" they make. Source: Moved into a house in college that literally came with a cat. He had been at the same house for three tenants in a row and we met neighbors who had different names for him.",
"I own no cats. I routinely have 5-6 cats come in for treats or snuggles. I have one sleeping between my legs right now. I don't know its name. Pretty sure its a boy.",
"You are, presumably, an \"outside\" human. Why do you return home instead of going elsewhere? It's safe, familiar, warm, you may have people you love living with you, etc etc.",
"All of our cats are outdoor cats with indoor privileges. Sometimes they will go roaming for about 24-48 hours, but they always come back, because that's where the food and the warm place to sleep is. At least 2 of them just hang around the house, but the other two will go through phases of roaming and hanging around. Almost none of the cats prefer to stay inside indefinitely, so the semi open door policy seems to be precisely what they want. However, what they want often is in direct contrast with what we want. If we want them outside, they want inside. If we want them inside, they will just stand on the porch and stare at us like we are stupid.",
"Sometimes they don't return home consistently - our neighborhood was once plastered with \"missing cat\" posters and a few days later an update was pasted on top of them. It turned out \"Sam\" had been spending his time with two families on the block and one of them took him on vacation with them for a few weeks.",
"ITT Lots of people who feed cats that are not theirs. I thought it goes without saying that you don't do that.",
"Why do your children return home after leaving school? Except sometimes they have sleepovers, right? Home is where the family lives. Some cats will have multiple families. Some cats are just rangy and like to see what 'over there'. I had an abyssinian named Charlie that wore a collar with our phone number on it. We'd get calls from miles away, saying \"He just walked in and flopped down in the middle of the kitchen floor. What should we do?\" I'd tell them to give him a scratch or two, talk to him, ask if he's OK, then let him out. Same cat used to walk me six blocks to the train station every morning that wasn't raining. SOURCE: have 27 cats.",
"Some cats cheat on thier owners and have multiple homes. Someone put a GoPro on a cat and found he had a double life.",
"I worked at a cat rescue for 3 years and looked into this. The ELI5 answer is \"it often doesn't\". Life expectancy of an indoor cat is roughly 14 years, whereas an indoor/outdoor cat's life expectancy is 4 years. The problem is everyone knows a person (or is that person) who thinks it's cruel to keep your cat \"trapped in a house\" all day and \"I've had this cat 15 years and he's fine\". Great. You got lucky. Doesn't make it a good idea. Cars, diseases, and predators are big problems. Another big problem people don't think about is \"other people\". What I mean is some people will find an outdoor cat, befriend it, and coax it in and make it theirs. My cousin has done this at least 3 times with neighborhood cats. So listen up people: don't let your cats out.",
"As many others have said, the food. But also, for some cats they could just legitimately be attached to you and whoever else lives there, especially if you're affectionate towards them. Cats aren't actually heartless bastards; they are more than capable of loving you even if they are frequently reluctant to show you that love. XD",
"Ive read several times that outdoor cats were the most efficient ecosystem destroyers on the planet. I believe one country (Australia?) Tried to ban them outright this link is a pretty good read. URL_0 Edit : New Zealand, sorry Aussies",
"It's all about food and survival. When coroners find people that die in their homes with no one noticing, dogs will cuddle up next to their owners until they die too. Cats will start eating the owners face.",
"They do -- growing up we fed our dingus neighbors' cat because they thought it would survive outside on \"field mice\". It hung out with me all the time while I played video games.",
"My mum's cat was an outside cat. Turns out when it went outside it was actually going into the neighbours house. They named it and considered it their own house cat. It wasn't until they showed my mum a picture of their cat that they both realised they were being played for fools!",
"I swear my cat has other families that take care of him. Sometimes he will be gone for a week and come home clean and fed. The weird thing is that he has a collar on his neck with our information so the other family has to know he already has an owner.",
"Why do you go home? There's food and love and it's their home! (This coming from someone who has an outdoor cat and is pretty sure he had another family for a while)",
"Cats sometimes go to other cats homes for food. It's just their hunter instinct kicking in. They nearly always end up \"at home\" but not always.",
"Cats do have a degree of loyalty to their humans too and are capable of affection to those who take care of them.",
"We used to have mice around or old house. this cat who didn't seem to belong to anyone would chill there for days, then disappear, then come back again. That thing was one sadistic fuck. played with the mice before eating them, and letting people pet it for a few minutes, then turning around and biting the shit out of you. fuck that cat.",
"Well, my cat has his own garage. He normally goes out 'hunting' somewhere (we have a massive amount of land behind our house) and he returns at night. According to his breed he's not supposed to be outdoors either (he's a ragdoll) but he can't stand being inside the house for more than a couple hours. Maybe he has a girlfriend?",
"My mom had a cat that went back and forth between her and a neighbor,they found out when there was a storm and they were both looking for the same cat. my mom ended up keeping the cat after that because the other family's daughter didn't want the cat anymore",
"Coming in a little late, also not sure if it had been pointed out... Isn't this why they say a cat has 9 lives? I.E. A life with you, the neighbours, the little old lady around the block. So on and so forth.",
"pretty much for food, or because they like you. it's not uncommon for a cat to be shared between several families without each other ever finding out. your cat is never really your cat.",
"In some cases they will. When I moved to another house only a few blocks from the old one, my cat George would regularly walk back to the old house.",
"Because cats are lazy, selfish, fickle whores and they'll go wherever they get the best perks for the least amount of affection in return.",
"Didn't they attach cameras to a bunch of cats once and found out that they often had more than one home?",
"Same reason you don't feed bears, foxes, coyotes or other carnivores near your house...they'll keep coming back for more."
] | [
[
"their litters to survive and protect themselves by taking some small animal for the kittens to play with for practicing. Korat cats can remember their owner. If they see a stranger they might scare or make a noise, but they will run to their owner and play with them.",
"-31.568925518891774"
],
[
"kitten to a household can be a bad idea. If there already is an older cat present and another cat is added to their environment it may be better to get another older cat that has been socialized with other cats. When a kitten is introduced to a mature cat, that cat may show feline asocial aggression where they feel threatened and act aggressive to drive off the intruders. If this happens, the kitten and the cat should be separated, and slowly introduced by rubbing towels on the animals and presenting the towel to the other.\nCats use scent and pheromones",
"-31.450788508343976"
],
[
"type of litter used and maintaining a clean area for the litter boxes. The “1+1” rule for multiple cat owners is highly advised, where the house has a litter box for each cat they own, plus an additional one. If cats have urinated outside of the litter box in inappropriate places, thorough cleaning of the area is advised to reduce the interest of other cats. Placing litter boxes in areas of low noise and traffic and away from other pets is also suggested.\nMimicking natural behavior for a cat with chronic stress helps them relax. They benefit from “hide and",
"-30.200618443690473"
],
[
"enters the home. Animals lucky enough to survive until they are discovered are often in poor condition due to lack of resources such as food and water. Abandonment Pets are abandoned for a variety of reasons. Often, when abandoned, pets are forced to fend for themselves, and become feral. In particular, cats and dogs go to colonies. Feral cats are said to outnumber feral dogs. Feral cats are difficult to deal with, as often they become impossible to socialize enough to be re-introduced to a new human owner. In general, only some newly abandoned cats and very young feral kittens",
"-30.11943743051961"
],
[
"the meow of another cat in the house. Turned out the package had a cute red and white kitten which instantly wins Jerry's heart, but Tom takes an instant disliking to her.\nAs Jerry stares at the kitten as he is thinking \"I love kittens!\", Tom flips him back to his hole again. Tom deliberates on how to get rid of the kitten, because to him one cat in the house is heaven, but two cats will just be a living hell to Tom. When the owner leaves to get food for the kitten, Tom grabs the kitten. Jerry hears",
"-29.96654073012178"
],
[
"hunting and stalking play peaking later, at about five months.\nKittens are vulnerable because they like to find dark places to hide, sometimes with fatal results if they are not watched carefully. Cats have a habit of seeking refuge under or inside cars or on top of car tires during stormy or cold weather. This often leads to broken bones, burns, heat stroke, damaged internal organs or death.\nDomestic kittens are commonly sent to new homes at six to eight weeks of age, but it has been suggested that being with their mother and litter-mates from six to twelve weeks is important",
"-29.851572446146747"
],
[
"left alone for extended periods of time. Even though there are a number of benefits for owning a cat, there are a number of problematic behaviours that affect the human–cat relationship. One behaviour is when cats attack people by clawing and biting. This often occurs spontaneously or could be triggered by sudden movements. Another problematic behaviour is the \"petting and biting syndrome\", which involves the cat being petted and then suddenly attacking and running away. Other problems are house soiling, scratching furniture, and when a cat brings dead prey into the house. It is these kinds of behaviours that put",
"-29.728840441156535"
],
[
"not have a social survival strategy, or a pack mentality and always hunt alone.\nHowever, some pet cats are poorly socialized. In particular, older cats show aggressiveness towards newly arrived kittens, which include biting and scratching; this type of behavior is known as feline asocial aggression.\nLife in proximity to humans and other domestic animals has led to a symbiotic social adaptation in cats, and cats may express great affection toward humans or other animals. Ethologically, the human keeper of a cat functions as a sort of surrogate for the cat's mother. Adult cats live their lives in a kind of extended",
"-29.63819764892105"
],
[
"as this is a small city, I feared they would be stolen. I have made every endeavour to get another mate for \"Nellie\", but have not been successful. I never allowed them to mate, as they were brother and sister, and I thought it might alter \"Nellie's\" beautiful form, which is round and handsome, with body rather long. In winter they have a light fur on back and ridge of tail, which falls off in warm weather. They stand the cold weather the same as other cats. They are not like the hairless dogs, whose hide is solid and tough;",
"-29.545343946898356"
],
[
"Dried cat In some European cultures it was customary to place the dried or desiccated body of a cat inside the walls of a newly built home to ward off evil spirits or as a good luck charm. It was believed that the cats had a sixth sense and that putting a cat in the wall was a blood sacrifice so the animal could use psychic abilities to find and ward off unwanted spirits. Although some accounts claim the cats were walled in alive, examination of recovered specimens indicates post-mortem concealment in most cases. Origins In the British Isles, as",
"-29.447867002920248"
],
[
"food source. They are usually regularly fed in locations where food is left for no one cat in particular, and they find shelter \"accidentally\", such as in farm buildings, and sometimes deliberately from humans. A common reason to tolerate and even nourish these cats is so they kill vermin, or because of a general favorable feeling toward cats. Usually semi-ownership of cats contributes to cat overpopulation and excessive breeding when people nourish but not neuter the cats.\nOf horse breeds, the French Camargue was once thought of as a wild species, though increased contact with humans has made it semi-feral. These",
"-29.431614722241648"
],
[
"cats are allowed. However, if the tenants live in the Council's sheltered housing schemes, then there is a blanket ban on keeping dogs or cats.\nFor livestocks such as horses, donkeys, goats, pigs, ducks, geese, chickens or any other reptiles, written permission from the Council is needed. Reptiles and spiders are discouraged, unless the tenants can prove that they can meet the special care and welfare needs of them.\nYet, one must never keep animals prohibited by Dangerous Wild Animals Act 1976 due to safety concern. Exotic animals and farm animal, such as cockerels, are not allowed normally. Pet keeping requirements According",
"-29.18483548882068"
],
[
"to help organize their territory by marking prominent objects. If these objects or scents are removed it upsets the cat's perception of its environment. Importance of space for domestic and feral cats The domestic cat has become more sociable through contact of its own species through domestication. The domestic cat is more juvenile than the African wildcat; this promotes greater tolerance of other cats and domestic animals.\nIt has been documented that feral cat colonies have a social structure where the females of the group live together and help with each other's kittens whereas the males do not. There are also",
"-29.157895872718655"
],
[
"Farm cat The farm cat, also known as a barn cat, is a domestic cat, usually of mixed breed, that lives primarily out-of-doors, in a feral or semi-feral condition on agricultural properties, usually sheltering in outbuildings. They eat assorted vermin such as rodents and other small animals that live in or around outbuildings and farm fields. The need for the farm cat may have been the original reason cats were domesticated, to keep rodents from consuming or contaminating grain crops stored for later human consumption. They are still commonly kept for their effectiveness at controlling undesired vermin",
"-29.156029394966026"
],
[
"also have policies halting or limiting adoption of black cats immediately prior to Halloween for fear that the animals will be tortured, or used as \"living decorations\" for the holiday and then abandoned. Rabbits are sometimes treated in the same manner prior to Easter as well, though they are rarely found in regular shelters since they are considered \"exotic\" (anything not a dog or cat). Another popular fad is using a small dog, pretty white Persian kitten or other small pet as a fashion accessory to \"complement an outfit\". Such animals may end up discarded, abandoned, or",
"-29.05111214099452"
],
[
"you give it the attention it seeks and always seem to want to be held and hugged. They will constantly interact with people, even strangers. They love to play and cuddle. Environment It makes a good apartment cat, especially if owners will give it safe non-poisonous house plants near the windowsill, which the cat can explore. However, it is recommended that the Asian can only live in apartments, if it does not involve the city. The Asian does not enjoy loud noises from automobiles, buses, or trucks. So if needed to live in an apartment, it must be",
"-28.96104703313904"
],
[
"it in another person's home. Anyone picking up a cat or kitten from a fosterer's home can be subject to same home visits (pre- and post -oming) and the same terms and conditions as someone picking up a cat or kitten from a centre. Volunteer-run branches receive a small amount of funding from the charity's headquarters but are required to raise most of their funds from their local areas. They do not usually have any paid members of staff, and would take the cats home if they had to. Adoption centres Dedicated centres are of varying size and have paid",
"-28.85059039099724"
],
[
"is a challenge to socialize an adult. Socialized adult feral cats tend to trust only those who they trusted in their socialization period, and therefore can be very fearful around strangers.\nCats are also used for companion animals. Studies have shown that these animals provide many physiological and psychological benefits for the owner. Other aspects of cat behaviour that are deemed advantageous for the human–cat bond are cat hygiene (cats are known for good hygiene), they do not have to be taken outside (use of the litter box), they are perfect for smaller spaces, and they have no problems with being",
"-28.794626259594224"
],
[
"in the house taunt him, \"You are a fraidy cat! Ha, ha, ha!\", the cat's pride can only be satisfied by rushing back into the house and chasing the mice into the snow, at which point the old owner acts gently with the cat.",
"-28.784979879041202"
],
[
"household.\nBecause of the effects of predation on New Zealand wildlife, domestic cat ownership is sometimes a contentious issue. Since the 1990s, cat-free subdivisions have occasionally been established to prevent predation occurring within nearby natural areas by domestic cats. In 1996 a cat-free subdivision was established at Waihi Beach, a landmark decision by the Western Bay of Plenty District Council. It was sought by Forest and Bird and the Department of Conservation to protect wildlife in a nearby salt marsh.\nIn 2012, the operators of the Zealandia wildlife sanctuary called for cat owners not to replace their pet when they die as",
"-28.733026753368904"
],
[
"to live, food, water, and vet care. Feral Cats A feral cat is a cat without an owner that lives outside. These cats have very minimal to no human contact at all. They tend to hide from humans and do not allow themselves to be touched by them. Attempts to socialize feral cats often fail or take a long time, and even so some remain afraid of humans.\nThere are efforts to control the feral cat population, which is a big problem. There are trap neuter return programs, which capture the feral cats, neuter/spay them, and release them back outside. This",
"-28.665237921115477"
],
[
"that reinforces a nonthreatening position. This behavior is not exclusive to domestic house cats. Since cats can be very territorial, in the wild they utilize this slow blinking with other cats to signal themselves as friendly or nonthreatening. Tail Cats often use their tails to communicate. A cat holding its tail vertically generally indicates positive emotions such as happiness or confidence; the vertical tail is often used as a friendly greeting toward human beings or other cats (usually close relatives). A half-raised tail can indicate less pleasure, and unhappiness is indicated with a tail held low. In addition, a",
"-28.581426452030428"
],
[
"cats program is designed to place cats in safe environments where they are valued for their hunting skills as working cats. These programs are typically offered by animal shelters who will use otherwise unadoptable cats in the program as an alternative to euthanasia. The cats may not be suitable for adoption because they are feral cats or did not acclimate to living in close quarters with humans. Working cats programs usually provide cats that are spayed or neutered and fully vaccinated, and any adoption fee is often waived. In exchange for their services, the cats are to receive a place",
"-28.419809491722845"
],
[
"Abandoned pets Abandoned pets are companion animals that are either inadvertently or deliberately cast off by their owners. This commonly occurs when an owner dies, when a pet becomes disruptive or grows too large, or if the pet was acquired impulsively. The financial crisis of 2007–2010 has resulted in a number of pets abandoned for economic reasons. Typical of this group are pets left behind when the owner's home is foreclosed. These animals can be left alone on the property or dropped off at an animal shelter. They are often discovered after the foreclosure process, when the realtor or bank",
"-28.412136406172067"
],
[
"lead to signals of aggression, fear, dominance, friendship or territoriality being misinterpreted by the other species. Dogs have a natural instinct to chase smaller animals that flee, an instinct common among cats. Most cats flee from a dog, while others take actions such as hissing, arching their backs and swiping at the dog. After being scratched by a cat, some dogs can become fearful of cats.\nIf appropriately socialized, cats and dogs may have relationships that are not antagonistic, and dogs raised with cats may prefer the presence of cats to other dogs. Even cats and dogs that have got along",
"-28.34817383205518"
],
[
"and a few species of birds such as the carrion crow, Eurasian jays and food-storing magpies. Dogs are able to reach a level of object permanence that allows them to find food after it has been hidden beneath one of two cups and rotated 90°. Similarly, cats are able to understand object permanence but not to the same extent that dogs can. Cats fail to understand that if they see something go into an apparatus in one direction that it will still be there if the cat tries to enter from another direction. However, while cats did not",
"-28.347276633023284"
],
[
"instincts to expel bodily waste in dirt or sand. Therefore, with a new kitten, owners usually need to simply show the kitten where the litter box is located, and how to get in and out. On occasion, some training is required to help a new cat adjust to a litter box, or to help an older cat that suddenly stops using the litter box.\nCats may also be trained to use a human toilet. The benefits of this method are that cat owners can eliminate the task of maintaining a clean litter box on a regular basis and avoid the smell",
"-28.310232545227336"
],
[
"in its audience. Eventually the cat takes a few laps from the stream and bounds away out of sight, as the animals can only watch, powerless to stop it.\nMost of the animals disperse, but Tawny Owl pursues the Beast through the air, eventually finding the large cat in a ditch near the perimeter of the reserve. Annoyed at being discovered, The Beast asks about Tawny Owl's interest in it, and Owl tells it how terrified all the park's inhabitants are of it. He asks the cat whether it could hunt somewhere else instead and it refuses, but it makes a",
"-28.155394353350857"
],
[
"foxes killing cats usually involve kittens. Although most foxes do not prey on cats, some may do so, and may treat them more as competitors rather than food. Taming and domestication In their unmodified wild state, red foxes are generally unsuitable as pets. Many supposedly abandoned kits are adopted by well-meaning people during the spring period, though it is unlikely that vixens would abandon their young. Actual orphans are rare, and the ones that are adopted are likely kits that simply strayed from their den site. Kits require almost constant supervision; when still suckling, they require milk at four-hour intervals",
"-28.077199805837154"
],
[
"closes from the side and appears when the cat's eyelid opens. This membrane partially closes if the cat is sick, although in a sleepy state this membrane is often visible.\nCats often sleep during the day so they can \"hunt\" at night. Unlike humans, cats do not need to blink their eyes on a regular basis to keep their eyes lubricated (with tears). Unblinking eyes are probably an advantage when hunting. Cats will, however, \"squint\" their eyes, usually as a form of communication expressing affection and ease around another cat or human. Hearing Humans and cats have a similar range of",
"-28.065815189038403"
],
[
"first branches and smooth bark. It has been suggested they do this to avoid cats.",
"-28.061057112296112"
],
[
"in population and come out more often at night. Zoos In zoos, nocturnal animals are usually kept in special night-illumination enclosures to invert their normal sleep-wake cycle and to keep them active during the hours when visitors will be there to see them. Pets Hedgehogs and sugar gliders are just two of the many nocturnal species kept as (exotic) pets. Cats have adapted to domestication so that each individual, whether stray alley cat or pampered housecat, can change their activity level at will, becoming nocturnal or diurnal in response to their environment or the routine of their owners. Cats normally",
"-28.043378317554016"
],
[
"beautiful of all the cats, but he is unable to decide. Each seems lovely, so he walks back home with all of the cats following him. His wife is dismayed when he arrives, realizing immediately what her husband overlooked: they won't be able to feed and care for billions and trillions of cats. The wife suggests letting the cats decide which one should stay with them, asking \"Which one of you is the prettiest?\" This question incites an enormous cat fight, frightening the old man and woman, who run back into the house.\nSoon, all is quiet outside. When they venture",
"-27.983869073854294"
],
[
"cats with this disorder. Reassuring the cat during an episode keeps them calmer too even though they can appear to be absent and in a trance during episodes.",
"-27.940333938226104"
],
[
"Cats in New Zealand Cats are a popular pet in New Zealand. Cat ownership is occasionally raised as a controversial conservation issue due to the predation of endangered species, such as birds and lizards, by feral cats. Domesticated cats The domestic cat (Felis catus) first arrived at New Zealand on Captain James Cook's ship HMS Endeavour in the mid-18th century, but were established by European settlers a century later. As of 2011, there are an estimated 1.419 million domestic cats in New Zealand, with almost half of all households owning at least one and an average of 1.8 cats per",
"-27.925406711743562"
],
[
"restrained from hunting. If you see your cat making quick chirps, and moving their mouths extremely quickly while their eyes are set and staring at one place, they are chattering, and channeling their inner urge to hunt. Big cats do this as well. Although domesticated cats are not in the wild, they still have their innate need to hunt. Grown cats also do not meow to other grown cats. Cats meow in adult form to talk to other animals, such as dogs, and more importantly humans. Meowing to humans has been researched as that they do it to manipulate",
"-27.92122687875235"
],
[
"the \"prey\" item is long dead and therefore possibly toxic or decomposing). Whiskers To aid with navigation and sensation, cats have dozens of movable whiskers (vibrissae) over their body, especially their faces. These provide information on the width of gaps and on the location of objects in the dark, both by touching objects directly and by sensing air currents; they also trigger protective blink reflexes to protect the eyes from damage. Behavior Outdoor cats are active both day and night, although they tend to be slightly more active at night. Domestic cats spend the majority of their time in the",
"-27.903242874832358"
],
[
"Exotic felines as pets Definition and differentiations Hybrids of the domestic cat with non-domestic species (e. g. the Bengal cat or the Savannah cat) are not normally considered wild cats. While this distinction is often overlooked in the media and in the public eye, such cat breeds (especially the F5 and subsequent generations) are much closer to the domestic cat in terms of housing and husbandry requirements, behavior, and legality.\nUnlike many other exotic pet species, wild cats usually cannot be kept indoors and require a large outdoor enclosure. This blurs the distinction between a wild cat being kept as an",
"-27.877389483939623"
],
[
"and Veterinary Authority (AVA). If dog owners let their dogs defecate in public places and cause environmental damage, the National Environment Agency (NEA) will take actions against them.\nIn addition, the HDB expressly prohibited cats because cats would shed fur, defecate and urinate in public area, and they also make caterwauling sounds. Therefore, they would cause inconvenience to the neighbourhood. Taiwan The public housing in Taiwan, known as “National Housing” (國民住宅), is categorised into two types: for sale and for lease. According to the officials in the Department of Urban Development of Taipei City Government, in early years, the lease agreement",
"-27.87266676762374"
],
[
"mainly through starvation, disease, or other forms of predation. There is evidence that cats tend to take weak or sickly birds\".\n\"Those bird species that have undergone the most serious population declines in the UK (such as skylarks, tree sparrows and corn buntings) rarely encounter cats, so cats cannot be causing their declines. Research shows that these declines are usually caused by habitat change or loss, particularly on farmland.\" This evidence is despite the common practice in the U.K. of allowing owned cats access to the outdoors, which is recommended to prevent feline obesity (p. 138) and behavior problems and other health",
"-27.862901099433657"
],
[
"usual domestic pets are kept, including cats and pet dogs. As elsewhere, domestic cats threaten the bird life and eat rabbits and rodents; foxes and mink attack hens and ducks from time to time. Surrounding environment Heasta is isolated in the sense that there is a large surrounding belt of heather moorland which is devoid of any human habitation, in fact not even a wall or tree. Within the village though there are trees in the deep clefts by the streams. There are many waterfalls. The road from Heasta to the north towards Broadford rises high over the moors reaching",
"-27.83443144982266"
],
[
"Also, keeping cats indoors is a preventative measure. Other animals Sporotrichosis can be diagnosed in domestic and wild mammals. In veterinary medicine it is most frequently seen in cats and horses. Cats have a particularly severe form of cutaneous sporotrichosis and also can serve as a source of zoonotic infection to persons who handle them and are exposed to exudate from skin lesions.",
"-27.826848638113006"
],
[
"first four years of a cat's life but it is primarily observed during the first two months of life when cats are introduced into new homes is most common. Theories explaining why this behavior becomes active during this time suggest that early weaning and stress as a consequence of separation from the mother and litter-mates and exposure to a new environment are to blame. Eating wool or other substances may be a soothing mechanism that cats develops to cope with the changes. Pica is also observed predominately during 6–8 months of a cat's life when territorial and sexual behaviors",
"-27.819063161383383"
],
[
"out, there is no sign of the cats: they'd apparently eaten each other up in their jealous fury. Then, the old man notices one skinny cat hiding in a patch of tall grass. It had survived because it didn't consider itself pretty, so the other cats hadn't attacked it. The couple take the cat into their home, feed it and bathe it, watching it grow sleek and beautiful as the days pass: exactly the kind of cat they wanted. Legacy Wanda Gag pioneered the double-page spread in this book. Writer and reviewer Anita Silvey explained, \"She used both pages to",
"-27.81511025148211"
],
[
"and does it really well, without breaking any objects due to its agility and elegance. The oriental longhair is extremely intelligent and are ideal companions for people who like their pets always around. Some have been know to follow their owners everywhere. They are very loyal and most get along well with other cats, especially if they are of the same breed group. These cats are not adapted to a life of living alone and prefer an interactive home. Some Oriental tend to gravitate to one person in the home. Oriental Longhairs, like their cousin breed the Siamese, have loud",
"-27.789044568009558"
],
[
"areas. It seems to be common in central South American regions. In Bolivia, it is the second most common cat after the ocelot. Ecology and behaviour The Geoffroy's cat is nocturnal and a solitary hunter that contacts conspecifics only during the mating season. Geoffroy's cats have been observed to stand up on their hind legs to scan the surrounding landscape and use their tail as a support, an unusual behaviour among cats. It is able to climb trees but rarely does, except to leave faeces to scent mark its territory.\nIt is at the top of the food chain in its",
"-27.777322766982252"
],
[
"them.\nThe two cats decide they need to get out of the fire so they run through the window into the Twoleg nest. They think it is some kind of nightmare though they know the Twolegs are happy there they never want to go there again.\nRavenpaw and Barley sleep outside of the barn. On a hunting expedition the next day, Barley finds a dead rabbit that neither Ravenpaw nor Barley killed. When they go to the barn, they find Willie, Tess, Pounce and Snapper on the wood below the roof. Ravenpaw greets them warmly. Then, the three cats attack the chickens.",
"-27.765448329388164"
],
[
"caring for feral cats, instead allowing them to be captured and possibly euthanized at a local shelter.",
"-27.752718879724853"
],
[
"homes, while friendly adult cats are socialized by volunteers. Signs and brochures about the program are placed at locations along the trail where cats are most likely to be viewed, with reminders that it is illegal to abandon cats.\nTen wooden feeding stations were set up, built in a way to deter skunks and raccoons. Volunteers visit daily to provide food, water, and monitor the cats for veterinary needs. Members of the public are asked not to feed the cats, as it could interfere with trapping efforts. Population There were 175 cats and kittens at the location at the start of",
"-27.737828534969594"
],
[
"Cat repeller A cat repeller is a device or substance used to discourage cats from entering an area, or to encourage them to leave if they do enter. Such deterrents are most commonly used by gardeners, in order to prevent damage to their gardens, to avoid cat feces, or to protect birds. Ultrasonic devices Many retailers sell devices which exploit the discomforting effects of in-air ultrasound. These devices are usually combined with a motion sensor which is triggered by movement within the sensors range. This causes the device to emit high frequency noise which is uncomfortable to the cats, and",
"-27.619501892244443"
],
[
"to leaving pets at reception, as they are not allowed into the gardens.",
"-27.617609978828114"
],
[
"cat populations is not known.\nAdditionally, the disappearance of dingoes might increase the prevalence of kangaroo, rabbit, and Australian brushturkey numbers. In the areas outside the Dingo Fence, the number of dingoes and emus is lower than in the areas inside. However, the numbers changed depending on the habitat. Since the environment is the same on both sides of the fence, the dingo was assumed to be a strong factor for the regulation of these species. Therefore, some people demand that dingo numbers should be allowed to increase or dingoes should be reintroduced in areas with low dingo populations to",
"-27.614158744807355"
],
[
"Oregon has joked that the ringtail is one of two species – the domestic cat and the ringtail – that thus \"domesticated humans\" due to that pattern of behavior.\nOften a hole was cut in a small box and placed near a heat source (perhaps a stove) as a dark, warm place for the animal to sleep during the day, coming out after dark to rid the cabin of mice.",
"-27.605851446976885"
],
[
"to ensure cleanliness and animal welfare, in particular seeking to ensure that the cats are not disturbed by excessive and unwanted attention, such as by young children or when sleeping. Many cat cafés also seek to raise awareness of cat welfare issues, such as abandoned and stray cats and many often have cats from local animal shelters to help them lose any fear of humans and advertise them for possible adoption. From 2012 the cats could be displayed until 8 pm, but in 2016 the guidelines of the environment ministry state that they may visit and play with customers until 10 pm.\nOne",
"-27.582692493859213"
],
[
"housecat and humans respectively. In the book, instead of using \"said\", Cary uses the word \"mewed\". In response to a question at the Q&A section of the forum, Holmes explained that the cats' names come \"in two parts, either or both of which can reflect something about the cat's appearance, personality, or habits\". However, the names must also be part of the world the cats know; Holmes originally gave Tigerclaw the name Hammerclaw until one of the editors pointed out the cats wouldn't know what a hammer is. For the names, Kate Cary says that she takes in inspiration for",
"-27.54779157392477"
],
[
"keepers have to ensure that their pets have suitable places to live and the right food to eat. They should be protected from pain, suffering, injury and disease. If council home tenants neglect or abuse their pets, the Council will report to the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA).\nIf tenants allow pets to wander, urinate or foul in communal areas, landings and walkways, then they would breach the tenancy agreement with the Council, which would take back their right to keep pets and report to the RSPCA. Australia The Department of Housing and Public Works of",
"-27.537656605243683"
],
[
"to return the cat to avoid trouble.\nAfter suggesting that Orlo approach Cook about his inheritance after Cook is mellowed by a good dinner, Jeeves goes to visit his aunt, Mrs. Pigott. Plank remembers that Bertie is Alpine Joe, and he and Cook suspect Bertie of stealing the cat. Graham fails to return the cat, so Bertie tries to return it himself. Carrying the cat up to Eggesford Court, Bertie trips and loses it. The cat ultimately goes back to Bertie's cottage.\nOrlo is unable to convince Cook to give him his inheritance, yet Vanessa is happy that Orlo confronted her father",
"-27.447158329028753"
],
[
"take care of the cat and gain its trust.",
"-27.421783168421825"
],
[
"well as in northern Europe and North America, the dried or mummified bodies of cats are frequently found concealed within structures and are believed to have been placed there to bring good luck or to protect the building and its occupants from harm. The North American instances are strongly associated with European households and are most often found in buildings where shoes and witch bottles are also concealed. In some cases, the animals are found deliberately posed as if in the midst of attack. In other cases, they are accompanied by dried rats, mice, or birds.\nHistorian Ian Evans stated in",
"-27.409549631527625"
],
[
"unfailingly comes close the houses in search of easy domestic prey. Discussion A literature from the state of Gujarat mentions Dangis, an indigenous people from the Dang region of the state, revere Waghoba and have a wooden statue of the large cat in each of their villages. This illustrates how the same animal is viewed in different ways by different groups of people. Their views are framed by their cultural heritage which eventually defines their behaviour in a shared landscape. Research has shown that several communities sharing space with these animals often regard them as \"protectors\", \"owners\", \"family\" or",
"-27.385376264923252"
],
[
"owners interacting with their cats, problems can occur when the felines are exposed to dogs and strange people, with the cats possibly being too trusting and too friendly for their own good. Breeds known for these canine behaviors include the Abyssinian, Burmese, Maine Coon, Manx, and Ragdoll, though dog behavior traits can appear regardless of breed. Breeds The cultural assumption that cats are distant from people and lack affection compared to dogs has complications. Animals have individual characteristics based on their environment, particularly their past interactions with people.\nThe feline temperament is particularly malleable to a wide set of environmental factors,",
"-27.376425878028385"
],
[
"of existing households with pets who have a pet die or run away, more homes potentially become available each year for cats than the number of cats who enter shelters, while more than twice as many homes potentially become available each year for dogs than the number of dogs who enter shelters. ... As a movement, the humane community has accepted the idea that the best shelters can do for homeless animals is to adopt out some and kill the rest. To try to avoid criticism for this, to justify a paltry number of adoptions, these groups have perpetuated the",
"-27.365783846336853"
],
[
"to talk to when he's out prospecting and a flat cat is better than a wife because it can't talk back. It just purrs and snuggles up to you.\"\nThe boys take the flat cat onto the family space ship, where it soon has eight \"kittens\", each of which soon gives birth again, until the ship is overwhelmed with flat cats. The family solves the problem by rounding up the flat cats and putting them into the storage hold at low temperature, where they hibernate. They are later revived and sold to miners in the asteroid belt. Flat cats v. tribbles",
"-27.360789961749106"
],
[
"a guaranteed food supply, internal parasites, and greater physical exertion tends to make these cats thinner than their house cat counterparts, with a shorter lifespan. Others are kept as part-time pets, living both indoors and out, roaming freely, yet allowed inside to be fed supplemental cat food on a regular basis, and given routine veterinary care. Yet others live outdoors or in outbuildings full-time in semi-feral conditions, but are still tamed to be friendly toward humans and may be given basic veterinary care. All are subject to some risks inherent to outdoor life. Their prey may transmit",
"-27.3561870175472"
],
[
"not in the city of New York.\nThe Australian Federal government has banned the importation into Australia of the Savannah cat, as the larger cats could potentially threaten species of the country's native wildlife not threatened by smaller domestic cats. A government report on the proposed importation of the cats has warned the hybrid breed may introduce enhanced hunting skills and increased body size into feral cat populations, putting native species at risk. The report states the Savannah cats are not worth the risk.\nSavannah cats are legal in every province of Canada, although some provinces have restrictions on the ownership of",
"-27.34416076814523"
],
[
"education of people to control the reproduction of house cats (as a prevention for abandonment) are a waste of money, time and energy.\nSince August 1991, feral cats have been protected throughout Italy when a no-kill policy was introduced for both cats and dogs. Feral cats have the right to live free and cannot be permanently removed from their colony; cat caretakers can be formally registered; and TNR methods are outlined in the national law on the management of pets. South Korea Negative attitudes towards cats in general and free-roaming cats in particular are culturally entrenched. Cats are culled for meat,",
"-27.2873218706809"
],
[
"and their two cats reside back in her native Kentucky.",
"-27.263344124425203"
],
[
"is exposed to direct sunlight for prolonged periods. White cats, or cats with white faces and ears, should not be allowed out on sunny days. Depending on climate and time zone, between the hours of 10:00 am to 4:00 pm, it is recommended to keep domesticated cats indoors, as the sun is at its highest peak between these times. Sun block is also available for cats, which can help prevent skin irritation, and a veterinarian should be contacted to find out which brands are appropriate and to use on cats. Exposure to second-hand smoke Cats living in a smoker's household",
"-27.23931784182787"
],
[
"species.\nAs it is little altered from the wildcat, it can readily interbreed with the wildcat. This hybridization poses a danger to the genetic distinctiveness of some wildcat populations, particularly in Scotland and Hungary and possibly also the Iberian Peninsula. It lives on small islands with no human inhabitants.\nFeral cats can live in forests, grasslands, tundra, coastal areas, agricultural land, scrublands, urban areas, and wetlands. Feral cats Feral cats are domestic cats that were born in or have reverted to a wild state. They are unfamiliar with and wary of humans and roam freely in urban and rural areas. The numbers",
"-27.214586258880445"
],
[
"their family and indicate that they are easy to care for and engage in social behaviours such as allowing humans to hold, pet and play with them. Mutual affection and bonding is displayed between cats and their owners, indicating a sense of friendship. E. ferus Friendships between humans and domesticated horses (E. ferus) are often observed and occur when the horse is willing to allow the person into their flight distance and personal space through friendly interactions such as grooming, scratching and rubbing. Horses are social animals and once a person is accepted into their personal space, they become a",
"-27.196967999101616"
],
[
"2004, the cats returned from restoration and have been in place constantly since then.",
"-27.092512931092642"
],
[
"the new adopter can provide a safe, secure, and permanent home for the adopted pet. Responsible shelters, pounds, and rescue organizations refuse to supply pets to people whom they deem ineligible based on assessing their inability to supply the adopted animal with a suitable home. Sometimes, a new owner may face training or behavioral challenges with a pet who has been neglected, abused, or left untrained. In the vast majority of cases, patience, training, persistence and consistency of care will help the pet overcome its past.\nIn Canada, reputable animal shelters or humane societies go through an extensive process to ensure",
"-27.079370053950697"
],
[
"garden and open space, the breed and size of the pets, flat facilities, special needs of the pets, etc. Types of animals allowed and disallowed If the tenants have access to their own garden, then they can keep one dog or one cat, given that they do not cause nuisance or disturbance to other people. If they do not possess private gardens, they have to seek permission from the Council. If the tenants want to keep more than one pet, the Council will determine each pet request on its own merit before granting permission. Normally only one dog or two",
"-27.069461419363506"
],
[
"Big Cat, Little Cat Plot An older white cat is a family's sole companion until it is joined by a younger black cat. The white cat welcomes the black cat. Over the course of the story, the two cats age, until the white cat dies. The white cat is mourned by the family and the black cat, until one day a new white kitten joins the family. Background and publication Cooper was inspired to write the book based on experiences in his life. He had grown up on a farm, and had thus been familiar with animals \"cycling through\". As",
"-27.06733862205874"
],
[
"area to house the chickens, ducks, peacocks, geese, etc., was constructed to house these animals safely.\nFor years the cats available for adoption were housed in one of the dog kennels. So in 1981 a room in the old farmhouse was converted to a cat room where cats and kittens could play freely.\nAnyone who visited HSHC in the 1980s and early 90s knew there were many times when the front office was full of people and animals. It was impossible to hear the phone and at times, was dangerous with too many animals entering and exiting this confined space. In 1994",
"-27.058736909064464"
],
[
"House sitting Benefits for the home/pet owner Pets are the reason for 80 percent of house sitting arrangements, and for many people the cost of pet care during holidays is more than the cost of the vacation itself. Many pet owners prefer to leave their pets at home in familiar surroundings, cared for by other pet lovers. \nA secondary benefit to the home owner is that the property is maintained for the entire period they are away.\nIt also is generally implied that crime is deterred by the presence of a house sitter. This is supported by the fact that insurance",
"-26.999208349036053"
],
[
"can be very difficult. It is often said that they cannot be socialized. This is not true, but the process takes two to four years of diligent food bribes and handling, and mostly on the cat's terms. Eventually the cat may be persuaded to be comfortable with humans and the indoor environment.\nKittens learn to be feral either from their mothers or through bad experiences. They are more easily socialized when under six months of age. Socializing is done by keeping them confined in a small room (i.e. bathroom) and handling them for 3 or more hours each day. There are",
"-26.959839344315697"
],
[
"meat for survival. This cat eats small mammals, lizards, birds, eggs, invertebrates, and the occasional tree frog. Occasionally, the cat will eat grasses. The oncilla stalks its prey from a distance, and once in range, it pounces to catch and kill the prey.\nThey are generally nocturnal, but in areas such as Caatinga, where their main food source consists of diurnal lizards, they are more likely to be active during the day. Young oncillas have been observed to purr, while adults are known to make short, gurgling calls when close to one another. Reproduction Estrus lasts from 3 to 9 days,",
"-26.944041398677655"
],
[
"as a dog that gives chase to birds, squirrel, and cats. For some PBGVs, this instinct may be difficult to overcome with training. Most PBGVs make fine companion animals, and have suitable manners to live among cats and other animals without assuming a hunting role. Potential PBGV owners are cautioned to be aware of this instinct and, if cats are present in the home, work to acclimate the puppy or dog to recognize that the cat is part of the home \"pack.\" \nAs scent hounds, most PBGVs should be kept on-leash when in open, non-fenced outdoor areas. Even",
"-26.940908781485632"
],
[
"and see me sometime?\" The cat plays cat's cradle. When the other couples dance, the cat dances a moonwalk.\nWhen arriving back on Earth, the couples get deliveries from the stork but the cat does not. He is reunited with his bride who then physically abuses him.",
"-26.92920534775476"
],
[
"is termed \"trap-neuter-return\", where the cats are trapped, neutered, immunized against diseases such as rabies and the feline Panleukopenia and Leukemia viruses, and then released. Before releasing them back into their feral colonies, the attending veterinarian often nips the tip off one ear to mark it as neutered and inoculated, since these cats may be trapped again. Volunteers continue to feed and give care to these cats throughout their lives. Given this support, their lifespans are increased, and behavior and nuisance problems caused by competition for food are reduced. Interaction with humans Cats are common pets throughout the world, and",
"-26.91533386023002"
],
[
"Cat and Mouse in Partnership Plot A cat and a mouse, to the custom of their kinds, become friends, such good friends that they decide to share a home. That they might have something to fall back on in time of need, they buy a pot of fat and hide it away in a nook of a church for safekeeping. After a short time, the cat tells her housemate that one of her relations has given birth and that the mouse's friend has been asked to be godmother. Instead of going to a christening, though, the cat goes to the",
"-26.883972254872788"
],
[
"supplementary food, cats will exterminate much of the local rodent population and move on, leaving only a temporary void. However, one concern with providing supplemental outdoor feed is that it can attract skunks, raccoons and other vermin.\nFarm cats originate from a variety of sources. Sometimes, farm cat populations are spontaneously established when abandoned or stray animals, uninvited by humans, move into areas where prey is available, such as haystacks or farm outbuildings that contain stored crops or livestock fodder. In other cases, property owners obtain and release a few cats specifically for rodent control. Some animal",
"-26.873972538596718"
],
[
"though; if the third estimate were to be revised, there would have been an estimated 108–118 Iriomote cats at the time, meaning that the population is shrinking over time.\nAlong with the traffic accidents, logging due to development, and development of the swamplands, house pets are also causing problems. House cats and stray cats especially cause issues with competition, disease transmission, and genetic pollution due to hybrids born of inter-species breeding. It is also feared that dogs prey on the Iriomote cats.\nThe primary fear stems from house cats that have become feral or partially feral, but there has been no monitoring",
"-26.872732999559958"
],
[
"Pet adoption Unwanted pets People deal with their unwanted pets in many ways. Some people have the pet euthanized (also known as putting it down or putting it to sleep), although many veterinarians do not consider this to be an ethical use of their resources for young and healthy animals, while others argue that euthanasia is a more humane option than leaving a pet in a cage for very long periods of time. Other people simply release the pet into the wild or otherwise abandon it, with the expectation that it will be able to take care of itself or",
"-26.85942997573875"
],
[
"place in several locations inspired by similar locales in the United Kingdom. With the exception of a disused mine, the forest in which the cats live is based largely on the New Forest.\nThe main characters each come from two groups, each led by two brothers: Clear Sky and Gray Wing. Clear Sky's group consists largely of cats who are adept at hunting in the undergrowth, and a rare few who fish and swim (such as Falling Feather). Gray Wing's group lives on the moor, and those cats are mainly able to run extremely fast, which is good for catching rabbits",
"-26.830845517208218"
],
[
"year. They live in West London with their three cats.",
"-26.808699573390186"
],
[
"as \"barbaric\" on their website due to the physical harming of a cat or any other creature that comes into contact with an electric fence. Dogs Canines are naturally territorial and will keep cats at bay. Crystals A more traditional cat repeller is to use jelly-like crystals containing methyl nonyl ketone, designed to be scattered around the garden, or around the areas the cat likes to foul. These repellents give off a smell that is very unpleasant to the cat, causing it to avoid that place. Citronella Citronella oil, used for repelling insects, can also be used to get rid",
"-26.806336573281442"
],
[
"can be tamed.\nIn many states in the United States, it is illegal to abandon a pet. In Iowa, doing so is a misdemeanor. Foreclosure pets Currently the exact number of foreclosed pets is unknown. People often drop animals off at a shelter and claim they are moving, when in fact they are leaving due to foreclosure. In 2008, the number of foreclosure pets is believed to had increased due to high foreclosure rates. As homeowners run out of time and options, they often leave their animals behind. The animals are then classified as abandoned foreclosure pets.\nThe pets left behind in",
"-26.787046831595944"
],
[
"able to crawl about after just a few hours. They are able to walk within two weeks, begin taking solid food after about a month, and are fully weaned by two months of age.\nFemales may have up to two litters during the course of spring, summer, and autumn. They rear their kittens in a burrow, moving them to new locations regularly after the first week. In general, kittens develop more rapidly than other similarly sized cats, quickly adapting to a relatively hostile environment. They become independent by five months of age, but may remain within their mother's range. Threats Known",
"-26.786203582480084"
],
[
"homes are often left without food or water. Some do not survive because of the lack of resources and are found dead when realtors or banks enter the premises. The animals are put in harm's way, and it is often believed it is done as a way to retaliate against those who took the home away. Shelters Many animals left at a shelter are euthanized due to lack of space and financial resources for these animals. Shelters unable to raise additional funds to provide for the increased number of incoming animals have no choice but to euthanize them, sometimes within",
"-26.78612605080707"
],
[
"of National Housing banned pet keeping.\nHowever, in 2014, pets started to be allowed on the condition that the pets are not dangerous and would not bark, cause smell and urinate. If a pet owner is reported for noise nuisance, failure to clean up the urine of pets and causing injury to other residents for 3 times, then the tenancy of National Housing would be terminated.\nCurrently, Article 16 of the “Condominium Administration Act Building Administration Division” (《公寓大廈管理條例》) stipulates that “Inhabitants with pets may not hinder public sanitation, peace or safety.” If the National Housing households break the regulation, the management committee",
"-26.778405923745595"
],
[
"from the pieces of other cats.\nTraveling across the desert, they are brought to a house by the smell of food, and are invited inside by a man. They are fed, and when full the man attempts to turn them into soup, attacking them with a pair of scissors. He ends up falling into the cauldron, Nyatta cuts him into pieces with the scissors and the cats escape. Wandering further across the desert dehydrated, Nyatta digs and finds an elephant made of water, which cools them off and travels with them, though the elephant eventually evaporates from the heat. God accidentally",
"-26.759739942048327"
],
[
"species. Several tests showed that leopards, cougars, servals, and lynxes often reacted strongly to catnip in a manner similar to domestic cats; while lions and tigers can react strongly as well, they do not react as consistently.\nWith domestic cats, N. cataria is used as a recreational substance for pet cats' enjoyment, and catnip and catnip-laced products designed for use with domesticated cats are available to consumers. Common behaviors cats display when they sense the bruised leaves or stems of catnip are rubbing on the plant, rolling on the ground, pawing at it, licking it, and chewing it. Consuming much of",
"-26.736650390492287"
],
[
"domestic cats. Doves and pigeons are considered to be game birds, as many species have been hunted and used for food in many of the countries in which they are native.\nThe body feathers have dense, fluffy bases and are loosely attached to the skin, hence they drop out easily. When a predator catches it, large numbers of feathers come out in the attacker's mouth, and the pigeon may use this temporary distraction to make an escape. It also tends to drop the tail feathers when preyed upon or under traumatic conditions, probably as a distraction mechanism. Preening Pigeons primarily use",
"-26.64719281392172"
],
[
"to leave the house because its owner, an obnoxious, rich man from Bogotá's exclusive area, has new plans for it. The tenants are confronted with the authorities who are trying to evict everyone from the building. Then, the tenants decide to take a stand by locking doors and shooting at the policemen who try to carry out their orders.\nAfter this confrontation the tenants are given more time so everyone in the house has enough time to find a new place to live. The tenants are legally represented by \"Perro\" Romero (Frank Ramirez) —who is annoyed by anyone using the nickname",
"-26.643822070873284"
],
[
"bird (\"What kind of bird are you if you can't fly?\" – \"What kind of bird are you if you can't swim?\"). Peter's pet cat stalks them quietly, and the bird—warned by Peter—flies away. The cat then aims for the duck, but doesn't manage to catch it either. Peter's grandfather scolds him for being outside in the meadow alone (\"What if a wolf came out of the forest all of a sudden?\"), and takes him back into the house.\nIn response to Peter's comment (\"But what could happen anyway, with a cat, a duck and stupid little bird?\"), Annie continues narrating the",
"-26.632680436974624"
],
[
"a means of reducing the cat population. In 2013, Gareth Morgan, an economist and philanthropist, caused an international furore when he called for cats to be wiped out. He launched the \"Cats To Go\" website to support the stance. It is suggested that owners could euthanize their cats, but it is not seen as necessary. Some conservationists supported the stance taken by Morgan.\nEven though cats control rodents which also prey on native wildlife and thus have a protective role, the precautionary principle is recommended in certain cases such as adjacent to natural areas and in outer suburbs of cities.\nA study",
"-26.620804800419137"
],
[
"the \"Cat Parade\". The ancients believed that the cat is an animal which is afraid of rain and water. If it rained, the cat would cry. The ancients considered that if the cat cries it means that rain is going to fall. Some people believe that the cat represents drought. If the cat is wet, the drought will be driven away. Others believed that the cat has the power to make rain.\nTo perform a \"Cat Parade\", you must bring a female cat that has grey or black fur. The cats are then to be placed in baskets; only one cat",
"-26.598302298923954"
],
[
"who lived in the shed with the dogs. The cats lived in nesting boxes in the opposite corner of the shed from the dogs. Yellow Man greeted the dogs every morning and was curious of them. Marcy The wife of George. She and George find Squirrel and Bone on the side of the highway and take them home. Marcy wants to keep the dogs, and George doesn't allow her to. Marcy feeds them and cleans up their messes, hoping that they will become tame pets. George The husband of Marcy. He and Marcy find Squirrel and Bone on the side",
"-26.58723763213493"
]
] |
2chgqc | Why is Ebola more dangerous than other diseases? | [
"TL;DR It's not. Ebola is contracted in poor African villages when people have to resort to eating dead animals (fruit-bats mainly) they've found in the rain forest. It then spreads through contact with an infected person's bodily fluids (blood, sperm, etc). These people can't afford the necessary healthcare and it tends to just wipe out a lot of people quite quickly (up to 90% fatality rate in central Africa according to WHO). I think people fear it as the symptoms are quite violent, with extreme vomiting and diarrhea being the main case. The thing is, it's quite treatable in first world countries, and isn't really any more dangerous than a lot of diseases you could contract eating infected raw meat. The media has just blown it out of proportion like it always does with 'super' diseases.",
"It's really a lot of reasons. #1 being the incubation time of the disease. You can have the disease for a very long time (2-21 days) without showing a single symptom but can still transmit the disease. Essentially if you had this disease you could infect everyone you come into contact with in almost a month, that's quite a large number when considering then those people would be infecting people as well. #2 is there is NO CURE. All we can do for people with Ebola is treat symptoms as they come and let them fight it off themselves, which contributes to the 90% mortality rate. Also they symptoms themselves in the early stages look appear to be the Flu or a bad cold, which includes.. Fever Vomiting Headache Muscle aches Sore throat General weakness Diarrhea Then as the virus progresses that's when the dangerous symptoms start including... Bleeding inside and outside of the body Rash Trouble breathing This can also lead to a very low white blood cell count which makes it harder for the body to fight off the virus. By this time it's likely too late for the patient to recover. Lastly it is HIGHLY INFECTIOUS. As stated it is easy to spread the virus through human contact. And as you can see from the symptoms (i.e. Vomiting, Diarrhea, Fever (causes sweating), and Bleeding in later stages) it would be easy to transmit the virus while treating a patient without proper protection and extreme caution. Also it is possible to get the virus from a dead body that had the virus so as people die and embalming/burials are carried out transmission of the virus can still be taking place. But there is good news for those who are afraid and living in first world! The main sources for the Ebola Virus is fruit bats, chimps, and other animals really only found and consumed in Africa. Also the 90% mortality rate is based on mostly outbreaks in Africa. Africa has a high rate of HIV as well and as you may know HIV severely inhibits immune function which is really the only way to fight the virus and any other infections that may come into play. And finally as we know Africa's medical establishments are not nearly as advanced as the rest of the developed world which also plays a part in the mortality rate. UPDATE/EDIT: as /u/nerdbebo has pointed out, infection does not normally take place until the patient is showing symptoms according to the CDC which would make the infectious period shorter but keep in mind that the first symptoms that show up mimic minor disease or the flu so people would still be going about like normal until they would figure out that something more serious is going on. Sources: URL_3 URL_0 URL_2 URL_1 ",
"In the scheme of things? Its not. It just has a really high \"if you get this your ass is dead\" rate in Africa. It also kills in a pretty nasty way."
] | [
[
"aim of protecting people from malaria during the disease's peak season. A spokesman said \"In the context of Ebola, malaria is a major concern, because people who are sick with malaria have the same symptoms as people sick with Ebola. As a result, most people turn up at Ebola treatment centres thinking that they have Ebola, when actually they have malaria. It's a huge load on the system, as well as being a huge stress on patients and their families.\"\nBetween 14 December and 17 December Sierra Leone reported 403 new cases with a total of 8,759 cases on the latter",
"-28.708701925119385"
],
[
"humans is caused by four of five viruses of the genus Ebolavirus. The four are Bundibugyo virus (BDBV), Sudan virus (SUDV), Taï Forest virus (TAFV) and one simply called Ebola virus (EBOV, formerly Zaire Ebola virus). EBOV, species Zaire ebolavirus, is the most dangerous of the known EVD-causing viruses, and is responsible for the largest number of outbreaks. The fifth virus, Reston virus (RESTV), is not thought to cause disease in humans, but has caused disease in other primates. All five viruses are closely related to marburgviruses. Virology Ebolaviruses contain single-stranded, non-infectious RNA genomes. Ebolavirus genomes contain seven genes including",
"-28.366066872084048"
],
[
"after they start. He sees globalization and global warming as contributing factors, as they have upset the ecological niches of bats, which he feels are the most likely viral reservoirs. The current outbreak, in his opinion, represents a \"perfect storm\" for a disease such as Ebola, having erupted in poor countries with meager medical care and where governments have little control over their populations.\nLobel adds that besides Ebola, there are other \"bad\" viruses out there, which the developed world prefers to ignore so long as they aren't affected. This has resulted in little research into other infectious diseases, with the",
"-28.244861942192074"
],
[
"of some such books admitted that they lacked medical credentials and were not technically qualified to give medical advice. The World Health Organization and the United Nations stated that such misinformation had contributed to the spread of the disease. Wild animals Ebola has a high mortality rate among primates. Frequent outbreaks of Ebola may have resulted in the deaths of 5,000 gorillas. Outbreaks of Ebola may have been responsible for an 88% decline in tracking indices of observed chimpanzee populations in the 420 km² Lossi Sanctuary between 2002 and 2003. Transmission among chimpanzees through meat consumption constitutes a significant risk factor,",
"-28.006523270349135"
],
[
"as Ebola, of which he is one of the world's few experts and its only academic researcher outside the U.S. “Ebola is the most lethal virus,\" he states. \"It can kill 90% of those afflicted. And there is no therapy to counter it. There is a vaccine thus far tested in animals, but it takes a relatively long time to build immunity.” As monoclonal antibodies are proteins that attack specific targets, including viruses, bacteria or other foreign bodies, “the antibodies will neutralize the virus, and avoid the dangerous side effects of the existing vaccine,” he says. He anticipates that they",
"-27.193704071862157"
],
[
"world is teetering on the edge of a pandemic that could kill a large fraction of the human population\" in American Scientist. He called for adequate resources to fight what he sees as a major world threat to possibly billions of lives. On September 29, 2005, David Nabarro, the newly appointed Senior United Nations System Coordinator for Avian and Human Influenza, warned the world that an outbreak of avian influenza could kill anywhere between 5 million and 150 million people. Experts have identified key events (creating new clades, infecting new species, spreading to new areas) marking the progression of an",
"-27.155491529323626"
],
[
"was deemed to be at risk with small numbers of cases in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Nigeria.\nIn October 2019, continuing cases of wild polio in Pakistan and Afghanistan, in addition to new vaccine-derived cases in Africa and Asia, was reviewed and remains a PHEIC. 2014 Ebola declaration Confirmed cases of Ebola were being reported in Guinea and Liberia in March 2014 and Sierra Leone by May 2014. On Friday, 8 August 2014, following the occurrence of Ebola in the United States and Europe and with the already intense transmission ongoing in three other countries for months, the WHO declared its third",
"-26.626908738981"
],
[
"behavior and other factors may trigger outbreaks among animal populations.\nEvidence indicates that both domestic dogs and pigs can also be infected with EBOV. Dogs do not appear to develop symptoms when they carry the virus, and pigs appear to be able to transmit the virus to at least some primates. Although some dogs in an area in which a human outbreak occurred had antibodies to EBOV, it is unclear whether they played a role in spreading the disease to people. Reservoir The natural reservoir for Ebola has yet to be confirmed; however, bats are considered to be the most likely",
"-26.59935973508982"
],
[
"to the prevalence of AIDS in Africa. 3,000 Africans die each day of AIDS and an additional 11,000 are infected. Less than one percent are actually treated. However, even with the widespread prevalence of AIDS (where infection rates can approach 30% among the sexually active population), and fatal infections such as the Ebola virus, other diseases are far more problematic. In fact, the situation with AIDS is improving in some nations as infection rates drop, and deaths from Ebola are rare. On the other hand, diseases once common but now almost unknown in most of the industrialized world, like",
"-26.514389062765986"
],
[
"of other species—but different need not mean worse.\" In addition, anti-malarial and mosquito control programs offer little realistic hope to the 300 million people in developing nations who will be infected with acute illnesses this year. Although trials are ongoing, she writes that if they fail: \"We should consider the ultimate swatting.\"\nBiologist E. O. Wilson has advocated the eradication of several species of mosquito, including malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. Wilson stated, \"I'm talking about a very small number of species that have co-evolved with us and are preying on humans, so it would certainly be acceptable to remove them. I",
"-26.152836765744723"
],
[
"Communicable diseases are infectious diseases that \"can be passed between people through proximity, social contact or intimate contact.\" Common diseases in this category include whooping cough or tuberculosis, HIV/AIDs, malaria, influenza (the flu), and mumps. \nAs low-to-middle income countries continue to develop, the types of diseases that affecting populations within these countries shifts primarily from infectious diseases, such as diarrhea and pneumonia, to primarily non-communicable diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, cancer and obesity. This shift is increasingly being referred to as the risk transition. Thus, as globalization and the proliferation of pre-packaged foods",
"-26.050983964523766"
],
[
"disease. 'And for 1 out of every 1,000 children who contract it, the disease is fatal.'\" \"The World Health Organization says measles is 'one of the leading causes of death among young children even though a safe and cost-effective vaccine is available'. There are about 140,000 deaths a year, mostly in poor countries. In Australia measles deaths are now rare because the disease has been controlled though widespread vaccination. When it does occur, the danger comes from complications such as pneumonia and encephalitis. Dr. Hambleton said while \"there were occasional adverse reactions to the vaccination, it was far more dangerous",
"-26.03621512488462"
],
[
"studied of the six species that infect humans, in part because of its low prevalence and milder clinical manifestations compared to the other species. It is widespread throughout sub-Saharan Africa, much of southeast Asia, Indonesia, on many of the islands of the western Pacific and in areas of the Amazon Basin of South America. In endemic regions, prevalence ranges from less than 4% to more than 20%, but there is evidence that P. malariae infections are vastly underreported.\nThe Center for Disease Control (CDC) has an application that allows people to view specific parts of the world and how they are",
"-26.035070018842816"
],
[
"Humans are thought to be the sole cause as other earlier migrations of animals into North America from Eurasia did not cause extinctions.\nThere are many problems with this theory, as this disease would have to meet several criteria: it has to be able to sustain itself in an environment with no hosts; it has to have a high infection rate; and be extremely lethal, with a mortality rate of 50–75%. Disease has to be very virulent to kill off all the individuals in a genus or species, and even such a virulent disease as West Nile fever is unlikely to",
"-26.00419726455584"
],
[
"worldwide are at risk from the disease because they live in countries where the organism is common. In 2012, 249 million people were in need of treatment to prevent the disease. This likely makes it the most common parasitic infection with malaria second and causing about 207 million cases in 2013.\nS. haematobium, the infectious agent responsible for urogenital schistosomiasis, infects over 112 million people annually in Sub-Saharan Africa alone. It is responsible for 32 million cases of dysuria, 10 million cases of hydronephrosis, and 150,000 deaths from renal failure annually, making S. haematobium the world’s deadliest schistosome. Deaths Estimates regarding",
"-26.000770853308495"
],
[
"virus are difficult to study because of EBOV's virulent characteristics. Transmission It is believed that between people, Ebola disease spreads only by direct contact with the blood or other body fluids of a person who has developed symptoms of the disease. Body fluids that may contain Ebola viruses include saliva, mucus, vomit, feces, sweat, tears, breast milk, urine and semen. The WHO states that only people who are very sick are able to spread Ebola disease in saliva, and whole virus has not been reported to be transmitted through sweat. Most people spread the virus through blood, feces and vomit.",
"-25.961594622138364"
],
[
"reported to be infected with Reston virus, so other interim or amplifying hosts may exist. Ebola virus outbreaks tend to occur when temperatures are lower and humidity is higher than usual for Africa. Even after a person recovers from the acute phase of the disease, Ebola virus survives for months in certain organs such as the eyes and testes. Ebola virus disease Ebola virus is one of the four ebolaviruses known to cause disease in humans. It has the highest case-fatality rate of these ebolaviruses, averaging 83 percent since the first outbreaks in 1976, although fatality rates up to 90",
"-25.862047650036402"
],
[
"average people cut themselves 38% of the time when butchering bushmeat, allowing for infected bodily fluid transmissions. African women are more likely to contract these dangerous zoonotic pathogens because they're the ones handing and cooking the bushmeat . Exotic trade and disease outbreaks Ebola Virus is a rare infectious disease that is transmitted by wild animals (macaque monkeys, fruit bats, hammer-headed bats, chimpanzees, etc.) to human populations. Transmission of this virus occurs when individuals live closely to infected habitats, exchange bodily liquids, or consume infected animals. West Africa's Ebola outbreak was termed the most destructive infectious disease epidemic in recent",
"-25.841475816094317"
],
[
"by those most in-the-know. Dr. David Nabarro, chief avian flu coordinator for the United Nations, describes himself as \"quite scared\"; says avian flu has too many unanswered questions; and if the disease starts spreading to humans, borders will close, airports will shut down, and travelers everywhere will be stranded. With evaluations of the threat ranging from those who say it is a hoax to those who warn of billions of humans dying, uncertainty and fear motivate personal behaviors around the world affecting many people even before the threat becomes reality. Pop culture The 1998 chart-topping hit song \"One Week\" by",
"-25.68380903097568"
],
[
"antibodies to Ebola virus have been detected along with viral RNA. No culturable virus has been isolated. It is not known whether these species are incidental hosts or a reservoir of Ebola virus infection for humans and other terrestrial mammals. Despite the fact that scientists have found evidence of Ebola infections in the little collared fruit bat, the bats don't seem to get sick from the virus.",
"-25.610826327931136"
],
[
"infectious diseases have appeared each year, and old diseases have mutated, making them more and more difficult to treat. The potential for a catastrophic global disease already exists. Why global epidemic disease? The origin of the global disease is the accumulated suffering of humans. Because of the dominance of yang over yin in the cosmic spring and summer, conflict has been the mode of development. Humans have struggled to overcome nature and each other. Men have oppressed women, some races have oppressed others, and heaven has dominated earth. So many people have suffered and harbored inside them deep bitterness and",
"-25.595034499070607"
],
[
"be limited to random outbreaks in a few countries, rendering it more of a public health nuisance than a crisis. Political and economic reverberations still would occur, with some companies and investors looking to reduce their exposure in East Asia, particularly China.\nThe next alternative is that \"SARS Gains a Foothold in Poor Countries, Regions. SARS could spread to poor countries in Africa or Asia, potentially generating more infections and deaths than before but with relatively\nlittle international economic impact. The risk of spread would continue, however, even if SARS\nemerged in poor countries or isolated regions of Russia and China with weak",
"-25.521708512533223"
],
[
"diseases. Finding vaccines at all for some diseases remains extremely difficult. Without vaccines, the global world remains vulnerable to infectious diseases.\nEvolution of disease presents a major threat in modern times. For example, the current \"swine flu\" or H1N1 virus is a new strain of an old form of flu, known for centuries as Asian flu based on its origin on that continent. From 1918–1920, a post-World War I global influenza epidemic killed an estimated 50–100 million people, including half a million in the United States alone. H1N1 is a virus that has evolved from and",
"-25.441754247352947"
],
[
"childhood illnesses\". Independent data shows that measles causes the most vaccine-preventable deaths of any disease. It resulted in about 96,000 deaths in 2013. Before immunization in the United States between three and four million cases occurred each year, and the fatality rate is approximately 0.2% of those infected. Most of those who are infected and who die are less than five years old.\nInfectious disease specialist Peter McIntyre has accused the group of manipulating research and statistics in order to make its case. \"It's been a real characteristic of the anti-vaccine movement ... [to claim] to be looking very extensively at",
"-25.358039486818598"
],
[
"to neighbouring villages. By March 2014 the outbreak was severe enough to raise the concern of local health officials who reported it to the Guinean Ministry of Health. By the middle of the year the epidemic had spread to Liberia and Sierra Leone. As of June 2015, the World Health Organization reported over 27,000 cases of the disease, which had resulted in more than 11,000 deaths.\nThe natural source of Ebola virus is probably bats. Marburg viruses are transmitted to humans by monkeys, and Lassa fever by rats (Mastomys natalensis). Zoonotic infections can be severe because humans often have no",
"-25.346799536579056"
],
[
"Reston virus (another member of genus Ebolavirus) between infected macaques. A similar change in the current circulating strains of EBOV could greatly increase the infection and disease rates caused by EBOV. However, there is no record of any Ebola strain ever having made this transition in humans.",
"-25.330379437597003"
],
[
"By experiencing the same stressful situations for decades, individuals become more susceptible to diseases like cardiovascular disease, obesity, diabetes, and mental illnesses including schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Diseases Together, diseases of poverty kill approximately 14 million people annually. Gastroenteritis with its associated diarrhea results in about 1.8 million deaths in children yearly with most of these in the world's poorest nations.\nAt the global level, the three primary PRDs are tuberculosis, AIDS/HIV and malaria. Developing countries account for 95% of the global AIDS prevalence and 98% of active tuberculosis infections. Furthermore, 90% of malaria deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa. Together, these",
"-25.229394031804986"
],
[
"Africa where social and economic inequalities are common. The central African countries are the most prevalent of EVD; like Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, Uganda, and Gabon\nIn 2014 there was an outbreak of the Ebola virus in West Africa. As of 19 October 2014, there had been 3,706 cases of Ebola in Sierra Leone, and 1,259 deaths, including that of the leading physician trying to control the outbreak, Sheik Umar Khan. In early August 2014 Guinea closed its borders to Sierra Leone to help contain the spreading of the virus, which originated in Guinea, as more new cases of the",
"-25.20493897545748"
],
[
"that lies at the centre of both a highly-mobile and densely populated region which has made tracking more difficult: \"This time, the virus is traveling effortlessly across borders by plane, car and foot, shifting from forests to cities and springing up in clusters far from any previously known infections. Border closures, flight bans and mass quarantines have been ineffective.\" Peter Piot, who co-discovered Ebola, said Ebola \"isn't striking in a 'linear fashion' this time. It's hopping around, especially in Liberia, Guinea and Sierra Leone\". Fear of healthcare workers and clinics Containment has also been difficult due to fear",
"-25.1700002886937"
],
[
"countries that had imported cases. As of 8 May 2016, 28,646 suspected cases and 11,323 deaths were reported; however, the WHO said that these numbers may be underestimated. Because they work closely with the body fluids of infected patients, healthcare workers were especially vulnerable to infection ; in August 2014, the WHO reported that 10% of the dead were healthcare workers.\nIn September 2014, it was estimated that the countries' capacity for treating Ebola patients was insufficient by the equivalent of 2,122 beds; by December there were a sufficient number of beds to treat and isolate all reported Ebola cases, although the uneven",
"-25.154930697055534"
],
[
"Messenger states in the book that she has raised three children \"vaccine-free and childhood disease-free\". The scientific data Independent data shows that measles causes the most vaccine-preventable deaths of any disease, resulting in about 96,000 deaths in 2013, and the vaccine is 97% effective after two shots. Measles is highly contagious – before immunization in the United States there were between three and four million cases annually – and the fatality rate is approximately 0.2% of those infected. Most of those who are infected and who die are less than five years old. Reception Although the book was first published",
"-25.118836464593187"
],
[
"was not recognized until March 2014. For several months the epidemic was spreading. This is something that public health experts in the affected locations, such as Medecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders), claimed was due to a deeply flawed and delayed response by health and government officials.\nIn an interview later in 2015, once Ebola had largely been brought under control, Nabarro said that when he started working on Ebola in 2014, he \"was aware that we were in the middle of a disease outbreak of enormous proportions. The number of people getting sick was doubling every week. Facilities were completely",
"-25.08953786670463"
],
[
"on these fallen fruits. This chain of events forms a possible indirect means of transmission from the natural host to animal populations.\nAlthough primates and other species may be intermediates, evidence suggests people primarily contract the virus from bats. Since most people buy smoked bushmeat, hunters and people preparing the food have the highest risk of infection. Hunters usually shoot, net, scavenge or catapult their prey, and butcher the bats without gloves, getting bites or scratches and coming in contact with their blood.\nIn 2014, the suspected index case for the Ebola outbreak in West Africa is a two-year-old child in",
"-25.005778420716524"
],
[
"life and the burden of disease and disability.\"\nOn 5 May 2014, WHO announced that the spread of polio was a world health emergency – outbreaks of the disease in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East were considered \"extraordinary\".\nOn 8 August 2014, WHO declared that the spread of Ebola was a public health emergency; an outbreak which was believed to have started in Guinea had spread to other nearby countries such as Liberia and Sierra Leone. The situation in West Africa was considered very serious. g) Health policy WHO addresses government health policy with two aims: firstly, \"to address the underlying",
"-24.983950857364107"
],
[
"is possible that they can be changed to increase their ability to cause disease, make them resistant to current medicines, or to increase their ability to be spread into the environment. Biological agents in the hands of terrorists pose serious threats to states’ security because they can be easily spread through the air, through water, and through food. Biological agents can also be difficult to detect and often do not cause illness for several hours to several days. A prominent example of a bioterrorist attack on the United States is the September 2001 anthrax attacks. On September 18,",
"-24.93687313157716"
],
[
"realities of living with the virus may be one reason why infection rates have been rising. However, the BBC also described bugchasing as more internet fantasy than reality, saying that, \"Dyer finds that the overwhelming majority of the talk is pure fantasy.\" The article also quotes Will Nutland, head of health promotion at Terrence Higgins Trust, as saying, \"The concepts of 'gift giving' and 'bug chasers' are definitely based more in fantasy than reality\" as well as Deborah Jack, chief executive of the National AIDS Trust, who said, \"There is very little evidence of people trying to get infected with",
"-24.901281608035788"
],
[
"7 million doses of vaccine have been exhausted in the vaccination campaign against the outbreak in Angola. If yellow fever spread to the 18 countries in Asia where the mosquito vector is present, more than 2 billion people would be at risk. They stated: \"Apocalyptic forecasts of the numbers of fatalities from Ebola turned out to be wildly wrong, and we can hope that will again be the case here, but given the way Zika has exploded in the Western hemisphere, we can't count on it.\" CDC said they could not assist as much in the outbreak because all",
"-24.855222337064333"
],
[
"in Mali\nSince October 2014, when Mali had its first Ebola virus outbreak, there has been a total of eight cases of Ebola with six deaths. However, due to the high number of outbreaks in neighboring countries like Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea, Mali is ranked as one of the top countries at risk for an outbreak of Ebola.\nRabies: Dog rabies is frequent within Mali, especially the Bamako area (the most hospitalized and urbanized). 17% of people living in Bamako are vaccinated, while others have received no immunization against the rabies. The World Health Organization has set the goal of recommended",
"-24.84261041157879"
],
[
"fastest-growing causes of disease burden over the last 26 years were diabetes (rate increased by 80%) and ischemic heart disease (up 34%). More than 60% of deaths, about 6.1 million, in 2016 were due to NCDs, up from about 38% in 1990. Increases in refugee urbanization, has led to a growing number of people diagnosed with chronic noncommunicable diseases.\nIn September 2011, the United Nations is hosting its first General Assembly Special Summit on the issue of non-communicable diseases. Noting that non-communicable diseases are the cause of some 35 million deaths each year, the international community is being increasingly called to",
"-24.796558556430682"
],
[
"not possible. This reduced rate of antigenic change, combined with its limited host range (inhibiting cross species antigenic shift), ensures that pandemics of influenza B do not occur. Influenzavirus C This genus has one species, influenza C virus, which infects humans, dogs and pigs, sometimes causing both severe illness and local epidemics. However, influenza C is less common than the other types and usually only causes mild disease in children. Influenzavirus D This genus has only one species, influenza D virus, which infects pigs and cattle. The virus has the potential to infect humans, although no such cases have been",
"-24.781417351099662"
],
[
"that averted an estimated 1.4 million measles deaths worldwide. The vaccine for measles has led to the near-complete elimination of the disease in the United States and other developed countries. While the vaccine is made with a live virus which can cause side effects, these are far fewer and less serious than the sickness and death caused by measles itself, side effects ranging from rashes to, rarely, convulsions, occur in a small percentage of recipients.\nMeasles is common worldwide. Although it was declared eliminated from the U.S. in 2000, high rates of vaccination and excellent communication with those who refuse vaccination",
"-24.722504772653338"
],
[
"lungs. In pregnant women in can cause miscarriages or pre-mature births. While measles is almost gone from the United States, it still kills about 164,000 people each year around the world. In developing countries that suffer from malnutrition and vitamin A deficiency, measles has been known to kill as many as 1 out of 4 people and it is the leading cause of blindness among African children. Transmission Measles spreads from person to person and is extremely contagious, 90% of people close to the infected individual that are not immune will become infected as well. The virus is spread through",
"-24.684095446020365"
],
[
"malaria, tuberculosis, tapeworm and dysentery often claim far more victims, particularly among the young. Polio has made a comeback recently due to misinformation spread by anti-American Islamic groups in Nigeria. Diseases native to Africa, such as sleeping sickness, also resist attempts at elimination too. Poor infrastructure Clean potable water is rare in most of Africa (even those parts outside the sub-Saharan region) despite the fact that the continent is crossed by several major rivers and contains some of the largest freshwater lakes in the world. However, many of the major population centres are coastal, and few major cities have adequate",
"-24.634594594710506"
],
[
"infection might even be beneficial to the host. The lethal viral diseases are believed to have resulted from an \"accidental\" jump of the virus from a species in which it is benign to a new one that is not accustomed to it (see zoonosis). For example, viruses that cause serious influenza in humans probably have pigs or birds as their natural host, and HIV is thought to derive from the benign non-human primate virus SIV.\nWhile it has been possible to prevent (certain) viral diseases by vaccination for a long time, the development of antiviral drugs to treat viral diseases is",
"-24.63249554327922"
],
[
"of contention.\nAlthough this disease is not dangerous to humans and rarely fatal to otherwise healthy animals, it reduces milk and meat production. Outbreaks can be stopped quickly if farmers and transporters are forced to abide by existing rules. Therefore, (besides temporary discomfort to the animals), any outbreak in the rich world should not be much more as a localized, cyclical economic problem. For countries with free roaming wildlife it is nearly impossible to prove that they are entirely free of this disease. If they try they are forced to erect nationwide fences, which destroys wildlife migration. Because detecting and reporting",
"-24.63217474349949"
],
[
"heightened risk for contracting HIV and pre-term deliveries.\nIn addition, availability of cures and recent advances in medicine have led to only three diseases being considered neglected diseases, namely, African trypanosomiasis, Chagas disease and Leishmaniasis. Malaria Africa accounts for a majority of malaria infections and deaths worldwide. Over 80 percent of the 300 to 500 million malaria infections occurring annually worldwide are in Africa. Each year, about one million children under the age of five die from malaria. Children who are poor, have mothers with little to no education, and live in rural areas are more susceptible to malaria and more",
"-24.53413834087405"
],
[
"rational responses to abnormal behavior. For example, Ebola received loads of media attention when it became rampant in Africa and eventually spread to the US, however, researchers never really paid attention to its psychological effects on the African brain. Extreme anxiety, struggles with grief, feelings of rejection and incompetence, depression leading to suicide, PTSD, and much more are only some of the noted affects of diseases like Ebola. These epidemics come and go, but their lasting effects on mental health are remaining for years to come, and even ending lives because of the lack of action. There has been some",
"-24.509634052810725"
],
[
"Post-Ebola virus syndrome Cause Although there is some progress that may potentially help Ebola survivors, adequate funding and further research is required to help provide more answers about post-Ebola syndrome. Studies from previous outbreaks reveal that the virus is able to survive for months after recovery in some parts of the body such as the eyes and testes, where the immune system cannot reach. It is not known if the neurologic symptoms seen in survivors are a direct result of the virus or, instead, triggered by the immune system’s response to the infection. It is known that",
"-24.505555056224694"
],
[
"a dangerous (and irreversible) rate and the people of the United States live in constant fear of biological terrorism attacks.\nThe ultimate source of the global virus in the novel is unknown; however, it is implied that the source of the virus was involved in one way or another in the inflamed war on terrorism. Though it is left ambiguous, it is possible that the ultimate source of the virus may have even been the United States government: this hypothesis is supported by an early epicenter of the virus being in the Middle East, which when considered with the virus'",
"-24.42946583583398"
],
[
"6,000), and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (5,600) had the most cases. A 2015 collaboration between the World Health Organization, World Organization of Animal Health (OIE), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (FAO), and Global Alliance for Rabies Control has a goal of eliminating deaths from rabies by 2030. India India has the highest rate of human rabies in the world, primarily because of stray dogs, whose number has greatly increased since a 2001 law forbade the killing of dogs. Effective control and treatment of rabies in India is hindered by a form of mass hysteria known",
"-24.404172575770644"
],
[
"to assist with tracking down the sources of infection. Contagiousness Infectious diseases are sometimes called contagious disease when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions (e.g., influenza). Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted. Other types of infectious, transmissible, or communicable diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually not regarded as \"contagious\", and often do not require medical isolation (sometimes loosely called quarantine) of victims. However, this specialized connotation of the word \"contagious\" and \"contagious",
"-24.36518449264986"
],
[
"appears to be essential for infection with both Ebola and Marburg virus. Two independent studies reported in the same issue of Nature showed that Ebola virus cell entry and replication requires NPC1. When cells from patients lacking NPC1 were exposed to Ebola virus in the laboratory, the cells survived and appeared immune to the virus, further indicating that Ebola relies on NPC1 to enter cells. This might imply that genetic mutations in the NPC1 gene in humans could make some people resistant to one of the deadliest known viruses affecting humans. The same studies described similar results with Marburg virus,",
"-24.322633501607925"
],
[
"respiratory infections. Nonetheless, infectious diseases are still a major cause of illness and death in the region, and the risk of new and reemerging diseases remains substantial. \nWidening income disparities, periodic economic shocks, and rampant urbanization have disrupted disease control efforts and contributed to widespread reemergence of cholera, malaria, TB, and dengue, especially in the poorer Central American and Caribbean countries and in the Amazon basin of South America. According to the AFMIC typology, Latin America's health care capacity is substantially more advanced than that of Sub-Saharan Africa and somewhat better than mainland Asia's, with 70–90% of populations having access",
"-24.316057530406397"
],
[
"\"catastrophic\" and \"deteriorating daily\". They reported that fears of Ebola among staff members and patients had shut down much of the city's health system, leaving many people without medical treatment for other conditions. In a 26 September statement, WHO said, \"The Ebola epidemic ravaging parts of West Africa is the most severe acute public health emergency seen in modern times. Never before in recorded history has a biosafety level four pathogen infected so many people so quickly, over such a broad geographical area, for so long.\"\nIntense contact tracing and strict isolation largely prevented further spread of the disease in the",
"-24.3157616131939"
],
[
"natural resistance to the infection and it is only when viruses become well-adapted to new host that their virulence decreases. Some zoonotic infections are often \"dead ends\", in that after the initial outbreak the rate of subsequent infections subsides because the viruses are not efficient at spreading from person to person.\nThe beginning of the 21st century saw an increase in the global awareness of devastating epidemics in developing countries, which, in previous decades had passed relatively unnoticed by the international health community. Beneficial viruses Sir Peter Medawar (1915–1987) described a virus as \"a piece of bad news wrapped",
"-24.23735196038615"
],
[
"Ebola due to a laboratory error, and has been placed into quarantine.\n United Kingdom On 29 December, Pauline Cafferkey, a healthcare worker returning from West Africa to Scotland, was diagnosed with Ebola. She was taken to a specialist treatment centre in London the next day.\n On December 29, confirmed cases exceeded 20,000 and confirmed deaths exceeded 7,800.\n Iraq On December 31, unnamed health officials in Mosul hospital allegedly maintained that Ebola had stricken \"Da'ish gunmen\" (ISIS jihad fighters) of African origin. The reports are not independently confirmed. January 2015 On January 3, confirmed deaths reach 8,000.\n On January 4, ISIS",
"-24.228089287353214"
],
[
"many other African nations due to improved access to antiretroviral therapy.\nSouth & South East Asia is the second most affected; in 2010 this region contained an estimated 4 million cases or 12% of all people living with HIV resulting in approximately 250,000 deaths. Approximately 2.4 million of these cases are in India.\nIn 2008 in the United States approximately 1.2 million people were living with HIV, resulting in about 17,500 deaths. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimated that in 2008 20% of infected Americans were unaware of their infection. As of 2016 about 675,000 people have died of HIV/AIDS in",
"-24.225103908102028"
],
[
"immunity to these viruses. The reasons people are unvaccinated range from lack of access to vaccines in areas of insecurity, to poor performing health systems, to vaccine refusals. We need to address each of these challenges if we’re going to meet global measles and rubella elimination goals,\" said Dr. Myrna Charles of the American Red Cross, as reported in a post in the Measles and Rubella Initiative's blog. A look at the WHO's epidemiological graph of measles over time from 2008-2013 show that, with little more of two years to go to 2015, measles cases in 2013 are moving in",
"-24.19159336501616"
],
[
"because it suggests that, in very densely populated or overcrowded areas, such as slums, natural selection may favour more virulent viruses.\nThis also helps explain why good hygiene is so important. Good hygiene selects against highly virulent viruses by lowering the ability of pathogens to transmit. Influenza The H5N1 virus is a particularly lethal strain of influenza. Currently, it can infect humans, but it is not contagious. Still, over 600 people have died from the H5N1 virus, and so the transmissibility of the virus is of major concern to scientists.\nSeveral serial passage experiments have been conducted to determine the feasibility of",
"-24.189088570303284"
],
[
"Contagious disease Effect on Public Health Response Most epidemics are caused by contagious diseases, with occasional exceptions, such as yellow fever. The spread of non-contagious communicable diseases is changed either very little or not at all by medical isolation of ill persons or medical quarantine for exposed persons. Thus, a \"contagious disease\" is sometimes defined in practical terms, as a disease for which isolation or quarantine are useful public health responses. Originally, the term referred to a contagion (a derivative of 'contact') or disease transmissible only by direct physical contact. In the modern-day, the term has sometimes been broadened to",
"-24.188176708179526"
],
[
"people died of Ebola in neighbouring Uganda.\nIn July 2019, an infected man travelled to Goma, home to more than 2 million people. One week later, on 17 July 2019, the WHO declared the Ebola outbreak a global health emergency, the fifth time such a declaration has been made by the organization. A government spokesman said that half of the Ebola cases are unidentified, and he added that the current outbreak could last up to three years. Weaponization Ebolavirus is classified as a biosafety level 4 agent, as well as a Category A bioterrorism agent by the Centers for Disease Control",
"-24.17203534930013"
],
[
"a faster rate, and over a wider geographic area, than in the past. The rapid re-emergence is due to expanding global transportation networks, the mosquito's increasing ability to adapt to urban settings, the disruption of traditional land use and the inability to control expanding mosquito populations. Like malaria, other arboviruses do not have a vaccine. The only exception is yellow fever. Prevention is focused on reducing the adult mosquito populations, controlling mosquito larvae and protecting individuals from mosquito bites. Depending on the mosquito vector, and the affected community, a variety of prevention methods may be deployed at one time. Insecticidal",
"-24.156577986170305"
],
[
"It is common for people to dread some risks but not others: They tend to be very afraid of epidemic diseases, nuclear power plant failures, and plane accidents but are relatively unconcerned about some highly frequent and deadly events, such as traffic crashes, household accidents, and medical errors. One key distinction of dreadful risks seems to be their potential for catastrophic consequences, threatening to kill a large number of people within a short period of time. For example, immediately after the 11 September attacks, many Americans were afraid to fly and took their car instead, a decision that led to",
"-24.154587274766527"
],
[
"Mosquito-borne disease Mosquito-borne diseases or mosquito-borne illnesses are diseases caused by bacteria, viruses or parasites transmitted by mosquitoes. They can transmit disease without being affected themselves. Nearly 700 million people get a mosquito-borne illness each year resulting in over one million deaths.\nDiseases transmitted by mosquitoes include malaria, dengue, West Nile virus, chikungunya, yellow fever, filariasis, tularemia, dirofilariasis, Japanese encephalitis, Saint Louis encephalitis, Western equine encephalitis, Eastern equine encephalitis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, Ross River fever, Barmah Forest fever, La Crosse encephalitis, and Zika fever, as well as newly detected Keystone virus and Rift Valley fever. Protozoa The female mosquito of the",
"-24.118393191842188"
],
[
"are vaccine-hesitant. Once such diseases (e.g., Haemophilus influenzae B) decrease in prevalence, people may no longer appreciate how serious the illness is due to a lack of familiarity with it and become complacent. The lack of personal experience with these diseases reduces the perceived danger and thus reduces the perceived benefit of immunization. Conversely, certain illnesses (e.g., influenza) remain so common that vaccine-hesitant people mistakenly perceive the illness to be non-threatening despite clear evidence that the illness poses a significant threat to human health. Omission and disconfirmation biases also contribute to vaccine hesitancy. \nVarious concerns about immunization have been raised.",
"-24.086295902729034"
],
[
"“If H7N9 viruses acquire the ability to transmit efficiently from person to person, a worldwide outbreak is almost certain since humans lack protective immune responses to these types of viruses.”\nOn August 6, 2013, the British Medical Journal released the results of epidemiological investigations conducted after a family cluster of two patients were infected with avian H7N9 in March 2013 and later died in April and May. A 60-year-old man became infected after an exposure to poultry and his daughter, who had not been exposed to poultry but had cared for her ill father, became infected as well. Genome sequence",
"-24.078967256995384"
],
[
"virus is one of several viruses identified by WHO as a likely cause of a future epidemic in a new plan developed after the Ebola epidemic for urgent research and development before and during an epidemic toward new diagnostic tests, vaccines and medicines.\nThe outbreak was originally mistaken for Japanese encephalitis, but physicians in the area noted that persons who had been vaccinated against Japanese encephalitis were not protected in the epidemic, and the number of cases among adults was unusual. Despite the fact that these observations were recorded in the first month of the outbreak, the Ministry of Health failed",
"-24.059948797548714"
],
[
"and would have posed no threat to humans. The rare epidemics of viral diseases originating in animals would have been short-lived because the viruses were not fully adapted to humans and the human populations were too small to maintain the chains of infection.\nOther, more ancient, viruses have been less of a threat. Herpes viruses first infected the ancestors of modern humans over 80 million years ago. Humans have developed a tolerance to these viruses, and most are infected with at least one species. Records of these milder virus infections are rare, but it is likely that early hominids suffered",
"-24.058840608311584"
],
[
"and 23% of deaths are caused by environmental factors (although they vary from developing countries with 25%, and developed with 17%). Several diseases found in the study included diarrhea, respiratory infections, malaria, and unintentional injuries caused by environmental factors that can be modified by policy. Infectious diseases is a higher burden in developing countries than in developed, attributed to more exposure to environmental risks and lack of access to health care. Diseases attributed to environmental factors decrease with development to either eradication, or to levels comparable to developed regions. Children are disproportionately affected by environmental hazards. WHO found that children",
"-24.04849120468134"
],
[
"Health Organization's ICD. This is periodically updated. Currently the last publication is the ICD-10. Causes Only some diseases such as influenza are contagious and commonly believed infectious. The micro-organisms that cause these diseases are known as pathogens and include varieties of bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungi. Infectious diseases can be transmitted, e.g. by hand-to-mouth contact with infectious material on surfaces, by bites of insects or other carriers of the disease, and from contaminated water or food (often via fecal contamination), etc. Also, there are sexually transmitted diseases. In some cases, microorganisms that are not readily spread from person to",
"-24.043998280947562"
],
[
"infectious disease cases. Malaria is major cause of death because of a lack of resources to treat patients. Additionally, the water is dirty with human and industrial waste which contributes to the spread of disease. Many deaths are caused by poverty rather than a lack of cures for a disease. Poverty is a major reason for death because poor families are not able to afford proper health services and hospitals are not able to buy enough supplies. Additionally, people living in South Africa who are illegal immigrants lack resources for health care that is non-emergency. For example, many of the",
"-24.03919162217062"
],
[
"and that diseases such as measles, mumps, rubella and chicken pox are benign conditions that do not kill children in industrialized countries. During a studio debate on Channel 7's Sunday Night current affairs program covering the death of a four-week-old baby from whooping cough, Dorey claimed that no one ever dies from the disease, and described her own children's case of the disease as a \"storm in a teacup\" that was easily handled with natural remedies. The NSW Health Care Complaints Commission criticised the AVN's position, saying that it \"ignores the risks of exposure to, and the adverse effects of",
"-24.0230039000744"
],
[
"in Southeast Asia were estimated to have about 3 million infections and 6,000 deaths annually. In 2019 the Philippines declared a national dengue epidemic due to the deaths reaching 622 people that year. It is reported in at least 22 countries in Africa; but is likely present in all of them with 20% of the population at risk. This makes it one of the most common vector-borne diseases worldwide.\nInfections are most commonly acquired in the urban environment. In recent decades, the expansion of villages, towns and cities in the areas in which it is common, and the increased mobility of people",
"-24.020156206184765"
],
[
"for emergencies at the World Health Organization, says that in the case of the Ebola outbreak, \"there was no way anyone could guarantee the right of medical evacuation for people affected by Ebola.” \nThe CDC will scale back global disease prevention efforts by 80 percent by October 2019 due to a lack of funding (as funding had been temporarily increased in 2014 to address the Ebola epidemic).",
"-23.99183653399814"
],
[
"species involved in trafficking.\nAnnually, 15.8% of human deaths have been associated with dangerous infectious disease outbreaks linked to exotic trafficking. Researchers, zoologists, and environmentalists determine that financially poor countries in Africa may attribute to nearly 44% of these deaths due to zoonosis related diseases. Cultural determinants linking Africa to disease exposure African populations are exposed to an increased risk of contracting and dispatching life-threatening zoonotic infections. The continent is considered a hot spot for emerging disease transmissions for reasons like socio-culture livelihood interests, livestock farming, land use methods, globalization influences, and consumption behavior practices. Socio-Culture livelihood factors Many native Africans",
"-23.988517349236645"
],
[
"every continent. Because it is so rare, and commonly misdiagnosed, exactly how many people are affected by this disease is not known. The literature frequently cites that fewer than 200 cases have been reported, though a consensus is building that many more cases occur around the world than have been reported.",
"-23.95988710859092"
],
[
"the host. It has been shown in some studies that the risk of encountering an infected victim increases when there is a higher cannibalism rate, though this risk drops as the number of available hosts decreases. However, this is only the case if the risk of disease transmission is low. Cannibalism is an ineffective method of disease spread as cannibalism in the animal kingdom is normally a one-on-one interaction, and the spread of disease requires group cannibalism; thereby it is rare for a disease to have evolved to rely solely on cannibalism to spread. Usually there are different means of",
"-23.957699800259434"
],
[
"mother, sister, and grandmother then became ill with similar symptoms and also died. People infected by those initial cases spread the disease to other villages.\nAlthough Ebola represents a major public health issue in sub-Saharan Africa, no cases had ever been reported in West Africa and the early cases were diagnosed as other diseases more common to the area. Thus, the disease had several months to spread before it was recognized as Ebola. Index Case The index case in Nigeria was a Liberian-American, Patrick Sawyer, who flew from Liberia to Nigeria's most populous city of Lagos on 20 July 2014. Sawyer",
"-23.940950823016465"
],
[
"the prevention of AIDS since people start to believe that no matter what measures they take, they can still be prone to contracting this disease. This makes them less careful when engaging in practices that put them at risk because they believe there is no point. \"Nearly half of the 500 African Americans surveyed said that HIV is man-made. More than one-quarter said they believed that AIDS was produced in a government laboratory, and 12 percent believed it was created and spread by the CIA... At the same time, 75 percent said they believe medical and public health agencies are",
"-23.927198135090293"
],
[
"around them. Pathogens and Disease Outbreaks When disease outbreaks occur, it can be detrimental to an ecosystem. When a disease hits, it will usually affect more than one species, thus causing a serious outbreak. This has the potential to set off a chain reaction thus, causing endangerment to a variety of species within that ecosystem. Human Contact Humans make the most sudden and long-term changes in an environment (e.g. pollution and waste). These changes either drive species out of their territory or force them to adapt to their new surroundings. These changes have the largest impact on an ecosystems population",
"-23.894307168840896"
],
[
"here). Diseases can arise from infection, environmental conditions, accidents, and inherited diseases.\nIt is not always easy to classify the source of a health problem. For instance, people can develop gout, which is known to cause permanent or near permanent changes to the human body, because of diet, inherited genetic predisposition, as a secondary condition from other diseases, or as an unintended side effect of certain medications.\nInfectious diseases can be caused by pathogens and microorganisms such as viruses, prions, bacteria, parasites, and fungi.\nFor infectious, environmental, and genetically predisposed conditions,\nlifestyle choices such as exercise, nutrition, stress level, hygiene, home and work environments,",
"-23.886949311417993"
],
[
"leptospirosis, scrub typhus, plague, Q fever, candidiasis, histoplasmosis, trypanosomiasis, visceral leishmaniasis, measles, and viral hepatitis among others.\nNon-infectious diseases that may result in symptoms similar to those of EVD include acute promyelocytic leukemia, hemolytic uremic syndrome, snake envenomation, clotting factor deficiencies/platelet disorders, thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia, Kawasaki disease, and warfarin poisoning. Vaccines Many Ebola vaccine candidates had been developed in the decade prior to 2014, but as of November 2014, none had been approved for use in humans in the United States. In December 2016, Ebola was found to be 70–100% prevented by rVSV-ZEBOV vaccine, making it the first",
"-23.883452070534986"
],
[
"of communicable diseases has occurred among them. Rohingya refugees are often not vaccinated and there is worry that outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases, such as polio, measles, and tetanus, will occur if living conditions are not improved. But the UN and the WHO, along with Bangladesh Government, were quick to begin mass vaccination of the population. Measles outbreak is a dangerous threat and in 2017, the WHO announced that 136,000 children under 15 years of age were vaccinated against measles and rubella. An oral polio vaccine was also given to 72,000 children. Permanent vaccination centers are in place to assist in",
"-23.797548409831506"
],
[
"be “highly protective” against the virus. This confirmed the results of a study published in 2015 that awarded the vaccine 100 percent effectiveness after tests on 4000 people in Guinea who had been in close contact with Ebola patients. However, a study sponsored by the National Institutes of Health, the Food and Drug Administration and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, and conducted by researchers from the U.S. National Academy of Medicine, called the vaccine’s effectiveness in preventing Ebola infections into question. In particular, the authors criticized the methodology of the patient trail, and argued that the protection",
"-23.757602725061588"
],
[
"UK and thousands of animals were killed and burnt.\nThe natural hosts of influenza viruses are pigs and birds, although it has probably infected humans since antiquity. The virus can cause mild to severe epizootics in wild and domesticated animals. Many species of wild birds migrate and this has spread influenza across the continents throughout the ages. The virus has evolved into numerous strains and continues to do so, posing an ever-present threat.\nIn the early years of the 21st century epizootics in livestock caused by viruses continue to have serious consequences. Bluetongue disease, a disease caused by an orbivirus broke out",
"-23.735883453075076"
],
[
"plans. The CDC states that normally it would be extremely rare to catch measles from an infected passenger due to the overall high rate of vaccinated passengers on average, but the recent anti-vaccination trends threatens to disrupt that model.\nThe measles is a highly contagious disease with a secondary attack rate of 90%. Measles outbreaks can be prevented through vaccines which after two doses have a 97% effective rate. Measles had been practically eradicated in the United States. The recent outbreaks have shed light on the fact that the number of people that are choosing not to vaccinate",
"-23.73259949259227"
],
[
"Home deaths, once commonplace, are now rare in the developed world.\nIn developing nations, inferior sanitary conditions and lack of access to modern medical technology makes death from infectious diseases more common than in developed countries. One such disease is tuberculosis, a bacterial disease which killed 1.8M people in 2015. Malaria causes about 400–900M cases of fever and 1–3M deaths annually. AIDS death toll in Africa may reach 90–100M by 2025.\nAccording to Jean Ziegler (United Nations Special Reporter on the Right to Food, 2000 – Mar 2008), mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality rate in 2006.",
"-23.718458198709413"
],
[
"tourists) or intentional (e.g., meat smuggling). The risk that the ASF virus can be introduced into the US and North America has increased because of changes in production practices, increasing globalization, and outbreaks of ASF in Europe. If the virus were to enter the US, control measures must be initiated to prevent the spread of the virus and eliminate it as quickly as possible, of which the primary control and eradication strategy will be depopulation of infected and exposed susceptible animals. Classical swine fever (hog cholera) Classical swine fever (hog cholera) Classical swine fever (CSF), also known",
"-23.710925458115526"
],
[
"Europe. Ninety-eight percent of the world's cases occur in Africa. India In September 1994, India experienced an outbreak of plague that killed 50 and caused travel to New Delhi by air to be suspended until the outbreak was brought under control. The outbreak was feared to be much worse because the plague superficially resembles other common diseases such as influenza and bronchitis; over 200 people that had been quarantined were released when they did not test positive for the plague. All but two of the deaths occurred around the city of Surat. China The People's Republic of China has eradicated",
"-23.709449091082206"
],
[
"disease epidemic could recur, either deliberately (as an act of bioterrorism) or by accident due to unrestricted imports, is causing some nations, notably New Zealand, to adopt relatively harsh restrictions against imported organisms. As one objective of asymmetric warfare is to cause attacks to appear initially as accidents, or blame slow responses on apparently incompetent governments, there is some concern that spreading a virulent organism among animals would be an effective way to attack humans, damage economies, and discredit governments who are lax on biosecurity. Technologies for scanning for dangerous organisms at ports and markets are also becoming",
"-23.69969629944535"
],
[
"may have a natural resistance to a particular infectious disease. However, except in some special cases such as malaria, these individuals make up such a small proportion of the total population that they can be ignored for the purposes of modelling an epidemic.",
"-23.69093767713639"
],
[
"because good health is seen as necessary for the continuation and growth of their lineage\". Without proper health the culture will not be able to thrive and grow. Unfortunately, \"health services in many countries are swamped by the need to care for increasing numbers of infected and sick people. Ameliorative drugs are too expensive for most victims, except for a very small number who are affluent\". The greatest number of sick people with the fewest doctors, Sub-Saharan Africa \"has 11 percent of the world's population but carries 24 percent of the global disease burden. With less than 1 percent of",
"-23.68256480526179"
],
[
"illness and death caused by infections such as polio, measles, mumps and rubella. Vaccines are available to prevent over fourteen viral infections of humans and more are used to prevent viral infections of animals. Vaccines may consist of either live or killed viruses. Live vaccines contain weakened forms of the virus, but these vaccines can be dangerous when given to people with weak immunity. In these people, the weakened virus can cause the original disease. Biotechnology and genetic engineering techniques are used to produce \"designer\" vaccines that only have the capsid proteins of the virus. Hepatitis B vaccine is an",
"-23.676677837967873"
],
[
"does this. Viruses and diseases Common human diseases caused by viruses include the common cold, the flu, chickenpox and cold sores. Serious diseases such as Ebola and AIDS are also caused by viruses. Many viruses cause little or no disease and are said to be \"benign\". The more harmful viruses are described as virulent.\nViruses cause different diseases depending on the types of cell that they infect.\nSome viruses can cause lifelong or chronic infections where the viruses continue to reproduce in the body despite the host's defence mechanisms. This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. People",
"-23.64272587452433"
],
[
"leads to limitations on where the diseases can\nthrive, acting almost as its ‘climate niche’. Persistence of H5N1 Avian Influenza H5N1, the highly pathogenic strain of influenza, was first detected in the goose population of Gaungdong, China in 1996.\nIn February 2004, avian influenza virus was detected in birds in Vietnam, increasing fears of the emergence of new variant strains. It is feared that if the avian influenza virus combines with a human influenza virus (in a bird or a human), the new subtype created could be both highly contagious and highly lethal.\nIn October 2005, cases of the avian flu (the deadly",
"-23.640052065544296"
],
[
" They report that they \"are on the ground establishing Ebola treatment centres and strengthening capacity for laboratory testing, contact tracing, social mobilization, safe burials, and non-Ebola health care\" and \"continue to monitor for reports of rumoured or suspected cases from countries around the world.\" Other than cases where individuals are suspected or have been confirmed of being infected with Ebola, or have had contact with cases of Ebola, the WHO does not recommend any travel or trade restrictions.\nOn 16 September, the WHO Assistant Director General, Bruce Aylward, announced that the cost for combating the epidemic will be a",
"-23.638027902357862"
],
[
"population had traces of the pathogen within a 4 month period). While individuals of all ages risk exposure to malaria, those under the age of five are particularly susceptible to the disease. Children account for the majority of both local and global malaria cases because they lack the adaptive immunity that comes with repeated exposure. Other examples of holoendemic diseases include ocular trachoma in certain areas in sub-Saharan Africa, where virtually all children in those populations have been infected, and hepatitis B in areas of the Marquesas Islands.",
"-23.620859545248095"
],
[
"parasite due to multiple bites by mosquitoes that carry the parasite are at greater risk of dying. Infected humans can also transmit the disease to uninfected or healthy humans via contaminated blood. Health Effects The health effects caused by shifts in malaria transmission rates in the African Highlands have the potential to be severe. Research has shown that the effects of climate change on health will impact most populations over the next few decades. However, Africa, and specifically the African Highlands, are susceptible to being particularly negatively affected. In 2010, 91% of the global burden due to malaria deaths occurred",
"-23.617430162557866"
],
[
"pollution. Scientists predict the African continent will be the first to experience the effects of global warming where widespread poverty will put millions at further risk due to their limited capabilities to adapt. The potential is great for a more sustainable Africa with commitment from within and outside the region. Pneumonia is the number one killer of children in the world and indoor air pollution is a strongly significant risk factor for severe pneumonia. The global health community designated 2 November to be World Pneumonia Day in order to raise awareness about the disease and its causes.",
"-23.609234321746044"
],
[
"Risk factors for tuberculosis There are a number risk factors for tuberculosis infection; worldwide the most important of these is HIV. Co-infection with HIV is a particular problem in Sub-Saharan Africa, due to the high incidence of HIV in these countries. Smoking more than 20 cigarettes a day increases the risk of TB by two to four times while silicosis increases the risk about 30 fold. Diabetes mellitus is also an important risk factor that is growing in importance in developing countries. Other disease states that increase the risk of developing tuberculosis are Hodgkin lymphoma, end-stage renal disease, chronic lung",
"-23.595945308581577"
]
] |
28n0vu | Why are Conspiracies typically dismissed without investigation? | [
"Usually, conspiracy theories **are** investigated, in some way. Quite thoroughly, in any instance where there could be truth to the allegations. But then the people who believe in them won't take \"that insane thing you said didn't happen\" for an answer. Instead, they decide that whoever did the investigating is part of the conspiracy. Obviously, some things do not require investigation. Like the conspiracy theory which states that the Queen of England is a reptilian space alien. We can dismiss that one out of hand. EDIT: A perfect example of a conspiracy theory that's been totally investigated to death: the idea that the moon landing was faked. Ludicrous amounts of evidence has been amassed, proving that it wasn't faked. The footage has been examined to a ridiculous level of detail. The fact of the matter is, it was not possible to fake the landing, using 1969 technology. But people refuse to accept that, and go on believing what they want...in part because it makes them feel good to be \"in the know,\" or \"not a sheep like everyone else.\" That's the main psychology, in my opinion. Conspiracy theorists are usually massive egotists. They can't stand the idea that they might not be smarter than everyone else, and they **certainly** cannot entertain the possibility that they might be incorrect.",
"There is a saying popularised by Carl Sagan which states \"Extraordinary claims require extraordinary proof\". Most conspiracy theorys fail to provide such proof, instead relying on hearsay or laymans opinion.",
"Most conspiracies that are widely believed, don't get called \"conspiracy\". For example, it is widely believed in the US that a group of about 20 Sunni Arabs plotted to fly 4 planes into very important buildings in the US. This was surely a group of people secretly plotting some action. It was a conspiracy. But by connotation, a conspiracy theory is not widely believed.",
"As others have said, quasi-rational and evidence based conspiracies are debunked, but there is a primary factor that keeps them 'alive': God of the Gaps - There are an endless 'long tail' of small details that can be highlighted and focused on with an ominous \"*Well... then how do you explain THIS?!?!*\""
] | [
[
"that genuine conspiracies do exist, but noted how infrequently conspirators have been able to achieve their goal.\nThe historian Bruce Cumings similarly rejects the notion that history is controlled by conspiracies, stating that where real conspiracies have appeared they have usually had little effect on history and have had unforeseen consequences for the conspirators. Cumings concludes that history is instead \"moved by the broad forces and large structures of human collectivities\".\nIn a 2009 article, the legal scholars Cass Sunstein and Adrian Vermeule considered a number of possible government responses to conspiracy theories, including censorship and taxation. They concluded that the",
"-26.40777447159053"
],
[
"in the conspiracy. Proof of which individual it was is usually not necessary.\nIt is also an option for prosecutors, when bringing conspiracy charges, to decline to indict all members of the conspiracy (though the existence of all members may be mentioned in an indictment). Such unindicted co-conspirators are commonly found when the identities or whereabouts of members of a conspiracy are unknown, or when the prosecution is concerned only with a particular individual among the conspirators. This is common when the target of the indictment is an elected official or an organized crime leader, and the co-conspirators are persons",
"-24.569046310374688"
],
[
"Revolution. Other conspirators Contrary to some relations of the folklore, it appears that a number of other people of lower social rank accompanied the conspirators. Some accounts cite the presence of Duncan Buchanan, a clerk for Aeneas MacDonald who acted as a Jacobite agent and messenger, instead of O'Sullivan.",
"-24.195334114128855"
],
[
"Forgery as covert operation Forgery is used by some governments and non-state actors as a tool of covert operation, disinformation and black propaganda. Letters, currency, speeches, documents, and literature are all falsified as a means to subvert a government’s political, military or economic assets. Forgeries are designed to attribute a false intention and aspirations on the intended target. They force the targeted government to spend a large amount of resources to refute the forgery. Forgeries are an effective tool because of their ability to hold influence even after being proven false. Counterfeit money Counterfeiting is the",
"-24.096294959912484"
],
[
"a conspiracy exists, then there is a conspiracy even if the details are never agreed to aloud by the participants. CIA covert operations, for instance, are by their very nature hard to prove definitively. But research into the agency's work, as well as revelations by former CIA employees, has suggested several cases where the agency tried to influence events. Between 1947 and 1989, the United States tried to change other nations' governments 72 times. During the Cold War, 26 of the United States' covert operations successfully brought a U.S.-backed government to power; the remaining 40 failed.\nA \"conspiracy theory\" is a",
"-24.039944489632035"
],
[
"by bribes, rebates, and secret business deals.\nA modification of the furtive fallacy holds that when the historical record provides no evidence explaining a particular set of events, this is itself evidence of a furtive cause.\nThe idea of the furtive fallacy is criticized by Jeffrey M. Bale, who cites the risk of historians underestimating the influence of political secret societies, vanguard parties, and intelligence agencies.",
"-24.020350423874334"
],
[
"hoax devised by people seeking advantage from misinformation. Attorney and historian George Levy maintains the \"conspiracy\" began as a con aimed at Confederate agents that evolved into a hoax exploited by Colonel Sweet for his own advantage. Levy wrote that believing in the Camp Douglas conspiracy was a matter of faith: Confederate agents thought they had created a workable plot, and Colonel Sweet made their dream come true. On the other hand, Kelly wrote that Sweet seemed to believe the plot to be real. Eisendrath also treated the plot as real. Writing at a time closer to the event, Bross",
"-24.010117321417056"
],
[
"relative lack of scruples makes it possible some came from corruption. Downfall and exile His removal from office in 1289 was not, however, as a result of judicial misconduct. On 20 July 1289 two of his servants committed a murder at a village fair, killing William Carwel, an Irish servant of the Earl of Norfolk. The killing may have been as a result of a drunken brawl, but it is probable it was part of bitter factional fighting between followers of the earl, of whom Weyland was one of the leading councillors. After the servants returned to his house at",
"-23.74766515698866"
],
[
"False lien A false lien is document that purports to describe a lien, but which has no legal basis, or which is based upon false, fictitious, or fraudulent statements or representations. The filing of false liens has been used as a tool of harassment in \"paper terrorism\", often against government officials. The practice was pioneered by the Posse Comitatus. The Bureau of Prisons has responded by treating lien documents and personal information (such as Social Security Numbers) of federal agents, judges, etc. as contraband in federal prisons.\nThe U.S. Congress has criminalized the filing of false liens, and the U.S. Sentencing",
"-23.69028761482332"
],
[
"forgery is often a fake manuscript or diary created to attribute certain ideological beliefs or actions to the figure. Literary forgery is often difficult to refute because the purported author is usually deceased. United States Secret Service The United States Secret Service is the agency within the United States' government tasked with the protection of U.S. currency. The Secret Service has jurisdiction over violations involving the counterfeiting of United States obligations and securities. Some of the counterfeited United States obligations and securities commonly investigated by the Secret Service include U.S. currency (to include coins), U.S. Treasury checks, Department of",
"-23.551331894879695"
],
[
"than common dismissals of conspiracy theory contend.\nTheories involving multiple conspirators that are proven to be correct, such as the Watergate scandal, are usually referred to as \"investigative journalism\" or \"historical analysis\" rather than conspiracy theory. By contrast, the term \"Watergate conspiracy theory\" is used to refer to a variety of hypotheses in which those convicted in the conspiracy were in fact the victims of a deeper conspiracy. Conspiracism as a world view The historian Richard Hofstadter addressed the role of paranoia and conspiracism throughout U.S. history in his 1964 essay \"The Paranoid Style in American Politics\". Bernard Bailyn's classic The",
"-23.46618460981699"
],
[
"the conspiracy and told the conspirators that the attempt was useless.",
"-23.425104093868867"
],
[
"before. \"Public figures may be more “fakeable” through this method than private ones. Visually routine situations, like a press conference, are more likely to be faked than entirely novel ones.\" Deepfakes can be very dangerous in the sense that they can be used to fake what people with high authority have said such as, the president and politicians. There have been many articles and discussions over the new discovery of deepfakes such as Youtuber Shane Dawson's video, \"Conspiracy Theories with Shane Dawson\" where he talks about the conspiracy of deepfakes and what they could mean for the world today.\nSocial hacking",
"-23.4145952109302"
],
[
"some spies' decisions, and seems particularly likely if they are bored with their life. Excitement is seldom a spy's primary motivation, but may be a contributing factor. One notable example is Christopher Cooke, who claimed to be fascinated with espionage, and who told investigators he specifically sought to involve himself in spycraft for that reason. Disaffection and grudges Some spies are motivated largely by personal, non-ideological hostility towards the country or organisation they are spying on. This may stem from some real or imagined wrong—a person may, for example, betray secrets to the enemy if they feel they have not",
"-23.271293272075127"
],
[
"presenting a truthful case before the tribunal.\nThe prosecution induced the approvers to state that at the end of the crucial meeting of 23 February 1951 the people present had agreed to overthrow the government. They had to tell this lie because otherwise the allegation of conspiracy would have fallen flat. According to the penal code a conspiracy is only established 'when two or more persons agree to commit an illegal act or a legal act by illegal means'. If there is no agreement there is no conspiracy under the law.\nThe Conspirators claimed that after eight long hours of discussion, of",
"-23.2598368942854"
],
[
"agencies to infiltrate organizations suspected of political dissent.\nDonner also cited the government's use of scapegoats to divert attention from government criticism onto other political groups.",
"-23.161058423909708"
],
[
"wealthy circles. Intrigues Very often, courtesans would betray one another in acts of political intrigue in attempts to climb into higher positions of power within royal courts. There are many cases throughout history where one courtesan would attempt (sometimes successfully) to supplant the mistress to a king or emperor. This was typically preceded by her discrediting the ruler's companion, often by divulging secrets that could lead to her rival being cast aside and replaced by her. However, this was a delicate process, and if a courtesan of \"lower status\" attempted to replace a courtesan who wielded a substantial amount of",
"-23.156435192871868"
],
[
"the poisoners. La Reynie sought to calm the king. The subsequent investigation of potential poisoners led to accusations of witchcraft, murder and more.\nAuthorities rounded up a number of fortune tellers and alchemists who were suspected of selling not only divinations, séances and aphrodisiacs, but also \"inheritance powders\" (a euphemism for poison). Some of them confessed under torture and gave authorities lists of their clients, who had allegedly bought poison to get rid of their spouses or rivals in the royal court.\nThe most famous case was that of the midwife Catherine Deshayes Monvoisin or La Voisin, who was arrested in 1679",
"-23.13536471661064"
],
[
"intimidation of voters who turned out, historiographers of Polish history invariably consider these elections to have been fraudulent - due to the above peculiarities.",
"-23.08940709201488"
],
[
"was there for English and German bankers to send Seyd here in the winter of 1872-3, to bribe congress to favor a measure that had already passed both houses of congress without a word of opposition from a single member? Granting that bankers are as willing to resort to bribery as Populists claim—and the word of those who forge government reports would, of course, be accepted as conclusive on this point—they should be credited with having sense enough not to use bribery when there is no necessity whatever for it.\nIn the end, the allegations of bribery seemed implausible and Luckenbach's",
"-23.02206664659934"
],
[
"indicting participants in the bribery plot, leading a few of them to flee the state or the country. As he began to win convictions, other men involved in corruption decided to testify against their associates. Steffens concludes the article by claiming that \"In all cities, the better classes—the business men—are the sources of corruption\"; Folk, he notes, \"has shown St. Louis that its bankers, brokers, corporation officers,—its business men are the sources of evil\". Furthermore, he warns, \"what went on in St. Louis is going on in most of our cities, towns, and villages. The problem",
"-23.014111586664512"
],
[
"also refer to misleading or inaccurate newspaper headlines, but this usage appears to be a more recent appropriation of the term.\nA big lie is one that attempts to trick the victim into believing something major, which will likely be contradicted by some information the victim already possesses, or by their common sense. When the lie is of sufficient magnitude it may succeed, due to the victim's reluctance to believe that an untruth on such a grand scale would indeed be concocted.\nTo bluff is to pretend to have a capability or intention one does not possess. Bluffing is an act of",
"-22.991567413366283"
],
[
"confession) claimed that the conspirators attempted to dig a tunnel from beneath Whynniard's house to Parliament, although this story may have been a government fabrication; no evidence for the existence of a tunnel was presented by the prosecution, and no trace of one has ever been found; Fawkes himself did not admit the existence of such a scheme until his fifth interrogation, but even then he could not locate the tunnel. If the story is true, however, by December 1604 the conspirators were busy tunnelling from their rented house to the House of Lords. They ceased their efforts when, during tunnelling,",
"-22.93244128441438"
],
[
"even though fraud on the part of the public authority had been alleged. In contrast, Lord Reid gave a dissenting opinion in which he doubted whether an order that had been obtained by corrupt or fraudulent means could be protected from being questioned in court. Despite the subsequent ruling in Anisminic, in R. v. Secretary of State for the Environment, ex parte Ostler (1976) the Court of Appeal of England and Wales applied Smith and upheld the validity of a partial ouster clause that gave the applicants six weeks to challenge a decision. Lord Denning, the Master of the Rolls,",
"-22.816171780679724"
],
[
"and political repression of the time.\nThe conspirators planned to assassinate the cabinet which was supposed to be together at a dinner. They would then seize key buildings, overthrow the government and establish a \"Committee of Public Safety\" to oversee a radical revolution. According to the prosecution at their trial, they had intended to form a provisional government headquartered in the Mansion House. Governmental crisis Hard economic times encouraged social unrest. The end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 further worsened the economy and saw the return of job-seeking veterans. King George III's death on 29 January 1820, created a",
"-22.796302129834658"
],
[
"archives, I understand the legacy of suspicion. It is difficult to overestimate the degree of suspicion.\"\nOminously, the Guardian noted:\nIn a number of colonies, as files were destroyed a certificate was completed and sent to London to show that the job had been done. Could these certificates also be stored at Hanslope Park, providing a glimpse of the contents of each file that was destroyed? The FCO was refusing to say on Tuesday, and insisted that any queries about such certificates should be the subject of an freedom of information request. Furthermore, Cary's report states that a separate inquiry is now",
"-22.773787835845724"
],
[
"the conspiracy because he thinks he will be able to rid himself of his debts if there is a rebellion. Calcagno wants Fiesco's wife Leonore. Bourgognino wants to finally marry his bride Bertha,Verrina's daughter. Her seduction and rape by Gianettino Doria provide the immediate motive for the conspiracy.\nThe behavior of Fiesco, the young Count of Lavagna, leaves the conspirators unsure about whether he is one of them or not. He woos the disreputable sister of the schemer Gianettino and behaves in general as an unprincipled playboy without any political ambition. Even Leonore, Fiesco's wife, does not know where she is",
"-22.773303124347876"
],
[
"This business of false conspiracy was followed by \"the business\" of Luxembourg, a conspiracy whose reality rested, still exclusively, on the false witnesses of individuals who, against various promises, had to deposit with the revolutionary Tribunal, and which sometimes themselves were carried out thereafter. Principals Ground after the lawsuit of Danton and its co-defendants to the prison of Luxembourg where was the ex-general Arthur Dillon, Lucile Desmoulins, or Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette, the imaginary conspiracies, revealed and denounced by agents of the political police in the prisons of Paris, put back on an amalgam various unknown people the ones with the others",
"-22.747775484836893"
],
[
"or ethical objections and that evidence of this was \"buried\" in footnotes to an article in a scientific journal and in two annual reports of the CSIRO, the relevant report years being unspecified.\n\nWindschuttle states: \nA real hoax, like that of Alan Sokal and Ern Malley, is designed to expose editors who are pretentious, ignorant or at least over-enthusiastic about certain subjects. The technique is to submit obvious nonsense for publication in order to expose the editor's ignorance of the topic. A real hoax defeats its purpose if it largely relies upon real issues, real people and real publications for its",
"-22.738551078429737"
],
[
"also evident on billboards, newspapers, magazines and even word of mouth. Hoaxing A hoax is something intended to deceive or defraud. When a newspaper or the news reports a fake story, it is known as a hoax. Misleading public stunts, scientific frauds, false bomb threats and business scams are examples of hoaxes. A common aspect that hoaxes have is that they are all meant to deceive or lie. For something to become a hoax, the lie must have something more to offer. It must be outrageous, dramatic but also has to be believable and ingenious. Above all, it must",
"-22.619275492921588"
],
[
"that the apprehension of terrorists had led to the discovery of financial support to them by clandestine and illegal means using tainted funds obtained through `hawala' transactions; that this had also disclosed a nexus between politicians, bureaucrats and criminals, who were recipients of money from unlawful sources, given for unlawful consideration that the CBI and other Government agencies had failed to investigate the matter, take it to its logical conclusion and prosecute all persons who were found to have committed and offence; that this was done with a view to protect the persons involved, who were very influential and powerful;",
"-22.583532666911196"
],
[
"the individual is bribed by the third party to intentionally conceal the damaging information.\nThe National Enquirer and its parent company American Media have attracted attention for using the practice.",
"-22.583145336204325"
],
[
"discredit the phenomena. Some even argue a conspiracy theory, with governments planting evidence of hoaxing to muddle the origins of the circles. When Ridley wrote negative articles in newspapers, he was accused of spreading \"government disinformation\" and of working for the UK military intelligence service MI5. Ridley responded by noting that many cereologists make good livings from selling books and providing high-priced personal tours through crop fields, and he claimed that they have vested interests in rejecting what is by far the most likely explanation for the circles.\nIn serious science magazines from the 80s and 90s, for example Science Illustrated,",
"-22.563822590818745"
],
[
"agencies. The primary targets of such suspicions were government employees, those in the entertainment industry, educators and union activists. Suspicions were often given credence despite inconclusive or questionable evidence and the level of threat posed by a person's real or supposed leftist associations or beliefs was often greatly exaggerated. Many people suffered loss of employment and/or destruction of their careers; and some even suffered imprisonment. Most of these punishments came about through trial verdicts later overturned, laws that would be declared unconstitutional, dismissals for reasons later declared illegal or actionable, or extra-legal procedures that would come into general disrepute. The",
"-22.46098864571104"
],
[
"to the cunning profession by outlawing \"persons pretending or professing to tell fortunes, or using any subtle craft, means and device, by palmistry or otherwise, to deceive and impose.\" The enacting of the law led to the increased prosecutions of cunning folk, something that would only begin to wane in the 1910s.\nA news report from 1870 detailed a number of cases brought before authorities in the nineteenth century where claims of powers were made, but it ridiculed the belief, and closed with an example where 'the charge was settled down to the more definite one of obtaining a shilling under",
"-22.368297705601435"
],
[
"Motives for spying Money For many spies, the primary motivation is the prospect of financial gain. Spies may seek to supplement their existing income, or to remedy financial difficulties. Sometimes these spies are detected due to extravagant spending of the money they receive. John Anthony Walker is an example of a spy who worked for money. Ideology, patriotism, or religion Some people become spies because of their beliefs. These can include political opinions, national allegiances, and cultural or religious beliefs. This was particularly true during the Cold War, when many spies were motivated by their support for the ideologies of",
"-22.31892485191929"
],
[
"of generating false credentials is to suborn one of the officials involved in the document-issuing process through bribery or intimidation. This may also be combined with the bootstrapping process mentioned above to mount complex attacks.\nCorruption in the document-issuing process is hard to counter, since as the value of a credential increases, the economic incentives for corruption also increase. This is particularly true in the case of fake ID cards that combine many functions in one document, and for documents which are issued in large numbers, thus requiring many thousands of people to have authorizing powers, thus creating a longer chain",
"-22.304333677905333"
],
[
"that actual ballots did not need to be faked and hence fraud \"is simply a matter of changing numbers on a spreadsheet.\" The Guardian Council of Iran has rejected this argument claiming that representatives of all candidates were present at most ballot boxes and during the process of counting votes, despite this not being constitutionally required. However, Mousavi has claimed that the government \"[had] prevented some of [his] representatives from being present at polling stations.\" General considerations Several statisticians have attempted to determine whether the results (or some of the results) are significantly different from what is expected. This",
"-22.30225454342758"
],
[
"as a result of the release of evidence in an alleged bribery scheme.",
"-22.294387616566382"
],
[
"the great test case of political corruption occurred; pretty well known in England, and unfortunately much better known in Europe, as the Marconi scandal. To narrate its alternate secrecies and sensations would be impossible here; but one fashionable fallacy about it may be exploded with advantage. An extraordinary notion still exists that the New Witness denounced Ministers for gambling on the Stock Exchange. It might be improper for Ministers to gamble; but gambling was certainly not a misdemeanor that would have hardened with any special horror so hearty an Anti-Puritan as the man of whom I write. The Marconi case",
"-22.233007878832723"
],
[
"ministers had been aware of a Jacobite plot to assassinate the King. The Earl used this information in an attempt to ruin the Duke, this however backfired and caused the Earl to spend a short while in the Tower of London. As a result of these allegations, Smith was taken from his lodgings in London and interviewed at the House of Lords.\nMemoirs of Secret Service is seen as the prototype of the literary genre of spy autobiographies and there is some controversy as to whether Smith wrote the book or whether his school friend and author Tom Brown did.",
"-22.210126118943663"
],
[
"scheme, Fraudsters mislead investors in order to sell securities in the dummy corporation, in this case, making investors incorrectly believe \"that they are buying shares in the real corporation\". The sale of securities through a fraudulent corporation is inherently illegal. Hiding identity Another use is to prevent speculators from intruding on imminent plans of the parent organisation. Dummy corporations may also be used in crime to hide the identity of a criminal, similar to the use of a criminal alias.\nRaymond Davis, a former Blairstown, New Jersey committee member, diverted $46,000 in public funds into a dummy corporation. The self-created dummy",
"-22.202475674469497"
],
[
"the scale of impersonation fraud has been greatly exaggerated by Republicans for political reasons.\nA 2012 investigation of 207 alleged dead voters in South Carolina found only five instances unexplained by clerical errors. For instance, sometimes a son with the same name as his dead father was accidentally recorded as voting under the father's name. A study of dead voters in the 2006 Georgia midterm election concluded that only fifteen of the 66 alleged instances of dead voting were potentially fraudulent. All but four of the dead votes were cast absentee, and most of the absentee voters in question cast early",
"-22.141316400186042"
],
[
"United States House Select Committee to Investigate Alleged Corruptions in Government The Select Committee to Investigate Alleged Corruptions in Government was a select committee of the United States House of Representatives which operated during the spring and summer of 1860 during the 36th Congress. The committee was charged with a broad investigation of the administration of President James Buchanan, including possible impeachment. It was also referred to as the Covode Committee after its chairman, John Covode of Pennsylvania. History and jurisdiction The committee was established March 5, 1860 when the House adopted a resolution offered by John Covode, which was",
"-22.140531532262685"
],
[
"the crime of bribery is complete once the bribe is accepted, whether or not the official performs the promised act. In United States v. Helstoski (1979), the Court held that the prosecution may not introduce any evidence of a past \"legislative act\" at trial. According to Weeks, \"[a]s a practical matter, it is extremely difficult to successfully prosecute a section 201 action if reference to a defendant's legislative acts is forbidden.\" Federalism Charles Ruff referred to \"the prosecution of local officials for acts of public corruption\" as \"perhaps the most sensitive area of federal-state cooperation.\" Several other commentators have expressed",
"-22.1395145918068"
],
[
"Spies and Lies Spies and Lies is a 1992 Nancy Drew and the Hardy Boys Supermystery crossover novel. It was written by Tracey West under the usual pseudonym Carolyn Keene. Plot Nancy Drew goes undercover as a rookie in the infamous Quantico, Virginia FBI Academy, serving Judy Noll, the daughter of a powerful political figure. Judy is immediately in danger when her roommate turns up dead, and also when she is revealed to be the target of a madman. Nancy lays herself a trap, with herself as the bait. The Hardys are also posing as trainees at the bureau, but",
"-22.131934135817573"
],
[
"conspirators were tried and convicted by Judges Alexander Contee Hanson, Col. James Johnson, and Upton Sheradine as traitors to the revolutionary cause. The men were sentenced to be hanged, drawn, and quartered in Frederick. On August 17, 1781, Sueman and two other conspirators, Casper Fritchie and Yost Peckler, were executed in Frederick. The other four conspirators were pardoned by Governor Thomas Sim Lee.\nBroad Run developed into a local industrial center for the surrounding farms. The Isaac Bond Atlas of Frederick County, drawn in 1858, shows a saw mill and a grist mill were located along the Broad Run Creek in",
"-22.111784924218227"
],
[
"Guidelines treat the filing of a false lien against a government official as equally serious as threatening the government officials of the United States. Various U.S. states have been developing ways of combating false liens.",
"-22.06207342960988"
],
[
"the justice system will condemn Mrs. De Falco, the least guilty party in the bribery scheme. He predicts that Lee's refusal to accept the bribery system will make the prosecution redouble their anti-radical efforts. More poison pen letters reach the Thornwells. When Cornelia's grandson Josiah is blackmailed for sexual misbehavior, the family's history of secret affairs is discussed along with similar behavior on the part of Boston's ruling elite and occasional bribes. Mrs. De Falco is found not guilty, but the prosecution responds as Vanzetti predicted.\nChapter 12: Shadows Before\nSwenson is joined by attorney Fred Moore and they struggle to identify",
"-22.047322991200076"
],
[
"revealing identities of covert agents. However, it was ultimately concluded by the Senate Judiciary and the Conference Committee that the measure is constitutionally sound. Individuals would only be prosecuted if they engage in a pattern of activities intended to identify and expose covert agents, on the grounds that such actions goes beyond information that might contribute to informed public debate on foreign policy or foreign intelligence activities.\nThe Conference Committee assured that U.S. intelligence critics would be beyond the reach of law so long as they do not actively seek to identify or expose covert agents. However, commentators are still wary",
"-21.9855805078696"
],
[
"of examination abuses. He explores cheating through the eyes of a university registrar who is forced to hire a detective due to the lack of trust he has in some of his applicants' résumés because test questions have been leaked. The detective later discovers a wide variety of examination abuses; from the parents who demand new test results for their children, to principals who allow students to bring in textbooks for closed examinations. The author believed it was partly the corruption of the nation's leaders that had permeated the society and led to rampant unethical excesses. In later years, the",
"-21.959368518295378"
],
[
"For a while there are no illegal transactions done, but the corruption soon continues in the society due to the threatening of the local mob to sign illegal documents and accept bribes. Meanwhile, the ACF finds that it is Badrinarayana (Sayaji Shinde) who is the real reason behind this corruption scenario. Then the kidnapping continues. The case is investigated by group of several old-aged senior level officials who are very slow-moving in their progress. However, Suryam (Prakash Raj), an IPS-passed guy who is working as a constable (unable to pay the bribe to get the officer-level job), takes up the",
"-21.95532395686314"
],
[
"and power to blackmail felons to extort money, or to prosecute them for the reward, which they actually did to sustain their own credibility to the authority. For private citizens, thief-takers played a valuable role in managing to return the stolen goods for a fee, by negotiating or prosecuting the thief. This is why they were not perceived so negatively as informers were. But the news of misconduct provoked the rage of the public.\nTheir dubious behaviour reached public attention also because of the rivalry between the two leading thief-takers: Charles Hitchen and Jonathan Wild. Hitchen became irritated by the great",
"-21.94775353433215"
],
[
" Unfortunately, there appeared to be little evidence for a conspiracy, let alone an attempt at insurrection. Nevertheless, Dore ordered severe punishments for those thought to have planned an insurrection.\nDore died on 13 December 1800 leaving insufficient estate to pay his creditors.",
"-21.923075237847115"
],
[
"in cracking down on corruption is to send a message to those who step over some \"unknown acceptable level of graft\" or too obviously flaunt its benefits. Another reason is to show an angry public that the Party is doing something about the problem.\nIn many such cases, the origins of anti-corruption measures are a mystery. When Chen Liangyu was ousted, analysts said it was because he lost a power struggle with leaders in Beijing. Chen was Shanghai's party secretary and member of the powerful Politburo. In 2010, a re-release of the Communist Party of China 52 code of ethics was",
"-21.82776303126593"
],
[
"act of extortion under the Hobbs act was the \"rough equivalent\" of bribery. Because Ocasio did not ask the court to overrule Evans and because the Court had \"no occasion to do so\" sua sponte, Justice Alito held that \"we have no principled basis for precluding the prosecution of conspiracies to commit\" extortion under the Hobbs act. Justice Alito also rejected the argument that the Court's ruling would \"transform every bribe of a public official into a conspiracy to commit extortion\" because \"[i]n cases where the bribe payor is merely complying with an official demand, the payor lacks the mens",
"-21.803186352204648"
],
[
"man, and his assessors were at least not accessible to bribery. Verres vainly tried to get the trial postponed until 69 BC when his friend Marcus Caecilius Metellus would be the presiding judge. Hortensius tried two successive tactics to delay the trial. The first was trying to sideline Verres' prosecution by hoping to get a prosecution of a former governor of Bithynia to take precedence. When that failed, the defense then looked to procedural delays (and gaming the usual format of a Roman extortion trial) until after a lengthy and upcoming round of public holidays, after which there would be",
"-21.756488825863926"
],
[
"a spy.\nIn exchange for asylum, Inspector Voltaire then interrogates the Lookout for information on the thieves' backgrounds. He asks about the Mole, whom she says has already been caught. She then tells him about herself and says she steals because of \"a moral debt\". When discussing why the Locksmith disregards the law, she recalls the time when he had his hand broken after being caught counting cards in blackjack. The Lookout informs Inspector Voltaire that the Pickpocket used to be rich before he was arrested and that the Hacker had also been in trouble before; he was caught trespassing in",
"-21.718116736083175"
],
[
"dismissal violated U.S. State Department procedures because the State Department's Loyalty Security Board found no evidence of Service being disloyal or a security risk.\nIn The Amerasia Spy Case: Prelude to McCarthyism, authors Harvey Klehr and Ronald Radosh state \"[a]ny lingering doubts about Service's true position are erased by the evidence of the FBI surveillance. If he had been a secret Communist, much less a spy, some better evidence would likely have surfaced in the transcripts\".\nJonathan Mirsky, in his review, in the Wall Street Journal, of the 2009 biography of Service by Lynne Joiner states that: \"In two phone interviews with",
"-21.69772582103178"
],
[
"Perjury trap A perjury trap is a form of prosecutorial misconduct in which a prosecutor calls a witness to testify, typically before a grand jury, with the intent of coercing the witness into perjury (intentional deceit under oath). \nAs an example, suppose that a person committed a crime for which they were never prosecuted, but the statute of limitations on that crime has expired. A prosecutor could set a perjury trap for them by calling them as a witness before a grand jury in a case about a different crime, and ask them about the expired crime. If the witness",
"-21.653171558500617"
],
[
"layoffs were made against the police handling of corruption of elected officials from his party's Minister of the Interior and the police. The case became to be known as \"Peach Bag\". \"Peach Bag\" never matured into specific charges and attribute this to the dismissal of police commissioner Shafir. Shafir eventually admitted that he had leaked false information to the press on the investigation of the government minister, however he rejected all other allegations.",
"-21.64547148926067"
],
[
"only the practice in a minority of districts, but in some areas large bribes had become habitual. In areas without direct bribery, candidates were expected to provide food, drink and banquets. These various costs added up to the equivalent of several million modern pounds for the priciest campaigns, causing financial hardship even for wealthy candidates.\nIn the first elections held in the United States, canvassing was rare. Most elections were uncontested, and even in races with multiple candidates it was considered improper for a candidate to campaign on his own behalf. In the early 19th century as the party system developed,",
"-21.584466771058942"
],
[
"cast their votes. Bribery became such a commonplace practice in the later Republic that it was seen as a normal part of the political process, and ranged anywhere from the blatant promising of money to simply hosting games and entertaining the people. Sometime during the mid-second century, Polybius noted the prohibition of bribery, but this proved to be useless as it continued to be prominent in elections and was very difficult to differentiate between bribery and the patronage system. Some evidence suggests that as the dominance of the practice grew, the number of men who gained the consulship without any",
"-21.563013684557518"
],
[
"Fake defection Fake defection, often referred to as a \"provocation\" or \"dangle\" in intelligence circles, is a defection by an intelligence agent made on false pretenses. Fake defectors (who may be referred to as \"plant\"s) may spread disinformation or aid in uncovering moles. The risk that a defection may be fake is often a concern by intelligence agencies debriefing defectors.\nExamples of Soviet defectors that some sources have considered fake include Oleg Penkovsky (considered fake by Peter Wright and James Angleton) and Vitaly Yurchenko. Examples of US fake defection operations include Operation Shocker.\nIn fiction, examples of fake defection include the James",
"-21.53784979550983"
],
[
"provided, how can the court found there to be quid pro quo.\n3.It is impossible to understand why a company would claim to have given a bribe but it did not participate in the bidding process. This defies logic and common sense. How could the judges believe such a story?\nIn fact, such character assassination by the judiciary has been going on for a long time. When Minister Kuo was questioned for the first time and while the questioning was still under way, certain journalist was citing a “source” and reported that Minister Kuo had already admitted accepting the bribe. The record",
"-21.517895558063174"
],
[
"various spies throughout history, a pill which was taken by the spies when they were discovered to eliminate the possibility of being interrogated by an enemy.\nIt was reported in 2001 that since 1997, for every company with a poison pill which successfully resisted a hostile takeover, there were 20 companies with poison pills that accepted takeover offers. The trend since the early 2000s has been for shareholders to vote against poison pill authorization, since poison pills are designed to resist takeovers, whereas from the point of view of a shareholder, takeovers can be financially rewarding.\nSome have argued that poison",
"-21.473574490606552"
],
[
"(Kominsky 14). Prior to publishing The Hoaxers, the working title for the two volumes was Countdown—USA\nThe Hoaxers is a \"special study of the use of fabrications, distortions of truth, and out-of-context quotations.\" It examines such works as The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, the \"Ten Cannots\" of William J. H. Boetcker commonly misattributed to Abraham Lincoln and conspiracy theories such as the Bilderberg Group Conspiracy and the Illuminati. The book received favorable advance comments from Robert W. Kenny and Congressman Dalip Singh Saund among others, as printed on the dustcover.\nKominsky had run in 1938 for Governor",
"-21.432804569325526"
],
[
"1994 around the author's fraudulently claimed ancestry. Political A political scandal occurs when political corruption or other misbehavior is exposed. Politicians or government officials are accused of engaging in illegal, corrupt, or unethical practices. A political scandal can involve the breaking of the nation's laws or moral codes and may involve other types of scandal. Business In 2012, Michael Woodford who successfully steered Olympus, a Japanese company to fame, turned a whistleblower when even as a CEO of the firm, he exposed the financial scandal worth $1.7 billion and fled Japan fearing for his life. Though persecuted his revelations proved",
"-21.41919794762225"
],
[
"Ruef confesses Heney and Spreckels meanwhile met with officers of the major companies implicated in the bribery scheme and encouraged them to come forward and implicate Ruef and Schmitz. But the executives pretended that any rumors about bribery were baseless and denied any knowledge of the payoffs. The prosecution's only hope to convict the executives of bribery was to prove a conspiracy, that they gave money to Ruef, a non-public official, with the intent that he pass it on to the Supervisors, who were. The Supervisors' testimony, while important, was only circumstantial. They needed Ruef's testimony to implicate the other",
"-21.368043162785398"
],
[
"Edward Coke, conspiracy was originally a statutory remedy against false accusation and prosecution by \"a consultation and agreement between two or more to appeal or indict an innocent man falsely and maliciously of felony, whom they cause to be indicted and appealed; and afterward the party is lawfully acquitted\". In Poulterer's Case, 77 Eng. Rep. 813 (K.B. 1611), the court reasoned that the thrust of the crime was the confederating of two or more, and dropped the requirement that an actual indictment of an innocent take place, whereby precedent was set that conspiracy only need involve an attempted crime, and",
"-21.35271759686293"
],
[
"issues), miscarriages of justice, misconduct in public administrations and services... \"Plumbers' affair\" On 3 December 1973, policemen of the Directorate of Territorial Surveillance (DST), disguised as plumbers, were caught trying to install a spy microphone in the directorial office of Le Canard. The resulting scandal forced Interior Minister Raymond Marcellin to leave the government, though it is said that Marcellin was a scapegoat for other members of the government, especially the Defense Minister, who was intent on knowing the identities of informers for the newspaper. Robert Boulin affair A series of articles accusing long-serving Gaullist minister and possible Prime Ministerial",
"-21.351454958712566"
],
[
"truth. Evasions are closely related to equivocations and mental reservations; indeed, some statements fall under both descriptions. Question dodging Question dodging is a rhetorical technique involving the intentional avoidance of answering a question. This may occur when the person questioned either does not know the answer and wants to avoid embarrassment, or when the person is being interrogated or questioned in debate, and wants to avoid giving a direct response. Overt question dodging can sometimes be employed humorously, in order to sidestep giving a public answer in a political discussion: when a reporter asked Mayor Richard J. Daley why",
"-21.3385009129197"
],
[
"board for deceit in the hope that it too could be inveigled into believing lies. White stated in a media interviews that the Tribunal findings against him, were based on \"hearsay, innuendo and rumour\", – rather than the thousands of documents admitted as evidence and hundreds of days at hearing. Code of Discipline Inquiries relating to garda discipline can take years to unravel due to the overlay of legal formalism in the process. Procedures can be used to frustrate and delay simple and straightforward investigations. The Tribunal has made recommendations in respect of this. A new draft code of",
"-21.32313545740908"
],
[
"of these chosen jury members (Bell, 94) and to take away their sources of internet, such as phones, before the actual trial commences. Mistrials and alternatives Mistrials are the common response in cases where juror misconduct has occurred. Mistrials can be costly and thus will be avoided if possible. When mistrials are seen as a solution, they are compared to wasted assets “when it could have easily been avoided”. If the possibility presents itself, according to Eltis’s article, simply dismissing the misconduct as unacceptable would be less destructive than a mistrial. Dismissing this misconduct will be destructive since it would",
"-21.250661412508634"
],
[
"tradition than a need for actual secrecy.\nThis has led to a perception of more extensive secrecy among non-Freemasons. Anti-masons note the existence of “bloody oaths” by which the initiate swears to keep secret the key parts of masonic ceremonies. This perception of secrecy has led to the creation of many Masonic conspiracy theories. The Morgan Affair and its aftermath The mysterious disappearance of William Morgan in 1826 was said to be due to his threat to publish a book detailing the secret rituals of Freemasonry.\nAn attempt was made to burn down the publishing house, and separately, Morgan was arrested",
"-21.249732468731963"
],
[
"confidence trickster offers to let the mark put up some of the funds, with a promise of a greater monetary reward upon release of the prisoner plus a non-pecuniary incentive, gaining the hand of a beautiful woman represented to be the prisoner's daughter. After the mark has turned over the funds, he is informed further difficulties have arisen, and more money is needed. With such explanations, the trickster continues to press for more money until the victim is cleaned out, or declines to put up more funds. Characteristics Key features of the Spanish Prisoner trick are the emphasis on secrecy",
"-21.21699209417784"
],
[
"their exposure and arrests, which suggests that the longevity of their scam was concentrated on the passing off of lower level items.\nBalanced against this must be the success of sales to private individuals. They are unlikely to have had the same level of expertise at their disposal as institutions, and are probably less willing to advertise their losses once the forgeries were detected. Certainly they have not had the same exposure as the debacle surrounding the Bolton Museum, for example. Two individual buyers, \"wealthy Americans\" have been noticed, but only after they donated their purchase to the British Museum.\nAnother piece",
"-21.2159845136066"
],
[
"withheld from the panel about one of the impostors and it was up to the panelists to determine correctly to which of the impostors it applied. One at a time, each panelist would be given twenty seconds to question the impostor sitting directly across from them and would then say whether he/she believed the fact applied to that impostor. Wrong votes still paid $100 with $500 paid if the panel did not correctly determine to whom the fact pertained.\nThe 1980 edition of To Tell the Truth was a rarity in that it was still based in New York while nearly",
"-21.20891325089542"
],
[
"that had originally been rejected (after inspection by independent government examiners), without evidence or assurance that the surveys had been properly corrected or completed. Also, at least one such examiner in California was part of the syndicate, attempting to gain payment for some rejected surveys via bogus field \"examinations\" (which were themselves later rejected as fraudulent as the extent of the group's activities became known). Banks were also involved, providing the deposits and performance bonds required by the government, in exchange for a cut of the enormous profits generated. These banks later also paid for the syndicate's defense",
"-21.201544203271624"
],
[
"or a combination of both. \nContemporary media has the capacity to spread knowledge of a scandal further than in previous centuries and public interest has encouraged many cases of confected scandals relating to well-known people as well as genuine scandals relating to politics and business. Some scandals are revealed by whistleblowers who discover wrongdoing within organizations or groups, such as Deep Throat (William Mark Felt) during the Watergate scandal in the 1970s in the United States. Whistleblowers may be protected by laws which are used to obtain information of misdeeds and acts detrimental to their establishments. However, the possibility",
"-21.193819337917375"
],
[
"members despite the assertion by Democratic members that the investigation was incomplete and had failed to gather pertinent information. Notably, House Intelligence Republicans released a draft of their investigatory report which contradicted some findings of the U.S. Intelligence Community and was written without the input of House Democrats. In the wake of bitter disagreement about the committee's findings, Republican committee member Tom Rooney claimed that the committee had \"lost all credibility\" and had become \"a political forum for people to leak information to drive the day's news.\" In July 2018, the chair of the committee, Representative Devin Nunes, accused the",
"-21.18401108958642"
],
[
"imagined conspiracies, exaggerated notions of the scale and impact of covert activities, misunderstandings of the management and coordination of operations within and between national governments, and... an almost complete failure to place the actions and decisions in question in the appropriate historical context.\" According to Davies, \"the underlying problem is that Ganser has not really undertaken the most basic necessary research to be able to discuss covert action and special operations effectively.\" Olav Riste of the Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies, writing for the journal Intelligence and National Security, mentions several instances where his own research on the stay-behind network",
"-21.183167871890873"
],
[
"the only adversary dangerous enough to be likely to succeed in bringing the betrayers of the Fatherland to Justice.\nAll this was inspired by the principle—which is quite true within itself—that in the big lie there is always a certain force of credibility; because the broad masses of a nation are always more easily corrupted in the deeper strata of their emotional nature than consciously or voluntarily; and thus in the primitive simplicity of their minds they more readily fall victims to the big lie than the small lie, since they themselves often tell small lies in little matters but would",
"-21.165569518510893"
],
[
"conspirators to be dismissed, claiming the rebels had not been captured \"red-handed\", but this request was denied. They were more successful in another demand, managing to persuade the five military judges to allow witnesses to be called. The court agreed to their request to compel Khánh, Kỳ and the civilian Deputy Prime Minister Nguyễn Xuân Oánh to appear before the hearing. The accused officers claimed to have only intended to make a show of force, rather than overthrow Khánh. Đức claimed that the objective of his actions was to \"emphasize my ideas\" and said his actions did not constitute a",
"-21.150177161083093"
],
[
"asks Holmes insistently about the stolen document's contents, but Holmes only reveals to her that there would be very unfortunate consequences if the document were not found. Lady Hilda also begs Holmes to tell her husband nothing of her visit.\nHolmes's spy hunt does not go well. Four days after the murder, French police arrest the probable culprit of it, a woman whom Lucas has married in Paris, under the alias of \"Henri Fournaye\". She was seen in London near Eduardo Lucas' house the night of the crime, but she is now useless as a witness because she has gone insane.\nInspector",
"-21.13281273159373"
],
[
"acts set up coercive questioning regimes which operate outside the normal criminal processes. Direct testimonial evidence gained from this coercive questioning cannot be used in any subsequent criminal trial of the person providing the evidence, however a witness who testifies in his defense at a subsequent criminal trial who provides a different testimony to that during the questioning may face prosecution for perjury. New South Wales The state of New South Wales passed the Evidence Amendment (Evidence of Silence) Act 2013 which allows the judiciary to direct the jury to draw unfavourable inferences against a defendant who failed or",
"-21.10507093279739"
],
[
"to witness the documentary proceedings between private persons and to impress them with legal authenticity. They are not engaged in the chanceries, in order that they may be within easy reach of private individuals; they have a public character, so that their records, drawn up according to rule, are received as authentic accounts of the particular transaction, especially agreements, contracts, testaments, and wills.\nConsequently, public notaries may be appointed only by those authorities who possess jurisdiction in foro externo, and have a chancery, e.g. popes, bishops, emperors, reigning princes, and of course only within the limits of their jurisdiction; moreover, the",
"-21.094708863529377"
],
[
"Madoff scandal. Although the conspirators were quickly caught, unravelling the scam required three large insolvencies and four acts of Parliament over the course of more than forty years. It had been at least nine months in the making. After the meeting, Pitkin would leave London, absconding first to Scotland and later to Holland, and setting in motion an economic panic, an international manhunt, and a reform of English bankruptcy law.\nThomas Pitkin was born in the village of Berkhamsted, Buckinghamshire in 1665. He came from a middle-class family, and had entered the trade of linen draper, or wholesale cloth merchant. By",
"-21.075404910174257"
],
[
"further reading by David Southwell and Sean Twist in their book Unsolved Political Mysteries. Writing for The Star, James Mitchell observed, \"There's a huge amount packed in here, simply presented.\" Mitchell concluded, \"Read the Conspiracy Encyclopedia, and you'll either have your worst fears confirmed that there's a grand, unified conspiracy affecting everything ... or less exciting, that most of the time, vanilla rules: What you see is what you get!\"",
"-21.067602683854034"
],
[
"secretaries, Claude Nau de la Boisselière and Gilbert Curle, were likewise taken into custody and interrogated.\nThe conspirators were sentenced to death for treason and conspiracy against the crown, and were to be hanged, drawn, and quartered. This first group included Babington, Ballard, Chidiock Tichborne, Thomas Salisbury, Henry Donn, Robert Barnewell and John Savage. A further group of seven men including Edward Habington, Charles Tilney, Edward Jones, John Charnock, John Travers, Jerome Bellamy, and Robert Gage, were tried and convicted shortly afterward. Ballard and Babington were executed on 20 September 1586 along with the other men who had been tried with",
"-21.066920681245392"
],
[
"The Great Bank Hoax Plot There's intrigue and deception at a small-town bank when it is discovered that an unsuspecting employee (Paul Sand) has embezzled thousands of dollars. Leading bank officers Jack Stutz (Burgess Meredith) and Manny Benchly (Richard Basehart) decide to hide the theft in a seemingly clever plot that will make them even more money. However, when word of the crime gets out, the whole community becomes outraged and gets involved, resulting in plenty of trouble.",
"-21.04100115186884"
],
[
"suspicion is a low standard of proof to determine whether a brief investigative stop or search by a police officer or any government agent is warranted. It is important to note that this stop or search must be brief; its thoroughness is proportional to, and limited by, the low standard of evidence. A more definite standard of proof (often probable cause) would be required to justify a more thorough stop/search. In Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968), the Supreme Court ruled that reasonable suspicion requires specific, articulable, and individualized suspicion that crime is afoot. A mere guess or \"hunch\"",
"-21.02684298623035"
],
[
"of 1776. The conspirators largely belonged to the white upper class of Minas Gerais. Many had studied in Europe, especially in the University of Coimbra, and some had large debts with the colonial government. In the context of declining gold production, the intention of the Portuguese government to impose the obligatory payment of all debts (the derrama) was a leading cause behind the conspiracy. The conspirators wanted to create a Republic in which the leader would be chosen through democratic elections. The capital would be São João del Rei, and Ouro Preto would become a university town. The structure of",
"-21.0083738472822"
],
[
"manifest that somebody is going to be tricked. There is no genuine honest reason for making a secret of this kind. My hope is that it is the Nationalist party who are going to be tricked. It may be them, or it may be us, but that somebody is going to be tricked is perfectly plain..\"\nIt now appears that in late May Asquith sought any solution that would avoid, or at least postpone, an Irish civil war. He had not been frank about the new temporary-partition possibility, leaving everyone wondering what, exactly, they were voting for in the main Bill,",
"-21.008093723990896"
],
[
"a commission of inquiry into alleged bribery and coercion by ministerial assistants in the federal government known as the Rivard Affair.",
"-21.002922129031504"
],
[
"prosecution because of illegal wire taps and the government's unwillingness to reveal sources and methods favored a strategy of inversion where they would be above ground \"revolutionary leaders\". Jeremy Varon argues that by 1977 the WUO had disbanded.\nMatthew Steen appeared on the lead segment of CBS' 60 Minutes in 1976 and was interviewed by Mike Wallace about the ease of creating fake identification, the first ex-Weatherman interview on national television. (The House document has the date wrong, it aired February 1, 1976 and the title was Fake ID.)\nThe federal government estimated that only 38 Weathermen had gone underground in 1970,",
"-20.996294193377253"
],
[
"attempt to live out in real life, sometimes even inserting themselves into public events or ceremonies, or volunteering for interviews with journalists about their alleged experiences. Others are motivated by more direct gains, such as impressing employers, casting directors, audiences, investors, voters in political campaigns or romantic interests.\nOccasionally impostors use their claims in an attempt to intimidate others, such as claiming to be a trained sniper or ex-special forces, or use their fabricated experiences as a pretense of authority for their opinions on political matters. False claims of military service are also used by panhandlers to increase donations, sometimes",
"-20.974051403878548"
],
[
"since the mid-nineteenth century, under the decision of Barwick v English Joint Stock Bank. This liability was extended in the early 20th century, to cover fraudulent actions which were not of benefit to the employer, a previous requirement. Thereupon, the test for vicarious liability of fraud was whether it was within an employee's authority – either actual, or outwardly appearing – to carry out the fraudulent actions that he did. It was not enough that an employee merely asserted that he had supposed authority, however; the defrauded individual or company must have been assured or led to believe by the",
"-20.90646424737497"
],
[
"apothecaries, mid-wives, and all other persons who, by their status (état) or profession are the depositaries of secrets confided to them, revealing such secrets, except in cases in which the law obliges them to inform [hors les cas où la loi les oblige à se porter dénonciateurs] shall be punished with imprisonment from one to six months, and with a fine of from 100 to 500 francs.\nThe exception, mentioned in the article, of persons obliged by law to be informers, as pointed out by Dalloz, became obsolete because Arts 103–107, which dealt with the obligation of informing, were repealed by",
"-20.905826703819912"
],
[
"claimed fraud in several other government positions, as well as the murder of political opponents by incumbents. There were eyewitness claims as well. Loren Legarda claimed that she had evidence of being cheated by Noli de Castro, who won the vice presidency in 2004. Fraud techniques Electoral fraud in the country was usually done by manipulating the ballots. However, a new technique has arisen which just involves the manipulating the election return or ER, which is a summary of the votes in precincts. Evidence exist showing that the 32,000 sets of overprinted ERs of the Commission of Elections could manipulate",
"-20.901471811230294"
]
] |
3huyqv | How do you get caught counting cards? | [
"You can tell by the way someone is betting. When the situation is favorable based on the count, that's when you want to start betting heavy. Also, card counters often work in groups and so if additional people start showing up at the table and everyone is betting heavy, it's a pretty good indicator that something's up.",
"Because usually they work in pairs or more to game more tables at once to find the table with the better odds, then signal for their partners to come and place bets and signal them so they all take a piece of the house. Besides that, working alone, someone maybe moves from table to table erratically after a certain amount of hands, or looks like they're paying too much attention for an everyday gambler. Plus, become a regular enough and they'll take note of you. Best way to count cards be to hit multiple casinos in pairs of two, say as honeymooners, with the woman bitching you out the whole time and making a stink and the husband leaving the table to sit with her after she signals she's winning, say calling him over to go get her a drink, at which point he says someone will come by with one for her and he just sits to join her at her table. I have no idea what I am talking about BTW.",
"The point of counting cards is to identify when the undealt cards are very favorable toward the player and bet a lot then (vs only betting a small amount when the count is unfavorable). The trick is finding a way to bet a lot when the count is favorable without the casino noticing. If one doesn't take advantage of the count via betting, from the casino's perspective their counting doesn't matter at all. The MIT group did this for quite a while by having the bet a lot be a different person (who feigned drunkenness and moved from table to table so obviously couldn't be counting) while the counters always bet small and signaled to the large better when the count was favorable.",
"Card counters have a very specific betting pattern. If you follow that pattern (and are winning) they will kick you out. Casinos kick people out for counting cards all the time. They don't have to have any evidence, it all falls under the \"we reserve the right to refuse service for any reason\" that all businesses have.",
"Why is it even a bad thing to do that? I mean it isn't cheating or anything is it?",
"Counting cards does not automatically make you money. It tells you *when* the cards are favorable to you, and you should increase your bets. Casinos have people observing players at all times, and if they spot a player who modifies his bet by 10x (betting $10 a hand, then suddenly $100 a hand), then they will watch them, checking to see whether their higher bets match favorable card counts. If they have suspicion that somebody is making a consistent profit, they will first take mild counter-measures. For example, they will shuffle the deck more often (so 'good counts' don't happen as much). But if a player is a consistent winner, especially over a number of visits, then the casino will ask the player to leave. Do they have evidence? Sure! They have a half-dozen different video cameras, facial recognition, observation reports from dealers and 'pit bosses' (dealer supervisors). They are tracking players better than they can track themselves. They won't kick you out on a hunch. There are different levels of card counting. The higher levels are difficult, but I understand they can result in profitable play with less modification of bets. This means that a player is less likely to be detected. Another way to 'hide' your counting is to use team play. /u/r3solv mentions this below. One person is just a 'grinder', playing little bets, but counting. When the count becomes favorable, then the 'whale' sits down, lays down some big bets for however long it's favorable, then leaves. In that manner, the 'grinder' doesn't turn a profit, but *the team* does. Google \"MIT Blackjack team\" for more gory details.",
"The casino hires people who know how to count cards and can tell if other people are counting cards by the way they bet. Counting cards is a pretty well known system and if you know it, it's easy to tell if someone else is following it."
] | [
[
"cards. It works every single time. Sometimes, you can arrange it so that they do not know that they had to memorize the cards after writing them down. They may pick the wrong cards. Show them that they picked the wrong cards by looking at their paper. They will think the trick is over. Then, reveal the correct 3 cards. Popular types 1. Steps of math operations that use some secret knowledge of the audience like their birthday, and then reveal that secret knowledge in an unexpected way at the end. For example, think of any secret 3-digit number, multiply",
"-33.34792798166745"
],
[
"counting machines, some of which can detect a note's security features (e.g. magnetic ink, ultraviolet ink, magnetic strip, note density etc.) to identify counterfeit and damaged notes.\nOther extra features that facilitate everyday contact with cash may also be present. Electronic counters for bills/ money and coins Electronic counting systems, with no moving parts, exist that count both notes and coins on the same machine and sum the value of all denominations counted. They are normally used to count individual deposits or the content of cash drawers and do not sort or check for counterfeit or damaged notes.The machine uses",
"-32.97884131678438"
],
[
"four cards from one category, or one from each category, depending on the player's position on the board. Each card is placed in a colored quadrant of the board. The player then ranks these four items according to his or her preference using color-coded cards that are placed in an envelope. Next, other players (or teams) use numbered tiles to guess that player's order, and move forward one space for each correct guess when the order is revealed. If players choose to double a guess by placing a tile towards the center of the board, they move forward two spaces",
"-32.00424070836743"
],
[
"The skill lies both in convincing other players that the shuffle is legitimate and in ensuring that other players receive hands that are good enough to entice them into play, but not too good to arouse suspicion. Marked cards Marked cards are printed or altered so that the cheater can know the value of specific cards while only looking at the back. Ways of marking are too numerous to mention, but there are certain broad types. A common way of marking cards involves marks on a round design on the card so as to be read like a clock (an",
"-31.4780461609771"
],
[
"piles A third variation uses nine cards, selected at random. They are divided into three piles of three cards. A participant looks at the bottom card of one pile and memorizes it. That pile is then placed on top of the other two piles, such that the memorized card will be the third card from the top. The magician then begins dealing cards onto the table one at a time from the nine-card stack, one for each letter in a set of words according to a formula. At the end of every step except the last, the remaining cards are",
"-31.4430889627547"
],
[
"the tint of the cardstock or pattern. Another way to mark the cards is to fill in different small areas of the card with a marker the same colour as the surrounding ink to hide the pattern of the marking. They may even be marked 'live', while in use either with a sharpened finger nail or a tool (often a ring known as a \"poker ring\") made specifically for that purpose. Forcing decks These decks are used to force a spectator to select a particular card, which the magician already knows in advance. Such a feat can be",
"-31.188496033661067"
],
[
"pass around cards, attempting to build a hand of equal cards. When a player receives a card from another player which they have already seen, the card has already been around the entire group, and it can be assumed that no player wants that card, and so it is placed in the center of the playing area (face up). Any player with a card of that value in their playing hand must then put those cards in the pile in the center also (as it is not possible to win on that card).\nThe player who initially put the card down",
"-31.081670061990735"
],
[
"Shuffle track Shuffle tracking Shuffle tracking is an advanced technique used with card counting. Many types of shuffle tracking exist. Generally, the player, or a team member, keeps track of the count (high cards versus low cards) of one or more subsections of the cards as they are played. The selected sections may or may not be predetermined by observing and mapping the shuffle. These sections are referred to as tracking zones. The player may attempt to follow slugs of cards through the shuffle, or have a good idea of the final location by previously analyzing the shuffle. After the",
"-30.980174346914282"
],
[
"shape. Questions, answers, colors or numbers may be written on the fortune teller. Manipulations are done by various methods. The holder asks for a number or color. Once the number or color is chosen, the holder uses their fingers to switch between the two groups of colors and numbers inside the paper fortune teller. The holder switches these positions several times determined by the number of letters in the color , the number chosen, or the sum of both. Once the holder has finished switching positions, the player chooses one of the flaps revealed. These flaps often have colors or",
"-30.594437030580593"
],
[
"cards, he picks up a packet. Unters have to be played and must not be held back.\nAs soon as the first player has laid all his cards out, he calls \"Census!\" and the first 'census' (Volkszählung) is held. The remaining players score 10 penalty points for each card still held. \nThe game continues. When the second player is 'out', the next census is taken. Each remaining card now costs 20 points. In the third census the player who still has hand cards receives 30 penalty points per card and must also count the packets remaining on the table. Variations Quodlibet",
"-30.541054546338273"
],
[
"the round. Players are dealt four cards each,. Playing Each player looks at his hand and selects a card to get rid of, passing it face down to the player on his left. Players do this simultaneously, not in rotation, so that players cannot use the card they receive to decide what to shed. Once again, players examine their cards and pass one card to the left. This process continues until one player has collected a quartet in his hand (called a 'book' - Arnold).\nThe player with the quartet does not announce it, but quietly places his hand down and",
"-30.50230016684509"
],
[
"in the center of the table then picks up a card from the remaining pack, which they add to their hand (to replace the card lost), as do all players who placed a matching card down. Cards continue to be passed around the group, with this cycle of events repeating until one player collects four of a kind. If at any point a player picks up a card from the deck which is of a value which has been put down in the center already, that card can be added to the center pile and they can pick another card",
"-30.461795418406837"
],
[
"counted. Cards are even transferred without any regard to suit or value. Spot cards (cards from ace to ten) are taken at their face value, while jacks are valued at 11, queens at 12, and kings at 13.\nThe game is won when the top cards of the thirteen piles have a total value of 91. The easiest combination to obtain is a sequence of thirteen cards from ace to king (91=1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8+9+10+11+12+13). But there are many other combinations that add up to 91, such as four kings, four aces, three fives, and two tens for instance (91=13*4+1*4+3*5+10*2=52+4+15+20). It is up to",
"-30.440764232247602"
],
[
"usually involves picking a card from the stock and discarding a card to the discard pile. In some variations melds are revealed to all players by placing them face up on the table, in other variations each player keeps their hand hidden until the show. Some variations permit picking up the entire discard pile. A few variations permit stealing cards from their opponents melds. Show In most variations a player must put all of their cards into at least two melds (though they may be allowed to shed one card to the discard pile before showing). Once the player has",
"-30.250476097106002"
],
[
"skip a player's turn, make other players draw cards, change the color and allow a player to discard more than one card. The game includes 112 cards (2 identical sets of 56). The object of the game is to discard all the cards in your hand. Rules The cards are shuffled and each player receives eight. The rest of the deck becomes the draw pile. The top card in the draw pile is turned over and placed face up next to the draw pile to form a discard pile. The upper card of the discard pile is called the Leading",
"-30.175722442159895"
],
[
"they be [or do]?\" and lists six numbered choices. They then place the card down for everyone to see. Now, all players look through their number cards and pick the number card that corresponds to the answer they want. When all players have placed down a card, everyone flips theirs over. To move a player's token, they need to have picked the most popular answer. All players that have the most popular answer move 1 space, except the person who rolled the dice, who moves 2 if they picked the most popular answer.\nIf two or more answers are tied, all",
"-30.159443371288944"
],
[
"player gets to go twice is that he/she does not have the option to pick up a discarded card. Any player besides the person who discarded the card, may pick up discarded cards regardless of whose turn it is, following that the player who goes before them (the player in front of them) has the right to pick up the card before they do. Going Down The object of each hand is to come up with the correct combination of cards to be able to Go Down, or \"lay out\". The combination for each hand is different (see",
"-30.131529835998663"
],
[
"game. It is helpful to fan one's cards out so that if they have corner indices all their values can be seen at once. In most games, it is also useful to sort one's hand, rearranging the cards in a way appropriate to the game. For example, in a trick-taking game it may be easier to have all one's cards of the same suit together, whereas in a rummy game one might sort them by rank or by potential combinations. Rule infractions An infraction is any action which is against the rules of the game, such as playing a card",
"-30.120035371626727"
],
[
"cards based on a second dimension. However, five-year-old children are able to sort cards based on one dimension and can then switch to sorting cards on a second dimension. Multiple Classification Card Sorting Task In the Multiple Classification Card Sorting Task, children are shown cards and asked to sort them based on two different dimensions (e.g. by color, such as yellow and blue, and object type, such as animals and food) simultaneously into four piles within a matrix (e.g. yellow animals, yellow foods, blue animals and blue foods). This task appears to be more difficult as research has shown that",
"-30.001252930349438"
],
[
"flushes of 3 or more cards.\nIf no sequence cards are in the hand, the player can discard any one card.\nAfter the sequence cards are discarded, the player draws a card from the deck, or from the last discarded card(s). The player must draw one and only one card. \nEach player, when it is their turn, must either discard card(s) and draw a card, or declare a Jhyap; no player can 'pass' their turn.\nThis continues until a player has a hand-count of 5 points or less, when they can declare a jhyap. If no one counter jhyaps, that player gets",
"-29.957527154445415"
],
[
"is called the 27 card trick. It is identical in principle. Method The magician begins by handing the spectator the 21-card packet and asking them to look through it and select any one card to remember.\nThe cards are then dealt into three piles one at a time, like when dealing out hands in a card game. Each time they are dealt out, after the spectator indicates which pile contains the thought of card, the magician places that pile between the other two. After the first time, the card will be one of the ones in position 8-14. ",
"-29.949811547528952"
],
[
"punched card formats and character codes.\nThere were several methods used for alphabetical sorting, depending on the features provided by the particular sorter and the characteristics of the data to be sorted. A commonly used method on the 082 and earlier sorters was to sort the cards twice on the same column, first on digit rows 1-9, then on the zone rows 12, 11, and 0 (or vice versa, zone rows first then digit rows). Operator switches allow zone-sorting by \"switching off\" rows 1-9 for the second pass of the card for each column. \nOther special characters and punctuation marks were",
"-29.927333690910018"
],
[
"it counts 1 + 3 + 3 + 20 + 10, or 37 points. If a hand is left with only threes at the end of play, each three instead counts -50 points. Shuffle pressure If a player has to draw a card, but the stock is exhausted, they must then shuffle the cards remaining in the discard pile (except for the top card), and be subject to a shuffle pressure penalty. The first shuffle pressure adds 5 points to the player's score, and every shuffle pressure following doubles the score of the last one; for instance, the second",
"-29.89928724532365"
],
[
"cards, which adds an element of luck, such as \"Take an additional turn\" or \"Triple the value of your first guess\". Another option is to designate one player to keep track of the \"no\" answers that occur during play, so that turns aren't wasted on redundant inquiries, and there are no disputes at the end.\nAt any time during the game, a player can interrupt the game and ask another player (who has at least five unexposed cards) if his word is a specific word. If successful, the inquiring player earns the point value of all unexposed cards, plus 100 bonus",
"-29.803317170240916"
],
[
"certain position to indicate the number of the card, with the color or shape of the mark indicating suit. The magician shows the card to the audience and reads off the number and suit of the card without seeing it, indicating 'x-ray vision'. This principle is derived from similar card marking techniques used to cheat at gambling. \nThe cards of a marked deck may be marked in a number of ways. They may be manufactured with subtle variations in the back pattern. They may be marked by the user with tiny punctures or dots, or a barely detectable change of",
"-29.79722038791806"
],
[
"Counting-out game A counting-out game is a simple game intended to select a person to be \"it\", often for the purpose of playing another game. These games usually require no materials, and are played with spoken words (counting rhymes) or hand gestures. The historian Henry Carrington Bolton suggested in his 1888 book \"Counting Out Rhymes of Children\" that the custom of counting out originated in the \"superstitious practice of divination by lot.\"\nMany such games involve one person pointing at each participant in a circle of players while reciting a rhyme. A new person is pointed at as each word is",
"-29.793278416633257"
],
[
"four cards that are placed, face down, in a row in front of him or her. Each player looks at the two outermost cards in their row, at the beginning of the game. Players may not look at any cards during the game except through the use of a Peek card. The remaining cards form a draw pile, and the top one is turned over to form a discard pile (if this card is a power card, it is shuffled back into the draw pile and a replacement is dealt).",
"-29.771193767577643"
],
[
"money is hidden in. When a player searches that specific piece of furniture, the electronic organizer will first ask if (s)he has a particular item Clue card. If the answer is yes, it will then ask if the player has a specific person Clue card. If the answer is also yes, then that player wins. Optional \"Turn\" cards There are nine optional \"Turn\" cards: three marked \"Move\", three marked \"Look:, and three marked \"Let's talk\". These can be used by a player as flash card to keep track of their three actions during their turn. Other Uses In 2015, finalist",
"-29.7371232786536"
],
[
"the cards value, being Ace high and 7 low. The other cards, called \"point cards\" are generally used to keep track of points. The point cards are distributed to all the three players with 10 or 20 points. Suit must be followed. For example, if we allow 10 points to each player before the game begins, then the cards of value 5,3 and 2 of a particular suit is given to each player. The rest of the point cards are generally discarded or kept aside. Dealing The dealer shuffles the cards and the player to his left cuts the deck",
"-29.73709088139003"
],
[
"game of Rock-Paper-Scissors to determining who plays first, players take turns identifying sets of three cards in which the three features are either all the same or all different. (For example: Circle-Red-Black, Square-Red-White, Triangle-Red-Gray.) If they see a set, the player says \"Hap!\", and identifies the three cards. If the set is valid, the player scores a point. If the set is invalid, or has already been called, the player loses a point. If 10 seconds pass without a \"Hap!\" call, play passes to the other player.\nIf all of the sets have been identified, the player may call \"Gyul!\" If",
"-29.72206837963313"
],
[
"form rows, chips may be placed vertically, horizontally or diagonally. Each complete row of five (or four and a free corner space) is counted as a sequence. Sequences of the same color may intersect, but only at a single position.\nIf the draw deck becomes depleted during play, the discard pile is shuffled and drawing begins again.\nSequence rules dictate no table talk or coaching between team members and a precise order in which hands must be played (card, chip, replace card). If a player forgets to replace a card on their turn and if any of the other players points it",
"-29.676215131243225"
],
[
"markers are placed on worker placement spaces on the board to claim various benefits. Majority spaces advance the player with the most valuable goods or exploration cards along a company track. Tile spaces give an extra card for the next round. Other spaces allow a player to buy or sell cards for cash, or to claim the right to play first next round.\nAfter each round, players retrieve some of the cards they used in earlier rounds using a unique mechanic. Each active card is moved to one of several resting piles, after picking up just one",
"-29.660950581077486"
],
[
"bones — the exact number and type being rolled determined by each character's stats — and then draw a number of cards from a community playing card deck based on the results of that roll. The Marshal then calls out card values, starting from Aces and going all the way down to Deuces. The card's suit (in reverse alphabetical order) indicates who goes first if the same value of card is drawn. Fate Chips Along with Bones and Cards, characters get Fate Chips which are typically poker chips, although colored stones or coins can also be used. These are drawn",
"-29.6448710210243"
],
[
"80 series sorters sorted input cards into one of 13 pockets depending on the holes punched in a selected column and the sorter's settings. Basic operation The basic operation of a card sorter is to take a punched card, examine a single column, and place the card into a selected pocket. There are twelve rows on a punched card, and thirteen pockets in the sorter; one pocket is for blanks, rejects, and errors. (IBM 1962)\nCards are normally passed through the sorter face down with the bottom edge (\"9-edge\") first. A small metal brush or optical sensor is positioned",
"-29.61053738323244"
],
[
"so cards coming from both the front and back of the line that value to ten, twenty, or thirty are not considered consecutive unless they occupy a physically adjacent position to the card. After this has been repeated until no more discards are possible, a card is drawn from the stock and placed face up on the extreme right of the line (or on top of the stack if playing on one hand), and checking for discards is resumed.\nThe game continues until all cards are dealt or discarded, or when no more sets can be collected. The object of the",
"-29.609758863178286"
],
[
"for remembering long sequences of numbers, it can also be used to remember other sequences such as the order of a deck of playing cards. This works by establishing some method of systematically converting the objects into numbers. If the nine of clubs is associated with 39 (CN), for instance, then Chuck Norris or a roundhouse kick could be used in a story describing where the nine of clubs is in the deck.",
"-29.60967971601349"
],
[
"they will be able to spell the name of each card using only that stack. They will draw cards one at a time from the stack. For each card drawn, they spell one letter from the intended card's name, then place the card on the bottom of the deck. After the card's whole name is spelled, the next card drawn will be the intended card. For example, if the magician wishes to spell out \"ace\", they will draw three cards, saying the letters \"a\", \"c\", and \"e\" as they go. Then they will draw a fourth card, which will be",
"-29.607979042746592"
],
[
"be done by first sorting the cards by rank (using any sort), and then doing a stable sort by suit:\nWithin each suit, the stable sort preserves the ordering by rank that was already done. This idea can be extended to any number of keys and is utilised by radix sort. The same effect can be achieved with an unstable sort by using a lexicographic key comparison, which, e.g., compares first by suit, and then compares by rank if the suits are the same. Comparison of algorithms In this table, n is the number of records to be sorted. The columns",
"-29.586913433886366"
],
[
"the cards to each player. The cards are held face down. Every round, each player plays five cards face up vertically in between both players and slightly closer to themselves. Once both players have done this, they look for two or more cards having the same number. When a player finds one, he places another card on top of the cards with that number until all of the cards with the common number are covered. In other words, if there are three fours out then all three cards can get a new card on top of it. If a four",
"-29.57575157264364"
],
[
"it as well, the player in the first rotation gets to have that card. Often players signify in order when a card does not \"serve\" them by knocking on the table.\nIf a card placed on the discard pile can be added to any meld currently on the table it can be forced onto the meld and the player will have to \"pay\" for the card by discarding from their hand. If the player discarding the card is the same person with the meld, the card can be forced back to them, but if another player wants the card, they can",
"-29.564059912401717"
],
[
"point where no other cards can be laid down, the player discards one card face up on the discard pile and the turn passes to the next player to the left. Scoring of the round and paying penalties Once a player goes out, the remaining players add up points of cards they were caught with in their hands. The card values are as follows:\n3-9 5 points\n10-King 10 points\nDeuces 20 Points\nAces 20 Points\nJokers ",
"-29.562055559055807"
],
[
"since the last shuffle cannot be at the top of the deck and thus drawn, the counter can determine the high and low cards that have already been played. He or she thus knows the probability of getting a high card (10,J,Q,K,A) as compared to a low card (2,3,4,5,6).\nIn 1980, six MIT students and residents of the Burton-Conner House at MIT taught themselves card-counting. They traveled to Atlantic City during the spring break to win their fortune. The group went their separate ways when most of them graduated in May of that year. Most never gambled again, but some",
"-29.52302269321808"
],
[
"25 Words or Less Gameplay The game is played by one player from each of the two teams drawing a card (one between the two of them) and looking at the five words on the card. They then begin bidding words, starting at 25 and working backward, until one player passes. The player who passed then flips the timer, and the other player has one minute to give clues to their team, to try to get them to guess each of the five words on the card, where each word in the giver's clues counts as one of",
"-29.497252182132797"
],
[
"from the stock. The players then take turns playing or drawing cards and the first player who plays all his or her cards out wins the game. Penalties When a player has only one card left, they must call out \"one card\", the next player is then penalized by drawing a card. The player who has only one card is penalized in return if someone else calls out \"one card\" on the players turn first. If a player falsely calls “one card” while having multiple cards in their hand, they must draw a card. The stockpile The stockpile is the",
"-29.481227252370445"
],
[
"effects of the card are resolved before the hand ends, so if the card is a five, everyone else draws a card before scoring, and so on. The count If a two is played (including turned up by the dealer), \"the count\" begins, starting at a value of two. Each player must then play either an ace or a two, increasing the value of the count by either one or two, depending on the card played. If a player can not play an ace or two at this stage, they draw cards from the stock equating to the count",
"-29.439293436618755"
],
[
"dealer gets 13 and the rest of the cards are left as a central stack. The game begins when the dealer dumps a card. The next person can either pick up the disposed card if that card makes a set or adds to a set he has already or get one from the central stack. Collect hand combinations and dump unnecessary cards. The\npicking and discarding of cards goes on until someone wins by Tong-its, calls a draw or until the\ncentral stack runs out of cards. If this happens, the players tally the points of the cards they have at hand",
"-29.43170364163234"
],
[
"O'NO 99 Overview Up to eight players may take part. Each player picks a card from the deck, and the player drawing the highest-numbered card is the dealer. This person then deals four cards to each player, and places the remainder of the deck face down in the center of the table. The player to the dealer's left starts the hand by playing a numbered card face up in the center of the table and announces the number. They must then immediately draw the top card from the deck. Each subsequent player does likewise, announcing a new total by",
"-29.41363857158285"
],
[
"IBM card sorter An IBM card sorter is a machine for sorting decks of punched cards in the format popularized by the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), which dominated the punched card data processing industry for much of the twentieth century. Sorting was a major activity in most facilities that processed data on punched cards using unit record equipment. The work flow of many processes required decks of cards to be put into some specific order as determined by the data punched in the cards. The same deck might be sorted differently for different processing steps. The IBM",
"-29.39574977773009"
],
[
"use all five of the cards' numbers exactly once, using any combination of arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division), to form the objective card's number. The first player to come up with a correct formula is the winner. Krypto International Tournament Rules The official international rules for Krypto differ slightly from the house rules, and they involve a system of scorekeeping.\nFive cards are dealt face up in the center of the game table. (Each player works with the same set of five cards, rather than a set exclusive to them.) Then a sixth card is dealt face up in",
"-29.387809342704713"
],
[
"either, depending on what you are rolling the dice for. Sometimes you'll roll the dice because a card tells you to and you'll just look for the symbols the card asks for.\nThere are also colored blank tokens that came with your set. You can use these to show which challenges you are participating in. The numbered tokens can be used to help keep track of how much of an ability you've generated. The Pattern The Pattern is what the game is all about. Each turn a token is to be placed on the Pattern. Depending on how various challenges and",
"-29.385103852997418"
],
[
"normally done two or four cards at a time. The rest of the cards are set aside as a draw pile, and then play begins starting with the oya. Play On a player's turn, they may match by suit (such as month or flower) any one card in their hand with one on the table and take both into their point pile. If they cannot match a card from their hand, they must discard a card face up to the table. After matching or discarding a card, they then draw one card from the draw pile and place it face",
"-29.381795292254537"
],
[
"player chooses a numbered card. The amount is revealed and subtracted from the bank, then the clue is revealed. A player can guess the subject at any time, but they only get one guess. A correct guess adds the remaining money in the bank to the contestant's total winnings; if the guess is incorrect, no money is banked for that round. In the first four rounds, the incorrect guess will force the contestant to replay the round for the same maximum amount as the previous round that they got the incorrect answer on (this reduces the top prize); likewise, an",
"-29.361252011556644"
],
[
"have not won a hand yet and has to pay a bonus.\nThere are a variety of counting pieces used in different countries. They range from Chinese or Japanese counting sticks (thin sticks with various dots on them to represent various points), jetons, play money, paper and pencil, or various apps on touchscreen devices used to calculate and keep scores. Charleston In the American variations it is required that, before each hand begins, a Charleston be enacted. In the first exchange, three tiles are passed to the player on one's right; in the next exchange, the tiles are passed to the",
"-29.322531859354058"
],
[
"painted red or black in color. Usage Dealing shoes come in many colors and sizes, depending on the number of decks they are capable of holding (2, 4, 6, or 8 decks).\nWhen the cards are placed in the shoe, the dealer will insert a brightly colored blank plastic card. When this card is drawn it indicates that the current game is the last one before a new shuffle. This helps mitigate player advantage via card counting, as a significant portion (usually about 25 percent) of the full inventory of cards never comes into play. The percentage of cards",
"-29.311912983939692"
],
[
"down first before the piles are gathered). The discarded cards are set aside.\nThen without shuffling, the remaining cards are dealt this time into four piles. After this, the search the cards of the royal flush begins again with the same procedure already stated above. Once all four piles are searched and regathered, the remaining cards (again without reshuffling) are dealt into three piles. The process continues, and after the gathering of the piles, the cards are dealt into two piles and the procedure begins once more.\nWhen the two piles are regathered, the remaining cards at this point are then dealt",
"-29.285319087444805"
],
[
"In point-trick games, certain card values are worth varying points, and the players sum the points from cards in their \"scoring piles\" that were accumulated by taking tricks. Points for cards, and the method of counting points, vary by game; in Rook, for example, the 5-card of each color is worth 5 points, the 10 and 14 (or Ace) is worth 10, and the Rook Bird (or Joker) is worth 20, while all other cards are worth nothing. Many Chinese card games like Finding Friends use a very similar system, in which each 5-card is worth 5 points, and the",
"-29.27753213548567"
],
[
"of the top card of the deck. Once the value of the top card is known the cheat may resort to second dealing in order to avoid dealing a good card to an opponent, or to avoid dealing a bad card to himself or to a secret accomplice.\nIn order to secretly gain knowledge of the value of the top card, second dealing is always used in conjunction with other cheating methods. One of the easiest, and most common methods of gaining knowledge of the top card is to employ the use of marked cards. When marked cards are not in",
"-29.219818576140824"
],
[
"e-cards may be used. \nTraditional paper control cards are in form of a multiple-choice control card, which contain an official copy and a competitor copy, and folded in halves to make them overlap when the control card is punched. Before the competition, the name, number and class is filled, and the start and finish times are marked like in traditional orienteering. Moreover, There are fields for officials to record the times and answers at timed stations. The answers are recorded by punching the control card using the punch provided near the decision point for each control (or, in some competitions,",
"-29.189557136502117"
],
[
"task, four cards are used with the letters A or D on one side of the card and the numbers 4 or 7 on the other side. The cards are placed on the table to show one face of each letter and number. Participants are asked to determine the minimum number of cards they will need to turn over in order to determine if cards with vowels always have even numbers on their opposite side. Do groups perform better than individuals? This question has been tested by comparing group performance to the performance of individuals alone or in",
"-29.16199082529056"
],
[
"cards for a total of ten. The couple was given up to six clues to try to identify the puzzle, and each of the clues had a corresponding value of bank cards it would cost them to reveal it. Clues cost one, two or three bank cards, and were distributed by a shuffle that the couple stopped manually. They were then revealed in a clockwise fashion. The couple was given a guess at the Master Puzzle after each clue was revealed. A correct guess at any time earned the couple the value amount of bank cards remaining.\nOnce the Master Puzzle",
"-29.153672045074927"
],
[
"cards up into a face-down arrangement that allows players to count the number of tricks taken. The contents of each trick can not be viewed after this point, except to determine whether a player reneged (played an off-suit card including trumps when he could have and thus should have followed suit). The number of tricks a player has won cannot be disguised; if asked, each player must count out his tricks until everyone has agreed on the \"trick count\". The player who wins any given trick leads the next. Play continues until all players have exhausted their hands, which should",
"-29.143386160792943"
],
[
"cards, swap hands with another player, or move one to seven spaces as decided by a short slot machine style game. Finally, there is a card that will summon Doctor Eggman, who will steal the player's rings or swap their position on the board with another player.\nThere are a variety of different spaces on the board. The most common spaces increase or subtract the player's ring count. Rings can be used to purchase power-ups in the form of \"forcejewels\" at special shop spaces. These stones can give the player numerous advantages, such as selecting more than one card in one",
"-29.135749528446468"
],
[
"numerical sequence until reaching a point where they do not have the next card. The next player then continues the sequence if able to do so, otherwise that player must miss a turn and play is continued by the first player able to lay the required card.\nPlayers should announce their discards so that all players can follow what is happening easily; for example a player might say “eight, nine, ten, jack, no queen”. If the next player has a queen they would lay it and if possible a king as well. Discarding a king confers the right to start a",
"-29.104091549292207"
],
[
"include \"Roll Again\", \"Go to Nearest 'Score'\", \"Go to Start\", and \"Exchange Cards\" (in which the player swaps the Exchange card for any other card currently on the track.)\nIf a space is occupied by another pawn, the player rolls again (except for the Lose space), while disregarding any instructions on any adjacent track card (but still scoring a point on Score spaces). Scoring The object of the game is to play track cards in a way that directs one's pawn to a \"Score\" space, upon which the scorekeeper moves that player's peg ahead one point. A player can also score",
"-29.077717047242913"
],
[
"middle of the table, building colored piles in ascending numerical order according to color, and only starting new piles with a '1' card (placed anywhere near the middle of the table). New piles can be started anytime a '1' card becomes available to a player. Play is fast, and slow players will miss opportunities to place cards as faster players add to piles before others can react. Near-ties commonly occur among players discarding the same number card on a pile, but the person who was first is clearly the one whose card is underneath.\nIf players are unable to discard a",
"-29.053045318549266"
],
[
"to sort stimulus cards that differ in dimensions (shape, colour, or number). However, they are not told how to sort them. The only feedback they receive is whether or not a match is correct. Participants must discover the rule according to dimension. Once the participant matches a certain number of correct cards, the dimension changes and they must rediscover the new rule. This requires participants to remember the rule they were using and cognitively change the rule by which they use to sort. Dimensional Change Card Sort Task (DCCS) Participants are required to sort stimulus cards based on either shape",
"-29.04894268271164"
],
[
"cards from the community pile that add or equal a card from a players individual hands. After a deal the first person to the left of the dealer begins the play. The dealer also rotates to the left after each round. There are two ways to collect the cards from the community pile; a match or addition. Face cards cannot be won with addition and can only be won as a match. Only one card from the players hand can be played at a time and after a play is made play moves to the next player. Aces are valued",
"-29.04439455816464"
],
[
"card can either help or hinder second dealing. A playing deck with only a solid color back makes second dealing very difficult to detect. Less so are cards with a uniform pattern or a single logo, such as an airline promotional pack. Easiest to detect are cards with a strong white border design, which appears stationary on the top card as the second card is slid out from underneath.\nThe second deal can be performed using either one or two hands, and also from a tabled deck, again using one or two hands. The practice of using the dealing hand in",
"-29.032297489975463"
],
[
"a card shows an even number on one face, then its opposite face is red?\nA response that identifies a card that need not be inverted, or that fails to identify a card that needs to be inverted, is incorrect. The original task dealt with numbers (even, odd) and letters (vowels, consonants).\nThe test is of special interest because people have a hard time solving it in most scenarios but can usually solve it correctly in certain contexts. In particular, researchers have found that the puzzle is readily solved when the imagined context is policing a social rule. Use of logic The",
"-29.017527030053316"
],
[
"forgets to draw a new card before the next player plays, that player must remain one card short for the remainder of the hand. Play proceeds in this manner until a player cannot play without making the total value greater than ninety-nine. That player must turn in one of his or her tokens, all cards are then collected and a new hand is dealt. Any player without tokens loses and is out of the game, while the last player remaining with token wins. A variation is to play with dollar bills, instead of tokens. The dollar bill is",
"-29.003691027057357"
],
[
"melded all their cards they reveal their entire hand and the player submits their hand to validation. All other players reveal their melds and deadweight. The action of submitting the cards is called Showing. Scoring After a successful show, the winner or all players score their hand. In most variations numbered cards have certain assigned points and the royal cards (J-Q-K) have assigned points and the A often has a different point value. Scoring often involves each player adding up points in their melded cards (sets and runs) and deducting points from cards that have not been melded. The",
"-28.99836871289881"
],
[
"be started using either a \"1\" card or a Skip-Bo, and each player also has up to four personal discard piles. Each turn the active player draws until they have five cards in hand, though there are cases of not drawing more cards to equal five cards, instead doing a draw of a certain number of cards. They must play either the next card in sequential order or a wild Skip-Bo card, using either cards in hand, the top card of their stock pile, or the top card of any of their four discard piles. If the player can play",
"-28.97599271350191"
],
[
"drawn, so that card might as well be removed from the set altogether). Conclusively, the cards B/B and B/W are not of equal chances, because in the 50% of the cases B/W is drawn, this card is simply \"disqualified\".\nIf you would like to use a random web page to test this out for yourself, there is a page that allows a user to estimate the probability by repeatedly picking boxes and names out of three boxes. Estimating the Probability with Random Boxes and Names",
"-28.948515885538654"
],
[
"and take the card along with three additional cards from the top of the deck. It is up to the player whose turn it is, to allow this or to take the card themselves. That player must also check if any others want it left of the one whose turn it is until no players want it that will go before them. Any player may cut in at any time between a meld and the next players draw up to two times. If he loses count none=11 cards; one=14 cards; and 2 cut ins=17 cards. Melding Once the player has",
"-28.905646439976408"
],
[
"face up, sticking out of the player's pile of collected cards. The dealer should be careful to place his or her collected cards away from the deck, so as to avoid confusion. Players are not allowed to look at their collected cards until the end of the hand. At the end of the hand, the players count their total cards and points. End of game The game ends when one player or team reaches 100 points. In the rare event of a tie (2 players or teams finish even beyond the 100 point mark) there are various tie-breaking options, determined",
"-28.900128065011813"
],
[
"In some cases, the papers are marked by the bar staff. Alternatively, teams may have to mark their own answers and the handed-in papers are consulted only to check that prize claimants have not cheated by altering their answers. Another method is to have teams swap papers before marking, though this can be divisive.\nOne or two points are scored for each correct answer; some quizzes allow half marks for \"nearly right\" answers (such as a celebrity's surname when their full name was required). In some quizzes, certain questions score higher marks, particularly if they are unusually difficult. Cheating",
"-28.878178358507284"
],
[
"Cards for 1 Time. They can move their investigator to the murder scene and make that investigator the first player in the next round (Getting a Jump on the Case). Or they can use a location's ability or event-based actions for varying Time depending on the event/action. Board areas Areas are labeled with both colors and symbols, colors determining the type of area it is, and a symbol determining whether it is ritzy (diamond), normal (circle), or seedy (triangle). Entering a ritzy location allows a player to draw one of their Light Cards; entering a seedy location allows them to",
"-28.871200571971713"
],
[
"is dealt into five piles: two piles of eleven cards and three piles of ten. The player first turns the first pile up and looks for either an ace, a ten, a king, a queen, and a jack, cards which comprise a royal flush. Once such a card is found, the search ends there, with the cards on top of it discarded and those under it left alone. The search then proceeds into the next pile and the search for other cards in the royal flush continues. Also, the suit of the first card found determines the suit of the",
"-28.869978092217934"
],
[
"in their hand, but if they have 4 or less cards in their hand they don't have to put one out in their personal discard area. If they put all 5 cards out or put the fifth card out on their personal discard area they pick up 5 more cards and continues. They may ONLY put one card out on their personal discard area and may NOT play a buried card in their personal discard area when they are playing. When they put a card out on their personal discard area and have 1 or more cards left in their",
"-28.854642265906477"
],
[
"player plays his/her cards, one at a time, until he/she either draws another face card onto the pile or exhausts all of his/her allowed chances. If the challenged player is able to play a face card or Ace, the next player after him/her must beat it; if the initial face card could not be beaten in its allotted number of cards, the challenger who placed it takes the pile.\nAny player who takes a pile is always the one to start the next pile. When taken, piles are always added to a player's deck underneath, face-down. Cards are not shuffled.\nThe player",
"-28.847845916461665"
],
[
"placed on it is a seven.\nBuilding on the tableau is down by alternating colour. Only one card can be moved at a time. When a space occurs, it is filled with any available card.\nWhen the player has done all of the moves he could possibly make, the player can gather the cards on the tableau, shuffle them, and redeal them into eight piles. This can be done only twice during the game (three deals in all). However, when no moves are made after a deal (whether the original deal or one of the redeals), the deal does not count.\nThe game",
"-28.84382664709119"
],
[
"cards from their hand, adding it to the available cards in the centre of the table. After either scoring a hand or discarding, the play then moves to the next player in clockwise fashion.\n\nIf the player can combine one card from his hand with all of the cards on the board to total 15, this player has scored an Escoba, worth one additional point at the end of the round. Each escoba scored is typically noted by the player turning one card of their pile face up.\nAfter each player has exhausted their hand, the dealer will then deal a",
"-28.84216173220193"
],
[
"is a player's turn, he may 'meld' a combination, by placing it face up on the table. The value of the combinations placed is noted immediately by the recorder (Schriftführer). Furthermore, the same player may put cards from the hand on his own and other combinations, the individual value of which is also written down immediately. For example, a player melds the following combinations: 6-6-6 (18), D-K-A-2-3 (30). He also adds to combinations that have already been played: B, 7, 10 (27). The recorder notes for him: 18+30+27=75 points. Then the player places a discard on the staircase, and it",
"-28.83030402820441"
],
[
"six) of the same color are given to the player whose token matches that color. Then the question cards are placed in a pile or in the box provided. Rules The player that goes first rolls the die and moves the grey token that many spaces around the outside spaces, clockwise or counterclockwise. If the grey token lands on a name, that name becomes the subject of the card. The player then picks a question card and reads it out loud, inserting the subject into the blank space. A card usually says something like \"Imaginiff _____ was ... Which would",
"-28.82354886418034"
],
[
"player goes out, the hand ends, and the players count up their cards. Any cards left in each player's hand are counted up and added to the winner's score. The face cards count as 10 each, number cards as their face value, and aces as one. There are many variations. Common ones include counting an ace as 11 or 15. Variations In some instances, jokers are used as wildcards and can represent any card value when melding. They can be used in sets or runs but can not be replaced when 'melded', nor can a player lay off a card",
"-28.822632970375707"
],
[
"In a Pickle (card game) Gameplay In a Pickle contains 320 cards, each displaying a noun. To start the game, each player is dealt five cards, and four cards are placed face up in the shape of a \"plus\" sign in the center of the table. On their turn, a player may take a card from their hand and place it under or on top of one of the four piles in the center of the table. If the player places their card on top of the pile, the object represented by the noun on their card must be larger",
"-28.802473450661637"
],
[
"order that they appear in the input. When sorting some kinds of data, only part of the data is examined when determining the sort order. For example, in the card sorting example to the right, the cards are being sorted by their rank, and their suit is being ignored. This allows the possibility of multiple different correctly sorted versions of the original list. Stable sorting algorithms choose one of these, according to the following rule: if two items compare as equal, like the two 5 cards, then their relative order will be preserved, so that if one came before the",
"-28.80217986867501"
],
[
"\"cards\". Specific formats were often indicated by the number of character positions available, e.g. 80-column card. A sequence of cards that is input to or output from some step in an application's processing is called a card deck or simply deck. The rectangular, round, or oval bits of paper punched out were called chad (chads) or chips (in IBM usage). Sequential card columns allocated for a specific use, such as names, addresses, multi-digit numbers, etc., are known as a field. The first card of a group of cards, containing fixed or indicative information for that group, is known",
"-28.80140698955006"
],
[
"card is used, the next card under it in its stack can be turned over and then played. If a stack of the tableau is empty, a player can transfer any face-up card into that slot and turn over the following card. As during setup, face-up cards of the same rank may be placed on top of each other within the tableau.\nOnce either player has played all cards from their tableau, each player tries to slap the spit pile that they think is smaller. Whoever slaps first gets the pile that they slapped, and the other player takes the",
"-28.77261321018159"
],
[
"Counting sort Input and output assumptions In the most general case, the input to counting sort consists of a collection of n items, each of which has a non-negative integer key whose maximum value is at most k.\nIn some descriptions of counting sort, the input to be sorted is assumed to be more simply a sequence of integers itself, but this simplification does not accommodate many applications of counting sort. For instance, when used as a subroutine in radix sort, the keys for each call to counting sort are individual digits of larger item keys; it would not suffice to",
"-28.76212323846994"
],
[
"hand is played. The game continues until all the cards are used up. Scoring After all the cards have been played, the tricks are scored. However, it is not the card points (Augen) which are counted, but the number of court cards, aces and 10s. So the cards that count are: the Deuce/Ace, King, Ober/Queen, Unter/Jack and 10. In all there are 20 court cards in the game. If a player wins 11 of these cards, he has simply won. If he gets as many as 16 court cards and has thus made his opponent Schneider, he wins double,",
"-28.748038406381966"
],
[
"or 6, the shuffler is dealt first. If it's a 1, 5, 9, Zero Cash, Half Cash, Hundred Myriad, Thousand Myriad, or Myriad Myriad, the banker's opposite gets dealt first. Each player is dealt 8 cards counter-clockwise, first as a batch of four cards then singles. The remaining eight cards form the stock which is flipped to reveal the bottom card. Play The first person who was dealt leads. In a counter-clockwise rotation, each player then tries to take tricks; following suit is not required but only the highest card of the suit played wins. Players can also discard (sluff)",
"-28.737442454410484"
],
[
"the order of cards in the deck easier to predict and the cards could have been inadvertently or intentionally marked and manipulated. In his experiments, J. B. Rhine first shuffled the cards by hand but later decided to use a machine for shuffling.\nIn his book, The New Apocrypha, John Sladek expressed incredulity at the tests stating, \"It's astonishing that playing cards should have been chosen for ESP research at all. They are, after all, the instrument of stage magicians and second-dealing gamblers; they can be marked and manipulated in many traditional ways. At the best of times, card-shuffling is a",
"-28.70897262028302"
],
[
"accumulation (the act of collecting sufficient quantities of necessary cards) is very important in games with more than two players. Since there is a finite number of cards in a Viewpoint deck and the more players there are in a game then the faster the Draw Pile runs out, it is crucial for players to have enough cards in their Hand to enable them to reach 100 View-points. Experienced players typically draw lots of cards during these types of games or prepare their Hand so that they can exchange it or steal their opponents' cards should the Draw",
"-28.702546675747726"
],
[
"own stack. The player who accumulates all the cards wins.\nPlay proceeds with the players taking it in turns to remove a card from the top of their stack and place it face-up on a central pile. If two cards placed consecutively on the pile are identical (or, if a conventional pack of cards is used, are of the same number) then the first player to shout \"Snap!\" and place his hand on the top of the central pile does not need to take the cards. But the person that \"snaps\" the card last takes in all the cards. The",
"-28.699117048672633"
],
[
"card from the three \"row\" cards or from their \"stack\", they can look at every third card from the cards in their hand and play a card from the top of that pile if it goes on a pile on the table.\nOnce a player's hand has been completely passed through in this manner, it can be reshuffled by the player who then continues to play.\nWhen one of the three \"row\" cards is played, the space gets filled up with the top card from the \"stack\".\nPlay continues at a fast pace, with experienced players usually watching other players' rows and stacks",
"-28.654702983243624"
],
[
"Card Sorting Test (WCST). Subjects engaging in this task are instructed to sort cards according to the shape, color, or number of symbols appearing on them. The thought is that any given card can be associated with a number of actions and no single stimulus-response mapping will work. Human subjects with PFC damage are able to sort the card in the initial simple tasks, but unable to do so as the rules of classification change. \nMiller and Cohen conclude that the implications of their theory can explain how much of a role the PFC has in guiding control of cognitive",
"-28.63895350472194"
],
[
"match one card from their hand with one or more cards on the board to produce a total of 15. When using a traditional deck, all cards are worth their face value except for the 10 sota (Jack or Page), 11 caballo (Horse) and the 12 rey (King), which are reduced in value to 8, 9 and 10, respectively. All cards matched, including the one from the player's hand, are removed from the board and placed in a scoring pile beside the player. If the player is unable to make a total of 15, they must discard one of the",
"-28.63537209611968"
],
[
"in turn must place a card down in the community pile. A player does not have to make a match or addition even if the player owns a match or addition, this is explained in the Strategy section below. Winning After all four cards have been played from each of the hands of the players another 4 cards are dealt from the remaining deck of cards. Once the remaining deck of cards have all been dealt each player counts the cards from their individual separate pile of cards won. The player with the highest number of cards wins the round.",
"-28.615770926086043"
],
[
"worth anywhere from 50 to 500 points depending on how many other players play a Team Lottso! card in the same round; a shrewd player plays the Team Lottso! card when it is worth the most points. Also note that just because a card is filled does not mean it needs to be scratched, players can hold onto this card until a round where it is \"flashing\", which will multiply the points it is worth. Flashing cards begin showing up in round 6, with the total multiplied by a factor of two until round 9 where the total is multiplied",
"-28.585112506552832"
]
] |
23xtul | How to explain depression to my spouse who believes it's not a real disease and can be controlled by deciding to not be sad. | [
"Well, let me try to help. I'm not a psychologist, psychiatrist or health professional of aky kind, but I have experienced different levels of depression through the last few years, and maybe that qualifies me to provide you some input. The main issue when trying to explain depression is simply the fact that the word \"depression\" is widely missused to identify \"sadness\". People say \"I'm depressed\" when, in fact, what they are experiencing is a normal reaction to a bad situation, such as the loss of a loved one or the end of a relationship. Depression is NOT sadness. Far from it. Actually, if you are sad, and can pinpoint the cause of your sadness, you are not likely to be depressed. In my experience, the word that most accurately describes depression is \"numbness\". You know when you spend too much time lying on your arm, or too long sitting with your elbows against your knees, and you arm/leg \"falls asleep\"? That's depression, but instead of not feeling anything in your arms or legs, you don't feel any propper emotion. That's why sometimes people DO get depressed after a specially traumatic event, just like your limbs get numb after too much pressure on a certain point. The parts of you that are responsible for feeling certain things simply fail to do so. They \"fall asleep\". Depressed people are usually seen as \"sad\" by others for the simple fact that they are not feeling anything and, therefore, show no signs of stimulation. You tell them something that should be really heartbreaking and they reply with a simple \"yeah, I know, that sucks\", because for them no emotional response was triggered by the information you just provided. It's just like poking a numb limb with a toothpick, and assuming that it is dead because it didnt jerk or twitch or cause that person to say \"ouch\". It is not dead, its just not feeling that poke. That is tremendously hard to explain to other people for another very simple reason: your subjective experience of life cannot be shared with others. There is no way to do it, no way you can explain someone how the color red looks to you without resorting to some sort of comparisson (\"red is the color of tomatoes and Super Mario's hat!\"), which is a technique that doesnt really work since there is no way to tell if the other person sees tomatoes and Super Mario the same way that you do. Maybe the way I see the color of a tomato is, for you, what you would call green. There is no way to know. So when your spouse sees your actions and perceives them as a sign of you being sad, he is naturally going to assume that it should be easy to fix by simply doing something fun and chasing the sadness away. He is failing to realize that you cannot experience the sensation of \"something fun\", because the parts of you that are responsible for feeling that are \"asleep\". And when you tell him \"this is not sadness, it is depression!\", what he hears is \"this is not sadness, it is sadness!\", since the word is so widely missused. And then he does something that should make you feel better if you were just sad, but you don't, and he assumes that you simply refuse to feel better, because he can't experience what you are experiencing. Try and get your spouse to do some reading about depression, and ask him to give you some credit and believe that what you feel is different than what he feels. If he is a reasonable guy, he'll get it eventually. Finally, I'm sorry you're feeling that way. Its a terrible thing, and it kind of feeds itself be keeping you away from the world. The more depressed you are, the less appealing the world seems to you and you end up doing less and less things, which gets you deeper and deeper into depression. But there is one thing your spouse is right about: you do have to do something about it. It feels wrong, it feels like nothing is going to help because you never feel anything anyway, but you need to look for help, maybe get a therapist, maybe get medicated. Think of it like getting up in the morning to go out for a jog - it feels terrible to do it, and once you do get to it you dont feel any thinner. But if you keep at it, keep doing it even though you are tired or sleepy or lazy, you WILL get thinner, you WILL feel less and less lazy, and it WILL be better for you. TL;DR: Depression is a numbness of the mind, and you cant explain that to people because nobody REALLY understands how another person feels, subjectivelly. Depression is not sadness, it is failure to properly perceive stimulation. (BTW, English is not my first language, so please forgive any grammar mistakes)",
"This cartoon explains it as well as anybody or anything can . URL_0 . hang in there dude/dudette.",
"Go to a counselor/psychologist along with your spouse. You speak to the counselor first and explain your situation and then let the counselor speak to your spouse and explain why depression should be taken seriously. When a person is depressed, the immediate family also needs counseling on how to handle the situation. If someone gives you tough-love or compares your issues with someone else's, just ignore them.",
"Does she wear eyeglasses? Take away her glasses and tell her to will herself to have better eyesight. Depression is just like that.",
"One of the biggest difficulties people have, is understanding the Depression is not a symptom, it *is* the malady. You can have a loving wife, great kids, more money than you can count, a holiday home in the Bahamas, a nobel prize in science, be an Eagle scout and the love of everyone you know, and still suffer from depression. It's not simply being overly sad because small things are bothering you, it's being so compleltey smothered by an all infecting black pall which has sapped your will power, and drained your self-esteem that nothing feels good, nothing tastes good, nothing brings enjoyment. Your spouse is ignorant of depression because she doesn't suffer from it, and as much as her kind of ignorance irritates me, I'm glad for her to be that way. I wouldn't sic that Black Dog on anyone.",
"The hyperboleandahalf comic is probably the best representation I've ever seen. But if that doesn't work: 1) Brain chemistry is real - it's responsible for every feeling. It's not 'feeling sad', it's a chemical reaction that makes it impossible to feel positive or happy. You can't think your way into creating another chemical reaction in your brain, it's like saying that you can think your way out of indigestion, or the flu, or cancer. You can't. Diseases are physical things, just because it has an emotional manifestation rather than physical symptoms doesn't make it any different. 2) Now this isn't that helpful, but if my partner consistently told me that they think I could feel happier if I wanted to, I'd tell them to fuck right off. You don't need to understand depression or have it, but you do need to be a good spouse. That's basically his job. He doesn't need to understand something to know that it affects you or to support you.",
"[ URL_0 ]( URL_0 ) [ URL_1 ]( URL_1 ) Mostly Part Two, although Part One sets it up a bit.",
"imagine you are in quicksand, every move you make just seems to pull you down further but doing nothing still makes you sink. now imagine you just told the person in the quicksand to just decide not to be in quicksand. you give the person a hand, pull them out. they need someone outside the quicksand to anchor to or they are going to sink.",
"That's like saying your leg got broken, why do you need a cast? Can't you just unbreak your leg?",
"Depression in my experience was like... living in molasses. The apathy, the numbness, and the inability to feel motivated to do ANYTHING was the characteristic. Yes, sadness was there.... the part of that cartoon that hit me was walking by the couch and sitting down \"for a minute\" and finding yourself still there hours or days later. I couldn't even get the motivation up to take a shower. Staying in bed, sleeping or laying there hoping I would sleep soon, that was all there was. I had a new husband, was accepted to a new PhD program, and should have been happy. There was nothing for me to be sad about... but yet I was in the blackest, darkest funk that I could imagine. I didn't even think about suicide... not because I cared if I lived, but because that was planning and thought and effort and there was no way that was possible. Depression is absolutely a real disease, caused by imbalances in neurotransmitters or the receptors for those chemicals. Does he believe that ANY mental illness exists? Do people with anxiety disorders need to stop worrying? Do people with bipolar or schizophrenia just need to \"act normal?\" I'm just wondering how depression is any different, in his mind.",
"The best way to explain depression to someone who doesn't understand the concept is to show that depressed/suicidal people have physical differences in their brain that can be quantified and studied. URL_2 > MARK UNDERWOOD, NEUROSCIENTIST, NEW YORK STATE PSYCHIATRIC INSTITUTE: We have found hat there are approximately 30 percent more of these serotonin neurons in the suicide victims than in the controls. To find more neurons would suggest something very fundamental, such that you may in fact be born with your biological risk for suicide behavior. URL_0 > A meta-analysis of studies investigating electrodermal activity in depressed patients, suggested that electrodermal hyporeactivity is sensitive and specific for suicide. [There now exist devices that can determine if a person is depressed/suicidal by simply measuring certain physical quantities (i.e. sweat gland activity)]( URL_1 ) If your spouse still doesn't believe depression is real, then there is something wrong with her, perhaps she is incapable of demonstrating empathy.",
"As someone who has struggled with depression for almost 40 years, people who don't think it is at all about being sad need to actually understand the disease before they speak. Here is a link to the definition of clinical depression on Mayo Clinic's site: URL_0 Depression is a complicated. Don't mean to be rude about it, but I think only trained people should give advice on clinical conditions. Incorrect advice can lead to serious problems. Even when you lead with I am not a trained professional, some people will take your word as the gospel, and people with serious conditions like depression are sometimes more ready to accept something because they do not have the energy to do the research themselves.",
"This comic is widely regarded as an excellent portrayal of what depression really is. URL_0 There are things you can do to mitigate mild depression. For me, being a bum and sitting on the couch for a month encourages depression. Getting out and physically fit reduces it, but doesn't end it entirely. When it gets really bad, working out (however you do it) won't help, it's just going through the motions.",
"Pull a Tyler Durden. Put lye on their hand and tell them the pain doesn't exist, and to will it away. Or, some milder variation works too, I guess.",
"Have him read this - it's from Allie Brosh, who is the author of \"Hyperbole and a Half.\" [Depression, Part 2]( URL_0 )",
"Someone on /r/MorbidReality made a great post about it. [Although it is long I would say it is worth the read.]( URL_0 )",
"Tell her its a chemical problem in your brain. Or divorce her"
] | [
[
"with depression act in ways that maintain their depression and locates the origin of depressive episodes in the environment. While BA theories do not deny biological factors that contribute to depression, they assert that it is ultimately the combination of a stressful event in an individual's life and their reaction to the event that produces a depressive episode. Individuals with depression may display socially aversive behaviors, fail to engage in enjoyable activities, ruminate on their problems, or engage in other maladaptive activities. According to BA theory, these behaviors most often function as avoidance mechanisms while the individual tries to cope",
"-35.5989409999238"
],
[
"risk factors, and is itself linked directly or indirectly to risk factors such as smoking and obesity. People with major depression are less likely to follow medical recommendations for treating and preventing cardiovascular disorders, which further increases their risk of medical complications. In addition, cardiologists may not recognize underlying depression that complicates a cardiovascular problem under their care. Cause The cause of major depressive disorder is unknown. The biopsychosocial model proposes that biological, psychological, and social factors all play a role in causing depression. The diathesis–stress model specifies that depression results when a preexisting vulnerability, or diathesis, is activated by",
"-35.401680275831495"
],
[
"used to explain why some individuals are more at risk for developing a disorder than others. For example, children who have a family history of depression are generally more vulnerable to developing a depressive disorder themselves. A child who has a family history of depression and who has been exposed to a particular stressor, such as exclusion or rejection by his or her peers, would be more likely to develop depression than a child with a family history of depression that has an otherwise positive social network of peers.\nThe diathesis–stress model has also served as useful in explaining other",
"-35.3280754969519"
],
[
"a spouse are often in need of help and assistance from others. Such individuals who have few conflicts with their social partners are predicted to experience grief—a means, in part, to signal need to others. Such individuals who have many conflicts with their social partners, in contrast, are predicted to experience depression—a means, in part, to credibly signal need to others who might be skeptical that the need is genuine. Bargaining theory Depression is not only costly to the sufferer, it also imposes a significant burden on family, friends, and society at large—yet another reason it is thought to be",
"-34.78206099966337"
],
[
"refer to other mood disorders or simply to a low mood. People's conceptualizations of depression vary widely, both within and among cultures. \"Because of the lack of scientific certainty,\" one commentator has observed, \"the debate over depression turns on questions of language. What we call it—'disease,' 'disorder,' 'state of mind'—affects how we view, diagnose, and treat it.\" There are cultural differences in the extent to which serious depression is considered an illness requiring personal professional treatment, or is an indicator of something else, such as the need to address social or moral problems, the result of biological imbalances, or a",
"-34.74416540823586"
],
[
"the potential for depression in relation to social media use and FOMO. They describe depression as an emotional state that does not allow an individual to feel things of pleasure or if they do, it is severely diminished. They go on to mention that depression often includes two extremes of emotion. This is when positives or good moods are low, and negatives or bad moods are high. Those who suffer from depression also experience feelings and symptoms of distress, sadness, anguish, and other extreme emotions. Depression interrupts daily activity and hinders one's ability to concentrate, sleep, eat, or even move.",
"-34.71191519846616"
],
[
"often do not realize the extent of terminal patients' depression.\nBecause depression is common among terminal patients, the American College of Physicians recommends regular assessments for depression for this population and appropriate prescription of antidepressants.\nAnxiety disorders are also relatively common for terminal patients as they face their mortality. Patients may feel distressed when thinking about what the future may hold, especially when considering the future of their families as well. It is important to note, however, that some palliative medications may facilitate anxiety. Coping for patients Caregivers may listen to the concerns of terminal patients to help them reflect on their",
"-34.5349046927804"
],
[
"Animal models of depression Animal models of depression are research tools used to investigate depression and action of antidepressants as a simulation to investigate the symptomatology and pathophysiology of depressive illness or used to screen novel antidepressants. Depression Major depressive disorder, also called \"clinical depression\" or often simply \"depression\", is a common, long-lasting and diverse psychiatric syndrome that significantly affects a person's thoughts, behavior, feelings and sense of well-being. Symptoms include low mood and aversion to activity. Depressed people may also feel sad, anxious, empty, hopeless, worried, helpless, worthless, guilty, irritable, hurt, or restless. They may lose interest in activities",
"-34.248105509650486"
],
[
"Management of depression Depression is a symptom of some physical diseases; a side effect of some drugs and medical treatments; and a symptom of some mood disorders such as major depressive disorder or dysthymia. Physical causes are ruled out with a clinical assessment of depression that measures vitamins, minerals, electrolytes, and hormones. Management of depression may involve a number of different therapies: medications, behavior therapy, psychotherapy, and medical devices.\nThough psychiatric medication is the most frequently prescribed therapy for major depression, psychotherapy may be effective, either alone or in combination with medication. Combining psychotherapy and antidepressants may provide a \"slight",
"-34.2084181313985"
],
[
"Although depression is currently categorized as a separate disorder, there is ongoing debate because individuals diagnosed with major depression often experience some hypomanic symptoms, indicating a mood disorder continuum. Further differential diagnoses involve chronic fatigue syndrome.\nOther disorders need to be ruled out before diagnosing major depressive disorder. They include depressions due to physical illness, medications, and substance abuse. Depression due to physical illness is diagnosed as a mood disorder due to a general medical condition. This condition is determined based on history, laboratory findings, or physical examination. When the depression is caused by a medication, drug of abuse, or exposure",
"-34.14558397199653"
],
[
"is a widespread, debilitating disease affecting persons of all ages and backgrounds. Depression is characterized by a plethora of emotional and physiological symptoms including feelings of sadness, hopelessness, pessimism, guilt, a general loss of interest in life, and a sense of reduced emotional well-being or low energy. Very little is known about the underlying pathophysiology of clinical depression and other related mood-disorders including anxiety, bipolar disorder, ADD, ADHD, and Schizophrenia.\nThe p11 protein has been intimately linked to mood disorders, to be specific, depression, due to its role in serotonin systems via its interactions with serotonin 5-HT receptors. Serotonin affects diverse",
"-34.14496488993427"
],
[
"depression must be distinguished from intrusive thoughts, because suicidal thoughts—unlike harmless sexual, aggressive, or religious thoughts—can be dangerous. Postpartum depression and OCD Unwanted thoughts by mothers about harming infants are common in postpartum depression. A 1999 study of 65 women with postpartum major depression by Katherine Wisner et al. found the most frequent aggressive thought for women with postpartum depression was causing harm to their newborn infants. A study of 85 new parents found that 89% experienced intrusive images, for example, of the baby suffocating, having an accident, being harmed, or being kidnapped.\nSome women may develop symptoms",
"-34.11097138519108"
],
[
"associated with many forms of victimization, including sexual victimization, violent crime, property crime, peer victimization, and domestic abuse. Indicators of depression include irritable or sad mood for prolonged periods of time, lack of interest in most activities, significant changes in weight/appetite, activity, and sleep patterns, loss of energy and concentration, excessive feelings of guilt or worthlessness, and suicidality. The loss of energy, interest, and concentration associated with depression may impact individuals who have experienced victimization academically or professionally. Depression can impact many other areas of a person's life as well, including interpersonal relationships and physical health. Depression in response to",
"-34.11065208566379"
],
[
"seven years, a study was done on about 200 children whose mother had \"a history of juvenile-onset unipolar depressive disorder\" or simply, depression as children themselves. In the cases of unipolar depression, a person generally displays more negative affect and less positive affect than a person without depression. Or, they are more likely to show when they are sad or upset, than when they are excited or happy. This study that was published in 2010 discovered that the children of mothers that suffer from unipolar depression, had lower levels of positive affect when compared to the control group. Even as",
"-34.049006147601176"
],
[
"is a metaphorical illness that is inappropriately regarded as an actual disease. There has also been concern that the DSM, as well as the field of descriptive psychiatry that employs it, tends to reify abstract phenomena such as depression, which may in fact be social constructs. American archetypal psychologist James Hillman writes that depression can be healthy for the soul, insofar as \"it brings refuge, limitation, focus, gravity, weight, and humble powerlessness.\" Hillman argues that therapeutic attempts to eliminate depression echo the Christian theme of resurrection, but have the unfortunate effect of demonizing a soulful state of being. Stigma Historical",
"-33.89702055627731"
],
[
"those suffering from other types of anxiety, who often have depleted ability to generate neutral, positive, or pleasant imagery. Depression The capacity to evoke pleasant and positively affirming imagery, either voluntarily or involuntarily, may be a critical requisite for precipitating and sustaining positive moods or feelings and optimism; and this ability is often impaired in those suffering from depression. Depression consists of emotional distress and cognitive impairment that may include feelings of hopelessness, pervasive sadness, pessimism, lack of motivation, social withdrawal, difficulty in concentrating on mental or physical tasks, and disrupted sleep.\nWhilst depression is frequently associated with negative rumination of",
"-33.85317238698917"
],
[
"and environmental factors that cause their symptoms. A family history of depression and perceived poor intimate relationships are internal risk factors associated with this type of depression. It is important to know these risk factors in order to take steps to recognize and help prevent this illness. Prevalence This type of depression often occurs due to biological reasons. Since symptoms are due to an internal phenomena, prevalence rates tend to be higher in older adults and more prevalent among women. Although endogenous depression has been associated with increased age, there has been few attempts to evaluate this fully. More research",
"-33.849180596360384"
],
[
"been established, involvement in any sex or drug use is cause for concern. Children who develop major depression are more likely to have a family history of the disorder (often a parent who experienced depression at an early age) than patients with adolescent- or adult-onset depression. Adolescents with depression are also likely to have a family history of depression, though the correlation is not as high as it is for children. Comorbidity Research has shown that there is a high rate of comorbidity with depression in children with dysthymia. There is also a substantial comorbidity rate with depression in children",
"-33.752843744441634"
],
[
"user. Depression is also associated with drug use and prostitution. There are also trapping factors: injecting any kind of substance into their body, using hard drugs such as crack cocaine or methamphetamine, taking part in sex work while underage, working outdoors or in multiple areas, and having any convictions. These factors \"trap\" a person into the life they are in, especially if multiple of the factors effect them, making it much harder for them to escape their situation. The people most vulnerable to prostitution are those that have experienced these factors. The way behavioral therapies are used Behavioral therapies help",
"-33.704193811336154"
],
[
"or immune dysregulation in asthma). Depression may also be iatrogenic (the result of healthcare), such as drug-induced depression. Therapies associated with depression include interferons, beta-blockers, isotretinoin, contraceptives, cardiac agents, anticonvulsants, antimigraine drugs, antipsychotics, and hormonal agents such as gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist. Drug abuse in early age is also associated with increased risk of developing depression later in life. Depression that occurs as a result of pregnancy is called postpartum depression, and is thought to be the result of hormonal changes associated with pregnancy. Seasonal affective disorder, a type of depression associated with seasonal changes in sunlight, is thought to be",
"-33.67132708685949"
],
[
"stress that increases the depressive symptoms on individuals that have endure high levels of social undermining. This can happen, because the support that a person can get from their spouse compared to a close friend is more exclusive and generally involves more frequent and emotionally intense interactions (Cutrone 1996; Vinokur & Vinokur & Vinokur- Kaplan, 1990) and depending on their relationship that can influence the social support or even the social undermining that affect the relationship.\nCranford found that spouse undermining and not spouse support can increase depressive symptoms within that relationship. Social undermining has been found to be a stronger",
"-33.55731060353719"
],
[
"depressive symptoms are more likely to develop postpartum depression, which can also have negative consequences on children, such as emotional and behavior problems, attachment difficulties, cognitive deficits, physical growth and development, and feeding habits and attitudes. Related, maternal depression affects parenting behaviors, which in turn could affect child outcomes. Thus, women’s mental health throughout the perinatal period should be a priority, not only to support women, but also to promote optimal functioning for their infants. Prenatal Depression and Infant Health Depressive symptoms in pregnant women are linked with poor health outcomes in infants. The rates of hospitalization are found increased",
"-33.45888636298696"
],
[
"collectively called 'depressive syndrome' and includes a long-lasting depressed mood, feelings of guilt, anxiety, and recurrent thoughts of death and suicide. Other symptoms including poor concentration, a disturbance of sleep rhythms (insomnia or hypersomnia), and severe fatigue may also occur. Individual patients present differing subsets of symptoms, which may change over the course of the disease highlighting its multifaceted and heterogeneous nature. Depression is often highly comorbid with other diseases, e.g. cardiovascular disease (myocardial infarction, stroke), diabetes, cancer, Depressed subjects are prone to smoking, substance abuse, eating disorders, obesity, high blood pressure, pathological gambling and internet addiction, and on average",
"-33.43710008706694"
],
[
"lead to depression and anxiety. There is no data on the divorce rates of agents, but strain on relationships does occur. This can be a result of a need for secrecy and an inability to share work problems, and the unpredictable work schedule, personality and lifestyle changes and the length of separation can all result in problems for relationships.\nStress can also result from an apparent lack of direction of the investigation or not knowing when it will end. The amount of elaborate planning, risk, and expenditure can pressure an agent to succeed, which can cause considerable stress.",
"-33.41892710061438"
],
[
"of certain substances can worsen the effects of depression. \nOther psychiatric disorders that may predict treatment-resistant depression include attention deficit hiperactivity disorder, personality disorders, obsessive compulsive disorder, and eating disorders. Comorbid medical disorders Some people who are diagnosed with treatment-resistant depression may have an underlying undiagnosed health condition that is causing or contributing to their depression. Endocrine disorders like hypothyroidism, Cushing's disease, and Addison's disease are among the most commonly identified as contributing to depression. Others include diabetes, coronary artery disease, cancer, HIV, and Parkinson's disease. \nAnother factor is that medications used to treat comorbid medical disorders may lessen the",
"-33.40196165825182"
],
[
"or even biology. Aaron Beck argues that depression is due to unrealistic negative views about the world. Beck starts treatment by engaging in conversation with clients about their unhelpful thoughts. Pessimists, however, are often able to provide arguments that suggest that their understanding of reality is justified; as in Depressive realism or (pessimistic realism). Deflection is a common method used by those who are depressed. They let people assume they are revealing everything which proves to be an effective way of hiding. The pessimism item on the Beck Depression Inventory has been judged useful in predicting suicides. The",
"-33.3955475226885"
],
[
"not initiate the disorder. Depending on the individual's subjective perception of an event, the diathesis leads to a certain psychological illness. Depression Through several cognitive biases, selective mood-congruent cues become established over long intervals. Emotional stimuli matching the emotional concerns create an aggregate effect on symptoms related to depression. Depression is associated with selective orientation. It prevents attention toward emotional cues that do not fit the internalized scheme to which the individual has become vulnerable, and leads to comorbid anxiety. When individuals who are prone to depression are asked to recall a specific event, they explain the general",
"-33.37212662506499"
],
[
"relationships—most often marital relationships—and economic disparities have been cited as the main social drivers of depression.\nIt was found that Indian women typically describe the somatic symptoms rather than the emotional and psychological stressors that trigger the symptoms of depression. This often makes it difficult to accurately assess depression among women in India in light of no admonition of depression. Gender plays a major role in postnatal depression among Indian women. Mothers are often blamed for the birth of a female child. Furthermore, women who already have a female child often face additional pressures to have male",
"-33.36021787604841"
],
[
"loss, or have attention, learning, behavioral, or anxiety disorders are at a higher risk for depression. Childhood depression is often comorbid with mental disorders outside of other mood disorders; most commonly anxiety disorder and conduct disorder. Depression also tends to run in families. Psychologists have developed different treatments to assist children and adolescents suffering from depression, though the legitimacy of the diagnosis of childhood depression as a psychiatric disorder, as well as the efficacy of various methods of assessment and treatment, remains controversial. Base rates and prevalence About 8% of children and adolescents suffer from depression. This year, 51 percent",
"-33.27911560321809"
],
[
"not necessarily because of depressed mood, but rather due to increasing levels of stress or because of personal difficulties that may be situation-related. This is hypothesized to be because of the chronic nature of the disorder, and how depressed mood is often thought to be a characterological pattern for the individual with the condition. Thus, it is only when the person experiences increasing stress that he or she thinks to go to some sort of trained professional for symptom relief. It is usually through the administration of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV that dysthymia is first diagnosed. At this",
"-33.25927338763722"
],
[
"threatening, and positive stimuli, clinically depressed people were found to show preferential attention to sad faces, emotion words, and adjectives. Depressed people displayed biases for stimuli concerned with sadness and loss.\nPeople who are depressed often fail to satisfy their need for belonging in relationships and therefore, report fewer intimate relationships. Those who are depressed appear to induce negative affect in other individuals, which consequently elicits rejection and the loss of socially rewarding opportunities. Depressed people are less likely to feel a sense of belonging and are more likely to pay attention to negative social interactions. Research has found that depressive",
"-33.177452847343375"
],
[
"diagnose depression more often in women than in men even when they display identical symptoms. Often communication between health care providers and women is authoritarian leading to either the under-treatment or over-treatment of these women. Organizations Women's College Hospital has a program called the \"Women's Mental Health Program\" where doctors and nurses help treat and educate women regarding mental health collaboratively, individually, and online by answering questions from the public.\nAnother Canadian organization serving mental health needs is the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH). CAMH is one of Canada's largest and most well-known health and addiction facilities, and it",
"-33.17072409824323"
],
[
"illness with extreme sadness or violence. Now that children are becoming more and more open to technology and the media itself, future generations will then continue to pair mental illness with negative thoughts. The media should be explaining that many people with disorders like ADHD and anxiety, with the right treatment, can live ordinary lives and should not be punished for something they cannot help.\nSueki, (2013) carried out a study titled “The effect of suicide–related internet use on users’ mental health: A longitudinal Study”. This study investigated the effects of suicide-related internet use on user’s suicidal thoughts, predisposition to depression",
"-33.12471482900946"
],
[
"who had experienced a major depressive disorder at some time in their lives than among individuals who had never experienced major depression or among individuals with no psychiatric diagnosis. People with major depression are also much less likely to quit due to the increased risk of experiencing mild to severe states of depression, including a major depressive episode. Depressed smokers appear to experience more withdrawal symptoms on quitting, are less likely to be successful at quitting, and are more likely to relapse. Pregnancy A number of studies have shown that tobacco use is a significant factor in miscarriages among pregnant",
"-33.12093911715601"
],
[
"without an actual disease present, this neurotic thinking often results in severe anxiety, sleep disturbance, and mood swings which may hinder social relationships. Individuals with endogenous depression may experience inconsistencies in symptom severity which is often the reason for delayed treatment. If left untreated, symptoms may progress to a major depressive episode. Risk factors Endogenous depression occurs as the results of an internal stressor—commonly cognitive or biological—and not an external factor. Potential risk factors include these cognitive or biological factors. Patients with endogenous depression often are more likely to have a positive family history of disorders and fewer psychosocial",
"-33.10055667963388"
],
[
"a 1℃ change in body temperature. Therefore, depression allows one to conserve and allocate energy to the immune system more efficiently.\nDepression further prevents infection by discouraging social interactions and activities that may result in exchange of infections. For example, the loss of interest discourages one from engaging in sexual activity, which, in turn, prevents the exchange of sexually transmitted diseases. Similarly, depressed mothers may interact less with their children, reducing the probability of the mother infecting her kin.\nLastly, the lack of appetite associated with depression may also reduce exposure to food-borne parasites.\nHowever, it should also be noted that chronic illness",
"-33.086430826497235"
],
[
"SAD had one or more additional mental health disorders. SAD often occurs alongside low self-esteem and most commonly clinical depression, perhaps due to a lack of personal relationships and long periods of isolation related to social avoidance. Clinical depression is 1.49 to 3.5 times more likely to occur in those with SAD. Anxiety disorders other than SAD are also very common in patients with SAD, in particular generalized anxiety disorder. Avoidant personality disorder is likewise highly correlated with SAD, with comorbidity rates ranging from 25% to 89%.\nTo try to reduce their anxiety and alleviate depression, people with social phobia may",
"-33.06738508269518"
],
[
"circumstances, such as the loss of a friend, are imposing a threat to biological fitness. It motivates the sufferer to cease activities that led to the costly situation, if possible, and it causes him or her to learn to avoid similar circumstances in the future. Proponents of this view tend to focus on low mood, and regard clinical depression as a dysfunctional extreme of low mood—and not as a unique set of characteristics that are physiologically distanced from regular depressed mood.\nAlongside the absence of pleasure, other noticeable changes include psychomotor retardation, disrupted patterns of sleeping and feeding, a loss of",
"-33.03338035053457"
],
[
"Their research also concluded that people who lack emotional expression are inclined to anti-social behaviors (e.g., drug and alcohol abuse, physical fights, vandalism), which are a direct reflection of their mental health and suppressed emotions. Adults and children with mental illness may experience social stigma, which can exacerbate the issues. Mental well-being Mental health can be seen as an unstable continuum, where an individual's mental health may have many different possible values. Mental wellness is generally viewed as a positive attribute, even if the person does not have any diagnosed mental health condition. This definition of mental health highlights emotional",
"-33.00896786492012"
],
[
"definition of the specific criteria for a clinically significant depressed mood in relation to the cognitive and behavioral symptoms. Some psychologists argue that the effects of mood disorders in children and adolescents that exist (but do not fully meet the criteria for depression) do not have severe enough risks. Children in this area of severity, they argue, should receive some sort of treatment since the effects could still be severe. However, since there has yet to be enough research or scientific evidence to support that children that fall within the area just shy of a clinical diagnosis require treatment, other",
"-32.992076149675995"
],
[
"behaviors, and the proposed explanations for the evolution of depression remain controversial. Background Major depression (also called \"major depressive disorder\", \"clinical depression\" or often simply \"depression\") is a leading cause of disability worldwide, and in 2000 was the fourth leading contributor to the global burden of disease (measured in DALYs); it is also an important risk factor for suicide. It is understandable, then, that clinical depression is thought to be a pathology—a major dysfunction of the brain.\nIn most cases, rates of organ dysfunction increase with age, with low rates in adolescents and young adults, and the highest rates in the",
"-32.986493259082636"
],
[
"and somatoform and dissociative disorders compared to men in the study. Furthermore, the research attributed depressive symptoms to social interactions both in the workplace and home that fostered a sense of learned helplessness. This stems from feelings of powerlessness in different types of relationships that are male-dominated and do not offer equity for women. Other social stressors that contribute as influences in mental illnesses include marriage, pregnancy, family, with pressure to fit into certain traditional roles ascribed to women in India.\nFurthermore, another 2006 study conducted by Vikram Patel et al., published in Archives of General Psychiatry, further examined specific aspects",
"-32.978517649593414"
],
[
"are due to a biological phenomenon, prevalence rates tend to be higher in older adults. Due to this fact, biological-focused treatment plans are often used in therapy to ensure the best prognosis. History Endogenous depression was initially considered valuable as a means of diagnostic differentiation with reactive depression. While the latter's onset could be attributed to adverse life events and treated with talk therapy, the former would indicate treatment with antidepressants. Indeed, this view of endogenous depression is at the root of the popular view that mood disorders are a reflection of a 'chemical imbalance' in the brain. More recent",
"-32.969616650669195"
],
[
"Differential diagnoses of depression Depression, one of the most commonly diagnosed psychiatric disorders, is being diagnosed in increasing numbers in various segments of the population worldwide. Depression in the United States alone affects 17.6 million Americans each year or 1 in 6 people. Depressed patients are at increased risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and suicide. Within the next twenty years depression is expected to become the second leading cause of disability worldwide and the leading cause in high-income nations, including the United States. In approximately 75% of completed suicides, the individuals had seen a physician within the prior",
"-32.96850713910135"
],
[
"PTSD. The family structure can become a trigger for mental health issues in single mothers. They are especially at risk for having higher levels of depressive symptoms.\nStudies from the 1970s showed that single mothers who are not financially stable are more likely to experience depression. In a more current study it was proven that financial strain was directly correlated with sky rocket levels of depression. Among low-income, single mothers, depressive symptoms may be as high as 60%.\nInadequate access to mental health care services is prevalent amongst impoverished women. Low-income women are less likely to receive mental health care for numerous",
"-32.95729916220557"
],
[
"candidate gene on depression, either alone or in combination with life stress. Research focusing on specific candidate genes has been criticized for its tendency to generate false positive findings. There are also other efforts to examine interactions between life stress and polygenic risk for depression. Other health problems Depression may also come secondary to a chronic or terminal medical condition, such as HIV/AIDS or asthma, and may be labeled \"secondary depression.\" It is unknown whether the underlying diseases induce depression through effect on quality of life, of through shared etiologies (such as degeneration of the basal ganglia in Parkinson's disease",
"-32.920442443091815"
],
[
"support to clinical depression. A meta-analysis that pooled the results of 11 well-designed longitudinal studies indicated that a number of facets of the psychosocial work environment (e.g., low decision latitude, high psychological workload, lack of social support at work, effort-reward imbalance, and job insecurity) increase the risk of common mental disorders such as depression. Personality disorders Depending on the diagnosis, severity and individual, and the job itself, personality disorders can be associated with difficulty coping with work or the workplace, potentially leading to problems with others by interfering with interpersonal relationships. Indirect effects also play a role; for example,",
"-32.891521477629794"
],
[
"the depressive under status quo socioeconomic arrangements.\nThus depression may be a social adaptation especially useful in motivating a variety of social partners, all at once, to help the depressive initiate major fitness-enhancing changes in their socioeconomic life. There are diverse circumstances under which this may become necessary in human social life, ranging from loss of rank or a key social ally which makes the current social niche uneconomic to having a set of creative new ideas about how to make a livelihood which begs for a new niche. The social navigation hypothesis emphasizes that an individual can become tightly ensnared",
"-32.85726626280666"
],
[
"effect when provided with the usual care in patients who have had three or more depressive episodes, although the usual care did not include antidepressant treatment or any psychotherapy, and the improvement observed may have reflected non-specific or placebo effects.\nInterpersonal psychotherapy focuses on the social and interpersonal triggers that may cause depression. There is evidence that it is an effective treatment for depression. Here, the therapy takes a structured course with a set number of weekly sessions (often 12) as in the case of CBT; however, the focus is on relationships with others. Therapy can be used to help a",
"-32.83522961498238"
],
[
"Major depressive disorder Signs and symptoms Major depression significantly affects a person's family and personal relationships, work or school life, sleeping and eating habits, and general health. Its impact on functioning and well-being has been compared to that of other chronic medical conditions, such as diabetes.\nA person having a major depressive episode usually exhibits a very low mood, which pervades all aspects of life, and an inability to experience pleasure in activities that were formerly enjoyed. Depressed people may be preoccupied with, or ruminate over, thoughts and feelings of worthlessness, inappropriate guilt or regret, helplessness, hopelessness, and self-hatred. In severe",
"-32.777214186644414"
],
[
"and depression symptoms, is that depression is a disorder that stems from immune responses across the body. Due in large part to the systems that bring them about both involving the same pro-inflammatory cytokines, the suggestion is that strong or prolonged immune responses allow for those with susceptibilities to depression to experience it outside of experiences with any other risk factors. Of the ways this might happen, one is that those whose immune responses have been shifted to be pro-inflammatory without sufficient anti-inflammatory compensation have elevated risk of experiencing inflammation intense enough to cause depression. Another suggestion is that variation",
"-32.73833148095582"
],
[
"happen. Determining when someone is mentally distant from their happiness set point and what events trigger those changes can be extremely helpful in treating conditions such as depression. When a change occurs, clinical psychologists work with patients to recover from the depressive spell and return to their hedonic set point more quickly. Because acts of kindness often promote long-term well-being, one treatment method is to provide patients with different altruistic activities that can help a person raise his or her hedonic set point. This can in turn be helpful in reducing reckless habits in the pursuit of well-being. Further, helping",
"-32.665433553323965"
],
[
"Lyn and her coauthors propose that many cases of depression may be caused by prejudice from the self or from another person. \"This depression caused by prejudice – which the researchers call deprejudice — can occur at many levels. In the classic case, prejudice causes depression at the societal level (e.g., Nazis’ prejudice causing Jews’ depression), but this causal chain can also occur at the interpersonal level (e.g., an abuser’s prejudice causing an abusee’s depression), or even at the intrapersonal level, within a single person (e.g., a man’s prejudice against himself causing his depression).\"\nAlong with her frequent collaborator Lauren Alloy,",
"-32.64834645999872"
],
[
"main contributions are described below: \nFirst. They have scientifically proven that depressions require different treatments depending on the specific type of depression, against the current trend driven by American psychiatry, and some psychiatrists in Spain. This trend does not distinguish differential treatment in all cases depression in the same manner and with the same drugs. They believe that it must be treated very differently the depressions of biological cause (endogenous) from depressions of psychological or social causes (neurotic or reactive). Thus at the time defended the use of old tricyclics and MAOIs in atypical depression and endogenous, and",
"-32.62980484876607"
],
[
"defend us from feelings of vulnerability and mortality. Researchers have found that mildly depressed individuals often lack this bias and actually have more realistic perceptions of reality (as measured by the opinions of others).\nHeuristics are cognitive short cuts. Instead of weighing all the evidence when making a decision, people rely on heuristics to save time and energy. The availability heuristic occurs when people estimate the probability of an outcome based on how easy that outcome is to imagine. As such, vivid or highly memorable possibilities will be perceived as more likely than those that are harder to picture or are",
"-32.5672613139468"
],
[
"Raison oblige theory Depression Depression is accompanied by very low self-esteem and has therefore been a topic of strong interest for those investigating self verifying behaviors. Depression is always accompanied by low self-esteem but having low self-esteem does not necessarily mean you are depressed.\nIt argued that those suffering with depression, or with generally low negative self-views, will actively seek negative feedback in order to confirm their self-view; they find it more favourable. Giesler et al. (1996) tested this prediction by classifying participants into three separate groups; high self-esteem, low self-esteem and depressed individuals. When offered a choice of positive or",
"-32.5586478205405"
],
[
"relax those constraints enough to allow the depressive to move forward with their life under an improved set of social contracts. This theory has been the subject of criticism. Prevention of infection It has been hypothesized that depression is an evolutionary adaptation because it helps prevent infection in both the affected individual and his/her kin.\nFirst, the associated symptoms of depression, such as inactivity and lethargy, encourage the affected individual to rest. Energy conserved through such methods is highly crucial, as immune activation against infections is relatively costly; there must be, for instance, a 10% increase in metabolic activity for even",
"-32.547598102903976"
],
[
"for the diagnosis of a major depressive episode. Depressed mood is the most common symptom seen in major depressive episodes. Interest or pleasure in everyday activities can be decreased; this is referred to as anhedonia. These feelings must be present on an everyday basis for two weeks or longer to meet DSM-V criteria for a major depressive episode. In addition, the person may experience one or more of the following emotions: sadness, emptiness, hopelessness, indifference, anxiety, tearfulness, pessimism, emotional numbness, or irritability. In children and adolescents, a depressed mood often appears more irritable in nature. There may be a loss",
"-32.46769488105201"
],
[
"to reduce emotional regulation. The lack of problem-focused coping suggests that individuals had low perceived control. Individuals that blame powerful groups in society for occurrence of sexual assault showed negative effects on perceived control and psychological well-being Depression and self-blame The hopelessness theory of depression proposes that depression is caused by two variables: attribution of negative events to stable and global causes, and other cognitive factors like low self-esteem (Krith, 2014). CSB attributes occurrence of events to stable aspects of the individual that are not controllable. CSB attributions seem likely to cause helplessness, since individuals believe they are powerless to",
"-32.46024054053851"
],
[
"Over the years, researchers have found out that social media use is a cause of depression. As individuals increase their media exposure, it leads them vulnerable to depression and can even make it worse with FOMO and other media based anxieties.\nAnxiety is defined as a state of mind in which one is concerned about difficult situations or threats.Traditional literature suggests that anxious people are likely to suffer from multiple disorders. The idea that anxious people see their anxious state as problematic, chronic and inescapable is something that scholars disagree on. During their anxious state, anxious people tend to be fatigue,",
"-32.44591500268143"
],
[
"individuals with a serious mental illness \"have general medical conditions that are largely undiagnosed and untreated and may cause or exacerbate psychiatric symptoms\".\nIn a case of misdiagnosed depression recounted in Newsweek, a writer received treatment for depression for years; during the last 10 years of her depression the symptoms worsened, resulting in multiple suicide attempts and psychiatric hospitalizations. When an MRI finally was performed, it showed the presence of a tumor. However, she was told by a neurologist that it was benign. After a worsening of symptoms, and upon the second opinion of another neurologist, the tumor was removed. After",
"-32.43924800733657"
],
[
"much as possible: strong phenomenological similarities and similar pathophysiology (face validity), comparable etiology (construct validity), and common treatment (predictive validity). Again, depression is a heterogeneous disorder and its many symptoms are hard to be produced in laboratory animals. The question therefore remains whether we can know the animal is \"depressed\". Actually, few models of depression fully fit these validating criteria, and most models currently used rely on either actions of known antidepressants or responses to stress. It is not necessary for an \"ideal\" animal model of depression to exhibit all the abnormalities of depression-relevant behaviors, just as not all patients",
"-32.4293671238338"
],
[
"the distortion of one uncontrollable aspect of a person's life being viewed as representative of all aspects of their life – suggesting a mismatch between ultimate cause and modern manifestation. Analytical rumination hypothesis This hypothesis suggests that depression is an adaptation that causes the affected individual to concentrate his or her attention and focus on a complex problem in order to analyze and solve it.\nOne way depression increases the individual's focus on a problem is by inducing rumination. Depression activates the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, which increases attention control and maintains problem-related information in an \"active, accessible state\" referred to",
"-32.40987944142762"
],
[
"of depression across individuals Changes in gender roles across countries and cultures in this study served to explain varying levels of stress and responsibility that changed on the basis of gender. These ever changing expectations and these additional responsibilities on the basis of gender increased levels of depression.\nThe differences in gender roles within a community also impact one's level of depression. According to Wichstrøm (1999) women tend to ruminate more and therefore symptoms of depression can be accentuated. Since women are encouraged to talk about and share their feelings, they can get caught talking about and staying in a",
"-32.36166668642545"
],
[
"Beck's cognitive triad Beck's cognitive model of depression From a cognitive perspective, depressive disorders are characterized by people's dysfunctional negative views of themselves, their life experience (and the world in general), and their future—the cognitive triad.\nPeople with depression often view themselves as unlovable, helpless, doomed or deficient. They tend to attribute their unpleasant experiences to their presumed physical, mental, and/or moral deficits. They tend to feel excessively guilty, believing that they are worthless, blameworthy, and rejected by self and others. They may have a very difficult time viewing themselves as people who could ever succeed, be accepted, or feel good",
"-32.34199501294643"
],
[
"or \"clinically depressed\" really are more helpful or indicative of seriousness than possible alternatives. Oaks says that for decades he has been exploring the depths of sanism and has not yet found an end, and suggests it may be the most pernicious 'ism' because people tend to define themselves by their rationality and their core feelings. One possible response is to critique conceptions of normality and the problems associated with normative functioning around the world, although in some ways that could also potentially constitute a form of mentalism. After his 2012 accident breaking his neck and subsequent retirement, Oaks refers",
"-32.33046807128994"
],
[
"Example statements include \"I'm worthless\", \"I've let people down\", \"I can't get started\" and \"My future is bleak\". Depression It has been suggested in some studies that depression is associated with having increased levels of automatic negative thoughts. Additionally, the extent of automatic negative thoughts experienced is associated with depression severity. Social anxiety disorder In this disorder, people experience a high degree of fear and avoidance of social situations. There has not been much research conducted to date on the association between automatic thoughts and social anxiety disorder. However, one study by Iancu and colleagues attempted to evaluate a possible",
"-32.314546260706265"
],
[
"a profound effect on a person’s mental health. According to Alyssa Brown of the Washington D.C. Gallup, 31% of people living in poverty have reported at some point been diagnosed with depression compared with 15.8% of those not in poverty. Many people attribute their depression to unemployment, life stressors, and witnessing more violence. These are very relevant in the impoverished world.\nIt is uncertain whether poverty induces depression or depression causes poverty. What is certain is that the two are closely linked. A reason for this link could be due to the lack of support groups such as church community centers.",
"-32.30196319089919"
],
[
"and 60. The risk of major depression is increased with neurological conditions such as stroke, Parkinson's disease, or multiple sclerosis and during the first year after childbirth. The risk of major depression has also been related to environmental stressors faced by population groups such as war combatants or physicians in training.\nIt is also more common after cardiovascular illnesses, and is related more to a poor outcome than to a better one Studies conflict on the prevalence of depression in the elderly, but most data suggest there is a reduction in this age group. Depressive disorders are most common in urban",
"-32.29821086521952"
],
[
"may or may not be co-morbidly occurring with maternal depression can independently influence infants' and toddlers' subsequent social-emotional development through effects on regulatory processes within the child-parent attachment. Maternal interpersonal violence-related post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), for example, has been associated with subsequent dysregulation of emotion and aggression by ages 4–7 years. Cocaine Research has provided conflicting evidence regarding the effect of maternal substance abuse during and after pregnancy on children's development. Children exposed to cocaine weigh less than those not exposed at numerous ages ranging from 6 to 30 months. Furthermore, studies indicate that the head circumference of children exposed",
"-32.29199213003085"
],
[
"in an overly restrictive matrix of social exchange contracts, and that this situation sometimes necessitates a radical contractual upheaval that is beyond conventional methods of negotiation. Regarding the treatment of depression, this hypothesis calls into question any assumptions by the clinician that the typical cause of depression is related to maladaptive perverted thinking processes or other purely endogenous sources. The social navigation hypothesis calls instead for analysis of the depressive's talents and dreams, identification of relevant social constraints (especially those with a relatively diffuse non-point source within the social network of the depressive), and practical social problem-solving therapy designed to",
"-32.29053225903772"
],
[
"more likely to respond to their children's difficult behaviors with anger or irritability, which increases the likelihood the children will develop further behavioral problems. However, if parents (both mothers and fathers) with depressive symptoms have a partner with strong social support, the association between parental depression and child behaviors was weaker. For early child development, Leve believed that a stable connection with the primary caregiver is essential for the children's development. Her research with the Society for Prevention Research showed that prevention programs for drug use proved to be more effective and economical than programs for treating it. \nIn the",
"-32.27420535564306"
],
[
"Behavioral theories of depression Behavioral theories of depression explain the etiology of depression based on the behavioural sciences, and they form the basis for behavioral therapies for depression. Introduction Depression is a significant mental illness with physiological and psychological consequences, including sluggishness, diminished interest and pleasure, and disturbances in sleep and appetite. It is predicted that by the year 2030, depression will be the number one cause of disability in the United States and other high-income countries.\nBehavioral theories of depression emphasize the role maladaptive actions play in the onset and maintenance of depression. These theories stem from work concerning the",
"-32.25591168032042"
],
[
"risk of major depression is increased with neurological conditions such as stroke, Parkinson's disease, or multiple sclerosis, and during the first year after childbirth. It is also more common after cardiovascular illnesses, and is related more to those with a poor cardiac disease outcome than to a better one. Studies conflict on the prevalence of depression in the elderly, but most data suggest there is a reduction in this age group. Depressive disorders are more common in urban populations than in rural ones and the prevalence is increased in groups with poorer socioeconomic factors, e.g., homelessness. History The Ancient Greek",
"-32.211676342436476"
],
[
"Depression in childhood and adolescence Depression is a state of low mood and aversion to activity. It may be a normal reaction to occurring life events or circumstances, a symptom of a medical condition, a side effect of drugs or medical treatments, or a symptom of certain psychiatric syndromes, such as the mood disorders major depressive disorder and dysthymia. Depression in childhood and adolescence is similar to adult major depressive disorder, although young sufferers may exhibit increased irritability or aggressive and self-destructive behavior, rather than the all-encompassing sadness associated with adult forms of depression. Children who are under stress, experience",
"-32.18591732127243"
],
[
"for example, that Abraham Lincoln's lifelong depression was a source of insight and strength. Some even suggest that \"we aren't designed to have happiness as our natural default\" and so a state of depression is the evolutionary norm.\nThe following hypotheses attempt to identify a benefit of depression that outweighs its obvious costs.\nSuch hypotheses are not necessarily incompatible with one another and may explain different aspects, causes, and symptoms of depression. Psychic pain hypothesis One reason depression is thought to be a pathology is that it causes so much psychic pain and distress. However, physical pain is also very distressful, yet",
"-32.18146228614023"
],
[
"they become vulnerable to the development of depression. Alternatively, individuals with dominant goal personality value person achievement and success. These individuals become vulnerable to depression when they realize that they cannot or have not reached their goals. More generally, depression has been linked to differences in attributional styles and affect. Negative affect, the tendency to react negatively and to be overly sensitive to negative stimuli, predisposes individuals to depression. Conversely, positive affect, the tendency to react positively and to maintain high energy levels and high amounts of positive emotion, may serve as a buffer against depression. Additionally, the tendency to",
"-32.17006202512857"
],
[
"I.V. form. Depression Major depressive disorder, otherwise known as depression, is a disorder that is characterized by a pervasive and persistent low mood that is accompanied by low self-esteem and by a loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities. Encephalitis Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain. It is usually caused by a foreign substance or a viral infection. Symptoms of this disease include headache, neck pain, drowsiness, nausea, and fever. If caused by the West Nile virus, it may be lethal to humans, as well as birds and horses. Epilepsy/Seizures Epilepsy is an unpredictable, serious, and potentially",
"-32.16410607807484"
],
[
"consideration factors such as chronic conditions, body mass index, and social relationships. In addition to exercise, behavioral rehabilitation and prescribed antidepressants, which is well tolerated in older adults, can be used to treat depression. Anxiety Anxiety is a relatively uncommon diagnosis in older adults and it difficult to determine its prevalence. Anxiety disorders in late life are more likely to be under-diagnosed because of medical comorbidity, cognitive decline, and changes in life circumstances that younger adults do not face. However, in the Epidemiological Catchment Area Project, researchers found that 6-month prevalence rates for anxiety disorders were",
"-32.161986288425396"
],
[
"cases, depressed people may have symptoms of psychosis. These symptoms include delusions or, less commonly, hallucinations, usually unpleasant. Other symptoms of depression include poor concentration and memory (especially in those with melancholic or psychotic features), withdrawal from social situations and activities, reduced sex drive, irritability, and thoughts of death or suicide. Insomnia is common among the depressed. In the typical pattern, a person wakes very early and cannot get back to sleep. Hypersomnia, or oversleeping, can also happen. Some antidepressants may also cause insomnia due to their stimulating effect.\nA depressed person may report multiple physical symptoms such as fatigue, headaches,",
"-32.136983264950686"
],
[
"Epidemiology of depression The epidemiology of depression has been studied across the world.\nDepression is a major cause of morbidity worldwide, as the epidemiology has shown. Lifetime prevalence estimates vary widely, from 3% in Japan to 17% in the US. Epidemiological data shows higher rates of depression in the Middle East, North Africa, South Asia and America than in other countries. Among the 10 countries studied, the number of people who would suffer from depression during their lives falls within an 8–12% range in most of them.\nIn North America, the probability of having a major depressive episode within any year-long period",
"-32.1322855710132"
],
[
"with a chronic general medical condition will develop major depression. Common comorbid disorders include: eating disorders, substance-related disorders, panic disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Up to 25% of people who experience a major depressive episode have a pre-existing dysthymic disorder.\nSome persons who have a fatal illness or are at the end of their life may experience depression, although this is not universal.",
"-32.12542495638536"
],
[
"affect any individual, those who are depressed are more sensitive to these painful experiences. Due to the importance of social experiences to people's well-being, and to etiology and maintenance of depression, it is vital to examine how depressed people's well-being is enhanced or eroded by positive and negative social interactions.\nWhen people experience positive social interactions, they should feel a sense of belonging. However, depressed people's social information-processing biases make them less likely to recognize cues of acceptance and belonging in social interactions. For example, in a laboratory study using information-processing tasks assessing attention and memory for sad, physically threatening, socially",
"-32.1101463472296"
],
[
"of mental illness. Those with anxiety tend to view themselves as the center of all events around them, regardless of their nature or how unrelated they are to oneself. On the other hand, people suffering from depression may have a lower tendency towards egocentricity, as evidenced by the fact that they tend to more realistically rate their contributions to group work, while non-depressed participants often overreport their additions. Voting The egocentric bias has also been shown to contribute to a citizen's decision to vote in elections. Firstly, people tend to view their personal choice between voting and abstinence as",
"-32.109500161823235"
],
[
"depression in all cultural groups. Many theorize that in at least one significant relationship one should feel able to disclose nearly completely in order for a healthy personality to develop. While parental behavioral control was once thought to provide the greatest benefits to children in limiting their activities and serving as a source of forced protection, more recent research strongly suggests that disclosures to parents that provide the parents with information about daily activities actually shows the most promise in fostering positive development through childhood and adolescence. Development of reciprocity Reciprocity in children's self-disclosures is often examined in children's friendships.",
"-32.08076921231077"
],
[
"the emotional distress caused by infidelity and health-compromising behaviors, perception of blame and self-esteem, and the differences in the reactions of men and women.\nNot only did they prove the connection between the distress and risky behavior, but they also found that those who blamed themselves for their partners unfaithfulness were also more like to participate in risky behavior.\nThe researchers proved the more distress you feel the more likely the individual is to take part in unhealthy acts and the more the victim blamed themselves the more distress they experienced. They also found that women felt more emotional distress than men",
"-32.08057925344474"
],
[
"unnecessary harm. In this way, depression helps maintain a social hierarchy. This theory is a special case of a more general theory derived from the psychic pain hypothesis: that the cognitive response that produces modern-day depression evolved as a mechanism that allows people to assess whether they are in pursuit of an unreachable goal, and if they are, to motivate them to desist. Social risk hypothesis This hypothesis is similar to the social rank hypothesis but focuses more on the importance of avoiding exclusion from social groups, rather than direct dominance contests. The fitness benefits of forming cooperative bonds",
"-32.05693226858057"
],
[
"This finding held true even when the depression was manipulated experimentally. However, when replicating the findings Msetfi et al. (2005, 2007) found that the overestimation of control in nondepressed people only showed up when the interval was long enough, implying that this is because they take more aspects of a situation into account than their depressed counterparts. Also, Dykman et al. (1989) showed that depressed people believe they have no control in situations where they actually do, so their perception is not more accurate overall. Allan et al. (2007) has proposed that the pessimistic bias of depressives resulted in \"depressive",
"-32.041518953992636"
],
[
"and Stress: Effective Therapeutic Intervention, Causes of Anxiety and Depression in Marriage, and Conjoint Therapy for Marital Problems, Divorce: Can and Should it be prevented? While the online tracking of health parameters is available for therapists and patients through Lifetrack.com and is systematically presented through cases for therapists in an eBook for therapists; Breakthrough Intimacy – Sad to Happy Through Closeness, or compared to other approaches such as Maslow, Murray, Freud and others on Positive Mental Health Foundation, these teaching materials give preference to those familiar with online technologies. For Lifetrack to spread, additional clinical teaching or academic",
"-32.02202824085816"
],
[
"decision-making, even if the decision has already been made. This atypically high activity in the right anterior insula is thought to contribute to the experience of negative and worrisome feelings. In major depressive disorder, anxiety is often a part of the emotional state that characterizes depression.",
"-32.01927811712085"
],
[
"pathological. Yet if sufferers of depression have real but unmet needs, they might have to provide an incentive to others to address those needs.\nThe bargaining theory of depression is similar to the honest signaling, niche change, and social navigation theories of depression described below. It draws on theories of labor strikes developed by economists to basically add one additional element to honest signaling theory: The fitness of social partners is generally correlated. When a wife suffers depression and reduces her investment in offspring, for example, the husband's fitness is also put at risk. Thus, not only do the symptoms of",
"-32.00038867309922"
],
[
" This model proposes that emotional pain, like physical pain, serves a useful adaptive purpose. Negative emotions like disappointment, sadness, grief, fear, anxiety, anger, and guilt are described as \"evolved strategies that allow for the identification and avoidance of specific problems, especially in the social domain.\" Depression is characteristically associated with anhedonia and lack of energy, and those experiencing it are risk-aversive and perceive more negative and pessimistic outcomes because they are focused on preventing further loss. Although the model views depression as an adaptive response, it does not suggest that it is beneficial by the standards",
"-31.97818962427118"
],
[
"evidence suggesting that inflammation is not sufficient for the development of major depression, evidence for a lack of complete overlap also comes from findings that depression often occurs without existing immune challenges, with social adversity appearing to cause depression without the requirement of underlying inflammation. Similarly, the existence of variation in the degree to which depressed individuals experience inflammation has also been seen to suggest that it is possible that some instances of depression may occur without inflammation. However, it is possible that all instances of depression involve increased inflammation, something which is consistent with the idea that depression",
"-31.963454619217373"
],
[
"afflicted. Whereas the relatives and shrinks ... they rather welcome it: You are quiet and you suffer. Views on mental illness Millett disputed diagnoses and labels like manic depression (bipolar disorder) and schizophrenia, which she claimed are placed upon people who exhibit socially unacceptable behavior. \"Many healthy people, she said, are 'driven to mental illness' by society's disapproval and by the 'authoritarian institution of psychiatry.' She attributed her own depression to her diagnosis, and not the other way around, writing, \"When you have been told that your mind is unsound, there is a kind of despair that takes over\". Millett documented",
"-31.90063491114455"
],
[
"anxiety disorder 12% of the population. Women are 1.5 times more likely to suffer from mood and anxiety disorders. WHO points out that there are distinct gender differences in patterns of mental health and illness. The lack of power and control over their socioeconomic status, gender based violence; low social position and responsibility for the care of others render women vulnerable to mental health risks. Since more women than men seek help regarding a mental health problem, this has led to not only gender stereotyping but also reinforcing social stigma. WHO has found that this stereotyping has led doctors to",
"-31.86489985774824"
],
[
"include social activities, resulting in social withdrawal.\nSocial skills training can be adapted to the treatment of depression with a focus on assertiveness training. Depressed patients often benefit from learning to set limits to others, to obtain satisfaction for their own needs, and to feel more self-confident in social interactions. Research suggests that patients who are depressed because they tend to withdraw from others can benefit from social skills training by learning to increase positive social interactions with others instead of pulling back. Social anxiety disorder Asocial behavior is observed in people with social anxiety disorder (SAD), who experience perpetual and",
"-31.85498639108846"
],
[
"very similar to major depressive disorder in the symptoms present. Generally, a person's mood is affected by thoughts and feelings of being sad or down on themself or by a loss of interest in nearly all activities. People can experience ups and downs in their life everyday where an event, action, stress or many other factors can affect their feelings on that day. However, depression occurs when those feelings of sadness persist for longer than a few weeks.\nA person is considered to have minor depressive disorder if they experience 2 to 4 depressive symptoms during a 2-week period. The Diagnostic",
"-31.85270718704851"
],
[
"terminally ill may not always come to accept their impending death. For example, a person who finds strength in denial may never reach a point of acceptance or accommodation and may react negatively to any statement that threatens this defense mechanism. Impact on patient Depression is relatively common among terminal patients, and the prevalence increases as patients become sicker. Depression causes quality of life to go down, and a sizable portion of patients who request assisted suicide are depressed. These negative emotions may be heightened by lack of sleep and pain as well. Depression can be treated with antidepressants and/or therapy, but doctors",
"-31.836871433028136"
],
[
"irritable mood rather than a depressed one, and show varying symptoms depending on age and situation. Most lose interest in school and show a decline in academic performance. They may be described as clingy, demanding, dependent, or insecure. Diagnosis may be delayed or missed when symptoms are interpreted as \"normal moodiness.\" Associated conditions Major depression frequently co-occurs with other psychiatric problems. The 1990–92 National Comorbidity Survey (US) reports that half of those with major depression also have lifetime anxiety and its associated disorders such as generalized anxiety disorder. Anxiety symptoms can have a major impact on the course of a",
"-31.829971197752457"
],
[
"Endogenous depression Endogenous depression (melancholia) is an atypical sub-class of the mood disorder, major depressive disorder (clinical depression). It could be caused by genetic and biological factors. Endogenous depression occurs due to the presence of an internal (cognitive, biological) stressor instead of an external (social, environmental) stressor. Endogenous depression includes patients with treatment-resistant, non-psychotic, major depressive disorder, characterized by abnormal behavior of the endogenous opioid system but not the monoaminergic system. Symptoms vary in severity, type, and frequency and can be attributed to cognitive, social, biological, or environmental factors that result in persistent feelings of sadness and distress. Since symptoms",
"-31.818917774992087"
]
] |
1vzi61 | Do ex-prisoners who have been found not-guilty a while into their wrongful sentencing receive any compensation for their unnecessary time in prison? | [
"It depends on a lot of factors. For instance, some states will only pay *exonerated* prisoners. Note that being \"exonerated\" is different from being found \"not guilty\" on appeal or at a new trial. \"Exonerated\" is defined by some states as being absolutely ruled out as a guilty person-- for instance, by DNA evidence. It is not enough to be found \"not guilty\" on appeal because of, for instance, bad jury instructions. Other states only offer compensation for people who are convicted because of misconduct by prosecutors or police-- not just a bad jury decision that is later set aside. That can make getting compensation very hard in cases of coerced confessions (which *do* happen). In many states, there are legal guidelines for payouts to the wrongfully imprisoned, but the money isn't paid automatically. People who are wrongfully sent to prison often have to sue to get this money-- and the cost involved in suing can make it hard. The Innocence Project has a [good guide to which states in the United States have laws to pay the wrongfully imprisoned]( URL_0 ). For instance, Nevada doesn't have any laws to pay people wrongfully sent to prison. Texas, on the other hand, provides $80k per year in prison, plus $25k per year spent on the sex offender registry, college tuition, and back child support payments-- but only if the wrongfully imprisoned person has been pardoned or \"granted relief on the basis of actual innocence\". The short answer is: it varies significantly from place to place. And this is a fairly US-centric answer: I have no idea what the laws are outside the United States.",
"There are some states that won't even expunge your record if you are found to have been wrongly convicted. I watched a movie once about a few people who were wrongly convicted then later released because of DNA evidence. One guy was wrongly accused of rape simply because he was wearing the wrong color sweatshirt at the time. 15 years later they got the correct guy and let him out. On record he was still a convicted rapist and had to tell people he was a convicted felon. He was fighting to get his record expunged but it was time consuming and expensive. The guy actually carried his exoneration papers around with him everywhere he went because he was afraid the police would stop him, see that it their system listed him as a convicted rapist and arrest him thinking he had escaped from prison.",
"Yes! In Germany, for example, it is 25€ each day imprisoned.",
"If only you could save it up and use it as credit on future sentences. \"I hear by charge you and sentence you to 3 years in jail\" - \"Thanks judge, I'ed like to use some of my credit have 5 years racked up thus far.\" - \"Officer, let this free man go, sentenced to time already served.\"",
"there's a.. strong suggestion of a 50k compensation for every year of wrongful imprisonment, but it's upto the individual states to determine how much they actually give. some give nothing, many give change for a taxi and a meal, and only a handful give the full 50k.",
"It really depends on the case and what the prosecutor did. Being wrongfully convicted of a crime doesn't make the state liable unless they IGNORED something or did something wrong.",
"What? An apology isn't enough? In all seriousness, I worked for a company that kept track of how many people were freed thanks to our DNA tests.",
"Last legislative session a law was adopted in Washington state providing 20k per year of imprsonment following exoneration. Came from a case out of Clark Co where two guys were convicted of rape and exonerated by DNA evidence after 18 years in prison. Before that, no compensation.",
"Do any states (or I guess non-US countries as well) pay compensation to families of innocent people who were executed?",
"There's this [paper]( URL_0 ) which goes into some details about compensation for wrongful conviction in Australia. To summarise there are 3 ways you can receive compensation * Ex Gratia payment - The state can make a payment to you however they do not admit any wrong doing and the process is fairly secretive. The paper I linked to is quite critical of these payments * Sue someone - Generally you have to show that someone was responsible for your false conviction. This is hard to do and in some cases it's not possible at all. * Private bill - You get a politician to sponsor a bill that will get you compensation. This is extremely rare. You can get compensation in Australia but it's neither guaranteed nor is the process transparent.",
"\"Life after death row\" by Saundra westervelt she is one if my professors at UNCG.",
"I think this question belongs more in /r/answers, seeing how it's a T/F question."
] | [
[
"years per count).\nUnder Arizona law, his sentence was to be served without possibility of probation, parole, pardon or clemency. Thus, all three sentences would have assured that Berger would die in prison. The appeals Berger's lawyers appealed the sentence, citing the Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which prohibits \"cruel and unusual punishment\". They argued that although each 10-year sentence was not too long in itself, the cumulative total of 200 years was grossly disproportionate to Berger's conduct overall, given that it was a longer sentence than those imposed for murder or rape of a child in",
"-29.1482108879718"
],
[
"the court in exchange for having their cases moved forward. Some of those who paid did not get anything in return. Owing partly to a shortage of judges and other qualified judicial officials, defendants are often kept in pretrial detention for long periods, which sometimes are longer than the terms they would have been sentenced to if put on trial and found guilty. Also, there is considerable judicial corruption, with the executive branch exerting influence over judges, and lawyers bribing judges. Judges who support the ruling party are given higher positions than those who support an independent judiciary. ",
"-29.069712726541184"
],
[
"the courts and the prisons with remand prisoners. It is in the public interest that pending criminal cases be disposed off as expeditiously as possible and accused persons who plead guilty be imposed with a reduced sentence. Honesty is an universal obligation and a reduced sentence encourages honesty when an accused pleads guilty, the end result being that more accused persons would willingly admit guilt without a trial, thus, reducing the workload of the prosecutor's office and the clearance of the backlog of cases. Family and Social Service In 1976, he married Devagey Raru. A son, Sashikharan was born in",
"-29.026018206146546"
],
[
"to be stripped of his position following the sentencing. He has already begun serving his sentence.\n12 others were sentenced to 10 years in prison and one accused was sentenced to six months. One of the convicts facing life sentence is due to only serve 10 years since he was a minor at the time of the incident. Three of the tried have been acquitted. More than 30 suspects are still at large.",
"-28.665871816167964"
],
[
"15 to 20 years before being paroled, although those convicted of exceptionally grave crimes remain behind bars for considerably longer; Ian Huntley was given a minimum term of 40 years. Some receive whole life sentences which make it almost certain that they will die in prison; they can only be considered for release on appeal to the High Court, or in exceptional circumstances such as great age or ill health.\nBy 2015, there were at least 60 prisoners in England and Wales serving such sentences, issued by either the High Court or the Home Office. These include \"Yorkshire Ripper\" Peter Sutcliffe.",
"-28.663762958720326"
],
[
"to either serve three months in prison or pay 200 dinars (US$530). On 28 March 2013, 21 of the 23 convictions were overturned by an appeals court. The remaining two health workers had chosen not to appeal their sentences. Torture of health workers Many of the detained health workers stated that they were ill-treated or tortured while in custody, leading Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International to call for independent investigations. Authorities reportedly forced detainees to stand for long periods, beat them with boards and rubber hoses, and deprived them of sleep in an effort to force confessions. In one",
"-28.626168440983747"
],
[
"Practices vary from state to state, but the clemency process usually requires the governor or board of advisors or both. Since 1976 273 death row inmates have been granted clemency for humanitarian reasons. These include doubts about the petitioner's guilt or a governor's personal stance on capital punishment. Innocence Work Overturning a conviction after dozens of appeals and petitions have been denied is notoriously difficult, though prisoners have some options at their disposal. They can still attain freedom if legitimate innocence can be proven. The most common method is by using DNA evidence to disprove a crime that happened before",
"-28.42438550433144"
],
[
"— and acquitted him on one count of making false statements. Given current federal sentencing guidelines, which are not mandatory, the convictions could result in a sentence ranging from no imprisonment to imprisonment of up to 25 years and a fine of one million US dollars. Given those non-binding guidelines, according to lawyer, author, New Yorker staff writer, and CNN senior legal analyst Jeffrey Toobin on Anderson Cooper 360°, such a sentence could likely be between \"one and a half to three years\". Sentencing was scheduled for June 2007. His lawyers have announced their intention to seek a new",
"-28.35511708201375"
],
[
"But the sentence is still 'life' and there is no guarantee they will ever get out. Former Board chairman, Sir David Carruthers says murderers and those given indefinite sentences will remain behind bars until they are no longer considered a risk to the community. If they are released, they remain subject to release conditions for the rest of their life and can be recalled if they break their conditions in any way. Parole conditions Having served the minimum non-parole period of their sentence, if the Board feels that an offender no longer poses an undue risk, it may agree to",
"-28.253956897184253"
],
[
"seven convicts were jointly sentenced to pay had been paid. Because earlier deadlines for payment had passed, the amount to be paid had increased to 68,00 euro. If the full amount was not paid by 14 January 2017, they could be put under pressure to pay in two ways: each person could be incarcerated for up to one year (this would not lower the amount of compensation), and a bailiff could seize the property of each mature convict (in this case only El-Hasan D.).\nBecause El-Hasan D. was on welfare so that he could not comply with payment arrangements and the other",
"-28.246170318656368"
],
[
"with prosecutors asking for two to four years imprisonment with a three-year stay of execution. Citing the young age of the offenders and the fact that some had already been admitted to college or hired for jobs, the judges refused the charges against even these ten, instead sending them to Juvenile Court. One factor in this decision was that the father of one of the victims formed an agreement with some of the offenders to plead for leniency after receiving a large sum of money. The father was an alcoholic who had divorced the victim's mother three years prior due",
"-28.020797218603548"
],
[
"no way for a defendant to agree to plead guilty in exchange for having a case dealt with by magistrates.\nMagistrates' courts have limited powers of sentencing; for example, they may not impose a sentence of imprisonment longer than six months. If the defendant is tried summarily in the Magistrates' Court and is convicted, there may still be a committal to the Crown Court for sentencing if the magistrates think that their sentencing powers are inadequate. Thus it is not possible for a defendant to avoid the harsher sentences available in the Crown Court simply by accepting a summary trial. History",
"-27.923974260804243"
],
[
"period of 18 to 22 years before they become eligible for parole. \nIn the case of child murder involving rape or torture, the premeditated murder of a state official (since 2011), and terrorism resulting in death, the court can impose a safety period of up to 30 years, or order that the prisoner is ineligible for parole at all, and thus will spend the rest of their natural lives in prison.\nIt is possible to give a reduction of the safety period for serious signs of social re-adaptation (even if the court has ordered that the prisoner is to spend the",
"-27.923868476471398"
],
[
"and mental health Forensic psychologist Eric Cullen and prison governor Tim Newell claim that prisoners face a throffer once they are told that they must acknowledge their guilt before they are offered parole or moved to an open prison. Cullen and Newell cite the example of a prisoner who falsely admitted guilt to move to an open prison; once there, however, he felt he could no longer lie about his guilt, and confessed to the prison's governor. He was subsequently transferred back to a maximum security prison. In the case of sex offenders, a throffer is presented when they are",
"-27.853600737871602"
],
[
"to make a recorded statement disavowing her husband and praising the party which airs during the trial. The prisoners are variously sentenced to either death or life imprisonment, with Artur given the latter. When their interrogators do not return to them, the prisoners panic and threaten to appeal, but are told by their court-appointed lawyers that the sentences are only for the party's benefit and will not be enforced if they do not appeal. The convicted men appear in court one final time to accept their sentences and waive their right to appeal.\nAfterwards, Artur and some of his colleagues are",
"-27.848040364769986"
],
[
"Julian Young, Hodgson's lawyer, also commented that Hodgson did not receive any official support to adjust to life after 27 years. Inmates who serve out a long sentence undergo a long process of re-integration into society. \"A person released after a conviction is quashed is not entitled to the same level of support; Sean was, in fact, released with a one-off discharge payment of £46. That was it.\" Compensatory action can be difficult to obtain. A compensation fund exists \"from which, unbelievably, the government deducts 'board and lodging' for the time spent in prison.\" In the years it can take for",
"-27.826094944030046"
],
[
"high pay began, was exonerated of all charges. Subsequently, on March 21, a juror wrote notes to the judge requesting reconsideration of past verdicts, and another juror wrote a note accusing other jurors of bad behavior. \"It seems that all hell has broken loose,\" remarked the judge to attorneys in the case. After another day of deliberation, the judge declared a mistrial on all remaining counts, leaving the prosecution to determine if they wanted the case retried. Former City Manager and assistant At Rizzo's hearing, documents acquired from former Assistant City Manager Angela Spaccia's computer by District Attorney Steve Cooley",
"-27.74838784802705"
],
[
"jurors had to decide if Hayes should be executed or imprisoned for life. The second day of these deliberations began on November 6, 2010. Defense attorney Thomas Ullman told the jury that a sentence of life in prison would be the harshest possible punishment for his client Hayes, because he was so tormented by his crimes and would be isolated in prison. \"Life in prison without the possibility of release is the harshest penalty,\" Ullman said. \"It is a fate worse than death. If you want to end his misery, put him to death,\" he added. \"If you want him",
"-27.741902833324275"
],
[
"an offender to pay a fine to avoid further prosecution. Prosecutors have tremendous discretion to dispose of crimes through the use of transactions. However, transactions can only be offered in cases where the maximum statutory prison sentence is less than six years. Approximately 90% of crimes can be appropriately disposed of via a transaction. Yet, in practice, roughly 30% of all cases are settled through the use of a transaction, with prosecutorial guidelines established to minimise arbitrariness. Transactions provide an opportunity for offenders to forgo the stigmatisation that results from the more traditional disposition of cases. Critics however allege that",
"-27.713934128551045"
],
[
"murderers should spend in prison before being considered for parole. Judges are not obliged to follow the guidelines, but must give reasons in court if they depart from them - whether recommending a lesser or higher minimum term than in accordance with the guidelines.\nThe guidelines recommended that multiple murderers (who murder two or more people) whose crimes involved sexual abuse, pre-planning, abduction or terrorism should never be released from prison. Such a sentence is known as a \"whole life order\". The murder of a single child following abduction, sexual or sadistic conduct also qualifies, as does the murder of a",
"-27.67777948686853"
],
[
"crime eligible for $160,000 for each year of incarceration—half paid as a lump sum, and half paid out over the claimant’s lifetime as an annuity—and provide them with free college tuition. Texas law firm Glasheen, Valles & Inderman also worked with Texas Senator John Cornyn to convince the United States Internal Revenue Service that compensation for incarceration stemming from a wrongful conviction should not be treated as taxable income, that instead it should be treated the same as compensation for personal injuries which is not taxable income. This ultimately led to the passing of the Protecting Americans from Tax Hikes",
"-27.671006344065972"
],
[
"the funds to be cleared, many victims of miscarriages of justice live off social security payments.\nGerry Conlon, who was wrongly imprisoned for 15 years, also warns that after-release support is inadequate. After the imposed routine of prison life, outside prison \"you are lost\". Suicidal thoughts and attempts, panic attacks, nightmares and drug use are common. \"Most people released after miscarriages of justice end up as recluses, their marriages fail, they aren't talking to their children, they become drug addicts and alcoholics, they die premature deaths.\"\nHodgson's release has sparked debate about the use of the death penalty, particularly about its fallibility. Neil",
"-27.6626754963072"
],
[
"the end of his sentence and so help him in the community.\nIt is most important that we stop offenders in their tracks early. If we do that, we will build respect for the police and our institutions. However, that will take a long time and it might take 10 years to roll back the contempt which has been built into our society.\nAs a criminal practitioner with years of experience in the law, I know that many of my clients with records have received non-custodial sentences. They have walked away from court and their parting words to me have often been,",
"-27.62771885562688"
],
[
"probation. . . . Forty-five percent of all prisoners are repeat offenders. Thus there are very few nonviolent first offenders in prison, and nearly all of those have already failed the court's attempt at alternative punishment. The convicts in prison are there because they deserve to be. [While prison cells are expensive], not providing those cells is far more expensive. . . . A typical multi-offender inmate will commit 187 crimes per year, for a total crime cost to society of $430,000. With this comparison, the $25,800 cost of imprisoning criminals seems reasonable.\"",
"-27.616381934960373"
],
[
"were sentenced on 22 February 2008 to 37 months of imprisonment. They were given no remission for the time they had spent in the United States awaiting trial. They were also required to repay $7.3 million to Royal Bank of Scotland, the successor bank to Greenwich NatWest, of which $1.25 million would be due when the men surrendered themselves to prison authorities. During sentencing, the Three each made brief statements to the judge. Mulgrew said that he had shown a \"lack of integrity\" and \"exercised poor judgement\", concluding that \"I have no one to blame but myself\". Darby admitted",
"-27.57948128521093"
],
[
"formally amended in 1951 to conform to the abolition. Previous death sentences were replaced by life imprisonment. As the constitution requires that prisoners have a chance of regaining freedom with other means than extralegal pardon only, prisoners are checked for release on parole after 15 years for regular intervals. Since the introduction of this provision, courts may in extreme cases declare special gravity of guilt which is meant and popularized as life without parole.\nAlthough article 21.1 of the constitution of the German state of Hesse provided capital punishment for high crimes, this provision was inoperative due to the federal ban",
"-27.399707313103136"
],
[
"statute to a maximum sum of £1,000,000 for those who have been incarcerated for more than ten years and £500,000 for any other cases, with deductions for the cost of food and prison cell during that time. See also Overturned convictions in the United Kingdom.\nRichard Foster, the Chairman of the Criminal Cases Review Commission (CCRC), reported in October 2018 that the single biggest cause of miscarriage of justice was the failure to disclose vital evidence. England, Wales and Northern Ireland Until 2005, the parole system assumed all convicted persons were guilty, and poorly handled those who were not. To be",
"-27.376255531504285"
],
[
"proper deference to the policy judgments that find expression in the legislature's choice of sanctions.\" Ewing's sentence might be long, but it \"reflects a rational judgment, entitled to deference, that offenders who have committed serious or violent felonies and who continue to commit felonies must be incapacitated.\" For this reason, O'Connor reasoned that Ewing's 25-years-to-life sentence did not violate the Eighth Amendment.\nJustice Scalia was willing to accept that the Eighth Amendment contained a gross disproportionality requirement \"if I felt I could intelligently apply it.\" However, because a criminal sentence can have many justifications—not simply retribution, a goal",
"-27.37491143733496"
],
[
"shortcomings are even more felt in the remand prisons, including the Pankrác Prison. Although the principle of \"not guilty until proven otherwise\" applies, in reality the inmates held on remand face worse regime than those convicted, as they cannot take part in educational, sport or working activities, mostly because they are expected to be held only for a limited time (the average is approximately 100 days) before being either released or moved after the verdict.\nThe prisoners held on remand spend up to 23 hours a day locked in their prison cells, where there is no access to warm water and",
"-27.361853173468262"
],
[
"detainees can be held for up to 23 days after arrest, with no state-funded legal representation. They are typically interrogated for 12 hours a day: no lawyers can be present, no recordings are made, and they are put under constant pressure to confess. Once convicted, it is very difficult to obtain a re-trial and prisoners can remain under sentence of death for many years.\nAmnesty also reports allegations of abuse of suspects during these interrogations. There are reports of physical abuse, sleep deprivation and denial of food, water and use of a toilet. One of its biggest criticisms is that inmates",
"-27.308310291206"
],
[
"to avoid another sentencing hearing and was sentenced to life in prison without parole in September, 2018.",
"-27.29706091236585"
],
[
"judges to give credit to individuals who have spent time incarcerated prior to conviction. Until then, as discussed by Justice Arbour in R v. Wust, credit for pre-sentencing custody was not determined by a 'mathematical formula', but many judges frequently granted a two-for-one credit.\nThat is justified by the quantitative and qualitative differences between pre-and post-sentencing incarceration. Most individuals who are incarcerated will not serve the full length of their sentence, and because time spent incarcerated pre-sentence does not count towards remission time, if a lengthy pre-sentence incarceration is credited equally to post-sentencing incarceration, the convicted individual will serve",
"-27.296561604947783"
],
[
"as the United States will merely result in a default judgment being rendered in absentia if the defendant willfully declines to appear by law, a substantial number of indigent debtors are legally incarcerated for the crime of failing to appear at civil debt proceedings as ordered by a judge. In this case, the crime is not indigence, but disobeying the judge's order to appear before the court. Critics argue that the \"willful\" terminology is subject to individual mens rea determination by a judge, rather than statute, and that since this presents the potential for judges to incarcerate legitimately indigent",
"-27.283191869279108"
],
[
"stated on the record of the case is that the case was dismissed after conviction. If the petitioner is later convicted of the same crime again, then the expungement may be reversed. Certificate of rehabilitation For persons who serve sentences in the state prison system (felons), they must apply to the Superior Court for a Certificate of Rehabilitation (CR). The CR does not remove or expunge anything negative from the individual's record; however, it places something positive on it. Among other requirements, the applicant must live in California and have done so for at least 5 consecutive",
"-27.282270170049742"
],
[
"plead guilty if the chance of acquittal is low, or if the expected sentence on a guilty plea is less than the amount of jail time that would be served pretrial. Pretrial detainees may also find it harder to mount an effective defense.\nThe Open Society Foundation report also concluded that some detainees face worse conditions than convicted prisoners; for example the suicide rate is three times higher worldwide.",
"-27.20352729014121"
],
[
"of light punishment for first-time offenders. Under the plea agreement in which they would have forfeited $100,000 and faced 6–15 months in prison, they would have been able to keep their homes. If found guilty at trial, they could have received up to 5 years imprisonment and a fine of $250,000 per count, but they would not have to agree to cooperate with the University investigation.\nLess than a week after Martin backed out of his plea agreement, several former players were subpoenaed to testify before grand juries. In August 2000, Traylor and Bullock, by this time professional basketball",
"-27.183942390489392"
],
[
"allowances over the period that they were ineligible to sit. The government could demand repayment of such amounts or it can waive repayment. In Re Culleton (No 2) (2017), for example, the government demanded repayment from Rod Culleton, after he was found to have been ineligible, as \"a debt to the commonwealth\", and indicated it might also seek repayment of superannuation payments, other entitlements and staff payments. There is also possibility of an action being brought under s 3 of the Common Informers (Parliamentary Disqualifications) Act 1975, which provides that any person can bring an action for a penalty against",
"-27.1720525638666"
],
[
"the available sentencing power of two years' detention is adequate to punish the offender if found guilty. History See section 64 of the Criminal Law Act 1977. \nGrand juries were abolished in 1933. Offences triable only on indictment Some offences such as murder and rape are considered so serious that they can only be tried on indictment at the Crown Court where the widest range of sentencing powers is available to the judge.\nThe expression indictable-only offence was defined by section 51 of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, as originally enacted, as an offence triable only on indictment. Sections 51",
"-27.147765864938265"
],
[
"fines or probation fees. Consequently, they resort to jail term as opposed to community corrections sentence.\nA 2014 study revealed that judges subconsciously utilize the assumption that minorities are more likely to recidivate to issue a longer sentencing that will prevent the defendants from reengaging in criminal offenses. Additionally, theorists advocate that minorities are stereotypically identified as more violent and guilty than whites. This perception encourages judges to believe that they are preventing the onset of future crimes by imprisoning the defendants for a longer duration. This preconception that minorities are unable to economically support themselves warns the judicial system that",
"-27.13826190723921"
],
[
"a day for up to 12 months Detainees may be able to work but also have to undertake rehabilitation programmes to address the causes of their offending. Any leave of absence to attend work, rehabilitation programmes, or important appointments such as the doctor, requires pre-approval of the offender's probation officer.\nIn 2014, approximately 1,800 offenders were serving sentences of home detention. Offenders are likely to be sent to prison if they leave the address without permission or breach the home detention rules. However, 'breaches' sometimes occur because the signal 'drops out' giving the impression that the offender has absconded from the",
"-27.1314374479698"
],
[
"sentenced to 10-month imprisonment (with three years suspended). The Supreme Court considered that the contested decision of the Court of Appeals had no legal justification and presented logical gaps, inconsistencies, and shortcomings. Moreover, the Supreme Court ruling that any disclosure of the outcome of the conference only a court is no longer a criminal offense [sic], which means that the three defendants will be treated under more favorable conditions when judged again by the court.\nIn October 2013 it was reported that fourteen persons, including Abbot Efrem and monk Arsenios were indicted on several counts including money laundering related to the",
"-27.129164954298176"
],
[
"making sentences more predictable.\nA counter-argument is that criminal sentencing laws are \"lumpy\", in that the sentencing ranges are not as precise as the dollars-and-cents calibration that can be achieved in civil case settlements. Furthermore, because some defendants facing small amounts of prison time are jailed pending trial, they may find it in their interests to plead guilty so as to be sentenced to time served, or in any event to end up serving less time than they would serve waiting for trial. Outcomes in criminal cases are also made less predictable by the fact that, while a plaintiff in a",
"-27.127442995959427"
],
[
"each given a suspended imposition of sentence for 10 years. If they re-offend they can be sent back to prison for 21 years.\nFactors cited by prosecutor Scott Ellington for agreeing to the plea deal included that two of the victims' families had joined the cause of the defense, that the mother of a witness who testified about Echols's confession had questioned her daughter's truthfulness, and that the State Crime Lab employee who collected fiber evidence at the Echols and Baldwin homes after their arrests had died. As part of the plea deal, the three men cannot pursue civil action against",
"-27.072067871893523"
],
[
"still be imposed, but the finding that the circumstances of the crime justify the sentence must be made by a jury, rather than by the judge.\nOn November 23, 2016, Roeder was re-sentenced to life in prison but now eligible to apply for parole after serving 25 years rather than after 50 years. As before, besides the sentence for murder, Roeder was also sentenced to two additional years for aggravated assault because he had threatened to shoot two church ushers while fleeing the murder. Sedgwick County District Attorney Marc Bennett said that prosecutors made the decision not to convene",
"-27.03404356498504"
],
[
"when deciding sentences, call for between eight and ten years behind bars. According to The Wall Street Journal, Vanity Fair, and CBS, prosecutors are recommending 36 months of supervised release. In addition, Tobin has agreed to forfeit $4 million as part of his plea deal. Tobin was scheduled for sentencing at a hearing in June 2019, but this did not in fact take place.\nOn March 12, 2019, federal prosecutors in Boston unsealed a criminal complaint charging 50 people with conspiracy to commit felony mail fraud and honest services mail fraud in violation of Title 18 United States Code, Section 1349. Those",
"-26.989853668259457"
],
[
"the date the defendant completed their sentence in a misdemeanor case or three years in cases that resulted in a felony conviction. There is no waiting period in the case of criminal proceedings that resulted in an acquittal or dismissal with prejudice, however; where a no bill is returned by a grand jury as to an individual, or the proceedings against them are dismissed without prejudice, they are ineligible to petition for the records of the case to be sealed until two years have passed from the date it was returned. Convictions for certain offenses are ineligible for sealing, including",
"-26.963021891686367"
],
[
"mitigate the effect of penalties.\nIn some jurisdictions, the criminal record of the guilty party will still carry the offense, even after probation is adequately served. In other cases, the process of deferred adjudication prevents the conviction from appearing on a person's criminal record, once probation had been completed. \nIn the federal system, judges' authority to suspend sentences has been abolished, by the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984, through the United States Sentencing Commission, and upheld by Mistretta v. United States. Russia In Russia suspended sentence (Russian: условный срок, lit. 'Conditional sentence or probation') is a commonplace and its application is stipulated",
"-26.948979691020213"
],
[
"rehabilitation, saying:\n\"In view of your appalling criminal history, and in view of the particularly serious nature of the crime for which you have been convicted, it is only appropriate that you be sentenced to life imprisonment. Even if the murder of Nicole Patterson had never occurred, I would have no hesitation in imposing a term of life imprisonment upon you.\n\"It is clear, both in the present case and from your previous convictions for rape and like offences, that your offending is connected with a need by you to vindicate a perverted and sadistic hatred of women and a contempt for",
"-26.922570877109138"
],
[
"have shown no remorse for your crimes at all. Your reputation now lies in ruins, you have been stripped of your honours but you have no one to blame but yourself.\" Some sentences were expected to run consecutively, and Harris was expected to serve half of the total time in prison. He was told he must pay prosecution costs, though not compensation to the victims. The sentence was referred to the Attorney General Dominic Grieve after complaints that it was too lenient. On 30 July 2014 the new Attorney General, Jeremy Wright, announced that he would not be referring the",
"-26.921602275877376"
],
[
"sophistication as the average offender, there is a greater likelihood that their deficiency in communicative ability will be interpreted by juries as a lack of remorse for their crimes. They typically make poor witnesses, being more prone to suggestion and willing to \"confess\" in order to placate or please their questioner. Thus, there is a greater risk that the jury may impose the death penalty despite the existence of evidence that suggests that a lesser penalty should be imposed. In light of the \"evolving standards of decency\" that the Eighth Amendment demands, the fact that the goals of retribution and",
"-26.907748051249655"
],
[
"Study\" conducted by the Urban Institute from 2001 to 2006 found that ex-prisoners who worked before imprisonment, and those who find employment soon after release, are less likely to be re-incarcerated within a year of release. The same study found that releasing prisoners to parole supervision both reduces the likelihood that they will engage in substance use and makes it easier for them to find employment after release. Healthcare Other reentry programs focus on improving health among ex-prisoners, which tends to be significantly worse than that of people who have never been imprisoned. Re-entry for women prisoners Women prisoners and",
"-26.907573849428445"
],
[
"been sentenced to life imprisonment under the Crime (Sentences) Act 1997 had been freed on parole since 2000. Victims of crime and their families Gill Smith, whose 18-year-old daughter Louise was murdered in December 1995, praised Mr Blunkett for giving judges the power to set longer minimum terms. Her daughter's killer, David Frost, was convicted of murder and sentenced to life but with a minimum of 14 years, as he had confessed to the crime as well as expressing remorse in court. Mrs Smith felt that 14 years was a very short time, especially when one of the men who",
"-26.877015773847234"
],
[
"your extreme denial and complete absence of any remorse, and the assessment of risk, I have come to the conclusion that a custodial sentence is the only appropriate disposal. In my opinion, the repeated abuse and violent behaviour towards your three former wives and stepdaughter over a period of 28 years outweighs other factors.\" Within a few weeks, lawyers acting on his behalf appeared at the High Court in Edinburgh to appeal against a custodial sentence and this was quickly dismissed.\nHe was released from HM Prison Dumfries on 21 March 2014 under automatic early release rules after serving half of",
"-26.871074785420205"
],
[
"and poor prison conditions\". The government responded to business chambers' concerns by exempting nine of the economic crimes originally targeted. Only offences punishable by at least three years in prison would trigger the transfer of a fugitive, up from the previously stated one year. Nonetheless, these amendments failed to assuage the business community's concerns. According to the CBC, ”[What the] rich business people fear is that the extradition law would destroy the freedoms people and businesses in the territory have grown to expect\". Due to the vast power that politicians and officials exert over the mainland legal system, \"businesses that",
"-26.855119128362276"
],
[
"the public. Since 2004, it has also been possible for preventive detention to be ordered by a court after the original sentencing if the danger that a criminal poses upon release becomes obvious during their imprisonment. Despite its non-punitive status and the broadness of its potential application, though, preventive detention is used only in exceptional cases.\nParoled prisoners usually must stay in regular contact with a civilian \"parole helper\" (Bewährungshelfer) for the duration of their parole. The parole period in the case of life imprisonment is five years (§ 57 III StGB). 1977 judgement on life imprisonment Prior to 1977, all",
"-26.840258355320657"
],
[
"family, who believed that her killing warranted a harsher sentence, and later by Cantat himself, who wanted the higher court to reclassify his crime as manslaughter, and therefore lessen his sentence. Both parties ultimately decided to cancel their appeals, which rendered final the original sentence of eight years. At the request of his lawyers, Cantat was moved from a Lithuanian prison to a prison near Muret, France, September 2004. Cantat served four years of his eight-year sentence in prison. According to French law, after half of a prison sentence has been served, a criminal with good behavior can be released",
"-26.832176173804328"
],
[
"months in one case, and one year in the other. Both sentences were suspended as the defendants were exceptionally remorseful, still mentally ill, and retired. They accepted the verdicts immediately.",
"-26.818487172713503"
],
[
"convictions remain on an individual's criminal record. For example, fines remain on the record for 2 years from the date of payment, unconditional convictions for 5 years from date of release from prison, and suspended sentences for 3 years from the conviction date. Any older convictions will be struck from the record.\nIn order to obtain a criminal record check in Denmark an individual or third party (with written consent) can apply in person at a local police station or by way of email to the National Police Authority. Available languages for the certificate include English, German, Danish, French and Spanish",
"-26.80987684993306"
],
[
"at double the rate, and a third or later offence at treble. Should an offender not pay the fine or give security, they were to be imprisoned in the house of correction for ten days of hard labour; if a soldier or seaman, they were to be set in the stocks for an hour (or for two hours, for multiple offences). The offender was liable for all costs, or for six additional days imprisonment if costs were not paid, and all fines were to be disposed of to the poor of the parish.\nAny justice or magistrate who avoided carrying out",
"-26.787134030848392"
],
[
"detainment or jail through a lens of cost benefit analysis. When those accused of crimes await trial in jail as opposed to paying bail, they are removed from family, work, and education. Pre-trial detainees await disposition of felony charges an average of 95 days. This is an expensive proposition. In a New York Times blog on this issue, Mr. Jacobson proposed NYC could save $125 million if case processing times were improved and those accused of crimes did not need to spend excessive amounts of time in jail.\nIn the future, ISLG seeks to expand its cost benefit",
"-26.786352864583023"
],
[
"at least 40 years before being considered for parole. As a result, he is likely to remain in prison until at least 2045 and the age of 72. This sentence is one of the longest recommended minimum terms ever made by a judge or politician in England and Wales. Bertram Byfield Bertram Byfield had been jailed in 1997 for dealing in crack cocaine. Despite his criminal background Toni-Ann, who was living under the care of Birmingham Social Services, had been allowed to visit him at his bedsit in an ex-offenders' hostel.\nAs well as serving time in prison Byfield, who was",
"-26.771697379648685"
],
[
"behavior after they serve two-thirds of their sentence, or three-fourths if sentenced in cases of terrorism or sex crimes, in prison. However, parole is only possible if the inmate made no violations of prison rules. For those sentenced to less than one year in prison, they can be released after serving half the sentence.\nArticle 107 LES also provides that released prisoners are subject to a supervision period (tr: denetim süresi) that lasts half of the time spent in prison. Only after this period the sentence will count as being executed. Paragraph 16 of Article 107 LES provides that people convicted",
"-26.765223825117573"
],
[
"deport or extradite individuals who might be subjected to torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, in the recipient state. Bamber Case On 9 July 2013, UK prisoner Jeremy Bamber won an appeal to the European Court of Human Rights that whole life imprisonment (with no chance of parole) was in contravention of Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights.\nThe Grand Chamber voted overwhelmingly in favour of the decision by 16-1, meaning that the UK government will now be forced to review 49 instances of whole life sentences. Ataun Rojo v. Spain Case In this case, which ran",
"-26.75704119715374"
],
[
"attempt to avoid imprisonment for the offences. He was sentenced to one year in prison for evasion of tax payments. The sentence was suspended and resulted in no jail time served, provided he does not offend again during the suspended sentence.",
"-26.7554797163466"
],
[
"time after having served the sentence must have elapsed (6 months, 2 years, 3 years or 5 years depending on the sentence); 2) no further crime has been committed in the interim; 3) civil compensation has been paid or the person has been declared without money. To cancel a criminal record, the individual either makes a free of charge formal request to the Ministry of Justice or the Central Criminal Records Registry cancels the record itself. Sweden In Sweden, the police has a record of convictions (\"Belastningsregistret\"). It does not contain arrests, and its information is not available for general",
"-26.754357554978924"
],
[
"defendant could be imprisoned until the debt and costs were satisfied. As in English law, the plaintiff was required to maintain the debtor in prison by paying what was called groats. The defendant could say on oath that he had no means of maintaining himself in prison. If this occurred, the plaintiff had to provide maintenance for him in prison according to the order of the Court. If the amount ordered by the court was not paid for one week, the debtor could be discharged from prison and also discharged from the debt. Appeals There was a right of appeal",
"-26.72340472007636"
],
[
"the first woman to be exonerated by the Correction Review Unit. In addition, Gathers was granted a $2.4 million settlement in a claim for compensation in the New York Court of Claims. Darryl Austin, Alvena Jennette, and Robert Hill In 2014, three half-brothers, Darryl Austin, Alvena Jennette, and Robert Hill, were exonerated of all indictment charges and convictions of second-degree murder. Unfortunately, Austin passed away in 2000 after serving 13 years of the 18 years to life sentence which followed the 1988 trial for the 1985 murder of Ronnie Durant in which his co-defendant was Jennette. Receiving an identical sentence,",
"-26.722555682470556"
],
[
"are being put off for another month ... [meaning] these defendants miss work, lose wages and in some cases their jobs.\"\nNew York City's use of remand (pre-trial detention) has also been criticized. Almost without exception, New York judges only set two kinds of bail at arraignment, straight cash or commercial bail bond, while other options exist such as partially secured bonds, which only require a tenth of the full amount as a down payment to the court (and presumably refunded when redeemed), and unsecured bonds, which don't require any up front payment. The New York City Criminal Justice Agency has",
"-26.710277791600674"
],
[
"lie with the prison authorities and always be based on an individual risk assessment of the prisoner concerned; further, the regime should be applied for as short a time as possible, which implies that the decision imposing it should be reviewed at regular intervals. Pardon and conditional release Article 107 of the Law on the Execution of Sentences (LES) provides that in case of good conduct (tr: iyi hâl) prisoners may be released on condition. In cases of rehabilitation, ill health, or permanent disability, the President of the Republic may pardon inmates. Prisoners sentenced to aggravated life imprisonment can be",
"-26.689486783288885"
],
[
"was sentenced to life in prison. Two of the four men died in prison after serving almost 30 years, and two others were released after serving 32 and 36 years. In July 2007, U.S. District Judge Nancy Gertner in Boston found that the Bureau had helped convict the four men using false witness accounts given by mobster Joseph Barboza. The U.S. Government was ordered to pay $100 million in damages to the four defendants. Special FBI teams In 1982, the FBI formed an elite unit to help with problems that might arise at the 1984 Summer Olympics to be held",
"-26.673115296987817"
],
[
"while 156 sentenced to death have had their death sentences vacated, indicating that more than one in ten death row inmates were wrongly sentenced. It is impossible to assess how many have been wrongly executed, since courts do not generally investigate the innocence of a dead defendant, and defense attorneys tend to concentrate their efforts on clients whose lives can still be saved; however, there is strong evidence of innocence in many cases.\nImproper procedure may also result in unfair executions. For example, Amnesty International argues that in Singapore \"the Misuse of Drugs Act contains a series of presumptions which shift",
"-26.658480775426142"
],
[
"people in 25 states were released from death row when new evidence of their innocence emerged. Whether all of these exonerations are cases of actual innocence rather than technical exonerations of the defendants due to legal issues in their cases that allow their convictions to be legally quashed is disputed by death penalty supporters.\nStatistics likely understate the actual problem of wrongful convictions because once an execution has occurred there is often insufficient motivation and finance to keep a case open, and it becomes unlikely at that point that the miscarriage of justice will ever be exposed. In the case of",
"-26.656779926037416"
],
[
"an elderly woman for robbery shortly after being paroled from a life sentence imposed for a similar crime. Stays of execution According to Article 475 of the Japanese Code of Criminal Procedure, the death penalty must be executed within six months after the failure of the prisoner's final appeal upon an order from the Minister of Justice. However, the period requesting retrial or pardon is exempt from this regulation. Therefore, in practice, the typical stay on death row is between five and seven years; a quarter of the prisoners have been on death row for over ten years. For several,",
"-26.654663916342543"
],
[
"sets a non-parole period after which the prisoner can apply for release under parole conditions, or in the case of a criminal who has committed particularly heinous crimes, the sentencing judge may order that the person is \"never to be released\". High-security prisons For extremely low-risk offenders that has committed murders and sexual assault but where no real threat the country, Australia operates several supermax prisons. Cost of prisons in Australia In 2016-17, Australia spent $3.1 billion on prisons. Immigration detention facilities Australia also operates several immigration detention facilities. A non-citizen may be detained pending deportation because their visa has",
"-26.632318082731217"
],
[
"do so even if the expected sanction would be worse if they proceeded to trial. The study concluded that \"[t]his somewhat counterintuitive 'cost of innocence', where the preferences of innocents lead them collectively to fare worse than their guilty counterparts, is further increased by the practice of imposing much harsher sentences at trial on defendants who contest the charges. This 'trial penalty' seeks to facilitate guilty pleas by guilty defendants [...and ironically...] disproportionately, collectively, penalizes innocents, who reject on fairness grounds some offers their guilty counterparts accept.\"\nThe extent to which innocent people will accept a plea bargain and plead guilty",
"-26.612609659321606"
],
[
"bracelets. Causes Although offenders are being released, most have not received proper rehabilitation tactics to keep them from committing another crime. This often leads reoccurring offenders back into the prison system. There has been an increase in waitlisted or lack of specialized programs (drug, alcohol, intoxicated driving courses) that allow inmates to have the proper rehabilitation. Some crimes are just simply not given the option for parole, which holds inmates in the system for an extended time or even life.",
"-26.610497840280004"
],
[
"good conduct to five years and three months' imprisonment. The other defendants were acquitted or dropped because of the statute of limitation.\nThe verdict was quashed by the Court of Cassation ruling that the defendants had to be given the opportunity to plead, on changed charges and had to be heard again. On 30 September 2009 Diyarbakır Heavy Penal Court No. 3 went on hearing the case again.",
"-26.59955664165318"
],
[
"abused and gave coerced confessions were offered reduced sentences in exchange for dropping charges. A plea agreement was reached with one convicted victim. Aaron Patterson rejected the plea deal.\nOn January 11, 2003, having lost confidence in the state's death penalty system, outgoing Republican Governor George Ryan commuted the death sentences of 167 prisoners on Illinois' death row. He granted clemency by converting their death sentences to sentences of life without parole in most cases, while reducing some sentences.\nIn addition, Ryan had already pardoned four death row inmates: Madison Hobley, Aaron Patterson, Leroy Orange and Stanley Howard, who were among the",
"-26.585469399055"
],
[
"concerns about the robustness of a report authored by retired Canadian Supreme Court judge Ian Binnie, which recommended that David Bain should be paid compensation for the 13 years he spent in prison before being acquitted at retrial in 2009. The report had been presented to Collins on 31 August 2012, but the dispute only became public after Binnie threatened to release the report on his own. Collins had provided a copy of the report to the police and the Solicitor-General and ordered a peer review by former New Zealand High Court judge Robert Fisher, sending a \"34-point list of",
"-26.56199296755949"
],
[
"raise a life sentence to death. Ultimately, a five-member petty bench of the Supreme Court has the final say on the penalty, Article 411 of Code of Criminal Procedure allowing it to remand the case or change the punishment if the one handed down by the high court is \"seriously unfair\".\nIn only three cases since 1945, the Supreme Court ruled a high court-imposed life sentence too lenient, and ordered a retrial for death sentence. Among them are Norio Nagayama and Takayuki Fukuda, both under 20 at time of crime. The third case was that of a man convicted of murdering",
"-26.561243189149536"
],
[
"Back-to-back life sentences In judicial practice, back-to-back life sentences are two or more consecutive life sentences given to a felon. This penalty is typically used to prevent the felon from ever getting released from prison.\nThis is a common punishment for a double murder in the United States, and is effective because the defendant may be awarded parole after 25 years when he or she is eligible, and then must serve an additional 25 years in prison to be eligible for parole again. It also serves as a type of insurance that the defendant will have to serve the maximum length",
"-26.55029816919705"
],
[
"in a US U.S. Federal Prison in exchange for his guilty plea for stealing money from homeless children. No comments were made in the plea agreement pertaining to the exposure of potential prison violence due in part to the nature of his crimes upon homeless and displaced children. As a Federal Inmate, he will be required to serve his time in a |US Federal prison. The Federal prison system has no parole. \nUnder the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984, Congress eliminated parole for federal defendants convicted of crimes committed after November 1, 1987. The Sentencing Reform Act also requires DiMaggio",
"-26.55019905732479"
],
[
"fine which the court could have imposed in respect of the original offense committed by the offender. Grave offenses not entitled to probation Male persons convicted of grave offenses are not entitled to probation., like those punishable with the penalty of death or transportation for life or of heinous offenses of the nature, as described in the PPC under sections 216-A (penalty for harboring robbers or dacoits), 311 (for being a thug), 328 (theft after preparation made for causing death, hurt or restraint in order to the committing of the theft), 386-389 (putting a person in fear of injury or",
"-26.546476483163133"
],
[
"non-parole period of four months. However, after successfully appealing his punishment, his lawyers successfully argued that due to his age and frailty, he was deemed to be too unfit for a retrial and therefore no further sentence was imposed on Durham before his death in 2002.\nIn 2003, the Queensland Government accidentally sent confidential documents to one of Durham's victims, who was angry that not only Durham had walked free but that she had been told there was no record of Father Reginald Durham being at the orphanage when he abused her at the age of 14, so refused to",
"-26.53968424012419"
],
[
"the intent of the guidelines to curtail disparities. Determinate sentencing has also failed to reduce racial disparity in sentencing.\nAlso, some juries have been acquitting guilty defendants to save them from what they regard as overly harsh mandatory minimum sentences, such as those imposed by the Rockefeller Drug Laws and California's three-strikes law. There have been movements to abolish sentencing commissions and guideline systems and inform jurors of their right to nullify. Decisions like Apprendi v. New Jersey (requiring a jury, rather than a judge, to find any facts that would increase a defendant's maximum sentence) and Ring v. Arizona (requiring",
"-26.513457531575114"
],
[
"prisoners over 75 years of age sentenced to ten years or less whose sentences had not been served, as well as cancelling all court proceedings which had been ongoing for longer than eight years. By 11 January 6,318 prisoners had been released due to the amnesty, with other cases pending the outcome of court appeals. In addition, dozens of high-profile long-running corruption trials ended due to the amnesty, causing the greatest public anger.\nThe extent of the amnesty was widely criticized in the Czech Republic, with the opposition demanding a vote of no confidence against Prime Minister Petr Nečas, who countersigned",
"-26.50383629568387"
],
[
"could be awarded by prison officials. By the mid-1970s, indeterminate sentencing was under attack, as arguments were made that racial and other invidious biases influenced officials; that rehabilitative treatment programs were ineffective; and that broad, standardless discretion denied constitutional due process and permitted undue leniency that undermined the deterrent effects of sanctions. Federal supervised release is also sometimes cited as an example of indeterminate sentencing.",
"-26.476547004131135"
],
[
"in the third degree – carrying a loaded, unlicensed weapon in a public place. He was sentenced to six months in jail, one year's psychiatric treatment, five years' probation, 200 hours community service, and a $5,000 fine. An appellate court affirmed the conviction and changed the sentence to one year in jail without probation. The order of the appellate court was affirmed because the trial court had not erred in instructing the jury that, if it found the People had proved each of the elements of the crime beyond a reasonable doubt, it \"must\" find the defendant guilty. This was",
"-26.47435149521334"
],
[
"was re-sentenced to five years behind bars but remains free on bail pending an appeal.",
"-26.470746716637223"
],
[
"in prison (he can be paroled after 10 years; but he can be confined after the 21 years are up, allowable for five years at a time, if he is viewed as still dangerous, resulting in an actual life sentence). The Rector said they were obliged to follow the regulations, which allowed it because his grades were good enough. It will be done in solitary confinement, with guards delivering his assignments and the finished work and the grades. In October 2018, it was reported that course materials were being provided to Breivik by a prison officer and that he",
"-26.468903263274115"
],
[
"a day, judges can offer defendants a chance at parole. In the United States federal system, only sentences exceeding one year allow prisoners to obtain early release for good time while incarcerated. As a result, a sentence of a year and a day can lead to less time served than a sentence of a year.",
"-26.45860699133482"
],
[
"and overseas decisions against Finnish citizens or permanent residents.\nThe length of time convictions are kept on the record varies according to type of conviction. Convictions will be removed from a criminal record after 5 years (suspended sentences, fines, and community service supplementary to a suspended sentence), 10 years (custodial sentences less than 2 years, community service) or 20 years (custodial sentences between 2–5 years). If no recent convictions have been added to an individual's records, judgments will be removed upon death or when the individual reaches 90 years old.\nThere are multiple avenues in which an individual can obtain a criminal",
"-26.45484896452399"
],
[
"years was given to Kenny Alezander Bendibú Salazar and Roberto Antonio Mariscal for being accomplices in homicide, but were acquitted of kidnapping charges. Coupled with all this, all of them would be disqualified from public functions for a term of 10 years once they serve out their sentences.",
"-26.454765654925723"
],
[
"eventual sentencing in the corruption case. Under federal sentencing guidelines, having a criminal history can increase the recommended amount of time a defendant should spend incarcerated.",
"-26.428676987765357"
],
[
"the board has reduced the number of offenders returning to prison, particularly on what are considered technical violations. In FY 2012, only 20 percent of parole violation cases resulted in the offender returning to prison, and only 12 percent of those cases were solely for technical reasons. In most cases, parole is continued, although possibly with additional conditions, or the individual is referred for a short period of time to an intermediate sanction facility or substance abuse felony punishment facility.\nMore than 22,000 preliminary and revocation hearings were held in Fiscal Year 2012. Medical cases The board also reviews cases of",
"-26.42699343408458"
],
[
"penology and insulated from political pressures, determined when prisoners had been rehabilitated and could be reintegrated into society.\nThe process of preparing a presentence report, which takes weeks, only begins after the defendant is convicted, since if he/she were to be acquitted, the effort that went into preparing the report would be wasted. It would, therefore, not be possible for juries to sentence the defendant at the time of conviction, if the jury needed to rely on a presentence report in making its sentencing decision; rather, the jury would need to be broken up and reassembled later, which could be unworkable",
"-26.419912737663253"
],
[
"reprieve is granted by the President or if, upon appeal, the conviction is quashed.\nOver 3,200 people nationwide are serving life terms without a chance of parole for nonviolent offenses. Of those prisoners, 80 percent are behind bars for drug-related convictions: 65 percent are African-American, 18 percent are Latino, and 16 percent are white. The ACLU has called the statistics proof of \"extreme racial disparities.\" Some of the crimes that led to life sentences include stealing gas from a truck and shoplifting but only for those with a pattern of habitual criminal offenses. A large number of those imprisoned for life",
"-26.401662090735044"
],
[
"of parole being granted after 17 years. The sentencing judge may, taking into account the aggravating and mitigating factors of the offence, extend the non-parole period or impose life imprisonment with no possibility of parole.:102–4\nOn 14 August 2019, it was reported that Tarrant had been able to send seven letters from prison, two to his mother and five to unnamed recipients. One of these letters was subsequently posted on the Internet message boards 4chan and 8chan by far-right supporters. Minister of Corrections Kelvin Davis and the Department of Corrections were criticised for allowing the distribution of these letters. On 19",
"-26.40106277790619"
],
[
"It is accordingly quashed. The appellant will be discharged. There will be no new trial.\"\nAccompanied by his brother Peter, Hodgson walked out of the Royal Courts of Justice a free and innocent man after 27 years of wrongful imprisonment. Hodgson's barrister at the 1982 trial, Robin Grey QC, was there to shake his hand as he was released. Grey said: \"As a human being I feel glad that we no longer have capital punishment. As a defence barrister I didn't get him off, and I have bitter feelings of guilt about that.\"\nHodgson may be eligible for up to £1 million in compensation.",
"-26.400226223515347"
],
[
"held that all accused persons who are being prosecuted for offences punishable up to 7 years and have been in prison for more than one year should be released immediately on bail and accordingly four hundred and twenty people were immediately released. Controversy In 2011 The Bar Council of Delhi found Aggarwal in two professions chartered accountancy and advocacy simultaneously. However, Aggarwal denied the charge and said though he has a chartered accountant's degree but only involved in the profession of law.",
"-26.396648865324096"
]
] |
6srr2d | After detecting a missile launch, how does a country know if it's an attack or just a test? | [
"Normally they tell the other country they are launching a missile. [Though sometimes they forget and there's a bit of a nuclear scare]( URL_0 ). So far this hasn't torched off a nuclear war because most tests are just 1 rocket. And a full first strike would involve hundreds of rockets. Also the missile might not be headed in the direction of anything of value. If the choice was potentially starting a nuclear war on accident or losing an uninhabited island in the middle of the pacific that you technically own, most people pick the latter.",
"As others have said, you can calculate the trajectory of the missile to determine where it will land - A test launch won't be aimed at another country. Another thing to note is that any attack is likely to involve lots of missiles being launched simultaneously, seeing just one on radar is definitely cause for doubt that it's an intentional attack.",
"Could I add a sub-question? How do countries know when a missile has been launched by another country? Are they always watching via satellite? Surely their radar doesn't cover everywhere? Also, do they have missiles that can change direction mid flight to confuse the intended target?",
"Article about the U.S.' launch under attack process: URL_0 ",
"Typically a test is anouncwd via an international NOTAM: Notice To Airman. When a launch is detected without a NOTAM, all hell breaks loose to track where it's going. Once that's determined then decissions are made made based on the preliminary trajectory. Needless to say, getting it right, with typically no more than 20 minutes of time to decide, is the money shot!",
"Standard practice is for the country doing the test to tell all others that they are doing a test. If a country fails to do this the trajectory is calculated and if it looks like it could be an attack it is assumed to be one.",
"They track the launch using radar to determine where it's headed. If it's not headed in your direction, it's not an attack (or at least not a successful one)."
] | [
[
"toward the approximate intercept location, and then as it approached, fed information on where to look for the target.\nFerranti began development of a small digital computer to perform these intercept calculations. The computer would first be fed the target location from a new remote tactical control radar, already under development as Orange Yeoman. The computer would then calculate an approximate intercept point and feed that information to the missile's autopilot. The computer also sent the current angular location of the target relative to the missile, the \"angle error\", so the missile could keep the receiver aimed in the right direction,",
"-29.927815374801867"
],
[
"target is based on the target's size and the \"beam quality\" of the firing ship. The amount of damage caused by a hit are reduced with distance, making it primarily a short-range weapon. In addition, ships are armed with missiles or torpedoes for long-range fire. Missiles fly to a location in space relative to the ship after movement and then explode regardless if there is a target in that location. Torpedoes are fired in a particular direction (the eight cardinals) and explode if they pass within two grid spaces of any other material object (except other torpedoes). Some ships also",
"-29.798454109055456"
],
[
"intends to rendezvous with an object already in orbit, the launch must be carefully timed to occur around the times that the target vehicle's orbital plane intersects the launch site.\nEarth observation satellites are often launched into sun-synchronous orbits which are near-polar. For these orbits, the launch window occurs at the time of day when the launch site location is aligned with the plane of the required orbit. To launch at another time would require an orbital plane change maneuver which would require a large amount of propellant.\nFor launches above low Earth orbit (LEO), the actual launch time can be somewhat",
"-28.975549100490753"
],
[
"a missile is dependent upon the guidance system knowing the exact position of the missile at any given moment during its flight, the fact that stars are a fixed reference point from which to calculate that position makes this a potentially very effective means of improving accuracy. In the Trident system this was achieved by a single camera that was trained to spot just one star in its expected position. If it was not quite aligned to where it should be, it would indicate that the inertial system was not precisely on target and a correction would be made.\nThe equipment",
"-28.737389603978954"
],
[
"at the control station, and a POO is triangulated and displayed. The UTAMS subsystem can also detect and locate the point of impact (POI), but, due to the difference between the speeds of sound and light, it may take UTAMS as long as 30 seconds to determine the POO for a rocket launch 13 km away. This means UTAMS may detect a rocket POI prior to the POO, providing very little if any warning time. but the electro-optical component of RLS will detect the rocket POO earlier. Infrared MASINT While infrared IMINT and MASINT operate in the same wavelengths, MASINT does",
"-28.606417546398006"
],
[
"knowing the exact position of the missile at any given moment during its flight, the fact that stars are a fixed reference point from which to calculate that position makes this a potentially very effective means of improving accuracy.\nIn the Trident missile system this was achieved by a single camera that was trained to spot just one star in its expected position (it is believed that the missiles from Soviet submarines would track two separate stars to achieve this), if it was not quite aligned to where it should be then this would indicate that the inertial system was not",
"-28.54689770459663"
],
[
"difficult to detect. Any infrared launch signature occurs in orbit, at no fixed position. The infrared launch signature also has a much smaller magnitude compared to a ballistic missile launch. One drawback of the system is that the weapon's sensors would almost certainly be blind during atmospheric reentry due to the plasma sheath that would develop ahead of it, so a mobile target could be difficult to hit if it performed an unexpected maneuver. The system would also have to cope with atmospheric heating from re-entry, which could melt non-tungsten components of the weapon.\nThe phrase \"Rods from God\" is also",
"-28.268735075602308"
],
[
"the Russian government in May 2010. 2010 tests Testing was resumed for the first time after the probe on 7 October 2010. The missile was launched from the submerged Dmitry Donskoy, in the White Sea, and the warheads successfully hit their targets at the Kura testing range, 380 kilometres (240 mi) to the north of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky in the Russian Far East. The launch reportedly took place at 07:15 UTC. The missile travelled over 6,000 kilometres (3,700 mi), and the rocket's trajectory was within the normal parameters, according to a Navy official.\nThe second test launch in 2010 from Dmitry Donskoy was set to",
"-28.097485501668416"
],
[
"the US DoD, the missile has been test fired on May 4 and May 9 of 2019 with two missiles were launched in each of the tests.",
"-27.954675926361233"
],
[
"it is known that the interceptor missile (named Tamir) is equipped with electro-optic sensors and several steering fins, providing it with high maneuverability. The system's radar identifies the rocket launch, extrapolates its flight path and transfers this information to the control center, which then uses this information to determine the projected impact location. If the projected target justifies an interception, then an interceptor missile is fired. Refugees In May 2007, a significant increase in rocket attacks from Gaza prompted the temporary evacuation of thousands of residents from Sderot. According to the United Nations, 40 percent of the city's residents left",
"-27.649244994317996"
],
[
"of such missiles makes an engagement with anti-ship missiles between surface ships fairly unlikely because for one ship to launch its missiles it would have to bring itself within range of the enemies missiles. Even with surprise the flight time of such missiles is long enough for an enemy to return fire before being hit making such an engagement extremely dangerous without some additional advantage. The Battle of Latakia during the Yom Kippur War saw Israeli missile boats sink an equal number of Syrian boats by using electronic counter measures and chaff to successfully avoid missile fire but modern missiles",
"-27.622178498539142"
],
[
"operator would then search for the target in elevation. The operator's field of view would depend on the target range: \"wide\" at about 20 degrees or \"track\" at about 4.8 degrees. When the target was found the operator switches to \"track\" and uses a joystick to keep the target centred in the telescope. Once a steady track was established the missile was fired. The TV camera on the tracker was tuned to track the four flares on the missile's tail. Like the operator's telescope, the TV system had two views, one about 11 degrees wide for the initial \"capture\", and",
"-27.468986079853494"
],
[
"intercepting missile.\nOn December 10, 2015 Arrow 3 scored its first intercept in a complex test designed to validate how the system can detect, identify, track and then discriminate real from decoy targets delivered into space by an improved Silver Sparrow target missile. According to officials, the milestone test paves the way toward low-rate initial production of the Arrow 3.\nOn February 19, 2018 Arrow 3 flight test took place in Israel. Another test took place on January 22, 2019.\nIn a series of tests in July 2019 at the Pacific Spaceport Complex in Kodiak, Alaska, the Arrow 3 system successfully intercepted",
"-27.427445661160164"
],
[
"coverage.\nOne issue that emerged from these studies was the problem of providing early warning to the SCD sites. The SCD's MSR radars provided detection at perhaps 100 miles (160 km), which meant targets would appear on their radars only seconds before launches would have to be carried out. In a sneak attack scenario, there would not be enough time to receive command authority for the release of nuclear weapons. This meant the bases would require launch on warning authority, which was politically unacceptable.\nThis led to proposals for a new radar dedicated solely to the early warning role, determining only which MAR",
"-27.332553946151165"
],
[
"the exact launch sites and types of these two missiles are not clarified in Chinese news, although it was rumored that the interceptor was designated the DN-1 or \"Dong Neng 1\".\nAccording to The Pentagon, Beijing did not inform the test in advance. And the statement \"We detected two geographically separated missile launch events with an exo-atmospheric collision also being observed by space-based sensors\", by The Pentagon spokeswoman Major Maureen Schumann, also proves the profile and results of the test.",
"-27.21244573779404"
],
[
"radar guidance when approaching a target, the missile can fly to an altitude of 14,000 m (46,000 ft) before descending to sea-skimming altitude of 5 m at the final stage, useful up to sea state 7. \"These complexes are able to destroy both sea and ground targets at a distance of 350 kilometers at sea and almost 450 kilometers over land,\" Shoigu said at Russian President Vladimir Putin’s meeting with representatives of the Defense Ministry. Operational history On 2 March 2011, it was reported that Russia would be deploying the system on the Kuril Islands in the Far East. The deployment was finally",
"-27.119013895120588"
],
[
"sea, missiles decrease the range at which the target ships can detect them by a significant amount. Flying at a lower altitude increases the amount of time the missile is under the horizon from the perspective of the target ship, making it harder to detect due to radar clutter from the sea and similar effects. The real-life success of sea skimming depends on its exact implementation, the sophistication of the detection equipment, as well as the infrared and radar signature of the missile. Sea skimming can significantly reduce the available response time that a ship's missile defenses have to work",
"-27.06012994865887"
],
[
"time on 13 December 2014. Later that month, China confirmed that the launch occurred, saying it has a legitimate right to conduct scientific tests within its border, that they were not targeting any country, and the development of the missile did not affect China's policy of not using nuclear weapons first in a conflict. The launch took place at the Wuzhai Missile and Space Test Center in central China and impacted in the west of the country.\nIn August 2015, the missile was flight-tested for the fourth time.\nIn December 2015, the missile was flight-tested for the fifth time. The flight",
"-26.993117490084842"
],
[
"has to determine if the detection is valid, under investigation, or anomalous due to computer, mechanical or personnel error. After that, the crew determines the number of launched vehicles and provides impact predictions on North America. Once the information is determined, the unit passes updates to the appropriate authorities. ICBM detection The 7th SWS's corollary mission of Missile Defense supports the Ground-Based Midcourse Defense (GMD) element of the Ballistic Missile Defense System. This program's objective is the defense of the United States against a threat of a limited strategic ballistic missile attack. The unit's Upgraded Early Warning Radar (UEWR) detects,",
"-26.98352131433785"
],
[
"achieve the mission plotted against the launch time. Launch Window The launch window is defined by the first launch point and ending launch point. It may be continuous (i.e. able to launch every second in the launch window) or may be a collection of discrete instantaneous points between the open and close. Launch windows and days are usually calculated in UTC and then converted to the local time of where the rocket and spacecraft operators are located (frequently multiple time zones for USA launches).\nFor trips into largely arbitrary Earth orbits, no specific launch time is required. But if the spacecraft",
"-26.89451689829002"
],
[
"rolled out to the launch area several times before surface and upper atmosphere conditions are acceptable for launch.\nDuring the flight, data is transmitted to the ground for quick-look analysis, and is usually recorded on board as well. Scientists on the ground usually actively control the payload. An astronomical telescope, for example, can be real time directed toward a variety of sources for observations, or left in an autonomous mode of operation.",
"-26.888001086656004"
],
[
"scan for nearby stars. When the target is located and scanned, players will get an analysis report of that planet, including radius, mass, temperature, water coverage, and Earth similarity. Once discovered, players can give the planet a name of their choice. Spaceship Exploration Every time the players finish a mission, the story progresses as they return to the spaceship, unlocking new missions and areas for exploration. When the players click on an interactable item or facility, dialog will show up and sometimes clues can be found for unlocking special missions, where the target can be stars, asteroids, and even supernova.",
"-26.80168145096468"
],
[
"in central Turkey, officials said. Together, the three radar sites form an arc that U.S. officials say can detect missile launches from northern, western and southern Iran. Those sites will enable U.S. officials and allied militaries to track missiles launched from deep inside Iran, which has an arsenal of missiles capable of reaching Israel and parts of Europe. The radar installations, in turn, are being linked to missile-interceptor batteries throughout the region and to U.S. ships with high-altitude interceptor rockets. The X-Band radar provides images that can be used to pinpoint rockets in flight.\nU.S. official also stated that the U.S.",
"-26.651003437465988"
],
[
"launch precision air strikes against bordering countries. These strikes can be performed on military, civilian, industrial, or nuclear targets. Military, industrial, and civilian targets can only be attacked if the diplomatic relationship with a country is very bad. Military strikes may destroy a very few army units (five main battle tanks, for example). Civilian and industrial strikes are done particularly to reduce diplomatic relationships.\nNuclear targets can be attacked at any time, and doing so retards or even eliminates the development of that country's nuclear program (which then continues as before, but from its reduced development level). However, if the country",
"-26.65005057421513"
],
[
"range.\nA prediction for the possible range, following an optimum trajectory, has been given at 6,700 kilometres (4,200 mi) or as much as 10,400 kilometres (6,500 mi) not taking into account the Earth’s rotation. If true, then this brings the U.S. states of Alaska and Hawaii within the missile's range. Second test flight Preparations for a second test flight were detected by US intelligence as early as 20 July. On 28 July, the missile was fired at 11:41 p.m local time, the first time which a night time launch was carried out. The missile was fired at a lofted trajectory with apogee of",
"-26.63278125632496"
],
[
"Launch status check A launch status check, also known as a \"go/no go poll\" and several other terms occurs at the beginning of an American spaceflight mission in which flight controllers monitoring various systems are queried for operation and readiness status before a launch can proceed. For Space Shuttle missions, in the firing room at the Launch Control Center, the NASA Test Director (NTD) performed this check via a voice communications link with other NASA personnel. The NTD was the leader of the shuttle test team responsible for directing and integrating all flight crew, orbiter, external tank/solid rocket booster and",
"-26.579461464702035"
],
[
"rocket reaches the desired orbit, the satellites will be powered on by the launch vehicle before finally separating from the launch vehicle.\nThe third phase will begin once the two nanosatellites are ejected from the rocket. During this phase, there will be a 30-minute period where the satellites will go through a check out and initialization process. After this period, the satellites will begin transmitting beacon messages containing telemetry information that will help determine each satellite's status. During this phase the ground station will attempt to establish first contact with the satellites and perform a check out procedure to make",
"-26.53838264096703"
],
[
"about 20 km.\nMounted on either side of the tracking radar antenna is a small J band parabolic dish antenna to track the missile. Below that is a small circular antenna which emits an I band uplink capture beam to gather the missile shortly after launch. The final antennas in the array are two small white rectangular ones, one on either side of the array mounted alongside the I band. These are used for command uplink to the missile. This twin antenna system permits the 'Land Roll' radar to control up to two missiles simultaneously against a single target. Furthermore, the two",
"-26.530885773478076"
],
[
"impact, the ship was moving at high speed. After the ship executed a rapid turn away from the missile in the limited time available, a few seconds, the Exocet struck the port side adjacent to the hangar near the stern. The turn had prevented the missile from striking the ship's side perpendicularly and penetrating; instead it hit the deck coaming at an angle, near the port Seacat launcher, skidded on the deck, and exploded. This made a 10 by 15 feet (3.0 m × 4.6 m) hole in the hangar deck and a 5 by 4 feet (1.5 m × 1.2 m) hole in the galley",
"-26.408515179762617"
],
[
"Missile was launched from the USS Tripoli, near Kauai. The missile reached space, and was intercepted by two SM-2 missiles launched from a destroyer, after re-entry. The SM-2 missiles did not reach space. Simulated AEGIS test A further test of the AEGIS system was conducted on 13 June, when two Medium Range Target Missiles were launched from Barking Sands. The missiles were tracked by US Navy destroyers, and simulated SM-3 missiles were launched to intercept them. THAAD test On 26 June, the United States conducted its third ABM test of the month, when a THAAD missile was used to intercept a",
"-26.395389254554175"
],
[
"of the sites at RAF Watton. Tracking As the interceptor missile had to be launched shortly after detection and had to place itself relatively close to the ultimate intercept location, detailed tracking information was required as early as possible. To arrange this, radars would be forward deployed in the Netherlands at two sites, one in the south near Terneuzen and the second in the north on the island of Terschelling. These would be able to look sideways at the missiles as they passed, giving them an excellent image of the warheads and boosters. It was assumed the booster would be",
"-26.382469263102394"
],
[
"system uses the ship's three-dimensional circular scan radar for target tracking. Up to three missiles can be aimed simultaneously. The range is up to 30 km (19 mi) against targets with speeds up to 830 metres per second (2,700 ft/s). The ship carries 48 Shtil missiles. Guns The ship's 130-millimetre (5.1 in) guns are the AK-130-MR-184. The system includes a computer control system with electronic and television sighting. The gun can be operated in fully automatic mode from the radar control system, under autonomous control using the turret mounted Kondensor optical sighting system and can also be laid manually. Rate of fire is disputed,",
"-26.343713138019666"
],
[
"Aftermath The Diyarbakir space surveillance site operated a detection radar (FPS-17) and a tracking radar (FPS-79) throughout the 1960s and 1970s. If a new space object was sensed by the detection radar's fans, then the tracking radar could be oriented to achieve lock-on and tracking. The orientation was governed by knowledge of the appropriate \"normal\" object's astrodynamic laws of motion, or by an assumption as to launch point. Thus, if an unknown was detected, and if it followed an unusual path, it was unlikely that it could, or would, be tracked. Furthermore, the director of the radar could make a",
"-26.336894846055657"
],
[
"missile is launched from Scotland and detonates over the North Pole. A terrorist named Pendragon delivers an ultimatum to heads of state in London, Paris, Rome and Bonn. Russia and USA are excluded. The British secret service contacts AXE for assistance.\nThe missile launch is traced to Blackscape – an island in the Orkney archipelago controlled by Lord Hardesty – the richest man in the world. His objective is to provoke the destruction of Russia. Carter heads to the north coast of Scotland to begin his investigation. He meets Gwen Leith one of two British Special Branch agents assigned to the",
"-26.327941812225617"
],
[
"an attack, it might not be immediately clear what the targets are. The only way to be sure would be to wait until well into the attack and then respond in kind. This took long enough that some portion of the US fleet would be caught on the ground, and this \"retaliation after ride-out\" concept was considered too risky. Instead, the US policy moved to launch on warning, where they would respond to an attack as soon as it was clear one was in the making. This was not ideal, as it required them to maintain a high alert level",
"-26.218735353671946"
],
[
"2013 North Korean missile tests May 2013 tests On May 2013, North Korea launched three short-range guided missiles into the Sea of Japan. The first two missiles were shot in the morning, while the third was in the afternoon. The missiles were launched from the same location where two missiles had been displayed, fueled, and then removed weeks before.\nOn 19 May 2013, North Korea launched a fourth missile that landed in the Sea of Japan.\nOn 20 May 2013, North Korea launched short-range projectiles that landed in waters off the country's eastern coast.",
"-26.186110866547097"
],
[
"the attacker and its target. In addition, the torpedo would have to strike the target at a sufficiently blunt angle to explode on impact, unless fitted with a proximity fuse, and also dependent upon the efficiency of the weapon. This angle is called the attack vector and consists of the number of degrees of arc on each side of the target’s course.\nA convoy typically proceeded at 15 knots, which would provide an attack vector based upon a relatively wide area, but if the submarine was forced to submerge, the area of the attack vector would be drastically reduced.\nBattle fleets in",
"-26.169081935348345"
],
[
"previous direct ascent tests that intentionally did not result in an intercept, on July 7, 2005 and February 6, 2006.\nA classified U.S. State Department cable revealed by WikiLeaks indicates that the same system was tested against a ballistic target in January 2010 in what the Chinese government publicly described as a test of \"ground-based midcourse missile interception technology\". That description also closely matches the Chinese government's description of another test in January 2013, which has led some analysts to conclude that it was yet another test of the same ASAT system, again against a ballistic target and not a satellite.",
"-26.120646417955868"
],
[
"the United States or South Korea time to conduct airstrikes and destroy the missiles before they could be launched.\nHowever, North Korea may also be studying Soviet encapsulation techniques such as those used in the UR-100 ICBM, where each missile comes prefueled in a maintenance-free capsule with a mean time between overhauls of several years and a preparation time required before launch reduces to minutes. This appears to have been proven with the successful test launches of the Pukkuksong-2 solid-fueled ballistic missile in both land (PGS-2/KN-15) and submarine launched (PGS-1/KN-11) variants in 2017.",
"-26.120611590566114"
],
[
"UTAMS Motor, Rocket, Explosive Detector System concept Three to five acoustic arrays are set up in a roughly equilateral configuration several hundred meters from each other. Each array detects an impulsive event such as motor/rocket launch and determines the line of bearing from the array to the launch site. The lines of bearing from each array are transmitted via radio link to a central point where the results are combined to establish the location of the firing point through triangulation. Impact points are detected and located the same way. Results are displayed on a georeferenced map as icons using a",
"-26.075740062020486"
],
[
"tests; in addition, a nuclear-detection satellite of the Vela type was also reported to have detected a nuclear detonation in the Indian Ocean in 1978 that was believed to be a South African nuclear test in what was famously called the Vela Incident. Early-warning satellites can also be used to detect tactical missile launches; this capability was used during Desert Storm, when America was able to provide advance warning to Israel of Iraqi SS-1 SCUD missile launches. Global Positioning Systems The second application of space militarisation currently in use is GPS or Global Positioning System. This satellite navigation system is used for",
"-26.015083814563695"
],
[
"reliable method of identifying who the attacker is. Using SLBMs as a second-strike capability has a serious problem, because in retaliation for a submarine-launched ICBM, the wrong country could be targeted, and can cause a conflict to escalate. However, implementation of second strikes is crucial to deter a first strike. Countries with nuclear weapons make it their primary purpose to convince their opponents that a first strike is not worth facing a second strike. Such countries have many diverse launch mechanisms, prepared responses to various nuclear attack scenarios, launch mechanisms in many different areas of the country, and underground launch",
"-25.992055236943997"
],
[
" another at 0.55 degrees for midcourse tracking.\nThe difference between the line-of-sight of the operator's telescope and the missile's flare was calculated by the computer in the base of the launcher. Guidance updates were sent to the missile through the transmitter on the launcher platform, and received on small antennas on the rear of the mid-body fins. The operator simply kept the telescope's crosshairs on the target using the joystick, and the missile would automatically fly into the line-of-sight, a system of operation known as SACLOS. The basic concept is very similar to the one used by most anti-tank missiles,",
"-25.925254097674042"
],
[
"Space Tracking and Surveillance System The United States Missile Defense Agency (MDA) is developing a Space Tracking and Surveillance System (STSS) which it will use to research the space-based detection and tracking of ballistic missiles. Data from STSS satellites could allow interceptors to engage incoming missiles earlier in flight than would be possible with other missile detection systems. The STSS program began in 2001, when the \"SBIRS Low\" program was transferred to MDA from the United States Air Force. Launch Two demonstration satellites were launched together on a single Delta II launch vehicle. Launch took place September 25, 2009,",
"-25.913178538932698"
],
[
"detection system was malfunctioning. It was subsequently determined that the false alarm had been created by a rare alignment of sunlight on high-altitude clouds above North Dakota and the Molniya orbits of the satellites, an error later corrected by cross-referencing a geostationary satellite.\nPetrov later indicated that the influences on his decision included that he had been told a US strike would be all-out, so five missiles seemed an illogical start; that the launch detection system was new and, in his view, not yet wholly trustworthy; that the message passed through 30 layers of verification too quickly; and that ground radar",
"-25.7081381684402"
],
[
"that 22 (rather than 32) missiles hit their targets, that 66 (rather than 71) were intercepted, and that other incoming missiles had suffered technical malfunctions. According to Russia, 46 missiles were intercepted in five areas of the capital of Syria and Duvali, Dumayr, Blai, and Mazzeh nearby airfields, and 20 missiles were intercepted in three areas of the Homs air defense zone. The MoD did agree that the U.S. hit all three of the publicly targeted sites. The MoD also displayed remnants of SCALP and Storm Shadow missiles purportedly shot down; Jane's stated that \"The missile remnants it displayed could",
"-25.702176172511827"
],
[
"destroy the missiles. Yak-38 aircraft take off from Kiev in order to sink the American nuclear submarine which fired the missiles. But Admiral Rink communicates with Spirin and convinces him to postpone the attack for 10 minutes explaining that the launch of the missiles is a consequence of a malfunction, the Americans themselves will sink the submarine after the crew leaves it. Spirin agrees with the words: “If in 10 minutes they do not sink the submarine, then we will”.\nThe crew is evacuated from the submarine, which goes to the bottom. The missile cruiser Kirov (065th) is ordered to take",
"-25.680663054343313"
],
[
"an ICBM test, and most of the launch crew also did not know 10B's true mission, as the missile was shipped to CCAS carrying a standard blunt Atlas RV and only the night before the launch was the satellite mounted on top of it. Orbital launches required a considerably different flight path than missiles, and during launch, the Range Safety Officer, who assumed it was a routine Atlas missile test, almost pressed the destruct button on noticing that the trajectory was \"off\", but he was quickly talked out of it. SCORE transmitted a tape-recorded Christmas greeting from President Eisenhower and",
"-25.630920160445385"
],
[
"the basis of modern computer-based torpedo targeting systems. Prior to this attack, no target had been sunk by torpedo where the firing ship had to consider the target's position in three-dimensional terms, where the depth of the target was variable and not a fixed value. The computation thus differs fundamentally from those performed by analogue torpedo fire-control computers which regarded the target in strictly 2D terms with a constant depth determined by the target's draught.\nThe torpedoes were released in 17 second intervals beginning at 12:12, and all taking four minutes to reach their target. Launders then dived Venturer suddenly to",
"-25.55647959734779"
],
[
"counter a military threat. The MoD states that, although ballistic missile attack is a minor threat currently, this could change in the long-term future, if as-yet unknown enemies develop missiles as a means to overcome large distances to strike at the UK.",
"-25.55449263274204"
],
[
"United States, it would be able to hit anywhere in Alaska. The test prompted an Emergency Debate of the United Nations Security Council.\nOn July 28, 2017, North Korea launched an additional ballistic missile from Chagang Province, reaching an altitude of 3,000 km (1,865 mi). Jeffrey Lewis, researcher at the James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, estimated that the missile could have a range of approximately 10,000 km based on its 45-minute flight time. With this range, the missile could potentially reach major U.S. cities such as Denver and Chicago. This is the fourteenth missile test conducted by North Korea in the year 2017.",
"-25.53243836364709"
],
[
"each one could only launch perhaps one or two Excaliburs before Soviet missiles were already on their way. Additionally, the launch would reveal the location of the submarine, leaving it a \"sitting duck\". These issues led the Office of Technology Assessment to conclude that \"the practicality of a global scheme involving pop-up X-ray lasers of this type is doubtful.\"\nAnother challenge was geometric in nature. For missiles launched close to the submarines, the laser would be shining through only the uppermost atmosphere. For ICBMs launched from Kazakhstan, some 3,000 kilometers (1,900 mi) from the Arctic Ocean, the curvature of the Earth meant",
"-25.51966140291188"
],
[
"and 10 m, from the target. A 25-round burst of AHEAD rounds produces 3,800 of these small projectiles to destroy the incoming missile. Cruise missiles can be destroyed at 2.5 km and high speed missiles at 1.5 km range.\nThe system's anti-missile capability is further enhanced by adding Denel's Closed Loop Fire Correction System, which tracks projectiles all the way to the target. This allows for real-time correction of bias errors in the control system and compensation for atmospheric conditions.",
"-25.436309419106692"
],
[
"fired individually or in small groups in several-second intervals. A PG-1M panoramic telescope with K-1 collimator can be used for sighting. The BM-21 can be packed up and ready to move in two minutes, which can be necessary when engaged by counter-battery fire. Reloading is done manually and takes about 10 minutes.\nEach 2.87-meter (9 ft 5 in) rocket is slowly spun by rifling in its tube as it exits, which along with its primary fin stabilization keeps it on course. Rockets armed with high explosive-fragmentation, incendiary, or chemical warheads can be fired 20 kilometers (12 mi). Newer high explosive and cargo (used to",
"-25.39450069324812"
],
[
"2009 North Korean missile tests Events Missiles have been fired from the launch site at the port of Wonsan on the east coast of the country. Based on information from an anonymous government representative in Seoul, Korean agency Yonhap reported that the missiles are of the Scud type with a range of around 400 kilometers.\nDuring the week North Korea announced upcoming military exercises in the Sea of Japan, and with it declared an area closed to navigation around the port of Vonsan and into the Sea of Japan and covering an area of 450 by 110 kilometers. The planned military",
"-25.39127878891304"
],
[
"set up a mobile missile launcher on the side of a hill. The men have been tasked with shooting down an orbiting satellite with a missile. As the missile is launched, the satellite is struck by a meteorite and explodes, with the meteorite continuing on and striking the Earth.\nBrooke returns home and meets with her parents, while Max heads back to the sheriff's office. There he learns from fellow deputy Davidson that the meteorite has caused a brush fire. Davidson tells him that the military advised them to avoid the area due to possible chemical contamination,",
"-25.370374744767105"
],
[
"the element of surprise. However, upon clearing the place, it is then found out that the mission was to be aborted as the terrorists have suddenly gained an upper hand, where they succeeded taking control of a missile launch base, threatening to fire a nuclear missile. Raptor is then extracted while Owl continues in stealth. Somehow, when Owl arrives in the control room, the missile has been triggered to fire, and he is told to look for the scientists who can stop the bomb. They arrive swiftly, stopping the launch sequence.\nThe terrorists escape to the Middle East where they have",
"-25.345218684116844"
],
[
"acquires, and tracks inbound missiles to provide the necessary data to classify and engage the target. This target data allows the GMD Fire Control and Communications element to generate a weapons task plan, allowing for the engagement, interception, and negation of threat of a ballistic missile reentry vehicle in the exoatmospheric region of space. Satellite catalog In addition, the squadron helps track earth-orbiting satellites, and reports the information to the Joint Space Operations Center (JSpOC) at Vandenberg Air Force Base, northwest of Lompoc, California. This information is then combined with information from other sensors to form a satellite catalog. The",
"-25.30630197163555"
],
[
"for a particular target might not see that target on their sensors, or two ships might attempt to attack the same target while ignoring another. This could be addressed by adding inter-ship radio or flag signals as another input to the map, but the workload of moving so many bits of data was enormous. This led to the second major problem, the high inherent manpower requirements and lack of shipboard space.\nDuring World War II and the immediate post-war era, major navies started studying these problems in depth, as concerns about coordinated attacks by long-range high-speed aircraft became a serious threat.",
"-25.284201994538307"
],
[
"was a missile defence test, conducted on 18 July by the US Air Force and MDA. A Polaris missile, in the STARS configuration, was launched from Kodiak Island at 22:47 UTC. It was tracked by land and sea-based radar systems, and the US early warning satellite systems. Intercepts of the missile by SM-3 and THAAD missiles were simulated from ships in the Pacific Ocean, and ground-based systems at Vandenberg Air Force Base, respectively. The test was successful. Russian SLBM test A Russian SLBM test was conducted from the submarine Ryazan, located in the Barents Sea, on 1 August. The test",
"-25.279714571952354"
],
[
"ship course and speed for a desired relative wind to launch or recover aircraft. Ships most frequently used maneuvering boards to estimate the course and speed of other ships and determine the closest point of approach. Naval ships used such information to avoid or intercept other ships and to provide intercept courses for straight-running torpedoes. Ships operating together used maneuvering boards to determine course and speed required to change station within formation.",
"-25.276448219898157"
],
[
"information needed to time the drop.\nIn Norden's version of the system, the bombardier first looked up the expected time it would take for the bombs to fall from the current altitude. This time was set into a countdown stopwatch, and the bombardier waited for the target to line up with a crosshair in the telescope. When the target passed through the crosshair, the timer was started, and the bombardier then rotated the telescope around its vertical axis to track the target as they approached it. This movement was linked to a second crosshair through a gearing system that caused the",
"-25.262251753825694"
],
[
"conducted from complex 4 of Wheeler Island, Odisha at 11.05 IST. This was the second canisterised test of the missile and will now pave way for user trials of the missile by the Strategic Forces Command (SFC). Fifth test launch On 18 January 2018, a fifth test of the missile was successfully conducted from the Wheeler Island facility, Odisha at 09.53 IST. This was the third consecutive canisterised test of the missile on a road mobile launcher and the first in its final operational configuration. The missile covered a distance of 4,900 km in 19 minutes. Sixth test launch On",
"-25.230969063035445"
],
[
"The first launch attempt was made on 21 May 2010, during a launch window opening at 03:25 UTC and closing at 03:43. A problem with spacecraft telemetry was detected, but resolved in time for an attempt to be made at the end of the window, however it recurred during the last minutes of the countdown. With no launch window remaining, the launch was scrubbed. The launch was rescheduled for 24 May, between 03:17 and 03:35 UTC, but scrubbed early in the countdown to allow further time to resolve the problem which had occurred during the previous attempt. An attempt on",
"-25.229235928039998"
],
[
"also pointed out that there is no way to verify that Russia has detargeted its missiles.",
"-25.181989650707692"
],
[
"attack. Without informing his superiors, the General decides to launch early by trimming safety procedures, a decision Shirotsugh agrees to. When the Republic’s forces cross the border, an evacuation is ordered, but Shirotsugh rallies the crew to proceed with the countdown. The combined ground-air assault ceases with the rocket’s unexpected launch, and the Republic forces withdraw. \nFrom orbit, Shirotsugh makes a broadcast, uncertain if anyone is listening; although mankind has brought ruin to each new frontier, he asks nevertheless to give thanks for this moment, and for forgiveness and guidance. As the capsule crosses into the dayside,",
"-25.169627855782892"
],
[
"The missile follows the initial inertial course until it reaches a pre-programmed point where it activates its infrared seeker. The infrared seeker only scans a programmed area of the sky to prevent it from locking onto the sun. From that point it switches to passive infrared homing for the terminal phase of the flight.\nThe infrared seeker does not use IR filters to reject decoys, although there is a degree of protection provided by the use of intermediate frequency seeker scanning pattern.\nEach launcher is equipped with an optical director than can be used instead of the radar in a high ECM",
"-25.132971253740834"
],
[
"launch of a long-range, ballistic missile capable of carrying a nuclear warhead from the reported launch site at the Palmachim Airbase south of Tel Aviv. Israeli radio identified the missile as a Jericho III and the Hebrew YNet news Web site quoted unnamed defence officials as saying the test had been \"dramatic\" and that the new missile can reach \"extremely long distances\", without elaborating. Soon after the successful test launch, Isaac Ben-Israel, a retired army general and Tel Aviv University professor, told Israeli Channel 2 TV:\nEverybody can do the math and understand that the significance is that we can reach",
"-25.096123159106355"
],
[
"by an explosion immediately after the missile launch; no indication remained of who was directly responsible for the attacks. Another missile was fired from off the Icelandic coast and detonated over East Europe and Russia. This launch hit major cities like St. Petersburg and Moscow. Another nuclear missile was detonated over Japan and South Korea. The U.S. government is said to have believed that an alliance between Iran and North Korea was responsible for the attacks, and that the United States attacked Iran and North Korea with nuclear weapons in retaliation. It was also mentioned that the U.S. withdrew all",
"-25.090965038572904"
],
[
"Force Base.\nFrom 15 June 1955, when the first Soviet missile was detected, to 1 March 1964, 508 incidents (sightings) were reported, 147 of them during the last two years of the period. Measurements and processing Data on target missiles or satellites were recorded in each radar channel by photographing a five-inch (127 mm) intensity-modulated oscilloscope with the camera shutter open on a 35 mm film moving approximately five inches per minute. The range of an individual target was represented by its location across the width of the film, the time by a dotdash code along the length. In addition to this",
"-25.085508909862256"
],
[
"have come from missiles that hit their targets or failed in a previous attack\". Russian government sources claimed they had recovered as duds one Tomahawk and one 'precision air launched' missile, and would study them to improve their own weapons systems; the US denied the claims as \"absurd\".\nOn 21 April, the OPCW Fact-Finding Mission visited a site in Douma to collect samples, and on 25 April visited a second site in Douma to collect further samples. The team also interviewed people related to incident in Damascus. On 4 May, the OPCW announced that the initial deployment of the Fact-Finding Mission",
"-25.028715218184516"
],
[
"rules, teams were required to firstly identify the latitude and longitude of the target to within 100 meters. Teams that succeeded in this task were permitted to attempt to drop the package and complete the challenge.\nOutback Joe was first spotted in 2010 by the University of North Dakota team. In 2012, the Canberra UAV team's aircraft automatically located the target the first fully automatic detection during all events. In 2014, 5 teams correctly identified the target location allowing them to drop a package to him. The winner of the challenge was CanberraUAV, who dropped a water bottle to within 2.6",
"-25.020342846866697"
],
[
"six minutes of their launch. These capabilities led Soviet leaders to believe that the only way to survive a Pershing II strike was to preempt it. This fear of an undetected Pershing II attack, according to CIA historian Benjamin B. Fischer, was explicitly linked to the mandate of Operation RYaN: to detect a decision by the United States to launch a nuclear attack and to preempt it. False alarm from the Soviet missile early warning system On the night of September 26, 1983, the Soviet orbital missile early warning system (SPRN), code-named Oko, reported a single intercontinental ballistic missile launch",
"-24.905740065383725"
],
[
"missile is fired from North Korea, the missile would take approximately 20 minutes to reach Hawaii. PACOM would take less than 5 minutes to make a determination that the missile could strike Hawaii and would then notify the Hawaii Emergency Management Agency (HI-EMA). HI-EMA would issue the Civil Defense Warning (CDW) that an inbound missile could strike Hawaii and that people should Shelter-in-Place: Get Inside, Stay Inside, and Stay Tuned. People in Hawaii would have 12 to 15 minutes before impact. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is not required to be notified for approval to cancel an alert. Signal carriers",
"-24.891888427053345"
],
[
"about the use of radar reflectors as decoys in space, suggesting that because they would slow down rapidly in the lower atmosphere, they could begin to be picked out at about 200,000 feet (61,000 m), but might not be fully distinguished until 75,000 feet (23,000 m). This represented a serious problem for systems like Violet Friend, as there was no way to distinguish the decoys until long after the missiles had to be launched; the only solution would be to launch a volley of missiles at all the potential targets.\nSumming up the meeting, Robert Cockburn noted that the three countries had concepts",
"-24.798461307422258"
],
[
"the pre-designed target in the Indian Ocean with an accuracy of a few metres. Third test launch On 31 January 2015, India conducted a third successful test flight of the Agni-V from the Wheeler Island facility. The test used a canisterised version of the missile, mounted over a Tatra truck. The Integrated Test Range Director, M. V. K. V. Prasad, said: \"The missile, witnessed a flawless 'auto launch' and detailed results will be known after all data is retrieved from different radars and network systems.\" Fourth test launch On 26 December 2016, a fourth test of the missile was successfully",
"-24.780337976524606"
],
[
"launch their missiles against Russian cities, on the condition that they detect an electromagnetic pulse consistent with a nuclear attack.\nThe Russian missiles strike their targets all over the United States, although (true to Razov's word) no nuclear weapons are detonated. As the US and Russian forces agree to a ceasefire and disengage from combat, Lambert, Filipov and Razov climb upstairs to the heavily damaged Red Square. Still angry, Filipov says farewell to his former friend Lambert, as Razov hints that he was the “Damocles” source all that time. Epilogue Three months after the formal cease of hostilities, the security situation",
"-24.753365591896"
],
[
"was able to strike a test satellite at a 300-kilometre (186 mi) altitude in low earth orbit (LEO), thus successfully testing its ASAT missile. The interceptor was launched at around 05:40 UTC at the Integrated Test Range (ITR) in Chandipur, Odisha and hit its target Microsat-R after 168 seconds. The operation was named Mission Shakti. The missile system was developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)—a research wing of the Indian defence services. With this test,India became the fourth nation with anti-satellite missile capabilities. India stated that this capability is a deterrent and is not directed against any nation.",
"-24.751204814878292"
],
[
"empty.\nBy 1999, six missiles had been test fired, and another eight were earmarked for test firing. In June 2016, a Trident II D-5 missile \"veered off in the wrong direction towards America\" after being launched from Vengeance off the coast of Florida. The incident was not revealed until January 2017; the Sunday Times reported that Downing Street had \"covered up\" the incident \"just weeks before the crucial House of Commons vote on the future of the missile system.\" Subsequent media reports said the delay was at the request of the United States. Successful Royal Navy test firings had occurred in",
"-24.55592771206284"
],
[
"had been detected, the Soviet Union's strategy was an immediate and compulsory nuclear counter-attack against the United States (launch on warning), specified in the doctrine of mutual assured destruction.\nShortly after midnight, the bunker's computers reported that one intercontinental ballistic missile was heading toward the Soviet Union from the United States. Petrov considered the detection a computer error, since a first-strike nuclear attack by the United States was likely to involve hundreds of simultaneous missile launches in order to disable any Soviet means of a counterattack. Furthermore, the satellite system's reliability had been questioned in the past. Petrov dismissed the warning",
"-24.555541365174577"
],
[
"were detached from the warheads as the missiles reached as close as 100 kilometers to the targets.\nIn an interview with BBC Persian, Farzin Nadimi, an independent military expert, stated that judging by the videos and satellite images, it looks like two unknown targets were nearly hit. Babak Taghvaie, an Iranian author and defense researcher in the same news agency reported that two missiles landed in the target area, one hit open land 150 meters off the specified target (the headquarters of ISIL regional command, in the building that was previously a school called Al-reshad), and the other hit a building",
"-24.554175703204237"
],
[
"precisely on target and a correction would be made. Terrestrial guidance TERCOM, for \"terrain contour matching\", uses altitude maps of the strip of land from the launch site to the target, and compares them with information from a radar altimeter on board. More sophisticated TERCOM systems allow the missile to fly a complex route over a full 3D map, instead of flying directly to the target. TERCOM is the typical system for cruise missile guidance, but is being supplanted by GPS systems and by DSMAC, Digital Scene-Matching Area Correlator, which employs a camera to view an area of land, digitizes",
"-24.544160156336147"
],
[
"(430 mi) and reaching an altitude upwards of 2,000 km (1,200 mi). June On June 8, 2017 North Korea fired four anti-ship missiles off its east coast, near the port city of Wonsan. July On July 4, 2017 North Korea tested an ICBM. The missile flew for approximately 40 minutes, falling 930 km (580 mi) away from the launch site in the Sea of Japan. The missile, named the Hwasong-14, reached an altitude of 2,802 km (1,741 mi). It is estimated that the missile has the capability of reaching 6,700 km (4,200 mi) on a standard trajectory, meaning that although it would not be capable of reaching the Contiguous",
"-24.508651337120682"
],
[
"a very strong reaction from the international community.\" Following the missile test, the United Nations Security Council held an emergency meeting and strongly condemned the actions, though no official sanctions resulted at the time.\nThen, in early October 2006, North Korea claimed that it was preparing to test a nuclear explosive device. While the rumors could not be substantiated by satellite surveillance beforehand, the test was actually carried out on October 9, 2006 with only twenty minutes warning. The nuclear detonation test was, purportedly, in response to the United States's decision to not hold direct bilateral talks with the regime, as",
"-24.491061869135592"
],
[
"alarm and part of an \"electronic attack\" by Israel and the US on the Syrian radar system.\nAccording to Syrian state television, two days after the strikes, Syrian forces discovered two unexploded missiles and handed them over the Russian military. They had been launched on 14 April but failed to detonate for unknown reasons. Russia’s defense ministry did not confirm the report, but the weapons were reportedly shipped by aircraft to Moscow on 17 April.\nAccording to Jane's IHS, on 25 April 2018, the Russian Ministry of Defence (MoD) \"appeared to contradict\" the MoD's earlier 16 April account, and was now stating",
"-24.47708495533152"
],
[
"phaser and Voyager beams her out, banking away from the planet as the missile explodes.",
"-24.47081701341085"
],
[
"as a false alarm, though accounts of the event differ as to whether he notified his superiors or not after he concluded that the computer detections were false and that no missile had been launched. Petrov's suspicion that the warning system was malfunctioning was confirmed when no missile in fact arrived. Later, the computers identified four additional missiles in the air, all directed towards the Soviet Union. Petrov suspected that the computer system was malfunctioning again, despite having no direct means to confirm this. The Soviet Union's land radar was incapable of detecting missiles beyond the horizon.\nIt was",
"-24.44224562060117"
],
[
"East. Seven launches have been conducted since the probe, all successful. On 28 June 2011, the missile was launched for the first time from its standard carrier, Borei-class submarine Yury Dolgorukiy, and on 27 August 2011 the first full-range (over 9,000 km (5,600 mi)) flight test was conducted. After this successful launch, the start of serial production of Bulava missiles in the same configuration was announced on 28 June 2011. A successful salvo launch on 23 December 2011 concluded the flight test programme. The missile was officially approved for service on 27 December 2011, and was reported to be commissioned aboard Yuri",
"-24.42273289176228"
],
[
"missiles.\nThe main sensor is Saab's (formerly Ericsson Microwave System) HARD AESA air search 3D radar with an instrumented range of 20 km or an Infra-red search and track, depending upon the customer's specifications. The effector is the latest version of the Saab Bofors Dynamics RBS 70 surface-to-air missile, called Bolide. The missile is a laser guidance beam riding short range missile equipped with a highly effective proximity fuze. It is supposed to be effective against cruise missiles.\nEach unit is equipped with four ready-to-fire missiles and an optical day and night sight to continually point the laser beam at the target. This",
"-24.31726284394972"
],
[
"entering the missile-base shroud and damaging the electronic components. Indian Defence Minister Pranab Mukherjee reported it as \"partial success\" (a trade euphemism to indicate the test generated useful data for diagnosis and correction) as the missile was air-borne for only 5 minutes instead of the expected 15 minutes.\nAgni-III was test fired again on 12 April 2007, from the Abdul Kalam Island off the coast of Odisha. This time, the launch was declared as a success. India's Cabinet Committee on Security announced that \"This test confirms the extent of India's nuclear reach and India's nuclear deterrence as the missile can accurately",
"-24.26774890499655"
],
[
"cruise missile target. During the test, a THAAD system on Wake Island detected and destroyed a short-range target simulating a short-range ballistic missile that was launched by parachute ejected from a C-17 transport plane. At the same time, the THAAD system and the USS John Paul Jones guided missile destroyer both launched missiles to intercept a medium-range ballistic missile, launched by parachute from a second C-17. 2017 Korean deployment decision Korean decision to deploy THAAD to protect itself against North Korea have caused backlash and retaliation measures from China. Europe and the Middle East By March 2016, Army Space and",
"-24.244249273906462"
],
[
"for the detection of ballistic missiles to over 2000 km, since 2018 all 4 Zeven Provincien class Frigates of the Royal Netherlands Navy have been equipped with the update.\nOn the 25th of September 2017, as part of the exercise Formidable Shield 2017 the SMART-L MM radar system mounted on the test tower at the Thales premises in Hengelo, detected and tracked a ballistic missile launched from the Hebrides in Scotland at an average range of more than 1500 km without difficulties. The Thales SMART-L Multi Mission radar in Hengelo detected the target as soon as it appeared over the horizon and maintained",
"-24.21980952611193"
],
[
"Tracking ship A tracking ship, also called a missile range instrumentation ship or range ship, is a ship equipped with antennas and electronics to support the launching and tracking of missiles and rockets. Since many missile ranges launch over ocean areas for safety reasons, range ships are used to extend the range of shore-based tracking facilities.\nIn the United States, the initial tracking ships were constructed by the U.S. Army and then the U.S. Air Force to support their missile programs. They were generally built on a surplus Liberty ship or Victory ship hull. By 1964, the U.S. Navy took over",
"-24.20276730961632"
],
[
"Force. According to IRGC general Ramazan Sharif, the attack was coordinated in advance with the Syrian government, and the missiles passed through Iraqi airspace to reach their targets. Official statements In a public statement related to the strikes, published by its Public Relations Office, the IRGC cautioned that the missile strikes were just a warning to deter any further action by the terrorists. It specifically read that the \"IRGC warns the Takfiri terrorists and their regional and trans-regional supporters that they would be engulfed by its revolutionary wrath and flames of the fire of its revenge in case they repeat",
"-24.17817572504282"
],
[
"Television guidance Television guidance (TGM) is a type of missile guidance system using a television camera in the missile or glide bomb that sends its signal back to the launch platform. There, a weapons officer or bomb aimer watches the image on a television screen and sends corrections to the missile, typically over a radio control link. Television guidance is not a seeker because it is not automated, although semi-automated systems with autopilots to smooth out the motion are known. They should not be confused with contrast seekers, which also use a television camera but are true automated seeker systems.\nThe",
"-24.132714308187133"
],
[
"naval units conducted these tests in a desert location. Air Force commander Hossein Salami advised that Iran was ready to retaliate to military threats, saying \"We warn the enemies who intend to threaten us with military exercises and empty psychological operations that our hand will always be on the trigger and our missiles will always be ready to launch\".\nOne day later, on July 9, 2008, Iran once-again fired a version of the Shahab-3, amongst other missiles, which officials have said has a range of 1,250 miles (2,010 km) and is armed with a 1-ton conventional warhead. These tests were conducted at",
"-24.128074605803704"
],
[
"seeker can tilt in the range of +/− 38 degrees. On the launcher, the missile runs up the gyro in 2 seconds, and total reaction time is 5 seconds. The all-aspect two-color (2–4 and 3–5 µm) cooled IR-seeker of Mistral is developed by SAT, and the missile adopts both laser proximity and impact fuzes.\nA close-in weapon system based on Mistral is a six-missile version called Sadral, with a stabilized rapid-reload launcher that is fully automated. A CSEE developed fire control director is integrated to the launcher, consisted of TV camera and FLIR. Image produced by both directors appear on the screen",
"-24.110909689450637"
],
[
"of chemical and biological weapons. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR) said the attack sites included a scientific research center in Damascus and another in the Homs area, as well as military bases in Damascus and Homs.\nThe US armed forces said all missiles hit their intended targets without interference, and according to Lieutenant General Kenneth McKenzie, the Syrian air defences fired 40 intercepting surface-to-air missiles but failed to hit any of the targets. He said most were fired after the last incoming missile had struck its target. Similarly, France said none of the twelve missiles it fired appear to",
"-24.094473464996554"
],
[
"conducted from Chandipur, Odisha. Around 100 scientists are working as part of the missile development program led by Developed by Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL). DRDO’s other labs including RCI, R&D Engineers and ITR are also contributing to the missile development effort. On 22 December, the missile was test fired for the third time. While the test was initially reported to be a success, The Print reported that the test failed with the missile being unresponsive after it took off. The fourth test took place on 8 October 2018 and was reported to be successful. Fifth test was",
"-24.073841580946464"
],
[
"Seaborne target Seaborne targets are vessels or floating structures that are shot at for practice by naval or air forces. They may be remotely controlled and mobile, or towed behind other craft, or just set adrift in the sea. Target ships Target ships are vessels, typically obsolete or captured warships, used for naval gunnery practice or for weapons testing – perhaps most spectacularly in Operation Crossroads (1946), where 95 ships were sunk in a U.S. nuclear weapons test at Bikini Atoll. Towed targets Targets can also be towed behind other craft, the counterparts of target tugs in aviation. \nThe U.S.",
"-24.04535251983907"
]
] |
2wde60 | Why the USA needs, or doesn't need, to have its military at the size that it is. | [
"There are three states that the world can be in: *One superpower* *Multiple superpowers* *No super powers (every country equally as strong as another)* Lets start with the last one. By nature, countries will compete for dominance over one another for political, economic, and security reasons. Therefore this state is almost unattainable. Not all countries can afford or care to keep up with the others, so there will never be a time when no country is more powerful than others. Now for the middle state, *multiple superpowers*. This is what the cold war was. This ends up the same as we discussed above, because the countries that CAN afford to compete for power DO compete, and end up in 'cold' wars with one another. This can happen with any number of countries, for instance during the last half of the 20th century it was two (US and USSR), but it could easily happen with three, four, or more countries competing for dominance. First on this list is close to what we have now, *one superpower*. The united states 'won' the cold war because the other guy quit competing. That left it with no other country even CLOSE to being as powerful militarily or spending as much as they did. Here they had two options: stop spending because our main threat is 'gone', or keep spending to PREVENT them from being able to come back. The US chose the latter, obviously. Many people think that a system of one superpower is the most realistic 'best' option. It is unrealistic to think that countries will not compete with each other, and a cold war is dangerous for the entire planet because nuclear arms exist. The theory is this: If the US spends so much money and has such a large military presence in most of the world that they can counter any emerging threats before they get too big, that *theoretically* means that other countries would have a hard time becoming powerful enough to inflict major harm on other countries because the US *could* swoop in at any time and stop them. While the US is not a perfect country, most of the world (the west and some of Asia) thinks that the US is a good choice because *the other candidates are worse*. Russia? Most of the world doesn't want them to have the power. China? Same thing. Both have terrible human rights records and less obligation to do things fairly because they don't answer to their citizens in the same way. While the US doesn't do things fairly or always do the 'right' thing, it's pretty much the only candidate for the job that has a *chance* of doing the right thing. Ancillary reasons: With the US military being so large and powerful, many Europeans countries can spend WAY less money per capita on their military. This is good for them. Part of the reason the US spends more than the next 13 countries combined is because they hardly spend anything at all since they either can't keep up enough to matter against the US military or they are friends with the US. The US spends a lot but we have for all of recent memory so the citizens don't put up much fuss. It also helps that having the most powerful military in the world allows you to exert your will on other countries for political, economic, or security reasons.",
"The base of it is this: it is politically unpopular to reduce the size of the military for any reason. There is a big enough military-industrial complex that you would essentially be removing jobs from the US economy, and so nobody wants to do it. When you add to that that you're essentially firing our most patriotically-viewed demographic, it's almost political suicide. Eisenhower, a 5-star general in the military during WWII, talked on his way out of the presidency about how [dangerous it is to the US to let the military-industrial complex]( URL_1 ) get out of hand, but even an insider who was president at the time couldn't stop its growth. Clearly, a military is important, but outspending the [next 13 closest militaries]( URL_0 ) is, in my opinion, just as clearly too big.",
"It depends on your definition of \"need.\" For better or worse the USA is the leading world power at the moment, to maintain this status we actually do \"need\" the military we have (there is a reason China is building up their military), Europe's military spending is tiny in comparison and rely heavily on the USA for the bulk of NATO work (US missile defense systems in Turkey, US tank busters in Germany, US Navy controlling Atlantic & Mediterranean, etc.), the US controls the ocean's trading routes all over the entire planet (US Navy has the 2nd largest air force in the world after the US Air Force) which allows for trade to continue is some of the most hostile environments (see coast of Somalia), the US acts as world police as well basically being involved in some way in every conflict in the globe and spends billions giving money to foreign countries to help maintain relative peace. Domestically, u/praecipula explained it well, too much money involved in making sure things don't change. You could say this is a bad thing, but even as someone who thinks we spend far too on our military, I would prefer for the US to be doing this than any other country as there are few who can actually fund such activities, history has shown someone will always step into that power vacuum if you step away (every empire throughout history, more recently Spain then Britain, now us), and the other options (really just Russia & China) seem like they would do a lot worse of a job.",
"The U.S. Is in a position of power. If it was to drastically reduce its military strength it's not like the rest of the world will stay the same. The power vacuum would be filled by Russia or China. As much as many people disagree with how the United States handles its foreign policy, you can be certain a Russia or China as the sole superpower would be much, much worse.",
"Not a full answer, but kind of a response to the people who state that U.S. military is bigger than \"next 13 closest militaries\". The size difference is simply because a lot of the rest of the world (especially Europe) relies heavily on U.S. defense spending, therefore those governments have a lesser need to invest in defense themselves. A huge portion of NATO is funded by the US.",
"For the amount of money it spends the US actually has a relatively small military. But it has a very well equipped military. It also has a massive air and sea component. The US would rather use that technological edge to leverage force, meaning that they need fewer ground forces to accomplish the same goal in theory. The US is also separated by oceans from most politically or geographically important areas. meaning that the ability to get there, protect lines of communication, and keep supplied are very important, in addition to power projection. hence the need for a large air force and navy. Both of those get very expensive as they require constant upgrades and maintenance, and training.",
"The reason the US military is so large is so it can win on multiple fronts while still defending the homeland. Consider that perspective when you read stats about how the US military is larger than several others combined. Winning a foreign conflict doesn't help if it leaves you venerable. From URL_0 The current strategic doctrine, which Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld issued in his Quadrennial Defense Review of early 2001 (before the 9/11 attacks), is a package of U.S. military requirements known as 1-4-2-1. The first 1 refers to defending the US homeland. The 4 refers to deterring hostilities in four key regions of the world. The 2 means the US armed forces must have the strength to win swiftly in two near-simultaneous conflicts in those regions. The final 1 means that the US forces must win one of those conflicts \"decisively\".",
"Whether it's cars, crops, computers, financial services, fossil fuels or t-shirts, every country has its exports. The US exports its military. The difference is that while other goods are paid for with money, having a large military is paid for by having a deeper influence in foreign affairs. This helps put US friendly leaders in charge who may seek to increase trade with the US. We protect them, or economy grows. You could try to reduce the size of the military, but ultimately it's a big advantage to have a larger, more disciplined military than anyone else. You don't want to let someone take that away from you.",
"When we think of military size, it's worth remembering that the budget the military receives is not directly proportional to the combat effectiveness of the force. There is a terrifying amount of waste in the US military budget. Examples include the RAH-66 Comanche recon helicopter - $7 billion was spent developing, building and testing it, before the program was cancelled because the army decided they didn't want it after all; the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter - cost $910 billion before even becoming operational; the V-22 Osprey - cost $35.6 billion and 30 deaths; the F-22 Raptor - cost $67 billion for an aircraft that wasn't even needed, as the existing F-15 airframe can outfight anything the other side has; the procurement of unneeded M1 Abrams tanks, costing $181 million... It goes on. The US military is a top-heavy bureaucracy behind the scenes, and a frightening amount of its budget just goes to justify having the budget in the first place.",
"One *small* reason to maintain spending is a skilled work force. The USA is constantly building aircraft carriers and submarines. We have plenty now, but if they stopped for 5-10 years, than those people who know how to build them would find employment elsewhere. When the time comes to build another, those workers wouldn't be available. Same goes for some of the smaller contractors....they could go out of business and their skills would be lost. Others have given more broad and complete answers, this is just a small part.",
"We need a large military to invade countries that pose a threat to use. Even if it is a 1% chance."
] | [
[
"of Action on Military Spending (GDAMS), which aims to gather people and create a global movement that persuades governments to reallocate their military spending to essential human needs such as food, education, health care, social services and environmental concerns.\nAmong the countries maintaining some of the world's largest military budgets, China, France, Germany, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States are frequently recognized to be great powers.\nAccording to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, in 2014, total world military expenditure amounted to 1.8 trillion US$.\nIn 2018, the United States spent 3.2% of its GDP on its military, while Saudi",
"-30.888860747947547"
],
[
"States of America is incurring the highest military expenditure in the world. It is considered a superpower and a determinant of the world's military spending. \nTheir spending in the recent times has increased due to terror and Afghanistan and Iraq invasions. Even though there have been financial crises the military expenses have shown no signs of change. The expenditure on a country's armed forces remains the same.",
"-30.824539153802107"
],
[
"utilization...\"\nThe United States today stands out in the Western world but continually denies itself as an empire, but the media recognizes the United States as a superpower and a hegemon. The United States maintains a system of military bases throughout the globe that provides the basis for the rapid deployment of military forces, protecting the economic system, and preventing threats to security and prosperity the United States.\nKenneth Pomeranz and Harvard historian Niall Ferguson share the view: \"With US military bases in more than 120 countries, we hardly see the end of the empire. This vast archipelago of US military bases",
"-30.822814717626898"
],
[
"United States was a naval-based advanced military with by far the highest military expenditure in the world. The United States Navy was the world's largest navy, with the largest number of aircraft carriers, bases all over the world (particularly in an incomplete \"ring\" bordering the Warsaw Pact states to the west, south and east). The US had the largest nuclear arsenal in the world during the first half of the Cold War, one of the largest armies in the world and one of the two largest air forces in the world. Its powerful military allies in Western Europe (the North",
"-30.76143376741311"
],
[
"of the Defense Department budget. Overall the U.S. federal government is spending about $1 trillion annually on defense-related purposes.\nIn a 2012 story, Salon reported, \"Despite a decline in global arms sales in 2010 due to recessionary pressures, the United States increased its market share, accounting for a whopping 53 percent of the trade that year. Last year saw the United States on pace to deliver more than $46 billion in foreign arms sales.\" The defense industry also tends to contribute heavily to incumbent members of Congress.\nThe concept of a military–industrial complex has been expanded to include the entertainment and creative",
"-30.512762861617375"
],
[
"in early 1997 Perry believed it possible to modernize the U.S. armed forces within a balanced federal budget. Perry argued for the current force level of just under 1.5 million as the minimum needed by the United States to maintain its global role. Further reductions in the Defense budget after 1997 would require cuts in the force structure and make it impossible for the United States to remain a global power. Streamlining the military infrastructure Perry devoted much time to restructuring defense acquisition policy and procedure, pursuing measures on acquisition reform begun when he was deputy secretary. Six days after",
"-30.329081057550866"
],
[
"States in the United States was $18.527 trillion (106% of the GDP) in 2014. The United States has the largest external debt in the world and the 14th largest government debt as a % of GDP in the world. Military The president is the commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces and appoints its leaders, the secretary of defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The United States Department of Defense administers the armed forces, including the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force. The Coast Guard is run by the Department of Homeland Security in peacetime and by the Department of",
"-30.274516486897483"
],
[
"provide for the growing states as a whole. There was a hope for an army that can provide safety for all who are citizens of America and a need for strong individuals, both physically and mentally, who could provide the protection. Federalist 16 explains the states need a new national constitution to be put in motion but putting together a large and cohesive army that will stand behind our new found country and new founding government. The constitution is supposed to bring great stability in government and give the country a unified rule so that there wouldn't be multiple small",
"-30.234597969749302"
],
[
"to stay high as compared with other countries.\nWhen accounting for Military Expenditure by % of GDP, the United States ranks 21st. Past commentary on military budget In 2009, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates wrote that the U.S. should adjust its priorities and spending to address the changing nature of threats in the world: \"What all these potential adversaries—from terrorist cells to rogue nations to rising powers—have in common is that they have learned that it is unwise to confront the United States directly on conventional military terms. The United States cannot take its current dominance for granted and needs to invest",
"-30.176334405292437"
],
[
"and maintains deployments greater than 100 active duty personnel in 25 foreign countries.\nThe military budget of the United States in 2011 was more than $700 billion, 41% of global military spending and equal to the next 14 largest national military expenditures combined. At 4.7% of GDP, the rate was the second-highest among the top 15 military spenders, after Saudi Arabia. U.S. defense spending as a percentage of GDP ranked 23rd globally in 2012 according to the CIA. Defense spending plays a major role in science and technology investment, with roughly half of U.S. federal research and development funded by the",
"-30.009611419591238"
],
[
"take the United States (and more specifically the U.S. Army) to war without the support of the U.S. people, General Abrams intertwined the structure of the three components of the army in such a way as to make extended operations impossible, without the involvement of both the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve.\nThe 1980s was mostly a decade of reorganization. The army converted to an all-volunteer force with greater emphasis on training and technology. The Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986 created unified combatant commands bringing the army together with the other four military services under unified, geographically organized command structures.",
"-29.354204664447025"
],
[
"Maxwell D. Taylor, believed that the Army was receiving too small a share of the military budget.\nIts standing threatened by the New Look, the Army questioned the wisdom of reliance on \"massive retaliation\" and strategic air power to the neglect of other force elements. Wilson reportedly observed that the United States \"can't afford to fight limited wars. We can only afford to fight a big war, and if there is one, that is the kind it will be.\" However, by 1955 the Army and, later that decade, the Navy, departed from their emphasis on preparation for total war by urging",
"-29.349206400878757"
],
[
"the United States spent 3.2% of its GDP on its military, while Saudi Arabia spent 8.8%, Israel spent 4.3%, Pakistan spent 4.0%, Russia spent 3.9%, South Korea spent 2.6%, China spent 1.9%, United Kingdom spent 1.8%, and Germany spent 1.2% of its GDP on defense.\nThe US Military's budget has plateaued in 2009, but is still considerably larger than any other military power.\nMilitary spending is important to the Trump administration and it is unlikely that he has any reason to curb it. In addition, military spending is popular with 2017 House Speaker Paul Ryan, showing that U.S. military spending will continue",
"-29.171683562584803"
],
[
"spending) makes up one-third of the annual federal budget.\nIn 2015, out of its budget of 3.97 trillion, the United States spent $637 billion on military. \nIn 2016, the United States spent 3.29% of its GDP on its military (considering only basic Department of Defense budget spending), more than France's 2.26% and less than Saudi Arabia's 9.85%. This is historically low for the United States since it peaked in 1944 at 37.8% of GDP (it reached the lowest point of 3.0% in 1999–2001). Even during the peak of the Vietnam War the percentage reached a high of 9.4% in 1968.\nIn 2018,",
"-29.140498051958275"
],
[
"2009 was $1.531 trillion U.S. dollars. 46.5% of this total, roughly $712 billion U.S. dollars, was spent by the United States. The privatization of the production and invention of military technology also leadsto a complicated relationship with significant research and development of many technologies. \nIn 2011, the United States spent more (in absolute numbers) on its military than the next 13 nations combined.\nThe military budget of the United States for the 2009 fiscal year was $515.4 billion. Adding emergency discretionary spending and supplemental spending brings the sum to $651.2 billion. This does not include many military-related items that are outside",
"-28.994745888478064"
],
[
"Grow the Army Grow the Army was a transformation and restationing initiative of the United States Army announced in 2007. The initiative was designed to grow the U.S. Army's force by almost 75,000 soldiers, while realigning a large portion of the force in Europe, moving units located there to the continental United States in compliance with the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission suggestions. Soldiers The plan was announced in a United States Army press release on December 19, 2007. It calls for a total force growth of 74,200 soldiers, expanding the Active duty army force by 65,000 soldiers, the",
"-28.91745580839165"
],
[
"that the United States military was a prime example of how a comprehensive social safety net, universal health care, a commitment to public service, low income disparity, and structured planning could be made to work within an organization. He then suggested that the military could serve as a model for improving American society along those lines. This brought criticism from several other commentators, who argued that the military is only effective at what it does by severely limiting the freedom of its members. Jonah Goldberg argued that \"You've got to love how a system that requires total loyalty, curbs free",
"-28.853980248910375"
],
[
"the civilian population. Thus, the lack of actual military goals can in itself be a reason that a forever war can occur. As well, a very large defense budget may also be a factor in the transpiration of a forever war. This allows a country to fight several forever wars. As of 2018, the United States has a high military budget that is larger than their budget for World War II, allowing for inflation, which enables them to fight wars forever in Iraq and other countries. The idea of a forever war can also extend to civil wars. Simply,",
"-28.675153588861576"
],
[
"only is the United States so far ahead militarily in both quantitative and qualitative terms, but its security guarantees also give it the leverage to prevent allies from giving military technology to potential U.S. rivals. Because the United States dominates the high-end defense industry, it can trade access to its defense market for allies' agreement not to transfer key military technologies to its competitors.\"\nFinally, when the United States wields its security leverage, the authors argue, it shapes the overall structure of the global economy. \"Washington wins when U.S. allies favor [the] status quo, and one reason they are inclined to",
"-28.561616874490937"
],
[
"that sees incumbent powers competing to maintain the status quo and keep their global influence. In today’s international system, there are four great powers that fit this definition: the United States (US), Russia, China and the European Union (whereby the EU is considered to be the sum of its parts). If we distil from this description of great power attributes and capabilities a list of criteria, it is clear why these four powers dominate the international security debate. The possession of superior military and economic capabilities can be translated into measurements such as military expenditure and GDP, and nowhere are",
"-28.384478520943958"
],
[
"identified excess litigation, excess taxation, and excess regulation as three factors contributing to the loss of American jobs. Size of the military and defense spending Huckabee supports a larger military and a fifty percent increase in defense spending. In December 2007, he wrote:\nThe Bush administration plans to increase the size of the U.S. Army and the Marine Corps by about 92,000 troops over the next five years. We can and must do this in two to three years. I recognize the challenges of increasing our enlistments without lowering standards and of expanding training facilities and personnel, and that is one",
"-28.36961975189479"
],
[
"the armed forces will only be used against foreign aggression, and reduces the powers of the heads of the armed services, centralizing whole operational and acquisitions decisions under the authority of the minister of Defense through the Armed Forces Joint General Staff emphasizing Jointness Budget The 2014 military budget is US$ 10.000.000.000.",
"-28.23995437173653"
],
[
"(the world's most powerful military and economic power at the time), France, Russia, the Austro-Hungarian empire, Ottoman empire, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Belgium, Japan and Greece were all larger and more experienced than the United States military, in many cases significantly so.\nReform to them meant UMT or \"universal military training\". They proposed a national service program under which the 600,000 men who turned 18 every year would be required to spend six months in military training, and afterwards be assigned to reserve units. The small regular army would primarily be a training agency.\nAntimilitarists complained the plan would make America resemble",
"-28.23444945763913"
],
[
"planned to limit pay rises, increase fees for healthcare benefits, freeze the pay of senior officers, and reduce military housing allowances. A reduction in the number of soldiers serving in the U.S. Army would reduce the size of the force to levels not seen since prior to the start of World War II.\nIn July 2014, American Enterprise Institute scholar Michael Auslin opined in the National Review that the Air Force needs to be fully funded as a priority, due to the air superiority, global airlift, and long-range strike capabilities it provides.\nIn January 2015 Defense Department published its internal study on",
"-28.10335352313996"
],
[
"United States produced 2.4 million trucks, 300,000 military aircraft, 88,400 tanks, and 40 billion rounds of ammunition. The production capacity of the United States dwarfed that of other countries; for example, in 1944, the United States produced more military aircraft than the combined production of Germany, Japan, Britain, and the Soviet Union. The White House became the ultimate site for labor mediation, conciliation or arbitration. One particular battle royale occurred between Vice President Wallace, who headed the Board of Economic Warfare, and Jesse H. Jones, in charge of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation; both agencies assumed responsibility for acquisition of rubber",
"-27.970414637726208"
],
[
"to change the priorities of that government and its people. As one of the most powerful military nations on earth, we must start leading the world toward peace.\nWe are not trying to avoid our responsibilities to the people of this country and the world by refusing to pay our taxes. We will pay our share of money and resources to life-affirming, positive programs such as medical care, welfare, psychological care and counseling, and education, to name a few. We are called by God to affirm life and love with our resources and to resist and eliminate war and violence among",
"-27.95157202950213"
],
[
"the $250 billion military budget of China. The United States and its close allies are responsible for two-thirds to three-quarters of the world's military spending (of which, in turn, the U.S. is responsible for the majority). The US also maintains the largest number of military bases on foreign soil across the world. While there are no freestanding foreign bases permanently located in the United States, there are now around 800 U.S. bases in foreign countries. Military spending makes up nearly 16% of entire federal spending and approximately half of discretionary spending. In a general sense discretionary spending (defense and non-defense",
"-27.826961701750406"
],
[
"Military budget of the United States The military budget is the portion of the discretionary United States federal budget allocated to the Department of Defense, or more broadly, the portion of the budget that goes to any military-related expenditures. The military budget pays the salaries, training, and health care of uniformed and civilian personnel, maintains arms, equipment and facilities, funds operations, and develops and buys new items. The budget funds four branches of the U.S. military: the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force.\nFor Fiscal Year 2019 (FY2019), the Department of Defense' budget authority is approximately $693,058,000,000. Approximately $684,985,000,000 is",
"-27.82291476602404"
],
[
"and the United States are often referred to as great powers by academics due to \"their political and economic dominance of the global arena\". These five nations are the only states to have permanent seats with veto power on the UN Security Council. They are also the only state entities to have met the conditions to be considered \"Nuclear Weapons States\" under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, and maintain military expenditures which are among the largest in the world. However, there is no unanimous agreement among authorities as to the current status of these powers or what",
"-27.815048520002165"
],
[
"core military force -the army- remains somewhat underfunded in favour of naval and air-force maintenance. Government expenditures are equal to less than 10% of GDP, with military expenditures accounting for roughly 25-35% of that figure. The amount of the budget spent on schooling, healthcare and other such investments is in proximity to the military budget. The constitution guarantees that the government will have a monopoly in certain industries, although much has been done to privatise these industries, in similar fashion to the way oil drilling was privatised. The party also has a minister for women, and has in recent years",
"-27.804691904049832"
],
[
"fight subjective policy, ambiguous definitions, and conflicting doctrine designed to deceive the public with hidden political agendas.\nThe military has been increasingly spending billions to do so, in which Sheldon Rampton, research director for the Committee on Media and Democracy, calls a \"massive apparatus selling the military to us.\"",
"-27.751048687155617"
],
[
"magazine Foreign Affairs, titled Our Overstuffed Armed Forces questioning the need for and scale of US defense spending by comparing American defense spending to that of other nations. Toti reacted to this article by writing a rebuttal which was published in The Washington Times entitled What Does Brookings Know About Defense? The article advanced the idea that because of the need of American armed forces to cross two vast oceans surrounding the United States to bring the fight to the enemy, any comparison of what the United States spends relative to spending by other nations that do not have to",
"-27.731715250516118"
],
[
"Review Each year, Israel can choose to increase or decrease the GDP percentage of the defense budget (it starts at 35%) by 2%, and to increase the size of the Army by two units (which apparently harms the relationship with the USA). US Budget Aid Every year, the United States provides economic and military aid to Israel. This varies between nothing and four billion dollars, depending on how good Israel's relationship is with the US. (To put that into context, a large monthly defense budget, such as would be granted during an active war, is about 350 million dollars). Palestinian",
"-27.604049430417945"
],
[
"the research and development department where costs are underestimated, which leads to a waste of a different kind: time. Without the appropriate resources, researchers cannot do their job adequately. What this can lead to is employees not working as efficiently as possible. Comparison with other countries The United States spends more on their defense budget than China, Saudi Arabia, Russia, the United Kingdom, India, France, and Japan combined. The 2018 U.S. military budget accounts for approximately 36% of global arms spending (for comparison, U.S. GDP is only 24% of global GDP). The 2018 budget is approximately 2.5 times larger than",
"-27.530359183221663"
],
[
"the U.S. Military’s Center of Excellence for Stability and Peace Operations at the strategic and operational levels in order to improve military, civilian agency, international, and multinational capabilities and execution. Army Heritage Education Center U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center Strategic Studies Institute Strategic Studies Institute",
"-27.51385732973722"
],
[
"army's \"core values\" by incorporating game play based on mission accomplishment, teamwork, leadership, and rules of engagement. Government applications According to game historian Carrie McLeroy, America's Army has \"grown in ways its originators couldn't have imagined\". Dozens of government training and simulation applications using America's Army platform have been developed to train and educate U.S. Army soldiers.\nIn 2005, America's Army developers partnered with the Software Engineering Directorate and the Army's Aviation and Missile Research Development Engineering Center in Huntsville, Alabama, to manage the commercial game development process and use the America's Army platform to create government training and simulations. \"America's",
"-27.512388423355787"
],
[
"other countries see the U.S. using its power to strengthen the existing rules and institutions, US authority will be strengthened because they will become more inclined to work in collaboration with U.S. power. Secondly, the U.S. should update the key post-war security pacts, such as NATO and Washington’s East Asian alliances. When the U.S. provides security, the U.S. allies, in return, will operate within the western order. Thirdly, the U.S. should renew its support for wide-ranging multilateral institutions. Economically speaking, building on the agreements of the WTO, concluding the current Doha Round of trade talks that seek to extend market",
"-27.450292904259186"
],
[
"permanent end-strength change was not expected because of fears of future funding cuts, forcing the Army to pay for the additional personnel from procurement and readiness accounts. Up to 60% of the defense budget is spent on personnel and an extra 10,000 soldiers would cost US$1.4 billion annually.\nOn November 22 and 23, 2002, the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs held the \"Belfer Center Conference on Military Transformation\". It brought together present and former defense officials and military commanders for the stated purpose of assessing the Department of Defense's progress in achieving a \"transformation\" of U.S. military capabilities. The",
"-27.38919861492468"
],
[
"a military budget over double of its two largest military rivals, some consider the United States to be a war economy or at least a country with an economy largely backed by the Military Industrial Complex. World War I Germany has experienced economic devastation following both World Wars. While this was not a result of faulty economic planning, it is important to understand the ways that Germany approached reconstruction. In World War I, the German agricultural sector was hit hard by the demands of the war effort. Not only were many of the workers conscripted, but lots of the food",
"-27.370904263763805"
],
[
"bigger armies is the key to keeping a county safe from warfare. In fact, funds spent on weapons may drain resources from social, political, and economic development that may address root causes of conflict.” The amount of money spent on the defense sector equals $4.7 billion a day or $249 per person. According to the World Bank and the Office of Disarmament Affairs (ODA), only about 5% of this amount would be needed each year to achieve the Millennium Development Goals by 2015. \n\nThe negative effects of high militarization include not just the direct ones of money and resources being",
"-27.317809011089594"
],
[
"States remains a strong power economically and militarily, rising nations such as China, India, and Brazil as well as Russia have challenged its dominance. Foreign policy analysts such as Nina Harchigian suggest that the six emerging big powers share common concerns: free trade, economic growth, prevention of terrorism, efforts to stymie nuclear proliferation. And if they can avoid war, the coming decades can be peaceful and productive provided there are no misunderstandings or dangerous rivalries.\nIn his first formal television interview as president, Barack Obama addressed the Muslim world through an Arabic-language satellite TV network and expressed a commitment to repair",
"-27.29449622343418"
],
[
"to overcome the lack of capabilities the states battle within these areas. Take for example economic power where larger states can transfer money from boom regions to bust regions which most small states can’t, which makes them more vulnerable to temporary volatility and economic fluctuation. Alesina and Spolaore state that if there were only benefits from size, then the tendency should be for the entire world to be organized in a single country. They argue that the number of states in the international system is likely to increase. They name a few reasons. Firstly, it is democratization. Dictators prefer large",
"-27.283372500300175"
],
[
"Department of Defense released a report that stated the United States Army made $6.5 trillion in wrongful adjustments to its accounting entries in 2015. Energy use The Department of Defense was the largest single consumer of energy in the United States in 2006.\nIn FY 2006, the department used almost 30,000 gigawatt hours (GWH) of electricity, at a cost of almost $2.2 billion. The department's electricity use would supply enough electricity to power more than 2.6 million average American homes. In electricity consumption, if it were a country, the department would rank 58th in the world, using slightly less than Denmark",
"-27.25664776789199"
],
[
"39 percent of the workforce down to the pre-2001 level of 26 percent. In a Pentagon review of January 2011, service contractors were found to be \"increasingly unaffordable.\" Military budget and total US federal spending The U.S. Department of Defense budget accounted in fiscal year 2017 for about 14.8% of the United States federal budgeted expenditures. According to the Congressional Budget Office, defense spending grew 9% annually on average from fiscal year 2000–2009.\nBecause of constitutional limitations, military funding is appropriated in a discretionary spending account. (Such accounts permit government planners to have more flexibility to change spending each year, as",
"-27.226485151608358"
],
[
"most of us instinctively say, \"Well, of course, they must.\" And the military, which comes out of this same society, is predisposed to expect that there's a great technological change right around the next bend in the road and it's going to change everything. People think that militaries are incredibly reactionary, conservative, resistant-to-change institutions, and yet the American military in particular has been—almost throughout its history, certainly since World War I—the exact opposite. They're way over-predisposed to expect that everything is going to change because of the next new gadget.\nHe has stated about U.S. power and prestige,\nAt the moment, we're",
"-27.154769601394946"
],
[
"most important for the nation's economy, mobility and defense.",
"-27.125363825827662"
],
[
"force has adopted foreign ideas on the roles and needs of an armed force, leading to proposals for armour, artillery and attack helicopters. However, the army faces severe budgetary problems and has therefore had virtually no money for operations, training, and maintenance or capital equipment upgrades. In this context, proposals to develop the army into a well equipped, mobile conventional land force, are unlikely in the near to medium term. The army's role is to protect against external aggression, provide for internal security in support of the police, and to carry out civic action and relief operations when required. The",
"-27.102482435037018"
],
[
"United States in the current international hierarchy. ... A sequential ranking of other major powers beyond the top two would be imprecise at best. Any list, however, has to include Russia, Japan, and India, as well as the EU's informal leaders: Great Britain, Germany, and France.\nAccording to a 2014 report of the Hague Centre for Strategic Studies:\nGreat Powers... are disproportionately engaged in alliances and wars, and their diplomatic weight is often cemented by their strong role in international institutions and forums. This unequal distribution of power and prestige leads to “a set of rights and rules governing interactions among states”",
"-26.996035425598166"
],
[
"War economy United States The United States alone has a very complex history with wartime economies. Many notable instances came during the twentieth century in which America's main conflicts consisted of the World Wars, Korea, and Vietnam. World War I In mobilizing for World War I, the United States expanded its governmental powers by creating institutions such as the War Industries Board (WIB) to help with military production. Others, such as the Fuel Administration, introduced daylight saving time in an effort to save coal and oil while the Food Administration encouraged higher grain production and “mobilized a spirit of self-sacrifice",
"-26.89770054893961"
],
[
"to be the most important for the nation's economy, mobility and defense.",
"-26.883763812933466"
],
[
"States Army Reserve. The Army of the United States was re-established for the Korean War and Vietnam War and was demobilized upon the suspension of the Draft. Active and reserve components The United States Army is made up of three components: one active—the Regular Army; and two reserve components—the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve. Both reserve components are primarily composed of part-time soldiers who train once a month, known as Battle Assembly, Unit Training Assemblies (UTAs), or simply \"drills\", while typically conducting two to three weeks of annual training each year. Both the Regular Army and the Army",
"-26.852498327746616"
],
[
"the people (as expressed by their political representatives), rather than left solely to an elite group of tactical experts. The military serves as a special government agency, which is supposed to implement, rather than formulate, policies that require the use of certain types of physical force. Kohn succinctly summarizes this view when he writes that:\nThe point of civilian control is to make security subordinate to the larger purposes of a nation, rather than the other way around. The purpose of the military is to defend society, not to define it.\nA state's effective use of force is an issue of great",
"-26.74518547311891"
],
[
"national economy based on huge military establishments. These had come to be a recognized way of dealing with the problem of unemployment. To begin with, there were large numbers of men absorbed into the military forces. To supplement these were government arsenals with another army of workmen, with a still larger number employed in providing supplies, food, clothing, and transportation. No government living under this system could undertake drastic reduction of armaments without disrupting the whole national economy. We may as well recognize the fact that there can be no more than fragmentary and regional reductions until the nations are",
"-26.717408262698882"
],
[
"help other states. A national government would make alliances and create a policy that benefits all of the country. Moreover, a unified nation will have a better and stronger military, with many states contributing soldiers and money, opposed to fragmented forces of sovereign states.",
"-26.713653150218306"
],
[
"Department of Defense. Defense's share of the overall U.S. economy has generally declined in recent decades, from Cold War peaks of 14.2% of GDP in 1953 and 69.5% of federal outlays in 1954 to 4.7% of GDP and 18.8% of federal outlays in 2011.\nThe proposed base Department of Defense budget for 2012, $553 billion, was a 4.2% increase over 2011; an additional $118 billion was proposed for the military campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan. The last American troops serving in Iraq departed in December 2011; 4,484 service members were killed during the Iraq War. Approximately 90,000 U.S. troops were serving",
"-26.7028947251747"
],
[
"that the United States is likely to engage in war against Vietnam again and so needs the EFV to storm its beaches. He has also called for a shift in American defense spending towards items such as the Littoral Combat Ship and the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II that can be exported to allies. Thompson has said that \"The United States cannot continue to spend, especially on defense, the way it has been over the past decade.\" Despite being funding by defense contractors, Goure has argued that the use of these contractors is a sign of an army in decline.",
"-26.69953943641758"
],
[
"on military research and weapons development. Additionally the U.S. military maintains two classified, pre-positioned War Reserve Stocks in Israel valued at $493 million. Israel has the official distinction of being an American Major non-NATO ally. As a result of this, the US and Israel share the vast majority of their security and military technology.\nSince 1976, Israel had been the largest annual recipient of U.S. foreign assistance. In 2009, Israel received $2.55 billion in Foreign Military Financing (FMF) grants from the Department of Defense. All but 26% of this military aid is for the purchase of military hardware from American companies",
"-26.67710302687192"
],
[
"independent agency of the government. It is important to note that while the defense budget has fluctuated by billions of dollars, the U.S. Defense spending in relativity to percentage of U.S. GDP has only fluctuated within 1%-2%.\nThe NPR also aimed to improve general customer satisfaction with all dealings involving the federal government. In terms of foreign military sales, however, there is a dilemma of whether or not the federal government's main \"customer\" should be the foreign nations purchasing arms and technologies or the American taxpayer who in part pays for the service provided by the defense department. NPR and Shrinking",
"-26.676370032160776"
],
[
"an open world economy and give Washington leverage in economic negotiations. And they make it easier for the United States to secure cooperation for combating a wide range of global threats.\"\nIkenberry, Brooks, and Wohlforth are not convinced that the current U.S. grand strategy generates subsequent counterbalancing. Unlike the prior hegemons, the United States is geographically isolated and faces no contiguous great power rivals interested in balancing it. This means the United States is far less threatening to great powers that are situated oceans away, the authors claim. Moreover, any competitor would have a hard time matching U.S. military might. \"Not",
"-26.624873175867833"
],
[
"which will boost spending to $700 billion, about 91.4% of which will be spent on maintaining the armed forces and primary Pentagon costs. Military spending is increasing regularly and more money is being spent every year on employee pay, operation and maintenance, and benefits including as health benefits. Methods to counteract rapidly increasing spending include shutting down bases, but that has been banned since an Obama administration Budget Act included a section that stopped just that. Federal waste As of September 2014, the Department of Defense was estimated to have \"$857 million in excess parts and supplies\". This figure has",
"-26.593386111216205"
],
[
"of the reasons why we must increase our military budget. Right now, we spend about 3.9 percent of our GDP on defense, compared with about six percent in 1986, under President Ronald Reagan. We need to return to that six percent level. Tax reform The 1999 gas and fuel tax hikes were never on the ballot in Arkansas, but Huckabee has told reporters \"the fuel tax was a vote of the people—eighty percent of the people voted to improve roads\", and his 2008 presidential campaign manager, Chip Saltsman, has stated that \"more than 80% of the voters supported a four",
"-26.561379243335978"
],
[
"manner to be prescribed by law.\" Even though this is addressing the quartering of American Soldiers, the idea is the same. A country does in fact have the right to protect themselves against aggression from anyone. This can also be achieved through trade which increase wealth, cooperation, and of course a states well-being. Under this theory, trade is another way to promote peace because it would in theory create less conflicts since governments would not want to disrupt anything that would add to the wealth of their states.",
"-26.547323879031865"
],
[
"Department of Defense and Homeland Security. However, the constitutional ability to declare war is vested only in Congress.\nU.S. ranks have their roots in British military traditions, with the president possessing ultimate authority, but no rank, maintaining a civilian status. Before 1947, the president was the only common superior of the Army (under the secretary of war) and the Navy and Marine Corps (under the secretary of the navy). The National Security Act of 1947, and the 1949 amendments to the same act, created the Department of Defense and the services (Army, Navy, Marine Corps and Air Force) became subject to",
"-26.50497663369606"
],
[
"of 30.3% of GDP spent on defense in 1975. In 2016, Israel ranked 6th in the world by defense spending as a percentage of GDP, with 5.7%, and 15th by total military expenditure, with $18 billion. Since 1974, the United States has been a particularly notable contributor of military aid to Israel. Under a memorandum of understanding signed in 2016, the U.S. is expected to provide the country with $3.8 billion per year, or around 20% of Israel's defense budget, from 2018 to 2028. Israel ranked 5th globally for arms exports in 2017. The majority of Israel's arms exports are unreported",
"-26.503211363649825"
],
[
"delay the eventual overwhelming superiority of U.S. forces due to a much greater industrial base.",
"-26.499125383008504"
],
[
"fourth largest labor force in the world behind China, India, and the European Union.\nThe government (federal, state and local) employed 22 million in 2010. Small businesses are the nation's largest employer representing 53% of American workers. The second-largest share of employment belongs to large businesses employing 38% of the U.S. workforce.\nThe nation's private sector employs 91% of working Americans. Government accounts for 8% of all U.S. workers. Over 99% of all employing organizations in the U.S. are small businesses. The 30 million small businesses in the U.S. account for 64% of newly created jobs (those created minus those lost). Jobs",
"-26.462559051197786"
],
[
"is still noticeable and influences the way the states are seen as “small”. This is an important approach, since it makes it clear how aside from the geographical and population size, the country’s GDP, the ranking of a state in the international system, the political, economical and military power play an important role in putting a state somewhere on the spectrum. Small powers in international organizations Small states can under some circumstances have a disproportionately great influence. According to Diana Panke, \"Small states tend to be most likely to punch above their weight if the negotiations take place in an",
"-26.444516941235634"
],
[
"a focus on making other countries more reliant on the United States. This was done through applying economic diplomacy, sharp power, soft power, and other measures to increase foreign dependency on a variety of assets and systems controlled or heavily influenced by America. These include America's new generations of advanced robotic systems, American space-based solar power technologies, American food exports, American space transportation systems such as spaceplanes, and newly expanded efforts by agencies such as the Peace Corps and USAID.\nIn great secrecy, the American government continues work on advanced military technologies, dual-use technologies, and finding means to leverage the revolution",
"-26.357972627332856"
],
[
"different generals, he concludes that the U.S. generalship as an institution, not individual generals, has failed. He proposes that the U.S. Congress take more interest in military affairs, especially when confirming generals. Generals, in his opinion, need to be aware that future U.S. wars will not involve one large enemy army but rather smaller, difficult-to-target groups of insurgents. He states that the United States needs generals to be more creative, as well as have a better understanding of military history, international relations, and foreign cultures.\nEven before he published the influential Armed Forces Journal article, Yingling had made his dissatisfactions known",
"-26.356217087108234"
],
[
"great powers as useful allies, contributors to systems maintenance or as impartial arbiters. Smaller states do not seek status by seeking to match greater powers materially. Some degree of emulation can however pay off. States can be a major donor in the United Nations and give competitive status among peer groups of small states while simultaneously acknowledge great powers for system maintenance. Small states can get access to the middle power club since this is a category with loose membership criteria, but access to the great power club is not possible. Small states may opt for a collective strategy of",
"-26.34427837203839"
],
[
"fighting forces and to modernize weapons systems. Lynn in June 2010 said the goal is to find more savings within the defense budget without cutting the top-line number. Pentagon leaders are eying 2 to 3 percent real growth in the Pentagon's budget for the areas that need it most: force structure and modernization. Two-thirds of the $100 billion cost savings spread out over the next five years will come from trimming overhead on a department-wide basis. That money will be directly transferred into the force structure and modernization accounts, Lynn explained. The rest of the cost savings would come from",
"-26.31356973682159"
],
[
"oil – for military uses, and persuaded businesses to convert to military production.\" Two-thirds of the American economy had been integrated into the war effort by the end of 1943. Because of this massive cooperation between government and private entities, it could be argued that the economic measures enacted prior to and during the Second World War helped lead the Allies to victory. Present Day The United States has been involved in numerous military endeavours within the Middle East and Latin America since the 1960s. Having been in a continuous state of war since the September 11 Attacks and having",
"-26.288565793238377"
],
[
"U.S. service members (as of March 2008) and injuries to thousands more.\nMost of the units that carried out the ground campaign phase of the invasion of Iraq, and who bore the larger part of the conflict with the Iraqi military in 2003 were those of the Army. Since then, they have performed numerous operations against insurgents.\nThe Army has had to make several adjustments to address demands on its personnel and equipment. The US Army has utilized its stop-loss policy and has required more of its combat personnel to serve more tours of duty than before, due to the need for",
"-26.28572867877665"
],
[
"And this is – this is one of the drawbacks that we've had with so many troops having been put into this constant rotational basis inside one country when we have a war against international terrorism that's global.\nAsked by Wolf Blitzer if he would ever support the efforts of Dennis Kucinich to cut funding for the war, Webb said,\nI – you know, I lived through Vietnam. I lived through it as a Marine and I know that those sorts of approaches, while they seem attractive on one level are really not that realistic. What we want to do – and",
"-26.240374000522934"
],
[
"forces within budget allocations that Congress was willing to provide.\nThe major features of the New Look included greater reliance on nuclear weapons, using the advantage the United States had over the Soviet Union in such weapons; elevation of strategic air power, the major means to deliver nuclear weapons, to a more important position (not an expansion in the number of Air Force wings but rather development and production of better equipment); cuts in conventional ground forces, based both on reliance on strategic and tactical nuclear weapons and the expectation that US allies would provide ground troops for their own",
"-26.227013691255706"
],
[
"own defenses and our own military position have already been neglected too long. We must now turn every effort to building the greatest and most efficient Army, Navy and Air Force in the world. When American soldiers go to war it must be with the best equipment that modern skill can design and that modern industry can build.\nWith the formal declaration of war against Japan, the organization chose to disband. On December 11, the committee leaders met and voted for dissolution. In the statement which they released to the press was the following:\nOur principles were right. Had they been followed,",
"-26.211631284473697"
],
[
"off\" a part of the economic activity produced to support an ongoing military buildup to contain the Soviet Union. In his 1951 Annual Message to the Congress, President Truman stated:\nIn terms of manpower, our present defense targets will require an increase of nearly one million men and women in the armed forces within a few months, and probably not less than four million more in defense production by the end of the year. This means that an additional 8 percent of our labor force, and possibly much more, will be required by direct defense needs by the end of the",
"-26.201943584561377"
],
[
"vital national security interests: The U.S. military would go to war only when it must. Large troop contingents in unprecedentedly peaceful regions such as Europe would be significantly downsized, incentivizing NATO members to provide more for their own security. Under such a scenario, the United States would have more leeway in using resources to combat the most pressing threats to its security. A strategy of restraint, therefore, would help preserve the country's prosperity and security more so than a hegemonic strategy. To be sure, Posen makes clear that he is not advocating isolationism. Rather, the United States should focus on",
"-26.191210456654517"
],
[
"the past… [The military has] done an admirable job…but it is no replacement for the real thing - civilian involvement and expertise… Funding for non-military foreign-affairs programs…remains disproportionately small relative to what we spend on the military… Secretary Rice has asked for a budget increase for the State Department and an expansion of the Foreign Service. The need is real… What is clear to me is that there is a need for a dramatic increase in spending on the civilian instruments of national security - diplomacy, strategic communications, foreign assistance, civic action, and economic reconstruction and development… Indeed, having robust",
"-26.151267397028278"
],
[
"2 – Maximum wealth Great powers seek to maximize their share of the world's wealth because economic strength is the foundation of military strength. Great powers seek to prevent rival powers from dominating wealth-producing regions of the world. The United States, for example, sought to prevent the Soviet Union from dominating Western Europe and the Middle East. Had the Soviets gained control of these areas, the balance of power would have been altered significantly against the United States. Objective 3 – Nuclear superiority Mearsheimer asserts that great powers seek nuclear superiority over their rivals. Great powers exist in a world",
"-26.06959121293039"
],
[
"only eastern Europe), and the industrial might of the U.S. economy became a major factor in the Allies' mobilization of resources. Strategic and tactical lessons learned by the U.S., such as the importance of air superiority and the dominance of the aircraft carrier in naval actions, continue to guide U.S. military doctrine into the 21st century.\nWorld War II holds a special place in the American psyche as the country's greatest triumph, and the U.S. military personnel of World War II are frequently referred to as \"the Greatest Generation.\" Over 16 million served (about 11% of the population), and over 400,000",
"-26.054535305658646"
],
[
"United States remain the \"preeminent military power in the world,\" and the regional \"balances of power remain in our favor.\" [Emphasis added] The \"balance of power favoring freedom\" appeared identical with the balance of power favoring \"us.\"\nRussian President Vladimir Putin complained: \"Instead of establishing a new balance of power … they [the United States] took steps that threw the [international] system into sharp and deep imbalance.\"\nIn 1826, George Canning “called the new world into existence to redress the balance of the old.” In 1898, Theodore Roosevelt found that the United States had become \"more and more the balance of power",
"-26.033366685544024"
],
[
"of the wars was approximately $1.3 trillion. Other military-related expenditures This does not include many military-related items that are outside of the Defense Department budget, such as nuclear weapons research, maintenance, cleanup, and production, which are in the Atomic Energy Defense Activities section, Veterans Affairs, the Treasury Department's payments in pensions to military retirees and widows and their families, interest on debt incurred in past wars, or State Department financing of foreign arms sales and militarily-related development assistance. Neither does it include defense spending that is not military in nature, such as the Department of Homeland Security, counter-terrorism spending by",
"-26.03135553901666"
],
[
"World War II Compared to the end of the first World War, the United States was even more powerful in 1945 following the conclusion of the second World War. The nation possessed a preponderance of military power and close to half of the world's wealth. Once again, leaders from the United States attempted to leverage this powerful position and create a stable order that would serve to benefit their nation for decades to come. Political and economic openness was the centerpiece of this envisioned framework. It was believed that the closed economic regions which had existed before the war had",
"-26.022756794001907"
],
[
"there is no Minister of Defense, the Mexican military's two components are not under the command of a single commander except the President, who is Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces (Comandante Supremo De Las Fuerzas Armadas). According to the Constitution of Mexico the President is the Army's only five-star general. (This is comparable to most other countries with a presidential system of government, such as the United States.) Instead, a Secretary, who is a serving officer—an Army four-star general or a Navy admiral—heads each department and branch (The Secretariats of National Defense and the Navy). Each minister serves in",
"-25.989514839173353"
],
[
"force, which was the main source of revenue for the state. It was important to maintain control over the areas resources because failure to do so resulted in a loss in revenue, which weakened the states authority. People will always recognise the authority of the political unit that offers protection and security. It is widely considered that the only states to have emerged were the ones that could compete in war with other territorial states that resulted in states forming large military forces with technological and tactical advantages. Designated the military revolution, in Europe between 1500 and 1700 occurred a",
"-25.97127666749293"
],
[
"Navy fell apart, without sufficient personnel to man many of its ships or the money to maintain them—indeed, many of them were sold to foreign nations. This left the United States as the world's undisputed naval superpower. U.S. naval forces did undergo a decline in absolute terms but relative to the rest of the world, however, United States dwarfs other nations' naval power as evinced by its 11 aircraft supercarriers and their supporting battle groups. During the 1990s, the United States naval strategy was based on the overall military strategy of the United States which emphasized the ability of the",
"-25.938948393784813"
],
[
"in nature. An institutional model presents the military as an organization highly divergent from civilian society while an occupational model presents the military more convergent with civilian structures. While Moskos did not propose that the military was ever \"entirely separate or entirely coterminous with civilian society\", the use of a scale helped better to highlight the changing interface between the armed forces and society. Agency theory The Vietnam War opened deep arguments about civil-military relations that continue to exert powerful influences today. One centered on a contention within military circles that the United States lost the war because of unnecessary",
"-25.89372081696638"
],
[
"a significant portion of the American military's troop strength and destroy a significant portion of his war equipment in order to prevent the American forces from being able to carry out their political and military missions; on the basis, crush the American will to commit aggression and force the United States to accept defeat in South Vietnam and end all hostile actions against North Vietnam. In addition, using this as the basis, they would achieve the immediate goals of the revolution, which were independence, democracy, peace, and neutrality in South Vietnam, and then move toward achieving peace and national unification.\nThe",
"-25.89253147830459"
],
[
"to small towns, throughout the Midwest or the Southwest or the South, every town has tons of young people who are serving in Iraq and Afghanistan. That's not always the case in other parts of the country, in more urban centers. And I think it's important for the president to say, this is an important obligation. If we are going into war, then all of us go, not just some.\"\nObama never actually said he supported a draft or the specific bill that is currently stalled in Congress. Universal National Service Act of 2010 The Universal National Service Act of 2010",
"-25.884879589717457"
],
[
"United States was the world's dominant military power and Japan, sometimes seen as the largest economic rival to the U.S., was caught in a period of stagnation. China was emerging as the U.S.'s foremost trading competitor in more and more areas. Localized conflicts such as those in Haiti and the Balkans prompted President Bill Clinton to send in U.S. troops as peacekeepers, reviving the Cold-War-era controversy about whether policing the rest of the world was a proper U.S. role. Islamic radicals overseas loudly threatened assaults against the U.S. for its ongoing military presence in the Middle East, and even staged",
"-25.864537562736587"
],
[
"is the upholding, guarding and protecting the integrity of the United States government and its constitution. Other duties include helping ex-service personnel who need help in getting employment, caring for the sick, and needed burial services. \nThe mission and purpose of the Army and Navy Union are to bind together in fraternal comradeship all comrades, shipmates, soldiers, sailors and marines, regular and volunteers, veterans of all wars in which the United States has been or may be engaged in. Besides patriotic, other purposes for the organization are for history and genealogy records. The main goal of the organization is to",
"-25.8325910193671"
],
[
"nations, with its military equipment being supplied primarily by the US, France and Britain.\nThe United States sold more than $80 billion in military hardware between 1951 and 2006 to the Saudi military. On 20 October 2010, the US State Department notified Congress of its intention to make the biggest arms sale in American history—an estimated $60.5 billion purchase by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The package represents a considerable improvement in the offensive capability of the Saudi armed forces. 2013 saw Saudi military spending climb to $67bn, overtaking that of the UK, France and Japan to place fourth globally.\nThe United",
"-25.80828062823275"
],
[
"regions and states highlights the need to improve U.S. capabilities in the areas of intelligence gathering and analysis, public diplomacy, counterinsurgency, and post-conflict stabilization and reconstruction. The international program has long sought to support projects designed to improve the effectiveness of U.S. military forces through defense transformation. Geopolitical competition, the uncertain future of economic and political developments in key states such as Russia, and the increasingly important roles that China and India play in international politics require renewed assessments of how best to deploy U.S. resources in order to achieve strategic objectives around the globe. The Foundation",
"-25.80510775106177"
],
[
"to $188.5 billion US. China's military budget for 2014 according to IHS Jane's, a defence industry consulting and analysis company, will be $148 billion US, which is the second largest in the world. The United States military budget for 2014 in comparison, is $574.9 billion US., which is down from a high of $664.3 billion US in 2012. According to SIPRI, China became the world's third largest exporter of major arms in 2010–14, an increase of 143 per cent from the period 2005–2009. China supplied major arms to 35 states in 2010–14. A significant percentage (just over 68 per cent) of Chinese exports",
"-25.77302516704367"
],
[
"means the US armed forces must have the strength to win swiftly in two near-simultaneous conflicts in those regions. The final 1 means that the US forces must win one of those conflicts \"decisively\".\nThe general policy objectives are to (1) assure allies and friends; (2) dissuade future military competition, (3) deter threats and coercion against U.S. interests, and (4) if deterrence fails, decisively defeat any adversary. United States Department of Defense The Department of Defense publishes Joint Publications which state all-services doctrine. The current basic doctrinal publication is Joint Publication 3-0, \"Doctrine for Joint Operations. United States Air Force Headquarters,",
"-25.761176993528352"
],
[
"Military budget A military budget (or military expenditure), also known as a defense budget, is the amount of financial resources dedicated by a state to raising and maintaining an armed forces or other methods essential for defense purposes. Financing militaries Military budgets often reflect how strongly a country perceives the likelihood of threats against it, or the amount of aggression it wishes to conjure. It also gives an idea of how much financing should be provided for the upcoming fiscal year. The size of a budget also reflects the country's ability to fund military activities. Factors include the size of",
"-25.755968701520032"
],
[
"we made in Vietnam and the Russians made in Afghanistan.\"\nRepresentative John P. Murtha, also on the House Appropriations Committee and an influential voice on military affairs, stated: \"The public is worn out by war. The troops, no matter what the military says, are exhausted.\"\nSenator Russell D. Feingold, a member of both the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and Senate Intelligence Committee, stated that if Obama decides to send more troops, the House of Representatives should contest it.\nSenator Feingold, who favors a timetable for withdrawal and opposes McChrystal's troop surge, said in an interview that his constituents were weary of war and",
"-25.751019119827106"
],
[
"partnership with our allies.\" Instead of the previous administration's \"2½ war\" concept - readiness to fight simultaneous wars on two major fronts and one minor front - the Nixon Doctrine cut back to the \"1½ war\" level. Through military aid and credit-assisted sales of military equipment abroad, the United States would prepare its allies to take up a greater share of the defense burden, especially manpower needs, in case of war. U.S. military forces would be \"smaller, more mobile, and more efficient general purpose forces that ... [would] neither cast the United States in the role of world policeman nor",
"-25.745682986347674"
],
[
"major power takes on the responsibility for a minor country's security by pledging to support it in the contingency of military conflict. In return, the major power gains autonomy or influence over the minor power's foreign policy decision-making process.\nThe rationale for the spokes to entering this system can be explained as minor powers may seeking alliances in order to increase security from military aggression. While major powers may be interested in alliances with minor powers, not to defend its own territory, but to extend their sphere of military and foreign influence.\nIt is important to note that the nature of the",
"-25.743416367986356"
]
] |
609xpd | Can the capacity of our brains be roughly measured in bytes? | [
"Computer storage and the human memory are not directly comparable. Computers store information as states of \"on\" or 1s and \"off\" or 0s. A single one or zero is a bit, and 8 of these put together (at least in most modern computers) is a byte. But brains don't work like that at all. We store memories as connections between nerve cells, so bytes is not a very applicable unit to measure brain capacity with. A more accurate measure of brain capacity is the number of connections in the brain.",
"Most computer scientists would say yes. The brain occupies a finite amount of space and since the universe is discrete, there is a finite amount of information in there. Personally, I'm not too comfortable with the number of assumptions being made with that logic, but my position on that matter is controversial. I do know that to say the brain's storage reduces to the number of neuron connections is probably not correct. It's far more complex than that. There is also a dynamic electro-chemical state between and within the synapses which has some information storage capacity--various ion and neurotransmitter concentrations, for instance. Things like \"are you happy\" probably aren't stored in a chart showing which neuron is connected to which other. You can take a pill to change that variable. Then, unlike a regular computer, the brain and the body has evolved an extremely integrated interface with its environment such that it's often difficult to tell where you draw the line between brain and not-brain. For instance, what about your body temperature? It effects cognition, and is in a feedback path with the brain. Could that be considered a form of storage? There are many examples like that. It's often forgotten that information is specific to context. A forgotten language can only be deciphered if we actually share something with the lost civilization-- feelings, biology, environment. The brain is weird because it creates its own context. Since the brain is so closely integrated with its environment, its identity can become blurred and it can become unclear *where* the brain actually is. Your brain organized your room and now your room effects your cognition. Is your room information storage? You have a romantic partner. Your brain interacts with them and changes them. Now they interact with you and change your cognition. Are they storage? The [transactive memory hypothesis] ( URL_0 ) builds on this idea and suggests there are memories that we can only have or have better when we're together with someone we've interacted with before. You could say that these external sources are just external and thus we can ignore them. But your environment, which your brain is changing, effects you whether or not you ask for it. In that way, the external is really not so external. Your environment is not like a USB flash drive. You can't unplug it. There are numerous examples of what happens when you try to unplug it. Extreme isolation for example. The brain just breaks down in these contexts. So environment is actually part of you. If the brain doesn't have well-defined limits, then measuring its capacity is going to be incredibly difficult. It could still be a number in bytes depending on which physics you subscribe to. It's commonly believed that the whole universe has a finite storage capacity. If so, then even a brain without a skull limit still has a universe limit.",
"Yes, our memory can hold anywhere from 1 to 100 terabytes. Combined with strong neurons (our processors) that could make our storage up to 2.5 petabytes. This of course varies per person .",
"i think this is a bad comparison. our brain seems to plot experiences into the neuronal network and thereby is able to see similarities to a previous experience. thus, we have no \"storage\" and \"processing\". the overall activity at one moment is the information experienced. technically, the brain is non-binary (it does not store bits and bytes), it measures time between activities (neuronal firing) which is a complex number, and quantifies this information (threshold levels for input triggering activity from the cell); it can multitask and consider various levels of analysis at the same time -- this allows it to be fuzzy and very apt at pattern matching. when you count how much a person can learn, you get bytes, but this is really not the good way to see the brain. it does not store things in this way. the more you learn from one thing, the easier is the storage for still more, and so on.",
"This is a hard question to answer. Of course, since we occupy finite space, our properties must be finite. But the exceedingly complex structure of the brain and other systems (such as the nervous system) makes it hard to calculate the amount of \"data\" that we can store. We don't have a way to measure resolution of life or the quality of everyday noises. Such a calculation can vary extremely on a person's perceptive ability. Most of our memories are vague recollections, barely any measurable data, linked in a series of firing neurons that connects those vague ideas into one clear thought in our RAM (Short-term memory). However, we can estimate average capacity, although it has no clear meaning in our terms of cognition. That number would be 2.5 petabytes (2,560 terabytes, or 2.814×10^15 bytes). Even so, this number varies as well from person to person. The memory space used is also selective based on a subconscious \"hierarchy of importance\". Some people remember numbers best, while some people remember images best. These have a direct impact on how much we can know. Other factors can influence it as well. TL;DR: 2.814×10^15 bytes, give or take a few trillion."
] | [
[
"10^18 instructions per second. Estimates suggest that the storage capacity of an individual human brain is about 10^12 bytes. On a per capita basis, this is matched by current digital storage (5x10^21 bytes per 7.2x10^9 people)\". Relation to economics Eventually, Information and Communication Technology—computers, computerized machinery, fiber optics, communication satellites, the Internet, and other ICT tools—became a significant part of the economy. Microcomputers were developed and many businesses and industries were greatly changed by ICT.\nNicholas Negroponte captured the essence of these changes in his 1995 book, Being Digital. His book discusses similarities and differences between products made of atoms and",
"-31.763315992982825"
],
[
"volume of the CNS. In the human brain, the telencephalon covers most of the diencephalon and the mesencephalon. Indeed, the allometric study of brain size among different species shows a striking continuity from rats to whales, and allows us to complete the knowledge about the evolution of the CNS obtained through cranial endocasts. Mammals Mammals – which appear in the fossil record after the first fishes, amphibians, and reptiles – are the only vertebrates to possess the evolutionarily recent, outermost part of the cerebral cortex known as the neocortex.\nThe neocortex of monotremes (the duck-billed platypus and several species of spiny",
"-30.31800196983386"
],
[
"to range from 550 cm³ (34 cu in) to 687 cm³ (41.9 cu in), rather than from 363 cm³ (22.2 cu in) to 600 cm³ (37 cu in) as previously thought.\nA virtual reconstruction published in 2015 estimated the endocranial volume at between 729 ml (25.7 imp fl oz; 24.7 US fl oz) and 824 ml (29.0 imp fl oz; 27.9 US fl oz), larger than any previously published value.\nH. habilis' brain capacity of around 640 cm³ (39 cu in) was on average 50% larger than australopithecines, but considerably smaller than the 1,350 cm³ (82 cu in) to 1,450 cm³ (88 cu in) range of modern Homo sapiens. These hominins were smaller than modern humans, on average standing no more than 1.3 m (4 ft 3 in).\nThe body proportions for H. habilis are in accordance with craniodental evidence, suggesting",
"-30.02251311694272"
],
[
"memory loss of the events and mental processes immediately before the time of brain scanning.\nA full brain map has been estimated to occupy less than 2 x 10¹⁶ bytes (20,000 TB) and would store the addresses of the connected neurons, the synapse type and the synapse \"weight\" for each of the brains' 10¹⁵ synapses. However, the biological complexities of true brain function (e.g. the epigenetic states of neurons, protein components with multiple functional states, etc.) may preclude an accurate prediction of the volume of binary data required to faithfully represent a functioning human mind. Serial sectioning A possible method",
"-29.653654624940827"
],
[
"Brodmann area 10 Size The volume of the human BA10 is about 14 cm³ and constitutes roughly 1.2% of total brain volume. This is twice what would be expected in a hominoid with a human-sized brain. By comparison, the volume of BA10 in bonobos is about 2.8 cm³, and makes up only 0.74% of its brain volume. In each hemisphere, area 10 contains an estimated 250 million neurons. Location BA10 is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined frontal region of cerebral cortex. It occupies the most rostral portions of the superior frontal gyrus and the middle frontal gyrus. In humans, on the",
"-29.02713411366858"
],
[
"count was given as 100 billion for decades before Herculano-Houzel found a more reliable method of counting brain cells. Most references in Wikipedia to neuron counts, such as List of animals by number of neurons have been updated in the last few years to numbers derived from her counting innovation.\nIt could have been anticipated that EQ might be superseded because of both the number of exceptions and the growing complexity of the formulae it used. (See the rest of this article.) The simplicity of counting neurons has replaced it. The concept in EQ of comparing the brain",
"-28.93958052045491"
],
[
"article in the recognized Journal Trends in Ecology and Evolution reports that by now digital technology \"has vastly exceeded the cognitive capacity of any single human being and has done so a decade earlier than predicted. In terms of capacity, there are two measures of importance: the number of operations a system can perform and the amount of information that can be stored. The number of synaptic operations per second in a human brain has been estimated to lie between 10^15 and 10^17. While this number is impressive, even in 2007 humanity's general-purpose computers were capable of performing well over",
"-28.912716335238656"
],
[
"sulci and gyri, and size of dominant lobes or regions of the brain. While endocasts are extremely helpful in revealing superficial brain anatomy, they cannot reveal brain structure, particularly of deeper brain areas. By determining scaling metrics of cranial capacity as it relates to total number of neurons present in primates, it is also possible to estimate the number of neurons through fossil evidence.\nDespite the limitations to endocasts, they can and do provide a basis for understanding human brain evolution, which shows primarily a gradually bigger brain. The evolutionary history of the human brain shows primarily a gradually bigger brain",
"-28.409542442241218"
],
[
"seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited: George A. Miller (1956), when working at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showing that the store of short-term memory was 7±2 items (the title of his famous paper, \"The magical number 7±2\"). Modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memory are lower, typically of the order of 4–5 items; however, memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking. For example, in recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a person could chunk the digits into three groups: first, the area code (such as 123), then a three-digit chunk (456)",
"-28.306346754204696"
],
[
"Voxel-based morphometry Voxel-based morphometry is a computational approach to neuroanatomy that measures differences in local concentrations of brain tissue, through a voxel-wise comparison of multiple brain images.\nIn traditional morphometry, volume of the whole brain or its subparts is measured by drawing regions of interest (ROIs) on images from brain scanning and calculating the volume enclosed. However, this is time consuming and can only provide measures of rather large areas. Smaller differences in volume may be overlooked. The value of VBM is that it allows for comprehensive measurement of differences, not just in specific structures, but throughout the entire brain. VBM",
"-28.177368197968462"
],
[
"450 millilitres (15 US fl oz), which does not take into account that the brain may have occupied as little as 50% of the space of the endocast, the rest of the space being taken up by the dura mater surrounding the brain. For example, the brain of the specimen with the 374 millilitre endocast is estimated to have had a volume of 268 millilitres (9 US fl oz). The brain was an elongate structure, and as with other non-mammals, there would have been no neocortex. Like Stegosaurus, the neural canal was expanded in the hips, but not to the same degree: the endosacral space of Stegosaurus",
"-28.08222752531583"
],
[
"over the short-term may be, there is consensus that it severely limits the amount of new information that we can retain over brief periods of time. This limit is referred to as the finite capacity of short-term memory. The capacity of short-term memory is often called memory span, in reference to a common procedure of measuring it. In a memory span test, the experimenter presents lists of items (e.g. digits or words) of increasing length. An individual's span is determined as the longest list length that he or she can recall correctly in the given order on at least half",
"-28.069032376341056"
],
[
"is specified when the disk contains 100 billion bytes (93 gibibytes) of storage space.\nWhile the numerical difference between the decimal and binary interpretations is relatively small for the prefixes kilo and mega, it grows to over 20% for prefix yotta. The linear–log graph illustrates the difference versus storage size up to an exabyte. Common uses Many programming languages defined the data type byte.\nThe C and C++ programming languages define byte as an \"addressable unit of data storage large enough to hold any member of the basic character set of the execution environment\" (clause 3.6 of the C standard). The C standard requires",
"-28.00783959205728"
],
[
"with as the number of particles as large as possible. This example shows for computation intensive applications, memory capacity does not need to proportionally scale up with computing power. Applications/Effects of Sun-Ni's Law The memory-bounded speedup model is the first work to reveal that memory is the performance constraint for high-end computing and presents a quantitative mathematical formulation for the trade-off between memory and computing. It is based on the memory-bounded function,W=G(n), where W is the work and thus also the computation for most applications. M is the memory requirement in terms of capacity, and G is the reuse rate.",
"-27.982649377721827"
],
[
"neurosurgeons Jean Talairach and Gabor Szikla in their work on the Talairach Atlas in 1967, creating a standardized grid for neurosurgery. The grid was based on the idea that distances to lesions in the brain are proportional to overall brain size (i.e., the distance between two structures is larger in a larger brain). In 1988 a second edition of the Talairach Atlas came out that was coauthored by Tournoux, and it is sometimes known as the Talairach–Tournoux system. This atlas was based on single post-mortem dissection of a human brain.\nThe Talairach Atlas uses Brodmann areas as the labels for brain",
"-27.936605987604707"
],
[
"rough idea of lobe sizes. Significance The study of paleoneurobiology allows researchers to examine the evolutionary nature of human encephalization. Traditionally, paleoneurobiologists have focused on determining the volume of the ancient brain and the patterns that emerged among related species. By finding these measurements, researchers have been able to predict the average body weight of species. Endocasts also reveal traits of the ancient brain including relative lobe size, blood supply, and other general insight into the anatomy of evolving species. Limitations While paleoneurology is useful in the study of brain evolution, certain limitations to the information this study",
"-27.83030348038301"
],
[
"2013 (DNAZip and GenomeZip) have compression ratios of up to 1200-fold—allowing 6 billion basepair diploid human genomes to be stored in 2.5 megabytes (relative to a reference genome or averaged over many genomes). For a benchmark in genetics/genomics data compressors, see Outlook and currently unused potential It is estimated that the total amount of data that is stored on the world's storage devices could be further compressed with existing compression algorithms by a remaining average factor of 4.5:1. It is estimated that the combined technological capacity of the world to store information provides 1,300 exabytes of hardware digits in 2007,",
"-27.660591085699707"
],
[
"number of bytes, is the minimum unit of storage that is read from and written to a disk by a disk driver. The earliest disk drives had fixed block sizes (e.g. the IBM 350 disk storage unit (of the late 1950s) block size was 100 6 bit characters) but starting with the 1301 IBM marketed subsystems that featured variable block sizes: a particular track could have blocks of different sizes. The disk subsystems on the IBM System/360 expanded this concept in the form of Count Key Data (CKD) and later Extended Count Key Data (ECKD); however the use of variable",
"-27.57889130205149"
],
[
"observation from neuropsychological testing that the average digit span of healthy adults is about seven (Cowan and others 2005). However, it emerged that these numbers of items can only be retained if they are grouped into so-called chunks, using perceptual or conceptual associations between individual stimuli.\" Its duration is of 5–20 seconds before it is out of the subject's mind. This occurs often with names of people newly introduced to. Images or information based on meaning are stored here as well, but it decays without rehearsal or repetition of such information. \nOn the other hand, long-term memory has a potentially",
"-27.314266998902895"
],
[
"into a larger block of memory with contiguous addresses.\nEarly computer system documentation would specify the memory size with an exact number such as 4096, 8192, or 16384 words of storage. These are all powers of two, and furthermore are small multiples of 2¹⁰, or 1024. As storage capacities increased, several different methods were developed to abbreviate these quantities.\nThe method most commonly used today uses prefixes such as kilo, mega, giga, and corresponding symbols K, M, and G, which the computer industry originally adopted from the metric system. The prefixes kilo- and mega-, meaning 1000 and 1000000 respectively, were commonly used",
"-27.244327686261386"
],
[
"most complex organ system in the body, with most of the complexity residing in the brain. The human brain alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks whose intricacies have only begun to be unraveled. At least one out of three of the approximately 20,000 genes belonging to the human genome is expressed mainly in the brain.\nDue to the high degree of plasticity of the human brain, the structure of its synapses and their resulting functions change throughout life.\nMaking sense of the",
"-27.224446945707314"
],
[
"encode four nucleotide pairs, the individual genomes of every human on the planet could be encoded by approximately 1×10¹⁹ bytes. The digital realm stored 500 times more information than this in 2014 (see figure). The total amount of DNA contained in all of the cells on Earth is estimated to be about 5.3×10³⁷ base pairs, equivalent to 1.325×10³⁷ bytes of information.\nIf growth in digital storage continues at its current rate of 30–38% compound annual growth per year, it will rival the total information content contained in all of the DNA in all of the cells on Earth in about 110",
"-27.1756758649135"
],
[
"occupy three bytes. Steps which specify values or equations occupy more memory, as indicated above.\nThe amount of used and available memory can be readily checked by the user, but not by programs. The user can clear all indirect variables above a specified number, with the CLVARx function.",
"-27.046735288924538"
],
[
"trials immediately after presentation. Miller observed that memory span of young adults is approximately seven items. He noticed that memory span is approximately the same for stimuli with vastly different amount of information—for instance, binary digits have 1 bit each; decimal digits have 3.32 bits each; words have about 10 bits each. Miller concluded that memory span is not limited in terms of bits but rather in terms of chunks. A chunk is the largest meaningful unit in the presented material that the person recognizes—thus, what counts as a chunk depends on the knowledge of the person being tested. For",
"-26.977832953765756"
],
[
"order of 10¹⁰ neurons linked by 10¹⁴ synaptic connections. By comparison, the number of base-pairs in a human genome is 3×10⁹. A few of the main challenges of building a human connectome at the microscale today include: data collection would take years given current technology, machine vision tools to annotate the data remain in their infancy, and are inadequate, and neither theory nor algorithms are readily available for the analysis of the resulting brain-graphs. To address the data collection issues, several groups are building high-throughput serial electron microscopes (Kasthuri et al., 2009; Bock et al. 2011). To address the machine-vision",
"-26.883641855150927"
],
[
"Large scale brain networks Large scale brain networks are collections of widespread brain regions showing functional connectivity by statistical analysis of the fMRI BOLD signal, or other recording methods such as EEG, PET and MEG. An emerging paradigm in neuroscience is that cognitive tasks are performed not by individual brain regions working in isolation, but by networks consisting of several discrete brain regions that are said to be \"functionally connected\" due to tightly coupled activity. Functional connectivity may be measured as long-range synchronization of the EEG, MEG, or other dynamic brain signals. Synchronized brain regions may also be",
"-26.72923905827338"
],
[
"availability influences mTOR\nso that when cells are not able to grow to normal size they will not\nundergo cell division.\nThe details of the molecular mechanisms of mammalian cell size control\nare currently being investigated. The size of post-mitotic neurons\ndepends on the size of the cell body, axon and dendrites. In\nvertebrates, neuron size is often a reflection of the number of\nsynaptic contacts onto the neuron or from a neuron onto other cells.\nFor example, the size of motoneurons usually reflects the size of\nthe motor unit that is controlled by the motoneuron.\nInvertebrates often have giant neurons and axons that provide\nspecial functions such as rapid action",
"-26.68042623088695"
],
[
"\"Real storage capacity is available in 512K increments ranging from 512K to 2,048K bytes.\"\nMegabyte was used to describe the 22-bit addressing of DEC PDP-11/70 (1975)\nand gigabyte the 30-bit addressing DEC VAX-11/780 (1977).\nIn 1998, the International Electrotechnical Commission IEC introduced the binary prefixes kibi, mebi, gibi ... to mean 1024, 1024², 1024³ etc., so that 1048576 bytes could be referred to unambiguously as 1 mebibyte. The IEC prefixes were defined for use alongside the International System of Quantities (ISQ) in 2009. Disk drives The disk drive industry has followed a different pattern. Disk drive capacity is generally specified with unit",
"-26.570217709289864"
],
[
"of shapes in any number of dimensions can be handled numerically.\nIn addition, though the extraction of morphometric parameters like brain mass or liquor volume may be relatively straightforward in post mortem samples, most studies in living subjects will by necessity have to use an indirect approach: A spatial representation of the brain or its components is obtained by some appropriate neuroimaging technique, and the parameters of interest can then be analyzed on that basis. Such a structural representation of the brain is also a prerequisite for the interpretation of functional neuroimaging.\nThe design of a brain morphometric study depends on multiple",
"-26.237330523959827"
],
[
"and cerebellar Purkinje cells. Betz cells are the largest cells (by size of cell body) in the nervous system. The adult human brain is estimated to contain 86±8 billion neurons, with a roughly equal number (85±10 billion) of non-neuronal cells. Out of these neurons, 16 billion (19%) are located in the cerebral cortex, and 69 billion (80%) are in the cerebellum.\nTypes of glial cell are astrocytes (including Bergmann glia), oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells (including tanycytes), radial glial cells, microglia, and a subtype of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells. Astrocytes are the largest of the glial cells. They are stellate cells with many processes",
"-26.21670153740706"
],
[
"only has one store of immediate information processing which could only hold a total of 7 items plus or minus two items to be stored in a very short period of time, sometimes a matter of seconds. The digit-span test is a perfect example of a measurement for classically defined short-term memory. Essentially, if one is not able to encode the 7 plus or minus two items within a few minutes by finding an existing association for the information to be transferred into long-term memory, then the information is lost and never encoded.\nHowever, visuo-spatial short-term memory can retain visual",
"-26.172252292570192"
],
[
"bytes. The memory was composed of eight 6102 static RAMs (1024 x 1 bits) and the two 64 byte RAMs of the MCS6530s. In the 1970s memory sizes were expressed in several ways. Semiconductor manufacturers would use a precise memory size such as 2048 by 8 and sometimes state the number of bits (16384). Mini and mainframe computers had various memory widths (8 bits to over 36 bits) so manufacturers would use the term \"words\", such as 4K words. The early hobbyist computer advertisements would use both \"words\" and \"bytes\". It was common to see \"4096 words\", \"4K (4096)",
"-26.06498573650606"
],
[
"the original estimate), if digitized as 16 kHz 16-bit audio, although he did freely confess that \"maybe the authors [of the exabyte estimate] were thinking about text\".\nEarlier studies from the University of California, Berkeley, estimated that by the end of 1999, the sum of human-produced information (including all audio, video recordings, and text/books) was about 12 exabytes of data. The 2003 Berkeley report stated that in 2002 alone, \"telephone calls worldwide on both landlines and mobile phones contained 17.3 exabytes of new information if stored in digital form\" and that \"it would take 9.25 exabytes of storage to hold all U.S.",
"-26.01003592030611"
],
[
"throughout the brain. There are a couple of important methodological issues that need to be addressed. Firstly, there are many different possible brain mappings that could be used to define the brain regions for the network. The results could vary significantly depending on the brain region chosen. Secondly, what mathematical techniques are best about to characterize these brain regions?\nThe brain regions of interest are somewhat constrained by the size of the voxels. Rs-fcMRI uses voxels that are few millimeters cubed so the brain regions will have to be defined on a larger scale. Two of the statistical methods that are",
"-25.963111606324674"
],
[
"analysis of the neuron count allows the easy computation of the critical value, the dendrite maximum, and the Schoenen Ramification Index.\nCritical Value: The critical value is the radius r at which there is a maximum number of dendritic crossings, this value is closely related to the dendrite maximum.\nDendrite Maximum: This value is the maximum of the function N(r), as specified by the Critical Value for a given data set.\nSchoenen Ramification Index: This index is one measure of the branching of the neuronal cell being studied. It is calculated by dividing the Dendrite Maximum by the number of primary",
"-25.95484715650673"
],
[
"This is the same as the computational overhead, and is since K is .\nThe total memory used up by Π′ is equal to the size of T. Each triple stored in the tree has words in it and thus there are words per node of the tree. Since the total number of nodes in the tree is , the total memory size is words, which is . Hence, the memory overhead of the construction is .",
"-25.8587736475165"
],
[
"various sociocultural updates in linguistics, the term is deemed obsolete by modern medical culture. Therefore, because the size of the brain is most often determined by the size of one's skull, the use of classifying, \"microcephaly,\" in more modern literature, is today almost always implied when discussing cases wherein microcephaly manifests. Microlissencephaly Microlissencephaly is microcephaly combined with lissencephaly (smooth brain surface due to absent sulci and gyri). Most cases of microlissencephaly are described in consanguineous families, suggesting an autosomal recessive inheritance. Historical causes of microcephaly After the dropping of atomic bombs \"Little Boy\" on Hiroshima and \"Fat Man\" on Nagasaki,",
"-25.8171038403525"
],
[
"in the developing brain. General Features The most common transcript encodes a protein that is 205 amino acids long with a molecular mass of 23 kDa. It has a predicted isoelectric point of 4.72. It is predicted to have a half-life around 30 hours. C20orf196 contains 19 positive residues (9.3%), 32 negative residues (15.6%), and 46 hydrophobic residues (22.4%). Cellular Localization C20orf196 is predicted to localize in the nucleus. Domains C20orf196 contains one domain, DUF4521, which arose in Amniote. DUF4521 spans from amino acid 3 to 201. Several regions of this domain are conserved in c20orf196 orthologs found in",
"-25.77904455724638"
],
[
" Larger sizes may not be of human minicolumns, for example macaque monkey V1 minicolumns are 31 µm diameter, with 142 pyramidal cells (Peters, 1994) — 1270 columns per mm². Similarly, the cat V1 has much bigger minicolumns, ~56 µm.\nThe size can also be calculated from area considerations. If cortex (both hemispheres) is 1.27×10¹¹ µm² then if there are 2×10⁸ minicolumns in the neocortex then each is 635 µm², giving a diameter of 28 µm (if the cortex area were doubled to the commonly quoted value, this would rise to 40 µm). Johansson and Lansner do a similar calculation and arrive at 36 µm",
"-25.7711678519845"
],
[
"capable of simultaneously measuring small and large areas at the same time, with the temporal resolution that the circuitry of the brain requires. These techniques include EEG, MEG, fMRI, optical recordings, and single-cell recordings. Future Techniques such as large scale single-cell recordings are movements in the direction of analyzing overall brain rhythms. However, these require invasive procedures, such as tetrode implantation, which does not allow a healthy brain to be studied. Also, pharmacological manipulation, cell culture imaging and computational biology all make attempts at doing this but in the end they are indirect.",
"-25.751008701859973"
],
[
"storage capacity is 400 million bytes or 800 million decimal digits. Up to eight 2321s can be attached to the IBM 2841 Control Unit, allowing an overall capacity of over three GB.\nIn comparison to the contemporary IBM 2311 Disk Device, the IBM 2321 Data Cell Device holds 55 times more data, while being only seven times slower (85ms and 600ms access times respectively). One fully loaded IBM 2841 Control Unit connected with eight IBM 2321 Data Cell Devices has the capacity of 441 IBM 2311 Disk Devices, which would need to be connected to 56 IBM 2841 Control Units, which",
"-25.73120967124123"
],
[
"available memory in a given computer system may not be a power-of-two multiple of the minimum block size, the largest block size may not span the entire memory of the system. For instance, if the system had 2000 K of physical memory and the order-0 block size was 4 K, the upper limit on the order would be 8, since an order-8 block (256 order-0 blocks, 1024 K) is the biggest block that will fit in memory. Consequently it is impossible to allocate the entire physical memory in a single chunk; the remaining 976 K of memory would have to",
"-25.688620892353356"
],
[
"memory in varying degrees of granularity as needed to fulfill data structure requirements and binary multiples are usually not required. Other computer capacities and rates, like storage hardware size, data transfer rates, clock speeds, operations per second, etc., do not depend on an inherent base, and are usually presented in decimal units. For example, the manufacturer of a \"300 GB\" hard drive is claiming a capacity of 300000000000bytes, not 300x1024³ (which would be 322122547200) bytes. Unicode character The \"gigabyte\" symbol is encoded by Unicode at code point U+3387 ㎇ SQUARE GB ❰ ㎇ ❱.",
"-25.679146564558323"
],
[
"that speed and size of memory were crucial and he proposed a high-speed memory of what would today be called 25 kilobytes, accessed at a speed of 1 MHz; he remarked that for the purposes required 'the memory needs to be very large indeed by comparison with standards which prevail in most valve and relay work, and [so] it is necessary to look for some more economical form of storage', and that memory 'appears to be the main limitation in the design of a calculator, i.e. if the storage problem can be solved all the rest is comparatively straightforward'. The",
"-25.653654946247116"
],
[
"Its capacity is immeasurable. For example, given a random seven-digit number, one may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in short-term memory. On the other hand, one can remember telephone numbers for many years through repetition; this information is said to be stored in long-term memory.\nWhile short-term memory encodes information acoustically, long-term memory encodes it semantically: Baddeley (1966) discovered that, after 20 minutes, test subjects had the most difficulty recalling a collection of words that had similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great, huge) long-term. Another part of long-term memory is episodic memory, \"which",
"-25.64664473407902"
],
[
"of large data sets which bring additional complexity such as pagination when the data sets are too large to be easily held in memory.",
"-25.63510166516062"
],
[
"and can be expressed through multiple modes of communication.\nCollective consciousness has a relationship with collective memory. “Collective memory is thus no longer a reference to a remembered past but a way of analyzing the present as a collection of big (meta-)data in real-time for future prediction.” In other words, the collective consciousness of the people, manifested through forms of literary and cultural media, can be quantified by big data. Big data can be a representation of collective consciousness insofar as it tries to quantify the experiences of the public on the Internet. However, there is a limit to quantifying social",
"-25.63340335560497"
],
[
"multiplication example which illustrates the rapid increase in parallel execution time. \nThe execution time of a N X N matrix for a uniprocessor is:. While the memory usage is: \nSuppose a 10000-by-10000 matrix takes 800 MB of memory and can be factorized in 1 hour on a uniprocessor. Now for the scaled workload suppose is possible to factorize a 320,000-by-320,000 matrix in 32 hours. The time increase is quite large, but the increase in problem size may be more valuable for someones whose premier goal is accuracy. For example, an astrophysicist may be more interested in simulating an N-body problem",
"-25.549319447900416"
],
[
"by the Human Connectome Project, sponsored by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), whose focus is to build a network map of the human brain in healthy, living adults. At multiple scales Brain networks can be defined at different levels of scale, corresponding to levels of spatial resolution in brain imaging (Kötter, 2007, Sporns, 2010). These scales can be roughly categorized as microscale, mesoscale and macroscale. Ultimately, it may be possible to join connectomic maps obtained at different scales into a single hierarchical map of the neural organization of a given species that ranges from single neurons to populations of",
"-25.517049778951332"
],
[
"be well worth having.\nBiological brains use both shallow and deep circuits as reported by brain anatomy, displaying a wide variety of invariance. Weng argued that the brain self-wires largely according to signal statistics and therefore, a serial cascade cannot catch all major statistical dependencies. Hardware Large and effective neural networks require considerable computing resources. While the brain has hardware tailored to the task of processing signals through a graph of neurons, simulating even a simplified neuron on von Neumann architecture may consume vast amounts of memory and storage. Furthermore, the designer often needs to transmit signals through many of these",
"-25.493348104344477"
],
[
"large enough to store every possible combination of Accounts and Time. The number of cells stored is therefore 192000 (4 × 4 × 12000), requiring under 2 gigabytes of memory (exact 1,536MB), plus the size of the index used to look up the appropriate blocks.\nBecause the database hides this implementation from front-end tools (i.e., a report that attempts to retrieve data from non-existent cells merely sees \"null\" values), the full hypercube can be navigated naturally, and it is possible to load values into any cell interactively. Aggregate storage (Enterprise Analytics) Although block storage effectively minimizes storage requirements without impacting",
"-25.487639854080044"
],
[
"of the business.\nBig data can be further differentiated once we analyse its three distinguishing features: variety, volume, and velocity.\nVariety means that many forms of data are collected, with formats ranging from audio and video, to client log files and Tweets. Volume represents the fact that big data must come in massive quantities, often over a petabyte. Finally, Velocity signifies that big data must be constantly collected for maximum effectiveness; even data that is a few days old is not ideal.\nIn summary, big data utilises and collects all forms of data, gathered from both traditional and digital sources, in order to",
"-25.47096632260218"
],
[
"term in parentheses is 40μL/20μL. The volume of the squares counted is the one shown in the table at the top, depending on the size (see figure on the right). The number of cells counted is the sum of all cells counted across squares in one chamber. The proportion of the cells counted applies if not all inner squares within a set square are counted (i.e., if only 4 out of the 20 in a corner square are counted, then this term will equal 0.2).\nFor most applications, the four large corner squares are only used. The cells that are on",
"-25.44217098003719"
],
[
"Another, employed by Unix System V.3, is to make malloc and free function pointers that an application can reset to custom functions. Allocation size limits The largest possible memory block malloc can allocate depends on the host system, particularly the size of physical memory and the operating system implementation. Theoretically, the largest number should be the maximum value that can be held in a size_t type, which is an implementation-dependent unsigned integer representing the size of an area of memory. In the C99 standard and later, it is available as the SIZE_MAX constant from <stdint.h>. Although not guaranteed by ISO",
"-25.438309558434412"
],
[
"meant to be the smallest size data can be gathered so that people would not be able to be identified.",
"-25.31348142772913"
],
[
"single neuron up to a hypothetical being at the theoretical computational limit of the entire universe. On a logarithmic scale it runs from −70 up to +50.",
"-25.31153797544539"
],
[
"this technique is only limited to when there are both cranial and post-cranial remains associated with individual fossils, to allow for brain to body size comparisons. For example, remains of one Middle Pleistocene human fossil from Jinniushan province in northern China has allowed scientists to study the relationship between brain and body size using the Encephalization Quotient. Researchers obtained an EQ of 4.150 for the Jinniushan fossil, and then compared this value with preceding Middle Pleistocene estimates of EQ at 3.7770. The difference in EQ estimates has been associated with a rapid increase in encephalization in Middle Pleistocene hominins.\nPaleo-neurological comparisons",
"-25.289939317357494"
],
[
"customary to create 5 to 10 GB of data daily. \n Similarly, a single uncompressed image of breast tomosynthesis averages 450 MB of data. \n\nThese are just few of the many examples where computer-aided diagnosis uses big data. For this reason, big data has been recognized as one of the seven key challenges that computer-aided diagnosis systems need to overcome in order to reach the next level of performance. Education A McKinsey Global Institute study found a shortage of 1.5 million highly trained data professionals and managers and a number of universities including University of Tennessee and UC Berkeley,",
"-25.271709268854465"
],
[
"to 8,192 bytes.\" In this respect it was similar to the IBM System/360 Model 20. \nTwo memory configurations for the 70/15 were available: either 4,096 bytes or 8,192 bytes of core memory. The memory cycle time for a 70/15 was 2 microseconds per byte of information.\nThe 70/15 was often used as a satellite processor for larger systems or used as an intelligent terminal for remote job entry. Typical applications of a satellite processor would include card-to-tape conversion, card/tape-to-printer report generation, tape-to-card punching, input pre-processing and verification, or tab-shop tasks like file sorting, merge, and data selection. Software for",
"-25.249087689480803"
],
[
"number 7\" inspired much theorizing, rigorous and less rigorous, about the capacity limits of human cognition. The number seven constitutes a useful heuristic, reminding us that lists that are much longer than that become significantly harder to remember and process simultaneously. The \"magical number 7\" and working memory capacity Later research on short-term memory and working memory revealed that memory span is not a constant even when measured in a number of chunks. The number of chunks a human can recall immediately after presentation depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span is around seven for digits, around six",
"-25.18170249031391"
],
[
" End character reading loop Portability issues Partly because Urban Müller did not write a thorough language specification, the many subsequent brainfuck interpreters and compilers have come to use slightly different dialects of brainfuck. Cell size In the classic distribution, the cells are of 8-bit size (cells are bytes), and this is still the most common size. However, to read non-textual data, a brainfuck program may need to distinguish an end-of-file condition from any possible byte value; thus 16-bit cells have also been used.",
"-25.17715908784885"
],
[
"based on the size of a file which that program manages:\nwhile file is still open:\n let n = size of file\n for every 100,000 kilobytes of increase in file size\n double the amount of memory reserved\nIn this instance, as the file size n increases, memory will be consumed at an exponential growth rate, which is order O(2ⁿ). This is an extremely rapid and most likely unmanageable growth rate for consumption of memory resources. Relevance Algorithm analysis is important in practice because the accidental or unintentional use of",
"-25.174085751343227"
],
[
"identified using spatial independent component analysis (ICA). The set of identified brain areas that are linked together in a large-scale network varies with cognitive function. When the cognitive state is not explicit (i.e., the subject is at \"rest\"), the large scale brain network is a resting state network (RSN). As a physical system with graph-like properties, a large scale brain network has both nodes and edges, and cannot be identified simply by the co-activation of brain areas. In recent decades, the analysis of brain networks was made feasible by advances in imaging techniques as well as new tools from graph",
"-25.171031310921535"
],
[
"Genome size Genome size is the total amount of DNA contained within one copy of a single complete genome. It is typically measured in terms of mass in picograms (trillionths (10⁻¹²) of a gram, abbreviated pg) or less frequently in daltons, or as the total number of nucleotide base pairs, usually in megabases (millions of base pairs, abbreviated Mb or Mbp). One picogram is equal to 978 megabases. In diploid organisms, genome size is often used interchangeably with the term C-value.\nAn organism's complexity is not directly proportional to its genome size; total DNA content is widely variable between biological taxa.",
"-25.09265718224924"
],
[
"counts as computing. In the latter case, the brain is a computing function that is distinct from systems like fluid dynamic systems and the planetary orbits in this regard. The challenge for any computational definition is to keep the two senses distinct.\nAlternatively, some theorists choose to accept a narrow or wide definition for theoretical reasons. Pancomputationalism is the position that everything can be said to compute. This view has been criticized by Piccinini on the grounds that such a definition makes computation trivial to the point where it is robbed of its explanatory value.\nThe simplest definition of computations is that",
"-25.033128833922092"
],
[
"self-assembly in nanotube circuits, biological systems emulating circuit assembly, computing with DNA, spintronics (computing with the spin of electrons), computing with light, and quantum computing.\nSince Kurzweil believes computational capacity will continue to grow exponentially long after Moore's Law ends it will eventually rival the raw computing power of the human brain. Kurzweil looks at several different estimates of how much computational capacity is in the brain and settles on 10¹⁶ calculations per second and 10¹³ bits of memory. He writes that $1,000 will buy computer power equal to a single brain \"by around 2020\" while by 2045, the onset of",
"-25.02519160276279"
],
[
"is theoretically unlimited, because the 6845 imposes no limit on the size of each memory location that it addresses.\nIt is also significant that each word addressed by the 6845 does not have to equal one pixel or one character. As an example, consider the use of the 6845 in the IBM CGA, where the word size is one byte and each word represents four or eight pixels (in the medium- or high- resolution graphics mode, respectively) or one-half character. In CGA alphanumeric (text) mode, there are two bytes per character, accessed sequentially by the 6845—the first byte is a",
"-24.871562952990644"
],
[
"neurons to larger systems like cortical areas. Given the methodological uncertainties involved in inferring connectivity from the primary experimental data, and given that there are likely to be large differences in the connectomes of different individuals, any unified map will likely rely on probabilistic representations of connectivity data (Sporns et al., 2005).\nMapping the connectome at the \"microscale\" (micrometer resolution) means building a complete map of the neural systems, neuron-by-neuron. The challenge of doing this becomes obvious: the number of neurons comprising the brain easily ranges into the billions in more complex organisms. The human cerebral cortex alone contains on the",
"-24.84404600795824"
],
[
"They are also easily the most numerous neurons in the brain: In humans, estimates of their total number average around 50 billion, which means that about 3/4 of the brain's neurons are cerebellar granule cells. Their cell bodies are packed into a thick layer at the bottom of the cerebellar cortex. A granule cell emits only four to five dendrites, each of which ends in an enlargement called a dendritic claw. These enlargements are sites of excitatory input from mossy fibers and inhibitory input from Golgi cells.\nThe thin, unmyelinated axons of granule cells rise vertically to the upper (molecular) layer",
"-24.74955364287598"
],
[
"cause of megalencephaly altogether. Other relations Intracranial volume also affects this pathology, since it is related with the size of the brain.",
"-24.74494997714646"
],
[
"to the information-theoretic minimum, which is a worst-case notion of the space needed to represent the data. In contrast, the size of a compressed data structure depends upon the particular data being represented. When the data are compressible, as is often the case in practice for natural language text, the compressed data structure can occupy space very close to the information-theoretic minimum, and significantly less space than most compression schemes.",
"-24.727786105944688"
],
[
"Compressed data structure The term compressed data structure arises in the computer science subfields of algorithms, data structures, and theoretical computer science. It refers to a data structure whose operations are roughly as fast as those of a conventional data structure for the problem, but whose size can be substantially smaller. The size of the compressed data structure is typically highly dependent upon the entropy of the data being represented. \nImportant examples of compressed data structures include the compressed suffix array and the FM-index, both of which can represent an arbitrary text of characters T for pattern",
"-24.70053493033629"
],
[
"a number of assumptions, including information made available by the environment is processed by a series of processing systems (e.g. attention, perception, short-term memory),these processing systems transform or alter the information in systematic ways, the aim of research is to specify the processes and structures that underlie cognitive performance, and information processing in humans resembles that in computers.\nThe information processing theory using \"chunking\" to put the information into short term memory. Miller said it was known that the human brain can only chunk into the brain with 7 parts, plus or minus two. Seven in the big number to remember.",
"-24.699273831036408"
],
[
"The episode establishes that Data has a storage capacity of 800 quadrillion bits (100 PB or 88.81784197 PiB) and a total linear computational speed of 60 trillion operations per second.\nData's family is expanded in \"The Offspring\", which introduces Lal, a robot based on Data's neural interface and whom Data refers to as his daughter. Lal “dies” shortly after activation. Later, his mother Julianna appears in the episode \"Inheritance\" and reunites with Data, though the crew discovers she was an android duplicate built by Soong after the real Julianna's death, programmed to die after a long life, and to believe she",
"-24.674666394777887"
],
[
"very large, making it an attractive mechanism to study. There are approximately 10⁴ synapses per neuron and 10¹¹ neurons in the human brain. Nonsynaptic plasticity is often overlooked simply because its storage capacity is not as high. Regulating the density of ion channels in the axon and soma of a neuron would change the throughput and affect all of the synapses. Therefore, its storage capacity would be significantly less than that of synaptic plasticity.\nWhile its storage capacity is too low to make it the sole mechanism for storage, nonsynaptic plasticity could contribute to synaptic storage methods. It has been shown",
"-24.656384926638566"
],
[
"as a subsystem in a multi-processor complex. High throughput was facilitated by the use of fast memory and multiple simultaneous input/output streams. Equipped with selector channels and a multiplexer channel, the 70/25 could concurrently operate eight low-speed devices in addition to eight high-speed devices. Like the Model 15, it implemented a (slightly larger) subset of 31 instructions of the full range architecture.\nMemory capacities for the 70/25 ranged from a minimum of 16,384 bytes to a maximum of 65,536 bytes. The memory cycle time was 1.5 microseconds to access one 8 bit byte.\nWeighed 1,200 pounds (540 kg). Model 70/35",
"-24.6503084746073"
],
[
"sum up to zero Capacity The Network capacity of the Hopfield network model is determined by neuron amounts and connections within a given network. Therefore, the number of memories that are able to be stored is dependent on neurons and connections. Furthermore, it was shown that the recall accuracy between vectors and nodes was 0.138 (approximately 138 vectors can be recalled from storage for every 1000 nodes) (Hertz et al., 1991). Therefore, it is evident that many mistakes will occur if one tries to store a large number of vectors. When the Hopfield model does not recall the right pattern,",
"-24.64205272134859"
],
[
"of 60,000 (00000–59999). Word size versus address size word size is a characteristic given to computer architecture. It denotes the number of bits that a CPU can process at one time. Modern processors, including embedded systems, usually have a word size of 8, 16, 24, 32 or 64 bits; most current general purpose computers use 32 or 64 bits. Many different sizes have been used historically, including 8, 9, 10, 12, 18, 24, 36, 39, 40, 48 and 60 bits.\nVery often, when referring to the word size of a modern computer, one is also describing the size of address space",
"-24.626010709092952"
],
[
"cell. Neuron allows for graphs of change at both individual points over time, and across an entire section through time. Duration of run can be set. All point processes, including those standing for cells or synapses of artificial neurons, and all graphs reflect the duration. Examples This example creates a simple cell, with a single compartment soma and a multi compartment axon. It has the dynamics of the cell membrane simulated using Hodgkin-Huxley squid axon kinetics. The simulator stimulates the cell and runs for 50 ms.\n//create two sections, the body of the neuron and a very long axoncreate soma,",
"-24.611020157695748"
],
[
"a 60-bit word length. Large core memory holds data ready to transfer to small core memory. It has an access time of 60 of the 27.5-ns minor cycles and a word length of 480 bits (512 bits with parity). Accesses are fully pipelined and buffered, so the two have the same sequential transfer rate of 60 bits every 27.5 ns. The two work in parallel, so the sequential transfer rate from one to the other is 60 bits per 27.5 ns minor-cycle. On an operating system call, the contents of the small core memory are swapped out and",
"-24.572531004901975"
],
[
"equations in two dimensions plus time will require the most memory, with three dimensions plus time being beyond what can be done using technology that was then available. He concludes that memory will be the largest subdivision of the system and he proposes 8,192 minor cycles (words) of 32-bits as a design goal, with 2,048 minor cycles still being useful. He estimates a few hundred minor cycles will suffice for storing the program.\nHe proposes two kinds of fast memory, delay line and Iconoscope tube. Each minor cycle is to be addressed as a unit (word addressing, Sec. 12.8).\nInstructions are to",
"-24.556787588633597"
],
[
"in rats in a behavioural screen. Gene expression in the brain The gene expression profile of the central nervous system (CNS) is unique. Eighty percent of all human genes are expressed in the brain; 5,000 of these genes are solely expressed in the CNS. The human brain has the highest amount of gene expression of all studied mammalian brains. In comparison, tissues outside of the brain will have more similar expression levels in comparison to their mammalian counterparts. One source of the increased expression levels in the human brain is from the non-protein coding region of the genome. Numerous studies",
"-24.539020306721795"
],
[
"and the conclusion that the Planck length is a minimum meaningful unit of distance suggests that at some level, space itself is quantized.\nMoreover, computers can manipulate and solve formulas describing real numbers using symbolic computation, thus avoiding the need to approximate real numbers by using an infinite number of digits.\nA number—in particular a real number, one with an infinite number of digits—was defined by Turing to be computable if a Turing machine will continue to spit out digits endlessly. In other words, there is no \"last digit\". But this sits uncomfortably with any proposal that the universe is the output",
"-24.505208879847487"
],
[
"size 10\n int ok;\n\n ok = posix_memalign((void**)&var, 64, 10*sizeof(double));\n\n if(ok != 0)\n return NULL;\n\n return var;} Hardware significance of alignment requirements Alignment concerns can affect areas much larger than a C structure when the purpose is the efficient mapping of that area through a hardware address translation mechanism (PCI remapping, operation of a MMU).\nFor instance, on a 32-bit operating system, a 4 KiB (4096 Bytes) page is not just an arbitrary 4 KiB chunk of data. Instead, it is usually a region of memory that's aligned",
"-24.495300319511443"
],
[
"overlap, as suggested by Tsunoda et al..\nUpdated information: it's not an scientific consensus now that \"There are about 100,000,000 cortical minicolumns in the neo-cortex with up to 110 neurons each\", as the original research is too arbitrary in many ways: the authors just chose a fixed width and length to calculate the cell numbers. They mainly use the number to propose that the neocortex is uniform, but later research pointed out that the neocortex is indeed not uniform by studying nine primate species and found that \" the number of neurons underneath 1 mm² of the cerebral cortical surface\" \"varies",
"-24.49353678127227"
],
[
"(mostly unrealistic) approximations of brain connectivity. However, full brain models have always been the interface between human brain imaging and theorising on brain function and dysfunction. In 2002 Jirsa and colleagues demonstrated that the approximations of brain connectivity will never be able to capture most behaviour of brain imaging data (in particular the spatiotemporal symmetries in the data) and thus proposed to use DTI data as a proxy of network connectivity in brain models. Characteristic challenges for this type of large-scale models would be 1) the detailed connection topology and 2) time delays via signal transmission, which do not play",
"-24.43554960837355"
],
[
"errors to be corrected). The memory depth is the total memory capacity in bits divided by the non-parity memory width. Sometimes the memory depth is indicated in units of Meg (2²⁰), as in 32×64 or 64×64, indicating 32 Mi depth and 64 Mi depth respectively. Chip This is the total memory capacity of the chip.\nExample: 128 Mib.\n(memory depth) × (memory width)\nMemory depth is the memory density divided by memory width. Example: for a memory chip with 128 Mib capacity and 8-bit wide data bus, it can be specified as: 16 Meg × 8. Sometimes the \"Mi\"",
"-24.37789780087769"
],
[
"computer's memory management unit and operating system memory mapping; see below. Unit of address resolution Most modern computers are byte-addressable. Each address identifies a single byte (eight bits) of storage. Data larger than a single byte may be stored in a sequence of consecutive addresses. There exist word-addressable computers, where the minimal addressable storage unit is exactly the processor's word. For example, the Data General Nova minicomputer, and the Texas Instruments TMS9900 and National Semiconductor IMP-16 microcomputers used 16 bit words, and there were many 36-bit mainframe computers (e.g., PDP-10) which used 18-bit word addressing, not byte addressing, giving",
"-24.336113272467628"
],
[
"of accessible memory. \"Plaintiffs allege that Defendants marketed the memory capacity of their products by assuming that one megabyte equals one million bytes and one gigabyte equals one billion bytes.\"\nThe plaintiffs wanted the defendants to use the traditional values of 1024² for megabyte and 1024³ for gigabyte.\nThe plaintiffs acknowledged that the IEC and IEEE standards define a MB as one million bytes but stated that the industry has largely ignored the IEC standards.\nThe manufacturers agreed to clarify the flash memory card capacity on the packaging and web sites. The consumers could apply for \"a discount of ten percent off a",
"-24.319701867207186"
],
[
"that Miller himself stated that the figure was intended as \"little more than a joke\" (Miller, 1989, page 401) and that Cowan (2001) provided evidence that a more realistic figure is 4±1 units. In contrast, long-term memory can hold the information indefinitely.\nShort-term memory should be distinguished from working memory, which refers to structures and processes used for temporarily storing and manipulating information (see details below). Existence of a separate store The idea of the division of memory into short-term and long-term dates back to the 19th century. A classical model of memory developed in the 1960s assumed that all memories",
"-24.30733508086996"
],
[
"that memory is not a uniform process that consists of storing information between short-term memory and long-term memory. To break away from the linearity the models possessed at the time, the levels-of-processing adopted a non-structured approach that also infused the different types of memory and associated complexities (i.e. episodic, procedural, and semantic memory). Moreover, Craik and Lockhart's final criticism proposed that there is no separate, capacity-limited, short-term memory store. They think that short-term memory is a temporary activation of the regions of the brain that are involved in long-term memory. Brain Correlates and Memory With the use of functional",
"-24.296259318070952"
],
[
"of gamma oscillation, each neuron has its own preferred relative firing time. As a result, an entire population of neurons generates a firing sequence that has a duration of up to about 15 ms. Population coding Population coding is a method to represent stimuli by using the joint activities of a number of neurons. In population coding, each neuron has a distribution of responses over some set of inputs, and the responses of many neurons may be combined to determine some value about the inputs. From the theoretical point of view, population coding is one of a few mathematically well-formulated",
"-24.276075451358338"
],
[
"computing, such as CPU clock speeds or measures of performance.\nThe IEC 80000-13 standard uses the term 'byte' to mean eight bits (1 B = 8 bit). Therefore, 1 kB = 8000 bit. One thousand kilobytes (1000 kB) is equal to one megabyte (1 MB), where 1 MB is one million bytes. Base 2 (1024 bytes) The kilobyte has traditionally been used to refer to 1024 bytes (2¹⁰ B), a usage still common. The usage of the metric prefix kilo for binary multiples arose as a convenience, because 1024 is approximately 1000.\nThe binary interpretation of metric prefixes is still prominently",
"-24.249612285435433"
],
[
"10^3) or 204,800 (200 x 2^10); the above calculation assumes the latter, but the former still produces a capacity of 2.01 GB (2.01 x 2^30 bytes), providing 2.00 GB of capacity in a little under 2 hours and 59 minutes. Similarly, this means an E240 4-hour tape, using the higher data rate, would be capable of storing between 4.35 and 4.46 GB (2^30 bytes), approximately equivalent to a standard single-layer DVDR.",
"-24.222398317717307"
],
[
"Units of information In computing and telecommunications, a unit of information is the capacity of some standard data storage system or communication channel, used to measure the capacities of other systems and channels. In information theory, units of information are also used to measure the entropy of random variables and information contained in messages.\nThe most commonly used units of data storage capacity are the bit, the capacity of a system that has only two states, and the byte (or octet), which is equivalent to eight bits. Multiples of these units can be formed from these with the SI prefixes",
"-24.196684268768877"
],
[
"the same amount of information as one hexadecimal digit. Crumb A pair of two bits or a quarter byte was called a crumb, often used in early 8-bit computing (see Atari 2600, ZX Spectrum). It is now largely defunct. Word, block, and page Computers usually manipulate bits in groups of a fixed size, conventionally called words. The number of bits in a word is usually defined by the size of the registers in the computer's CPU, or by the number of data bits that are fetched from its main memory in a single operation. In the IA-32 architecture more",
"-24.185241199462325"
],
[
"Memory module Memory size of a DRAM module The exact number of bytes in a DRAM module is always an integral power of two.\nA 512 MB (as marked on a module) SDRAM DIMM, actually contains 512 MiB (mebibytes) (512 × 2²⁰ bytes = 2⁹ × 2²⁰ bytes = 2²⁹ bytes = 536,870,912 bytes exactly), and might be made of 8 or 9 SDRAM chips: each chip containing exactly 512 Mib (mebibits) of storage, and each contributing 8 bits to the DIMM's 64- or 72-bit width.\nFor comparison, a 2 GB SDRAM module contains 2 GiB (2 × 2³⁰ bytes = 2³¹ bytes = 2,147,483,648 bytes of memory). This",
"-24.183193865115754"
],
[
"the cell body and projects, usually with numerous branches, to other areas, sometimes nearby, sometimes in distant parts of the brain or body. The length of an axon can be extraordinary: for example, if a pyramidal cell (an excitatory neuron) of the cerebral cortex were magnified so that its cell body became the size of a human body, its axon, equally magnified, would become a cable a few centimeters in diameter, extending more than a kilometer. These axons transmit signals in the form of electrochemical pulses called action potentials, which last less than a thousandth of a second and travel",
"-24.166123690782115"
],
[
"various parts of this memory have to perform functions which differ somewhat in their nature and considerably in their purpose, it is nevertheless tempting to treat the entire memory as one organ, and to have its parts even as interchangeable as possible for the various functions enumerated above.\" (Sec. 2.5)\n\"The orders which are received by CC come from M, i.e. from the same place where the numerical material is stored.\" (Sec. 14.0)\nVon Neumann estimates the amount of memory required based on several classes of mathematical problems, including ordinary and partial differential equations, sorting and probability experiments. Of these, partial differential",
"-24.15731509012403"
],
[
"the original files, it has become commonplace when marketing tape drives to state the capacity with the assumption of a 2:1 compression ratio; thus a tape with a capacity of 80 GB would be sold as \"80/160\". The true storage capacity is also known as the native capacity or the raw capacity. The compression ratio actually achievable depends on the data being compressed. Some data has little redundancy; large video files, for example, already use compression and cannot be compressed further. A database with repetitive entries, on the other hand, may allow compression ratios better than 10:1. Technical limitations",
"-24.120443282474298"
]
] |
63vzcc | How do we not run out of Oxygen in closed rooms? | [
"Generally, nothing is going to be airtight unless *it's specifically designed to be*. Making stuff airtight is very difficult, and very expensive. It requires special materials and precision. There are lots of places for air to get in, such as a window frame, underneath a door, vents (even if the furnace isn't running). If you were in a room sealed well enough to prevent much air from entering, an average size room has *a lot* of oxygen. It would take many days, even weeks, to use it all up and asphyxiate. Chances are you will have left by then.",
"Architecture school graduate here. Google \"air changes per hour\" an old house may have two air changes per hour, meaning whatever cracks exist allow the entire volume of air to be replaced twice an hour. Even a modern house will still have 1 to 1.5 air changes per hour. But yeah, in a room with a lot of people, I think a classroom wants at least 4 ACH, so we definitely pump fresh air in. Although I don't think kids would be suffocating, but the air would get stale and germs would spread even more.",
"In a completely airtight small room of 3 meters by 4 meters and average height, one person can live 2 or 3 days and nights without running out of oxygen. They will reach toxic levels of CO2 before then, though. Architects simply avoid making rooms truly airtight.",
"There are enough spots where air can flow in and out, so there's always enough ventilation. Secondly, oxygen makes up 21% of the air you inhale vs. 15% during exhalation. So we don't use *that* much oxygen. Thirdly, the body doesn't really priorotize oxygen consumption. It's far more important to keep the pH in the blood as stable as possible, and one of the ways to do that is through inhalation/exhalation of CO2. In a super small chamber without ventilation, there's a risk of suffering from hypercapnia: a condition of elevated CO2 levels in the blood. Symtoms include shorteness of breath, feeling drowsy, headache, elevated heart rate, and eventually loss of consciousness. And all of that even in the case of abundant oxygen in the room.",
"very few rooms are both airtight and have people in them for long enough for this to be a problem."
] | [
[
"even at high altitudes, such as OXYFLY.\nUsually, \"demand\" or pulse-flow oxygen concentrators are not used by patients while they sleep. There have been problems with the oxygen concentrators not being able to detect when the sleeping patient is inhaling. Some larger portable oxygen concentrators are designed to operate in continuous-flow mode in addition to pulse-flow mode. Continuous-flow mode is considered safe for night use when coupled with a CPAP machine.\nCommon models retail at around $600. Leasing arrangements may be available through various medical-supply companies and/or insurance agencies. Alternate applications Repurposed medical oxygen concentrators or specialized industrial oxygen concentrators can",
"-26.483877903199755"
],
[
"in spaces without oxygen) cannot work as one ingredient is missing.",
"-26.27386027877219"
],
[
"medical lock, which serves a similar function but is much smaller. This is used to transfer medical material, food and specimens into and out of the main chamber while it is under pressure. Most deck decompression chambers are fitted with built in breathing systems (BIBS), which supply an alternative breathing gas to the occupants (usually oxygen), and discharge the exhaled gas outside the chamber, so the chamber gas is not excessively enriched by oxygen, which would cause an unacceptable fire hazard, and require frequent flushing with chamber gas (usually air).\nA deck decompression chamber is intended for surface decompression and emergency",
"-25.215785048319958"
],
[
"Medical gas supply Oxygen Oxygen may be used for patients requiring supplemental oxygen via mask. Usually accomplished by a large storage system of liquid oxygen at the hospital which is evaporated into a concentrated oxygen supply, pressures are usually around 345–380 kPa (50.0–55.1 psi), or in the UK and Europe, 4–5 bar (400–500 kPa; 58–73 psi). This arrangement is described as a vacuum insulated evaporator or bulk tank. In small medical centers with a low patient capacity, oxygen is usually supplied by a manifold of multiple high-pressure cylinders. In areas where a bulk system or high-pressure cylinder manifold is not suitable, oxygen may be supplied",
"-24.877352182404138"
],
[
"hazard if used as the chamber gas. Chamber oxygen concentration is limited due to fire hazard and the high risk of fatality or severe injury in the event of a chamber fire. US Navy specifications for oxygen content of chamber air allow a range from 19% to 25%. If the oxygen fraction rises above this limit the chamber must be ventilated with air to bring the concentration to an acceptable level. To minimize the requirement for venting, oxygen-rich treatment gases are usually provided to the patient by built in breathing system (BIBS) masks, which vent exhaled gas outside the chamber.",
"-24.851160186401103"
],
[
"schedule. Air breaks of 5 minutes are taken at the end of each 30 minutes of oxygen breathing. Saturation systems emergency gas supply During decompression from saturation, a pressure will be reached where raising the oxygen concentration further would cause an unacceptable fire hazard, while keeping it at an acceptable level for fire risk would be inefficient for decompression. BIBS supply of breathing gas with higher oxygen content than the chamber atmosphere can solve this problem. If the atmosphere in a saturation habitat is contaminated, the inhabitants can use the available BIBS masks during the emergency and be supplied with",
"-24.74214101108373"
],
[
"oxygen is only required for emergency in case of depressurization of the cabin or contamination of the cabin air. Oxygen is always available for the crew and can be made available to the passengers manually or automatically. The oxygen storage cylinder has a capacity of 38 cubic feet and is stored at 1800 psi. An oxygen rupture disc will relieve oxygen pressure if the oxygen cylinder pressure reaches 2700 to 3000 psi. A green overboard indicator on the outside surface of the dorsal fin will be ruptured or missing to indicate that the rupture disc is not intact. Fire detection",
"-24.504612831617123"
],
[
"Oxygen storage Methods of oxygen storage for subsequent use span many approaches, including high pressures in oxygen tanks, cryogenics, oxygen-rich compounds and reaction mixtures, and chemical compounds that reversibly release oxygen upon heating or pressure change. O₂ is the second most important industrial gas. Air Air is the most common source and reservoir of oxygen, containing 20.8% oxygen. This concentration is sufficient for many purposes, such as combustion of many fuels, corrosion of many metals, and breathing of animals. Most humans can function at rest with an oxygen level of 15% at one atmosphere pressure; a fuel such as methane",
"-24.441507832307252"
],
[
"circuit systems may be used to conserve the breathing gas, which may be in limited supply - in the case of mountaineering the user must carry the supplemental oxygen, and in space flight the cost of lifting mass into orbit is very high. Medical breathing gases Medical use of breathing gases other than air include oxygen therapy and anesthesia applications. Oxygen therapy Oxygen is required by people for normal cell metabolism. Air is typically 21% oxygen by volume. This is normally sufficient, but in some circumstances the oxygen supply to tissues is compromised.\nOxygen therapy, also known as supplemental oxygen, is",
"-24.088046393182594"
],
[
"a fire risk. Attendants may also breathe oxygen some of the time to reduce their risk of decompression sickness when they leave the chamber. The pressure inside the chamber is increased by opening valves allowing high-pressure air to enter from storage cylinders, which are filled by an air compressor. Chamber air oxygen content is kept between 19% and 23% to control fire risk (US Navy maximum 25%). If the chamber does not have a scrubber system to remove carbon dioxide from the chamber gas, the chamber must be isobarically ventilated to keep the CO₂ within acceptable limits.\nA soft chamber may",
"-23.882120696995116"
],
[
"Oxygen firebreak An oxygen firebreak, also known as a fire stop valve or fire safety valve, is a thermal fuse designed to extinguish a fire in the delivery tube being used by a patient on oxygen therapy and stop the flow of oxygen if the tube is accidentally ignited. Oxygen firebreaks are fitted into the oxygen delivery tubing close to the patient, typically around the patient’s sternum where the two nasal cannula tubes join and connect to the delivery tubing. Home oxygen fires Oxygen is not flammable, but when it is present in increased concentrations it will enable fires to",
"-23.82978813558293"
],
[
"the news were that the system depleted oxygen, whereas the manufacturer states that the system does not displace oxygen.",
"-23.8117595371441"
],
[
"Oxygen breathing apparatus An oxygen breathing apparatus (OBA) is a rebreather. It is used primarily in firefighting. Its oxygen is generated by chemicals contained in the green canister, which is inserted at the base of the breathing device.\n The canister uses potassium superoxide as both a CO₂ scrubber and an O₂ generator. A sodium chlorate candle in the base generates additional oxygen when first beginning use as the canister has to achieve a high internal temperature before it will start generating oxygen on its own. It is the circulation of exhaled air through the canister that starts the chemical process,",
"-23.785917500412324"
],
[
"oxygen cleaned before being put into such service. Surface supplied equipment may be subject to more stringent requirements, as the diver may not be able to remove the equipment in an accident. Oxygen cleaning may be required for concentrations as low as 23%\nCleaning agents used range from heavy-duty industrial solvents and detergents such as liquid freon, trichlorethylene and anhydrous trisodium phosphate, followed by rinsing in deionised water. These materials are now generally deprecated as being environmentally unsound and an unnecessary health hazard. Some strong all-purpose household detergents have been found to do the job adequately. They are diluted with water",
"-23.635232232045382"
],
[
"and Research, has explained that at one end of the hose is a source of oxygen, so the individual providing the hose and turning on the supply is dispensing a prescription drug. He commented that \"Although oxygen bars that dispense oxygen without a prescription violate FDA regulations, the agency applies regulatory discretion to permit the individual state boards of licensing to enforce the requirements pertaining to the dispensing of oxygen.\"\nCanadian Society of Respiratory Therapists says that \"As health professionals, we cannot ethically or morally support providing oxygen therapy to those who do not require it.\"",
"-23.483668475353625"
],
[
"Built-in breathing system A built-in breathing system is a source of breathing gas installed in a confined space where an alternative to the ambient gas may be required for medical treatment, emergency use, or to minimise a hazard. They are found in diving chambers, hyperbaric treatment chambers, and submarines.\nThe use in hyperbaric treatment chambers is usually to supply an oxygen rich treatment gas which if used as the chamber atmosphere, would constitute an unacceptable fire hazard. In this application the exhaust gas is vented outside of the chamber. In saturation diving chambers and surface decompression chamber the application is similar,",
"-23.44869946152903"
],
[
"compression and towards the end of decompression the oxygen levels will support combustion, and greater care must be taken. Built in breathing systems Built in breathing systems are installed for emergency use and for treatment of decompression sickness. They supply breathing gas appropriate to the current function, which is supplied from outside the pressurized system and also vented to the exterior, so the exhaled gases do not contaminate the chamber atmosphere. Underwater habitats Scientific saturation diving is usually conducted by researchers and technicians known as aquanauts living in an underwater habitat, a structure designed for people to live in for",
"-23.335637212498114"
],
[
"and to determine if there is sufficient oxygen.\nIf detected by testing, vent hazardous atmospheres to ensure that combustible and toxic gas levels are reduced to non hazardous levels, and that sufficient oxygen levels are maintained.\nEnsure a permit is issued for each instance a worker enters a bin or silo, certifying that the precautions listed above have been implemented.",
"-23.311523499782197"
],
[
"oxygen service. \nIn the case of diving equipment, oxygen cleaning generally involves the stripping down of the equipment into individual components which are then thoroughly cleaned of hydrocarbon and other combustible contaminants using non-flammable, non-toxic cleaners. Once dry, the equipment is reasssembled under clean conditions. Lubricants are replaced by specifically oxygen- compatible substitutes during reassembly.\nThe standard and requirements for oxygen cleaning of diving apparatus varies depending on the application and applicable legislation and codes of practice.\nFor scuba equipment, the industry standard is that breathing apparatus which will be exposed to concentrations in excess of 40% oxygen by volume should be",
"-23.291216915589757"
],
[
"but a further function is a supply of breathable gas in case of toxic contamination of the chamber atmosphere. This function does not require external venting, but the same equipment is typically used for supply of oxygen enriched gases, so they are generally vented to the exterior.\nIn submarines the function is to supply a breathable gas in an emergency, which may be contamination of the ambient internal atmosphere, or flooding. In this application venting to the interior is both acceptable and generally the only feasible option, as the exterior is typically at a higher pressure than the interior, and external",
"-23.29044487827923"
],
[
"putting them out of commission. The sudden failure of Oxygen Tank 2 compromised Oxygen Tank 1, causing its contents to leak out, possibly through a damaged line or valve, over the next 130 minutes, entirely depleting the SM's oxygen supply. With both SM oxygen tanks emptying, and with other damage to the SM, the mission had to be aborted.\nOxygen Tank 2 was manufactured by the Beech Aircraft Company of Boulder, Colorado, as subcontractor to North American Rockwell (NAR) of Downey, California, prime contractor for the CSM. It contained two thermostatic switches, originally designed for the command module's 28-volt DC",
"-23.184367904323153"
],
[
"compounds. For reasons of economy, oxygen is often transported in bulk as a liquid in specially insulated tankers, since one liter of liquefied oxygen is equivalent to 840 liters of gaseous oxygen at atmospheric pressure and 20 °C (68 °F). Such tankers are used to refill bulk liquid oxygen storage containers, which stand outside hospitals and other institutions that need large volumes of pure oxygen gas. Liquid oxygen is passed through heat exchangers, which convert the cryogenic liquid into gas before it enters the building. Oxygen is also stored and shipped in smaller cylinders containing the compressed gas; a form that is useful",
"-23.05854940385325"
],
[
"source, including oxygen concentrators, liquid oxygen dewars or gas cylinders. United Kingdom An additional legal requirement applies in the UK, where the fitting of firebreaks has been mandatory under the service specification of the home oxygen service since 2006. Germany In 2011, the German Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices recommended ‘corrective actions to prevent fires in oxygen concentrators’. It issued a notice stating that from July 1, 2012 all devices should be equipped with installations for stopping encroachment of the fire into the device, and interruption of the delivery of oxygen in the accessory as close to the",
"-23.00178195949411"
],
[
"in the occupied space, exhaled gas is simply dumped into the internal volume, requiring no special flow control beyond a simple non-return valve. The delivery and exhaust mechanism of a BIBS demand valve for this application is the same as for a scuba or SCBA second stage regulator, and these can be used for this purpose with little or no modification. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy The traditional type of hyperbaric chamber used for therapeutic recompression and hyperbaric oxygen therapy is a rigid shelled pressure vessel. Such chambers can be run at absolute pressures typically about 6 bars (87 psi), 600,000 Pa or more",
"-22.906365998322144"
],
[
"Any oxygen-clean cylinder may have any mix up to 100% oxygen inside. If by some accident an oxygen-clean cylinder is filled at a station that does not supply gas to oxygen-clean standards it is then considered contaminated and must be re-cleaned before a gas containing more than 40% oxygen may again be added. Cylinders marked as 'not oxygen clean' may only be filled with oxygen-enriched air mixtures from membrane or stick blending systems where the gas is mixed before being added to the cylinder, and to an oxygen fraction not exceeding 40% by volume. Incorrect gas mix Use of a",
"-22.86493007239187"
],
[
"Portable oxygen concentrator A portable oxygen concentrator (POC) is a device used to provide oxygen therapy to people that require greater oxygen concentrations than the levels of ambient air. It is similar to a home oxygen concentrator (OC), but is smaller in size and more mobile. They are small enough to carry and many are now FAA-approved for use on airplanes. Development Medical oxygen concentrators were developed in the late 1970s. Early manufacturers included Union Carbide and Bendix Corporation. They were initially conceived of as a method of providing a continuous source of home oxygen without the use of heavy",
"-22.849500398500822"
],
[
"diving loop at an oxygen partial pressure of about 1.2 bar and the rest of the time in storage in air at room temperature.\nFailures in cells can be life-threatening for technical divers and in particular, rebreather divers. The failure modes common to these cells are: failing with a higher than expected output due to electrolyte leaks, which is usually attributable to physical damage, contamination, or other defects in manufacture, or current limitation due to exhausted cell life and non linear output across its range.\nShelf life can be maximised by keeping the cell in the sealed bag as supplied by the",
"-22.841788313700818"
],
[
"labelling and permanent stamp markings, and the ownership and contents verified. Depressurisation and removal of cylinder valve Before internal inspection the valve must be removed after depressurising and verifying that the valve is open. Cylinders containing breathing gases do not need special precautions for discharge except that high oxygen fraction gases should not be released in an enclosed space because of the fire hazard. If the valve is blocked or stuck closed it may be necessary to release the pressure by removing the burst disc or drilling into the valve body below the valve seat. These operations require care",
"-22.771944188745692"
],
[
"cylinders, which are filled by an air compressor. Chamber air oxygen content is kept between 19% and 23% to control fire risk (US Navy maximum 25%). If the chamber does not have a scrubber system to remove carbon dioxide from the chamber gas, the chamber must be isobarically ventilated to keep the CO₂ within acceptable limits. Therapeutic recompression Hyperbaric oxygen therapy was developed as a treatment for diving disorders involving bubbles of gas in the tissues, such as decompression sickness and gas embolism, and it is still considered the definitive treatment for these conditions. The recompression treats decompression sickness and",
"-22.75201502162963"
],
[
"a higher partial pressure than possible from compressed air, but also can occur at lower pressures when the concentration is high. Oxygen cleaning Oxygen cleaning is preparation for oxygen service by ensuring that the surfaces that may come into contact with high partial pressures of oxygen while in use are free of contaminants that increase the risk of ignition.\nOxygen cleaning is a necessary, but not always a sufficient condition for high partial pressure or high concentration oxygen service. The materials used must also be oxygen compatible at all expected service conditions. Aluminium and titanium components are specifically not suitable for",
"-22.742011255351827"
],
[
"The hospital consumes around 300 oxygen cylinders every day.\nThe hospital has become the first government-run institution in the state to install a tank to store liquid oxygen. The tank, with a capacity to hold 13,000 litres of oxygen, would cater to the needs of the entire hospital when it becomes operational. The tank has been installed in the space between Tower Block 2 and the old cardiology block. The tank, costing ₹ 4 million, has been built free of cost by Inox Air Products, which supplies the gas to the hospital. A full tank will ensure that supply will last",
"-22.73285253333961"
],
[
"richer in oxygen than the mixture entering. When the bed reaches the end of its capacity to adsorb nitrogen, it can be regenerated by reducing the pressure, thus releasing the adsorbed nitrogen. It is then ready for another cycle of producing oxygen-enriched air.\nThis is the process used in medical oxygen concentrators used by emphysema patients and others requiring oxygen-enriched air for breathing.\nUsing two adsorbent vessels allows near-continuous production of the target gas. It also permits so-called pressure equalisation, where the gas leaving the vessel being depressurised is used to partially pressurise the second vessel. This results in significant",
"-22.681035239133053"
],
[
"cabins are required to fully supply food and oxygen for their crew. On missions lasting a year or longer, the cabins have to be self-sustaining, i.e. replenish their own water and oxygen. The space cabin for any long-range manned mission is expected to be reasonably spacious, with approximately 28 cubic metres allotted to each occupant. In addition, cabins have life support systems that should have the capability to meet a variety of off-nominal conditions, including cabin fires, depressurization, and component shutdown or failure. Frequently, these conditions occur so quickly that recovery can be provided only by automatic control systems. In",
"-22.65336280700285"
],
[
"Oxygen window in diving decompression Background Oxygen is used to decrease the time needed for safe decompression in diving, but the practical consequences and benefits need further research. Decompression is still far from being an exact science, and divers when diving deep must make many decisions based on personal experience rather than scientific knowledge.\nIn technical diving, applying the oxygen window effect by using decompression gases with high ppO₂ increases decompression efficiency and allows shorter decompression stops. Reducing decompression time can be important to reduce time spent at shallow depths in open water (avoiding dangers such as water currents and boat",
"-22.63689934793365"
],
[
"on the same principles as a regular diving demand valve second stage. Like any other breathing apparatus, the dead space must be limited to minimise carbon dioxide buildup in the mask.\nIn some cases the outlet suction must be limited and a back-pressure regulator may be required. This would usually be the case for use in a saturation system. Use for oxygen therapy and surface decompression on oxygen would not generally need a back-pressure regulator. When an externally vented BIBS is used at low chamber pressure, a vacuum assist may be necessary to keep the exhalation backpressure down to provide an",
"-22.609327181475237"
],
[
"taken between oxygen breathing to reduce the risk of oxygen toxicity. In water recompression If a chamber is not available for recompression within a reasonable period, a riskier alternative is in-water recompression at the dive site.\nIn-water recompression (IWR) is the emergency treatment of decompression sickness (DCS) by sending the diver back underwater to allow the gas bubbles in the tissues, which are causing the symptoms, to resolve. It is a risky procedure that should only be used when it is not practicable to travel to the nearest recompression chamber in time to save the victim's life.\nThe procedure is high risk",
"-22.52910659450572"
],
[
"and thus more oxygen than slow, backwaters. Oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis, so systems with a high abundance of aquatic algae and plants may also have high concentrations of oxygen during the day. These levels can decrease significantly during the night when primary producers switch to respiration. Oxygen can be limiting if circulation between the surface and deeper layers is poor, if the activity of lotic animals is very high, or if there is a large amount of organic decay occurring. Suspended matter Rivers can also transport suspended inorganic and organic matter. These materials can include sediment",
"-22.50421279136208"
],
[
"into one part of the cave floor to provide a place for the coldest air to gather, away from the occupants, and the entrance may be partially blocked with chunks of snow to deflect wind and retain heat, although it is vital to prevent drifting snow from completely plugging the rest of the entrance in order to maintain a constant air supply. Some prefer to place a ski pole or a ski up from the cave out through the roof or side wall. This can provide an emergency air hole should the main entrance become blocked.\nIt is possible to sleep",
"-22.474725837702863"
],
[
"O\n₂ with other gases, such as nitrogen or helium, to prevent oxygen toxicity.\nPeople who climb mountains or fly in non-pressurized fixed-wing aircraft sometimes have supplemental O\n₂ supplies. Pressurized commercial airplanes have an emergency supply of O\n₂ automatically supplied to the passengers in case of cabin depressurization. Sudden cabin pressure loss activates chemical oxygen generators above each seat, causing oxygen masks to drop. Pulling on the masks \"to start the flow of oxygen\" as cabin safety instructions dictate, forces iron filings into the sodium chlorate inside the canister. A steady stream of oxygen gas is then produced by the exothermic reaction.\nOxygen,",
"-22.448161302425433"
],
[
"must be removed after depressurising and verifying that the valve is open. Cylinders containing breathing gases do not need special precautions for discharge except that high oxygen fraction gases should not be released in an enclosed space because of the fire hazard. Before inspection the cylinder must be clean and free of loose coatings, corrosion products and other materials which may obscure the surface.\nThe cylinder is inspected externally for dents, cracks, gouges, cuts, bulges, laminations and excessive wear, heat damage, torch or electric arc burns, corrosion damage, illegible, incorrect or unauthorised permanent stamp markings, and unauthorised additions or modifications.",
"-22.435085656819865"
],
[
"organisms require it for survival. It enters the water mostly via diffusion at the water-air interface. Oxygen’s solubility in water decreases as water temperature increases. Fast, turbulent streams expose more of the water’s surface area to the air and tend to have low temperatures and thus more oxygen than slow, backwaters. Oxygen is a by-product of photosynthesis, so systems with a high abundance of aquatic algae and plants may also have high concentrations of oxygen during the day. These levels can decrease significantly during the night when primary producers switch to respiration. Oxygen can be",
"-22.397541075741174"
],
[
"the cryogenic material. This can introduce contaminants. If these materials freeze, for example, water vapor becoming ice, they can block the openings, leading to pressure buildup and the risk of an explosion.\nThe gas escaping from a dewar can gradually displace the oxygen from the air in the surrounding area, which presents an asphyxiation hazard. Users are trained to store dewars only in a well-ventilated area and before transporting dewars in an elevator, the excess gas pressure is vented away and the dewars are sent unaccompanied to their destination.",
"-22.38592565836734"
],
[
"oxygen flow supplied by a regulated cylinder, while also allowing the patient's lungs to deflate to the ambient environment (not the bag) past the one way valve. Bag and valve Bag and valve combinations can also be attached to an alternative airway adjunct, instead of to the mask. For example, it can be attached to an endotracheal tube or laryngeal mask airway. Small heat and moisture exchangers, or humidifying / bacterial filters, can be used.\nA bag-valve mask can be used without being attached to an oxygen tank to provide \"room air\" (21% oxygen) to the patient, however manual resuscitator",
"-22.34020142816007"
],
[
"systems.\". Design and operation Air with a reduced oxygen content is injected to the protected volumes to lower the oxygen concentration until the desired oxygen concentration is reached. Then, because of air infiltration, the oxygen concentration inside the protected volumes rises: when it exceeds a certain threshold, low-oxygen air is again injected to the protected volumes until the desired oxygen concentration is reached. Oxygen sensors are installed in the protected volumes to monitor continuously the oxygen concentration.\nThe exact oxygen level to retain in the protected volumes is determined after a careful assessment of materials, configurations and hazards. Tables",
"-22.324902902008034"
],
[
"as a regular diving demand valve second stage. Like any other breathing apparatus, the dead space must be limited to minimise carbon dioxide buildup in the mask.\nIn some cases the outlet suction must be limited and a back-pressure regulator may be required. This would usually be the case for use in a saturation system. Use for oxygen therapy and surface decompression on oxygen would not generally need a back-pressure regulator. When an externally vented BIBS is used at low chamber pressure, a vacuum assist may be necessary to keep the exhalation backpressure down to provide an acceptable work of breathing.\nThe",
"-22.286952128866687"
],
[
"hoses of surface-supplied diving equipment. Scuba has limitations of breathing gas supply, communications between diver and surface are problematic, the location of the diver may be difficult to monitor, and it is considered a higher-risk mode of diving in most circumstances. Scuba is specifically forbidden for some professional applications. Decompression is often avoided, and if necessary, is generally in-water, but may use a variety of gases. Open circuit Open-circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled, and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure connected to a primary",
"-22.277636722952593"
],
[
"gas to the divers' umbilicals. Chambers with BIBS will generally have an oxygen monitor. BIBS are also used as an emergency breathing gas supply if the chamber gas is contaminated.\nSanitation systems for washing and waste removal are required. Discharge is simple because of the pressure gradient, but must be controlled to avoid undesired chamber pressure loss or fluctuations. Catering is generally provided by preparing the food and drink outside and transferring it into the chamber through the stores lock, which is also used to transfer used utensils, laundry and other supplies.\nNon-portable chambers are generally constructed from steel, as it",
"-22.2705672972952"
],
[
"be employed in an improvised rebreather, along with self-contained oxygen candles or the more common welding Oxygen tanks, are the type of equipment necessary to safely extend the period of Shelter-in-place past the point were respiratory/capnograph CO₂ levels would normally be deemed unsafe. In the case of the latter two oxygen sources, both of which also have the added benefit of producing and maintaining a shelter positive pressure which keeps any shelter leaks, leaking out rather than leaking in, Positive pressure environments are routinely employed in the hospital setting where the biological agents found in normal outside air, and generally",
"-22.1869559265906"
],
[
"partial pressure of oxygen in the inspired breathing gas. The inherent unsaturation due to the oxygen window allows a relatively fast initial phase of saturation decompression in proportion to the oxygen partial pressure and then controls the rate of further decompression limited by the half-time of inert gas elimination from the slowest compartment. However, some saturation decompression schedules specifically do not allow an decompression to start with an upward excursion. Neither the excursions nor the decompression procedures currently in use (2016) have been found to cause decompression problems in isolation, but there appears to be significantly higher risk when excursions",
"-22.15662371896906"
],
[
"and fitting a firebreak. If the firebreak is not fitted, then the Essential Requirements for performance and safety are not met and the CE mark is no longer valid. It also means that the home oxygen service provider’s status, within the framework under which the single market for medical devices operates, changes from ‘distributor’ to ‘manufacturer’. This has significant regulatory implications.\nThe EU Medical Devices Directive also requires that economic operators adopt solutions that ‘reduce risk as far as possible’ in line with the ‘state of the art’. The fitting of firebreaks is therefore a requirement irrespective of the oxygen",
"-22.14738799846964"
],
[
"electrical outlet and may have an internal battery or external battery pack for operation away from home and during power outages. Portable oxygen concentrators usually can be plugged into the DC outlet of a vehicle, and most of these devices are suitable for ambulatory use.\nThe FAA has approved the use of portable oxygen concentrators on commercial airlines. However, users of these devices should check in advance as to whether a particular brand or model is permitted on a particular airline. Unlike in commercial airlines, users of aircraft without cabin pressurization need oxygen concentrators which are able to deliver enough flowrate",
"-22.135237142676488"
],
[
"oxygen toxicity becomes a factor at high oxygen concentrations. For this reason, most modern crewed spacecraft use conventional air (nitrogen/oxygen) atmospheres and use pure oxygen only in pressure suits during extravehicular activity where acceptable suit flexibility mandates the lowest inflation pressure possible. Water Water is consumed by crew members for drinking, cleaning activities, EVA thermal control, and emergency uses. It must be stored, used, and reclaimed (from waste water) efficiently since no on-site sources currently exist for the environments reached in the course of human space exploration. Future lunar missions may utilise water sourced from polar ices; Mars missions may",
"-22.062665823266116"
],
[
"atmosphere can leak into the room to replenish the burnt oxygen, the proportion of carbon monoxide rapidly increases. Since the monoxide can not escape, any person in the room will fatally succumb to the poisonous gas. Human senses only detect an excess of carbon dioxide, and death occurs before any occupants of the room sense there is something amiss. Most manufacturers recommend that a window or door be left cracked open. Kerosene heaters should not be left unattended, especially when sleeping. A kerosene heater, as any heater that uses organic fuel, can produce dangerously high amounts of soot and",
"-22.03940384509042"
],
[
"medical supplies into the chamber while under pressure. Monoplace chambers Outside of the diving industry, most chambers are intended for a single occupant, and not all of them are fitted with built-in breathing systems (BIBS). This limits the schedules which can be safely used in them. Some schedules have been developed specifically for hyperbaric oxygen treatment in monoplace chambers, and some hyperbaric treatment schedules nominally intended for chambers with BIBS have been shown to be acceptable for use without air breaks if the preferred facilities are not available. Treatment gases Originally therapeutic recompression was done using air as the only",
"-22.022980805370025"
],
[
"Vacuum insulated evaporator Mandatory safety features To avoid explosions or other dangerous events, the VIE must be kept in an open space with no overhead wires (to prevent sparks from igniting surrounding materials, which will combust easier in the prescense of liquid oxygen) and ringed by a fence of non-combustible material. Parking vehicles, open flames, smoking, and other potentially hazardous activities are normally prohibited anywhere near the VIE.",
"-21.985286988521693"
],
[
"oxygen, it does not cool the burning substances significantly and when the carbon dioxide disperses they are free to catch fire upon exposure to atmospheric oxygen. Their desirability in electrical fire stems from the fact that, unlike water or other chemical based methods, Carbon dioxide will not cause short circuits, leading to even more damage to equipment. Because it is a gas, it is also easy to dispense large amounts of the gas automatically in IT infrastructure rooms, where the fire itself might be hard to reach with more immediate methods because it is behind rack doors and inside of",
"-21.969868544430938"
],
[
" If oxygen was consumed faster due to a high workload, a regular scrubber was needed. No electronics were needed as everything followed the setting of the nitrogen release pressure from the cooling unit, and the refrigeration by evaporation of liquid nitrogen maintained a steady temperature until the liquid nitrogen was exhausted. The loop gas flow was passed through a counterflow heat exchanger, which re-heated the gas returning to the diver by chilling the gas headed for the snow box (the cryogenic scrubber). The first prototype, the S-600G, was completed and shallow-water tested in October 1967. The S1000 was",
"-21.968071850482374"
],
[
"(specifically for chambers without facility for air breaks) Hart monoplace table 100% oxygen for 30 minutes at 3.0 ATA followed by 60 minutes at 2.5 ATA. Australian In-water Recompression Table The Australian IWR Tables were developed by the Royal Australian Navy in the 1960s in response to their need for treatment in remote locations far away from recompression chambers. It was the shallow portion of the table developed for recompression chamber use.\nOxygen is breathed the entire portion of the treatment without any air breaks and is followed by alternating periods (12 hours) of oxygen and air breathing on the surface.",
"-21.959654934238642"
],
[
"oxygen activated sludge aeration systems are sealed-tank reactor vessels with surface aerator type impellers mounted within the tanks at the oxygen carbon liquor surface interface. The amount of oxygen entrainment, or DO (Dissolved Oxygen), can be controlled by a weir adjusted level control, and a vent gas oxygen controlled oxygen feed valve. Oxygen is generated on site by cryogenic distillation of air, pressure swing adsorption, or other methods. These systems are used where wastewater plant space is at a premium and high sewage throughput is required as high energy costs are involved in purifying oxygen. Recent developments A new development",
"-21.957919922017027"
],
[
"returned to an oxygenated environment.",
"-21.956802469077957"
],
[
"on the outside, and constantly transmitting from the inside, so that the operator can better monitor the condition of the occupants. There may also be a backup communications system.\nFirefighting equipment is necessary as a chamber fire is extremely dangerous to the occupants. Either fire extinguishers specially made for hyperbaric environment with non-toxic contents, or a pressurised internal water spray system can be used. Water buckets are often provided as additional equipment.\nLife support systems for saturation systems can be fairly complex, as the occupants must remain under pressure continuously for several day to weeks. Oxygen content of the chamber gas is",
"-21.937255323515274"
],
[
"or breathing equipment failure. Equipment failure resulting in the loss of all gas could be caused by failure of a pressure retaining component such as an O-ring or hose in the regulator or, in cold conditions, a freezing of water in the regulator resulting in a free flow from the demand valve. Technique Buddy breathing is usually initialised by the diver with the \"out of air\" emergency signalling this to another diver by a standard hand signal \"give me air\". This signal is made by holding the fingers and thumb of one hand together, pointing them at the mouth and",
"-21.924289425835013"
],
[
"doors. Fire suppression system Firefighting systems include hand held fire extinguishers to automatic deluge systems. Special fire extinguishers which do not use toxic materials must be used. In the event of a fire, toxic gases may be released by burning materials, and the occupants will have to use the built-in breathing systems (BIBS) until the chamber gas has been flushed sufficiently. When a system with oxygen partial pressure 0.48 bar is pressurized below about 70 msw (231fsw), the oxygen fraction is too low to support combustion (less than 6%), and the fire risk is low. During the early stages of",
"-21.911187556339428"
],
[
"cryogenic air separation plant.\nAir forces have long recognized the strategic importance of liquid oxygen, both as an oxidizer and as a supply of gaseous oxygen for breathing in hospitals and high-altitude aircraft flights. In 1985 the USAF started a program of building its own oxygen-generation facilities at all major consumption bases.",
"-21.850983794312924"
],
[
"oxygen; moving from the frogs back to the lung, it contains water and free CO₂. A double layer of polyurethane foam lining the interior of the centrifuge prevents frog waste matter from fouling the water circulation system. Water is circulated through the liquid loop using a small pump and must pass through the filter before leaving the centrifuge. Gas loop The gas loop consists of a circuit in the lower bulkhead through which oxygen is circulated by a small pump. The pump delivers pure oxygen to the lung where some of it passes into the liquid loop, while the remainder",
"-21.82212830067874"
],
[
"major application for this type of BIBS is supply of breathing gas with a different composition to the chamber atmosphere to occupants of a hyperbaric chamber where the chamber atmosphere is controlled, and contamination by the BIBS gas would be a problem. This is common in therapeutic decompression, and hyperbaric oxygen therapy, where a higher partial pressure of oxygen in the chamber would constitute an unacceptable fire hazard, and would require frequent ventilation of the chamber to keep the partial pressure within acceptable limits Frequent ventilation is noisy and expensive, but can be used in an emergency. Rebreather regulators Rebreather",
"-21.80657376779709"
],
[
"dive. This minimizes the absorption of inert gas in the first place, and accelerates the elimination of the inert gases during ascent. Deck decompression chambers A deck decompression chamber (DDC), or double-lock chamber is a two compartment pressure vessel for human occupation which has sufficient space in the main chamber for two or more occupants, and a forechamber which can allow a person to be pressurised or decompressed while the main chamber remains under constant pressure. This allows an attendant to be locked in or out during treatment of the occupant(s) of the main chamber. There is usually also a",
"-21.80605559819378"
],
[
"at any time that the counterlung is emptied and the diver continues to inhale. Oxygen can also be added manually by a button which activates the demand valve.\nSome simple oxygen rebreathers had no automatic supply system, but only the manual feed valve, and the diver had to operate the valve at intervals to refill the breathing bag as the volume of oxygen decreased below a comfortable level. Semi-closed circuit rebreathers These are generally used for underwater diving, as they are bulkier and heavier than closed circuit oxygen rebreathers.\nMilitary and recreational divers use these because they provide better underwater duration",
"-21.79271419532597"
],
[
"when the lungs are filled with gas. Liquid breathing would not result in the saturation of body tissues with high pressure nitrogen or helium that occurs with the use of non-liquids, thus would reduce or remove the need for slow decompression.\nA significant problem, however, arises from the high viscosity of the liquid and the corresponding reduction in its ability to remove CO₂. All uses of liquid breathing for diving must involve total liquid ventilation (see above). Total liquid ventilation, however, has difficulty moving enough liquid to carry away CO₂, because no matter how great the total pressure is, the amount",
"-21.768880474788602"
],
[
"used to recover helium based breathing gas after use by the diver when this is more economical than losing it to the environment in open circuit systems. The recovered gas is passed through a scrubber system to remove carbon dioxide, filtered to remove odours, and pressurised into storage containers, where it may be mixed with oxygen to the required composition for re-use. Mountaineering rebreathers Mountaineering rebreathers provide oxygen at a higher concentration than available from atmospheric air in a naturally hypoxic environment. They need to be lightweight and to be reliable in severe cold including not getting choked with deposited",
"-21.73295747244265"
],
[
"Oxygen compatibility Oxygen compatibility is the issue of compatibility of materials for service in high concentrations of oxygen. It is a critical issue in space, aircraft, medical, underwater diving and industrial applications. \nAspects include effects of increased oxygen concentration on the ignition and burning of materials and components exposed to these concentrations in service.\nUnderstanding of fire hazards is necessary when designing, operating, and maintaining oxygen systems so that fires can be prevented. Ignition risks can be minimized by controlling heat sources and using materials that will not ignite or will not support burning in the applicable environment. Some materials are",
"-21.688865505391732"
],
[
"decreases the upper flammable limit or highest concentration at which the vapors can be ignited. When the total concentration of oxygen in the tank reaches about 11%, the upper and lower flammable limits converge and the flammable range disappears.\nInert gas systems deliver air with an oxygen concentration of less than 5% by volume. As a tank is pumped out, it is filled with inert gas and kept in this safe state until the next cargo is loaded. The exception is in cases when the tank must be entered. Safely gas-freeing a tank is accomplished by purging hydrocarbon vapors with inert",
"-21.679948464152403"
],
[
"than open circuit, have a deeper maximum operating depth than oxygen rebreathers and can be fairly simple and cheap. They do not rely on electronics for control of gas composition, but may use electronic monitoring for improved safety and more efficient decompression.\nSemi-closed circuit equipment generally supplies one breathing gas such as air, nitrox or trimix at a time. The gas is injected into the loop at a constant rate to replenish oxygen consumed from the loop by the diver. Excess gas must be constantly vented from the loop in small volumes to make space for fresh, oxygen-rich gas. As the",
"-21.669258399018872"
],
[
"reduce the danger of oxygen toxicity. Once the oxygen is reduced below about 18% the mix is known as a hypoxic mix as it does not contain enough oxygen to be used safely at the surface. Safety Technical diving encompasses multiple aspects of diving, that typically share lack of direct access to surface, which may be caused by physical constraints, like an overhead environment, or physiological, like decompression obligation. In case of emergency, therefore, the diver or diving team must be able to troubleshoot and solve the problem underwater. This requires planning, situational awareness, and redundancy in critical equipment, and",
"-21.642772399063688"
],
[
"evacuated by helicopter. Supplementary oxygen The use and non-use of supplementary oxygen was the focus of much discussion and analysis after the disaster with a guide and a sardar both being criticized by Jon Krakauer for not using supplementary oxygen while performing guide duties. Both men gave detailed written explanations as to why they preferred not to use oxygen but both carried a bottle on the summit day that could be used if it was needed in an emergency or extraordinary situation. Radios There were several issues and problems surrounding radios and their use on summit day. Scott Fischer's sardar",
"-21.58239549410564"
],
[
"Livewell Oxygen levels It is very important to maintain adequate oxygen levels in the livewell. It should be above 5 parts per million. Electric aeration systems are often used to do this. These often work by creating a spray that increases the surface area of the water, or by passing it through a Venturi.\nA livewell is a box used to transport live aquatic animals; shrimp, baitfish and mature fish, saltwater or freshwater species. A livewell should be made of materials that are non- toxic to aquatic animals. The shape may be square, rectangular, oval or round. The box may be",
"-21.53771481797594"
],
[
"Hypoxic air technology for fire prevention Hypoxic air technology for fire prevention, also known as oxygen reduction system (ORS), is an active fire protection technique based on a permanent reduction of the oxygen concentration in the protected rooms. Unlike traditional fire suppression systems that usually extinguish fire after it is detected, hypoxic air is able to prevent fire. Description In a volume protected by hypoxic air, a normobaric hypoxic atmosphere is continuously retained: hypoxic means that the partial pressure of the oxygen is lower than at the sea level, normobaric means that the barometric pressure is equal to the",
"-21.463759168233082"
],
[
"inflammable material within the vicinity of any oxygen apparatus. Using an electrical device inside an oxygen tent also could be hazardous.",
"-21.46307776134927"
],
[
"with scuba may provide a method of switching to atmospheric air when above the surface, to save breathing gas. Rebreather systems often incorporate a dive/surface valve in the mouthpiece which may provide an opening to the ambient environment when the loop is isolated. Some other full-face masks allow the demand valve to be unplugged on the surface, or provide a \"snorkel valve\" port which can be opened to allow atmospheric air to enter. The small saving on breathing gas is unimportant with surface supplied breathing apparatus. Bailout Emergency provision of an alternative breathing gas source is required in case of",
"-21.447637703851797"
],
[
"important gas to be kept in that way is water vapor. Without the presence of a cold-trap in the atmosphere, the water content would gradually escape into space, making life impossible. The cold trap retains one-tenth of a percent of the water in the atmosphere in the form of a vapor at high altitudes. Earth's cold-trap is also a layer which above ultraviolet intensity is strong, since higher up the amount of water vapor is negligible. Oxygen screens out ultraviolet intensity.\nSome astronomers believe that the lack of a cold trap is why the planets Venus and Mars both",
"-21.4361105307471"
],
[
"safety elements of the standard, including ‘a means to extinguish a tubing fire and isolate the oxygen flow’ are a requirement. Approval to market the product would then be based upon compliance to the standard.\nIn March, 2018, the US Veterans Health Administration issued a Patient Safety Alert mandating the use of thermal fuses in all its patients' home oxygen installations, unless there is a clinical reason for not doing so. The Patient Safety Alert applies to all patients, not just those deemed to be at 'high risk'. It requires two thermal fuses to be fitted per patient installation, and any",
"-21.426113771856762"
],
[
" If changes or maintenance need to be performed in the interstitial space, the primary space does not need to be shut down, which is important in buildings like hospitals where the equipment in the space must operate constantly. Unlike traditionally built buildings, where the mechanical space is located in the basement or on the top floor, the interstitial space needs few vertical penetrations and therefore leaves more open space on the primary floor. The entire floor plan of these buildings can be more open because there are fewer fixed vertical penetrations through the floor and walls.\nAnother way",
"-21.41469592647627"
],
[
"on them, called them \"exit bags\", and included no instructions for use to circumvent Australian laws against assisting suicide. Physiological mechanism A hypoxic, carbon dioxide free metabolically inert gas is provided for inhalation by confining the gas supply and the head in an impermeable bag which prevents contamination with oxygen from the surrounding air, minimising the amount of gas required. (The same effect could be reached by flooding any enclosed space with the gas, but much more gas would be needed, and this would be hazardous to a third party entering the space, an effect which is well known as",
"-21.36379804133321"
],
[
"a reduced-nitrogen atmosphere to purge nitrogen from their bloodstream and avoid decompression sickness in the low-pressure (4.3 psi, 30 kPa) pure-oxygen atmosphere of the spacesuit. The previous method of preparing for spacewalks involved breathing pure oxygen for several hours prior to an EVA to purge the body of nitrogen. In April 2006, Expedition 12 Commander Bill McArthur and Expedition 13 flight engineer Jeffrey Williams tested a new method of preparing for spacewalks by \"camping out\", or spending the night, in the Quest Airlock. In the chamber, the pressure was reduced from the normal 14.7 to 10.2 psi (101 to 70 kPa). Four hours",
"-21.33482074542917"
],
[
"oxygen in the vented gas cannot be separated from the inert gas, semi-closed circuit is wasteful of oxygen.\nA gas mix which has a maximum operating depth that is safe for the depth of the dive being planned, and which will provide a breathable mixture at the surface must be used, or it will be necessary to change mixtures during the dive.\nAs the amount of oxygen required by the diver increases with work rate, the gas injection rate must be carefully chosen and controlled to prevent unconsciousness in the diver due to hypoxia. A higher gas addition rate reduces the likelihood",
"-21.33168528554961"
],
[
"come to rely on the oxygen level in the blood to maintain respiratory drive. This is illustrated in the scenario of type II respiratory failure. However, in a normal healthy person there is no subjective awareness of low oxygen levels. Surface blackout Surface blackout occurs just after the diver exhales on the surface, and may happen before, during or after inhalation of the first breath. When the diver exhales, there is usually a reduction of intrathoracic pressure, which is exacerbated by the effort of inhalation, which can further compromise the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveolar capillaries, and after",
"-21.32260966830654"
],
[
"the oxygen gas from the producer bed through it, in the reverse direction of flow. After a set cycle time the operation of the two beds is interchanged, thereby allowing for a continuous supply of gaseous oxygen to be pumped through a pipeline. This is known as pressure swing adsorption. Oxygen gas is increasingly obtained by these non-cryogenic technologies (see also the related vacuum swing adsorption).\nOxygen gas can also be produced through electrolysis of water into molecular oxygen and hydrogen. DC electricity must be used: if AC is used, the gases in each limb consist of hydrogen and oxygen in",
"-21.286871156160487"
],
[
"to environmental hazards such as cold water or currents, which will enhance diver safety. The decompression in the chamber is more controlled, in a more comfortable environment, and oxygen can be used at greater partial pressure as there is no risk of drowning and a lower risk of oxygen toxicity convulsions. A further operational advantage is that once the divers are in the chamber, new divers can be supplied from the diving panel, and the operations can continue with less delay.\nA typical surface decompression procedure is described in the US Navy Diving Manual. If there is no in-water 40 ft stop",
"-21.28626801932114"
],
[
"on oxygen at 12 metres (40 ft). Small closed bell systems have been designed that can be easily mobilised, and include a two-man bell, a handling frame and a chamber for decompression after transfer under pressure (TUP). Divers can breathe air or mixed gas at the bottom and are usually recovered with the chamber filled with air. They decompress on oxygen supplied through built in breathing systems (BIBS) towards the end of the decompression. Small bell systems support bounce diving down to 120 metres (390 ft) and for bottom times up to 2 hours.\nA relatively portable surface gas supply system using high",
"-21.270665510208346"
],
[
"had been used to flush oxygen from the compartment as a precaution against fire. They were not wearing air packs because of a last-minute change in safety procedures.\nDuring a pool party in Mexico in 2013, eight party-goers were rendered unconscious and one 21-year-old male was put into a coma after liquid nitrogen was poured into the pool.\nOccasional deaths are reported from recreational inhalation of helium, but these are very rare from direct inhalation from small balloons. The inhalation from larger helium balloons has been reportedly fatal. A fatal fall from a tree occurred after the inhalation of helium from",
"-21.267167690410133"
],
[
"is done in a decompression chamber instead of in the water. This reduces the time that the diver spends in the water, exposed to environmental hazards such as cold water or currents, which will enhance diver safety. The decompression in the chamber is more controlled, in a more comfortable environment, and oxygen can be used at greater partial pressure as there is no risk of drowning and a lower risk of oxygen toxicity convulsions. A further operational advantage is that once the divers are in the chamber, new divers can be supplied from the diving panel, and the operations can",
"-21.257903546560556"
],
[
"of these methods increases the partial pressure of oxygen by raising the FiO₂ (fraction of inspired oxygen). Other methods Increased water intake may also help in acclimatization to replace the fluids lost through heavier breathing in the thin, dry air found at altitude, although consuming excessive quantities (\"over-hydration\") has no benefits and may cause dangerous hyponatremia.",
"-21.252138658892363"
],
[
"state.\nA second problem is that the trapped air pockets will shrink over time if the siphon is not operating due to no inflow. The air in pockets is absorbed by the liquid, which pulls liquid up into the piping until the air pocket disappears, and can cause activation of water flow outside the normal range of operating when the storage tank is not full, leading to loss of the liquid seal in lower parts of the mechanism.\nA third problem is where the lower end of the liquid seal is simply a U-trap bend in an outflow pipe. During vigorous",
"-21.245247060141992"
],
[
"diver does not have the option of simply taking out the DV and switching to an independent system, and gas switching may be done during a dive, including use of pure oxygen for accelerated decompression. To reduce the risk of confusion or getting the system contaminated, surface supplied systems may be required to be oxygen clean for all services except straight air diving. Oxygen service Regulators to be used with pure oxygen and nitrox mixtures containing more than 40% oxygen by volume should use oxygen compatible components and lubricants, and be cleaned for oxygen service. Helium service Helium is",
"-21.197406166786095"
],
[
"end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) and ventilation at higher-than-normal pressures may be helpful in maintaining adequate oxygenation. However, such measures can also increase leakage of air through a tear, and can stress the sutures in a tear that has been surgically repaired; therefore the lowest possible airway pressures that still maintain oxygenation are typically used. Mechanical ventilation can also cause pulmonary barotrauma when high pressure is required to ventilate the lungs. Techniques such as pulmonary toilet (removal of secretions), fluid management, and treatment of pneumonia are employed to improve pulmonary compliance (the elasticity of the lungs).\nWhile TBI may be managed without surgery,",
"-21.113570828165393"
],
[
"which could not be adequately isolated from the liquid oxygen being pumped. All lubricants reacted with the oxygen, leading to fires and other failures. The solution was to lubricate the bearing with the oxygen. Although liquid oxygen is a poor lubricant, it was adequate, since the service life of the pump was just a few hours.\nThe operating environment and service needs are also important design considerations. Some bearing assemblies require routine addition of lubricants, while others are factory sealed, requiring no further maintenance for the life of the mechanical assembly. Although seals are appealing, they increase",
"-21.112936375808204"
],
[
"the surface. This restricted the movements and range of the diver and was also potentially hazardous as the supply could get cut off for a number of reasons. Early attempts at creating systems that would allow divers to carry a portable breathing gas source did not succeed, as the compression and storage technology was not advanced enough to allow compressed air to be stored in containers at sufficiently high pressures. By the end of the nineteenth century, two basic templates for scuba, (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus), had emerged; open-circuit scuba where the diver's exhaust is vented directly into the water,",
"-21.105893507396104"
],
[
"the cabin interior had been soaking in pure oxygen for hours. Tom Stafford, in a NASA oral history in 1997, later recalled:\nSo it turns out what we would have seen, had we had to do that, would have been two Roman candles going out, because we were 15 or 16 psi, pure oxygen, soaking in that for an hour and a half. You remember the tragic fire we had at the Cape. (...) Jesus, with that fire going off and that, it would have burned the suits. Everything was soaked in oxygen. So thank God. That was another thing: NASA",
"-21.10314261034364"
],
[
"closed-circuit scuba. The body consumes and metabolises only a part of the oxygen in the inhaled air at the surface, and an even smaller fraction when the breathing gas is compressed as it is in ambient pressure systems underwater. A rebreather recycles the used breathing gas, while constantly replenishing it from the supply so that the oxygen level does not get dangerously depleted. The apparatus also has to remove the exhaled carbon dioxide, as a buildup of CO₂ levels would result in respiratory distress due to hypercapnia.\nThe earliest known oxygen rebreather was patented on 17 June 1808 by Sieur Touboulic",
"-21.09567871573381"
],
[
"and the oxygen it contains, creating a risk of subtle anoxia (lack of oxygenation) for people working in these atmospheres. Adequate ventilation is essential to ensure that artists and technicians are surrounded by breathable air. Carbon dioxide has the added hazard of interfering with the normal breathing reflex, which is sensitive to carbon dioxide levels in the air. Nitrogen has no effect on the breathing reflex, but this creates its own hazard in that a person breathing pure nitrogen can lose consciousness from lack of oxygen without any warning signs.\nFog produced with liquid air does not present the hazards of",
"-21.087471545441076"
]
] |
3dvzlx | Why do cats always stretch their front legs before walking up to you? | [
"It's a greeting in cat body language. It's basically saying, \"I'm coming at you, but not aggressively- see I'm relaxed\" *stretch*",
"Domesticated cats still have a lot of biological traits in common with their wild ancestors and stretching prior to approaching actually serves the evolutionary function of letting you know they could not possibly give less of a shit and are merely humoring you.",
"I always assumed that they were acting disinterested in me and my pats because they didn't wanna seem submissive to me calling them to come to me. I thought this because I have met cats that wanna run right up to you and meow and rub without any stretching.",
"Hm, thanks for asking this. It's something I've noticed but haven't ever really thought about in any sort of details. I've had cats almost my whole life and I just disregarded this behaviour as actually stretching after a period of inactivity, like when I stretch."
] | [
[
"the hairs on its tail and back. In addition, it may stand more upright and turn its body sideways to increase its apparent size as a threat. Tailless cats, such as the Manx, which possess only a small stub of a tail, move the stub around as if they have a full tail. Tactile Cats often lick other cats as allogrooming or to bond (this grooming is usually done between familiar cats). They also sometimes lick humans, which may indicate affection.\nCats sometimes repeatedly tread their front paws on humans or soft objects with a kneading action. This is",
"-38.023889802236226"
],
[
"cat's tail may swing from side to side. If this motion is slow and \"lazy\", it generally indicates that the cat is in a relaxed state. Cats will twitch the tip of their tail when hunting or when otherwise alert or playful. Abrupt, full-tail twitching indicates a state of indecision. A stalking domestic cat will typically hold its tail low to the ground while in a crouch, and twitch it quickly from side to side. This tail behavior is also seen when a cat has become \"irritated\" and is nearing the point of lashing out, typically by",
"-37.694548294181004"
],
[
"Cat righting reflex The cat righting reflex is a cat's innate ability to orient itself as it falls in order to land on its feet. The righting reflex begins to appear at 3–4 weeks of age, and is perfected at 6–7 weeks. Cats are able to do this because they have an unusually flexible backbone and no functional clavicle (collarbone). The minimum height required for this to occur in most cats (safely) would be around 30 centimetres (12 in). Cats without a tail also have this ability, since a cat mostly moves its hind legs and relies on conservation of angular",
"-37.38587251101853"
],
[
"walk- which is caused by the height of the hindquarters: according to the Manx Cat Club these \"cannot be too high, and the back cannot be too short, while there must be great depth of flank. The head should be round and large, but not of the snubby or Persian type.\nRose Tenent wrote: \"No cat is more fascinating than the tailless Manx, with its rabbit-like hoppity gait [...] . The hind legs are considerably longer than the front ones, thus giving the cat its peculiar hopping gait; incidentally, also the reason for the reasonable theory held in some quarters that",
"-37.06344587478088"
],
[
"becoming relaxed, or eating. The mechanism by which cats purr is elusive. The cat has no unique anatomical feature that is clearly responsible for the sound. Grooming Cats are known for spending considerable amounts of time licking their coats to keep them clean. The cat's tongue has backwards-facing spines about 500 μm long, which are called papillae. These contain keratin which makes them rigid so the papillae act like a hairbrush. Some cats, particularly longhaired cats, occasionally regurgitate hairballs of fur that have collected in their stomachs from grooming. These clumps of fur are usually sausage-shaped and about 2–3 cm (0.8–1.2 in) long.",
"-36.627437338698655"
],
[
"considered to be abnormal, and treated as a medical emergency. Righting reflex The righting reflex is the attempt of cats to land on their feet at the completion of a jump or a fall. They can do this more easily than other animals due to their flexible spine, floating collar bone, and loose skin. Cats also use vision and their vestibular apparatus to help tell which way to turn. They can then stretch themselves out and relax their muscles. The righting reflex does not always result in the cat landing on its feet\nat the completion of the fall. Freeze reflex",
"-36.571928823774215"
],
[
"biting or swatting with claws extended. A cat may also twitch its tail when playing.\nSometimes during play, a cat, or more commonly, a kitten, will raise the base of its tail high and stiffen all but the tip into a shape like an upside-down \"U\". This signals great excitement, to the point of hyperactivity. This may also be seen when younger cats chase each other, or when they run around by themselves. When greeting their owner, cats often hold their tails straight up with a quivering motion that indicates extreme happiness. A scared or surprised cat may erect",
"-36.52524743351387"
],
[
"Adult cats are able to make use of pinch-induced behavioural inhibition to induce a 'freeze reflex' in their young which enables them to be transported by the neck without resisting. This reflex can also be exhibited by adults. This is also known as 'clipnosis'. Eating patterns Cats are obligate carnivores, and do not do well on vegetarian diets. In the wild they usually hunt smaller mammals to keep themselves nourished. Many cats find and chew small quantities of long grass but this is not for its nutritional value per se. The eating of grass seems to stem from feline",
"-35.7835648576729"
],
[
"that reinforces a nonthreatening position. This behavior is not exclusive to domestic house cats. Since cats can be very territorial, in the wild they utilize this slow blinking with other cats to signal themselves as friendly or nonthreatening. Tail Cats often use their tails to communicate. A cat holding its tail vertically generally indicates positive emotions such as happiness or confidence; the vertical tail is often used as a friendly greeting toward human beings or other cats (usually close relatives). A half-raised tail can indicate less pleasure, and unhappiness is indicated with a tail held low. In addition, a",
"-35.763916803727625"
],
[
"humans into what they want and need. Body language Cats rely strongly on body language to communicate. A cat may rub against an object, lick a person, and purr. Much of a cat's body language is through its tail, ears, head position, and back posture. Cats flick their tails in an oscillating, snake-like motion, or abruptly from side to side, often just before pouncing on an object or animal in what looks like \"play\" hunting behavior. If spoken to, a cat may flutter its tail in response, which may be the only indication of the interaction, though movement",
"-35.69186009891564"
],
[
"standing straight up, and they mew and howl loudly as they approach one another. The steps the cats make become slower and shorter the closer they become to one another. Once they are close enough to attack, they pause slightly, and then one cat leaps and tries to bite the nape of the other cat. The other cat has no choice but to retaliate and both cats roll aggressively on the ground, and loud intense screams come from both cats. After some time the cats separate and stand face to face to begin the attack all over again. This can",
"-35.53505902411416"
],
[
"are able to twist and bend their bodies, and jump a fair distance from standing still. This talent can be turned into tricks involving jumping through hoops and off scratching posts. Cats are able to learn many types of commands, such as to come when called, sit, roll over, shake a paw, and jump.",
"-35.42401545447683"
],
[
"of bright sunlight.\nWhen cats are calm, they tend to stand relaxed with a still tail. If they become aggressive, the hind legs stiffen, the rump elevates but the back stays flat, tail hairs are erected, the nose is pushed forward and the ears are pulled back slightly. Because cats have both claws and teeth, they can easily cause injury if they become involved in a fight, so this posture is an attempt to elicit deference by a competitor without fighting. The aggressor may attempt to make challengers retreat and will pursue them if they do not flee.",
"-35.335145095188636"
],
[
"need for friendship, or as a signal to an owner, saying thank you for friendship given.\"\nThe mechanism of how cats purr is elusive. This is partly because cats do not have a unique anatomical feature that is clearly responsible for this vocalization. One hypothesis, supported by electromyographic studies, is that cats produce the purring noise by using the vocal folds and/or the muscles of the larynx to alternately dilate and constrict the glottis rapidly, causing air vibrations during inhalation and exhalation. Combined with the steady inhalation and exhalation as the cat breathes, a purring noise is produced with strong",
"-34.87083435547538"
],
[
"this could be due to anxiety or physical health issues. Meowing Cats meow for various reasons, and some are naturally more vocal than others. This becomes a problem behavior when there is excessive meowing or yowling, especially at night. Positive reinforcement training, sometimes accompanied by a clicker, is commonly used in this case. This involves ignoring the cat when it is making noise, and rewarding with treats and affection when it is being quiet. Tricks A cat may be trained to do tricks such as playing dead or ringing the doorbell. Because of the cat's flexibility and bone structure, they",
"-34.68062211095821"
],
[
"the journal Nature. The article's summary in Nature appeared thus:\nM. Marey thinks that it is the inertia of its own mass that the cat uses to right itself. The torsion couple which produces the action of the muscles of the vertebra acts at first on the forelegs which have a very small motion of inertia on account of the front feet being foreshortened and pressed against the neck. The hind legs, however, being stretched out and almost perpendicular to the axis of the body, possesses a moment of inertia which opposes motion in the opposite direction to that which the",
"-34.60384142794646"
],
[
"expensive and not very comfortable for the cat at the same time. Nylon cat leashes and harnesses are, however, more elastic, and thus more comfortable and also provide more control. Leashes for large animals Leashes are used on large animals—such as bovids, camelids, and equids—to lead them so that they will be forced to follow and come to a desired area—as well as to tether them to a specific area, such as to a fencepost or tree trunk, so that they will remain stationary and not run away. Oftentimes, leashes are used to tether such animals when they require separation,",
"-34.204665160155855"
],
[
"they often weigh slightly more than they might appear to. They don't shed as much as other breeds and require very little grooming. They tend to get along well with other cats, as they have an established pecking order in the household. They have a loud distinctive purr. Bombay cats are known to be vocal and they cry and meow more than other cats.",
"-33.99949284127797"
],
[
"cats. A raised tail indicates a friendly greeting, and flattened ears indicates hostility. Tail-raising also indicates the cat's position in the group's social hierarchy, with dominant individuals raising their tails less often than subordinate ones. By contrast, feral cats are generally silent. Nose-to-nose touching is also a common greeting and may be followed by social grooming, which is solicited by one of the cats raising and tilting its head.\nPurring may have developed as an evolutionary advantage as a signalling mechanism of reassurance between mother cats and nursing kittens. Post-nursing cats often purr as a sign of contentment: when being petted,",
"-33.94053301031818"
],
[
"Kneading (cats) Kneading is an activity common to all domestic cats whereby, when in a state of ease, they alternately push out and pull in their front paws, often alternating between right and left limbs. Description Multiple theories exist that explain why cats knead. Kneading may have an origin going back to cats' wild ancestors who had to tread down grass or foliage to make a temporary nest in which to rest. Alternatively, the behavior may be a remnant of a newborn's kneading of the mother's teat to stimulate milk secretion. Kneading may also be a form of communication between",
"-33.857203522813506"
],
[
"Feline hyperesthesia syndrome Feline hyperesthesia syndrome, also known as rolling skin disease, is a rare illness in domestic cats that causes episodes of agitation, self-mutilation, and a characteristic rippling of the skin when touched. It is often described as a seizure disorder but the cause is unknown. Symptoms During an episode cats show a number of typical signs, including skin rolling or twitching, compulsive self-grooming, self-directed pouncing, or aggressive behaviour such as biting or attacking the tail. There may also be pupil dilation, vocalisation and a general increase in activity. Cause The cause of feline hyperesthesia syndrome is unknown.",
"-33.81404689537885"
],
[
"may prove painful if the cat has sharp claws.\nSince most of the preferred \"domestic traits\" are neotenous or juvenile traits that persist in the adult, kneading may be a relic juvenile behavior retained in adult domestic cats. It may also stimulate the cat and make it feel good, in the same manner as a human stretching. Kneading is often a precursor to sleeping. Many cats purr while kneading. They also purr mostly when newborn, when feeding, or when trying to feed on their mother's teat. The common association between the two behaviors may corroborate the evidence in favor of the",
"-33.80968376912642"
],
[
"kittens. Neutering will decrease or eliminate this behavior in many cases, suggesting that the behavior is linked to sex hormones.\nWhen cats become aggressive, they try to make themselves appear larger and more threatening by raising their fur, arching their backs, turning sideways and hissing or spitting. Often, the ears are pointed down and back to avoid damage to the inner ear and potentially listen for any changes behind them while focused forward. They may also vocalize loudly and bare their teeth in an effort to further intimidate their opponent. Fights usually consist of grappling and delivering powerful slaps to the",
"-33.804874374556675"
],
[
"with their heads level, tilted up or tilted down. Comparing the decerebrate cats to normal cats showed similar EMG patterns during level walking and EMG patterns that reflected downhill walking with the head titled up and uphill walking with the head tilted down. This study proved that neck proprioceptors and vestibular receptors contribute sensory feedback that alters the gait of the animal. This information may be useful for treatment of gait disorders. Functions Central pattern generators can serve many functions in vertebrate animals. CPGs can play roles in movement, breathing, rhythm generation and other oscillatory functions. The sections below focus",
"-33.78920396612375"
],
[
"Purr Mechanism The mechanism by which cats purr is an object of speculation. There is a unique “neural oscillator” in the cat’s brain of uncertain significance. Vocal folds/laryngeal muscles One hypothesis, backed by electromyographic studies, is that cats produce the purring noise by using the vocal folds or the muscles of the larynx to alternately dilate and constrict the glottis rapidly, causing air vibrations during inhalation and exhalation. Combined with the steady inhalation and exhalation of air as the cat breathes, a purring noise is produced with strong harmonics. Degree of hyoid ossification No cat can both purr and roar.",
"-33.635926600167295"
],
[
"characteristics of the vocal folds and an elongated vocal tract, the latter rendered possible by an incompletely ossified hyoid. Cats may purr for a variety of reasons, including when they're hungry, happy, or anxious. Meow The most familiar vocalisation of adult cats is a \"meow\" or \"miaow\" sound (pronounced /miˈaʊ/). The meow can be assertive, plaintive, friendly, bold, welcoming, attention-soliciting, demanding, or complaining. It can even be silent, where the cat opens its mouth but does not vocalize. Just like humans who talk a lot when they're happy, cats can too. According to The Purrington Post, a chatty cat",
"-33.5927933442872"
],
[
"to have its stomach petted the owner should not attempt to massage this area.\nPet owners are advised to apply gentle massages to their cats and if they wish to give their pet a more deep massage they should go to therapists who are trained in this matter.\nEffleurage and friction are both good techniques in massaging cats. After the cat has shown it is relaxed, the owners may start to pet it from the head to the tail, by using their open and relaxed hand. This is the effleurage technique. While practicing this movement, owners can look for abnormalities such as",
"-33.52680493434309"
],
[
"backwards. For example, the main human gaits are bipedal walking and running, but they employ many other gaits occasionally, including a four-legged crawl in tight spaces.\nIn walking, and for many animals running, the motion of legs on either side of the body alternates, i.e. is out of phase. Other animals, such as a horse when galloping, or an inchworm, alternate between their front and back legs. An alternative to a gait that alternates between legs is hopping or saltation, where all legs move together. As a main means of locomotion, this is usually found in bipeds or semi-bipeds. Among the",
"-33.46582808898529"
],
[
"other cat. This behaviour in domestic cats involves a system of hierarchy and may have evolved as a way to channel aggression where the costs of a conflict is too high. Cats also use bunting as a way to familiarize themselves to their environment and the pheromones secreted work to ease the cat's anxieties about an unfamiliar area.\nBunting is a normal animal behavior, and should be distinguished from head pressing, which is abnormal and typically a sign of illness. Development The practice of bunting stems from the behaviour that arises when kittens are very young and seek stimulation from their",
"-33.455634662881494"
],
[
"after having reached terminal velocity, cats would orient their limbs horizontally such that their body hits the ground first.\nA 1987 study speculated that this is done after falling five stories to ensure the cat reaches a terminal velocity by thereafter relaxing and spreading their bodies to increase drag. Why cats fall from high places Cats have a natural fondness for heights. If a cat is distracted by potential prey, or if it falls asleep, it can fall. If this were to occur in a tree, for example, the cat would often be able to save itself by grabbing on with",
"-33.43626329919789"
],
[
"touches the water, and then the cat quickly pulls its tongue backing into its mouth which soon closes; this results in a column of liquid being pulled into the cat's mouth, which is then secured by its mouth closing. Ruminants and most other herbivores partially submerge the tip of the mouth in order to draw in water by means of a plunging action with the tongue held straight. Cats drink at a significantly slower pace than ruminants, who face greater natural predation hazards. Uniquely, elephants draw water into their trunks and squirt it into their mouths.\nMost birds scoop or draw",
"-33.40898217851645"
],
[
"generates his apparent frailty. He walks with his hips forward, allowing him to make larger strides when he walks. The hunched shape restricts his legs, which are bent and turned out at the knees. The feet have the heels together with the toes facing apart. His hands and feet move quickly, though his body is stiff, and his head is constantly moving. When he walks, his feet should be picked up more than would occur naturally. Pantalone is slow moving, and he has bouts of agility when there is high emotion, but it is followed by asthmatic breathing",
"-33.33807637554128"
],
[
"restrained from hunting. If you see your cat making quick chirps, and moving their mouths extremely quickly while their eyes are set and staring at one place, they are chattering, and channeling their inner urge to hunt. Big cats do this as well. Although domesticated cats are not in the wild, they still have their innate need to hunt. Grown cats also do not meow to other grown cats. Cats meow in adult form to talk to other animals, such as dogs, and more importantly humans. Meowing to humans has been researched as that they do it to manipulate",
"-33.3057027467803"
],
[
"because the long tail was stiffened with ossified tendons. To get the tripodal pose, the tail would literally have to be broken. Putting the animal in a horizontal posture makes many aspects of the arms and pectoral girdle more understandable. For example, the hand is relatively immobile, with the three central fingers grouped together, bearing hoof-like phalanges, and able to hyperextend. This would have allowed them to bear weight. The wrist is also relatively immobile, and the arms and shoulder bones robust. These features all suggest that the animal spent time on all fours.\nFurthermore, it appears that Iguanodon became more",
"-33.255488765542395"
],
[
"feet. Throughout history the dewclaws have been removed, however many would now oppose this arguably unnecessary and cruel procedure. The tail is traditionally low-set and tapering, carried over the back when in motion or excited, but relaxed otherwise. Temperament The Coton is a playful, affectionate, intelligent breed. Although generally quiet, it can become very vocal -- grunting, barking, and making other noises when having fun. Cotons are known to have a habit of jumping up and walking on their hind legs to please people. Most Cotons love meeting new people and are very curious in new situations. Cotons are easy",
"-33.25347484496888"
],
[
"and use it like a security blanket. This will include lots of kneading, purring and suckling of the blanket. In some cases, cats have been observed to exhibit sexual movements, not unlike a dog \"humping\" a human leg, accompanying the kneading and suckling. Kittens who are taken away from their mothers before they are fully weaned may also develop a habit of kneading a human whom they have adopted as a maternal figure, and may also attempt suckling their ear, eye, nose, toe, hair, shirt, socks or fingers. Cats mainly do so as kittens, but sometimes the behavior continues",
"-33.228512558096554"
],
[
"walking when animals start to run. This has been suggested to spread the forces better across the wrist bones to protect them.",
"-33.22797642045771"
],
[
"seeking a mate. Its vocalizations are similar to those of the domestic cat.\nIts way of moving is distinct: with belly close to the ground, it moves at a fast run punctuated with occasional leaps. It is capable of sudden bursts of speed and can sprint at speeds of 30–40 km (19–25 mi) per hour. It buries its feces, covering it with sand.\nFour radio-collared sand cats in Israel moved long distances of 5–10 km (3.1–6.2 mi) in a single night. They were generally active throughout the night, hunting and travelling an average distance of 5.4 km (3.4 mi). They retired below ground at dawn and stayed in",
"-33.183774010278285"
],
[
"vinyasa between Cat and Cow Poses.\nThe pose is considered in Sivananda Yoga to be suitable for use during pregnancy. Variations In variations of the pose, one leg is stretched out straight, and the knee of the stretched out leg may then be bent so the foot points straight up; the opposite hand may also be stretched out; this is called Vyaghrasana, Tiger Pose.\nCat Pose is often alternated with Bitilasana (बितिलासन), Cow Pose, where the belly and back are lowered, the hips and shoulders remaining unmoved.",
"-33.1777283370684"
],
[
"Catsuit A catsuit is a one-piece form-fitting garment that covers the torso and the legs, and frequently the arms. They are usually made from stretchable material, such as lycra, chiffon, spandex (after 1959), latex, or velour, but may use less elastic materials, such as leather or PVC. Catsuits frequently close by means of a zipper at the front or back.\nCatsuits are most commonly worn by women, but are also worn by men. A catsuit is regarded as outerwear, but not normally street wear. History and usage Catsuits first made an appearance around the 1940s, and were occasionally worn as a",
"-33.172604428371415"
],
[
"paw, opening its toes to expose its claws, then closes its claws as it lifts its paw. The process takes place with alternate paws at intervals of one to two seconds. They may do this while sitting on their owner's lap, which may prove painful if the cat is large or strong or has sharp claws (as the claws tend to dig into one's lap). Though cats will sit happily on a hard surface, they will only knead a soft or pliant surface, although some cats will reflexively \"march\" on hard surfaces instead of kneading them.\nA cat may appear irritated",
"-33.16218974685762"
],
[
"arc between 90 and 180 degrees. A 90 degrees is preferable, but cats will be disqualified if their ears touch the back of their skulls.\nBoth longhaired and shorthaired American Curls have soft, silky coats which lie flat against their bodies. They require little grooming and enjoy spending time with their owners.\nThe American Curl, while still an uncommon breed, is found across the world in the United States, Spain, France, Japan, Russia, and many other countries. Health Due to its large genetic pool with non-pedigree cats, the American Curl is generally a healthy breed. These cats' ears however require frequent cleaning",
"-33.15965579543263"
],
[
"is mounted vertically in a wide base, which allows the cat to stretch upward on its rear legs and scratch freely without tipping it over. A post that is unstable or does not allow a cat to fully extend its body might put off the cat from using it. Surfaces vary: the post may be covered in sisal rope, upholstery fabric, or the jute backing of a piece of carpet. Many pet owners say they have to experiment with different surfaces to find one that their cats will scratch reliably. Experts say that cats generally prefer sisal or corrugated cardboard",
"-33.15526552000665"
],
[
"to accelerate to significant speed before being stopped suddenly presenting the possibility of injury to both dog and owner.\nSome leashes are made of reflective materials and are suitable for walking the dog at night. They are convenient because they make the dog and the owner much more visible in the traffic, reducing the likelihood of accidents. Cat leashes Cat leashes are used with the purpose of preventing the cat getting lost. Unlike dogs, cats rarely attack persons on the street, so cat leashes are mainly a safety measure to protect the pet itself. Very often the collars are replaced with",
"-33.143380627754595"
],
[
"coat feel like cashmere or rabbit fur. The lack of an undercoat gives a sleek appearance. The coat is uncommonly water repellant, which makes bathing these cats a challenge, though the coat dries quickly.\nThe Turkish Van is one of the larger cat breeds. Ideal type should feature broad shoulders with a body that is \"top-heavy\", that is, a cat with its center of gravity forward. The cat is moderately long, and its back legs are slightly longer than its front legs, but neither the cat itself nor its legs are so long as to be disproportionate. These cats are",
"-33.136831542742584"
],
[
"cat reaches free fall to accomplish this, which is much lower than that of humans, and they are able to hit the ground in a relaxed body form to prevent serious injury.\nBats, however, have a unique vestibular system anatomy. Their balance system, at an orientation 180 degrees opposite to that of humans, allows them to perform powerful feats of flight while hunting in the dark. This ability couples vestibular function with sensory echolocation to hunt prey.\n However, they lack a righting reflex similar to most mammals. When exposed to zero-G, bats do not undergo the series of righting reflexes that",
"-33.05608843584196"
],
[
"cats are known for coughing before spitting up a hairball.\nIn other domestic animals, horses can cough because of infections, or due to poor ventilation and dust in enclosed spaces.",
"-32.96992274616423"
],
[
"Sphynx cat Behaviour Sphynxes are known for their extroverted behavior. They display a high level of energy, intelligence, curiosity, and affection for their owners. They are one of the more dog-like breeds of cats, frequently greeting their owners at the door and friendly when meeting strangers. Toronto The Canadian Sphynx breed was started in 1966 in Toronto when a hairless kitten named Prune was born to a black and white domestic shorthair queen (Elizabeth). The kitten was mated with its mother (something called backcrossing), which produced one more naked kitten. Together with a few naked kittens found later, the cat",
"-32.91482387779979"
],
[
"\"hairless\" cat gave the owner optimism to try to own a cat, eventually leading to the positive situation of their own adaptation.\nSphynx cats can also have more ear wax than most hairy domestic cats because they have little to no hair in their ears. Dirt, skin oils (sebum), and ear wax accumulates in the ears, and needs to be cleaned out on a weekly basis, usually before bath time.\nThe Sphynx breed also tends to accumulate oils and debris under their nails as well as the skin fold above the nail due to the lack of fur, so, like the ears,",
"-32.87095552356914"
],
[
"Tendonectomy In cats Performing a tendonectomy on a cat is an alternative to onychectomy (\"declawing\"), which amputates the end of each digit. Tendonectomy may be considered less painful for the cat than onychectomy; however, it is not recommended by the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) and is illegal in many countries.\nIn a tendonectomy, a small portion of the tendon in each of a cat's toes is surgically removed to prevent the cat from extending the claws. Thus, the cat is no longer capable of scratching.\nClaws will continue to grow following tendonectomy, and because the cat can no longer extend the",
"-32.82791457767598"
],
[
"feet, using an instinctive righting reflex to twist their bodies around. Nonetheless, cats can still be injured or killed by a high fall.",
"-32.802601211704314"
],
[
"most will bark when confronted with strange situations, and some will bay (also referred to as \"speaking\", \"giving tongue\", or \"opening\") when they catch the scent of potential quarry. They also generally get along well with cats and other dogs. They are not too demanding with regard to exercise; their inbred stamina means they do not easily tire when exercised, but they also do not need to be worked to exhaustion before they will rest. Regular exercise helps ward off the weight gain to which the breed is prone. Health The typical longevity of beagles is 12–15 years, which is",
"-32.76643313913155"
],
[
"2005. The standard of points describes the cat as being medium-sized and muscular, with large ears, almond shaped eyes and distinctive long, webbed toes. They require frequent grooming, in spite of their lack of coat. Over-bathing can cause the skin to become very oily.\nThe Peterbald breed was originally created by crossing Donskoy with Oriental Shorthair cats to create a hairless cat of Oriental-type. Matings between the Donskoy and the Peterbald are no longer permitted since 2000, and outcrossing is not permitted, except with the domestic shorthair, due to the effect of the Donskoy's dominant hairless mutation. Health Not all cat",
"-32.744812003933475"
],
[
"in hospitals to relax children who are staying there. Indoor scratching A natural behavior in cats is to hook their front claws periodically into suitable surfaces and pull backwards. Cats, like humans, keep their muscles trim and their body flexible by stretching. Additionally, such periodic scratching serves to clean and sharpen their claws. Indoor cats may benefit from being provided with a scratching post so that they are less likely to use carpet or furniture, which they can easily ruin. However, some cats may simply ignore such a device. Commercial scratching posts typically are covered in carpeting or",
"-32.719077473448124"
],
[
"twisting movement at the ankle.\nThe high walk of crocodilians, with the belly and most of the tail being held off the ground, is unique among living reptiles. It somewhat resembles the walk of a mammal, with the same sequence of limb movements: left fore, right hind, right fore, left hind. The low walk is similar to the high walk, but without the body being raised, and is quite different from the sprawling walk of salamanders and lizards. The animal can change from one walk to the other instantaneously, but the high walk is the usual means of locomotion on land.",
"-32.70496456860565"
],
[
"the Manx cat is the result of a cross-mating between a cat and a rabbit.\"\nOccasionally the flap of loose skin from the belly to the haunches is absent, enhancing the visual similarity to a rabbit.\nCats with radial hypoplasia (abnormal short forelegs) may also adopt a rabbit-like gait.",
"-32.702977935783565"
],
[
"prey to suffocate it. Males have slightly bigger heads with wider incisors and longer mandibles than females. The muscles between the skull and jaw are short, and thus do not allow the cheetah to open its mouth as much as other cats. Digitigrade animals, the cheetah have tough foot pads that make it convenient to run on firm ground. The hind legs are longer than the forelegs. The relatively longer metacarpals, metatarsals (of the lower leg), radius, ulna, tibia, and fibula increase the length of each jump. The straightening of the flexible vertebral column also adds to the length.\nCheetahs have",
"-32.54093409643974"
],
[
"unusual because there is little guard hair. \nThe curl in Devon Rex fur is caused by a different mutation and gene than that of the Cornish Rex and German Rex, and breeding of a Devon with either of those cats results in cats without rexed (curled) fur. Devons, which are medium-sized cats, are often called \"pixie cats\" or \"alien cats\" because of their unique appearance. Other characteristics Their uncommonly large, slightly rounded ears are set low on the sides of their wide heads, their eyes are large, and their noses are slightly upturned. Unlike most cats, their whiskers are very",
"-32.51055707060732"
],
[
"cats' scratching behavior.",
"-32.48718239238951"
],
[
"It walks on the toes, with the bones of the feet making up the lower part of the visible leg. Unlike most mammals, it uses a \"pacing\" gait and moves both legs on one side of the body before the legs on the other side. It registers directly by placing each hind paw close to the track of the corresponding fore paw, minimizing noise and visible tracks. This also provides sure footing for hind paws when navigating rough terrain. As it speeds up walking to trotting, its gait changes to a \"diagonal\" gait: the diagonally opposite hind and fore legs",
"-32.478550275671296"
],
[
"legs except for the Caribbean and the South America legs of the tour, where they then decided to use a normal stage with catwalk instead.",
"-32.408198598073795"
],
[
"those cats, or those of the standardized American Shorthair breed, will respond differently to others despite looking very similar, displaying doglike or otherwise unexpected tendencies. Besides breed-based generalizations, a particular cat's behavior can be assessed by its restraint in using claws during play, its tendency to follow people, and its appreciation of close and frequent human contact. Abyssinian Abyssinian cats are known for demanding attention and showing depression if left alone too often. The closeness to their owners causes some of them to respond positively to feline leash-training. Unlike most cats, Abyssinians often show interest in water rather than a",
"-32.368624521566744"
],
[
"momentum to set up for landing, and the tail is in fact little used for this feat. Terminal velocity In addition to the righting reflex, cats have other features that reduce damage from a fall. Their small size, light bone structure, and thick fur decrease their terminal velocity. While falling, a cat spreads out its body to increase drag. An average-sized cat with its limbs extended achieves a terminal velocity of about 60 mph (97 km/h), while an average-sized man reaches a terminal velocity of about 120 mph (190 km/h). A 2003 study of feline high-rise syndrome found that cats 'orient [their] limbs horizontally",
"-32.34772659355076"
],
[
"feet compact, and they move in a well-balanced, reaching motion. The tail is carried high, but not curled over the back. Their temperaments are energetic and free-spirited.",
"-32.32033535541268"
],
[
"and repeatedly folding the fingers down and back, thus the cat's appearance. Some maneki-neko made specifically for some Western markets will have the cat's paw facing upwards, in a beckoning gesture that is more familiar to most Westerners.\nManeki-neko can be found with either the right or left paw raised (and sometimes both). The significance of the right and left raised paw differs with time and place. A statue with the left paw raised is to get more customers, while the right paw raised is to get more money. Hence it is also said that the one with left paw is",
"-32.31947004543326"
],
[
"by age 3 years. The effect in the best cats is spectacular. Grizzling does have a wide range of expression, however, and some cats never have more than a few banded hairs in the ears or in one spot on the belly, occasionally not even that.\nBlack ticked tabby Chausies have black ticking, black stripes on the inside of the upper legs and to a lesser extent on the outside, black rings on the tail, a black tail tip, and black tabby markings around the eyes. They are also known as brown ticked tabbies because, although the markings are black, the",
"-32.30995688372059"
],
[
"move simultaneously. Claws Cats have protractable and retractable claws. In their normal, relaxed position, the claws are sheathed with the skin and fur around the paw's toe pads. This keeps the claws sharp by preventing wear from contact with the ground and allows the silent stalking of prey. The claws on the fore feet are typically sharper than those on the hind feet. Cats can voluntarily extend their claws on one or more paws. They may extend their claws in hunting or self-defense, climbing, kneading, or for extra traction on soft surfaces. Most cats have five claws on their front",
"-32.29750084673287"
],
[
"or a mechanical hackamore. The ground jury at the show has the right, however, based on veterinary advice, to refuse a bit or bridling scheme if it could cause harm to the horse.\nBoots and wraps are worn by almost all horses, due to the fact that they may easily injure their legs when landing or when making tight turns at speed. Open-fronted tendon boots usually are worn on the forelegs, because they provide protection for the delicate tendons that run down the back of the leg, but still allow the horse to feel a rail should it get careless and",
"-32.287357327877544"
],
[
"leg (only the front right leg is now lifted). Then it lifts its left rear leg (diagonal support), puts down the front right (lateral support), lifts the left front, puts down the rear left, and the pattern repeats.\nIdeally, the advancing rear hoof oversteps the spot where the previously advancing front hoof touched the ground. The more the rear hoof oversteps, the smoother and more comfortable the walk becomes. Individual horses and different breeds vary in the smoothness of their walk. However, a rider will almost always feel some degree of gentle side-to-side motion in the horse's hips as each hind",
"-32.245389698364306"
],
[
"first branches and smooth bark. It has been suggested they do this to avoid cats.",
"-32.23812282358995"
],
[
"of its ears or head toward the source of the sound may be a better indication of the cat's awareness that a sound was made in their direction. \nWhen cats greet another cat in their vicinity, they can do a slow, languid, long blink to communicate affection if they trust the person or animal they are in contact with. It is a sign of trust. A way to communicate love and trust to your cat from a human perspective is to say their name, and get their attention, and then look them in the eyes and slowly blink at them",
"-32.22707181965234"
],
[
"all over a longhaired cat's body, to novice eyes, they are most noticeable on the flanks when the cat is in motion.\nThe second explanation of reports of winged cats is a skin condition called feline cutaneous asthenia, which is related to Ehlers–Danlos syndrome (elastic skin) in humans. In \"winged\" cats with cutaneous asthenia, the pseudo-wings only occur on the shoulders, haunches, or back, and the cats can often actively move these growths, suggesting the presence of neuromuscular tissue within them, which is not present within clumps of matted fur alone.\nThe third explanation is a form of conjoining or extra supernumerary",
"-32.220862637099344"
],
[
"Munchkin cat Breed creation Short-legged cats have been documented a number of times around the world since the 1940s. A British veterinary report in 1944 noted four generations of healthy short-legged cats which were similar to normal cats except for the length of the legs. This line disappeared during the Second World War but other short-legged cats were spotted in Russia during 1956 and the United States in the 1970s.\nIn 1983, Sandra Hochenedel, a music teacher in Rayville, Louisiana, found two pregnant cats who had been chased under a truck by a dog. She kept one of the cats and",
"-32.22079628822394"
],
[
" A fearful, defensive cat makes itself smaller, lowers itself toward the ground, arches its back and leans its body away from the threat rather than forward. Fighting usually occurs only when escape is impossible.\nIn cats, flattened ears generally indicate that an individual feels threatened and may attack. Having the mouth open and no teeth exposed indicates playfulness. Ears Cats can change the position of their ears very quickly, in a continuum from erect when the cat is alert and focused, slightly relaxed when the cat is calm, and flattened against the head when extremely defensive or aggressive.",
"-32.2068156900059"
],
[
"paws, and four on their rear paws. The dewclaw is proximal to the other claws. More proximally is a protrusion which appears to be a sixth \"finger\". This special feature of the front paws, on the inside of the wrists has no function in normal walking, but is thought to be an antiskidding device used while jumping. Some breeds of cats are prone to polydactyly. Polydactyly is a mutation of the forelimb. Polydactylous cats occur along North America' northeast coast and in Great Britain. Vision Cats have excellent night vision and can see at only one-sixth the light level required",
"-32.193588463036576"
],
[
"'dog like'.\" This description is not only due to their large size and stature but also because of the cats' usually pleasant mannerisms, tendency to closely follow their owners, and obey them. Maine Coon cats also are often trainable given their intelligence and affectionate nature. The felines have large and silky coats yet grooming is made easier given their desire to be frequently handled. The Cat Fanciers' Association said that the doglike Maine Coons offer \"hours of enjoyment with their antics\", though they are \"intrusive\" since \"[w]ithout question\" the cats \"want to be [a] part of everything\". Manx The Manx",
"-32.13263602257939"
],
[
"it can also be observed during adulthood. Studies have been done with adult cats performing a task, such as pressing a lever after a visual cue. Adult cats that see others performing a task learn to perform the same task faster than those who did not witness another cat. Socialization between cats When strange cats meet, ideally they would cautiously allow the strange cat to smell its hindquarters, but this does not happen very often. Usually when strange cats meet, one cat makes a sudden movement that puts the other cat into a defensive mode. The cat will then draw",
"-32.121189013931144"
],
[
"gives these cats their characteristic tailless or stumpy tail appearance. It is inherited in Manx as an autosomal dominant trait.",
"-32.11820857197745"
],
[
"mandible blocking their access. However, the model pulled its jaw upward as modern cats bite, while machairodonts most likely did not, instead pressing their skulls down with the aid of their neck muscles. This flaw in the procedure might nullify the results and leave the belly-shearing hypothesis untouched.",
"-32.077627906546695"
],
[
"required. This movement comes naturally to the Rottweiler and should appear as such; any deviation may lead to a disqualification in the show ring. While walking, the Rottweiler's legs, both front and hind, should move in a straight forward and backward manner. As with the straight movement of the legs, the path the Rottweiler moves in should also be straight. The Rottweiler's gait is all about balance and effectiveness as the breed is still used as a herder today. Coat The coat consists of an outer coat and an undercoat. The outer coat is of medium length, coarse, dense",
"-32.050603033276275"
],
[
"harnesses, because they avoid the dangers of collars which include escaping and running away or choking. Cats are more likely to not be willing to be walked in a harness than dogs are, and are considered to need up to months to be able to adjust to wearing a harness.\nCat leashes come in a variety of colors, designs and models and are made of different materials. There are cat leashes made of leather, nylon and rope. Whereas the leather leash is one of the best qualities because of the characteristics of the material, it is also one of the most",
"-32.03819076711079"
],
[
"families and crave attention, and for this reason, cats of this breed are highly suitable for children. Most Bombay cats are not independent, however many older Bombays are more independent when compared with younger cats. They seek attention from their owners and people around them often and dislike being left alone for extended periods of time. Although they like to be around people generally, Bombay cats also tend to have a certain person whom they pay special attention to in their lives. Overall, the Bombay breed is intelligent, playful, and attention-seeking. The Bombay's muscular medium-sized body can be deceiving, as",
"-31.947769978956785"
],
[
"attentive, alert felines that notice a lot. Considered an unusually \"talkative\" breed, they often interact vocally with people. Their soft voices are capable of nearly a whole scale of tones, leading to a folk belief that they can sing. Folklore and legend Cats feature prominently in Japanese folklore. As in many other traditions around the world, cats are frequently objects of fear and mistrust, with various supernatural abilities ascribed to them. But in some Japanese stories, the length of their tails is an important plot point, with the Japanese Bobtail seen as auspicious, while long-tailed cats may be suspected of",
"-31.93205107007816"
],
[
"a few cases where they walk on their hindlimbs only. Several arboreal primate species, such as gibbons and indriids, exclusively walk on two legs during the brief periods they spend on the ground. Many animals rear up on their hind legs whilst fighting or copulating. Some animals commonly stand on their hind legs, in order to reach food, to keep watch, to threaten a competitor or predator, or to pose in courtship, but do not move bipedally. Etymology The word is derived from the Latin words bi(s) 'two' and ped- 'foot', as contrasted with quadruped 'four feet'. Advantages Limited and",
"-31.930607424175832"
],
[
"body in an attempt to knock the other off-balance.\nHorses will also rub the bottom or sides of their jaw onto others. This self-grooming social interaction can have a calming effect for the horses involved, and dominant horses are more likely to initiate the behavior. Lions Similarly to domesticated cats, lions also use bunting as a form of greeting and territorial marking. Lions will often greet each other with this head bunting behavior when returning to a pride after a hunt. In the early stages of life, cubs procure stimulation from their mother as she cleans them by rubbing and",
"-31.924907780979993"
],
[
"the back of a cat is sometimes joked about, with it being debated whether the feline would still honour the popular axiom, that a cat \"always lands on its feet\", or if the butterbrot would be \"stronger\", making the cat fall on its back — alternatively, it is sometimes humorously suggested that the cat would simply levitate, as it would be unable to satisfy both criteria for landing.",
"-31.904467195505276"
],
[
"legs move laterally, with the inside foreleg crossing in front of the outside foreleg and the inside hind hoof tracking into or beyond the hoofprint made by the outside foreleg. Because the horse is bending away from the direction of travel, the movement requires a certain amount of collection. The shoulder-in can be performed at any forward gait, but in dressage competition it is usually ridden only at the trot. \n\nA young horse is first introduced to the movement when coming out of a corner or a circle on which the horse is already correctly bent, from nose to tail,",
"-31.7543698833324"
],
[
"neck. Kneading Kittens \"knead\" the breast while suckling, using the forelimbs one at a time in an alternating pattern to push against the mammary glands to stimulate lactation in the mother.\nCats carry these infantile behaviors beyond nursing and into adulthood. Some cats \"nurse\", i.e. suck, on clothing or bedding during kneading. The cat exerts firm downwards pressure with its paw, opening its toes to expose its claws, then closes its claws as it lifts its paw. The process takes place with alternate paws at intervals of one to two seconds. They may knead while sitting on their owner's lap, which",
"-31.75433118562796"
],
[
"They are friendly and rarely aggressive. They are very good with children, but may chase cats and other small pets.\nBorders do well in task-oriented activities and have a surprising ability to jump high and run fast given the size of their legs. The breed has excelled in agility training, but they are quicker to learn jumps and see-saws than weaving poles. They take training for tasks very well, and are extremely trainable, and capable of learning tricks quickly and competently. The border in recent years has been bred to harbor a more subtle character so are more adaptable to apartment",
"-31.740629089646973"
],
[
"extreme docility of some individuals has led to the myth that Ragdolls are pain resistant. Some breeders in Britain have tried to breed away from the limpness owing to concerns that extreme docility \"might not be in the best interests of the cat\".\nBreed standard marketing and publicity material describe the Ragdoll as affectionate, intelligent, relaxed in temperament, gentle, and an easy-to-handle lap cat. The animals are often known as \"puppy cats\", \"dog-like cats\", \"cat-dogs\", etc., because of their placid nature and affectionate behavior, with the cats often following owners from room to room as well as seeking physical affection akin",
"-31.731334012176376"
],
[
"the normal ones just like a dewclaw, usually associated with an additional pad which makes them look like an underdeveloped foot sticking out near the base of the normal toes. Rather, radial hypoplasia-related extra toes are immediately adjacent to the normal ones, giving the cat overly large, flat feet — colloquially known as \"patty feet\" or \"hamburger feet\". Though this looks less serious than true polydactyly (as the feet appear \"normal\" apart from having one or two extra toes), breeding such cats will eventually result in severely disabled offspring. History and folklore The condition seems to be most commonly found in",
"-31.721889460124657"
],
[
"coils its neck back something like a heron. Its gait when walking is jerky and rapid, with its head and neck moving back and forth with each step. It may hold its wings out when running for extra stability. Distribution and habitat The hamerkop occurs in Africa south of the Sahara, Madagascar, and coastal south-west Arabia. It requires shallow water in which to forage, and is found in all wetland habitats, including rivers, streams, seasonal pools, estuaries, reservoirs, marshes, mangroves, irrigated land such as rice paddies, savannahs, and forests. In Tanzania, it has also recently begun to feed on",
"-31.70928620675113"
],
[
"in a handstand before one learns to perform a stable handstand. Balance can also be maintained by varying the arch of the back. In non-human animals Some quadrupeds are able to walk bipedally on their forelimbs, thus performing \"hand\" walking in an anthropomorphic sense. For example, when attacked, the spotted skunk may rear up and move about on its forelimbs so that its anal glands, capable of spraying an offensive oil, are directed towards the attacker. Dogs and sealions can also be trained to walk on their forelimbs.",
"-31.651943824253976"
],
[
"free-roaming cats in the Greek islands and in a cat in Australia.\nFd = Scottish Fold gene (dominant with incomplete penetrance). Cats with this gene have ears that curl forward. There are different degrees of folding, and more genes may be involved in the expression of the Fd gene. This gene is associated with bone and cartilage defects such as thickened tail and swollen feet. The homozygous form (FdFd) causes severe osteochondrodysplasia. Because of this, many breeders only breed folds to non-folds to avoid homozygous folds. However, heterozygous folds may also develop osteochondrodysplasia of lesser severity.\nAustralian Curl – a curl-eared mutation",
"-31.63019116583746"
],
[
"is attributed to injuries on the bear's front paws. Primates Most bipedal animals move with their backs close to horizontal, using a long tail to balance the weight of their bodies. The primate version of bipedalism is unusual because the back is close to upright (completely upright in humans), and the tail may be absent entirely. Many primates can stand upright on their hind legs without any support. \nCommon chimpanzees, bonobos, gibbons and baboons exhibit forms of bipedalism. On the ground sifakas move like all indrids with bipedal sideways hopping movements of the hind legs, holding their forelimbs up for",
"-31.60475234974001"
],
[
"Also, keeping cats indoors is a preventative measure. Other animals Sporotrichosis can be diagnosed in domestic and wild mammals. In veterinary medicine it is most frequently seen in cats and horses. Cats have a particularly severe form of cutaneous sporotrichosis and also can serve as a source of zoonotic infection to persons who handle them and are exposed to exudate from skin lesions.",
"-31.569520149263553"
],
[
"Cabbit Cat mutations Manx cats and other cats with tailless or bobtailed mutations account for many alleged cabbit sightings. The mutation that causes taillessness can also cause skeletal and/or nerve abnormalities that result in the cat's using a hopping motion. This was once accepted by breeders as a feature of the Manx's look, but is now considered a serious fault in the show-ring and does not form part of the modern Manx standard of points. Modern breeders of the Manx are careful to breed only from cats that have normal locomotion. The relatively long hind legs",
"-31.54619475378422"
],
[
"and expressive voices that are used often. They are smart cats, with some being quite willful in getting their own way. Many Orientals take to leash training quickly if started young. They have been known to open cabinets, doors and even refrigerators. This breed group is often recommended for more experienced cat keepers.",
"-31.527992878545774"
],
[
"and down and give the impression of wings. These can be very uncomfortable for the cat and can harbour dirt, feces and parasites. Extensive mats must be shaved or clipped by a veterinarian. This explanation is ultimately untenable as the sole solution to the winged cat phenomenon, for several reasons. Many notable examples of winged cats feature shorthaired specimens. The occurrence of mats in longhaired cats is easily recognisable by experienced cat owners and breeders, but not recognisable to novices. Matted fur is not considered notable and rarely reported, except by those unfamiliar with the condition. Although mats can occur",
"-31.507647620339412"
],
[
"cats of the genus Felis could purr. However, felids of the genus Panthera (tigers, lions, jaguars and leopards) also produce sounds similar to purring, but only when exhaling. The subdivision of the Felidae into \"purring cats\" on the one hand and 'roaring cats' (i.e. non-purring) on the other, originally goes back to Owen (1834/1835) and was definitely introduced by Pocock (1916), based on a difference in hyoid anatomy. The \"roaring cats\" (lion, Panthera leo; tiger, P. tigris; jaguar, P. onca; leopard, P. pardus) have an incompletely ossified hyoid, which according to this theory, enables them to roar but not to",
"-31.481782917981036"
]
] |
52u9ci | On 9/11, Why weren't the 2 planes headed for the twin towers shot down for being in restricted airspace? Or not shot down at all? | [
"Keep in mind that much of the security on aircraft is a result of 9/11. It would be common for passengers (typically small children) to get to go and look around the cockpit during a flight; there were no heavy locking doors. Security was significantly more relaxed, so bringing small weapons less difficult than with the modern TSA (which itself does a fairly poor job at screening, but that's another rant). On top of that you have the precedent set by previous hijackings where the hijackers wanted the plane as a means of transportation or wanted the passengers as hostages. 9/11 was so jarring to the world because the hijackers wanted the planes themselves to be used as weapons. On 9/11 the U.S. was at peace. We didn't have armed planes sitting all over the place to quickly intercept any plane that gets out of line. However, when the reality of 9/11 became clear we *did* scramble fighters. [This]( URL_0 ) article is about an F-16 pilot who was ordered into the air to intercept Flight 93 which was ultimately downed in Pennsylvania. The aircraft had no weapons loaded on board; it was a suicide mission to physically strike the Boeing 757 with her plane to knock it out of the sky. The article is a good read. It sheds some light onto the pre-9/11 atmosphere in the United States.",
"In the history of hijacking , the hijackers always held the passengers at bay for some ransom. Freed prisoner, public statement, etc. Then fly to some agreed safe airport and they'd release the passengers. the goal before 9/11 was to protect the passengers onboard. No one thought they didn't care about the passengers but were wanting the plane itself. Besides. Manhattan isn't restricted nofly space. You can take helicopter rides of Manhattan. The corridor along manhannttan is vfr airspace",
"Here's a link to the [airspace]( URL_0 ) around NYC. Take a moment to look at it. The region inside the blue lines is the NYC controlled airspace (technically, we call it \"Class B\"). It's not \"restricted\" in the sense that you're not allowed to fly there. They only serve as a regulatory zone — that is, you need permission from Air Traffic Control to enter the zone. And in fact, you can fly above or below it without permission all you want. You don't even have to have your radio on or be on a flight plan. There are three major airports in the zone and a fair number of minor ones. It just wouldn't be practical to ban airplanes from that area. And even if you knew there was a rogue airplane coming in to do mischief, there aren't any military bases nearby to get fighters in the air, and if there are any anti-aircraft batteries in the area, I've never heard about it. And finally, as other posters have pointed out, nothing like 9/11 had ever happened before and we were at peace, so there was no reason to think that incoming planes needed to be stopped. Now look at [Washington, DC]( URL_1 ) by contrast. The heavy dashed circle around the area is an Air Defense Identification Zone. You need a clearance to enter this and you have to obtain it in advance. There's a very good chance that you *will* be intercepted by fighters if you come in without permission. It used to be that the only ADIZs were out over the ocean to guard against aircraft coming in from overseas without permission, but since 9/11 we've had one over Washington as well. For good measure, the red circles are Temporary Flight Restrictions, which are thrown up for special occasions such as airshows or VIP visits. However, the big one over Washington isn't so temporary. Even now, this stuff isn't enforced *that* heavily. Some years ago, I saw a guy who flew through the TFR over G.W.Bush's home in Texas while he was in residence. He was intercepted by fighters and ordered to land, and then the police came and took him out of his plane and took him to the station to be questioned. He wasn't shot down, and in fact after he convinced the police that it was an accident, they just let him go. Edit: heh. Looking at the NYC airspace today (15 Sep 2016) I see the whole thing is a TFR (scheduled to start in 3 days). Wasn't there when I made this post. Will probably be gone a week from now.",
"The amount of time the planes were actually flying over Manhattan was maybe 30 seconds for the first plane and zero seconds for the second (the towers are right on the water and the second plane came from New York Harbor). Not enough time to shoot them down. Plus civilian airliners had never been weaponized before, so shooting down a civilian airliner that could simply have drifted into restricted airspace would be an unlikely response. There were quite a few notable incidents during the Cold War where a civilian plane was shot down for accidentally violating airspace.",
"The communication on 9/11 was not great. By the time the military was notified of a hijacking it was way to late. At the speed an airplane travels, it entered restricted airspace less than 30 seconds before it hit the towers. Also as others have mentioned, the history of airline hijackings had entirely been for ransom or political purposes. To my knowledge no hijacker had ever handled the controls of an airplane, let alone used it as a missile. The government was preparing itself for a hostage situation, not a missile attack on a skyscraper.",
"Even if you could reliably shoot down two passenger jets in time, you're basically condemning all the passengers aboard to death. That they were doomed anyway was unknown at the time: nobody had ever hijacked planes to use as flying bombs before. Everyone expected that the planes would be flown to, say, Havana, demands made, possibly a few hostages shot, but eventually most of the passengers would be set free one way or another and have a thrilling story to tell the grandkids. In any case, shooting down a passenger airliner (or anything, really) over Manhattan is hardly a good idea: you'd end up killing an awful lot of people on the ground as well. Perhaps not as many as were, in the event, actually killed, but right up until the first plane hit, nobody had the faintest idea what the hijackers were up to. Air traffic control couldn't do anything. Well, they can refuse the pilots permission to fly into a certain area, but we're talking terrorists on a suicide mission: they're hardly going to break off their attack just because somebody is shouting at them over the radio. The hijackers were able to enter the flight deck (btw, you shouldn't refer to it as the \"cockpit\": only fighter planes have cockpits, passenger airliners have flight decks) because before 9/11, the flight deck doors were not normally locked. It was 9/11 that actually changed that: so the hijackers didn't have to \"break in\", they just had to barge in with their box cutters -- in the days when security screening wasn't nearly as rigorous as it is now (again, it was 9/11 that changed things). In short, the reason the US was unprepared for such an attack was quite simply that nobody had ever attempted to carry out such an attack before, and nobody had ever seriously thought for one moment that terrorists might actually hijack a plane and deliberately fly it into a building.",
"Your thoughts on our security are pretty much wrong. It isnt an immediate response to send fighter jets to a commercial airliner. What happened on 9/11 had never happened before and we just werent prepared for it. I mean these people did it with box cutters and shit. We don't have defensive AA batteries sitting around in cities waiting to protect us from incoming missiles and run away planes. In all honesty if our land bases were ever struck we would be pretty much sitting ducks.",
"As others have mentioned, people never thought this would have happened. Here's a few things of note as well: *How were air traffic controllers not able to detect/prevent this?* Air traffic controllers were able to quickly determine the planes were hijacked. The planes stopped following the direction of ATC, and started going maverick. Initially, Boston Center controllers notified surrounding centers, including New York. But, the hijackers stopped the transponder code for the planes, so controllers were looking at just a blip with no information on their screen. They notified the military, but, military controllers were looking at literally hundreds of blips on their screens, so it was tough to sort out what was the hijacked planes. Also, by the time the military was advised of the hijackings, the most warning time they had was six minutes. *Wouldn't there by military planes ready to deploy?* Yes, there were. Northeast Air Defense Sector (NEADS) had two bases to deploy air defense jets (Otis in Massachusetts and Langley in Virginia). As soon as the report of the two planes from Boston being hijacked came in, they put the jets on \"battle stations\" (which is putting the pilots in the cockpits) and then \"scrambled\" (getting them in the air) within minutes. However, they had no idea the targets of the planes, so it took a little bit for the military to plot a course for the pilots. After the two planes hit the towers, the Major in charge of NEADS put the jets over Manhattan. As far as Washington DC, a military C-130 actually watched the hijacked plane crash into the Pentagon. But, the military only had two minutes warning to scramble the jets from Virginia, which takes 15 minutes flight time. The military also wasn't notified about Flight 93 until much later, and they had scrambled jets that were out on a training mission, and unarmed, to fly into the area, and if necessary, to ram the plane. Another note of interest is that even IF they had planes in the area, they weren't authorized to shoot down hijacked planes until ordered to do so. The order eventually came down from the Vice President, but there was a delay due to the Secretary of Defense helping evacuate victims from the Pentagon. In fact, it was noted he was unreachable for 25 minutes. (If you have time to kill: URL_0 )",
"[From Popular Mechanics:]( URL_0 ) > On 9/11 there were only 14 fighter jets on alert in the contiguous 48 states. No computer network or alarm automatically alerted the North American Air Defense Command (NORAD) of missing planes. \"They [civilian Air Traffic Control, or ATC] had to pick up the phone and literally dial us,\" says Maj. Douglas Martin, public affairs officer for NORAD. Boston Center, one of 22 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regional ATC facilities, called NORAD's Northeast Air Defense Sector (NEADS) three times: at 8:37 am EST to inform NEADS that Flight 11 was hijacked; at 9:21 am to inform the agency, mistakenly, that Flight 11 was headed for Washington (the plane had hit the North Tower 35 minutes earlier); and at 9:41 am to (erroneously) identify Delta Air Lines Flight 1989 from Boston as a possible hijacking. The New York ATC called NEADS at 9:03 am to report that United Flight 175 had been hijacked—the same time the plane slammed into the South Tower. Within minutes of that first call from Boston Center, NEADS scrambled two F-15s from Otis Air Force Base in Falmouth, Mass., and three F-16s from Langley Air National Guard Base in Hampton, Va. None of the fighters got anywhere near the pirated planes.",
"Easy to second guess the decisions with hindsight. At the time a terrorist attack on this scale was not on anyone's mind. At the time the assumption was mechanical or pilot error. By the time they realized there was a problem it was too late to shoot it down.",
"Shoot them down with what exactly? There are no ADA units deployed around the city. There is no CAP flying around. No MANPADS soldiers stationed on rooftops.",
" > Is there a reason that it was so easy for Al Qaeda to break into the cockpit, hijack 4 airplanes, and fly them for just under an hour going completely undetected? They did not go completely undetected. It was known that those planes had been hijacked. Stewardesses were in touch with ground control and told them what was going on on the planes. In the case of Flight 93, the last plane to be hijacked (because it took off later than scheduled, unlike the other flights), passengers were calling their loved ones to say goodbye, so in that case, it wasn't just ground control that knew what was going on."
] | [
[
"any of the other flights before they crashed. After both of the Twin Towers had already been hit, more fighters were scrambled from Langley Air Force Base in Virginia at 9:30 a.m. At 10:20 a.m. Vice President Dick Cheney issued orders to shoot down any commercial aircraft that could be positively identified as being hijacked. These instructions were not relayed in time for the fighters to take action. Some fighters took to the air without live ammunition, knowing that to prevent the hijackers from striking their intended targets, the pilots might have to intercept and crash their fighters into the hijacked planes,",
"-33.7453415148193"
],
[
"Chicago, reporting that the flight had been hijacked, both pilots had been killed, a flight attendant had been stabbed, and the hijackers were probably flying the plane.\n8:52: The F-15s at Otis Air National Guard Base are airborne. Still lacking an intercept vector to Flight 11 (and not aware that it has already crashed), they are sent to military controlled airspace off Long Island and ordered to remain in a holding pattern until between 9:09 and 9:13.\n8:52: Anchor Chris Jansing makes the first announcement on MSNBC of a plane crash into the World Trade Center.\n8:52: CBS interrupts The Early Show to",
"-32.17578434715597"
],
[
"instances of airport security failures. The attacks left 20 people dead when gunmen threw grenades and opened fire on travelers at El Al airline ticket counters.\nThe September 11 attacks are the most widely recognized terrorist attacks in recent times involving air travel. On the morning of September 11, 2001, 19 members of the Islamic terrorist group Al-Qaeda took control of four airplanes on the east coast of the United States and deliberately crashed two into both World Trade Center towers in New York City and the third into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. A fourth plane crashed into a",
"-31.740464417351177"
],
[
"2001, the CIA resumed reconnaissance flights, the drones now being weapons-capable. September 11 attacks and its aftermath On September 11, 2001, 19 Al-Qaeda members hijacked four passenger jets within the Northeastern United States in a series of coordinated terrorist attacks. Two planes crashed into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, the third into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, and the fourth inadvertently into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania. The attacks cost the lives of 2,996 people (including the 19 hijackers), caused the destruction of the Twin Towers, and damaged the western side of",
"-31.06039639050141"
],
[
"of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in which American Airlines lost two planes. Arpey made the decision to ground all American Airlines flights in Northeast US and then across the US before the FAA.",
"-31.001117969863117"
],
[
"the Air Force to cancel the contract and begin plans to re-open the bidding process.\nPlanning for terrorist use of hijacked airplanes as missiles had been considered for some military exercises prior to 9/11, though all but one of those exercises considered only aircraft originating from other countries.\nThe US and Canadian militaries, particularly NORAD and the US Air National Guard, have been tasked with interception duties concerning hijacked aircraft. Their primary duty was assistance to law enforcement. Quoting Maj.Gen. Larry Arnold: \"We always viewed an attack from within our borders as a law enforcement issue, ...\". Military aircraft were to be",
"-30.91804805159336"
],
[
"hijacked planes were flown into the Twin Towers of the original World Trade Center, and the towers collapsed. The 7 World Trade Center was not struck by a plane but collapsed because of heavy debris falling from the impacts of planes and the collapse of the North Tower. The other buildings of the World Trade Center complex were damaged beyond repair and soon after demolished. The collapse of the Twin Towers caused extensive damage to surrounding buildings and skyscrapers in Lower Manhattan, and resulted in the deaths of 2,606 people, in addition to those on the planes. Many rescue workers",
"-30.841680239289417"
],
[
"immediately controversial because it was part of the World Trade Center complex (although not in one of the Twin Towers), which had already been the location of a truck bomb attack in 1993. City officials, though, including Mr. Hauer, have long defended their decision, even after the command center had to be evacuated during the 2001 terror attack. The Emergency Operation Center was widely hailed as the finest such facility in the nation, receiving visitors from around the world and serving as a model for others. A memo revealed by Chris Wallace on Fox news showed that Hauer",
"-30.80159497167915"
],
[
"off or disable each of the four aircraft's on board transponders. Without these transponder signals to identify the airplane's tail number, altitude, and speed, the hijacked airplanes would have been only blips among 4,500 other blips on NORAD's radar screens, making them very difficult to track.\nOn 9/11, only 14 fighter jets were on alert in the contiguous 48 states. There was no automated method for the civilian air traffic controllers to alert NORAD. A passenger airline had not been hijacked in the U.S. since 1979. \"They had to pick up the phone and literally dial us,\" says Maj. Douglas Martin,",
"-30.78156198641227"
],
[
"The fly-over of the lower Manhattan financial district created a panic. Many feared it was another terrorist attack like the one that destroyed the twin towers of the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, or an aborted attack attempt, because of the F-16 following the presidential plane. This led scores of people to leave their desks and large office buildings to be evacuated in a speedy but impromptu fashion.\nNew York City police stated that \"federal authorities\" told them not to disclose information about the fly-over to the public in advance. President Obama was also not informed beforehand. Like New",
"-30.748137808364845"
],
[
"Otis Air National Guard Base in Falmouth, Massachusetts were ordered to battle stations (seated in their aircraft, engines not yet started). At 08:46, just as Flight 11 struck the North Tower of the World Trade Center, the two F-15s were ordered to scramble (an order that begins with engine start-up, a process that takes about five minutes), and radar confirmed they were airborne by 08:53. By that time, however, the World Trade Center's North Tower had already been hit.\nAt that time, NEADS personnel were still trying to pinpoint the location of Flight 11, but since the plane had already struck",
"-30.663278225401882"
],
[
"jet airliners, they told the passengers that they had a bomb on board and would spare the lives of passengers and crew once their demands were met – no passenger and crew actually suspected that they would use the jet airliners as suicide weapons since it had never happened before in history, and many previous hijacking attempts had been resolved with the passengers and crew escaping unharmed after obeying the hijackers. The hijackers – members of al-Qaeda's Hamburg cell – intentionally crashed two jet airliners into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. Both buildings",
"-30.559125604646397"
],
[
"was thought that if another U-2 were shot down, an Air Force aircraft arguably being used for a legitimate military purpose would be easier to explain than a CIA flight.\nWhen the reconnaissance missions were reauthorized on October 9, poor weather kept the planes from flying. The US first obtained U-2 photographic evidence of the missiles on October 14, when a U-2 flight piloted by Major Richard Heyser took 928 pictures on a path selected by DIA analysts, capturing images of what turned out to be an SS-4 construction site at San Cristóbal, Pinar del Río Province (now in Artemisa Province),",
"-30.530824007724732"
],
[
"also reported extensively on civil aviation issues and crash investigations. O'Brien reported the airliner crashes of US Airways Flight 427, ValuJet 592, TWA 800, EgyptAir 990, American Airlines 587, Comair 5191, John F. Kennedy Jr., Payne Stewart, Paul Wellstone, the C-150 incursion into the Washington DC Air Defense Identification Zone, and the Cory Lidle crash in Manhattan. In the wake of the September 11 attacks, O'Brien provided viewers radar tracks of the hijacked flights while the twin towers were still standing. During the Afghanistan and Iraq invasions, he, along with various retired generals, reported on military aviation techniques and strategy.\nHis",
"-30.47611213219352"
],
[
"Airlines Flight 93, believed to be heading to Washington. However, there was no time for the combat jets to be armed with missiles. The pilots were informed that they would be ramming the aircraft. The plane crashed due to an internal struggle by the time the jets arrived.",
"-30.47480376990461"
],
[
"the airliners into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, killing everyone on board and many others working in the buildings. Both buildings collapsed within two hours, destroying nearby buildings and damaging others. The hijackers crashed a third airliner into the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside Washington, D.C. The fourth plane crashed into a field near Shanksville in rural Pennsylvania after some of its passengers and flight crew attempted to retake control of the plane, which the hijackers had redirected toward Washington, D.C. in an attempted attack on the United States Capitol Building. There",
"-30.43394700982026"
],
[
"their F-15s were airborne within six minutes and as directed, headed for New York City, 153 miles away. Unknown to the pilots, American Airlines Flight 11 had crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City just as Colonel Marr was delivering his order. Meanwhile, at 8:43 am, the FAA reported another possible hijacking to the Northeast Air Defense Sector. That was Boston to Los Angeles United Airlines Flight 175. At 9:02 am, with the F-15s still 71 miles away, that plane crashed into the World Trade Center's South Tower.\nAt 9:09 am the pilots of the North Dakota",
"-30.39847088244278"
],
[
"the tower, making it difficult to see small planes at the intersection where the SkyWest plane was positioned. Just before the accident, she confused the Skywest plane with another commuter airliner that was on a taxiway near the end of the runway. Making matters more difficult, the ground radar at LAX was not working on the day of the accident.\nThe NTSB's investigation of the crash revealed that the cockpit crew of the landing USAir jet could not see the commuter plane, which blended in with other airport lights. The NTSB cited LAX's procedures which placed much of the responsibility",
"-30.363127516640816"
],
[
"York City's Lower Manhattan, and into the Pentagon in Virginia's Arlington County.\nDuring the attack, two of the hijacked airplanes crashed into the upper portions of the twin towers of New York City's World Trade Center and one into the Pentagon. United Airlines Flight 93, which was also taken over by hijackers, failed to crash into its intended target in Washington, D.C. when passengers on the flight received information about the ongoing attacks and revolted against the terrorists, causing the plane to crash in an open field in the rural Pennsylvanian countryside. \"Axis of evil\" An \"axis of evil\" was a",
"-30.355667673633434"
],
[
"Airlines flight dispatcher Ed Ballinger begins sending warning text messages to his flights: \"Beware any cockpit intrusion—Two a/c [aircraft] hit World Trade Center.\" Because he was sending this warning to his 16 transcontinental flights, this takes several minutes.\n9:21: All bridges and tunnels into Manhattan closed.\n9:23: Ballinger's warning message is sent to Flight 93, and is received in the cockpit a minute later.\n9:24: The FAA notifies NORAD's Northeast Air Defense Sector about the suspected hijacking of Flight 77. The FAA and NORAD establish an open line to discuss Flight 77, and shortly thereafter Flight 93.\n9:25: The Otis-based F-15s establish an air",
"-30.35293890495086"
],
[
"not confirm that they had lost all contact with Flight 11 until some time after 10:00. The NORAD timeline showed that the fighters scrambled from Langley at 09:24 were in response to a 09:21 FAA report of the hijacking of Flight 77; NORAD never mentioned the phantom Flight 11.\nThe problem, Scoggins told me later, was that American Airlines refused to confirm for several hours that its plane had hit the tower. This lack of confirmation caused uncertainty that would be compounded in a very big way as the attack continued. (Though airlines have their own means of monitoring the location",
"-30.308096377128095"
],
[
"were killed in the accident.\nThe investigation found that the visibility was so poor that the pilot could not have been able to see the airport at the point, known as the decision height, at which he was required to abandon the approach if he could not see the airport. Why then did he attempt to land anyway, given the known hazards and prohibitions against such attempts? Well, further investigation found a corporate culture in place at that airline that not only did not enhance safety but actively discouraged it. The owner of the airline, who as president directed its day",
"-30.273293372476473"
],
[
"of September 11, 2001, Islamic terrorists affiliated with Al-Qaeda hijacked American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, both which were en route to Los Angeles, and intentionally crashed them into the two main towers of the World Trade Center. The towers collapsed within two hours of the collisions. 2,606 people, including 2,192 civilians, 343 firefighters, and 71 law enforcement officers who were in the towers and in the surrounding area died in the attacks, as well as 147 civilians and the 10 hijackers aboard the two airliners. After the collapse of the World Trade Center, hospital workers and",
"-30.12901995133143"
],
[
"727 and DC-9 had collided due to the poor visibility at the airport, as well as inadequate signs and markings, which led to the DC-9 entering the runway without clearance as the Boeing 727 was taking off.",
"-30.081547325709835"
],
[
"Diverted Plot On September 11, 2001, as information seeps out about the 9/11 attacks on America, the FAA begins directing all remaining aircraft in the air to nearby airports, completely clearing the skies. A total of 38 transatlantic flights at or near their \"point of no return\" (also known as the \"point of safe return\") are diverted to the nearest airport in Canada, Gander, Newfoundland. The anxious passengers leaving on business and vacation trips have no idea why their flights are being sent to a remote town in Canada. With wild rumours spreading, one British airliner's crew tells the passengers",
"-30.048197238647845"
],
[
"to San Francisco onto the airport's north runway. Officials at the airport reported that it was purely a communication problem. Reaction Prior to landing, most pilots did not inform passengers of the situation or the attacks in order to avoid fear and panic. On some planes, even pilots were unaware of what had happened. Global quoted one pilot telling reporters: \"When we were in the air, we really didn't know what was going on. All we heard was security measures and we were diverted. That was all we knew…\"\nOnly after landing did pilots tell passengers what had happened, sometimes addressing",
"-29.96839945926331"
],
[
"scheduled passenger flight to Dubai using established air lanes. The Italian navy and another U.S. warship, the frigate Sides, confirmed that the plane was climbing—not diving to attack—at the time of the missile strike. The U.S. radio warnings were only broadcast on 121.5 MHz, not air traffic control frequencies and mistakenly identified the altitude and position of the plane, so the Airbus crew, if they were monitoring \"guard,\" could have misinterpreted the warnings as referring to another aircraft. Captain David Carlson of Sides later said that the destruction of the airliner \"marked the horrifying climax to Rogers' aggressiveness\". 1990s In February",
"-29.923597851360682"
],
[
"U.S. airspace, David Collenette, the Canadian Transport Minister, gave orders that Canadian airports be open only for outgoing police, military, and humanitarian flights, and incoming U.S. bound international flights. This was the first time Canada had shut down its airspace.\nAbout 500 flights were en route to the U.S. at the time of the attacks. Transport Canada instructed Nav Canada to give permission for transoceanic flights that were at least halfway towards their destination (i.e. had already passed the point of no return across the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean) to land at the nearest Canadian airport, depending on their point of",
"-29.900263567105867"
],
[
"aircraft, but was prevented by supervisors he said were friendly with the airline. This was validated by a report by the Department of Transportation which found FAA managers had allowed Southwest Airlines to fly 46 airplanes in 2006 and 2007 that were overdue for safety inspections, ignoring concerns raised by inspectors. Audits of other airlines resulted in two airlines grounding hundreds of planes, causing thousands of flight cancellations. The House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee held hearings in April 2008. Jim Oberstar, former chairman of the committee, said its investigation uncovered a pattern of regulatory abuse and widespread regulatory lapses, allowing",
"-29.876497109897173"
],
[
"New Jersey in the 21st century September 11, 2001 In the morning of September 11, 2001, hijackers took control of four domestic U.S. commercial airliners. All of the planes crashed, none of them in New Jersey; however, two of them crashed into the two tallest towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, which collapsed within two hours (and was seen from the Gold Coast in New Jersey), and Todd Beamer, of New Jersey, is thought to have played a role in bringing down Flight 93 short of the terrorists' intended target. The destruction of the twin towers",
"-29.863477512866666"
],
[
"dangerous as the aircraft, like most airliners of its era, was not equipped with a Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS).\nBased on Air Traffic Control recordings, the Basel Air Controller stated that Flight 435 was not homing to the selected beacon during its last approach, while the crew of the flight stated that they were on the beacon. This could indicate a faulty signal or faulty navigational equipment. If the fault was in the navigation system, this could explain why the plane went astray from its selected path. However, Swiss accident investigators considered it was more likely that the flight crew",
"-29.846710199359222"
],
[
"U.S. military response during the September 11 attacks On the morning of September 11, 2001, four commercial airliners were hijacked and deliberately crashed by the radical Islamic terrorist group Al Qaeda. American Airlines Flight 11, departing from Boston, was flown into the North Tower of World Trade Center at 08:46. United Airlines Flight 175, also departing from Boston, was flown into the South Tower 17 minutes later at 09:03. American Airlines Flight 77, departing from Washington Dulles International Airport, was flown into the Pentagon at 09:37. United Airlines Flight 93, departing from Newark Liberty International Airport, was crashed near Shanksville,",
"-29.811782433534972"
],
[
"small twin-engine plane has crashed into the World Trade Center. Before entering the classroom, the President speaks to National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice, who is at the White House. She first tells him it was a twin-engine aircraft—and then a commercial aircraft—that had struck the World Trade Center, adding \"that's all we know right now, Mr. President.\"\n8:56: Ten minutes after the North Tower of the World Trade Center was hit by Flight 11, the transponder on Flight 77 is turned off and even primary radar contact with the aircraft is lost. During radar blackout Flight 77 turns east, unnoticed by",
"-29.734010613814462"
],
[
"in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville, Pennsylvania after crew and passengers attempted to overpower the hijackers. Authorities believe that the intended target was the U.S. Capitol. In total, 2,996 people perished and more than 6,000 were injured in the attacks, making the hijackings the most deadly in modern history.\nFollowing the attacks, the U.S formed the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) to handle airport screening at U.S airports. Government agencies around the world tightened their airport security, procedures and intelligence gathering. Until the September 11 attacks, there had never been an incident whereby an aircraft was used as a weapon of mass destruction.",
"-29.669791611187975"
],
[
"time for escort aircraft to reach the hijacked flights. Notification of the hijacking of Flight 11 prompted the scrambling of two fighter jets from Otis Air National Guard Base, but they were not in the air until after Flight 11 had hit the North Tower. An erroneous FAA report of a hijacked plane heading towards Washington (\"phantom Flight 11\") prompted the scrambling of three more fighters from the 1st Fighter Wing at Langley Air Force Base, which due to \"poor communications\", ended up flying eastward, out to sea, instead of heading toward Washington, significantly delaying their arrival on the scene.",
"-29.614736176561564"
],
[
"to land aircraft even with visibility at 1600m. The Airport Authority said it was a mandatory requirement that the pilot be able to see the runway from 500 feet and that if the pilot had not seen the runway, he should have never descended below 500 feet, and if the runway was visible, he should have been able to land. The fact that the aircraft crashed 2.6 km from the airport showed that he had not sighted the runway.\nThe Airport Authority also stated that the VOR had to have been operational at the time, because the pilot was able to make",
"-29.560104811374913"
],
[
"website later denied the member's linking with the bombing, and indicated it was working with the Metropolitan Police to establish whether its former member was the bomber. The website stated that it provides information about airlines and free add-on software for Microsoft Flight Simulator and does not provide flight instruction to its members.\nThe 9/11 Commission in the US concluded in 2004 that those responsible for flying the planes into World Trade Center and The Pentagon had used PC-based flight simulators for training. Despite the initial concerns of the involvement of virtual airlines in these terrorist activities, largely little has come",
"-29.559148244094104"
],
[
"approach to runway 06 and that airlines in the meantime not rely solely on radio beacons during approach to 06. The report also looked at the work-flow at the air traffic control. The airport had a radar system installed, but this was used solely for monitoring traffic and was not seen as a navigational aid. The commission commented that air traffic control could have prevented the accident had it recognized that the aircraft was on the wrong path and alerted the pilots. Sufficient equipment was installed, but there were no instructions for such activity. Aftermath Flight 239 is the deadliest",
"-29.460789377073525"
],
[
"to Los Angeles, California, also appeared to be the victim of hijackers. At 9:24 am Colonel Marr ordered three F-16s (two alert aircraft and a spare) scrambled from Langley AFB to check out an unidentified intermittent aircraft track heading toward Washington DC. In six minutes, the Langley F-16s were airborne.\nIn accordance with established NORAD procedures, the F-16s were initially directed to head northeast to avoid some of the most heavily traveled commercial airline routes rather than to fly directly to the Washington, DC, area. Major Dean Eckmann and Major Brad Derrig, plus Captain Craig Borgstrom of the 119th Fighter Wing",
"-29.444380811881274"
],
[
"Among bomb threats related to transportation, threats and false information knowingly provided about bombs on airplanes have the most severe response. Private Institutions/Businesses Private institutions and businesses, including as banks, department stores, malls, casinos, restaurants, manufacturing plants, and truck stops, have been the recipients of bomb threats for various reasons. Some bomb threats are made because of ideological differences or opposition to the mission or perceived mission of the institution, such as those made against Planned Parenthood and abortion clinics, news organizations such as CNN, or nuclear facilities. From 1983 to 1992, the World Trade Center experienced roughly 350 bomb",
"-29.428227463096846"
],
[
"airspace after a series of terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. After the FAA closed down U.S. airspace, Collenette acted swiftly and shut down Canadian airspace in order to take in diverted U.S.-bound international flights, launching Transport Canada's Operation Yellow Ribbon. Ultimately, 255 flights carrying 44,519 passengers were diverted to 15 Canadian airports. In the time that has followed, Collenette has applauded the way Canadians responded to the crisis. He, Chrétien, U.S. Ambassador to Canada Paul Cellucci, and other provincial and local officials presided over Canada's memorial service to mark the first anniversary of 9/11 at",
"-29.41729395085713"
],
[
"aircraft were shot down when it was believed they were about to attack the U.S. fighters that were in the area. In this instance, the Flogger pilots were reportedly lost when they were fired on and successfully shot down after a series of missile launches, although they were seen to eject and parachute into the sea.",
"-29.379103528423002"
],
[
"International Airport attack, a Jeep Cherokee loaded with propane tanks crashed into the entrance of the Glasgow International Airport. The attackers appear to have been Muslims unaffiliated with any organization who were disgruntled about the War on Terror taking place in the Middle East. 2010–present The 2010 Times Square car bombing attempt was an attempted terrorist attack using propane tanks in an improvised car bomb. The perpetrator Faisal Shahzad admitted that he had trained at a Pakistani terrorist training camp prior to the attack, and said he wanted revenge against the United States for drone strikes in Pakistan.\nThe 2012 Brindisi",
"-29.3133610021614"
],
[
"Captain Jason M. Dahl on United Airlines Flight 93 from Newark, New Jersey, to San Francisco. The plane was hijacked by four al-Qaeda terrorists as part of the September 11 attacks. Homer and Dahl struggled with the hijackers, which was transmitted to Air Traffic Control.\nAfter learning of the earlier crashes at the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, the crew and passengers attempted to foil the hijacking and reclaim the aircraft. Given the uprising of crew and passengers, and knowing they would not make it to their intended target, which was the US Capitol, they instead chose to crash the",
"-29.293699654081138"
],
[
"patrol over Manhattan.\n9:25: A video teleconference begins to be set up in the White House Situation Room, led by Richard A. Clarke, a special assistant to the president, that eventually includes the CIA, the FBI, the departments of State, Justice, and Defense, and the FAA.\n9:25: The Associated Press informs CNN that the two plane crashes in the World Trade Center appeared to be an \"act of terrorism\".\n9:26: The FAA bans takeoffs of all civilian aircraft regardless of destination—a national groundstop.\n9:26: Transport Canada, Canada's transportation agency, activates its Situation Centre (SitCen) in Ottawa.\n9:26: White House counterterrorism chief Richard Clarke indicates he",
"-29.27104246831732"
],
[
"believed that it could have been an explosion on the aircraft, by either a fuel tank or a bomb and the satellite imagery also ruled out a missile attack. US Director of National Intelligence James Clapper said that there was not yet any \"direct evidence of terrorist involvement\". Some UK news outlets reported that an ISIL bomb was the most likely explanation for the crash.\nWithin a week of the crash, serious considerations were given to the notion that the plane had been intentionally brought down. The UK government said that in the light of further British intelligence, the crash \"may",
"-29.25151703588199"
],
[
"received the legal right to operate the complex and site for 99 years. At the time, the World Trade Center only had a few notable tenants, and Silverstein wanted to improve the complex to make it more attractive to potential tenants.\nThese plans for improvement were never realized. On the morning of September 11, 2001, Al-Qaeda-affiliated hijackers flew two Boeing 767 jets into the Twin Towers in a coordinated act of terrorism. At 8:46 a.m. Eastern Time (ET), a team of five hijackers intentionally crashed American Airlines Flight 11 into the northern facade of the North Tower. At 9:03 a.m. ET, a second",
"-29.230625032214448"
],
[
"people on large airliners increases the potentially high death rate with attacks on aircraft, and the ability to use a hijacked airplane as a lethal weapon may provide an alluring target for terrorism (such as during the September 11 attacks).\nAirport security attempts to prevent any threats or potentially dangerous situations from arising or entering the country. If airport security does succeed then the chances of any dangerous situation, illegal items or threats entering into an aircraft, country or airport are greatly reduced. As such, airport security serves several purposes: To protect the airport and country from any threatening events, to",
"-29.21217216498917"
],
[
"Washington, D.C.\nThe FAA was aware at this point that there was an emergency on board the airplane. By this time, Flight 11 had already crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center and Flight 175 was known to have been hijacked and was within minutes of striking the South Tower. After learning of this second hijacking involving an American Airlines aircraft and the hijacking involving United Airlines, American Airlines' executive vice president Gerard Arpey ordered a nationwide ground stop for the airline. The Indianapolis Air Traffic Control Center, as well as American Airlines dispatchers, made several failed attempts",
"-29.201265137293376"
],
[
"for some time until they were diverted. According to Flightradar24, most of the Istanbul-bound flights diverted to either Izmir or Ankara. Following the attack the FAA suspended all Turkish flights into and out of the United States for about five hours, allowing only the 10 flights that were already in the air during the attack to land in the U.S. All the flights suspended were Turkish Airlines flights. It is believed that between 8 and 14 aircraft from numerous airlines were at the terminal during the attack, none of the aircraft were ever in danger nor were any of them",
"-29.189661111100577"
],
[
"of the two pilots, Lieutenant Colonel Timothy Duffy, would later state he had already heard about the suspected hijacking (attributed to a phone call from the FAA's Boston Center) as he was supervising training exercises at Otis ANG base. Claiming to have a \"bad feeling about the suspected hijacking\", he and his wingman, Major Daniel Nash, decided to use their F-15s' afterburners.\nFlying supersonically, the F-15s were just south of Long Island when United Airlines Flight 175 smashed into the World Trade Center's south tower. NEADS wanted to direct the fighters over Manhattan, but FAA air controllers, fearing collisions with civilian",
"-29.187787708360702"
],
[
"releasing the bombs, the jets returned into Indian airspace unharmed and the Indian media claimed that whilst Pakistan scrambled its F-16 jets, they could not engage the Indian planes. The target There has been ambiguity among the sources as to what the exact target was, and about whether the madrassa -- Taleem ul-Quran run by Masood Azhar's brother-in-law, Muhammad Yusuf Azhar, was an active JeM camp or not.\nAccording to WikiLeaks, a 2004 United States Department of Defence interrogation report stated that Balakot had \"a training camp that offers both basic and advanced terrorist training on explosives and artillery.\" In contrast,",
"-29.164999223547056"
],
[
"Airlines Flight 93 is crashed by its hijackers at 583 mph (926 km/h, 272 m/s, or 509 knots), due to fighting in the cockpit 80 miles (129 km) southeast of Pittsburgh in Somerset County, Pennsylvania. Later reports indicate that passengers had learned about the World Trade Center and Pentagon crashes on cell phones and at least three were planning on resisting the hijackers; the resistance was confirmed by Flight 93's cockpit voice recording, on which the hijackers are heard making their decision to down the plane before the passengers succeed in breaching the cockpit door. The 9/11 Commission believed that Flight 93's target was",
"-29.16183272091439"
],
[
"the B-52 and B-1 are not equipped with data links and cannot interoperate with either F-15s and F/A-18s. Furthermore, half the USAF A-10 and F-16 fighter force in the Air National Guard (ANG) are equipped with Situational Awareness Data Link (SADL) gear that cannot interoperate with Link 16 unless there is a \"gateway\" which has radios for both data links, and a computer system that can interconnect them and translate the data. While the deployment of data links to fighter aircraft has aided flights of aircraft to coordinate their attacks locally, these systems are constrained by line of sight and",
"-29.149634615518153"
],
[
"the towers. Regarding the purpose of the 9/11 attacks, Hart stated that: “My guess is that at an early point they said to the bad guys in the CIA – hey this operation's running what do we do, and the zionists and the neo-cons said let's use it.\"\nIn another interview, Hart stated that \"In my analysis there's enough evidence – visual, technical and scientific, and from eye-witnesses including fire fighters – to invite the conclusion that the Twin Towers, like Building Seven, were pre-wired for controlled demolition with nanothermite, the highest-tech military explosive.\" Books Hart is the author of several",
"-29.103247602869487"
],
[
"some B-17s that were repaired and put back on the line at Clark to join in the attack. The B-17s took off with the 17th providing top cover during the attack. P-35s from the 34th failed to reach the objective due to their low speed, and only at the end of the attack did the 34th proceed to attack the convoy. Two P-35s were lost, one when the plane flew into a large explosion on a ship the aircraft attacked as the pilot was passing over it. After the attack, both squadrons returned for re-fueling",
"-29.08914878719952"
],
[
"use by terror suspects, and to prosecute suspected terrorists without time restrictions. The FAA ordered that airplane cockpits be reinforced to prevent terrorists gaining control of planes, and assigned sky marshals to flights. Further, the Aviation and Transportation Security Act made the federal government, rather than airports, responsible for airport security. The law created the Transportation Security Administration to inspect passengers and luggage, causing long delays and concern over passenger privacy. After suspected abuses of the USA Patriot Act were brought to light in June 2013 with articles about collection of American call records by the NSA and the PRISM",
"-29.087252410885412"
],
[
"the Department of Justice, and tried unsuccessfully to contact Attorney General John Ashcroft. About five minutes later, Barbara Olson called again, told her husband that the \"pilot\" (possibly Hanjour on the cabin intercom) had announced the flight was hijacked, and asked, \"What do I tell the pilot to do?\" Ted Olson asked her location and she reported the plane was flying low over a residential area. He told her of the attacks on the World Trade Center. Soon afterward, the call cut off again.\nAn airplane was detected again by Dulles controllers on radar screens as it approached Washington, turning and",
"-29.08296361914836"
],
[
"airport hubs that prevention of incidents was problematic.\nLos Angeles International Airport was recently found to be the most vulnerable to infiltration in the US when it comes to smuggling weapons. Knives, guns, and explosives carried by federal undercover inspectors were missed by LA International airport screeners at checkpoints 41% of the time in an airport security test. The test, which checked security at America's 32 biggest airports, was carried out in June by the Transportation Security Administration (TSA), which assumed responsibility for airport security. Criticism A 2009 study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences asserted that,",
"-29.082240382791497"
],
[
"Gatwick Airport had to close temporarily due to an unconfirmed sighting of a drone. This was the first sighting since the incidents of December 2018. 3 flights had to divert to London Stansted Airport, and returned to Gatwick Airport around 90 minutes later.",
"-29.07950671116123"
],
[
"according to the airport's fire chief, that the island did not have enough fire equipment to put out a fire if a Dash 8 crashed. The revelation about the fire equipment prompted a debate at Toronto City Council about possibly closing the airport over safety concerns. Council had been assured that the airport was safe a year earlier, when the agreement to allow the Dash 8 was made with the city. The Government of Canada admitted that the island airport did not have enough fire equipment and fire-retardant foam. It only carried 650 litres of foam, when 5,500 litres was",
"-29.075674080086173"
],
[
"normally until 08:54, when the aircraft deviated from its assigned course by initiating a turn to the south. Two minutes later, at 08:56, the plane's transponder was switched off, and its primary radar track was lost. Later, after hearing about the hijacked planes hitting the World Trade Center, Indianapolis Center suspected that Flight 77 may also have been hijacked, and shared this information with FAA Command Center at Herndon, where staff contacted FAA Headquarters in Washington at 09:25.\nNEADS learned that the flight was lost at 9:34 during a phone call with the FAA Headquarters.\nWashington Center: Now let me tell you",
"-29.065447304514237"
],
[
"of one F-16 belonging to Pakistan Air Force. Pakistani officials stated that in this \"day and age it is impossible to hide downing of a aircraft\". Initially, Pakistani officials also claimed to have captured two Indian Air Force pilots but later corrected their statement and stated that only one IAF pilot was in their custody. Pakistani officials stated that it was the fog of war which led them to believe that there were two IAF pilots in their custody. Pakistan also denied the use of F-16s in the operation, stating that JF-17s were used instead. The Indian Air Force presented",
"-29.05198516312521"
],
[
"traffic control (ATC), as neither crew was in direct contact with ATC after departure. ATC denied the request; the two airliners would soon be reentering controlled airspace (the Red 15 airway running southeast from Las Vegas) and ATC had no way to provide the horizontal separation required between two aircraft at the same altitude.\nCaptain Gandy requested \"1,000 on top\" clearance (flying 1,000 feet above the clouds), which is still IFR, not VFR (visual flight rules), which was approved by ATC. The provision to operate 1000'-on-top exists so that separation restrictions normally applied by ATC can be temporarily suspended. An aircraft",
"-29.05181348437327"
],
[
"and the other four bombers tried to get away from the fighters. Two of those bombers were hit, but the MiGs did not continue to pursue them due to fuel shortages. After analysis of post-flight data, the mission was credited with taking out three B-29s, of which one was credited to Naumenko.\nOn 9 December he flew in a mission to seek out enemy aircraft, during which his group of jets was attacked by F-80s. However, they managed to dodge the initial attack by climbing sharply. After returning to engage the F-80s, lieutenant Serafim Volodkin lagged behind the rest of the",
"-29.029885055613704"
],
[
"went out. There was no time to arm them with missiles, so each fighter went out carrying only 500 training bullets—just enough for a five-second burst. At the time, they believed that there may be more hostile aircraft. Each committed to doing whatever necessary to stop any hostile aircraft they encountered, up to and including ramming the airliner. By this point, fighters from Langley Air Force Base and the fighters from the D.C. National Guard were put in contact with each other. Flight 93 was no longer a threat, but the two units worked together to escort aircraft out of",
"-29.02552592336724"
],
[
"World Trade Center (film) Plot On September 11, 2001, Port Authority Police Officers John McLoughlin and Will Jimeno are patrolling the Port Authority Bus Terminal in Midtown Manhattan when they see a plane fly dangerously low overhead. As all of the Police return to the station, they see on TV that the North Tower of the World Trade Center has been hit by the plane. Sergeant McLoughlin assigns many of the officers to assist in a precautionary evacuation attempt of the North Tower and they board a Metropolitan Transit Authority bus. On the bus, they hear reports that the South",
"-29.00462036090903"
],
[
"attacks, two aircraft approaching the United States from Asia were diverted to Whitehorse as part of Operation Yellow Ribbon. One of these flights, a Boeing 747 operating as Korean Air Flight 85, was feared to be hijacked; this was not the case as the jumbo jet was low on fuel. Many of the buildings in the downtown area near the airport were evacuated as a precaution. Those who witnessed the landing by the Korean Air 747 observed the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) order the flight crew out at gunpoint.\nThe airport's parking lot is graced by an old Canadian",
"-28.977567764930427"
],
[
"following a procedure that required it to fly toward the airport until making visual contact. It was then to have flown around the airport to the east and north, keeping within a distance of 5 nmi (9.3 km; 5.8 mi), until lining up with runway 12, which faces toward the southeast. The aircraft crashed in the mountains outside the 5 nmi (9.3 km; 5.8 mi) radius, approximately 8 nmi (15 km; 9.2 mi) north of the airport, facing almost due west, before it could line up with runway 12 for final approach.\nWhile the BBC reported that officials stated that \"there was nothing in conversations between the pilot and the",
"-28.972733960399637"
],
[
"aircraft are required to approach the airport at very low speeds, making the aircraft extremely vulnerable to sudden downdrafts and strong winds that are known to occur in the mountains. Contributing factors might include poor visibility on final approach and the inexperience and lack of technology available to air traffic control.\nIn December 2017, an investigation committee of the Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal submitted its final report on the accident and concluded that \"Very low visibility\" was the cause of the accident. As the aircraft was flying through dense fog for several minutes before the approach, it missed the runway",
"-28.94498810832738"
],
[
"some Americans, because it was less than a mile from the site where the World Trade Center towers had been brought down, with great loss of life, by hijacked airliners piloted by Muslim extremists.\nOn August 16, 2010, Gwen Ifill of the PBS Newshour tried to moderate a discussion between Hameeduddin and Rick Lazio a former member of the US Congress and candidate for Governor of New York, over the \"Ground Zero Mosque\".\nThe discussion grew acrimonious, very acrimonious by PBS standards, and Ifill felt she should write about how the acrimonious discussion escaped her control to moderate the next day.\nAustralian scholars,",
"-28.937269497080706"
],
[
"was not a failure in the system. Our airports are not safer now than before 9/11. The main difference between then and now is that life is now more miserable for passengers.\nThe report has been accused of not giving the whole story about the warnings the U.S. received prior to the attacks. While the report did describe that \"the system was blinking red\" and that an al Qaeda attack was imminent, it did not include the testimony of former CIA director George Tenet to the commission in January 2004, in which he claimed to have given a specific warning to",
"-28.924185388343176"
],
[
"proposition\" and deter criminals in later decades. Until September 2001, the FAA set and enforced a \"layered\" system of defense: hijacking intelligence, passenger pre-screening, checkpoint screening and on-board security. The idea was that if one layer were later to fail, another would be able stop a hijacker from boarding a plane. However, the 9/11 Commission found that this layered approach was flawed and unsuitable to prevent the September 11 attacks. The U.S Transportation Security Administration has since strengthened this approach, with a greater emphasis on intelligence sharing. On-board security In the history of hijackings, most incidents involved planes being forced",
"-28.91847448372573"
],
[
"that the Boeing planes of Flights 11 and 175 could have penetrated the steel frames of the Towers, and that digital compositing was used to depict the plane crashes in both news reports and subsequent amateur video. \"There were no planes, there were no hijackers\", Reynolds insists. \"I know, I know, I'm out of the mainstream, but that's the way it is\". According to David Shayler, \"the only explanation is that they were missiles surrounded by holograms made to look like planes\", he says, which would be well beyond the capabilities of contemporaneous hologram technology. \"Watch footage frame by frame",
"-28.915688764071092"
],
[
"field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, not reaching Washington, D.C., for its intended target, either the U.S. Capitol or the White House. The attacks resulted in the deaths of 2,996 people, including the 245 civilians, a law enforcement officer, and the 19 hijackers on board the four airplanes.\nOn July 5, 2002, a gunman opened fire at Los Angeles International Airport (Israel's El Al Ticket Counter). The shooter killed two people and injured four.\nOn August 10, 2006, security at airports in the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States was raised significantly due to the uncovering by British authorities of a terror plot",
"-28.91422352711379"
],
[
"of these groups – have been victims of threats, vandalism, arson, and murder in the United States. Safety concerns Due to Americans having the fear of flying, auto usage increased after the attacks. This resulted in an estimated 1,595 additional highway deaths in the ensuing year. Censorship Films and television programs produced before 2001 that feature the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center or events similar to 9/11 have been edited in re-airings on television. One such example is an episode of The Simpsons, \"The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson,\" the main setting of which is the",
"-28.904275059932843"
],
[
"lie about small details: the plane was supposedly flying without running lights or strobe light, that tracer bullets were fired, or that I had radio contact with them on the emergency frequency of 121.5 megahertz. Post-attack flight At the time of the attack, the plane had been cruising at an altitude of about 35,000 feet (11,000 m). Tapes recovered from the airliner's cockpit voice recorder indicate that the crew were unaware that they were off course and violating Soviet airspace. Immediately after missile detonation, the airliner began a 113-second arc upward because of a damaged crossover cable between the left inboard",
"-28.894866827584337"
],
[
"airliner, American Airlines Flight 11, struck the North Tower of the World Trade Center at 8:46 A.M. (EST) in New York City; with a second, United Airlines Flight 175, striking the South Tower less than twenty minutes later at 9:03 A.M. (EST), resulting in the collapse of both 110 story skyscrapers, and the destruction of the World Trade Center. The third hijacked plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon (the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense) in Arlington County, Virginia, demolishing a section of the outer southwest facing wall. After discovering that their plane, United",
"-28.89468219038099"
],
[
"the jets had been purposely kept from flying immediately to New York City. The questions arising from the response time of the jets come from the practice of Cold War era policies which prohibited the immediate response to an emergency like a hijacking. First responder and pilot Daniel Nash said that he could not recall being told that the North Tower was hit but he did remember seeing the smoke over 70-mile (110 km) away. It is also claimed by conspiracists that the calculations of North American Aerospace Defense Command were incorrect because according to their own calculations, the planes were",
"-28.877358080120757"
],
[
"Airlines Flight 93, was going to be used as a missile, passengers attempted to regain control of the plane which had been redirected towards Washington, D.C. However, after regaining control from the hijackers, the plane crashed near a rural community near Shanksville, Pennsylvania. In total, the attacks killed 2,996 people—2,507 civilians, 343 firefighters, 72 law enforcement officers, 55 military personnel, and the 19 terrorists. The 9/11 attack was the single deadliest international terrorist incident and the most devastating foreign attack on American soil since the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. It refocused American attention to",
"-28.86321231839247"
],
[
"carried by F-16 fighters. This has prompted the US to initiate an inquiry into whether any F-16 jet was used by Pakistan while attacking Indian territory, since F-16s were sold to Pakistan on condition that they will not be used for attacking any nation and are to be used only for anti-terrorism activities. Foreign Policy, quoting unnamed US officials, reported that a recent audit didn't find any Pakistani F-16s missing, but a statement from Pentagon said that it was unaware of such an audit. Stations Within each operational command are anywhere from nine to sixteen bases or stations, each commanded",
"-28.86084203253995"
],
[
"Ville-Marie Expressway and implementing a tram system in the city. Controversy Bergeron, in his 2005 book, Les Québécois au volant, c'est mortel, wrote a paragraph which raised questions about the actual events surrounding the September 11 attacks.\nDirect quote:\nNo one knows what really happened on Sept. 11, 2001. We have been sated with pictures of two airliners striking the twin towers of the World Trade Centre. This is the only event of which we can be sure. The reasons for this act remain unknown. As for the two other planes that would have crashed — one on the Pentagon, in Washington, and",
"-28.85222170666748"
],
[
"757 aircraft into the World Trade Center. I thought the suicide mission [would involve] a Cessna light aircraft loaded with several kilos of explosives, like a Japanese Kamikaze World War II pilot diving into a target.\nThe targets ultimately chosen were the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and the United States Capitol. Flight 93 was apparently meant to crash into the Capitol. The White House was considered as a target; initially dismissed as being too difficult to locate from the air, it was later included in the plans. In the communications that developed as the scheme took form, the Pentagon's code",
"-28.843046620255336"
],
[
"officials thought it was part of the landing gear but Boeing confirmed it was the trailing edge flap actuation support structure of an airplane flap from a Boeing 767, the type of jet which hit both towers. A photograph of the piece initially showed a rope around it. Police said the rope was used by an officer who lassoed it to see the identification number. Boeing could not say which specific plane it was from. 2001–2009 The 45–47 Park Place building, located about two blocks (600 feet or 180 meters) north of the World Trade Center site, was owned by",
"-28.831461371213663"
],
[
"that United Airlines Flight 93 was shot down, that no airplanes hit the Pentagon or the World Trade Center. Canada In September 2006, an Ipsos-Reid poll found that 22 percent of Canadians believe \"the attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, had nothing to do with Osama bin Laden and were actually a plot by influential Americans.\"\nA September 2008 Angus Reid poll showed that 39 percent of respondents either disagree or are unsure that al-Qaeda carried out the attacks. About a third of those surveyed believed the U.S. government allowed the attacks to happen and 16 percent believe",
"-28.82958325179061"
],
[
"Northeast headquarters and other evidence showed clearly that the military never had any of the hijacked airliners in its sights and at one point chased a phantom aircraft—American Airlines Flight 11—long after it had crashed into the World Trade Center. For example, Maj. Gen. Larry Arnold and Col. Alan Scott told the commission that NORAD had begun tracking United 93 at 9:16 a.m., but the commission determined that the airliner was not even hijacked until 12 minutes later. According to later testimony, the military was not aware of the flight until after it had crashed in Pennsylvania.\nThe Commission was forced",
"-28.82592267805012"
],
[
"World with tenants as part of his recent acquisition of the Twin Towers from the Port Authority, and was scheduled to be in the restaurant on the morning of the attacks. However, his wife insisted he go to a dermatologist's appointment that morning, whereby he avoided death. Everyone present in the restaurant when American Airlines Flight 11 penetrated the North Tower perished that day, as all means of escape and evacuation (including the stairwells and elevators leading to below the impact zone) were instantly cut off. Victims trapped in Windows on the World died either from smoke inhalation from",
"-28.815599976922385"
],
[
"could fly. Any weather, smoke screens or even the problems of viewing the target at long range made the attack difficult.\nPlacing a television camera in the nose of the bomb appeared to offer tremendous advantages. For one, the aircraft was free to fly any escape course it pleased, as the bomb aimer could watch the entire approach on an in-cockpit television and no longer had to look outside the aircraft. It also allowed the bomb aimer to be located anywhere in the aircraft. Additionally, it could be launched through clouds or smoke screens and pick up the target when it",
"-28.78714365081396"
],
[
"after the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) banned these operators from flying into the United States due to safety concerns. Two former C-121Cs fly today with the Historical Aircraft Restoration Society of Australia and the Super Constellation Flyers Association of Switzerland.",
"-28.716937887555105"
],
[
"plane for not having an authorized flight plan, but the pilot did not hear it because he was on a different frequency. As the Dragonfly prepared to open fire, a CIA officer can be heard saying that the plane \"doesn't fit the profile\", and another CIA official says, \"Ok, I understand this is not our call, but this guy is at 4,500 feet and he is not taking any evasive action. I recommend we follow him. I do not recommend phase 3 [shooting the plane down] at this time.\"\nLater, a Peruvian official asks if \"phase 3\" is authorized, and the",
"-28.712456993816886"
],
[
"aircraft is currently flying. Ground proximity detection equipment was also mandated for the airlines.\nDuring the NTSB investigation, it was discovered that a United Airlines flight had very narrowly escaped the same fate during the same approach and at the same location only six weeks prior.\nThe flight is also of note in that the accident drew undesired attention to the Mount Weather facility, which was the linchpin of plans implemented by the federal government to ensure continuity in the event of a nuclear war. The crash did not damage the facility, since most of its features were underground. Only its",
"-28.684553451967076"
],
[
"terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center, by the Civil Aviation Authority. The spires were also removed and replaced by two cones placed on the rear of the tower on top of the stairwells. The overhang at the front was added. The proposed office space was also removed and the planning application was withdrawn.\nThe new design was submitted, however, was withdrawn by the Beetham Corporation after talks over the purchase of the adjacent multi-storey car park with National Car Parks broke down without a deal. This was a surprise to the developers as they had expected to be able to",
"-28.684101305720105"
],
[
"and a U.S. Navy EA-6B jammed all of the airliner's communications except to the F-14s and E-2C. With the implied threat of a shoot-down, the 737's pilot chose to land at the NATO base in Sigonella, Sicily, where the airliner was quickly surrounded by U.S. and Italian security personnel. Intervention in the \"Tanker War\" (1987–1988) From July 1987 to September 1988, F-14s performed combat air patrols and escort missions in support of Operation Earnest Will during the \"Tanker War\". On 8 August 1987, the first shots by the U.S. at Iranian forces took place when two VF-21 F-14As from the",
"-28.682083939609583"
],
[
"was caused by an accidental fuel tank explosion, that the Stratfor analysis was wrong and that there were no indications of an ISIS attack on the airport.\nOn 8 July 2016, a Syrian Mi-25 (a Russian Mi-35, according to other unofficial military sources) was destroyed on the ground from a United States-made BGM-71 TOW east of Palmyra, with two Russian pilots confirmed dead. A few days after, Russia announced it had employed strategic Tu-22M3 bombers, for the first time since the partial ceasefire came into force, to deliver airstrikes on terrorist targets east of the towns of Palmyra and Al-Sukhnah, and",
"-28.674159960617544"
],
[
"FBI Director Robert Mueller, and prepares brief remarks.\n9:15: NBC News reports unconfirmed statements from employees at United Airlines that an American Airlines aircraft had been hijacked prior to its destruction.\n9:17: The FAA closes down all New York City-area airports. The city had initially asked the FAA to close down the airports.\n9:17:02: CBS News correspondent Jim Stewart in Washington mentions that in the intelligence community, Osama bin Laden is a probable suspect.\n9:18: CNN makes reference to foul play for the first time, stating the FBI was investigating a report of plane hijacking. CNN headline: \"AP: Plane was hijacked before crashes\".\n9:19: United",
"-28.664722515561152"
],
[
"(13,125 feet/4,000 meters) was closed for many hours after the accident (with passenger flight cancellations or delays), leaving the shorter 16L/34R as the only available active runway. As a result, many flights operated by larger aircraft had to be canceled or diverted to other airports such as nearby Tokyo Haneda Airport, as 16L/34R is too short (7,150 feet/2,180 meters) for some types to operate safely, and some large aircraft types such as Boeing 777-300ER and Airbus A340-600 are restricted from using taxiway \"B\" (Bravo) which services that runway because of inadequate horizontal clearances. Aircraft history The aircraft was built in",
"-28.658345255847962"
],
[
"Flight 93 National Memorial United Airlines Flight 93 Of the four aircraft hijacked on September 11, Flight 93 is the only one that did not reach its intended target, presumed to be the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Several passengers and crew members made cellular telephone calls aboard the flight and learned about the attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. As a result, the passengers and crew members decided to mount an assault against the hijackers and wrest control of the aircraft. The plane crashed in a field",
"-28.65426076640142"
],
[
"at around six thousand feet to avoid light anti-aircraft fire, dropping to five hundred feet or so to avoid night fighters once inland and to make it possible to verify location, assuring that checkpoints on the ground corresponded exactly to the area being looked at in the cockpit and nose of the aircraft. Limited visibility at higher altitude would make this more difficult if not impossible. Since drops were made at 400–500 feet (120–150 m) at the pilot's discretion, being already at such a height made the drops more efficient.\nWhen only a few miles from the target area all available eyes",
"-28.6447406411462"
],
[
"they hit a thing; they were all being shot down and I think one or two got past the fleet. Our planes were after them too. And way out there on the horizon, we saw the last one go down -- all of them were shot down -- we could see the fire and the smoke. These were big two motor bombers: Japanese bombers burn real good.\"",
"-28.643673033395316"
],
[
"not been informed in advance, and some thought it could be the makings of a terrorist attack similar to the September 11 attacks. Some people ran out of buildings and panicked in the streets. Some buildings ordered evacuations. Incident The flyby was approved by Louis Caldera, director of the White House Military Office, to update the previous image of the aircraft flying over Mount Rushmore. Fran Townsend, Homeland Security Advisor to George W. Bush, said the flyby was \"crass insensitivity.\" She also said, \"I'd call this felony stupidity. This is probably not the right job for Mr. Caldera to be",
"-28.62563970006886"
]
] |
3ms4k9 | If embarrassment and laughter are considered advanced emotions, as human brains develop will we pick up other emotions? | [
"There is no reason to expect we won't. There is no reason to expect we will. Our evolutionary pressures are completely unprecedented. We have no effective predators, and enough capability to eliminate any earth created predator before it becomes effective. That leaves ourselves as our only evolutionary pressure. The last time this happened there was only 1 species on the planet. It is possible that we lose emotions. Anxiety in particular is not much value any more. It is possible to gain emotions. Ermlau could be a perfectly viable option (pretty sure I made that word up). We could do both. We could split into two species. Morlock forever. Although I think our breeding tendencies will prevent this. We could go extinct. We could evolve in a way that puzzles us, just like I had fried dinosaur descendant for dinner.",
"It would be quite helpful if we developed a more generalized and strong empathy and compassion. Might save us all.",
"there was this post a couple weeks ago about... [21 emotions with no english names for]( URL_0 ) or [this other one]( URL_1 ) for example \"Hiraeth\" : A homesickness for a home to which you cannot return, or a home which maybe never was"
] | [
[
"the 1960s, Paul Ekman, an American psychologist, revived the study of emotional expression, proposing, like Darwin, that emotions were universally recognizable. His early work focused on six basic emotions: happiness, anger, sadness, fear, disgust and surprise. By the 1990s, Ekman had expanded this list to include several additional emotions, one of which was amusement.\nDisplays of amusement have been distinguished from related emotions like embarrassment and shame. More recent studies have confirmed that laughter is a distinct signal of amusement and is recognizable across cultures. Vocal burst The expression of amusement is usually accompanied by genuine laughter. The experience of laughter",
"-32.10867613907976"
],
[
"means that the brain processes the other's facial and bodily expressions simultaneously.\nSubjects in these studies showed accuracy in judging emotions based on facial expression. This is because the face and the body are normally seen together in their natural proportions and the emotional signals from the face and body are well integrated.\nFor example, a lack of crinkles around the eyes suggests a potentially fake smile. At one point, researchers believed that making a genuine smile was nearly impossible to do on command. When you're smiling joyfully, they crinkle. When you're faking it, they don't. If someone's trying to look happy",
"-31.79531829073676"
],
[
"object and shock or emotional seizure on the part of the subject. It has also been held that the feeling of superiority is an essential factor: thus Thomas Hobbes speaks of laughter as a \"sudden glory\". Modern investigators have paid much attention to the origin both of laughter and of smiling, as well as the development of the \"play instinct\" and its emotional expression.\nGeorge Meredith said that \"One excellent test of the civilization of a country ... I take to be the flourishing of the Comic idea and Comedy, and the test of true Comedy is that it shall awaken",
"-31.45281045405136"
],
[
"brain also releases endorphins that can relieve some physical pain. Laughter also boosts the number of antibody-producing cells and enhances the effectiveness of T-cells, leading to a stronger immune system. A 2000 study found that people with heart disease were 40 percent less likely to laugh and be able to recognize humor in a variety of situations, compared to people of the same age without heart disease. In interaction A number of studies using methods of conversation analysis and discourse analysis have documented the systematic workings of laughter in a variety of interactions, from casual conversations to interviews, meetings, and",
"-31.34695567921335"
],
[
"instinctive resort to humour became a sort of escapism from responsibility and action. Ludovici considered laughter to be an evolutionary trait and he offered many examples of different triggers for laughter with their own distinct explanations.",
"-31.09206971110143"
],
[
"Emotions can likely be mediated by pheromones (see fear).\nFor example, the emotion of love is proposed to be the expression of paleocircuits of the mammalian brain (specifically, modules of the cingulate gyrus) which facilitate the care, feeding, and grooming of offspring. Paleocircuits are neural platforms for bodily expression configured before the advent of cortical circuits for speech. They consist of pre-configured pathways or networks of nerve cells in the forebrain, brain stem and spinal cord.\nThe motor centers of reptiles react to sensory cues of vision, sound, touch, chemical, gravity, and motion with pre-set body movements and programmed postures. With the",
"-30.769804765404842"
],
[
"emotion, which leads to the disinhibition, or release, of laughing/crying centers in the brainstem. Other theories implicate the prefrontal cortex. Secondary condition PBA is a condition that occurs secondary to neurological disease or brain injury, and is thought to result from disruptions of neural networks that control the generation and regulation of motor output of emotions. PBA is most commonly observed in people with neurologic injuries such as traumatic brain injury (TBI) and stroke, and neurologic diseases such as dementias including Alzheimer's disease, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), multiple sclerosis (MS), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), PANDAS in children and adults, and",
"-30.47161195938679"
],
[
"experience resembles other amusement experiences they have had. Emotional expression of amusement The origin of the study of emotional expression is often attributed to Charles Darwin. In 1872, Darwin published his book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, in which he extensively describes his observations of how people and animals display emotions on their faces and through sound. Darwin comments on amusement as an emotion of great joy during which a person is likely to laugh. He also notes that across all peoples humans can laugh until they are panting and tears roll down their cheeks. In",
"-30.417065083105626"
],
[
"Affective neuroscience Brain areas related to emotion Emotions are thought to be related to activity in brain areas that direct our attention, motivate our behavior, and determine the significance of what is going on around us. Pioneering work by Paul Broca (1878), James Papez (1937), and Paul D. MacLean (1952) suggested that emotion is related to a group of structures in the center of the brain called the limbic system, which includes the hypothalamus, cingulate cortex, hippocampi, and other structures. Research has shown that limbic structures are directly related to emotion, but non-limbic structures have been found to be of",
"-30.394691986744874"
],
[
"coinciding with the beginning of modern humans. Speech, language, and social organization are all part of the basis for emotions. Neurobiological explanation Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures and postures.",
"-30.042240728173056"
],
[
"body is broken, although there are rare, exceptional individuals who are able to rise above their physical predicament. However, for the vast majority having a good knowledge and an effective protocol for personal health is critical to happiness not just to oneself but also to one's family and friends. Laughter Laughter is synonymous with happiness. A proposal is made here that when a line of thought (e.g. joke) or sensation (e.g. tickling) is not expected by one's psychological or physiological order respectively, it triggers a certain chaos and temporary breakdown of that order. The innate Contentment intrinsic",
"-30.009569405365255"
],
[
"emotions in schools and intelligent tutoring systems. Emotion It has long been recognized that emotional episodes are partly constituted by physiological responses. Early work done linking emotions to psychophysiology started with research on mapping consistent autonomic nervous system (ANS) responses to discrete emotional states. For example, anger might be constituted by a certain set of physiological responses, such as increased cardiac output and high diastolic blood pressure, which would allow us to better understand patterns and predict emotional responses. Some studies were able to detect consistent patterns of ANS responses that corresponded to specific emotions under certain contexts, like an",
"-29.98607407726604"
],
[
"of the punch line\".\nExcessive elation is a common symptom associated with manic-depressive psychoses and mania/hypomania. Those who suffer from schizophrenic psychoses seem to suffer the opposite—they do not understand humor or get any joy out of it. A fit describes an abnormal time when one cannot control the laughter or one's body, sometimes leading to seizures or a brief period of unconsciousness. Some believe that fits of laughter represent a form of epilepsy. Laughter therapy Laughter has been used as a therapeutic tool for many years because it is a natural form of medicine. Laughter is available",
"-29.978863331918546"
],
[
"The specific anatomical location is still unclear, but it was shown that the right frontal operculum was most relevant in emotional gesturing. This, combined with the dissociation between cognitive and affective stimuli can explain why patients show no reaction to humor. Personality and drawing on past experiences have been shown to influence humor processing and appreciation. A person may remember past experiences in their own life in order to fully understand a joke in the current context. This remembering of personally experienced events is considered episodic memory, which is processed within the frontal lobes. Additionally, this inability to remember past",
"-29.933702137335786"
],
[
"Croatian, and Persian. Contents The book surveys scientific understanding of emotions and particularly intimacy and love, from Freud through modern neuroscience, with a focus on the emerging understanding of the limbic brain and the development of personality. The authors put forward the idea that our nervous systems are not separate or self-contained; beginning in earliest childhood, the areas of our brain identified as the limbic system (hippocampus, amygdala, anterior thalamic nuclei, and limbic cortex) is affected by those closest to us (limbic resonance) and synchronizes with them (limbic regulation) in a way that has profound implications for",
"-29.765359472687123"
],
[
"Causes Common causes for laughter are sensations of joy and humor; however, other situations may cause laughter as well.\nA general theory that explains laughter is called the relief theory. Sigmund Freud summarized it in his theory that laughter releases tension and \"psychic energy\". This theory is one of the justifications of the beliefs that laughter is beneficial for one's health. This theory explains why laughter can be used as a coping mechanism when one is upset, angry or sad.\nPhilosopher John Morreall theorizes that human laughter may have its biological origins as a kind of shared expression of relief at",
"-29.73174316506629"
],
[
"and is known to be an indicator of mental health. Physiological processes are also influenced within the exercise of humor. For example, laughing may reduce muscle tension, increase the flow of oxygen to the blood, exercise the cardiovascular region, and produce endorphins in the body. Using humor in coping while processing through feelings can vary depending on life circumstance and individual humor styles. In regards to grief and loss in life occurrences, it has been found that genuine laughs/smiles when speaking about the loss predicted later adjustment and evoked more positive responses from other people. A person of the deceased",
"-29.66018404913484"
],
[
"therapy sessions. Working with recorded interactions, researchers have created detailed transcripts that indicate not only the presence of laughter but also features of its production and placement.\nThese studies challenge several widely held assumptions about the nature of laughter. Contrary to notions that it is spontaneous and involuntary, research documents that laughter is sequentially organized and precisely placed relative to surrounding talk. Far more than merely a response to humor, laughter often works to manage delicate and serious moments. More than simply an external behavior “caused” by an inner state, laughter is highly communicative and helps accomplish actions and regulate relationships.",
"-29.539762183957464"
],
[
"corresponding to emotions, but instead found circuitry involved in general emotional processes. The amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, mid and anterior insula cortex and lateral prefrontal cortex, appeared to be involved in generating the emotions, while weaker evidence was found for the ventral tegmental area, ventral pallidum and nucleus accumbens in incentive salience. Others, however, have found evidence of activation of specific regions, such as the basal ganglia in happiness, the subcallosal cingulate cortex in sadness, and amygdala in fear. Cognition The brain is responsible for cognition, which functions through numerous processes and executive functions. Executive functions include the ability to filter",
"-29.478058166409028"
],
[
"patients show no emotional reaction to humor, whether produced by themselves or others. This lack of responsiveness is due to dissociation between their cognitive and affective responses to humorous stimuli. That is, even when a patient understands that a joke is funny (based on quantitative brain activity), they do not respond with laughter, or even a smile. While they have grasped the cognitive basis of humor, they do not affectively respond. This also considered a cognitive component of empathy, affecting ability to take the perspective of others; hence why patients often do not respond to humor produced by other people.",
"-29.477623214756022"
],
[
"humors from the brain. William James thought of emotions as reflexes prior to rational thought, believing that the physiological response, as if to stress or irritation, is a precondition to cognitively becoming aware of emotions such as fear or anger.\nWilliam H. Frey II, a biochemist at the University of Minnesota, proposed that people feel \"better\" after crying due to the elimination of hormones associated with stress, specifically adrenocorticotropic hormone. This, paired with increased mucosal secretion during crying, could lead to a theory that crying is a mechanism developed in humans to dispose of this stress hormone when levels grow too",
"-29.398795359462383"
],
[
"a similar disorder resulting in childish euphoria and cheerful excitement.\nWitzelsucht is considered a disorder of mirth or humor, which is distinct from disorders of laughter. Patients with witzelsucht are essentially insensitive to humor, but are capable of producing it while other patients excessively laugh, often at things that are not funny. The most common disorders of laughter are associated with pseudobulbar palsy, which can be caused by severe brain trauma, most commonly in the right hemisphere. Pathological laughter in this can be triggered by trivial stimuli, which could be disconnected from the underlying mood, and be combined with crying. Pathological",
"-29.396229623693216"
],
[
"a lower appreciation for humor as indicated by sense of humor questionnaires. This relationship is seen across multiple presentation styles including video, audio, and cartoon. Primarily, the affective part of humor, otherwise known as humor appreciation, is the main victim of PD-related brain changes. This could be linked to consequential neurological changes in the amygdala, mesolimbic dopaminergic reward system, and basal ganglia. Parkinson's patients demonstrate an inhibited ability to identify emotions of other people from both speech prosody and facial expressions. The neural circuitry during the humor appreciation phase also involves the amygdala and are thought to be used",
"-29.28135114000179"
],
[
"cortex, the medial temporal lobe, and the lateral occipital cortex, and the sixth “Medial Posterior” group included posterior cingulate cortex and area V1 of the primary visual cortex. The authors suggest that these regions play a joint role in visual processing and attention to emotional stimuli. Vytal et al. 2010 Vytal, et al. 2010 examined 83 neuroimaging studies published between 1993-2008 to examine whether neuroimaging evidence supports the idea of biologically discrete, basic emotions (i.e. fear, anger, disgust, happiness, and sadness). Consistency analyses identified brain regions that were associated with a given emotion. Discriminability analyses identified brain regions that were",
"-29.258934777521063"
],
[
"cognitive centers of the brain to the GI tract and vice versa. Emotions have been shown to stimulate colon motor function and result in decreased colonic transit time, increased contractile activity, the induction of defecation, and symptoms of diarrhea.",
"-29.20966304380272"
],
[
"the fact that laughter causes the dilatation of the inner lining of blood vessels, the endothelium, and increases blood flow. Drs. Michael Miller (University of Maryland) and William Fry (Stanford), theorize that beta-endorphin like compounds released by the hypothalamus activate receptors on the endothelial surface to release nitric oxide, thereby resulting in dilation of vessels. Other cardioprotective properties of nitric oxide include reduction of inflammation and decreased platelet aggregation.\nLaughter has proven beneficial effects on various other aspects of biochemistry. It has been shown to lead to reductions in stress hormones such as cortisol and epinephrine. When laughing the",
"-29.18730422052431"
],
[
"are able to appeal to neurological evidence. Neurobiological theories Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures, and postures. This hypothesis that synaptic plasticity is an important part of the neural mechanisms",
"-29.18494202715374"
],
[
"derived. Some theorists, including Darwin, even argued that \"Emotion ... is neuromuscular activity of the face\". Many researchers since have criticized this belief and instead argue that emotions are much more complex than initially thought.\nIn addition to pioneering research in psychology, ethnographic accounts of cultural differences in emotion began to emerge. Margaret Mead, a cultural anthropologist writes about unique emotional phenomena she experienced while living among a small village of 600 Samoans on the island of Ta'u in her book Coming of Age in Samoa. Gregory Bateson, an English anthropologist, social scientist, linguist, and visual anthropologist used",
"-29.13287440012209"
],
[
"of the NHS project at the University of Warwick has collected more such memories on its website, and invites contributions for more.\nResearchers and clinicians hope that humour and laughter may be able to be used to improve human health. The term 'gelotology', to denote the study of laughter, was created in 1964 by Edith Trager and W. F. Fry. One experiment from 2011, led by researchers at the University of Oxford, suggested that watching comedy videos may raise people's pain thresholds, when watched in a group. This effect did not hold when videos were watched alone, or if",
"-29.10941296270903"
],
[
"activation of interoceptors and involving ancient, lower brain regions such as the medulla, midbrain and hypothalamus, and \"classic\" emotions, such as anger, fear and love, driven by distance receptors (vision, hearing, olfaction) and mediated by higher, more recently evolved brain regions.",
"-29.044867550430354"
],
[
"of the brain suggests that cognitive and affective-expressive forms of communication and self-reflection have distinct neural bases. Clinical findings have long suggested that verbalizations are often very incoherent when the individual is trying to put into words something deeply emotional. Identification of words naming emotions (happy, neutral, sad) was found to be faster than identification of corresponding facial expressions. Recognition of face expressions was more difficult to suppress in favor of the recognition of words than vice versa, the two conditions presenting different patterns of brain activation. These experimental results suggest that reading and recognition of face expressions are stimulus-dependent",
"-29.031289748090785"
],
[
"Laughter Nature Laughter might be thought of as an audible expression or appearance of excitement, an inward feeling of joy and happiness. It may ensue from jokes, tickling, and other stimuli completely unrelated to psychological state, such as nitrous oxide. One group of researchers speculated that noises from infants as early as 16 days old may be vocal laughing sounds or laughter, however the weight of the evidence supports its appearance at 15 weeks to four months of age.\nLaughter researcher Robert Provine said: \"Laughter is a mechanism everyone has; laughter is part of universal human vocabulary. There are",
"-29.026278944435035"
],
[
"revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media. Another classic study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions (for example, disgust), they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions. His research findings led him to classify six emotions as basic: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise. Later in his career, Ekman theorized that other universal emotions may exist beyond these six. In light of this, recent cross-cultural studies led",
"-28.991509665516787"
],
[
"such discrete categories of experience. Instead, the empirical evidence suggests that what exists in the brain and body is affect, and emotions are constructed by multiple brain networks working in tandem.\nDespite this evidence, most other theories of emotion assume that emotions are genetically endowed, not learned, and are produced by dedicated circuits in the brain: an anger circuit, a fear circuit, and so on. This point of view is very much in line with common-sense conceptions of emotion. The theory of constructed emotion calls this assumption into question. It suggests that these emotions (often called \"basic emotions\") are not biologically",
"-28.964788935161778"
],
[
"very little to absolutely no show of emotions. Restricted and blunted are, respectively, less severe. Disorders involving these reduced affect displays most commonly include schizophrenia, post traumatic stress disorder, depression, autism and persons with traumatic brain injuries. One study has shown that people with schizophrenia that experience flat affect, can also experience difficulty perceiving the emotions of a healthy individual. Facial paralysis and surgery People who suffer from deformities and facial paralysis are also physically incapable of displaying emotions. This is beginning to be corrected though, through \"Facial Reanimation Surgery\" which is proving not only to successfully improve a patient's",
"-28.93679878918192"
],
[
"with brain regions that implicated in emotion process, the amygdala. Furthermore, viewers mimic the size of their own pupils to those of sad faces they watched. Considering that pupil size is beyond voluntary control, the change of pupil size upon emotion judgment is a good indication that understanding emotions is automatic process. However, the study could not find other emotional faces such as happiness and anger influence pupil size as sadness did. Epistemological role of empathy Understanding other's actions and emotions is believed to facilitate efficient human communication. Based on findings from neuroimaging studies, de Vignemont and Singer proposed",
"-28.925353494065348"
],
[
"years has been researching human emotions, starting with micro-movements of facial muscles and more recently the relationship between powerlessness and health outcomes. Having also written books and co-created one of the most popular MOOCs (massive open online courses) in the country. Keltner started to study psychology around the time that the belief that the methodology of psychological analysis changed dramatically from having implications that the human brain functioned primarily rationalizing and pure facts to toward more of an emotional revolution. Keltner dealt with anxiety throughout his life while growing up and thus set him on his goal to finding what",
"-28.9057898718238"
],
[
"be expanded and when the change is directed to suppressing such displays; the space will be reduced. Physiology Neuroscience has shown that emotions are generated by multiple structures in the brain. The rapid, minimal, and evaluative processing of the emotional significance of the sensory data is done when the data passes through the amygdala in its travel from the sensory organs along certain neural pathways towards the limbic forebrain. Emotion caused by discrimination of stimulus features, thoughts, or memories however occurs when its information is relayed from the thalamus to the neocortex. Based on some statistical analysis, some scholars have",
"-28.85604388875072"
],
[
"emotions such as happiness or fear. This premise also has biological backing. Frontotemporal lobar degeneration Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) is a neurodegenerative disease that attacks the brain selectively in the frontal lobe, temporal lobe and amygdala. Patients suffering from FTLD offer information on the biological complexity involved in generating self-conscious emotions. With the use of a startle experiment (where patients and control participants are exposed to an unexpected and loud sound) it has been shown that sufferers of FTLD show and experience the basic negative emotions expected to be attached to the startling sounds. However they show significantly less signs",
"-28.821727030110196"
],
[
"conclusion corresponds to the known fact that monkeys (as pointed out by Charles Darwin) and even rats (as found recently) possess a sense of humor.\nA practical realization of this algorithm needs extensive databases, whose creation in the automatic regime was suggested recently. Ontic-Epistemic Theory of Humor The Ontic-Epistemic Theory of Humor (OETC) proposed by P. Marteinson (2006) asserts that laughter is a reaction to a cognitive impasse, a momentary epistemological difficulty, in which the subject perceives that Social Being itself suddenly appears no longer to be real in any factual or normative sense. When this occurs material reality, which is",
"-28.74484599508287"
],
[
"laughter at the brain Institute of UCLA at that time, unsuccessfully attempting to measure the electric counterpart in the brain of the moment that initiates laughter. He was the first to discover, in studying voice recognition in 1975 that a speaker's identity, though unimpeded by changes in speed (tempo), was masked by transposition of as little as a semitone in pitch. This seemed to indicate that perfect pitch was involved far more universally than thought possible. He began work on a book on laughter, which, however, was only two thirds completed.\nIn 1977 Rex Hobcroft, director of Sydney's New South",
"-28.711930085511995"
],
[
"Peers continue this process as children develop and mature in effect constraining how, where, why, and with whom certain emotions are expressed\". One study suggests that people tend to exhibit more intense negative facial expressions in solitary conditions, and smile more when others are present. In this experiment, men and women did not differ in their anger expression in non-social conditions. However, women were more likely to express their anger in the solitary condition as opposed to the social condition. Men, on the other hand, seemed to be less concerned with appearing positive to others; they showed no",
"-28.687931674794527"
],
[
"together (coaction condition). Furthermore, levels of laughter were higher when one child listened to funny material in the presence of another child (audience condition) than when one child listened to the funny material alone (alone condition). These results indicate that laughter is also socially facilitated. Prejudice Prejudice is often considered as easily learned and performed response. Therefore, following the logic of Zajonc's drive theory of social facilitation, prejudice then, is also likely to be socially facilitated. That is, individuals may be more likely to express prejudicial views in presence of others than in private. Gender In 1994, De Castro demonstrated",
"-28.684608448804283"
],
[
"brain pathways associated with facial expression; the first is voluntary expression. Voluntary expression travels from the primary motor cortex through the pyramidal tract, specifically the corticobulbar projections. The cortex is associated with display rules in emotion, which are social precepts that influence and modify expressions. Cortically related expressions are made consciously.\nThe second type of expression is emotional. These expressions originate from the extrapyramidal motor system, which involves subcortical nuclei. For this reason, genuine emotions are not associated with the cortex and are often displayed unconsciously. This is demonstrated in infants before the age of two; they display distress, disgust, interest,",
"-28.631255068612518"
],
[
"emotions as such. According to Lucerne's theory emotion is believed to help humans express their feelings. Therefore, emotions are a part of human nature to help us communicate. In addition to Chris Lucerne’s theory, when humans experience a situation good or bad an emotion is triggered. As a result of emotion an action is followed. For example, here are a few emotions listed in Lucerne’s article in which people experience daily. The first is the emotion of happiness, which can ignite the sensation to dance. A second emotion is anger, in which the person begins to feel hot causing him",
"-28.623635287960496"
],
[
"psychological operations interact (not just those involved in valence and arousal), producing distributed patterns of activation across the brain. Because emotions emerge from more basic components, there is heterogeneity within each emotion category; for example, a person can experience many different kinds of fear, which feel differently, and which correspond to different neural patterns in the brain. Thus, this view presents a different approach to understanding the neural bases of emotion than locationist approaches. Phan et al. 2002 In the first neuroimaging meta-analysis of emotion, Phan et al. (2002) analyzed the results of 55 studies published in peer reviewed journal",
"-28.61911065268214"
],
[
"the passing of danger. Friedrich Nietzsche, by contrast, suggested laughter to be a reaction to the sense of existential loneliness and mortality that only humans feel.\nFor example: a joke creates an inconsistency and the audience automatically tries to understand what the inconsistency means; if they are successful in solving this 'cognitive riddle' and they realize that the surprise was not dangerous, they laugh with relief. Otherwise, if the inconsistency is not resolved, there is no laugh, as Mack Sennett pointed out: \"when the audience is confused, it doesn't laugh.\" This is one of the basic laws of a comedian, referred",
"-28.611315726820976"
],
[
"determined that eyes moisten during laughter as a reflex from the tear glands. Negative aspects Laughter is not always a pleasant experience and is associated with several negative phenomena. Excessive laughter can lead to cataplexy, and unpleasant laughter spells, excessive elation, and fits of laughter can all be considered negative aspects of laughter. Unpleasant laughter spells, or \"sham mirth,\" usually occur in people who have a neurological condition, including patients with pseudobulbar palsy, multiple sclerosis and Parkinson's disease. These patients appear to be laughing out of amusement but report that they are feeling undesirable sensations \"at the time",
"-28.58158926057513"
],
[
"experiences could also cause a person to forget what is socially appropriate; which could explain why witzelsucht patients sometimes say hypersexual comments in public. Hypersexuality in the brain The amygdala plays a significant role in processing emotional stimuli and producing affective responses, which in turn is utilized in social interactions. The amygdala regulates the attachment of emotional significance to corresponding sensory stimuli. Lesions in the amygdala do not disrupt a specific sexual mechanism. Instead, they disturb the emotional processing of stimuli, which causes random and/or inappropriate responses. The amygdala has a positive effect on sexual behavior by allowing the appropriate",
"-28.54939531700802"
],
[
"research participants watched videos such as scenes of nature. In 2003, the artist Nicola Green and film-maker Lara Agnew created a 'laughter booth' at the Royal Brompton Hospital. In this booth, patients and staff could watch videos of people laughing. The idea of laughter as healing has also influenced language, through the phrase 'laughter is the best medicine'.",
"-28.525804067772697"
],
[
"emotions based on introspection of those feelings. This is part of Goleman's emotional intelligence. In E.I, attunement is an unconscious synchrony that guides empathy. Attunement relies heavily on nonverbal communication. Looping is where facial expressions can elicit involuntary behavior, In the research motor mimicry there shows neurons that pick up on facial expressions and communicate with motor neurons responsible for muscles in the face to display the same facial expression. Thus displaying a smile may elicit a micro expression of a smile on someone who is trying to remain neutral in their expression.\nThrough fMRI we can see the area",
"-28.51125928879219"
],
[
"between verbal communication and facial expression of emotions in communication, conflicts and misunderstandings can arise.\nUsing the example of smiling, Rainer Krause shows in a (German) presentation the difference between a natural-looking and a phony smile, in which not the same muscles are involved. Significant in this regard is the fact that the muscles of the so-called “lower face” can be consciously controlled much easier than the muscles of the so-called “upper face”. And with a smile that seems spurious, certain muscles of the upper face are not involved. As the “most common emotions that you get to see”, Krause is",
"-28.453016529936576"
],
[
"the Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning (SEAL) project in the UK [DfES, 2005, 2007]).\nThe neural basis of emotional recognition in typically developing children has been investigated, although there is little neuroimaging work on atypically developing children who process emotions differently. Males are commonly over-represented in these atypically developing populations and a female advantage is commonly reported both on EI measures and on most areas of emotion processing. In processing facial expressions the female advantage appears best explained by an integrated account considering both brain maturation and social interaction.\nPrefrontal brain damage in children affects social behavior, causing insensitivity to social",
"-28.439726869240985"
],
[
"anger, contempt, surprise, and fear. Infants' displays of these emotions indicate that they are not cortically related. Similarly, blind children also display emotions, proving that they are subconscious rather than learned. Other subcortical facial expressions include the \"knit brow\" during concentration, raised eyebrows when listening attentively, and short \"punctuation\" expressions to add emphasis during speech. People can be unaware that they are producing these expressions. Neural mechanisms in face perception The amygdala plays an important role in facial recognition. Functional imaging studies have found that when shown pictures of faces, there is a large increase in the activity of the",
"-28.36425047850571"
],
[
"by Daniel Cordaro and Dacher Keltner, both former students of Ekman, extended the list of universal emotions. In addition to the original six, these studies provided evidence for amusement, awe, contentment, desire, embarrassment, pain, relief, and sympathy in both facial and vocal expressions. They also found evidence for boredom, confusion, interest, pride, and shame facial expressions, as well as contempt, interest, relief, and triumph vocal expressions.\nRobert Plutchik agreed with Ekman's biologically driven perspective but developed the \"wheel of emotions\", suggesting eight primary emotions grouped on a positive or negative basis: joy versus sadness; anger versus fear; trust versus disgust; and",
"-28.36237695996533"
],
[
"that the mind and body operate independently in the experience of emotions such that differing brain regions (cortex versus subcortex) process information from an emotion-producing stimulus independently and simultaneously resulting in both an emotional and a physical response. This is best illustrated by imagining an encounter with a grizzly bear; you would simultaneously experience fear, begin to sweat, experience an elevated heart rate, and attempt to run. All of these things would happen at the same time. Two-factor theory Stanley Schachter and his doctoral student Jerome Singer formulated their theory of emotion based on evidence that without an actual emotion-producing",
"-28.36043851411432"
],
[
"cortex occurred either when a person's self-concept was threatened or when the person suffered embarrassment (social pain) caused by salient, upward social-comparison, by social-class snobbery. That social emotions, such as embarrassment, guilt, envy, and Schadenfreude (joy at the misfortune of another person) are correlated to reduced activity in the insular lobe, and with increased activity in the striate nucleus; those neural activities are associated with a reduced sense of empathy (social responsibility) and an increased propensity towards antisocial behavior (delinquency).",
"-28.33294902124726"
],
[
"health care to humans. Psychology examines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as mental processes and behavior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes. In neuroscience sub-fields such as social neuroscience and affective neuroscience, scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. In linguistics, the expression of emotion may change to the meaning of sounds. In education, the role of emotions in relation to learning is examined.\nSocial sciences often examine emotion for the role that it plays in human culture and social interactions. In sociology,",
"-28.313771614120924"
],
[
"temporal gyrus. For the first time, happiness was discriminated from the other emotional categories, with the largest clusters of activity specific to happiness (vs. the other emotion categories) located in right superior temporal gyrus and left rostral anterior cingulate cortex. Sadness was consistently associated with 35 clusters (the largest activation cluster located in the left medial frontal gyrus) and was discriminated from the other emotion categories by significantly greater activity in left medial frontal gyrus, right middle temporal gyrus, and right inferior frontal gyrus. Anger was consistently associated with activity in 13 clusters (the largest of which was located in",
"-28.294663426446277"
],
[
"parts of the brain. Important neurological advances were derived from these perspectives in the 1990s by Joseph E. LeDoux and António Damásio.\nResearch on social emotion also focuses on the physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and humans (see affect display). For example, spite seems to work against the individual but it can establish an individual's reputation as someone to be feared. Shame and pride can motivate behaviors that help one maintain one's standing in a community, and self-esteem is one's estimate of one's status. Somatic theories Somatic theories of emotion claim that bodily responses, rather than cognitive",
"-28.289617183763767"
],
[
"suggest that understanding other's feelings and emotions is driven not by cognitive deduction of what the stimuli means but by automatic activation of somatosensory neurons. A recent study on pupil size directly demonstrated emotion perception was automatic process modulated by mirror systems. When people saw sad faces, pupil sizes influenced viewers in perceiving and judging emotional states without explicit awareness of differences of pupil size. When pupil size was 180% of original size, people perceived a sad face as less negative and less intense than when pupil was smaller than or equal to original pupil size. This mechanism was correlated",
"-28.255250678324956"
],
[
"stimulus, people are unable to attribute specific emotions to their bodily states. They believed that there must be a cognitive component to emotion perception beyond that of just physical changes and subjective feelings. Schachter and Singer suggested that when someone encounters such an emotion-producing stimulus, they would immediately recognize their bodily symptoms (sweating and elevated heart rate in the case of the grizzly bear) as the emotion fear. Their theory was devised as a result of a study in which participants were injected with either a stimulant (adrenaline) that causes elevated heart rate, sweaty palms and shaking, or a placebo.",
"-28.243672376629547"
],
[
"aloud by the participant. As a result, the participants experienced increased neural activity in the anterior cingulate cortex when the experimental exercises provoked psychological dissonance.\nThe study Cognitive Neuroscience of Social Emotions and Implications for Psychopathology: Examining Embarrassment, Guilt, Envy, and Schadenfreude (Jankowski, Takahashi,2014) identified neural correlations to specific social emotions (e.g. envy and embarrassment) as a measure of cognitive dissonance. The neural activity for the emotion of Envy (the feeling of displeasure at the good fortune of another person) was found to draw neural activity from the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex. That such increased activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate",
"-28.24343443538237"
],
[
"with the limbic system, the part of the brain that is thought to be most involved with emotion. This link is important, because if an individual associates positive affect (elicited by pheromones), with a potential mate, their liking for, and attraction to, that potential mate will be increased. Although not a typically evolutionary hypothesis, this hypothesis is one that acknowledges how humans have adapted their mating strategies to modern-day societal norms. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and body odor preferences Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a genotype found in vertebrates, including humans. MHC is thought to contribute to mate choice in",
"-28.171396877718507"
],
[
"faces, reflecting the expressions on their own faces, which seems to help people better understand the other person's emotion. In addition, researchers have also suggested that the neural mechanisms that are activated when personally experiencing emotions are also activated when viewing another person experiencing the same emotions (mirror neurons). Pain seems to specifically activate a region known as the cingulate cortex, in addition to activation that is mentioned earlier. The temporal parietal junction, orbitofrontal cortex, and ventral striatum are also thought to play a role in the production of emotion.\nGenerally, empathic emotions (including sympathy), require the activation of top-down",
"-28.146867426054087"
],
[
"witnessing others' pain. For instance, in Stanley Milgram's obedience experiment, subjects (\"teachers\") were told to shock \"learners\" every time the learners answered a question incorrectly. Although the \"learners\" were not actually shocked, the subjects believed they were. As they were going through the study, many of the \"subjects showed signs of extreme tension and conflict\". Milgram observed some subjects laughing nervously when they heard the \"learners'\" false screams of pain. In A Brief Tour of Human Consciousness, neuroscientist V.S. Ramachandran suggests that laughter is used as a defense mechanism used to guard against overwhelming anxiety. Laughter often diminishes the",
"-28.128357224005413"
],
[
"another situation could arise that is similar, and the recovery of that association and inner response can show up spontaneously as jealousy again. It is why a lot of people say to themselves, \"where does this feeling come from\" or, \"Why did I do that?\" A lot of human reactions are from spontaneous recovery of past associations, not always specifically learned physical behaviours. Neurochemistry For the learning and recall associated with spontaneous recovery to happen, there are specific gyri and neurotransmitters that play a role. Firstly, the cerebellum is needed to acquire certain motor skills and develop an automatic state",
"-28.111918209076975"
],
[
"in his 1996 book, The Emotional Brain, LeDoux developed an interest in the topic of emotion through his doctoral work with Michael Gazzaniga on split-brain patients in the mid-1970s. Because techniques for studying the human brain were limited at the time, he turned to studies of rodents where the brain could be studied in detail. He chose to focus on a simple behavioral model, Pavlovian fear conditioning. This procedure allowed him to follow the flow of information about a stimulus through the brain as it comes to control behavioral responses by way of sensory pathways to the amygdala, and",
"-28.072955567840836"
],
[
"responses due to evolution. It would not be expected to observe the same physiological responses for emotions not specifically linked to survival, such as happiness or sadness.\nEkman's theories were early challenged by James A. Russell, and have since been tested by a variety of researchers, with ambiguous results. This would seem to reflect methodological problems relating to both display rules and to the Components of emotion. Current thinking favors a mix of underlying universality combined with significant cultural differences in the articulation and expression of emotion. The fact that emotions serve different functions in different cultures must also be",
"-28.038271498924587"
],
[
"distinguishes primary and secondary emotions. Both involve changes in bodily states, but the secondary emotions are evoked by thoughts. Recent empirical studies support non-cognitive theories of nature of emotions. It was proven that we can easily evoke our emotions by something as simple as changing facial expression (e.g., smile brings on a feeling of happiness). Sense of touch in affective haptics Human emotions can be easily evoked by different cues, and the sense of touch is one of the most emotionally charged channels. Affective haptic devices produce different senses of touch including kinesthetic and coetaneous channels. Kinesthetic stimulations, which are",
"-28.004696585645434"
],
[
"can influence increased experience of emotions. Another study published in 1943 that studied the fistulated man Tom discovered that if \"Tom was fearful or depressed his gastic activity decreased but when he was angry or hostile his gastric activity increased\". This finding is contrasted by an EGG study by Ercolani et al. who had subjects perform either difficult or easy mental arithmetic or puzzles. They found that new tasks slowed down the myoelectrical activity of the stomach, suggesting that stress tends to impede gastric activity and that this can be picked up on an EGG. While there is still",
"-27.98172314441763"
],
[
"Facial feedback hypothesis The facial feedback hypothesis states that facial movement can influence emotional experience. For example, an individual who is forced to smile during a social event will actually come to find the event unlikely enjoyable. Background Charles Darwin was among the first to suggest that physiological changes caused by an emotion had a direct impact on, rather than being just the consequence of that emotion. He wrote:\nThe free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the other hand, the repression, as far as this is possible, of all outward signs softens our emotions... Even the",
"-27.97837524182978"
],
[
"but emotions and the amygdala are known to play a role in memory encoding, which is typically associated with the hippocampus. Research has found that later memories in childhood have more propositional and emotional content than earlier memories and are rated as more meaningful and vivid. It has been suggested that differences in the emotions experienced by infants and adults may be a cause of childhood amnesia. Whether highly emotional events can stimulate and improve reliable recall (flashbulb memories) is still highly debated.\nSome studies have discovered that emotional experiences are connected with faster retrieval times, leading to the belief that",
"-27.960872698298772"
],
[
"to a body system response to a trigger. Purpose and value One view is that emotions facilitate adaptive responses to environmental challenges. Emotions have been described as a result of evolution because they provided good solutions to ancient and recurring problems that faced our ancestors. Emotions can function as a way to communicate what's important to us, such as values and ethics. However some emotions, such as some forms of anxiety, are sometimes regarded as part of a mental illness and thus possibly of negative value. Classification A distinction can be made between emotional episodes and emotional dispositions. Emotional",
"-27.956911060144193"
],
[
"an audience. Plato discusses the danger of emotions in oratory. He argues that emotional appeal in rhetoric should be used as the means to an end and not the point of the discussion. Contemporary pathos George Campbell, a contributor to the Scottish Enlightenment, was one of the first rhetoricians to incorporate scientific evidence into his theory of emotional appeal. Campbell relied heavily on a book written by physician David Hartley, entitled Observations on Man. The book synthesized emotions and neurology and introduced the concept that action is a result of impression. Hartley determined that emotions drive people to react to",
"-27.92546121484338"
],
[
"causal role in regulating emotional experience and behaviour\", developed almost a century after Darwin. Methodological issues Originally, the facial feedback hypothesis studied the enhancing or suppressing effect of facial efference on emotion in the context of spontaneous, \"real\" emotions, using stimuli. This resulted in \"the inability of research using spontaneous efference to separate correlation from causality\". Laird (1974) used a cover story (measuring muscular facial activity with electrodes) to induce particular facial muscles contraction in his participants without mentioning any emotional state. However, the higher funniness ratings of the cartoons obtained by those participants \"tricked\" into smiling may have been",
"-27.916160841617966"
],
[
"to human life, collective imagination and art, to have a better knowledge of society. One of the theories of the essay is that laughter, as a collective activity, has a social and moral role, in forcing people to eliminate their vices. It is a factor of uniformity of behaviours, as it condemns ludicrous and eccentric behaviours. Ludovici Anthony Ludovici developed the thoughts of Hobbes and Darwin even further in The Secret of Laughter. His conviction is that there's something sinister in laughter, and that the modern omnipresence of humour and the idolatry of it are signs of societal weakness, as",
"-27.894243664261012"
],
[
"Emotionality Emotionality is the observable behavioral and physiological component of emotion. It is a measure of a person's emotional reactivity to a stimulus. Most of these responses can be observed by other people, while some emotional responses can only be observed by the person experiencing them. Observable responses to emotion (i.e., smiling) do not have a single meaning. A smile can be used to express happiness or anxiety, a frown can communicate sadness or anger, and so on. Emotionality is often used by psychology researchers to operationalize emotion in research studies. Early theories of emotion By the late 1800s, many",
"-27.889668004958367"
],
[
"Social emotions Social emotions are emotions that depend upon the thoughts, feelings or actions of other people, \"as experienced, recalled, anticipated or imagined at first hand\". Examples are embarrassment, guilt, shame, jealousy, envy, elevation, empathy, and pride. In contrast, basic emotions such as happiness and sadness only require the awareness of one's own physical state. Therefore, the development of social emotions is tightly linked with the development of social cognition, the ability to imagine other people's mental states, which generally develops in adolescence. Studies have found that children as young as 2 to 3 years of age can express emotions",
"-27.857496099015407"
],
[
"the eventual determination of the neural underpinnings of emotion.\nContemporary\nMore contemporary views along the evolutionary psychology spectrum posit that both basic emotions and social emotions evolved to motivate (social) behaviors that were adaptive in the ancestral environment. Emotion is an essential part of any human decision-making and planning, and the famous distinction made between reason and emotion is not as clear as it seems. Paul D. MacLean claims that emotion competes with even more instinctive responses, on one hand, and the more abstract reasoning, on the other hand. The increased potential in neuroimaging has also allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient",
"-27.83784935222502"
],
[
"such as anger, sadness, or fear, is \"triggered\" by the brain's appraisal of a stimulus or event with respect to the perceiver's goals or survival. In particular, the function, expression, and meaning of different emotions are hypothesized to be biologically distinct from one another. A theme common to many basic emotions theories is that there should be functional signatures that distinguish different emotions: we should be able to tell what emotion a person is feeling by looking at his or her brain activity and/or physiology. Furthermore, knowledge of what the person is seeing or the larger context of the eliciting",
"-27.825527624245296"
],
[
"to dealing with their emotions, children show the ability to learn best by seeing direct examples of instances that led to certain levels of anger. By seeing the reasons why they got angry, they can in the future try to avoid those actions or be prepared for the feeling they experience if they do find themselves doing something that typically results in them being angry.\nThere is not sufficient evidence of this needing to be implemented in elementary schools, but this activity is a common tool used in therapies, so it could lead to children writing down their negative feelings and",
"-27.80856534680788"
],
[
"by the texts they read.\nLaughing: A Psychology of Humor (1982) surveyed theories of laughter. But the book extended the reader-response argument to show, based on a case study of one woman, how what one finds funny, that is, one's sense of humor, expresses one's personal identity. The Delphi Seminar During the 1970s, Holland and his colleague at the State University of New York at Buffalo, Murray Schwartz, developed a style of reader-response teaching that they named the \"Delphi Seminar.\" The original seminar included students and instructors practicing free association responses to poems and stories and subsequent readings of other participants’",
"-27.791728628159035"
],
[
"as being linked to negative emotions, which may help explain why males tend to respond to emotionally stressful stimuli physically. The left amygdala allows for the recall of details, but it also results in more thought rather than action in response to emotionally stressful stimuli, which may explain the absence of physical response in women. Connections The amygdala sends projections to the hypothalamus, the dorsomedial thalamus, the thalamic reticular nucleus, the nuclei of the trigeminal nerve and the facial nerve, the ventral tegmental area, the locus coeruleus, and the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus. The basolateral amygdala projects to the nucleus",
"-27.789684750641754"
],
[
"situation was pleasant and/or non-threatening, and to help prevent it escalating into something like a real fight. This, according to psychologists, is the reason why laughter exists in the first place, suggesting these noises were the dolphin equivalent of a human laugh.",
"-27.787708536343416"
],
[
"when passing a group of people. Blushing is commonly exhibited by individuals suffering from social phobia. These visible symptoms further reinforce the anxiety in the presence of others. A 2006 study found that the area of the brain called the amygdala, part of the limbic system, is hyperactive when patients are shown threatening faces or confronted with frightening situations.\nThey found that patients with more severe social phobia showed a correlation with the increased response in the amygdala. Comorbidity SAD shows a high degree of co-occurrence with other psychiatric disorders. In fact, a population-based study found that 66% of those with",
"-27.741976487537613"
],
[
"suffering associated with a traumatic event.\nIf the individual is shy or bashful and appears nervous when talking, they are likely to exhibit nervous laughter. Individuals who are shy and introverted who find themselves the center of conversational attention often become \"giddy\" with nervous laughter; this is a subconscious response caused by the brain over-thinking due to social anxiety or inexperience.",
"-27.722878761142056"
],
[
"to better assess and interpret the emotions of others. Prosocial behaviours have been observed in children 1–2 years old. Through self-report methods it is difficult to measure emotional responses as they are not as able to report these responses as well as adult. This is representative of an increased efficiency of and ability to engage in internal moral reasoning. Theory of mind The development of theory of mind, or the ability to view the world from perspectives of other people, is strongly associated with the development of sympathy and other complex emotions. These emotions are complex because they involve more",
"-27.719249290850712"
],
[
"is completely isolated.\nVicarious embarrassment, like other vicarious emotions, presents symptoms that reflect the original emotion. However, unlike shared emotions, the experience of embarrassment for the observer is dependent on how they normally experience embarrassment. Individuals who experience social anxiety in their own life may experience the familiar symptoms of blushing, excess sweating, trembling, palpitations, and nausea. Other, less severe symptoms may include cringing, looking away, or general discomfort. Empathy Vicarious embarrassment, also known as empathetic embarrassment, is intrinsically linked to empathy. Empathy is the ability to understand the feelings of another and is considered a highly reinforcing emotion to promote",
"-27.654823627206497"
],
[
"simulation of an emotion tends to arouse it in our minds.\nFollowing on this idea, William James proposed that, contrary to common belief, awareness of bodily changes activated by a stimulus \"is the emotion\". If no bodily changes are felt, there is only an intellectual thought, devoid of emotional warmth. In The Principles of Psychology, James wrote: \"Refuse to express a passion, and it dies\".\nThis proved difficult to test, and little evidence was available, apart from some animal research and studies of people with severely impaired emotional functioning. The facial feedback hypothesis, \"that skeletal muscle feedback from facial expressions plays a",
"-27.65443487369339"
],
[
"emotion, because when a mix of structural cues is used, a number of emotions may be conveyed. Development Studies indicate that the ability to understand emotional messages in music starts early, and improves throughout child development. Studies investigating music and emotion in children primarily play a musical excerpt for children and have them look at pictorial expressions of faces. These facial expressions display different emotions and children are asked to select the face that best matches the music's emotional tone. Studies have shown that children are able to assign specific emotions to pieces of music; however, there is debate regarding",
"-27.637899262379506"
],
[
"to everyone and it provides benefits to a person's physical, emotional, and social well being. Some of the benefits of using laughter therapy are that it can relieve stress and relax the whole body. It can also boost the immune system and release endorphins to relieve pain. Additionally, laughter can help prevent heart disease by increasing blood flow and improving the function of blood vessels. Some of the emotional benefits include diminishing anxiety or fear, improving overall mood, and adding joy to one's life. Laughter is also known to reduce allergic reactions in a preliminary study",
"-27.596484867659456"
],
[
"emotion (the medial Prefrontal cortex, the posterior Cingulate cortex/Precuneus, the posterior Superior temporal sulcus/Inferior parietal lobule and the Amygdala), while when they responded to impersonal dilemmas, they displayed increased activity in regions of the brain associated with working memory (the Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the Parietal lobe). In recent work, Greene has stated that the Amygdala is primarily responsible for the emotional response, whilst the Ventromedial prefrontal cortex is responsible for weighing up the consequentialist response against the emotional response. Thus, three brain regions are primarily implicated in the making of moral judgements. This gives way to",
"-27.585930336877936"
],
[
"as contractions in the upper cheek muscles. Further affects that seem to be missing for Tomkins's taxonomy include relief, resignation, and confusion, among many others.\nThe affect joy is observed through the display of smiling. These affects can be identified through immediate facial reactions that people have to a stimulus, typically well before they could process any real response to the stimulus.\nThe findings from a study on negative affect arousal and white noise by Stanley S. Seidner \"support the existence of a negative affect arousal mechanism through observations regarding the devaluation of speakers from other Spanish ethnic origins\". Criticism Many scholars,",
"-27.57723961235024"
],
[
"Ramachandran also speculated, object recognition and the search for meaning can evoke a pleasant emotional response. The motor cortex was also shown to be involved in aesthetic perception. However, it displayed opposite trends of activation from the OFC. It may be a common correlate for the perception of emotionally charged stimuli despite its previously known roles. Several other areas of the brain were shown to be slightly activated during certain studies such as the anterior cingulate cortex, previously known for its involvement in the feeling of romance, and the left parietal cortex, whose purpose may be to direct spatial attention.\nDifferent",
"-27.540639560917043"
],
[
"that people attach their egos to their sense of humor before anything else. After I read it, I saw that trait in many people…a sense of humor is important to understanding what kind of person someone is. Studying metaphysics was also crucial, but Koestler's book really was the big one for me.\" As a consequence, the Smile songs are replete with word play, puns, colloquialisms, vernacular, double entendres, slang, and miscellaneous dialect. At one stage, Wilson apparently toyed with the idea of devoting Smile as a comedy album and a number of scrapped recordings were made in this vein. David",
"-27.519018781822524"
],
[
"thesis of the work is that laughter is a corrective evolved to make social life possible for human beings. We laugh at people who fail to adapt to the demands of society if it seems their failure is akin to an inflexible mechanism. Comic authors have exploited this human tendency to laugh in various ways, and what is common to them is the idea that the comic consists in there being \"something mechanical encrusted on the living\".\nIn 1901 the Académie des sciences morales et politiques elected Bergson as a member, and he became a member of the Institute. In 1903",
"-27.485137347481214"
],
[
"a connection between specific emotions and a corresponding pattern of physiological responses, although it is said that these attempts have rendered unsuccessful conclusions. Theories of emotional response The significant theories of emotion can be divided into three primary categories: physiological, neurological, and cognitive. Physiological theories imply that activity within the body can be accountable for emotions. Neurological theories suggest that activity within the brain leads to emotional responses. Lastly, cognitive theories reason that thoughts and other mental activity have a vital role in the stimulation of emotions. Common-sense suggests that people first become consciously aware of their emotions and that",
"-27.445329106762074"
],
[
"affect Pseudobulbar affect (PBA) is a condition that is characterized by episodes of uncontrollable laughter or crying. It mostly occurs in people suffering from certain neurological injuries that affect the way their brain controls emotions. Scientists believe PBA may be a result of damage to the prefrontal cortex, which is the area of the brain that controls emotions. Because PBA often involves crying, the condition may be mistaken for depression. However, PBA is a neurological condition, while depression is psychological. People suffering from PBA do not experience some of the typical depression symptoms such as sleep disturbances or loss",
"-27.42480791580556"
],
[
"scientists and philosophers who were working in the beginning stages of the field of psychology.\nIn medical research, speechlessness was described as an incorrect prognosis, and there was no assumption that underlying language complications existed. Broca and his colleagues were some of the first to write about aphasia, but Wernicke was the first credited to have written extensively about aphasia being a disorder that contained comprehension difficulties. Despite claims of who reported on aphasia first, it was F.J. Gall that gave the first full description of aphasia after studying wounds to the brain, as well as his observation of speech",
"-27.31843963553547"
]
] |
2ok0m8 | Whats the reasoning for Nordic Countries such as Denmark and Sweden actively accepting so many refugees? | [
"it's called humanity. Scandinavian people are more concerned with who they are and what they will become then they are concerned with who others are and what they could do to them. They see the oppertunity that people bring, not the dangers that they could create, and strive to increase the opperunity rather then obstruct it, resulting in less trouble from migrants and more positive results.",
"Because its the right thing to do, they wouldn't be some of the worlds happiest countries if they didn't care about peoples well being.",
"Too many people think they can save the world by accepting immigrants and asylum seekers. They refuse to admit that a huge bunch of them are luck seekers and are only after our benefits. Granted there are many successful immigrants, there are far too many that contribute little or negatively to our society and make it an unsafe place to live. They often gather in the large cities and in malmø and soon oslo there are ghetto areas that white people avoid. A large number of people are very disgruntled with this policy, but the leftists put a racist stigma on anyone who air this opinion. Fact is, with the huge amount of resources these immigrants cost our society in the long run we could actually help them in their own country to a much better effect. We take in one family that are quite likely to be failures in our society and with the resources they cost we could help ten families where they are instead. TL:DR, it is a terrible policy but the political climate does not allow sensible opinions without racist stigma.",
"extreme liberal guilt for being hard-working and productive. Many think they 'owe' others something. But the backlash and buyer's remorse has already started..multiculturalism is a failure."
] | [
[
"other countries facing the strongest influx of refugees without quotas.\n Denmark – Denmark temporarily closed rail links with Germany in September to stop migrants from illegally entering the country, and the E45 Motorway due to migrants on the road. Denmark used the second highest amount on asylum seekers among European nations in 2015, compared to GDP (0.47 percent of GDP, after Sweden at 0.5 percent, followed by Germany and Italy at 0.2 percent, with remaining lower). This is expected to rise in 2016.\nIn December 2015, the Danish Government announced that it would introduce new laws that will allow confiscation of cash",
"-32.311982705505216"
],
[
"3,500 of these applied for asylum in Denmark and the remaining continued to other Nordic countries.\nAfter Sweden introduced ID checks on the Danish border to prevent undocumented migrants from coming to Sweden, Denmark also reintroduced border controls on the Danish-German border in January 2016, wanting to avoid predicted accumulation of illegal migrants on their way to Sweden as one of the reasons for this decision. As of September 2019, the border control remains.\nIn October 2016 Danish immigration minister Inger Støjberg authorities reported 50 cases of suspected radicalised asylum seekers at asylum centres. The reports encompassed everything from adult Islamic State",
"-31.970758332274272"
],
[
"such as Iran and Sri Lanka. In the 1990s, war refugees from the Balkans were the predominant immigrant group accepted into Norway; a large number of which have since returned home to Kosovo. Since the end of the 1990s, new groups of asylum seekers from countries such as Iraq, Somalia, and Afghanistan arrived.\nThe Dublin Regulation in 2001 states that non-European refugees applying for asylum in a Dublin country, will only get their application processed once, in the country where they first apply for asylum.\nDuring the European migrant crisis in 2015, a total of 31,145 asylum seekers crossed the Norwegian border",
"-31.953164091915824"
],
[
"resettle asylum seekers who have been determined to be genuine refugees.\nIndividual countries have at times re-introduced border controls within the Schengen Area and rifts have emerged between countries willing to allow entry of asylum seekers for processing of refugee claims and other countries trying to discourage their entry.\nAccording to Eurostat, EU member states received over 1.2 million first-time asylum applications in 2015, more than double that of the previous year. Four states (Germany, Hungary, Sweden and Austria) received around two-thirds of the EU's asylum applications in 2015, with Hungary, Sweden and Austria being the top recipients of asylum applications per",
"-31.710108854982536"
],
[
"to 25% and the tests were widended to migrants from other regions.\nBy september 2019, 15 foreign residents who had travelled from Norway to Syria or Iraq to join the Islamic State had their residence permits revoked. Refugees in Norway One cause of immigration in the 20th and 21st century is the need for protection in a new country, due to wars or riots in the migrants' home countries. In the 1950s, refugees came from Hungary to Norway, and in the 1970s from Chile and Vietnam. In the mid-1980s, there was an increase in the number of asylum seekers from countries",
"-31.37286653238698"
],
[
"border, and the Norwegian government vowed to send all migrants with Russian residence visa back to Russia even if they were from countries experiencing conflicts such as Afghanistan. In 2016, 5,500 asylum-seekers illegally entered Norway from Russia. Norway began sending migrants back to conflict-torn countries of origin, such as Afghanistan, defying Amnesty International. The number of migrants returned from Europe to Afghanistan between 2015–16 nearly tripled from 3290 to 9460. Because it is illegal to drive from Russia to Norway without proper legal permission, and crossing on foot is prohibited, the migrants make the crossing on bicycles. It was in",
"-31.17810181278037"
],
[
"in 2015. The number had not been as high since the Balkan wars in 1990s. Most of the asylum seekers came from Afghanistan and Syria. In 2016, the number was dramatically reduced by almost 90%. In 2016, 3460 asylum seekers came to Norway. This was partly due to the stricter border control in Europe. The EU-Turkey agreement, implemented 20 March 2016, was made in order strengthen organized channels of immigration to Europe, and prevent irregular migration from Turkey to the EU.\nAs part of the UN, Norway receives UN quota refugees. In 2015, the Norwegian government announced that they would receive",
"-31.162390738598333"
],
[
"border checks on the Øresund Bridge between Denmark and Sweden and public transport operators were instructed to only let people wih residence in Sweden board trains or buses. The measures reduced the number of asylum seekers from 163 000 in 2015 to 29 000 in 2016.\nIn 2018, a poll by Pew Research found that a small majority (52%) wanted fewer immigrants to be allowed into the country, 33% wanted to keep the current level and 14% wanted to increase immigration.\nAccording to a 2018 Yougov poll, 60% of Swedes opposed accepting more migrants into the country. Switzerland Switzerland has a history",
"-31.161855664569885"
],
[
"Sweden voluntarily prefer to emigrate back to their country of origin. As more state funds are made free from funding mass immigration, SD believes that Sweden will be better able to help refugees in their own nearby locations.\nSD has referred to the recommendations from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) which state that the return of refugees should be the solution to refugee problems. Torbjörn Kastell (former party secretary from 2003 to 2004) said in 2002 that the party wanted \"a multicultural world, not a multicultural society\". In a 2008 survey, a significant minority of 39% of all",
"-31.125151481197463"
],
[
"in Denmark as a \"vehicle of progressive change.\" Refugees and asylum seekers Denmark is argued by some to have some of Europe's \"most aggressive anti-immigrant policies.\" The people of Denmark are largely divided in their opinions on immigration - some accepting of it and others who are concerned and thus want restrictive policies in place.\nIn 2016, the Danish annulled its agreement with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) that stated that it would receive 500 refugees on a annual basis for resettlement.\nIn 2018, Denmark announced that it would no longer resettle refugees under the United Nation's quota system,",
"-30.774064160075795"
],
[
"According to the European Council on Refugees and Exiles, a network of European refugee-assisting non-governmental organizations (NGOs), huge differences exist between national asylum systems in Europe, making the asylum system a 'lottery' for refugees. For example, Iraqis who flee their home country and end up in Germany have an 85% chance of being recognised as a refugee and those who apply for asylum in Slovenia do not get a protection status at all. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom the Asylum Support Partnership was created to enable all the agencies working to support and assist asylum seekers in making asylum",
"-30.555190123210195"
],
[
"Swedes thought that there were \"too many foreigners in the country\", and in 2007 a survey showed that 49% of all Swedes wanted to restrict the number of asylum-seekers. In recent years SD has tried to approach the immigration policy of the Danish People's Party, which from 2001 to 2011 provided parliamentary support for the former Danish liberal/conservative government in return for a tightening of Danish immigration policies and stricter naturalization laws.\nAccording to Aftonbladet, 14% of SD members are of immigrant origin, which matches the share of foreign-born inhabitants of Sweden. For the 2010 election in the municipality of Södertälje (Stockholm County),",
"-29.916249427071307"
],
[
"local authorities had estimated the flow of 300 asylum seekers per day entering via the northern land border from Sweden into Tornio, which is the main route of migration flow into Finland. The total number of asylum seekers for the year was reported to be over 2.6 times the total amount for the whole of the previous year. During October 2015, 7,058 new asylum seekers arrived in Finland. In mid-October the number of asylum seekers entering Finland during 2015 reached 27,000, which is, in relation to the country's size, the fourth-largest in Europe. In late November, the number passed 30,000,",
"-29.664272914006688"
],
[
"number of asylum applications lodged by Syrian refugees in Europe steadily increased between 2011 and 2015, totaling 813,599 in 37 European countries (including both EU members and non-members) as of November 2015; 57 percent of them applied for asylum in Germany or Serbia. The largest single recipient of new asylum seekers worldwide in 2014 was the Russian Federation, with 274,700 asylum requests. Migration to Greece and Bulgaria 2007–2015 Between 2007 and 2011, large numbers of migrants from the Middle East and Africa crossed between Turkey and Greece, leading Greece and the European Border Protection agency Frontex to upgrade border controls.",
"-29.650011373727466"
],
[
"in large part because the languages are mutually intelligible especially in the border regions.\nEven in modern times, there have been serious talks of a Nordic Union, either within or in competition with the European Union, and a Nordic Passport Union has been in existence since 1952, allowing all citizens of the Nordic countries to travel freely without documents.",
"-29.637832699343562"
],
[
"in 1954 and implemented on 1 May 1958, allows citizens of the Nordic countries: Denmark (Faroe Islands included since 1 January 1966, Greenland not included), Sweden, Norway (Svalbard, Bouvet Island and Queen Maud Land not included), Finland and Iceland (since 24 September 1965) to cross approved border districts without carrying and having their passport checked. Other citizens can also travel between the Nordic countries' borders without having their passport checked, but still have to carry some sort of approved travel identification documents. As of November 2015, there are temporary border controls set up between Denmark and Sweden. These border controls",
"-29.50662434105834"
],
[
"Soviet Union annexed these parts again from Finland, the population there had to be evacuated yet again. These evacuees were housed and settled to the remainder of Finland by the state. Modern day The most common reasons to immigrate to Finland were family reasons (32%), work (30%) and studying (21%).\nIn 2017, hundreds of Muslim asylum seekers from Iraq and Afghanistan converted to Christianity after having had their first asylum application rejected by the Finnish Immigration Service (Migri), in order to re-apply for asylum on the grounds of religious persecution. Employment Around 20,000 immigrants in Finland are searching for jobs.\nAround 70%",
"-29.46640900793136"
],
[
"inadequate protection capacity, resettlement remains the most viable option for UN mandated refugees. It is estimated that there are thousands of UN mandated refugees in Russia who have been in the Russian asylum system for five years or more. For these individuals especially, resettlement to Western Europeans countries and to North America is very desirable – where they can actually settle. The UNHCR works with the migration offices of these countries and attempts to find these mandated refugees a home. Present Day Conditions for Asylum Seekers in Russia The conditions for asylum seekers in Russia are generally",
"-29.411529361634166"
],
[
"were set up to tackle the issue with immigrants coming to Sweden in relation to the ongoing European migrant crisis\nSince 1996, these countries have been part of the larger EU directive Schengen Agreement area, comprising 30 countries in Europe. Border checkpoints have been removed within the Schengen zone and only a national ID card is required. Within the Nordic area any means of proving one's identity, e.g. a driving licence, is valid for Nordic citizens because of the Nordic Passport Union.\nSince 25 March 2001, the Schengen acquis has fully applied to the five countries of the Nordic Passport Union (except",
"-29.35071460110339"
],
[
"be deported from Norway. \"Asylum children\" case By late 2014 Anundsen became the subject of a controversy surrounding the deportation of so-called \"long-term asylum children\", children of asylum seekers who have had their application rejected, only to continue living in Norway illegally for several years. While the government's expressed policy has introduced measures to deport record numbers of illegal immigrants, it was revealed by Bergens Tidende that twice as many families had been sent out of Norway in 2014 than in 2013, despite that as part of the new government platform the Liberal and Christian Democratic parties had secured support",
"-29.073825032261084"
],
[
"Law. Since then, in Germany's neighbouring countries, more specifically known as \"safe third countries\", the expected number of asylum seekers sank steadily, from roughly 320,000 in 1993 to 28,018 in 2008. It was decided that asylum seekers would only have the chance of a favourable decision if they arrive by air. As a part of the \"Asylum Compromise\", transient asylum seekers, who have landed in Germany and are still within the transit area, will be subject to accelerated asylum procedures. According to the rules, the decision on their application must be made within 2 days; the objection period is only",
"-29.028685428616882"
],
[
"smaller boats over the Baltic Sea. Many refugees who survived the risky sea voyage to Sweden or Germany later moved from there to Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States or Australia. Some of these refugees and their descendants returned to Estonia after the nation regained its independence in 1991.\nOver the years of independence, increasing numbers of Estonians have chosen to work abroad, primarily in Finland, but also in other European countries (mostly in the UK, Benelux, Sweden, and Germany), making Estonia the country with the highest emigration rate in Europe. This is at least partly due to the easy",
"-28.965095546504017"
],
[
"was mostly caused by significantly fewer violations off the alien law, because far fewer asylum seekers entered the country in this year.\nThe first comprehensive study of the social effects of the one million refugees going to Germany found that it caused \"very small increases in crime in particular with respect to drug offenses and fare-dodging.\" A report released by the German Federal Office of Criminal Investigation in November 2015 found that over the period January–September 2015, the crime rate of refugees was the same as that of native Germans. According to Deutsche Welle, the report \"concluded that the majority of",
"-28.88215806122753"
],
[
"with the 2015 Syrian refugee crisis Sweden adopted new border controls and cut benefits that refugees had previously had. Sweden introduced an amendment to their asylum seeker policies which prevented entitlement to \"accommodation, subsistence allowance and special aid\" for adult asylum seekers with no children and who have had their applications rejected. These emergency measures breached asylum-seekers fundamental rights such as the right to family reunification.",
"-28.848217785503948"
],
[
"complete stop to all immigration from non-Western countries, a continuation of a proposal the month before to toughen the 24-year rule. They do, however, make the distinction between immigrants, those who intend to stay in Denmark permanently, and refugees, those that will only be in Denmark for the duration of the conflict, but ultimately intend to return home. The party has stated that it is more than happy to help those in need, but have a moral responsibility to the people of Denmark to keep Denmark Danish.\nCooperation with the Conservative-Liberal coalition government resulted in the implementation of some of their",
"-28.70905331557151"
],
[
"Nordic Passport Union Establishment The Nordic Passport Union was established in three stages. In 1952, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland agreed to abolish passports for travel between them and to readmit citizens of other countries who had entered illegally into one of the four countries from another. On 1 July 1954, the agreement was extended to allow citizens to reside and work in any of the four countries without a residence or work permit. Iceland implemented the agreement on 1 January 1966. Passport checks for citizens of non-member countries at the borders between member countries were removed by a treaty",
"-28.59452571166912"
],
[
"to grant asylum to political refugees throughout the war, and in 1942 groups persecuted for other reasons were also admitted by Swedish officials. The escape from Norway usually involved transport by train or side roads to areas near the border, and then clandestine passage on foot, skis and occasionally boat to the Swedish border. Swedish border officials (landfiskaler) accepted the refugees and sent them to transit centers.\nAfter Öreryd in Småland proved inadequate, on June 15, 1942, Kjesäter was designated as the main assembly and transit point for refugees who had fled the Nazi German occupation of Norway by crossing the",
"-28.584068433614448"
],
[
"only 744 of which were extended asylum status in the country by July 2017. In 2016 the Pew Research Center found that from July 2015 to May 2016 there was an increase in percentage point of the refugee population in many European countries, however Spain was one of the few that experienced a decrease. The difficulty with refugees successfully immigrating to Spain has led to some researchers such as Kitty Calavita to suggest that the country's marginalization and social and economic exclusion are primarily produced by law, rather than culture. Hungary In 1956–57 following the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 nearly",
"-28.54030148583479"
],
[
"more difficulty when attempting to bring family into the country. Non-Europeans must find jobs for their family members before they would be allowed to enter the country, and since preference is given to members of the European Union, finding jobs becomes more problematic. Passports and visas Nordic Country members do not require any form of travel document or work permit to enter the country and are also provided the right to remain in Iceland for more than six months by providing a Nordic change of residence certificate.\nCitizens of countries from the EU also do not require a visa and are",
"-28.482137103637797"
],
[
"country of origin\" or a \"safe third country\" can no longer claim political asylum on account of feeling in danger. In 1993, the law to give benefits for asylum seekers was introduced. It stated, amongst other things, that foreigners who from the start have been dependent on government aid, were to receive a lower amount than Germans and any others of equal status. The amount fell by almost 40%, to a smaller amount than the unemployment benefit (Arbeitslosengeld II LINK). In 1997 the Dublin convention was concluded, through which the German refugee policy was secured according to the European Community",
"-28.461970246135024"
],
[
"Nordic Passport Union and the Schengen Area, which now is under EU law, as a non-voting participant. Iceland's participation in the Schengen Area allows free movement of people between Iceland and the rest of the Schengen Area. Several thousand Icelanders travel to and study or work in the EU. A large majority of foreigners in Iceland come from the EU. Iceland is also associated with the Dublin Convention on justice and home affairs cooperation. Iceland also has links to several EU member states through its membership of the Nordic Council. Use of the euro During the 2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis,",
"-28.435288048465736"
],
[
"EU members and non-members).\nAs of 2017, 55 percent of refugees worldwide came from three nations: South Sudan, Afghanistan, and Syria. Of all displaced peoples, 17 percent of them are being hosted in Europe. As of April 2018, 15,481 refugees have successfully arrived to the shores of Europe via sea within the first few months of the year alone. There was an estimated 500 that have died in this year alone. In 2015, there was a total of 1.02 million arrivals by sea. Since then, the influx has steadily decreased but is ongoing nonetheless. Syria The greatest number of refugees fleeing",
"-28.156200509227347"
],
[
"LEA in Karlsruhe, which had a capacity of 1000, took in 3500 people.\n \nIt proved to be difficult to register newcomers quickly, and furthermore to quickly separate the refugees who had to be sheltered because of the Geneva Convention on Refugees, from those migrants who are not legally entitled to stay in Germany. Locating the illegal entrants as well as the fast deportation of those who did not have the right of residence also proved to be difficult. Above all, this situation led to a controversial, nationwide debate over the German refugee policy. \nOn February 17, 2016, shortly before the",
"-28.15351502376143"
],
[
"Aliens with residence permits are allowed to stay up to three months in other Nordic countries, except for seeking employment or conducting business.\nAliens who are denied entry into one Nordic country should also be denied entry into the other Nordic countries. The Nordic countries are also obliged to readmit aliens that should have been denied entry at the first point of entry.",
"-28.139713744749315"
],
[
"enforced inside Nordic countries, at least not before 2015. Abolition of passport for Nordic citizens The protocol concerning the abolition of passports for travel between Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Norway was signed on 14 July 1952, in Stockholm.\nThis protocol was implemented by the individual but concurrent decisions of the four governments. It abolished the need for citizens of the four countries to carry a passport when travelling in the three other countries provided that the trip was for such a short time that a residence permit was not necessary.\nThe agreement could be revoked in case of war, danger of war,",
"-28.114896389015485"
],
[
"asylum and subscribed to a \"safe country of transit\" policy, which required asylum seekers who transited a country determined to be \"safe\" to return to that country to seek refugee status. With the expansion of the European Union (EU) this concept has lost some of its importance because upon their accession, neighboring Slovenia, the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, and Hungary became subject to the EU provisions that establish criteria and mechanisms for determining the EU member state responsible for examining an asylum application. In 2005 new legislation introduced stricter detention and removal policies as part of a stronger enforcement",
"-28.099312820559135"
],
[
"other's missions abroad. The Memorandum made it easier for the Nordic and Baltic countries to maintain a diplomatic presence around the world by enabling flexible and cost-effective solutions. This reinforced diplomatic cooperation coincided with the twentieth anniversary of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania regaining their freedom and re-establishing diplomatic relations with other countries. The memorandum regulates the diplomatic and practical aspects of posting diplomats to the mission abroad of another Nordic or Baltic country. NB6 - cooperation among Nordic and Baltic EU Member States Since 1 May 2004, six Nordic and Baltic countries (Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) are",
"-27.98885130850249"
],
[
"the free movement of people, labour, goods, and capital across national borders. Nordic countries Since the end of the Second World War, the following organisations have been established in the Nordic region:\nThe Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers is a co-operation forum for the parliaments and governments of the Nordic countries created in February 1953. It includes the states of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, and their autonomous territories (Greenland, Faroe Islands and Åland).\nThe Nordic Passport Union, created in 1954 but implemented on 1 May 1958, establishes free movement across borders without passports for the countries' citizens.",
"-27.977701104187872"
],
[
"to slow down first.\nOn 22 September 2015, European Union interior ministers meeting in the Justice and Home Affairs Council approved a plan to relocate 120,000 asylum seekers over two years from the frontline states Italy, Greece and Hungary to all other EU countries (except Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom which have opt-outs). The relocation plan applies to asylum seekers \"in clear need of international protection\" (those with a recognition rate higher than 75 percent, i.e. Syrians, Eritreans and Iraqis) – 15,600 from Italy, 50,400 from Greece and 54,000 from Hungary – who will be distributed among EU states on",
"-27.89509843631822"
],
[
"plan was rejected because only a few refugees could be accommodated up elsewhere during the year 1990 and it was likely to accommodate new refugees from the Soviet Union in January 1991.\nIn 1993, the refugee camp was renamed the Asylum Office of the Federal Ministry of the Interior (\"Bundesbetreuungsstelle für Asylwerber\").\nIn 2015, as a result of the European migrant crisis, the Asylum Office in Traiskirchen had to admit a rising number of illegal immigrants. Due to heavy criticism by the press and civilians alike, Amnesty International inspected the facility on August 6, 2015.\nMore than 4500 people were accommodated by the",
"-27.87915889598662"
],
[
"refugees.\nIn 2016, 85.8 percent of refugees in Switzerland received welfare payments. Turkey The vast majority of migrants and refugees entering Europe by sea in 2015, nearly half million by September, arrived from Turkey, according to the United Nations. Turkish officials attempting to deter migration facilitated by smugglers have detained 57,000 travellers and over 100 human traffickers in 2015 through September. Deaths and incidents Several serious accidents and deaths have occurred in Europe as a result of migrant smuggling, both in the Mediterranean Sea, due to the capsizing of crowded and unseaworthy migrant smuggling vessels, and on European soil, due to",
"-27.852209143631626"
],
[
"million unemployed immigrants in Sweden are a ticking bomb.\nIn December 2017 Minister for Finance Magdalena Andersson stated in an interview with Dagens Nyheter that integration of immigrants had not worked well in Sweden since before 2015 and that the situation had become very strained since. Andersson added that the possibilities were greater in other European countries to receive housing and education where the asylum process is quicker. She also expressed that the Swedish Social Democratic Party should be self-critical about that Sweden cannot receive more migrants than society has the capacity to assimilate.",
"-27.807185312150978"
],
[
"Russian forces – I can't find any other reason for them other than to cause refugees to be on the move and make them someone else's problem.\" He also claimed that criminals, extremists and fighters were hiding in the flow of migrants.\nRussian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev said: \"It's quite simply stupid to open Europe's doors wide and invite in everyone who wants to come to your country. European migration policy is a total failure, all that is absolutely frightening.\"\nIn June 2016, exiled Cuban journalist Carlos Alberto Montaner suggested that France could establish a refugee state in French Guiana.\nOn 18 June",
"-27.754502586554736"
],
[
"Russians in Finland History The first migratory wave of Russians began in the early 18th century, when Finland was part of the Swedish Empire. About 40,000 Russian soldiers, civilian workers, and about 600 businessmen moved to the Grand Duchy of Finland, which became part of the Russian Empire in 1809. When Finland became independent in 1917, many soldiers returned to Russia. Many businessmen stayed, including the Sinebrychoff family. During the Russian Revolution many aristocrats and officers fled to Finland as refugees. The biggest refugee wave was in 1922 when about 33,500 people came to Finland. Many of them had Nansen",
"-27.72303849864693"
],
[
"less than one week), as opposed to the exit visa normally required of all individuals leaving Russia (which could take several months). Local Integration According to the Law on Refugees, Government recognized refugees can apply for citizenship. Nevertheless, there are significant legal obstacles for their acquisition of citizenship due to the restrictive registration system, which required proof of adequate income. Local integration, though typically desirable, is an unrealistic goal for most asylum seekers as the Russian government does not recognize the UN mandated refugees. Resettlement The most common solution for UN recognized refugees is resettlement. Due to",
"-27.715294583758805"
],
[
"immediately fled to Germany. Czech Prime Minister Bohuslav Sobotka stated that this signals that quota system will not work either.\nOn 7 September 2015, France announced that it would accept 24,000 asylum-seekers over two years; Britain announced that it would take in up to 20,000 refugees, primarily vulnerable children and orphans from camps in Jordan, Lebanon and Turkey; and Germany pledged US$6.7 billion to deal with the migrant crisis. However, also on 7 September 2015, both Austria and Germany warned that they would not be able to keep up with the current pace of the influx and that it would need",
"-27.70209348573917"
],
[
"the Nordic countries can reside without residence permit in any other Nordic country.\nPolice authorities in the Nordic countries shall make all necessary information available to ascertain a person's identity and citizenship in a Nordic country. Removal of passport checks at the internal Nordic borders The agreement between Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden to remove passport control at the internal Nordic borders, was signed on 12 July 1957 in Copenhagen and came into force on 1 May 1958.\nThis agreement removed all passport checks at the internal Nordic borders, and required the Nordic countries to uphold passport control at the external borders.",
"-27.701471154025057"
],
[
"of Nordic countries the right to freely travel to and reside in other Nordic countries without a passport or residence permit. Gulf Cooperation Council Citizens of member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) have freedom of movement throughout the GCC, including the right to reside and work in other GCC states with almost no restrictions. Common Travel Area The Common Travel Area (CTA) consists of the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, and the UK's surrounding island territories. British and Irish citizens can move freely throughout the CTA without a passport and only minimal identity documents, and are subject to",
"-27.67964950753958"
],
[
"consider themselves Nordic rather than Baltic, in particular because of close ethnic and linguistic affinities with the Finns.\nAfter the Treaty of Tartu (1920) recognised Estonia's 1918 independence from Russia, ethnic Estonians residing in Russia gained the option of opting for Estonian citizenship (those who opted were called optandid - 'optants') and returning to their fatherland. An estimated 40,000 Estonians lived in Russia in 1920. In sum, 37,578 people moved from Soviet Russia to Estonia (1920–1923). Emigration During World War II, when Estonia was invaded by the Soviet Army in 1944, large numbers of Estonians fled their homeland on ships or",
"-27.641850379062817"
],
[
"national public-broadcasting company, reported that a Russian border guard had admitted that the Federal Security Service was enabling migrants to enter Finland.\nIn 2017, hundreds Muslim asylum seekers from Iraq and Afghanistan converted to Christianity after having had their first asylum application rejected by the Finnish Immigration Service (Migri), in order to re-apply for asylum on the grounds of religious persecution. Greece Migrants arrive from the Middle East making the 6-kilometre (4 mi) water crossing to the Greek islands of Chios, Kos, Lesbos, Leros, Kastellorizo, Agathonisi, Farmakonisi, Rhodes, Samos, Symi and other islands which are close to Turkey and are thus a",
"-27.635254462482408"
],
[
"The main countries of origin of asylum seekers, accounting for almost half of the total, were Syria (20 percent), Afghanistan (7 percent), Kosovo (6 percent), Eritrea (6 percent) and Albania\nIn 2014, decisions on asylum applications in the EU made at the first instance resulted in more than 160,000 asylum seekers being granted protection status, while a further 23,000 received protection status on appeal. The rate of recognition of asylum applicants was 45 percent at the first instance and 18 percent on appeal. The main beneficiaries of protection status, accounting for more than half of the total, were Syrians (68,300 or",
"-27.629393084382173"
],
[
"border into Sweden. These refugees included political activists, members of the resistance, and Jews fleeing deportation to extermination camps. It is estimated that about 50,000 individuals made it across the border to Sweden during the war. Refugees would typically be intercepted by Swedish border patrols soon after they had entered into Swedish territory, interviewed, and be given an \"emergency visa\" with 2-week duration with directions and fare (if needed) to Kjesäter. The processing there would take 3–4 days and typically involved medical examination, in-depth interrogations, etc. Norwegian nationals would be given a Norwegian passport; stateless individuals would be given a",
"-27.614753765781643"
],
[
"a non-EU member country but full participant in the Schengen Agreement, the Swiss Confederation was directly affected by the migrant crisis with most of the refugees arriving from Italy at border crossings in the Southern cantons of Ticino and Valais. In the crisis year 2015, almost 40,000 asylum seekers were applying for refugee status. In 2016, this number dropped by 31 percent, and in the first quarter of 2017 by another 57 percent, compared to the same time period in 2016. Most of the asylum seekers arriving in Switzerland originate from Eritrea (49 percent), followed by Afghanistan (30 percent) and",
"-27.56166172848316"
],
[
"asylum was no small matter as the country was poor and had difficulty feeding and caring for such a large group of refugees. Eventually, Argentina agreed to permanently resettle the asylum seekers. In contrast, the British repatriated the Russians who fought on the side of Germany to the USSR, where they were summarily treated as traitors and most of them executed, including their families. The Post-War era In dire financial straits following the war, the Liechtenstein dynasty often resorted to selling family artistic treasures, including for instance the portrait \"Ginevra de' Benci\" by Leonardo da Vinci, which was purchased by",
"-27.527671771938913"
],
[
"Australia in particular, receives hundreds of refugees every month.\nAbout 69,000 Sri Lankan Tamil refugees live in 112 camps in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Jammu and Kashmir According to the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), about 300,000 Hindu Kashmiri Pandits have been forced to leave the state of Jammu and Kashmir due to Islamic militancy and religious discrimination from the Muslim majority, making them refugees in their own country. Some have found refuge in Jammu and its adjoining areas, while others in camps in Delhi and others in other states of India and other countries too. Kashmiri groups",
"-27.51953884365139"
],
[
"– did allow the extradition of their nationals to each other and to other Nordic countries, they refused the extradition of both their nationals and the nationals of other Nordic countries elsewhere. In addition seven of the 12 member states which joined between 2004 and 2007 – namely Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Slovenia – employed a similar prohibition prior to their accession.\nUnder the Framework Decision, member states are precluded from refusing the surrender of their own nationals wanted for the purposes of prosecution, but they may condition the surrender of a requested person on his",
"-27.50752591789933"
],
[
"Federal Republic of Germany had only two mechanisms for immigration by non-Germans from countries outside the European Union, due to the recruitment of migrant workers in 1973 and the lack of an immigration law: family reunification and the assertion of the basic right to asylum. The \"bottleneck\" of asylum was very early \"pried forcefully from the outside and tightened again and again from the inside in a public defensive struggle, which created the bogeyman of the so-called 'refugee'\".\nDuring the Cold War hundreds of thousands of people fled from the countries of Central and Eastern Europe through the \"Iron curtain\" to",
"-27.504856712766923"
],
[
"been cancelled (such as those who have been charged or convicted of crimes), or because they have over-stayed the term of their visa. Detainees also include non-citizens who have arrived without a valid visa, such as asylum seekers, including some children, who are detained while their refugee status is determined and they are either admitted to Australia or deported. In many cases people have been in immigration detention for several years. This, as well as poor conditions, neglect, harsh treatment, and deaths in some of the centres, has been the source of controversy and criticism in Australia and internationally. While",
"-27.501736737860483"
],
[
"with the decision to accept refugees being made by the government and not the parliament.\nIn addition, in late 2018 the Danish government announced that the 2019 budget would include funding for a scheme that would see foreign criminals who had completed jail sentences, but could not be deported, to be moved to Lindholm Island. Lindholm Island is located two miles out from the southeast of Denmark, and had previously been a laboratory for animals with highly contagious diseases. The policy has been labelled as being \"barbaric\" and \"deeply repulsive.\" Violence against women The Istanbul Convention (the Council of Europe Convention",
"-27.406062134105014"
],
[
"previous hundreds to some dozens. Within hours of Swedish border control becoming effective, Denmark in turn created a border control between Denmark and Germany. The migration pattern also changed with the majority of those arriving by ferry from Germany to Trelleborg instead of by train to Hyllie station, bypassing the border control between Denmark and Germany. Migrants then started taking taxis in greater numbers over the Öresund Bridge in order to evade identification. Three days later, a Danish cab driver was arrested for human trafficking near the Øresund Bridge. In January 2016 newspaper Sydsvenskan reported that the migration flow had",
"-27.37490733481536"
],
[
"into New Zealand is limited. Asylum seekers (convention refugees) New Zealand receives relatively few asylum seekers (the vast majority by air), whose claim is then either approved or declined by the Refugee Status Branch of the Immigration New Zealand, or by the Refugee Status Appeals Authority. There has been a considerable drop in the number of the asylum claims each year beginning in the late 1990s. In 2016, only 387 refugee status applications were received, with 32% found to be genuine. New Zealand is one of a handful of countries that takes the majority of their refugees through a quota",
"-27.3704010392903"
],
[
"side of the Denmark–Sweden border, while still keeping the border controls on the Swedish side. This carrier requirement has been more successful than the formal border controls, and diminished the stream of refugees to Sweden. At the same time this has disrupted train traffic and causing longer travel time for work commuters.\nAs a reaction to the Swedish control, Denmark also strengthened its border controls at the German border.\nIn October 2019 it was reported that Denmark plans to impose temporary border controls due to serious crimes including bombing perpetrated by Swedish residents.",
"-27.36952121811919"
],
[
"the Danish economy. In 1972 and 1973, Denmark's immigration policy only allowed for migration of workers from within the Nordic region. After 1973 this policy was expanded to also permit labor migration from Europe. Despite these limitations on immigration, the 1972 policy granted guest workers residing in Denmark the option of applying for family reunification which then became the primary method of immigration from non-European countries to Denmark.\nFor decades, Danish immigration and integration policy was built upon the assumption that with the right kind of help, immigrants and their descendands will eventually tend to the same levels of education and",
"-27.367794672427408"
],
[
"37 percent), Eritreans (14,600 or 8 percent) and Afghans (14,100 or 8 percent).\nFour states – Germany, Sweden, Italy and France – received around two-thirds of the EU's asylum applications and granted almost two-thirds of protection status in 2014. Sweden, Hungary and Austria were among the top recipients of EU asylum applications per capita, when adjusted for their own populations, with 8.4 asylum seekers per 1,000 inhabitants in Sweden, 4.3 in Hungary and 3.2 in Austria. 2015 In 2015, EU member states received 1,255,640 first time asylum applications, a number more than double that of the previous year. The highest number",
"-27.365148152865004"
],
[
"of Western Europe and the Western Hemisphere. The law did not greatly increase the number of immigrants who would be allowed into the country each year (approximately 300,000), but it did provide for a family reunification provision that allowed for some immigrants to enter the country regardless of the overall number of immigrants. Largely because of the family reunification provision, the overall level of immigration increased far above what had been expected. Those who wrote the law expected that it would lead to more immigration from Southern Europe and Eastern Europe, as well as relatively minor upticks in immigration from",
"-27.36468730540946"
],
[
"\"tyranny of goodness\" haunting the Norwegian immigration debate, and that it would be more Christian and reasonable to help as many people as possible through foreign aid to refugees abroad rather than aiding fewer and more costly asylum seekers in Norway. She later vowed that her proposed asylum regulations would make Norway's asylum policies \"one of the strictest in Europe\".\nThe first four months of 2016 saw asylum applications in Norway drop to its lowest levels since 1993, with only about 250 new applications each month. The reduction resulted in at least kr 800 million (US$100 million) being saved in",
"-27.353513798167114"
],
[
"somewhat (migrants could still apply for asylum). On 26 November 2015, Prime Minister Stefan Löfven said the system for welcoming migrants was about to collapse and that the cabinet would propose major new restrictions and measures to reduce the inflow of migrants. He called on other European countries to take more responsibility. The government in December decided to introduce \"carrier's responsibility\" for trains and buses on the Öresund bridge which would introduce Swedish de facto border controls on the Danish side.\nIn 2016, there were reports that multiple sexual harassment incidents had been reported at the We Are Sthlm festival over",
"-27.338959790922672"
],
[
"Minister Chris Bowen said they were close to signing a bilateral agreement which would result in 800 asylum seekers who arrive in Australia by boat being taken to Malaysia instead. Australia would take 4,000 people from Malaysia who have previously been assessed as being refugees. However, on 31 August, the High Court ruled that the agreement to transfer refugees from Australia to Malaysia was invalid, and ordered that it not proceed. Australia would still accept 4,000 people who have been assessed as refugees in Malaysia.\nThe asylum seeker debate returned during August 2012 following the report of the Expert Panel on",
"-27.30816798973683"
],
[
"in need. It was only after World War II that Finnish social policy acquired the characteristics that in the next decades made it similar to other Nordic systems of social welfare.\nAccording to Finnish sociologist Erik Allardt, the hallmark of the Nordic welfare system was its comprehensiveness. Unlike the welfare systems of the United States or most West European countries, those of the Nordic countries cover the entire population, and they are not limited to those groups unable to care for themselves. Examples of this universality of coverage are national flat-rate pensions available to all once they reached a certain age,",
"-27.295467921474483"
],
[
"positive decisions; 88.6% recognition rate).\nOf about 200.000 people who were legally bound to leave in 2015, after their applications for asylum had been rejected, only 20,914 were deported. A major obstacle for deportation was the lack of cooperation from the home countries. In February 2016 the German government did send complaints to 17 nations who do not fulfill their international obligations and insufficiently cooperate, either by not helping to identify their own citizens, by not issuing ID cards for those whose asylum applications have been rejected, or by taking only those people back who voluntarily leave. Those nations are, in",
"-27.275186740617755"
],
[
"national scandal, and ministers resigned in protest. After protests by Lutheran ministers, the Archbishop, and the Social Democratic Party, no more foreign Jewish refugees were deported from Finland. \nApproximately 500 Jewish refugees arrived in Finland during World War II, although about 350 moved on to other countries, including about 160 who were transferred to neutral Sweden to save their lives on the direct orders of Marshal Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, the commander of the Finnish Army. About 40 of the remaining Jewish refugees were sent to do compulsory labor service in Salla in Lapland in March 1942. The refugees were",
"-27.270710151497042"
],
[
"criteria of the Regulation. On 2 September 2015, the Czech Republic also decided to offer Syrian refugees who had already applied for asylum in other EU countries and who had reached the country to either have their application processed in the Czech Republic (i. e. get asylum there) or to continue their journey elsewhere. \nStates such as Hungary, Slovakia and Poland also officially stated their opposition to any possible revision or enlargement of the Dublin Regulation, specifically referring to the eventual introduction of new mandatory or permanent quotas for solidarity measures.\nIn April 2018 at a public meeting of the Interior-Committee",
"-27.26726117747603"
],
[
"direct asylum reception costs alone in the revised annual state budget, amid budget strains due to the low oil price. Listhaug has since called for further immigration and asylum restrictions to be implemented, particularly in family reunifications which reached all-time highs of about 20,000 in 2017. Among her proposals is that family reunifications should rather be achieved in the native countries of immigrants instead of in Norway.\nOpinion polls consistently showed Listhaug to have the highest approval rating of all government ministers from her party, and several others. In September 2016, a poll showed that 59% of Norway's population approved of",
"-27.255037921800977"
],
[
"it seeks to help the few refugees who can afford the journey to Norway, when there are millions of people suffering worldwide without such possibilities. The Democrats seeks to change the refugee-policy to instead helping people outside the Norwegian border. They claim that in that way the Norwegian state can afford to help much more refugees for the same amount of money that it requires to help considerably fewer people in Norway. Foreign policy The Democrats are opposed to Norwegian membership in the European Union, and wants Norway to withdraw from the European Economic Area and the Schengen Agreement. The",
"-27.243789045576705"
],
[
"keep Germany and Europe open, to welcome legitimate asylum seekers in common humanity, while doing her very best to stop abuse and keep the movement to manageable proportions. Which demands a European-wide response (…)\".\nAnalyst Naina Bajekal for the United States' magazine Time in September 2015 suggested that the German decision, late August 2015, to allow Syrian refugees to apply for asylum in Germany even if they had reached Germany through other EU member states, has led to increased numbers of refugees from Syria and other regions – Afghanistan, Somalia, Iraq, Ukraine, Congo, South Sudan etc. – endeavouring to reach (Western)",
"-27.230980414751684"
],
[
"to migrate to. In response, in 1997, Russia amended and replaced the 1993 Law on Refugees to better address those individuals who have traveled to Russia in need of international protection. Russia’s current law on refugees The 1997 Law on Refugees, though slightly amended in 1998 and 2000, represents the Russian Federation’s current legislation on refugees. General process of attaining asylum in Russia According to Article 4.1(3), an asylum seeker who enters the Russian Federation illegally must file an application with the regional Ministry of Interior (\"MOI\") within 24 hours. According to a 2002 World Refugee Survey, the",
"-27.22240522399079"
],
[
"the asylum seeker meets the legislative definition of a \"refugee\" and should be granted asylum.\nAs of year end 2006, 1,020 people have been granted temporary asylum status and 405 people have been granted full refugee status by the Russian government. It is estimated, however, that there may be as many as one million \"undocumented foreigners\" on Russian soil awaiting initial access to the procedure of refugee status determination. The Russian authorities are notorious for denying refugee status to asylum seekers – with the approval rate for refugee status at only 2-5% of applicants.\nAccording to an April 2007 report,",
"-27.198607013444416"
],
[
"the Coastal Party.\nAccording to a 2018 Yougov poll, 52% of Norwegians opposed accepting more migrants into the country. Poland A 2015 opinion poll conducted by the Centre for Public Opinion Research (CBOS) found that 14% thought that Poland should let asylum-seekers enter and settle in Poland, 58% thought Poland should let asylum-seekers stay in Poland until they can return to their home country, and 21% thought Poland should not accept asylum-seekers at all. Furthermore, 53% thought Poland should not accept asylum-seekers from the Middle East and North Africa, with only 33% thinking Poland should accept them.\nAnother opinion poll conducted by",
"-27.197488616599003"
],
[
"if refugees were settled in conventional housing and given work permits, with international financial support both for refugees and local government infrastructure and educational services. Unofficial refugee settlements Within countries experiencing large refugee in-migrations, citizen volunteers, non-governmental organizations, and refugees themselves have developed short- and long-term alternatives to official refugee camps established by governments or the UNHCR. Informal camps provide physical shelter and direct service provision but also function as a form of political activism. Alternative forms of migrant settlement include squats, occupations and unofficial camps.\nAsylum seekers who have been rejected and refugees without access to state services in Amsterdam",
"-27.184010228258558"
],
[
"the United Nations, Dag Hammarskjöld, was a Swedish citizen. Thus the people of the Scandinavian Peninsula had a strong influence in international affairs during the 20th century.\nIn 1949, Norway, Denmark and Iceland became founding members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation for their defence against East Germany, the Soviet Union and all other potential invaders, and these three countries remain members as of 2011.\nSweden and Finland joined the European Union in 1995. Norway, however, remains outside the Union.",
"-27.161589497351088"
],
[
"Airport for travellers between Copenhagen and Sweden, and with a reduction in service frequency. Sweden introduced border control from Denmark earlier (15 November 2015), but that could not stop the migrant flow, since they have the right to apply for asylum once on Swedish ground. First when the transport companies had to stop foreigners on the Danish side, asylum seekers were efficiently stopped. This caused considerable disruption to the train traffic since the railway station did not have capacity for such checks. These checks lasted until 4 May 2017, after the EU commission declared such checks not acceptable.\nOn 30 May",
"-27.150076910300413"
],
[
"the reception and accommodation of asylum seekers and the processing of their asylum applications, in places near the borders of the EU or in countries outside the EU, from which asylum seekers originate or through which they pass. After an attempted relocation of asylum procedures in centres on the boundaries of the EU, in 2003 these policies have resulted in a proliferation of exile camps in and around the European Union, a pressure on neighbouring countries to develop systems that consider applications for asylum in their territories, and a radicalisation of antimigratory policies in neighbouring countries and within the border",
"-27.13855472340947"
],
[
"the risk of a financial crisis spreading cross-border, and to enhance possibilities to reach an efficient crisis management. By signing the agreement, the public authorities in the Nordic and Baltic countries increase their preparedness to handle problems in cross-border banks. The NB8 countries are jointly represented in the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. The Baltic states are members of the Nordic Investment Bank.\nThe Baltic states—Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia—have achieved an exceptional level of a trilateral co-operation, which, by its depth and intensity, can be compared to the Nordic co-operation. Three Baltic states have established the Baltic Council of Ministers",
"-27.122798010648694"
],
[
"has significantly peaked in numbers since the abolition of the policy, despite worldwide asylum claim numbers remaining low by historical standards. These arrivals have also corresponded with increasing numbers of new refugee arrivals in Indonesia after the abandonment of the policy: 385 in 2008, 3,230 in 2009, 3,905 in 2010, 4,052 in 2011, 7,218 in 2012 and 8,332 in 2013. A probable link between restrictive refugee policies and lower attempts at seeking asylum in Australia by boat have been confirmed by the UNHCR: in April 2014, UNHCR Indonesia representative Manual Jordao stated: \"Word that the prospects of reaching Australia by",
"-27.118644994305214"
],
[
"countries of citizenship of asylum seekers, accounting for more than half of the total, were Syria (21 percent), Afghanistan (13 percent), Albania (8 percent), Iraq (6 percent) and Kosovo (5 percent). In the third quarter of 2015 (July–September), EU countries received 413,800 first time asylum applications, almost double the number registered in the previous quarter. Germany and Hungary were the top recipients, with 26 percent each of total applicants. One third of asylum seekers were Syrians (33 percent), followed by Afghans (14 percent) and Iraqis (11 percent). In the fourth quarter of 2015, there were 426,000 first time applicants, mainly",
"-27.108102685539052"
],
[
"Immigration to Finland Immigration to Finland is the process by which people migrate to Finland to reside in the country. Some, but not all, become Finnish citizens. Immigration has been a major source of population growth and cultural change throughout much of the history of Finland. The economic, social, and political aspects of immigration have caused controversy regarding ethnicity, economic benefits, jobs for non-immigrants, settlement patterns, impact on upward social mobility, crime, and voting behavior.\nAs of 2018, there are 402,600 foreigners people residing in Finland, which corresponds to 7.3% of the population. Numerous polls in 2010 indicated that the",
"-27.093335427722195"
],
[
"noted that, from 1982 to December 2002, 301 persons were accepted as refugees. The Government considered that most persons seeking asylum in the country did so for economic reasons. In 2003, there were approximately 7,900 refugees and asylum seekers in the country, of whom an estimated 7,700 were Vietnamese and Cambodian refugees. Out of 336 refugee claims submitted in 2003, the Government granted asylum to 10 persons from Burma, Burundi, and Iran and issued long-term residence permits based on humanitarian considerations to 16. As part of its ongoing family-reunification program for close relatives of Indochinese refugees resettled in earlier years,",
"-27.069330105237896"
],
[
"Norway–Sweden relations International border Crossing the border between Sweden and Norway is relatively simple. No passport is required due to the Nordic Passport Union and there are no physical border obstructions. However, since Norway is not part of the European Union customs controls can be made if travelling by car to prohibit smuggling. Foreign citizens requiring visa to either state are not allowed to cross the border legally without applying for visa again. There are no restrictions on non-felon Swedish and Norwegian people's rights to live in the neighboring country.",
"-27.01937300359714"
],
[
"for the Faroe Islands). There are some areas in the Nordic Passport Union that give extra rights for Nordic citizens, not covered by Schengen, such as less paperwork if moving to a different Nordic country and fewer requirements for naturalisation. Current leaders All the Nordic countries are long-established parliamentary democracies. Denmark, Norway and Sweden have a political system of constitutional monarchy, in which a nonpolitical monarch acts as head of state and the de facto executive power is exercised by a cabinet led by a prime minister. Margrethe II has reigned in Denmark as Queen Regnant and head of state",
"-27.01477000466548"
],
[
"include the many who were born inside Iran during the last 35 years. The number of Afghan refugees is decreasing significantly every year due to voluntary repatriation. For instance, in 2017 alone, over half a million of them returned to Afghanistan from Pakistan and Iran.\nThe 2011 industrialized country asylum data notes a 30% increase in applications from Afghans from 2010 to 2011, primarily towards Germany and Turkey. Pakistan Since the beginning US military intervention against the Taliban in Pakistan over 1.2 million people have been displaced in across the country, joined by a further 555,000 Pakistanis uprooted by fighting since",
"-27.010590448398943"
],
[
"all, between 2003 and 2012, one fifth of the permanent migrants into Sweden were considered humanitarian migrants. This is a higher percentage than all other OECD countries and likely plays a role in the employment gaps as humanitarian migrants typically find it more difficult to integrate into OECD countries. Second of all, less than 5% of jobs in Sweden require only a high school degree. With migrants from Syria and Iraq almost certainly having never studied Swedish back home, it is inevitably difficult for them to find work. Considering they are among the top three countries of immigrant origin alongside",
"-27.00264195224736"
],
[
"controversy. Sweden After World War II, immigration into Sweden occurred in three phases. The first was a direct result of the war, with refugees from concentration camps and surrounding countries in Scandinavia and Northern Europe. The second, prior to 1970, involved immigrant workers, mainly from Finland, Italy, Greece, and Yugoslavia. In the most recent phase, from the 1970s onwards, refugees immigrated from the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America, joined later by their relatives.\nA study which mapped patterns of segregation and congregation of incoming population groups found that, if a majority group is reluctant to accept a minority influx, they",
"-26.981030953931622"
],
[
"to over 80,000 in two months and with terror group Islamic state rampage in the Middle East and the following attacks in Paris in November 2015, the Löfven cabinet significantly reverted Sweden's migration policy. On 23 October 2015, a bipartisan migration agreement was signed between the cabinet parties and the oppositional Moderate Party, the Centre Party, the Liberals and the Christian Democrats which included, among many other changes, temporary residency permits, total financial support requirements for family reunification and by law forcing municipalities to help with sheltering refugees in order to better distribute the burden across the country.\nOn 12 November",
"-26.96062739365152"
],
[
"in the EU peaked in 1992 (672,000), 2001 (424,000) and 2013 (431,000). In 2014 it reached 626,000. According to the UNHCR, the EU countries with the biggest numbers of recognised refugees at the end of 2014 were France (252,264), Germany (216,973), Sweden (142,207) and the United Kingdom (117,161). No European state was among the top ten refugee-hosting countries in the world.\nPrior to 2014, the number of illegal border crossings detected by Frontex at the external borders of the EU peaked in 2011, with 141,051 total (sea and land combined). Global refugee crisis According to the UNHCR, the number of forcibly",
"-26.960033871990163"
],
[
"open their borders, introducing visa-free regimes with the Baltic countries.\nWhen Baltic countries regained their independence and during their integration into the European and transatlantic structures, they were strongly supported by their Nordic neighbors. The Nordic-Baltic co-operation took place in various levels: networking and cooperation were established among politicians, civil servants and civil societies. The Nordic countries actively assisted the Baltic countries in their preparations for integration into the European Union and NATO.\nNamed as 5+3 in the beginning of cooperation (five Nordic countries plus three Baltic States), the format changed its name and scope of cooperation. During the meeting of the",
"-26.918834916723426"
],
[
"refugee status does not mean that they were already given all the documents they need for starting their new lives. Refusal of asylum It often happens that the country neither recognizes the refugee status of the asylum seekers nor sees them as legitimate migrants and thus treats them as illegal aliens. If an asylum claim has been rejected, the asylum seeker is said to be refused asylum, and called a failed asylum seeker. Some failed asylum seekers are allowed to remain temporarily, some return home voluntarily and some are forcibly returned. The latter are most often placed in immigration detention",
"-26.909734424494673"
],
[
"refugees were treated differently to refugees from other religions with regards to the financial support they received. The Swiss government persuaded Germany to stamp \"J\" on the passport of Jews in order to make it easier to refuse admission to Jewish refugees. When thousands of Jews tried to flee Austria after the Anschluss in March 1938, and again in 1942-1943 when Jews tried to escape deportation from France, the Netherlands, and Belgium, a large part of them were denied access to the country. During the Second World War 25,000 Jews were granted refugee status in Switzerland, but around 30,000",
"-26.90869205047784"
],
[
"labour from other countries in Eastern Europe and visa controls were applied in 1992. 1990–1997: The growth in asylum The number of asylum seekers before 1979 is difficult to determine as no separate statistics were collated before this point. A Parliamentary answer indicated that in 1973, 34 people had been granted refugee status. The application of the 1951 Convention dealing with the treatment of refugees was still being applied, to a large extent, to those people fleeing persecution from behind the Iron Curtain.\nThe total number of asylum applications in 1979 was 1563 and by 1988 had risen, fairly steadily",
"-26.897006990620866"
],
[
"suspended all rail and ferry links with Germany (reopened the following day). On the same day parts of the E45 motorway was closed for vehicles to avoid accidents as hundreds of migrants were walking along it in southern Jutland towards Sweden. It was reopened a few hours later when the walking migrants exited the motorway. After initial uncertainty surrounding the rules, it was decided that migrants wishing to continue to other Nordic countries and refusing to seek asylum in Denmark would be allowed to pass. In the five weeks following 6 September alone, approximately 28,800 migrants passed the Danish borders.",
"-26.86425974254962"
],
[
"Norway, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein) that later caused the refugee crisis. However, Poland, Hungary, and Czechs has refused to accept the refugee quotas and rarely admit any asylum-seekers. Jaroslaw Kaczyński, the leader of the ruling Law and Justice party, had explained to the public that a part of asylum seekers may cause destruction to the safety and culture of the country. Trump, during his presidency, shares the same political views with the party, which Trump himself further endorsed the approach by encouraging the member states of the NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) to demonstrate the belief in the future of the",
"-26.848393602860597"
]
] |
2v6cu4 | How are buffets profitable? How much money is usually made (on average) per customer at all you can eat buffets? Do customers often eat more than the costs it took to serve them? | [
"Buffets are profitable because: * the food is usually lower quality * they can get by with fewer staff * it is cheaper to prepare the food in bulk, instead of cooking plating it per order EDIT: By lower quality, I don't mean crappy. I mean vegetables vs. meat, chicken vs. beef, store bought vs. homemade.",
"One word: Volume. Food is pretty cheap to make in bulk. Plus not everyone eats like it's their last meal. Those that do are usually balanced out by people that are reasonable. There's a few exceptions like casino buffets. They're (usually) subsidized by the casino so they don't have to worry about making a profit. They can give away the house because they know you'll hit the casino floor later to make it up 10 fold. The one place that confuses me is Golden Corral because they're an independent business. $10 doesn't buy you much in terms of food and they have some \"good\" stuff like steak. Even though it's sirloin at $2-3/lb, that gets eaten up quite quickly. Their margins must be pretty thin. But overall, the food is cheap and cooked in volume so there's lots of room to move around.",
"I used to work at a fine dining restaurant that served a fancy brunch buffet every Sunday. One day a very thin lady started to show up every Sunday right when we opened. She always came in alone and made a bee line for the bowl of peel and eat shrimp. She would load her plate up with nothing else then go back to her seat and eat all of them. Then she would wait until we refilled it and then she would go back again. She would do this until we were out. The waitstaff wondered how she was able to eat 6+ pounds of shrimp in a few hours. I thought she was putting it into her purse. On her third visit, one of the female staff discreetly monitored her every move. She quickly found out that our guest would make quick trips to the bathroom where she would vomit up everything she ate and then go back and load up on more shrimp. She got the incorrect nickname \"Anna\" short for Anorexic (It should have been Bulimia but we weren't clever enough to come up with an innocent female name we could refer to her as in front of other guests). \"Anna\" would also rarely speak to us. She would smile when appropriate, and either nod or shake her head when asked a question. Once our boss (who never came in on Sundays) found out he did some quick calculations and figured she was losing us too much money. Rather than ban her, he simply had us change our peel and eat strategy. We broke up the peel and eat shrimp from one big bowl into several smaller bowls scattered throughout the buffet line. We were told NOT to refill them until she left. The next Sunday, \"Anna\" showed up and at first frowned at the change in her routine. She had to go through the entire buffet line to get all of the shrimp. She also had to empty each of the bowls as she came across them. Her usual attempts at discretion were no longer working and the guests in line with her started to make comments like \"Wow- are you on a shrimp only diet?\" and \"Hey, leave some for the rest of us!\" \"Anna\" hurried back to her seat, resumed her usual ritual of binging and purging and then sat quietly waiting for us to refill the bowls. I only refilled the one at the end of the buffet so other guests could get some before she got to it. I left the rest of them empty. If any other guest asked for them, I would tell them we were out then quietly take a small bowl out to their table (out of sight of \"Anna\" of course). After about an hour of sitting with a plate of shrimp peelings, \"Anna\" was forced to actually interact with us and ask about the shrimp. When she was told we were out she became visibly upset and stormed out. We never saw her again after that.",
" > How are buffets profitable? Sometimes they're not: Years ago in my younger, stupider, days I was doing a construction job out in the country with a crew of hillbillies. We got talking one Friday about a local place that makes delicious food. Well, they also had a really good buffet, and after a little day-dreamin' and droolin' we all decided to stop by there after work for dinner. You gotta understand that even with our boots off and our stomachs empty weren't none of us small guys: I don't think there was anyone on that job less than 220 pounds. And because of the prospect of delicious \"All You Can Eat\" some of the guys were even going light on snacks and lunch in order to keep extra room for dinner. So after a 10 hour day, we shove off and make our way over to the buffet and we just start *digging in*. We're eating like we invented it. They'd bring out a steam tray of pasta? That's our steam tray of pasta. Another of dumplings? Wasn't even likely to reach the buffet table before it ends up on our plates. Well, after a time, when we'd accumulated a stack of plates that could've stocked a Crate-N-Barrel, this grizzled guy comes sauntering over to our table. He identifies himself as the owner: *\"Is the food good?\"* We said it was. *\"Y'all enjoying yourselves? Getting enough to eat?\"* We said we were. *\"That's fine. I just wanted to make sure y'all enjoyed it, because once you're done here, I don't ever want to see a single one of you guys back in here again.\"* He hit us all with a near fatal dose of the Evil Eye and then turned his back and sauntered back to the kitchen. And that's how I learned that sometimes it's not really All You Can Eat.",
"Not everyone takes \"All you can eat\" as a personal challenge. Also there's some psychology involved. It's no accident the salad bar and pastas are in front, and the meat carving station is way in the back.",
"Hello, I worked in a restaurant. - The price for a buffet meal is fairly high. $25 to $30 during dinner. - Most people can only eat a certain amount, particularly children. - Extra money is made on expensive drinks. - The buffet is organized in such a way that there are a lot of cheap foods (like rice) that brings down cost per customer. Normally, people don't just eat meat. They'll put some rice, or salad on the side. - Food is bought in larger quantities, so they get better wholesale prices. - Less staff. No one has to go around actively serving customers. But keep in mind the profits are still pretty thin. Opening a buffet doesn't mean instant success.",
"I think some one touched on it... but the buffet is not the only income. Think drinks. Fountain drinks cost a few cents per fill but restaurants often charge $2+ making a huge profit. Alcoholic beverages if served at the establishment are often another huge source of profit.",
"I think some places have a few tricks to curb your appetite. The best one I can think of off the top of my head is at a brewery here called granite city. They have a Sunday breakfast buffet with prime rib, thick bacon and so on. But they also bring to your table, for each person, something I deemed the \"stomach plug\". These stomach plugs are giant cinnamon rolls. Each one equals about 2-3 average sized cinnamon rolls.",
"OK. I work at a pizza place that does buffets. It costs $8 with a drink to get the buffet. $8 is about the price of a medium (12inch) pizza here. Most people won't / can't eat any more than how much is on a medium pizza so we'll usually only have about 1 pizza per person out and the bread sticks and cinnamon sticks are distributed to everyone almost evenly. Even though we make less than someone buying a pizza straight up, it's still profitable. Oh and when it comes to pizza buffets, don't believe that the pizza you get is lower quality. It isn't. After a bit of being on a metal pan (like an hr) the crust will get soggy from grease and will taste pretty bad but when you put it in the cardboard box for take out or delivery, the box absorbs the grease that goes to the bottom and the pizza's crust is not soggy. Tl;Dr - if you're at a pizza buffet, ask for some fresh custom pizzas. We don't mind unless the buffet is nearly full already. Edit: For all you wondering, I work at Mr Jim's which is a pizza chain mainly regional to the Dallas fort worth area. Not cici's",
"I could be wrong but isn't one of the big costs in restaurants unused food; ingredients that people don't order. Buffets don't have this issue I assume. Obviously not the full answer but probably a contributing factor.",
"It's an *entirely* different business model than running a restaurant. You have to do a lot of observation and make sure that items are put up that are constantly popular since leftovers will cut into your profits. There are many cost saving measures that make a buffet quite profitable. The biggest consideration that it takes less staff to actually run a buffet than it takes to run a service in a restaurant. Labor is a really large percentage of your operating cost and a buffet can schedule employees in a pretty stable and regular manner because when they are not running to the line, they can be preparing in bulk. It takes fewer employees to refill items than it does to individually plate items and run them to the table. Since no one is waiting for food, higher table turnover. So, more volume. * Portion control - Expensive proteins are usually not self serve. * The salad bar - Getting people to fill up on salad lessens the amount o things that they eat, overall. This is why the salad bar is the beginning of the buffet. And produce is cheap. * The dessert bar - Overall, desserts are super cheap to make. And if someone sees a sea of desserts, they might slow down so that they can gorge on desserts. * Item placement - There is an entire psychology behind where things are being placed. Starches are cheap, and you will find them easily accessible placed to the front of the proteins. * Smaller serving utensils - Sounds stupid, but it's true. A smaller serving utensil encourages portion control. * The plates are smaller -Requires more trips to the food line. * There is never a horrible rush - You don't need to drop everything and deal with a huge pile of orders that are up. This frees your back of house staff to create a steady flow of prepared items. Gives a lot of breathing space to the prep and cooking staff. * Making everything from scratch - It may not taste so great because it sits around for a while, but they do try and make everything from scratch. This is because making it from scratch is far cheaper with regards to food costs. A bag of prepared french fries costs $6 for a 5 lb bag while a 50 lb sack of potatoes costs $12. * Budgeting - You can figure out what the per person food costs are and average it out with a reasonable margin.",
"Buffets are make-to-inventory, while restaurants are make-to-order. Make-to-inventory is always cheaper, since the cooks can cook for the busy times during the slow times. If you make to order, then you have to wait for the order before cooking it. As an extra bonus, cooking two servings of a dish takes less time than cooking one serving twice.",
"I was at a chinese food buffet once when a group of football players came in (it was across the street from a university.) The staff came out with bowls of celery and started adding it to every dish. There's nothing like cellulose to fill the gut and slow them down a bit.",
"I own and operate a \"by-the-pound\" buffet and being able to buy in bulk saves a ton of money. I buy 200 pounds of chicken on Monday because Tuesday is soul food day. It's easier and cheaper than buying 50 pounds of chicken that you have to prepare individually for a table that is served by a waiter. My profit margins are great because it's by the pound. People come in, they put food on their tray, they pay, and leave.",
"I'm not an expert on how buffets operate, but I can give you some information relating to how/why buffets *should be* profitable based on my past high-end catering experience. Let's say the price for an adult is $19.95 for an all-you-can-eat buffet. From my experience (regardless of the price), the less expensive and \"gut-busting\" food items are displayed first (i.e. bread, crackers, vegetable and fruit displays, salads, soups, and the almighty pasta courses) with the more expensive items at the very end (carved meats, seafood, ribs, fish, etc.). I call the former \"gut-busters\" because most of these items are filled with carbohydrates (bread, pasta, hearty soups, etc.) and fill a person's stomach at a greater rate opposed to eating lighter foods or proteins, especially when said carbs come in contact with liquids (water, tea, soda,beer, alcohol). Buffet restaurants know this and use it to their advantage as they assume most people will simply load up their first plate with the \"gut-busting\" items and when they get to the more expensive items, they don't have enough room on their plate and figure that they'll just come back for seconds. They're anticipating that by the end of your first plate, you're too full to even think about going back for seconds. So let's say you ate tiny portions of a few salads, pastas, had some raw veggies, a couple pieces of fruit, and maybe a bowl of soup. All told, what you just ate might amount to $3 at-cost to the restaurant. And that $19.95 you just shelled out to eat that food? The standard food cost percentage in restaurants is 35%, give or take a percentage point; buffets are looking for anywhere between 20-28% food cost. Remember that $3 you just ate although you paid $19.95 for the privilege? That comes out to 15.04% food cost to the restaurant: In layman's terms, BOOM! PROFIT!. Let's say you ate all of the food mentioned above and are still hungry so you grab a few slices of prime rib and a few shrimp. The cost of your plates now jumped from $3 to maybe $5. You feel like you got your money's worth because not only did you eat salad, veggies, fruit, pasta, soup, prime rib, and shrimp, but you're leaving full and satisfied. You surely dented the restaurant's profits because you ate so much right? Wrong. By you eating that extra protein you increased their food-cost from 15.04% to 25.1%; still within their targeted food-cost percentage to make a profit. Couple this with low labor costs and overhead (I'm reaching here, based on how efficient each individual buffet is managed), they can be highly profitable enterprises when done correctly and constantly monitored. All told, if you choose to eat at these establishments, eat what you want however much you want but please keep in mind they're also trying to run and operate a successful business. Going straight to the higher-end items and eating only these items is bad form in my opinion. But do as you wish.",
"You rang? :) It's all been covered. For every one big eater there are four who are not. We are $30 plus, and adults still eat the kids mashed potatoes. Meat is expensive. We use the cheaper cuts of quality product if that makes sense. Chicken that is cooked but never exposed to guests and not used today is in tomorrow's chicken based soup.",
"I used to manage a buffet, so I actually know this topic! Buffets make money by enticing you with high price items, then once you are in the building, convincing you to fill your plates with low cost items. In the same way that grocery stores design their layouts to make you spend more, profitable buffets will offer breads, vegetables, and low quality meats (cheap stuff) at the beginning of the line, allowing you to fill your plate, while reserving expensive items (steak, shrimp, and the like) for the end of the line. A good manager knows to locate his expensive items at strategic locations and to offer them in small portion sizes, while making cheaper items look as appetizing as possible. That is why Golden Corral will usually cut your steaks for you, as well as why the rolls are freaking delicious and right at the beginning of the line!",
"A few major reasons buffets yield profit (although they typically don't yield as much as you would think). * Most people don't put back as much food as you think. On average, most customers put back about two plates, which really isn't all that much. Occasionally you have someone who can put away half the spread on their own, but they are typically the oddity. The money you paid for the buffet probably covers about three plates worth of food, so if you only eat two, each person is paying for food they don't eat, effectively making up for that one fat-ass whose on his 9th plate. * Buffets are normally *loaded* with rice and/or pasta. Those are dirt cheap. Rice, before cooking, only costs ~$1/Lb, and on average will expand to double it's size when cooked (although that varies on what type of rice you are using), so if you're paying $8 for a buffet, and eating mostly rice, let's say you manage to put back 1.5lbs of it (which is an obscene amount), the restaurant just made ~$5.50 in profit off you. (That figure accounts for the veggies and/or sauce that were in the rice, as well). Similar prices apply to most pastas. * Labor. A buffet can be almost entirely prepped, set up, and run, by 2 people. During actual service, depending on how busy the place is, sometimes just 1 person. Labor makes up for a good portion of what you are paying for when you go out to eat, so cutting that cost down is a substantial reason why buffets can be so cheap. * Volume. Restaurants make money by volume. Even if you don't make a significant amount of money with each plate you sell, if you sell lots of them, you make lots of money. Buffets operate on a similar principal. Sell lots of people food without a huge profit margin, and you will still make a large profit (the margin itself won't be that high, but positive cash flow will be). There are other \"tricks\", too. Put the cheap/filling stuff at the beginning of the buffet, and anything that is more expensive towards the end. Make sure everything is heavy on the starches (rice, potatoes, pasta) as they tend to be cheap and very filling. Throw a few high-end proteins (steak, crab legs, etc.) on the buffet towards the end. The name will attract customers, but it's very likely not many people will eat it, so you only have to prep a little bit of it. Think of it like an advertising budget. The list of nuances for making a buffet profitable could go on for a while, but those are the big points. Source: Been a chef for close on 15 years, set up more buffets than you've had hot meals.",
"Everything is way cheaper than you think. This is how all business make money. They have a merchant account. They buy from distributors at almost cost. That is extremely cheaper than what you as a customer can get. When I was younger I worked for various retail and restaurant chains. Even things marked down or on sale are often still marked up 100 percent for what the business payed. Look at sodas and fries for example. Large fries or a soda cost 2 bucks or more. You can go to club stores and get a whole bag of fries for 3 or a box of soda syrup that will pour out hundreds of drinks for 50.",
"When I go to a buffet, I typically get three plates. One for a main course, one for everything I missed, and one for desserts.",
"My friend took a Chinese buffet to the cleaners once. He sat and ate so much, they told him he either had to leave or pay for dinner too. It *started* as lunch.",
"Chef here. Buffets are priced differently than a typical restaurant. In a restaurant each dish is price in such a way that the food costs somewhere between 18-35% of the total price, on average (depends on the dish and the type of restaurant). At a buffet you obviously can't do that because everyone pays the same regardless of what they eat, or how much. Instead pricing is typically done based on projected seating. If we turn 6 tables of 4 every hour, and we're open 12 hours a day, that equates to a grand total of 288 customers on an average day (minimum). Pricing is done relative to that number such that everything stays afloat and produces a profit. For example a 10% profit (pretty typical for a restaurant) on $20,000/week operating costs would be $22,000 so divide that by your average number of weekly customers found using the above calculation (288*7, or however many days a week you're open) and you'll get your final recommended price. $11/person in this particular example. Note: numbers were pulled out of my ass and don't reflect any specific restaurant or industry standard TL;DR: Buffets are priced based on knowing on average how many people you'll serve and making sure that you account for all your operating costs.",
"Even the fattest of fat people cannot eat more than it costs the buffet in materials and labour to feed them. Bulk cooking is much cheaper than what you do at home. Cooking 400 gallons of marinara is much cheaper than cooking a half gallon 800 times. You can order tomatoes and meat in bulk direct from the supplier. Buffets charge about $20-$50 depending on how classy a buffet it is. Cheap beef (one of the more expensive ingredients involved) grosses retail at around $2 per pound. So that's 10 pounds of the most expensive ingredient - something you could never eat in a sitting.",
"I worked at a buffet place years ago. Things may have changed, but all I had to do was clear used plates off the table and refill drinks. (I also had to do other normal server duties; restock plates, glasses, roll silverware, etc) The shitty part was that I got paid minimum wage **for a server** I made less than $2.00/hr and bc I wasn't actually a *real* server (and bc it was a buffet place) so people **never** tipped. So I would walk out on a Friday night with a few quarters from the people who did leave tips. I quit after 2 nights. Oh, and In those 2 nights I witnessed 3 people vomit in the parking lot when leaving from stuffing themselves. Worst job ever.",
"I've spent time managing in a buffet on the LV Strip. I can tell you a few quick things: It didn't matter if someone wanted a refund. It didn't matter if someone came in with their kids, didn't pay for themselves cause they weren't eating, and then when their kid didn't like the food asked if they could eat instead of the kid. The point of restaurants in a casino, including the buffet, is to keep the customer happy so they'll stay in the building and go back and gamble. You're in the hospitality industry less than you are in food and beverage. It's all about keeping the customer in the building and spending money. It doesn't matter if I gave you a twenty-two dollar steak, because ten minutes after you left you dropped fifty bucks playing blackjack and went to the ATM. Sometimes, often times, it's the other end of it too. People have ALREADY lost money, and they decided to get up to come eat, and you're the closest person they can be angry with. I used to tell my staff, \"The angrier the customer, the more likely it is they probably just lost a TON of money.\" And thinking that usually helped you not empathize, but just straight laugh at their misfortune...which you need to do if you ever work Food and Bev. All the books are somewhat separate in casinos though, you know? Like numbers are tracked per department, per restaurant, the same as they're tracked in singular retail outlets for like GAP and stuff. So the buffet has X amount of covers they want to be doing an hour to stay profitable in comparison with last year, etc etc. But for the most part, it didn't fucking matter what happened, it didn't matter what we gave away. Just keep them happy, and keep them gambling.",
" URL_0 I guarantee that I could not eat $50 worth (cost/labor/overhead) of food from here. Why? They had a million customers *before their first anniversary*. Volume purchasing and assembly line labor translates to the exact same item from a regular \"service\" restaurant would cost much more simply because of the economies of scale. They likely make more of one item in a day than a normal restaurant would make in a month or a year.",
"I misread title as \"How are bullets profitable? How much money is usually made (on average) per customer at all you can eat bullets?\" until I realized I should renew my glasses.",
"I asked the manager at CiCis (a pizza buffet) and he says it takes them $0.25 to make a pizza, so your have to eat 20 entire pizzas for them to lose money",
"You never have to wait long for a soda refill at a buffett because it is cheap and fill you up",
"Your enjoyment rates also decrease every time you return. The business entices you, while knowing that each additional plate of food provides less utility than the one before, meaning all customers will stop returning when their \"limit\" is reached, that is, when they are too full and their enjoyment drops. Considering other factors such as the number of people they can entertain at a given time, the \"limit\" would basically be their basis on how much or what food would be served in a day. In economics this is the [law of diminishing marginal utility]( URL_0 ).",
"Usually the buffet buys in bulk like a lot of food to make a profit, also drinks (besides water) help with getting a profit Like Chinese buffets large ones order so much to get a price break , good luck trying to make em lose a profit unless all you eat is prime rib, crab legs or chicken wings My buddy and his friend actually did eating contests at buffets subsequently he and his friends ended up getting kciked out as they ate too much. He and his friends aren't fat either.",
"It's a little known fact that buffets are actually partially underwritten by Warren Buffet. It is a good way for him to get his name out there all over the country at minimal cost.",
"Essentially unless you pack your guy so full of meat you won't shit for a month buffets are profitable. People fill up on cheap starches and don't eat much.",
"In the case of a casino, the buffet might actually lose money, but attracts more customers who will gamble, increasing overall profits.",
"Not sure about the high end ones but the buffet I worked at did it like this. The largest pod and area was salads, this is also the cheapest to purchase. It was also closest to the front door. Busy day your waiting in line and looking at that. A lot of folks go for it first because of this. Entrees were the medium area. The smallest pod and most expensive was meats and the carving station. Usually a line for carving so it would mostly block the expensive stuff. The pod closest to the dining area was full of the cheaper side dishes. People tending to hit that first when going for warm food. The other main dish pod was different daily. So it could be Mexican on Monday and Italian the next. Usually not pricy over all it was not a large pod and off to the side. Last is desserts the smallest area and pod usually second in price behind the meats. Cook time was factored in to this. It was off to the other side of the restaurant total. Most things were pre-portioned as well. It was also arranged odd so again if we were busy it looked like a lot more people were in it. Layout was determined by corporate and we couldn't change it. This was mainly to control the flow of people. Aim them at the cheap stuff and let them fill up on that. The drinks were in the middle of the dining area and we advertised them as free so people would drink a bunch of coke or sprite. This was dirt cheap for us. The layout of the dining area was set to keep you from getting too comfy. Tables a little on the small side, booths pushed in just a little too close. No one hung out after eating so we could have a faster turn on the tables. Sure you'd have people game the system so to speak. Show up right at change over pay lunch price and eat dinner. Or the guy that brought a book. Folks that would pile meats on their plate and not eat it all. My favorite were the fools that would bring in plastic bags and load it up full then try and walk out with a bag full of fried chicken. Usually the wait staff got them. You could tell even on a busy day if some one was loading up to take it home.",
"The way buffets are priced is you add up the cost of all the food that was eaten. Divide it by the number of people served. That is your food cost per plate. Add in all of your fixed and variable costs plus whatever you set for your profit(believe it or not most restaurants are lucky to see 8% profit margin). You do this calculation on a regular basis to get the average cost throughout the year so be sure you have the right price set. Labor cost are one of the largest factors that go into the price of a food item and when they are produced in quantity you really see economies of scale pretty quickly. When you don't gorge yourself you are making up for those who do Buffets in a casino are different since they typically don't care to make a profit off of them and just want to get people in the door to gamble.",
"My parents owned a small diner that they put a buffet into. Every day featured a different home cooked option like meatloaf, catfish, hamburger steaks, and one night was ribs. Eventually they had to shut the buffet down because it was causing the diner to bleed money. The problem, as others have said, was that my parents did not use lower quality food and kept the same amount of staff (because the menu was still an option). The rib night was the real culprit and final nail in the coffin. The diner was in a small town and when rib night rolled around, every farmer and farm hand in the area came out of the woodwork to eat mountainous plate after plate of ribs. Often times they wouldn't touch a single other item on the buffet.",
"So from what I've read, by not buying a drink and avoiding the cheap foods that fill you up quickly and heading straight for the more expensive foods like meats, you will give the least profit to a buffet because you'll be eating more expensive stuff that fills you up less, and drinks are a high source of income for buffets. With that being said, even if you get more from your money for it, I don't think trying to purposely make a buffet lose profit is a good thing, especially if you enjoy the restaurant. It seems like making them lose profit is something that's hard to do without serious intent.",
"The profit is made on people like me who pay $20 for all I can eat and I can't eat more than one plate. For me it ends up being over-priced cafeteria food, which is why I don't go to them. *Except* the buffet at the Bellagio in Las Vegas. It's something like $45 a person and worth every penny. The key for me there is to take small portions so I can try lots of different stuff.",
"As a kid buffets are like all your dreams have come true. I went to a buffet just the other night, I'm now older and a qualified chef, and i was amazed at how much of the produce was brought it. People don't seem to give it a thought or even care that it's all pre-made and just heated or put on a plate, and of course they all think they're getting a great deal.",
"Food is not most of a restaurant's cost -- think salaries, rent, equipment, advertising, etc. Those are fixed costs no matter how much or little a customer eats, or whether the customer comes in at all. But from the customer's viewpoint, the food is the most important part. So restauranteurs know that feeding them as much as they want is well worth it.",
"most buffets make money by buying the cheapest food possible in the biggest quantity possible, and then charge $2 bucks per glass of pop. also, i like how nearly every post in this thread has been hit by what i presume to by the Downvote Brigade, /r/ELI5 Battalion, NA(for North America) Company, American Platoon. lol EDIT: Fixed my unit reference.",
"Former pizza buffet worker here. We charged 7.95 for adult with soda for the buffet. Me and an owner calculated that in order to get their moneys worth, a customer would have to eat 7 1/2 pizzas in one sitting edit: theres a big difference between 795 and 7.95",
"My uncle is a chef and recently started at Golden Corral (a chain buffet in the US). He says the profit is $0.15 after accounting for all costs. So, profit margin is low but volume is high.",
"And as for one common type of buffet, casino buffets don't need to make money as far as I can tell. They are basically loss leaders.",
"My average cost per guest is 1.90, the base entry is 10$ and sodas are 2.5$ of pure profit (soda is in that cost)",
"Usually they charge pretty steep for drinks and put ridiculous amounts of salt in the food",
"The food is generally lower quality, it is prepared in bulk, and they don't have to plate it for you or anything. Thus they have fewer wait staff, and can serve more customers faster as they skip the ordering process. A party of five might spend 30 minutes eating at a buffet but an hour or more eating at a restaurant. Also, while some customers like myself are a bottomless pit, the vast majority eat 1-2 plates. Cheaper buffets like old country buffet or something where you're paying like $8 a head, the food is terrible and sits out all day. Fancier buffets like those found in casinos are considerably more expensive, though you can usually get them comped if you are playing games. The buffet is very profitable for the casino as people eat very quickly In 30 minutes and then can go back to playing games. At a Fancier casino restaurant, where they can charge $40 a person or something like that, the casino might actually lose money as the customers would spend an hour or more away from the games which make them the real money. Lpt: if you want to stuff your face, play table games for like 5 minutes at the casino and get your buffet comped. I do it all the time as its the only place my grandparents will go. I'll eat lobster buffet for free after spending like $10 at the blackjack table and that's only if I'm not winning.",
"To simply the matter, think it this way. In restaurant business cost break down like this. Raw material (ingredient) is about 25%, labour is another 25%, rent is another 25% and utility/distribution/marketing is another 25%. People may eat more and increase cost in raw material but you could make equal or more saving in other area. Instead of making a chow mein pork noodle for one person, you get to make the same thing for 20 persons in one go. Instead of serving the customer individually, you just get to dump the food in one location and the customer serve it for themselves. Also, buffet tables are squeezed so rent per table is maximised. Also, because the cust gauge themselves and don't talk that much, turnover of table is high. So while raw material cost more, you make more saving in the area of staf, rent and utility. The profit come from the drinks the customer order. If you want to cause maximum damage to the establishment, just order big bottle of mineral water to share, go easy on main, enjoy deserts, especially fruits and take your time. ;)",
"I worked at golden corral for 2 years at the time i was a waiter and got to learn from the kitchen to the office and here is how it works: 1. Drinks, a soda costs a penny to the restaurant if one person drank their fill but cost 2.00 at the front. 2. Bustling atmosphere, the atmosphere at a golden corral is supposed to seem energetic. Servers are always cleaning and clearing, people are always moving to get more food, tables are moving around, etc. This makes people finish their meals quicker because it sets the tempo of an atmosphere, more in and out means more money. 3. Bulk Cooking Methods, the buffets cook the food at rather miraculous efficiency of storage and distributions, in fact the one i worked at used to give rolls to people, whom the theory goes would fill up on those and leave the more expensive food. Turned out the rolls and the man hours to make them and serve them cost more than the advantage.",
"After having moved from TN to CA (bay area) I was surprised to see very few chinese/multi-asian cuisine buffets. The margins are too small and everything's too expensive here (except for the actual cost of buying food/groceries!, produce, most meats, fish, poultry cost the same though, goat is overpriced here). You might think that people are more health conscious, they are, but Asian people can fucking eat, that's probably the biggest reason why. Most buffet places would go out of business just because of all the hungry asians, esp. if you try to serve any kind of seafood. There are one or two buffet places, but where it would be $8.50 or $10 in TN it's $20 here. At that price I think I'll just go a la carte or just cook at home.",
"I have no idea. I've been to pizza and chinese buffets. The amount of food I can eat is worth far more than it would cost to buy it as an individual item. At a pizza buffet in college I could eat 2 14\" pizzas by myself, which would cost me about 4x what it cost at the buffet. Maybe they make money because of all the kids who go there and don't eat much. At a chinese buffet, there is one nearby for about $6 that has nuggets that taste almost like Mcdonalds. I can easily eat 20, that alone would cost me about the price of the buffet if I got them at McDs. That doesn't even add in all the chicken I would eat.",
"Rest owner here of a fast food biz, a few points 1. generally speaking, most restaurants have a profit margin somewhere between 8-10 Percent range. i don't know about full service dining restaurants but QSR's definitely do. ( Quality service restauarat which usually refers for a fast food type of place) given these margins, most restaurants are experts at cost management especially given the fact that mature restaurants have sales that wont often change dramatically from year to year unless something dramatic happens. buffets slash the labor part of the equation, feature less popular dishes to clear inventory and sprinkle a few popular items to keep customers coming back.",
"Something I wanted to add: I've never seen a buffet that wasn't kid-friendly. Sure, the child price is cheaper, but not enough that they are unlikely to profit from a kid. Kid's won't eat as much as adults usually. Plus, you have plenty of picky kids who get drug there with their parents and refuse to eat 90% of the food. When I was younger I was so picky that when we went to one I ate sunflower seeds, pepperoni, grapes, and dinner rolls pretty much exclusively. My \"meal\" definitely wasn't worth what my parents paid.",
"Look at the cost of the food to the restaurant: veggies are pennies per pound, and meat tops out at about $4 per pound wholesale, that's for beef/lamb, pork, chicken and seafood are less. The only people who could possibly eat enough to make buffets lose money is the sport eating crowd, the world hot dog eating champ and such. And I would wager that this crowd loves small really tasty platefuls when going out for a meal. Even frat boys can't make a buffet lose money.",
"the buffet at my work is in a casino, it's entirely free. but it keeps the punters from leaving, so they gamble more, and the casino gets money back from the buffet and then some. i have to top it up every hour and it's sad to see people so hugely messed up taking heaps and heaps of the free food because they think they 'can't afford to eat'... then ten minutes later putting $200 into a gaming machine and gambling for 20hrs straight (no exaggeration).",
"Old people! Or, rather, people getting older. I've noticed now I'm well into my 30s that I can't eat how I used to. In my 20s I could shovel food endlessly into my face. Now I eat more than a typical portion and feel sick. This means at most buffets I'm getting ripped off big time but the convenience and variety can be worth it. Most truly old people I know barely eat child portions at mealtimes either.",
"Average food cost in a restaurant is 33% Labour costs are less because of less wait staff, and possibly fewer cooks since they are making one big thing at a time. Space costs would be similar. Buffets tend to be more square footage, probably to make the reductions in labour pay. Some restaurants do \"lunch buffet\" to get the best of both worlds, and possibly turn over inventory faster.",
"It would be nearly impossible for a customer to consume more than he is paying. If he did then it would most likely imply that the prices are incorrectly set at the buffet. The biggest threat to a buffet is customers not showing up, not customers eating too much. Most of the food is prepared in advance anyway and if it isn't eaten it is thrown away.",
"It seems like the food is lower quality than ordering off the menu. Also a lot of people suck at the art of knocking back four or five plates of food and will pay $15+ for the buffet and get one plate of food, when in reality they could have had the $5 appetizer and been full.",
"What fountain soda costs 5 gallon bag in box coke ($85) 128 ounces per gallon 5:1 mix ratio Total 3200 ounces (assuming no waste) 3200 ounces / 10 ounce soda = 320 sodas $85/320 = $.27 per serving Or roughly $.03 per ounce *edit* checked coke invoice $85/5gal.",
"Each plate of food cost approximately four to five bucks and you're paying between twenty to thirty bucks to get in. Most people are not eating over three plates of food. Plus when you're buying food at whole sale you're not spending that much in overhead.",
"I know that around here a truck comes and delivers already cooked cheap Chinese food to most of the Chinese buffets around here. So they probably save a lot of money by not even cooking some dishes in house.",
"Just eat all meat. I laugh inside when I see buffet rookies filling up on rice or potato based dishes at a buffet. I can eat maybe 4-5 plates of meat and vegetable at a Chinese buffet",
"I don't know about the USA but we have a lot of Chinese buffets here in the UK and the food is very salty meaning more drinks are bought. Profit margins on syrup soft drinks are massive.",
"I always imagined that buffets are one of the best places to use to launder money because there's no correlation between how much money you made and how much you spent on inventory.",
"I wonder this with all-you-can-order Japanese places. One time I ate appetizers, ice cream and 14 rolls of sushi. I was with 10 other people who ate similarly.",
"Being from a Samoan family, the owners would always get mad when we were there for three hours and all fifty of us had at least five plates",
"-Inexpensive, low quality food bought in extreme bulk amounts. -Reduced staff with no need to have waiters for every table",
"In places i have worked alot of the profit comes for alcohol not included in the price of the buffet",
"You guys should see the free employee buffet in the Bellagio called \"manga\" it's unreal! Best E.D.R. on the strip!",
"I read that as 'bullets' at first and thought this would be a very different discussion",
"Initially read as bullets. Was seriously concerned when people were being served and eating bullets.",
"i wish my kitchen had an all you can eat buffet",
"99.99% of customers wont eat enough to make them lose money.",
"Most likely due to buffet food being lower quality (usually).",
"Because buffets are all you can eat school lunches."
] | [
[
"increases, total costs must increase enough to lower the overall fixed cost percentage or the bottom line will not improve. This is not a recommended strategy for neighborhood restaurant with average checks under $15.\nThose who believe that a low food cost percentage is more important than gross profit will promote the items with the lowest food cost percentage. Unfortunately, these items are typically the lowest priced items on the menu, e.g., chicken, pasta, soups. Promoting only low food cost items will likely result in lowering your average check and unless the restaurant attracts more customers, overall sales will not be",
"-27.57163594267331"
],
[
"or $8 for their pizza buffet. For those paid $4, both the tastes of the last and the peak slices significantly predict the general evaluation for overall food taste. In contrast, for those paid $8, the first slice is more important in predicting the overall enjoyment. Therefore, in order to maximize customer satisfaction, higher-priced restaurants should put their best food in front of the consumer first. In a buffet setting, they could provide some signage to make more popular items salient or place the most popular foods first in the line. In lower-priced restaurants, serving tasty desserts at the end",
"-27.471255429758457"
],
[
"profit, items like steaks and seafood, as the items to promote.\nThe downside of this exclusive approach is that items that are high in gross profit are typically the highest priced items on the menu and they typically are on the high end of the food cost percentage scale. This approach works fine in price inelastic markets like country clubs and fine dining white table cloth restaurants. However, in highly competitive markets, which most restaurants reside, think Applebee's, Chili's, Olive Garden, price points are particularly critical in building customer counts. In addition, food cost cannot be ignored completely. If food cost",
"-27.266711302479962"
],
[
"Statistics It is estimated by food industry research firm Technomics that approximately 225 million meals are eaten away from home each day in the U.S. This includes both restaurant and non-commercial eating places. The International Foodservice Distributors Association estimates that food service distributors in the U.S., as a daily average, deliver approximately 27 million cases of food and other products.\nFood service distribution companies can range in size from a one-truck operation to larger corporations. There are many independent broadline food service distribution companies that service chain and multi-unit restaurants based on master distribution agreements with national food service groups.",
"-26.05575368719201"
],
[
"did so after three years. (Not all changes in ownership are indicative of financial failure.) The three-year failure rate for franchises was nearly the same.\nRestaurants employed 912,100 cooks in 2013, earning an average $9.83 per hour. The waiting staff numbered 4,438,100 in 2012, earning an average $8.84 per hour.\nJiaxi Lu of the Washington Post reports in 2014 that, \"Americans are spending $683.4 billion a year dining out, and they are also demanding better food quality and greater variety from restaurants to make sure their money is well spent.\"\nDining in restaurants has become increasingly popular, with the proportion of meals consumed",
"-25.81354596375604"
],
[
"to over £1,750 million in 2005. The total UK chilled prepared food market was an estimated £7,187 million in 2004 and £13,126 million in 2018, and continues to evolve, reflecting consumers’ changing needs and lifestyles.\nIn 2004, over 80% of UK households bought a chilled prepared meal with over 40% buying one within any given month.",
"-25.683863306002422"
],
[
"Foodservice Statistics The food system, including food service and food retailing supplied $1.24 trillion worth of food in 2010 in the US, $594 billion of which was supplied by food service facilities, defined by the USDA as any place which prepares food for immediate consumption on site, including locations that are not primarily engaged in dispensing meals such as recreational facilities and retail stores. Full-service and Fast-food restaurants account for 77% of all foodservice sales, with full-service restaurants accounting for just slightly more than fast food in 2010. The shifts in the market shares between fast food and full-service restaurants",
"-25.63659028289112"
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[
"family meals are served. The buffet style is essentially a variation of the French service in which all of the food is available, at the correct temperature, in a serving space other than the dining table, and guests commute there to be served or sometimes to serve themselves, and then carry their plate back to the table. Buffets vary from the very informal (a gathering of friends in a home, or the serving of brunch at a hotel) to the rather formal setting of a wedding reception, for example. The buffet format is preferred in occasions where a",
"-25.56310502958513"
],
[
"the customer is the ability to sample new food at low prices outside the traditional restaurant experience. For the host, benefits are making some money and experimenting with cooking without having to invest in a restaurant proper. As one host told the San Francisco Chronicle, \"It's literally like playing restaurant... You can create the event, and then it's over.\"",
"-25.304461131134303"
],
[
"fast food outlets, high street bakeries, and chain coffee shops offering hot drinks with sugar levels over three times the daily recommended limit have nonetheless continued to rapidly expand. A 2015 University of Cambridge study reported that the total number of takeaway restaurants including fried chicken, fish and chips, pizza, kebab, Indian and Chinese takeaway shops has risen by 45% over the preceding 18 years. Government data reports that expenditure on takeaway food in the United Kingdom rose by 7.0% between 2011 and 2014. Similarly, popcorn, although a healthy snack by itself, becomes a high calorie snack once topped with",
"-25.16605542603702"
],
[
"independent shops to survive. Menu Just like other tea restaurants, Cha Chaan Teng Buffet provides food and drinks such as\nFrench toast, sandwiches, various Fried rice and Chinese noodles. For drinks, it offers Hong Kong style milk tea, coffee, ‘Yuanyang’, lemon tea and so on. The price of the buffet ranges from $40 to $80. In one of the restaurants, consumers can choose to have either a $40 or $80 buffet. Consumers who choose to have $40 can have breakfast, lunch or tea buffet. Those who pay $80 can have the dinner buffet. Both these two sets of buffet provide one",
"-25.16457018919664"
],
[
"the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill. They were set up by the Ministry of Food and run by local government or voluntary agencies on a non-profit basis. Meals were sold for a set maximum price of 9d (equivalent to just under 4p, about US$2 or £1 GBP in purchasing power 2008) or less. No-one could be served with a meal of more than one serving of meat, game, poultry, fish, eggs, or cheese. In one in ten restaurants the meals were prepared at central depots. Schools were often used because they had cafeterias and kitchens. In London, mobile canteens",
"-25.075161298525927"
],
[
"and derive at least 70% of their revenue from food (including non-alcoholic beverages).",
"-25.056294890935533"
],
[
"tend to be more moderate. If a menu item is a \"specialty\" and unique to a particular restaurant, and demand is high, prices can be higher than average because technically the restaurant has a \"monopoly\" on that item and until competitors copy them and put it on their menus, higher prices can be charged. However, no restaurant can sustain a competitive uniqueness or price advantage over their competition in the long run. Eventually competitors will try to match them.\nUsing menu engineering in restaurants or menu items where price inelasticity is present is recommended and cost-margin in casual neighborhood restaurants and",
"-24.960242120669136"
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[
"food, the manufacturer must keep in mind that the retailer adds approximately 50 percent to the price of a wholesale product. For example, a frozen food sold in a retail store for $4.50 generates an income of $3.00 for the manufacturer. This money has to pay for the cost of producing, packaging, shipping, storing, and selling the product.\nPrice encompasses the amount of money paid by the consumer in order to purchase the food product. When pricing the food products, the manufacturer must bear in mind that the retailer will add a particular percentage to the price on the wholesale product.",
"-24.95848395844223"
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[
"optimized.\nLow food cost and high gross profit are not mutually exclusive attributes of a menu item. A second approach called cost-margin analysis identifies items that are both low in food cost and return a higher than average gross profit. These items referred to as primes. This analysis works well for restaurants in highly competitive markets where customers are price-sensitive.\nThere is really no single method of analysis that can be used across the board on all menu items. If a menu item is a \"commodity\" like hamburgers, chicken tenders, fajitas, and other items found on the majority of restaurant menus, prices",
"-24.949356756329507"
],
[
"in business is that the \"cream\" – high value or low-cost customers, who are more profitable to serve – would be captured by some suppliers (typically by charging less than the previous higher prices, but still making a profit), leaving the more expensive or harder to service customers without the desired product or service at all or \"dumping\" them on some default provider, who is left with less of the higher value customers who, in some cases, would have provided extra revenue to subsidize or reduce the cost to service the higher-cost customers, and the loss of the higher value",
"-24.942085543656503"
],
[
"meal—or combo depending on the chain. Value meals at fast food restaurants are common as a merchandising tactic to facilitate bundling, up-selling, and price discrimination. Most of the time they can be upgraded to a larger side and drink for a small fee. The perceived creation of a \"discount\" on individual menu items in exchange for the purchase of a \"meal\" is also consistent with the loyalty marketing school of thought. Technology To make quick service possible and to ensure accuracy and security, many fast food restaurants have incorporated hospitality point of sale systems. This makes it possible for",
"-24.861355667311727"
],
[
"All-you-can-eat restaurant An all-you-can-eat restaurant (AYCE) is a type of restaurant in which a fixed price is charged for entry, after which diners may consume as much food as they wish. All-you-can-eat establishments are frequently buffets. Buffets The all-you-can-eat buffet has been ascribed to Herbert \"Herb\" Cobb McDonald, a Las Vegas publicity and entertainment manager who introduced the idea in 1946. In his 1965 novel The Muses of Ruin, William Pearson wrote, of the buffet:\nAt midnight every self-respecting casino premières its buffet— the eighth wonder of the world, the one true art form this androgynous harlot of cities has delivered",
"-24.76818603828724"
],
[
"for international food commodities measured in US dollars is due to the dollar being devalued. Protectionism is also an important contributor to price increases. 36% of world grain goes as fodder to feed animals, rather than people.\nOver long time periods population growth and climate change could cause food prices to go up. However, these factors have been around for many years and food prices have jumped up in the last 3 years, so their contribution to the current problem is minimal. Government regulations of food and fuel markets France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States governments have",
"-24.76678298598563"
],
[
"supply and demand, and in the summer of 1985 the state store prices of all food items except grain also were allowed to float in response to market conditions. Prices of most goods produced by private and collectively owned enterprises in both rural and urban areas generally were free to float, as were the prices of many items that state-owned enterprises produced outside the plan. Prices of most major goods produced by state-owned enterprises, however, along with the grain purchased from farmers by state commercial departments for retail sales in the cities, still were set or restricted by government agencies",
"-24.689335698611103"
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[
"high cholesterol, and depression. Many fast foods tend to be high in saturated fat, sugar, salt and calories.\nThe traditional family dinner is increasingly being replaced by the consumption of takeaway fast food. As a result, the time invested on food preparation is getting lower, with an average couple in the United States spending 47 minutes and 19 seconds per day on food preparation in 2013. History The concept of ready-cooked food for sale is closely connected with urban developments. Homes in emerging cities often lacked adequate space or proper food preparation accouterments. Additionally, procuring cooking fuel could cost as much",
"-24.52661561014247"
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[
"food include the general public, sometimes in the form of \"food drives\", and government programs that buy and distribute excess farm products mostly to help support higher commodity prices. Food banks can also buy food either at market prices or from wholesalers and retailers at discounted prices, often at cost. Sometimes farmers will allow food banks to send gleaners to salvage leftover crops for free once their primary harvest is complete. A few food banks have even taken over their own farms, though such initiatives have not always been successful.\nMany food banks don't accept fresh produce, preferring canned or packaged",
"-24.509614960132694"
],
[
"Only incremental costs and efforts should be included in the item cost.\nThe two criteria for determining which menu items should be featured on a menu have been food cost percentage and gross profit. Food cost percentage is calculated by dividing the cost of the menu item ingredients, including surrounding dish items, e.g., salad, bread and butter, condiments, etc. by the menu price. Gross profit is calculated by subtracting the menu cost as previously defined, from the menu price. Advocates of menu engineering believe that gross profit trumps food cost so they tend to identify menu items with the highest gross",
"-24.50715651904102"
],
[
"growth of higher income households. At the same time, less expensive establishments such as fast food establishments can be quite inexpensive, making restaurant eating accessible to many. Employment The restaurant industry in the United States is large and quickly growing, with 10 million workers. 1 in every 12 U.S. residents work in the business, and during the 2008 recession, the industry was an anomaly in that it continued to grow. Restaurants are known for having low wages, which they claim are due to thin profit margins of 4-5%. For comparison, however, Walmart has a 1% profit margin.\nAs a result of",
"-24.50363283437764"
],
[
"actual amount of food consumed increases with the price charged for the buffet. Other restaurants The all-you-can-eat business model is also prevalent in Korean barbecue, Brazilian churrasco, and Chinese hot pot. Beverages When applied to beverages, particularly alcoholic beverages, the unlimited model is known as \"all-you-can-drink\" or \"bottomless\" (as in \"bottomless brunch\").",
"-24.437684535223525"
],
[
"it is better to provide subsidy from general taxation rather than have passengers in more densely populated areas provide subsidy by directing profits from reinvestment in these services. This results in higher fares, lower staff wages, lower frequencies and older vehicles on popular services, reduce the attractiveness of services and spreading financial risks of unprofitable services to profitable services and can result in cuts to profitable services to cover expected and unexpected losses. Cross-subsidy puts the financial burden for unprofitable services on passengers who often have the least ability to pay. He also notes that in sparsely populated",
"-24.41346791949036"
],
[
"the \"duff note of the night\". Zoe Williams of The Telegraph said that \"The food ranges from extremely good to totally brilliant\", but criticised the pricing, saying \"This is one of the most expensive meals I've had in a year, and not, hands down, the classiest, or most effortful, or most luxurious in terms of ingredients\", and gave an overall score of 7.5 out of 10.",
"-24.39288244232921"
],
[
"cheapest omelette on the menu at the restaurant is €18 per 100 gram (the minimal portion is 250 gram, thus €45 for the dish). However, in June 2012 the price had already risen to €25 per 100 gram and the minimal portion was 300 gram, resulting in a €75 \"basic\" omelette (served with half grilled lobster and truffled potatoes).",
"-24.38192142614571"
],
[
"is one of the largest buffet restaurants in the world. Festival Village shopping street Festival Village is a shopping street. There are also a game town, an a la carte restaurant, a fast food eatery and bars.",
"-24.35807742702309"
],
[
"inadequate food stamp benefits, unemployment, underemployment, and rent or mortgage costs were factors reported as forcing an average of 15–20 percent more people. Compounding this issue, USDA bonus foods have declined by $200 million and local food donations were down nationally about 9 percent over the same period. According to the California Association of Food Banks, which is an umbrella organization of nearly all food banks in the state, food banks are at the \"beginning of a crisis\". Effects on farmers If global price movements are transmitted to local markets, farmers in the developing world could benefit from the rising price",
"-24.34718190147123"
],
[
"the cruise price.\nTraditionally, the ships' restaurants organize two dinner services per day, early dining and late dining, and passengers are allocated a set dining time for the entire cruise; a recent trend is to allow diners to dine whenever they want. Having two dinner times allows the ship to have enough time and space to accommodate all of their guests. Having two different dinner services can cause some conflicts with some of the ship's events (such as shows and performances) for the late diners, but this problem is usually fixed by having a shorter version of the event take place",
"-24.306116371466487"
],
[
"costs and possibly bankrupt other restaurants. There was also a petition to not run the promo as well, claiming the offers don't seem to work and \"traffic, units, sales, and restaurant profitability continue to slide\". Effect on the competition Several competitors ended up following Subway's success with the $5 footlongs, including Pizza Hut, Arby's, and KFC, which introduced similar round price points. Many consumer goods outside of the restaurant industry have also adopted round price points as well.\nWhile Subway allowed the \"$5 footlongs\" to remain franchise-optional, Burger King took the opposite route, requiring all locations in 2009, both franchised and",
"-24.263321273811016"
],
[
"an opportunity for restaurants to make money during a typically otherwise slow time of the year. In Winterlicious 2009, 180,000 meals were served over 2 weeks, resulting in $12 million in economic impact for the City of Toronto.",
"-24.245953541758354"
],
[
"prices in low- and middle-income countries, and outlines the (food) policy implications of food price fluctuations. Grocery Foods Economics In the long term, prices are expected to stabilize. Farmers will grow more grain for both fuel and food and eventually bring prices down. This has already occurred with wheat, with more crops planted in the United States, Canada, and Europe in 2009. However, the Food and Agriculture Organization projects that consumers still have to deal with more expensive food until at least 2018.\nIt is rare for the spikes to hit all major foods in most countries at once. Food prices",
"-24.243386560527142"
],
[
"and beverage, like dessert, vegetarian food as well as wine. Visitors can purchase luxurious food and seafood such as oysters, lobsters and abalones at a low price. In order to enhance the people's’ incentive of purchasing, exhibitors offer discounts and special activities. For instance, at the 12th Hong Kong Food Festival, special activities like free bubble-like fusion ice cream for the first 100 visitors, and using extremely low price ($1) to buy a brown crab were arranged. In addition, the organizer invites celebrities such as renowned chefs and artists as the special guests of the Star Kitchen. They share culinary",
"-24.186515137262177"
],
[
"Restaurant Patrick Guilbaud Reviews In February 2004, Restaurant Patrick Guilbaud was mentioned in The New York Times, where it was reported that lunch cost $36 and dinner was available for $124. Guilbaud's food was described as \"seriously good\" and was served in \"seriously elegant surroundings\", with \"reservations advised\" by the newspaper. Food on offer included roast quail coated with hazelnuts.",
"-24.160087642355393"
],
[
"imports with domestic production.\nMost recently, global food prices have been more stable and relatively low, after a sizable increase in late 2017, they are back under 75% of the nominal value seen during the all-time high in the 2011 food crisis. As investment Institutions such as hedge funds, pension funds and investment banks like Barclays Capital, Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley have been instrumental in pushing up prices in the last five years, with investment in food commodities rising from $65bn to $126bn (£41bn to £79bn) between 2007 and 2012, contributing to 30-year highs. This has caused price fluctuations which",
"-24.15819038466725"
],
[
"go late into the afternoon. Montreal-style bagels may be served alongside egg dishes, waffles or crepes, smoked meat or fish, fruit, salads, cheese, and dessert.\nMany restaurants offer brunch service as well, and is where the idea of Buffets took on mass appeal. In the mid 1980s, with the price of food going down, some restaurants within Toronto started serving all you can eat buffet-style Brunch. Original restaurants in the south west area of Scarborough within Toronto alone included Town and Country Restaurant, Boy on a Dolphin, and Mother Tuckers, which much later on became a small franchise, and later on",
"-24.15644544485258"
],
[
"at mid- to high-priced restaurants, customers sit at tables, their orders are taken by a waiter, who brings the food when it is ready. After eating, the customers then pay the bill. In some restaurants, such as workplace cafeterias, there are no waiters; the customers use trays, on which they place cold items that they select from a refrigerated container and hot items which they request from cooks, and then they pay a cashier before they sit down. Another restaurant approach which uses few waiters is the buffet restaurant. Customers serve food onto their own plates and then pay at",
"-24.107722123968415"
],
[
"households into tens and hundreds for the purposes of law, order and mutual surety (see Tithing). In some texts this 'dizeyne' may be rendered as 'dozen'. Baker's dozen A baker's dozen, devil's dozen, long dozen, or long measure is 13, one more than a standard dozen. The broadest use of baker's dozen today is simply a group of thirteen objects (often baked goods). The term has meant different things over the last few centuries.\nIn the United Kingdom when selling certain goods, bakers were obliged to sell goods by the dozen at a specific weight or quality (or a specific average",
"-23.98916423987248"
],
[
"While some are opposing the raising of price, they think that the original intention of the buffet may be changed.",
"-23.96164779466926"
],
[
"total $162 billion over the decade. An alternative study released that same month by the Citizens for Tax Justice, a liberal think tank which favors the change, stated that the change would add $50 billion per year in tax revenue ($500 billion over the decade). The United States Congress Joint Committee on Taxation released a letter in March 2012 estimating that the Buffett Rule would raise $46.7 billion over the next decade. The divergent estimates come about because of different assumptions about the details of the Buffett Rule. For example, the Joint Committee on Taxation assumes that many high-income taxpayers",
"-23.92650938985753"
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[
"per year of wasted food (purchased and edible food which is discarded) amounts to a cost of £10.2 billion each year. This represents costs of £250 to £400 a year per household. United States Estimates of food waste in the United States range from 35 million tons to 103 million tons. In a study done by National Geographic in 2014, Elizabeth Royte indicated more than 30 percent of food in the United States, valued at $162 billion annually, isn't eaten. The University of Arizona conducted a study in 2004, which indicated that 14 to 15% of United States edible food is untouched",
"-23.899936072237324"
],
[
"Fast food has been losing market share to fast casual dining restaurants, which offer more robust and expensive cuisines. Due to this competition, fast food giants have seen dramatic drops in their sales. While overall fast food sales have fallen, the number of Americans who eat in these restaurants \"once a month or 'a few times a year'\" has risen.\nIn contrast to the rest of the world, American citizens spend a much smaller amount of their income on food — largely due to various government subsidies that make fast food cheap and easily accessible. Calorie for calorie, foods sold in",
"-23.88921327936987"
],
[
"provides recipes and all required ingredients. Regular sessions provide all seventeen meals from that month's menu, while first time customers have a reduced number of choices. The firm's official website suggests a cost of \"approximately $240, or under $6.75 per serving\" for 12 regular or 6 large meals.\nSome meals are 'complete' (include side dishes), while others are not (need a salad or other vegetable side - for an additional fee). The more servings a customer orders in a single session, the lower the per-serving cost. Individual franchise locations may offer additional promotions or further discounts. ",
"-23.879744022648083"
],
[
"pastry, or bagel. Coffee and tea are offered as well, and sometimes hot chocolate. Cost Food on board a flight is usually free on full-service Asian airlines and on almost all long-distance flights, while they might cost extra on low-cost airlines or European full-service airline flights. Quality may also fluctuate due to shifts in the economics of the airline industry.\nOn long-haul international flights in first class and business class, most Asian and European airlines serve gourmet meals, while legacy carriers based in the US tend to serve multicourse meals including a cocktail snack, appetizer, soup, salad, entrée (chicken, beef, fish,",
"-23.81913660711143"
],
[
"receive one free meal a day—two in the poorest areas—and so less of their family's limited income is needed to pay for food. In a survey of Bolsa Familia recipients, 82.4% reported eating better; additionally, it was reported to increase the incomes of the poorer families by about 25%. Criticism In 2003, David de Ferranti, the World Bank IBRD representative for Latin America and the Caribbean, criticized the program, due to its lack of clear focus, saying the program did not combat the country's poverty and income inequality. He also criticised the mechanisms for money donation and food gathering",
"-23.81378687430697"
],
[
"to pay. All patrons were asked to give fairly in exchange for their meal, but ultimately relied on a gift economy. Fare The cafe served an organic, natural, and local cuisine that includes vegan, vegetarian and meat dishes. There was no standard menu, the fare changes daily based on the availability of local food (often donations from patrons) and the Chef's inspiration. Although there was no menu, One World Everybody Eats specialized in \"home-style\" dishes from around the world featuring staples such as bread, soup, salad, entree, organic coffees and teas, dessert, grains, quiche, and dal and rice. The",
"-23.802203785354777"
],
[
"a greatly reduced price than it would cost to purchase each service separately, as an inducement for subscribers to remain with their service provider or for others to induce subscribers into using their service. Similarly, many television providers offer general interest or movie-based premium channels at no additional charge for a trial period (loften one to three months, though there have been rare instances of free trials for pay services that last up to one year for newer subscribers to that provider's television service. Distribution Pay television has become popular with cable and satellite television. Pay television services often, at",
"-23.794581454712898"
],
[
"potatoes cost $9.99 (or $10) while medium-sized ones $7.99 (or $8). Craig said he would buy the potatoes from the local neighborhood Walmart. Reportedly, profits per month ranged between $10,000 and $13,000. Potato Parcel has proved popular on websites like Twitter.\nNeither Mail A Spud nor the company endorses eating the potato due to health concerns. In an email interview with MarketWatch's Kathleen Burke, Craig said \"I wanted to create a brand new way of sending a message outside of apps and technology by allowing anyone to send an anonymous message…on a potato.\" In August 27, 2015, the company was sold",
"-23.779882144692237"
],
[
"the aid of food banks. Dave Krepcho, director of the Second Harvest Food Bank in Orlando, has said that college-educated professional couples have begun to turn to food pantries.\nBy mid-2012, US food banks had expressed concerns on the expected difficulty in feeding the hungry over the coming months. Rapidly rising demand has been coinciding with higher food prices and with a decrease in donations, partly as the food industry is becoming more efficient and so has less mislabelled and other slightly defective food to give away. Also there has been less surplus federal food on offer. Additionally, there have been",
"-23.76947061663668"
],
[
"because it does not sell in time.\nWhile the locations selling fresh and frozen fish dominate the market, there are a number of other businesses in the facility as well. The market also has a large number of prepared food stands selling tamales, tacos, cocktails, fillets and other seafood dishes. There are also business selling knives, copper cookware, other kitchen utensils, groceries, banks and government offices. Challenges One major challenge to the market is the decline in sales of domestically produced seafood. These have fallen as much as forty percent by some estimates. Vendors at the market claim that some is",
"-23.765591802633935"
],
[
"model and employed \"secret shoppers\" to determine prices of other retailers. The Fedco price on many items ended in 87 cents to claim the lowest price, even if it was only pennies below the customary 99 cent prices of competitors.\nFor most of its lifetime, Fedco was closed on Wednesdays, though some employees would work, re-stocking or taking inventory. During the Christmas season, Fedco was open 7 days a week to accommodate the customer surge. Fedco would sometimes require employees to work up to 10 hours a day. Working 6 days a week was possible during the summer surge and",
"-23.751361638861454"
],
[
"$21.25. The price the consumer buys the good for equals $5.75 but the seller only receives $4.75. Subsidy impact Marginal subsidies on production will shift the supply curve to the right until the vertical distance between the two supply curves is equal to the per unit subsidy; when other things remain equal, this will decrease price paid by the consumers (which is equal to the new market price) and increase the price received by the producers. Similarly, a marginal subsidy on consumption will shift the demand curve to the right; when other things remain equal, this will decrease the",
"-23.73086074166349"
],
[
"are shopping on a budget. Small-scale farmers do not receive government subsidies and are not able to support their business on prices comparable to those of industrial-scale food production, so they must sell at higher prices to make a living. Therefore, in order for the appeal of the local agriculture movement to overcome the economic cost, people must be willing to invest in it, which is unlikely when apparently similar products are available in grocery stores for a lower cost. Despite this, distribution costs of expansive food trade must also be factored in; with increasing gas prices, it becomes more",
"-23.71600939014752"
],
[
"dinner order — and of course, pie. Most dinners cost $2.85.\nPatrons eating just dessert paid 35 cents for a piece of cake or a slice of pie, another nickel would buy you the house specialty. Although it sounds like steal by today's standards, the Lodge was not considered cheap eats at the time. It was a special occasion to eat out and many families made a ritual of going to the Lodge for Sunday lunch after church. Due to the remote location, many food items required a freight charge. As many ingredients as possible were locally sourced. The rich cream",
"-23.710169514284644"
],
[
"ask first. Dinner is often also served, but not included in the price. However, if it becomes clear that one plans to generally eat out, the price may go up because this is an important second source of income. The owners will usually offer extra services like laundry service, breakfast & meals or even cigars.",
"-23.708395796769764"
],
[
"such as The Best Thing I Ever Ate, Chopped, Food Network Challenge, and The Best Thing I Ever Made. Her recipes and budgeting tips have also been featured on the Today Show, CNN, People, Food Network Magazine and iVillage.com. Tips and strategies On her show and in her cookbook, d'Arabian tries to offer easy meal ideas that not only taste great, but are budget-friendly. She says, \"10 Dollar Dinners is really a celebration of food and managing our household budget; it's so much more than cooking cheap food. The recipes don't scream budget cooking, and there really are clever ways",
"-23.688514665660477"
],
[
"revenue in 2018 was 12.46 billion baht, up 5.5 percent over 2017. Net profit rose 9.4 percent to 2.5 billion baht. Instant noodles The food company's main products are flavoured instant noodles mainly sold under the MAMA brand and other brands such as \"Mamy\", \"Pama\", \"Papa\", \"Sai Keo\" and \"Honghow\" which are distributed worldwide. In 2014, the company had an estimated daily capacity of six million packages.",
"-23.62654273418957"
],
[
"of marine life making certain fish species rarer to find.\nThe life fish food trade is a lucrative business. According to University of Washington Professor Patrick Christie, live fish caught for food export earns approximately $6000 a ton. To help support themselves and their families, fishermen in Oceania and Southeast Asia sometimes use illegal fishing methods. Although many feel the fish are worth the cost, a typical dinner can cost up to one hundred dollars per kilogram. The wholesale value on these fish is anywhere from eleven US dollars to sixty-three US dollars per kilogram, meaning there’s a large markup and",
"-23.62485366152032"
],
[
"prices, contrary to a local Bakers’ Association agreement that set a standard price for bread of 12 cents a loaf. As Weston parted company with his fellow bakers he lowered his prices for both his route and wholesale customers, as the competition attempted to fill the store shelves of Toronto with their bread:\n Bakers have fallen out with one another since Mr. Geo Weston has left their ASSOCIATION and the outcome will be the bakers' loss and the citizens' gain. Mr. Geo. Weston has lowered his bread to 10 cents retail, CASH, and he promises to continue such prices",
"-23.61400849026313"
],
[
"Buffett Rule The Buffett Rule is part of a tax plan proposed by President Barack Obama in 2011. The tax plan would apply a minimum tax rate of 30 percent on individuals making more than one million dollars a year. According to a White House official, the new tax rate would directly affect 0.3 percent of taxpayers. History The Buffett Rule is named after American investor Warren Buffett, who publicly stated in early 2011 that he believed it was wrong that rich people, like himself, could pay less in federal taxes, as a portion of income, than the middle class,",
"-23.595775015535764"
],
[
"all through the winter, no matter what the other BAKERS do. His aim is to satisfy the public that his drop in price is genuine, and not a BLUFF on the public which is being introduced by many of the leading bakers in the city, charging their private customers 11 and 12 cents and selling to the stores at 6 cents per loaf. Mr. Weston does not intend to be governed by any ring or association in the future, but will attend strictly to his own business. which has made Mr. G. WESTON'S name a household word with the citizens",
"-23.586316185777832"
],
[
"spend as much or as little money as they chose. Price-less Menus for private functions, pre-paid meals and the like do not have prices. In normal restaurants there are two types of menus without prices that were mostly used until the 1970s and 1980s: the \"blind menu\" and the \"women's menu\". These menus contained all of the same items as the regular menu, except that the prices were not listed. The \"blind menu\" was distributed to guests at business meals where the hosts did not want the diners to see the prices, or to any type of dinner where",
"-23.54442404099791"
],
[
"for leftovers as well as minimizing waste food or ingredients. A few restaurants use both approaches to serving, making use of push-trolleys during peak hours and switching to on-demand ordering in less busier periods.\nThe cost of a meal was traditionally calculated by the number, size and type of dishes left on the patron's table at the end. In modern yum cha restaurants, dim sum servers sometimes mark orders by stamping a card on the table. Servers in some restaurants use different stamps so that sales statistics for each server can be recorded. Customs and etiquette It is customary to pour",
"-23.464145070618542"
],
[
"a year pays a minimum effective tax rate of at least 30 percent ... implemented in a way that is equitable, including not disadvantaging individuals who make large charitable contributions.\" The White House also stated that \"no household making more than $1 million each year should pay a smaller share of their income in taxes than a middle-class family pays.\"\nThe Buffett Rule was not in the President's 2012 budget proposal and the White House initially stressed it as a guideline rather than a legislative initiative. The rule, however, was later submitted for deliberation as US Senate Bill S. 2059, Paying",
"-23.404089909105096"
],
[
"pay because, while the cost of living has gone down, it is still one of the highest in the country.\nThe introduction of big-box stores in Anchorage, Fairbanks (Wal-Mart in March 2004), and Juneau also did much to lower prices. However, rural Alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods, compared to the rest of the country due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure. Many rural residents come into these cities and purchase food and goods in bulk from warehouse clubs like Costco and Sam's Club. Some have embraced the free shipping offers of some online retailers to",
"-23.400007546893903"
],
[
"inclined to give a customer an extra large glass of wine or a second scoop of ice cream. While these larger servings make the customer happy and increase the likelihood of the server getting a good tip, they cut into the profit margin of the restaurant. In addition, a server may dote on generous tippers while ignoring other customers, and in rare cases harangue bad tippers. Non-financial compensation Part of this variation in incentive structures and supervisory mechanisms may be attributable to variation in the level of intrinsic psychological satisfaction to be had from different types of work. Sociologists and",
"-23.39905952734989"
],
[
"below market prices. Such food banks will sometimes also act as centres to provide small holders and subsistence farmers with various forms of support. Soup kitchen A soup kitchen, meal center, or food kitchen is a place where food is offered to the hungry for free or at a below market price. Frequently located in lower-income neighborhoods, they are often staffed by volunteer organizations, such as church or community groups. Soup kitchens sometimes obtain food from a food bank for free or at a low price, because they are considered a charity, which makes it easier for them to feed",
"-23.394299905921798"
],
[
"were candies, condiments, cereals, and beverages-all foods high in added high fructose corn syrup. Over the past thirty years, U.S. consumption of high fructose corn syrup increased over 1,000 percent.\nUnhealthy foods tend to be inexpensive when compared to their healthy counterparts. Because fruits and vegetables are not subsidized, the real cost of such crops have risen nearly 40 percent. On the other hand, the prices for soda, sweets, and fats and oils have declined due to the subsidy that the government provides for commodity crops. \"Currently the least expensive food available is also the most caloric and the least nutritious:",
"-23.387033866681577"
],
[
"offerings, which currently make up 35% of its 3,500 lines. Food products have been a strong performer for the retailer, accounting for 40% of total sales in April 2008, which itself was an increase of 5% from the start of 2008. The retailer provides its own line of grocery products, branded 'Deli Fresh', which was launched at the start of 2007. As of 2006, the retailer was making a profit margin of 40% on the produce it sold, which included its most popular food lines at that time such as potatoes, onions and eggs. Some products have sold for less than",
"-23.376126153783844"
],
[
"offer a fried fish sandwich for some of its customers who desire fish instead of beef or chicken.\nIn 1988, Wendy's was the first fast-food chain to create a single price-point value menu where all items listed on that menu were priced exclusively at 99¢. The menu was restructured in 2007 due to rising costs as the Super Value Menu with prices ranging from 99¢ to $2.00 USD. Breakfast In mid-2007, Wendy's began a national debut of its new breakfast menu in its U.S. and Canadian locations. The chain experimented with serving breakfast for a short time in 1985, but the",
"-23.374426283477078"
],
[
"have grown so rapidly over the past few decades. These companies are making processed and fast foods much cheaper and more widely available through the growth of transnational supermarkets and chain restaurants. Food is not only easier to obtain in urban areas; it is also cheaper and less time-consuming to acquire which creates an imbalance between energy intake and output. Their advertising and promotional strategies have a strong effect on consumer choices and desire. Foreign direct investment is also stimulating processed food sales in these supermarkets by lowering prices and creating incentives for advertising and promotion. A large proportion of",
"-23.358093947710586"
],
[
"usually €10–15 cheaper than when ordered separately. Also in many cases if a menu is chosen it will be accompanied by amuses (little side dishes between the courses). Wine and other beverages are almost always excluded.\nIn Sweden almost all restaurants—from the simplest diner to the finest luxury restaurant—serve Dagens rätt (\"the daily dish\") during lunch hours (on weekdays) at a much lower price than the same dish would cost at other times. Most commonly there is a choice of two or three dishes: a meat/fish/poultry dish, a vegetarian alternative, and a pasta. Salad buffet, bread and butter and beverage are",
"-23.349182258127257"
],
[
"in gift cards—and this doled out at just $216 per year. While obviously the most humane solution, giving contestants just over $4 to spend on Taco Bell per week is hardly the 'lifetime' of eating Taco Bell you might have imagined. It is as though Taco Bell has promised you a delicious, fulfilling prize, only to totally cheap out on what’s inside.\" Commercial Crowdsourced content service Seeking Alpha stated that the new menu \"could improve same store sales and once again increase the overall value of owning a Taco Bell chain.\" Canadian Internet news service Digital Journal considered the new",
"-23.341287679249945"
],
[
"a very profitable approach as it can break off potential customers who are driven only by price and also attract new customers from competitors. For example, Starbucks raised prices to maximize profits from price insensitive customers who depend on their gourmet coffee while losing customers who wanted cheaper prices to McDonald's. Comparison with cost-based pricing Several factors affect customer willingness to pay certain prices; for example, the difference of needs between countries, individual customers needs and wants, and the usual customer facing different occasions (actual and present needs) - hence a plan to suit all time value-based pricing is impossible.",
"-23.324532219443427"
],
[
"price is advertised on paper cards and orally. The lowest possible prices can be found after the midday (particularly by 13-14h00), often less than half the original starting price.\nAfter 13h30 or on 14h00 the sellers can make significant discounts where large quantities of fresh fruit or unsold fish can be sold en-masse for extremely low prices. Sometimes parts of the produce can be given for free if the buyer has cultivated a personal relation with a particular farmer or other seller. Consumer demographics The demographics of the consumers visiting the people's markets are varied. According to the",
"-23.320701774267945"
],
[
"restaurant shares a core lunch and dinner menu created collectively by the company's chefs, plus signature dishes and specials at the discretion of each individual chef. Fresh pasta is made in-house daily and all sauces, soups and dressings are made from scratch. Many locations featured wood-fired rotisseries and grills. The restaurants also offer gluten-free menus and an array of vegetarian and vegan offerings. Housemade desserts complete many meals \nOverall, the company caters mostly to repeat guests at its 21 locations. Regular customers averaged 12.7 return visits per year (later reported to be 17), considered very high in the industry.",
"-23.316531641154143"
],
[
"these payments are generally restricted to certain mountain farming zones and other equally disadvantaged areas. Subsidies are mainly paid by the federal government but may in some instances be paid by provincial governments.\nBecause of the complex system of price supports and market access limitations, the exact share of subsidy costs to the government and to consumers is virtually impossible to calculate. Experts estimate that the total cost to the federal and other governments for agricultural and forestry support during the late 1980s was approximately S16 billion a year, a level that would have been roughly at the same level as",
"-23.31601532129571"
],
[
"strong influence over consumers. Nevertheless, less than 10% of consumer spending on food goes to farmers, with larger percentages going to advertising, transportation, and intermediate corporations. Prices It is rare for price spikes to hit all major foods in most countries at once, but food prices suffered all-time peaks in 2008 and 2011, posting a 15% and 12% deflated increase year-over-year, representing prices higher than any data collected.\nIn December 2007, 37 countries faced food crises, and 20 had imposed some sort of food-price controls. In China, the price of pork jumped 58% in 2007. In the 1980s and 1990s, farm",
"-23.310274533760094"
],
[
"a relatively small portion of overall energy consumption in food production, and locally produced food may be much more energy intensive than food produced in a better area. Additionally the emphasis on \"inefficient\" local producers over more efficient ones further away may be damaging. Processing, packaging and waste Highly processed foods such as granola bars come in individual packaging, demanding high energy inputs and resulting in packaging waste. These products contribute up to a third of total energy inputs for food consumption, as their ingredients are shipped from all over, processed, packaged, trucked to storage, then transported to retail outlets.",
"-23.2988256632525"
],
[
"the benefits provided to the customer. Cost-plus pricing Cost-plus pricing is an approach which takes the total cost of producing the product or service and adding some amount to allow the business to make a profit. For example, in a retail store, if a merchant buys something for $5, and they sell it for $10 to a customer, this is called cost-based pricing. However, the willingness for the customer to pay is limited by the benefits they can receive: \"Benefits are net benefits, where any cost that the customer firm incurs in obtaining the sought benefits, apart from purchase price,",
"-23.2853432334814"
],
[
"Meal voucher A meal voucher or luncheon voucher is a voucher for a meal given to employees as an employee benefit, allowing them to eat at outside restaurants, typically for lunch. In many countries, meal vouchers have had favorable tax treatment. Vouchers are typically in the form of paper tickets but are gradually being replaced by electronic vouchers in the form of a special payment card. United Kingdom A luncheon voucher (LV) is a paper ticket (voucher) used by some employees in the United Kingdom to pay for meals in private restaurants. It allows companies to subsidise midday",
"-23.27837034476397"
],
[
"prices artificially low, whilst still making large profits on the food themselves, with some products selling at over 400% the price paid to, whilst farmers may only make 50p profit on each animal produced domestically. This buying power also allows supermarkets to transcend national boundaries in sourcing food. For example, in the UK, where the food market is highly dominated by supermarkets, only 25% of apples sold in supermarkets are produced domestically, with out-of-season Cox apples being flown 14,000 miles from New Zealand, despite the UK being a natural producer of apples. Furthermore, due to the national nature of the",
"-23.236556682023547"
],
[
"earned a daily salary between 3.25 and 6 francs; 22% earned less than three francs. Only 5% had a salary between 6.5 francs to 20 francs. Food cost a minimum of one franc a day, and the minimum necessary for lodging was 75 centimes a day. In most industries, except those connected with food, there was a long morte-saison (\"dead season\"), when the enterprises closed down and their workers were unpaid. To support a family properly, either the wife and children had to work, or the husband had to work on Sundays or longer hours than normal.",
"-23.235184006505733"
],
[
"funding Three times free food is given daily, compared to 81,897 food portions in 2007. In addition, there were 25,477 overnight stays in 2007 and 1,165 were cared for by social workers, with the proportion of women around 15%.\nHalf of the funding is provided by the Social Welfare Fund - around 500,000 euros in 2008 - and half by donations. In 2012, 97,285 meals were spent - more than ever before - and there were 19,453 overnight stays, slightly more than in 2011. Expansion and Zweite Gruft In 2009, Charity opened Zweite Gruft (\"the second crypt\") in Vienna's 18th",
"-23.230453255308475"
],
[
"or twice a week, while some get a daily food distribution.",
"-23.210106588929193"
],
[
"were able to purchase food at a reasonable rate, the Maximum was mostly a failure. Some merchants having found themselves forced into a position to sell their goods for a price lower than what it cost to create it (i.e. cost of baking bread, growing vegetables, etc.,) chose to hide their expensive goods from the market, either for personal use or for sale on the black market. However, the General Maximum was very successful in deflecting a volatile political issue away from the Committee of Public Safety and Robespierre, enabling them to focus on larger political issues",
"-23.188761735509615"
],
[
"to lower the price to $1.10 if demand has waned. The business would choose this approach because the incremental profit of 10 cents from the transaction is better than no sale at all. Cost plus pricing Cost plus pricing is a cost-based method for setting the prices of goods and services. Under this approach, the direct material cost, direct labor cost, and overhead costs for a product are added up and added to a markup percentage (to create a profit margin) in order to derive the price of the product. Odd pricing In this type of pricing, the seller tends",
"-23.18496846267226"
],
[
"charges are generally dropped.\nSome cruise lines charge their patrons $10/day in mandatory tipping; this does not include extra gratuities for alcoholic beverages.\nJudith Martin in her 2005 manners book opines that fast food restaurants will never charge mandatory tipping for their customers, despite the presence of tip jars, and considers tipping for non-table services to be inappropriate.\nIan Ayres, Fredrick E. Vars & Nasser Zakariya published a paper suggesting that tipping contributed to racial prejudice, since ethnic minorities would often be less able to pay a large tip. Another paper by Yoram Margalioth of Tel Aviv University argued that there was a",
"-23.17128974807565"
],
[
"are massively influenced by the power of discount stores and constitute only a small part of the entire cost of living. In particular, Western pattern diet constituents like those that are processed by fast food chains are comparatively cheap in the Western hemisphere. Profits rely primarily on quantity (see mass production), less than high-price quality. For some product classes like dairy or meat, overproduction has twisted the price relations in a way utterly unknown in underdeveloped countries (\"butter mountain\"). The situation for poor societies is worsened by certain free trade agreements that allow easier export of food in the \"southern\"",
"-23.151655443605705"
],
[
"with a larger diameter at the top than American and British bakers. Shops In the early 21st century, a trend for cupcake shops, which are specialized bakeries that sell little or nothing except cupcakes, developed in the United States, playing off of the sense of nostalgia evoked by the cakes. In New York City, cupcake shops like Magnolia Bakery gained publicity in their appearances on popular television shows like HBO's Sex and the City.\nCrumbs Bake Shop, a publicly traded business running the largest cupcake shop chain in the U.S., reached its peak stock price in 2011. Declining sales, due",
"-23.142245840106625"
],
[
"system, or pay up to around C$450/year per household and $600/year for households with children. This has been criticized as a regressive tax on the poor (around 37 cents per litre), for whom food is a large portion of their budget, and who are in effect subsidizing well-off farmers.\nIn addition, a study pointed out that supply management was costing Canadian consumers $2.6 billion per year (compare to supply management dairy product bringing in $970 Million into the economy). The study stated that supply management impacts the poorest households five times (2.4% of income or almost 25% of income on food)",
"-23.14096490729753"
],
[
"weight). During this time, bakers who sold a dozen units that failed to meet this requirement could be penalized with a fine. Therefore to avoid risking this penalty, some bakers included an extra unit to be sure the minimum weight was met, bringing the total to 13 units or what is now commonly known as a baker's dozen.\nIn the late 16th century a baker's dozen referred to a batch made in which the customer was given a dozen and the last one constituted the baker's profit.\nAccording to the 1811 Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, by Francis Grose, \"a Baker's",
"-23.11442602983152"
],
[
"by 5 percent. According to a Center on Budget and Policy Priorities report, the maximum monthly benefit for a family of four dropped from $668 to $632, while the maximum monthly benefit for an individual dropped from $200 to $189. Corporate influence and support In June 2014, Mother Jones reported that \"Overall, 18 percent of all food benefits money is spent at Walmart,\" and that Walmart had submitted a statement to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission stating,\nOur business operations are subject to numerous risks, factors, and uncertainties, domestically and internationally, which are outside our control. These factors include... changes",
"-23.11409829567856"
],
[
"trip to the restaurant in 2008, and afterwards criticised those who thought that spending £323.13 on a meal for two at lunchtime was too much.\nIn 2005 the restaurant was ranked 1st on the list of The World's 50 Best Restaurants. After spending 11 years on the list, it has dropped down to 73rd in the top 100. It has been ranked second best on numerous occasions, first behind The French Laundry and then behind El Bulli. In 2012, it was ranked in thirteenth place. In 2010, it was named the Best UK Restaurant in the Quintessentially Awards, a scheme run",
"-23.110269179640454"
],
[
"receive. They argue that because restaurants have very thin margins, an increase in the minimum wage could lead to higher prices for consumers and fewer jobs available for potential employees. A 2011 study suggested that 2011’s WAGE Act, which would have raised the minimum wage for all tipped employees in The United States, would have led to a cumulative decrease in 11 million hours worked by tipped employees. The same research found that each 10% increase in the cash wage paid to tipped employees tends to decrease hours worked by the affected employees by 5%. A 2012 study",
"-23.0993573398664"
],
[
"having \"the best food on campus for the best price.\"",
"-23.08756251172599"
],
[
"below the carry value. Buffett says \"I would think they might insist on the directors of the institutions that participate in this program waiving all director's fees for a couple of years. They should, maybe, eliminate bonuses.\" Buffett says \"...if someone wants to sell a hundred billion of these instruments to the Treasury, let them sell two or three billion in the market and then have the Treasury match that, ... . You don't want the Treasury to be a patsy.\" Mr. Buffett's company owns financial companies which will benefit directly or indirectly.\nInvestor George Soros opposed the original Paulson plan:",
"-23.06545030765119"
]
] |